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Introduction 5

Chapter 1: Research Objectives and Opportunities at the Frontiers 

of Science and Engineering

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Mesoscale 1 –

From Millimeters to Hundreds of Kilometers

8

Mesoscale 2 –

Thousands of Kilometers

10

Microscale 1 – 

Micrometers to Nanometers

11

Microscale 2 –

Subatomic

14

Macroscale 1 –

Millions of Kilometers to Thousands of Light Years

15

Macroscale 2 –

Millions to Billions of Light Years

16

Multiscale or Scale-Independent Objectives 17

Chapter 2: Major Research Equipment And Facilities 

Construction Projects (MREFC)

18

I. Status Reports on Facilities under Construction with MREFC Account Funding and 

MREFC New Starts in the FY 2006 Congressional Budget Request

20

FIRST PRIORITY:

Ongoing Projects in FY 2006

20

Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) 20

EarthScope 22

High-performance Instrumented Airborne Platform for Environmental Research 

(HIAPER)

23

IceCube Neutrino Observatory 24

National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) 26

NEES: The George E. Brown Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation 29

Rare Symmetry Violating Processes (RSVP) 31

Scientific Ocean Drilling Vessel (SODV) 32

South Pole Station Modernization Project (SPSM) 33

Terascale Computing Systems (TCS) 34

SECOND PRIORITY: 

New Starts in FY 2007 and FY 2008

35

Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) 35

Alaska Region Research Vessel (ARRV) 37

Advanced LIGO (AdvLIGO) 39

C O N T E N T S

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II. Status Report on National Science Board Approved New Starts 42

III. Readiness Stage Projects and Projects Recommended for Advancement to 

Readiness Stage

42

IV. Projects under Exploration 42

Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST) 43

Collaborative Large-scale Engineering Analysis Network for 

Environmental Research (CLEANER)

44

Coherent X-Ray Light Source 45

Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory (DUSEL) 46

Expanded Very Large Array (EVLA) Phase II 47

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Earth Observing System (GEOS) 48

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) 49

Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) 50

Petascale Earth System Collaboratory 51

South Pole Future Communication Needs 52

Square Kilometer Array (SKA) 54

Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) 55

V. Glossary of Acronyms 56

VI. References 58

VII. Image Credits 60
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The Gregorian dome high above the 

Arecibo dish in Puerto Rico.

Successful exploration – whether in 

uncharted wilderness or at the frontiers of 

knowledge – demands commitment, vision, 

daring and ingenuity. But those qualities 

alone are not always sufficient. Progress 

also requires the right kind of equipment. 

Often new territory is accessible only 

with new tools; and sometimes even a 

seemingly unstoppable rush of discovery 

must halt to await novel means of seeing, 

manipulating and analyzing natural 

phenomena.

That is why the National Science Foundation 

(NSF)1

 supports not only research and education, 

but also the physical implements that make 

both possible. Our investments range from 

modest laboratory instruments and information 

technology (IT) resources to the sorts of worldclass projects that make up a special category 

of NSF funding designated as Major Research 

Equipment and Facilities Construction (MREFC).

During the past half-century, unique tools 

provided by NSF have enabled scores of 

unprecedented discoveries and remarkable 

innovations. To cite only a very few: 

The first observations of extrasolar planets 

and the first evidence for gravitational 

waves came from our radio telescope 

at Arecibo, Puerto Rico. The Nobel Prizewinning investigation of ion channels in 

biological cell membranes used the special 

X-ray capabilities of an NSF accelerator at 

Cornell University. NSF’s solar observatories 

revealed the first evidence of seismic 

activity in the Sun and detected sunspots 

on the far side of our star – weeks before 

they rotated into position to affect space 

weather near Earth. 

Seafloor sediment cores retrieved by NSF’s 

drilling ships have transformed our 

understanding of ancient climate and 

oceanography, and data recovered from 

ultra-deep submersibles have revealed 

unexpected rift activity in the Earth’s 

crust and exotic “vent communities” 

with wholly unanticipated metabolic 

systems. Sensitive measurements of 

ancient light made at the South Pole 

confirmed the structure of the cosmos 

13.7 billion years ago. And the astonishing 

revelation that the universe is expanding at an 

accelerating rate – apparently propelled by a 

mysterious entity called “dark energy” – arose 

directly from NSF’s optical telescope resources. 

These and similar advances have altered the 

course of scientific history.

Identifying and funding the kind of tools that 

will truly transform research in science and 

engineering is an essential part of the NSF’s 

mission. As in all NSF endeavors, inquiry 

begins with the research communities, which 

alert program staff to the most promising 

and exciting topics, and the most important 

equipment needed to explore them. NSF 

then assists the communities in refining 

their insights, forming a consensus and 

focusing on paramount objectives and 

their corresponding hardware requirements. 

At that point, if a project clearly offers 

revolutionary potential, it may qualify for 

further consideration in a rigorous and 

deliberative process designed to select 

only the best of the best as candidates for 

substantial program funds or MREFC support.

This process of identification and selection 

is, and must be, continuously repeated. 

Despite the stunning pace of research 

progress in the 21st century, the future 

success of entire fields depends critically 

upon development of new and powerful 

tools, some of which are described below. 

Such projects are increasingly large 

and complex, with highly sophisticated 

IT components, including distributed 

sensor networks and vast data-storage 

and transmission capabilities. Costs of 

construction now typically extend to tens 

or hundreds of millions of dollars, with 

millions more required for decades of 

operation and maintenance.

So great is the potential effect of these 

i n t r o d u c t i o n

Strong magnetic fields twist and turn 

on the Sun, building up tremendous 

amounts of energy that can be 

released explosively in what is called 

a flare, pictured here.

A re-entry cone, used to re-enter an 

existing drill hole on the ocean floor, 

starts its journey to the seafloor from the 

deck of the drillship JOIDES Resolution.

1

 A glossary of acronyms is included in the Appendices.
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expenses that in 1995 Congress created a special, 

separate MREFC account to support the acquisition, 

construction and commissioning of major research 

facilities and equipment. It is intended to prevent 

such periodic expenditures from disrupting the 

budgets of NSF directorates and threatening NSF’s 

traditional support of “core” research programs, 

which are funded from the $4 billion Research and 

Related Activities (R&RA) account. Typically the 

threshold for MREFC projects is 10 percent of the 

annual budget of the proposing directorate or office. 

But cost is by no means the sole criterion. 

Each MREFC candidate project must represent an 

outstanding opportunity to enable research and 

innovation, as well as education and broader impacts.

Each should offer the possibility of transformative 

knowledge and the potential to shift existing 

paradigms in scientific understanding, engineering 

processes and/or infrastructure technology. 

Moreover, each must serve an urgent contemporary 

research need that will persist through the often 

lengthy process of planning and development.

As in any sort of exploration, the horizon keeps moving. 

Every year new opportunities will arise and new priorities 

will assert themselves. As a result, no roster of potential 

projects is ever final. Responsible stewardship of 

public funds demands that all candidate efforts be 

evaluated and reevaluated constantly in the context 

of the latest, most pressing research goals and the 

most profoundly important unanswered questions. 

To that end, the National Science Board (NSB) and 

the Director, in their joint report Setting Priorities 

for Large Research Facility Projects Supported 

by the National Science Foundation, define the 

process used by the NSF for developing, reviewing, 

approving and prioritizing large-scale research 

facility projects.

The first chapter of this Facility Plan provides an 

overview of those objectives and opportunities, and 

their intellectual context, as of 2005. The contents 

derive from workshops, advisory committees, 

National Research Council (NRC) reports, the 

expertise of visiting and permanent scientific staff 

and unsolicited proposals from the community. 

Many NSF directorates also conduct internal 

priority setting and strategic planning activities that 

endeavor to locate the leading edge of research, 

anticipate where it might be in the future, and 

determine the most valuable areas of discovery 

and innovation. 

The second chapter describes MREFC facilities 

already in operation or under construction and 

suggests some of the promising candidates 

identified by the nation’s research communities.

Taken as a whole, the Facility Plan constitutes a 

conceptual snapshot of the science and engineering 

community’s views in 2005. It is the first iteration 

of a product that will be revised and updated 

regularly as needed.

The Degree Angular Scale 

Interferometer (DASI), 

shown here, operates from 

the Amundsen-Scott South 

Pole Station is designed to 

measure temperature and 

polarization anisotropy 

of the cosmic microwave 

background radiation over 

a large range of scales with 

high sensitivity.
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Research explorationoperates at many frontiers simultaneously. One useful way to distinguish 

them is by physical scale of inquiry. There are fundamental questions to be answered across more 

than 50 orders of magnitude in space and time, ranging from the subatomic to the cosmic, and from 

quintillionths of a second to billions of years. Each scale presents special challenges – and special 

opportunities – for revolutionary facilities and the work they can make possible.

Achieving many important objectives will require a new generation of computing, communication, 

analysis and information technologies to revolutionize the conduct of science and engineering research 

and education. These resources, many of which are now in development, are collectively known as 

“cyberinfrastructure” (CI). They will enable researchers to conduct detailed “experiments” on computer 

models and to investigate phenomena that are inherently difficult to visualize. Equally important, 

they will serve one of NSF’s most important and most ambitious goals: to make possible information 

and resource sharing on a scale unparalleled in human history, including instantaneous access to 

data repositories, digital libraries and field-specific instruments, as well as tools for collaboration, data 

management, analysis, visualization and simulation.

In addition, answering many of the most profound questions will often involve combining insights from 

two or more scales, and from radically different kinds of equipment. For example, progress in cosmology 

will demand dramatically improved understanding of particle physics, just as a complete understanding 

of gravity – the dominant force at astronomical distances – will entail reconciling it with quantum 

mechanics – the rules that govern matter and energy at the very smallest dimensions.
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Although this size range 

encompasses the familiar world 

in which we live – and in which most 

traditional science and engineering work 

has been done – it will never exhaust its 

mysteries. Indeed, entire new horizons 

of research have appeared in the past 

few years thanks to developments made 

possible by the convergence of fresh insight 

and powerful new technologies.

Fundamental questions in a host of 

mesoscale fields can only be answered 

satisfactorily using the next generation of 

tools. A few examples include:

THE BIOSPHERE.

How can we detect, model and predict 

the ways in which coupled natural and 

human systems respond to different 

kinds of stresses and modifications? 

Such models must include the consequences

of the interplay among air, water, land 

and biota and predict the effects of 

altering one variable (e.g., a particular 

pollutant, precipitation or invasive 

species) on one or more other variables. 

Those effects, it now appears, can be hugely 

complicated and are frequently nonlinear. 

Understanding them will require novel 

collaborations of researchers and collation 

of data taken simultaneously in many ways 

at many physical and temporal scales.

It will also require researchers to view 

holistically different kinds of interrelated 

phenomena that have never been regarded 

as systems. For example: How do population 

trends, land use and industrial and urban 

processes affect hydrological systems and 

water quality in rivers, lakes and estuaries? 

How can research about human and social 

behavior at all levels, from small groups 

to communities to regions – especially in

response to crises or destabilizing events 

– lead to effective engineering approaches

to managing these dynamic systems?

Such efforts will require new kinds of 

ecological observatories enabling collection 

and integration of data from a number of 

different kinds of distributed sensors, both 

for empirical research and for creation of 

effective models. The results can profoundly 

affect our ability to understand the spread of 

infectious diseases, quality of water supplies 

in critical regions, stability of essential 

ecosystems, optimal engineering solutions to 

complex problems and many other issues.

ENERGY AND WASTE.

What are the essential power sources and 

industrial processes of the future? To a large 

extent, 21st-century civilization is still running 

on 19th-century technologies – most notably, 

combustion of fossil fuels. And humanity is 

still practicing a social paradigm unchanged 

in 100,000 years – burying or burning its 

copious wastes. Finding alternatives to those 

situations is one of the most pressing goals 

facing engineers, chemists and physicists. 

Fuel cells, photovoltaic devices, biologically 

produced fuels and superconducting 

materials are only in preliminary stages 

of development, and they are merely the 

first generation of their kind. Fundamental 

research is needed to improve performance 

and identify new methods of storing and 

transporting energy. At the same time, 

investigators must devise much more efficient 

and benign forms of manufacturing, recycling 

and disposal, while discovering or creating 

new materials that blur the distinction 

between organic and inorganic, combining the 

characteristics of metals, films, polymers and 

ceramics.

INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL DYNAMICS.

How can we understand the totality and 

complexity of human and organizational 

behavior? The integration of vast 

computing power, massive data sets, large 

complex models and new analytical tools 

will be necessary to enable researchers 

to comprehend, simulate, visualize and 

predict such behavior.Among the many 

outstanding questions: How do organizational 

F r o m M i l l i m e t e r s t o H u n d r e d s o f K i l o m e t e r s

M E S O S C A L E 1

X-ray scattering pattern of a 

stretched DuPont fuel cell membrane.

This project was funded in part with 

a grant through NSF’s Experimental 

Program to Stimulate Competitive 

Research (EPSCoR).
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and collective behaviors differ from the 

behavior of the individuals that made up 

such collectivities? What forces shape the 

various subsystems of societies, such as the 

economy, the polity and the legal system?

What determines creativity and innovation at

the individual and organizational levels? How 

do social and biological factors combine to 

shape human preference? How do emotions 

and cognition combine to influence human 

choices? How do people, organizations and

social systems respond to sudden shocks and 

extreme events, such as market collapses, 

ethnic violence, floods, earthquakes, 

tsunamis and terrorist assaults?

These questions cannot be answered without 

integrating information collected across a 

wide range of scales, from individuals and 

peer groups to regional and ethnic clusters, 

and throughout diverse disciplines, from 

psychology and anthropology to economics 

and law. Ensuring the statistical validity of 

such unprecedented data sets presents a 

separate and equally formidable challenge to 

current understanding. 

SENSORS AND SENSOR SYSTEMS.

How can we detect subtle – but potentially 

crucial – changes in materials or the 

environment, and combine sensor signals 

into a coherent picture? Numerous scientific 

and technical problems, from making 

sense of collisions at a particle accelerator 

to monitoring the security of facilities to 

tracking alterations in brain waves or blood 

chemistry, require steady progress in two 

areas: developing ever more sensitive and 

ever-smaller sensors, and devising robust 

systems of assembling multiple signals into 

useful information. Those objectives will 

require basic research that brings together 

specialties as diverse as surface chemistry, 

microelectronics, biophysics, photonics, 

information theory and mathematics.

COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES.

How are brain functions at the molecular, 

cellular, physiological and neural network 

levels related to human functions such as 

memory, learning and decision-making? 

Within the past two years, both invasive 

and non-invasive sensing technologies 

have expanded rapidly. It is now 

possible to design experiments that 

could simultaneously measure brain 

function in large numbers of experimental 

subjects and/or interacting individuals. 

Indeed, we may soon be on the verge of 

characterizing at the neurological level 

how people learn – that is, how the brain 

acquires, organizes and retains knowledge 

and skills.

The goal is to better understand the 

biological underpinnings of behavior, as 

well as the ways in which behavior feeds 

back into neural activity. The implications 

of such research for educational theory 

and practice – as well as potential 

applications to various neural disabilities 

and other deficits – are extraordinary.

GENETIC AND OTHER DATA SETS.

Across the stupendous spectrum of living 

things, what are the most significant 

similarities and differences? One of the 

most promising ways to answer that question 

entails the creation of comprehensive 

genome databases.At present, only a few 

organisms have been fully sequenced, 

and those sequences are still incompletely 

understood. Furthermore, broader and 

faster research is needed to answer basic, 

enduring questions such as: What is the 

minimal biological “tool kit” of living things?

What biochemical and physiological 

processes are conserved across kingdoms 

and 3.5 billion years of evolution, and 

what major forms do variations take? 

What genes are responsible for human 

cognitive capabilities? And what are 

the origins and development of the 

human species and the nature of human 

adaptation processes over the last five to 

six million years?

Moreover, the current successes of genomic 

research have revealed new opportunities. 

No counterpart to GenBank, the public 

DNA sequence database maintained by 

the National Center for Biotechnology 

Information (NCBI), exists for other kinds of 

biological data (e.g., morphology, anatomy, 

ecology, behaviors, or ontogenies). Serious 

efforts are needed to systematize the vast 

hoard of biological information.

Researchers have created virtual template 

brains that can assist in the study of 

anatomical brain differences related to 

aging and disease. The variation in color 

and shape of the spheres indicates the 

magnitude and principal directions of the 

anatomical differences across subjects. 

Cantilevers specifically modified for a biochemooptomechanical chip are illustrated above. The chip 

is currently being developed for high-throughput 

multiplexed biomolecular analysis.

The DNA sequencing process makes it 

possible for researchers to discover the 

amino-acid sequence in a substance. 

Shown here is the last step in the 

process: the end result.
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T h o u s a n d s o f K i l o m e t e r s

Thanks to a growing network of 

global sensors and data repositories,

and a new awareness of relationships and 

“teleconnections” among disparate variables, 

it is increasingly possible to understand 

natural (and anthropogenic) phenomena 

on a planet-wide scale. Investigators are 

finally poised to expand understanding and 

predictability of the complex, interactive 

processes that determine variability in the 

past, present and future states of the Earth. 

These processes control the origin and current 

status of the forms of life on the planet and 

affect the interdependencies of society and 

planetary processes.

GLOBAL ENERGY BUDGET 

AND PLANETARY “METABOLISM.”

How can we better understand the links 

between physical and chemical processes 

by focusing on the exchanges of energy 

within and among the components of the 

Sun-Earth systems, including the oceans and 

atmosphere? Among other goals, progress 

is necessary to improve the accuracy and 

projective power of global climate models, 

and to understand how ocean circulation 

– and therefore climate – responds to 

global temperature changes. In addition, 

comprehending the present and future 

state of the planet demands improved and 

more detailed understanding of the links 

and feedbacks among physical, chemical, 

geological, biological and social systems; 

how they have evolved; and how they affect 

the biocomplexity in the environment.

PLANETARY STRUCTURE.

How do the shape and composition of 

Earth’s components change over time, from 

the inner core to the upper atmosphere? 

Included here is the detection of motion 

of the Earth’s surface on the scale of 

millimeters per year, the deformation 

resulting from the buildup of stress by 

tectonic processes that lead to earthquakes, 

the deformation of volcanoes preceding 

eruption and the movement of ice sheets 

and glaciers.

CHEMICAL BALANCE 

AND FUNDAMENTAL CYCLES.

What processes determine the ways in 

which carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and other 

key elements cycle through the Earth’s 

biological, geological and ocean systems? 

For example, what factors govern the 

amount of carbon sequestered in seawater 

and biomass, and what are the variables, 

parameters and limits of those processes?

How much buffering, regulating or offsetting 

chemical action do natural systems offer 

to increased concentrations of man-made 

compounds, and what are the likely points 

at which irreversible changes may occur in 

chemical regimes? 

WHOLE-EARTH MODELS 

OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS.

A major gap in large-scale simulations of 

global processes to date has been in the 

dynamic simulation of biological systems at a 

global scale. A major integrated hardware and 

software effort could elucidate some of the 

most vexing questions in life sciences, such 

as: What is the biological “carrying capacity” 

of the Earth and the effects of different 

variables on it? What is the optimal global 

spatial allocation of crops and livestock for 

sustainable production? How do alleles, genes 

and genotypes move dynamically through 

populations, organisms and ecosystems? What 

factors will allow us to predict accurately the 

occurrence of new species and the imminent 

extinction of others?

M E S O S C A L E 2

One of a series of satellite images of the Antarctic 

Peninsula that recorded the catastrophic break-up 

of a massive portion of the Larsen B ice shelf – an 

area larger than Rhode Island – in 2002. NSF is 

responsible for managing all United States (U.S.) 

activities in the Antarctic as a single, integrated 

program, making possible research in Antarctica by 

scientists supported by NSF and by certain other 

U.S. mission agencies.

Image from a numerical simulation of an 

idealized wind-driven ocean basin, calculated 

on massively parallel computers at the San 

Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC).
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In recent years, imaging, 

manipulation and testing of objects

has become possible at smaller and 

smaller sizes and time scales, resulting in 

an explosion of progress across dozens 

of fields and holding the promise of truly 

transformational understanding of matter 

and energy. With today’s equipment, 

even students can pick up and move a 

single atom on a surface. Researchers 

have learned how tiny modifications in 

the assembly, composition or placement 

of atoms and molecules produce strikingly 

different behaviors that can be customized 

for particular effects. One of the most 

intriguing and valuable discoveries is 

the fact that the properties of matter 

can change dramatically as dimensions 

approach a nanometer (one billionth of a 

meter, or about 10 atomic diameters). 

Numerous devices are already exploiting 

these characteristics. For example, a 

structure called a “quantum dot” can 

hold just one electron, making it a 

“single electron transistor” hundreds of 

times smaller than those in today’s most 

sophisticated microchips. Even mechanical 

systems such as gears, turbines, levers and 

fluid channels can now be constructed on 

the scale of a few microns (millionths of 

a meter – or about one-fiftieth the width 

of a human hair), enabling investigators 

to create microchips for rapid analysis of 

blood or genetic material. 

At the same time, miniaturization and 

growing sophistication of “photonic” 

devices, which generate and control 

light just as electronic devices generate 

and control electrons, are transforming 

communications and signal processing. 

Because light moves through matter 

much faster than electrons, and can carry 

numerous superimposed datastreams at 

different wavelengths, photonics research 

promises spectacular changes in the speed 

of computing and information transfer.

Finally, research is now approaching another 

long-sought goal: To view chemical reactions 

in fine detail and in small time increments. 

Just as fast camera shutter speeds can “stop” 

even rapid motion, the advent of lasers with 

pulses as short as one millionth of a billionth 

of a second are making it possible to create 

“slow motion” images of chemical reactions, 

vastly increasing our understanding of the 

ways atoms combine or break apart.

Continuing fundamental research at the 

micro- and nanoscales will have a major 

impact on our comprehension of many 

important phenomena. Among them:

MOLECULAR UNDERSTANDING 

OF LIFE PROCESSES.

Humanity’s recently acquired ability to 

investigate fundamental biological functions 

at the molecular scale has revealed the 

marvelous complexity of microscale 

cellular processes – and in the process 

raised a host of truly profound questions, 

among them: How do proteins fold and 

bind, producing many of the essential 

biochemical reactions of life? How do 

membranes work to permit selective entry 

and exit of molecules and ions, permitting 

cells to interact with their surroundings?

What are the molecular origins of the 

emergent behavior that underlies life 

processes from heartbeats and circadian 

rhythms to neurological activity? 

How do biological systems assemble 

themselves? How did the first biologically 

relevant molecules form and how did 

they organize into self-replicating cells? 

How does a single fertilized cell become a 

multi-cellular organism? And how does a 

common set of genes give rise to a wide 

range of morphologically and ecologically 

distinct organisms?

Medical researchers seek to apply those 

insights to treatments, and engineers 

require them for innovation in fields such 

as bioengineering and nanotechnology. 

M I C R O S C A L E 1

M i c r o m e t e r s t o N a n o m e t e r s

An artist’s rendition of the inside of a cell.
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And biologists need to fill these gaps to 

understand how organisms operate and 

evolve at the most fundamental level. It 

has been understood for many years that 

everything in a living cell is connected 

to everything else, but mapping out the 

networks has been an extraordinarily 

difficult task. Understanding gene 

expression, for example, involves 

thousands of genes and their products, 

many of which combine, cooperate, 

antagonize and/or collaborate to regulate 

the expression of thousands of other 

genes at multiple levels. Modeling this 

enormously complex system will demand 

large amounts of new knowledge that 

microscale science promises. 

MOLECULES AND MATERIALS BY DESIGN.

Among its “grand challenges” for 

chemistry and chemical engineering, a 

recent National Academies (NA) report 

urges researchers to “learn how to 

synthesize and manufacture any new 

substance that can have scientific or 

practical interest, using compact and safe 

synthetic schemes and processes with high 

selectivity for the desired product, and 

with low energy consumption and benign 

environmental effects in the process.” 

That will require knowledge of how to 

design and produce functional molecules, 

devices and systems from first principles, 

atom by atom, and will demand the 

ability to image and control individual 

atoms and molecules in three dimensions. 

Investigators will have to learn how 

to design and produce new material 

structures, nanoscale devices and system 

architectures with properties that can 

be predicted, tailored and tuned before 

production. In particular, that effort will 

include the understanding and exploitation 

of self-assembly. Part of the challenge will 

be finding ways to mimic and modify the 

creation of natural substances as different 

as silk and seashells. Part will consist of 

creating entirely new compounds and 

structures that do not occur naturally. 

And part will combine both into hybrid 

materials with specific desired properties.

The results will prompt revolutionary 

scientific advances and engineering 

innovations in areas such as individualized 

pharmaceuticals, new drug delivery 

systems, more resilient materials and 

fabrics, catalysts for industry and much 

faster computer chips, among others.

EFFICIENT MANUFACTURING 

AT THE NANOSCALE. 

New kinds of fabrication will require 

widely available instruments, metrics 

and positioning equipment that permit 

standardization and dimensional control 

on a scale much smaller than most 

existing facilities provide. In order for 

nanoscale manufacturing to become 

affordable, the National Nanotechnology 

Initiative (NNI) Supplement to FY2004 

Budget calls for “highly capable, lowcost, reliable instrumentation and 

internationally accepted standards for the 

measurement of nanoscale phenomena 

and for characterization and manipulation 

of nanostructures,” as well as “standard 

reference materials and standardized 

instruments with nanoscale resolution.”

ELECTRONICS BEYOND SILICON.

Since the arrival of the first miniaturized 

integrated circuits more than 30 years 

ago, the number of transistors that can 

be packed onto a microchip has increased 

exponentially, doubling approximately 

every 18 months. But this progression, 

known as “Moore’s Law,” cannot continue 

unless individual components are made 

much smaller – and engineers are 

reaching the physical limits of traditional 

semiconductor and metal devices. The next 

generation of microprocessors will rely on 

molecular-scale electronics.

Making and controlling such nanostructures 

demands entirely new areas of knowledge 

and expertise. For example, researchers 

will have to create novel architectures to 

accommodate drastically smaller voltages 

and currents, and find ways to make the 

processing elements synchronize with each 

other directly rather than follow a central 

clock, among dozens of other problems.

At the same time, scientists and engineers 

will be struggling to construct useful 

“quantum computers” in which a unit of 

information does not exist only in one of two 

states (0 or 1, on or off, as in conventional 

binary computers), but in a “superposition” 

Electron paths in a nanowire, including 

imperfections in the wire, are pictured here. 

NSF has been a pioneer among federal 

agencies in fostering the development 

of nanoscale science, engineering and 

technology. It supports fundamental 

knowledge creation across all disciplinary 

principles at the nanoscale.
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13

of multiple states simultaneously. This condition, 

made possible by the often counterintuitive laws 

of quantum mechanics, can permit a variety of 

calculations to be made at once – potentially 

reducing the timetable for solving certain 

problems from years to hours. However, the same 

quantum uncertainty that makes the superposition 

possible also makes it intensely difficult to keep 

such a machine in a steady state and to read out 

information accurately. The obstacles to quantum 

computing are daunting, and call for the utmost 

ingenuity in creating new instruments and devices.

NEW STATES AND BEHAVIORS OF MATTER.

As recently as 10 years ago, physics recognized 

only four states of matter: solids, liquids, gases 

and plasmas. Then researchers devised equipment 

and techniques that made it possible to create an 

entirely new state – predicted by theory and called a 

Bose-Einstein condensate – in which multiple atoms 

coalesce into a single condition equivalent to one 

“super atom” at extremely low temperatures. This 

is only one of the peculiar phenomena that occur 

in such conditions, along with superconductivity 

and superfluidity, the flow of fluid without viscosity 

or resistance. Continuing research in the field 

of cryogenics, where work is done as close to 

absolute zero as possible, is expected to prompt the 

emergence of even more unusual properties.

Inspired by the molecular 

assembly techniques 

used in living cells, 

chemist Chad Mirkin 

and his colleagues at 

Northwestern University 

have created a new 

class of nanometer-scale 

building blocks that can 

spontaneously assemble 

themselves into ultratiny spheres, tubes and 

curved sheets.
14

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S u b a t o m i c

Over the past 100 years, research 

has revealed the structure of 

the atom, the substructure of its neutrons 

and protons, the existence of antimatter, and 

the behavior of particles that carry three of 

the four fundamental forces. This collected 

knowledge, embodied in the consensus theory 

of particles and interactions known as the 

“standard model,” is one of the grand triumphs 

in the history of science, making predictions 

that can be confirmed by observation to 10 

decimal places. But it is incomplete.

Among other problems, the standard model 

does not explain why the elementary 

particles have such a remarkable variety 

of masses, nor how the property of mass 

itself arises. It cannot account for certain 

inconsistencies, or “asymmetries,” in the 

behavior of particles and their antiparticles. 

So both theorists and experimentalists 

are working to expand, refine or replace 

the model. In the process, they are asking 

the most fundamental questions possible. 

Among them: What is the full set of 

nature’s building blocks? Have we 

detected them all, or are there a few 

– or dozens – more? How many spacetime dimensions are there and did they 

emerge from something more fundamental?

Is there a single, unified force that underlies 

electromagnetism, the weak and strong forces 

and gravity? If so, how is it described?

Some of the answers, if they arrive, 

will be found on Earth at high-energy 

accelerators that smash particles into 

their antiparticles, creating brief showers 

of very exotic material. Physicists use 

exquisitely sensitive detectors to examine 

the results, in search of new particles and 

processes. Over the next decade, the Large 

Hadron Collider (LHC) at the European 

Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) 

is expected to reveal – or possibly rule 

out – the existence of particles beyond 

the standard model. But numerous other 

high-energy devices around the world will 

be required to conduct complementary and 

confirmatory research. And researchers 

will be watching those results closely 

to see if they provide support for 

“string theory,” which posits that what 

we regard as different kinds of particles 

are actually simply different vibration 

modes of infinitesimal string-like entities 

comprising 10, 11 or more dimensions.

At the same time, particle physicists 

are teaming with astronomers and 

astrophysicists to use the awesome variety 

of extreme conditions detectable in space as 

“laboratory specimens” for new theories of 

matter and force. Many experts now believe 

that any complete revision of the standard 

model will have to combine ground-based 

and astronomical observations into a 

comprehensive understanding.

Some of the most interesting 

phenomena, and many of the most 

potentially revolutionary theories, span 

spatial scales from the smallest to the 

largest. To cite only two: What is the 

connection between elementary particles 

and the dark matter and dark energy that 

make up 95 percent of the universe? 

And how do the properties of individual 

atoms and molecules interact to create 

the properties of bulk materials?

M I C R O S C A L E 2

An artistically enhanced picture of particle tracks 

in the Big European Bubble Chamber (BEBC). 

NSF’s contribution to the 

international LHC project includes 

the construction of two detectors: 

the Compact Muon Solenoid 

and ATLAS, A large Toroidal LHC 

Apparatus. ATLAS’ tile calorimeter 

will collect the energy released in 

the LHC ́s proton-proton collisions. 

Special plastic manufacturing 

techniques have been adapted to 

mass produce the ATLAS elements.
15

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M i l l i o n s o f K i l o m e t e r s t o T h o u s a n d s o f L i g h t Y e a r s

In science, new answers always 

bring even newer questions.

That has clearly been the case during the 

past quarter century, which constitutes 

a golden age of discovery in astronomy 

and cosmology. Through powerful tools 

and ideas, astronomers and physicists 

have extended our vision further out 

in space and our understanding further 

back in time. They have also uncovered 

new puzzles, unexplained phenomena 

and areas of interest. The list is long, 

and begins close to home.

LIVING WITH THE SUN. 

A deep understanding of our local star, 

the Sun, is enormously important for 

many practical reasons – including 

the need to anticipate solar events 

and protect against their effects on 

communications, and to discern the Sun’s 

stability and its role in Earth’s climate 

and evolution. Comprehending solar 

phenomena will also provide a wealth of 

information about millions of similar stars 

in the universe, and particularly about the 

activity and variability of solar-type stars.

Specific research questions regarding 

solar/terrestrial connections include: 

What are the processes that cause 

solar variability? What are the mechanisms 

responsible for powerful solar activity such 

as solar flares and coronal mass ejections? 

What is the impact of solar activity 

on terrestrial communications and 

power systems? What is the connection 

between solar activity and space weather? 

What is the origin of the Sun’s 22-year solar 

cycle, and why is it manifested in the number 

and location of sunspots? How does the solar 

dynamo work to create the star’s titanic 

magnetic field? What powers the solar 

corona, which is hundreds of times hotter 

than the surface of the Sun?

Answering these questions fully will 

require new and very sophisticated 

devices and telescopes, both Earth-based 

and space-based. It will also demand 

instruments that can discern fine structure 

in the magnetic fields and trajectories of 

solar plasma, whether in “active regions” 

in and around sunspots or within ejected 

material in prominences, flares and 

coronal mass ejections.

OUR GALAXY AND ITS NEIGHBORS.

It has been decades since the presence 

of “dark matter” – the invisible material 

that makes up most of the mass of the 

universe – was first inferred from the 

rotation of spiral galaxies. Yet its nature is 

still a mystery. Further understanding will 

combine astrophysical observations with 

Earth-based efforts at detection, several 

of which are already under way. Those 

activities, in turn, will have to be tempered 

by and reconciled with discoveries in 

particle physics from existing and future 

accelerators and other facilities.

Conversely, it was only a few years ago that 

astronomers produced the first evidence of 

planets around stars besides our Sun. Now 

about 150 are known. But it is still unclear 

how planets form, which mechanisms 

determine their composition, and whether 

there are habitable analogues to Earth 

in nearby space. Much higher telescopic 

resolution, and new sensor suites, will be 

needed to begin to understand these topics.

Different science will be required to explain 

many ultrahigh-energy phenomena observed 

recently, from gamma-ray “bursters” to 

superenergetic cosmic ray particles whose 

method of acceleration is unknown but may 

indicate new phases of matter.

Finally, the sky is full of stars, and there are 

about 100 billion in our galaxy alone. Yet 

there is still insufficient understanding of 

how stars form, what factors determine their 

ultimate qualities, how long they live and 

how they die. There is evidence of stars in our 

region of space that are practically as old as 

the universe itself. And there may be stellar 

phenomena that we have not yet observed.

M AC R OS C A L E 1

Millions of miles away, coronal 

mass ejections from the Sun blast 

billions of tons of plasma into our 

magnetosphere with the potential to 

disturb space systems, power grids 

and communications.

Stars surrounding the South Celestial Pole 

appear to spin over the Gemini South dome 

in this digital star trail image. Images 

obtained every minute for a period of 

about four and a half hours were stacked in 

Photoshop to create this image.
16

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M i l l i o n s t o B i l l i o n s o f L i g h t Y e a r s

Some recent discoveries have 

shaken conventional ideas

so fundamentally that they are obliging 

researchers to rethink some of their 

most familiar notions. For example, our 

understanding of cosmology was challenged 

less than a decade ago when researchers 

produced evidence that the expansion of 

the universe – known since the early 20th

century and presumed to be relatively 

constant – was in fact speeding up.

What currently undetectable “dark energy” 

could be fuelling that expansion? 

What does it mean for the destiny of our 

universe? What are the components of 

the 95 percent of the cosmos that is not 

made up of ordinary matter? And what 

do the new revelations portend for our 

comprehension of elemental forces? 

Gravity is perhaps the most spectacular 

example. It was the first fundamental force 

to be understood scientifically, when Newton 

united the heavens and the Earth through his 

equations. Maxwell’s equations then united 

the forces of electricity and magnetism in the 

theory of electromagnetism, and a century 

later electrodynamics was explained on the 

quantum scale. The strong and weak forces 

were characterized with varying degrees 

of success. By the end of the 20th century, 

it appeared to many observers that the 

nature’s fundamental interactions were, at 

last, comprehensible, requiring only some 

refinements and calibrations.

That was by no means the case. Einstein’s 

Theory of General Relativity revealed 

much about the force of gravity on the 

cosmic scale. But if it is to be part of a truly 

cohesive and complete description of what 

shapes the universe, gravity must be made 

consistent with quantum mechanics, the 

rules that govern interactions at the smallest 

spatial scales. So far, the two theories are 

incompatible. Researchers expect that current 

and future gravitational wave observatories 

will add abundant insight by detecting spacetime perturbations that occur when two 

neutron stars or two black holes collide.

Attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum 

theory will also have to take place in the 

context of other large questions about the 

origin and evolution of the cosmos, including: 

What was the ”Big Bang” that produced 

the universe some 13.7 billion years ago? 

Did the cosmos experience a split-second 

period of “inflation” that expanded it? 

How and where did the chemical elements 

form and how has the composition of the 

universe evolved? How did galaxies form 

and how are they evolving?

M ACROSC A LE 2

This is an image of the Pelican Nebula, 

produced by the National Optical Astronomy 

Observatories’ (NOAO) survey program, 

“Deep Imaging Survey of Nearby Star-Forming 

Clouds.” A faint jet squirts out of the tip of 

one of the pillars, apparently indicating the 

presence of an unseen protostar.

An artist’s conception 

illustrating the history of the 

cosmos, from the Big Bang 

and the recombination epoch 

that created the microwave 

background, through the 

formation of galactic 

superclusters and galaxies 

themselves. The dramatic 

flaring at right emphasizes 

that the universe’s expansion 

currently is speeding up.
17

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Finally, some of the most 

ambitious research objectives 

transcend scale, and achieving them 

will have repercussions across numerous 

disciplines and dimensions.

COMPUTER SCIENCE.

What is computable? What are practical 

realizations of machines composed of 

hardware and software that can correctly 

implement computable procedures and 

functions in bounded, practical amounts 

of time? What are the principles of 

organization and the structure of 

software that will permit increasingly 

large collections of machines to work 

together effectively on a common 

problem? How can collections of 

machines communicate with each other 

effectively? What principles underlie the 

activities of humans (perhaps aided by 

other machines) in the task of designing 

hardware and software? 

How can interlocking systems, or “networks 

of networks,” be made secure, fault-tolerant 

and robust to the greatest degree possible? 

How can those systems be integrated with 

social and cultural norms so as to provide 

the greatest utility to populations in time of 

crisis? How can vast databases be organized 

so that they can be queried rapidly? 

What are the limits of artificial intelligence, 

and how can they be approached to expand 

human cognitive capabilities? Can heuristic 

or probabilistic decision schemes be 

maximized in machine intelligence? 

What are the possibilities of computerized 

learning? How can we manage and oversee 

the structure of complex computer systems 

with millions or billions of components? 

And how can systems with different 

characteristics and/or architectures 

communicate – especially in searching for 

patterns in enormously large data sets?

MATHEMATICS.

How can uncertainty be quantified and 

controlled? Which mathematical structures 

best describe multiscale phenomena? 

How can large datasets be mined for 

information? How fast can large numbers 

be factored? And how can data be archived 

so as to be accessible decades from now?

How can we best model complexity, selforganization and “chaotic” or nonlinear 

phenomena? How can patterns of data 

– including “unvisualizable” situations 

such as geometries in more than four 

dimensions, or sensor data streams from 

diverse instruments – be assembled 

into shapes and structures that have 

explanatory meaning? What rules govern 

complicated natural processes from the 

differentiation of cells and the expression 

of genes to the folding of proteins or 

the self-arrangement of crystalline 

nanostructures? What sorts of algorithms 

are suitable to test systems – such as 

multibillion-transistor computer chips 

or 100-billion-neuron human brains 

– whose total possible data routes are 

astronomically large?

What sorts of mathematical forms best 

achieve different kinds of optimization, from 

efficient transportation and manufacturing 

networks to maximum return on financial 

portfolios to deployment of armies and 

materiel? How can rare events of interest 

be extracted from huge data sets? How can 

significant patterns be discerned from the 

inherent “noise” and stochastic artifacts that 

arise in such large collections? And similarly, 

how can one identify, record and analyze the 

complicated interplay of numerous covariables 

in large systems – whether ecological, social, 

neurological or geophysical? 

So profound are the foregoing questions, 

and so uncertain the approaches to 

answering them, that the requisite 

instruments and facilities can barely be 

imagined in 2005. They will test the limits 

of science and engineering, and the power 

of human ingenuity.

MULTI-SCALE OR SCALE-INDEPENDENT

O B J E C T I V E S

This Ferris wheel-like arrangement 

represents an elegant solution for 

managing unwieldly amounts of 

information. The three-dimensional 

interface organizes computer 

contents by their relationships rather 

than their physical position on a 

hard drive. The program displays 

relationships that would not be clear 

in a normal, two-dimensional file 

tree and could be applied to any sort 

of hierarchical database.

This surface illustrates the failed attempt to 

construct a complete, properly embedded 

minimal surface without handles and three 

ends: No matter what one does, the three 

ends can not all be simultaneously parallel 

and will thus eventually intersect.
18

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The variety of facilities that are ongoing or requested as new starts includes:

single-location, dedicated facilities for observation/experimentation, 

sometimes with e-capabilities for remote control and/or transfer of data 

for analysis (e.g., the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA), IceCube);

single-location, multiple instruments and associated infrastructure providing 

resources for a variety of research activity of varied but related types (e.g., South 

Pole Station) to which users travel or send samples or connect electronically;

distributed/connected instrumentation taking common sets of data for 

integrated analysis (e.g., EarthScope);

distributed/connected instruments of varied types that provide a suite of user 

capabilities (e.g., the George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering 

Simulation (NEES), National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON), etc.);

mobile research platforms such as the Alaska Region Research Vessel (ARRV).

+

+

+

+

+
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19

The table below, taken from the NSF FY 2006 Congressional Budget Request, summarizes recent, current and projected 

expenditures from the MREFC account. 

In FY 2004, MREFC funding was provided for three ongoing construction projects: ALMA, EarthScope and IceCube. In 

addition, the FY 2005 omnibus appropriation bill provided the first increment of funding for two new starts, SODV and 

the RSVP project. Several other MREFC projects are still under construction, although MREFC funding has concluded. These 

include HIAPER, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), NEES, SPSM, and the Extensible Terascale Facility (ETF), previously 

known as TCS. Very detailed information about all of these projects is found in the MREFC and the Facilities Chapters of the 

NSF FY2006 Budget Request, which is available on the NSF Website at http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/.

MREFC Account1

(Dollars in Millions)

FY 2004 

Actual

FY 2005 

Current Plan

FY 2006 

Request

FY 2007 

Estimate

FY 2008 

Estimate

FY 2009 

Estimate

FY 2010 

Estimate

ONGOING PROJECTS

Atacama Large Millimeter Array 

(ALMA) Construction

50.70 49.30 49.24 47.89 46.49 37.37 20.91

EarthScope 43.24 46.97 50.62 26.80

High-performance Instrumented 

Airborne Platform for Environmental 

Research (HIAPER)

12.54

IceCube Neutrino Observatory 38.36 47.62 50.45 28.65 21.78 11.33 0.95

National Ecological Observatory 

Network (NEON)

12.00 12.00 20.00

Network for Earthquake Engineering 

Simulation (NEES)

8.05

Rare Symmetry Violating Processes 

(RSVP)3

14.88 41.78 48.00 30.75 15.00 8.00

Scientific Ocean Drilling Vessel 

(SODV)

14.88 57.92 42.20

South Pole Station 21.03

Terascale Computing Systems (TCS) 10.05

NEW STARTS

Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) 13.50 42.00 65.50 66.90

Alaska Region Research Vessel 

(ARRV)

49.32 32.88

Advanced LIGO (AdvLIGO) 28.48 42.81 46.31

Totals $183.96 $173.65 $250.01 $268.36 $214.38 $192.01 $143.07

Totals may not add due to rounding.

Estimates for 2007 and beyond do not reflect policy decisions and are presented for planning purposes only.

1 The FY 2005 total includes $37.13 million carried forward from previous years. This includes $29.87 million for the South Pole Station 

Modernization (SPSM) project, $115,000 for Polar Support Aircraft upgrades, $34,418 for the South Pole Safety project, and $7.11 million 

for IceCube.

2 This table does not reflect changes to the priority order, which the National Science Board made at its May 2005 meeting, for the four 

projects that have not begun to receive MREFC funding. The NSB considers NEON to be a New Start under the MREFC account, and the 

revised priority order of the New Starts is ARRV, NEON, OOI and AdvLIGO.

3 At the August 2005 meeting of the NSB, NSF recommended and the NSB approved the termination of RSVP. See the RSVP narrative for 

additional information.
20

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Originally referred to as the Millimeter 

Array (MMA) in the United States, this 

international project will be an aperturesynthesis radio telescope operating in 

the wavelength range from 3 to 0.4 mm.

ALMA will be the world’s most sensitive, 

highest-resolution, millimeter-wavelength 

telescope, combining sub-arcsecond 

angular resolution with the sensitivity 

of a single antenna nearly 100 meters 

in diameter. The array will provide a 

testing ground for theories of star birth 

and stellar evolution, galaxy formation 

and evolution and the evolution of the 

universe itself. The interferometer will 

be located at 5,000-meter altitude near 

San Pedro de Atacama in the Second 

Region of Chile, the ALMA host country. 

ALMA will also play a central role in the 

education and training of U.S. astronomy 

and engineering students; at least 15 

percent of ALMA’s approximately 2,000 

yearly users are expected to be students.

North America and Europe were equal 

partners in ALMA as originally planned (the 

baseline ALMA). Japan joined ALMA as a 

third major partner in September 2004, and 

will deliver a number of enhancements to 

the baseline instrument. The North American 

side of the project, consisting of the United 

States and Canada, is led by Associated 

Universities Inc./National Radio Astronomy 

Observatory (AUI/NRAO). Funding and 

execution of the project in Europe is 

carried out through the European Southern 

Observatory (ESO). Funding of the project 

in Japan is carried out through the National 

Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan and 

project execution is the responsibility of the 

National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. 

ALMA instrumentation will push gallium 

arsenide and indium phosphide transistor 

amplifier technology to high frequencies, 

will challenge production of high-density, 

high-speed integrated circuits for 

computational uses, and can be expected 

to stimulate commercial device and 

communication technologies development.

Programmatic management is the 

responsibility of the ALMA Staff Associate 

in the Division of Astronomical Sciences 

(AST) in the Directorate for Mathematical 

and Physical Sciences (MPS). AST’s 

external MMA Oversight Committee has 

been advising NSF on the project since 

early 1998, and comprises half of the 

International ALMA Management Advisory 

Committee. Management of the NRAO 

ATACAMA LARGE MILLIMETER ARRAY (ALMA)

FIRST PRIORITY: Ongoing Projects in FY 2006

Status Reports on Facilities under Construction with MREFC Account Funding 

and MREFC New Starts in the FY 2006 Congressional Budget Request1

The ALMA VertexRSI test antenna, one of two 

prototypes constructed at the site of the Very 

Large Array near Socorro, NM.

1

 As in the budget table on the previous page, the categorization and priority order of projects in this section reflect the structure and 

priority order of the FY 2006 Budget to Congress, and do not reflect the revisions made by the National Science Board at its May 2005 

meeting. The NSB considers NEON to be a New Start under the MREFC account, and the revised priority order of the New Starts is ARRV, 

NEON, OOI and AdvLIGO.

For many major research facilities there is substantial overlap of the Construction 

and Operations Stages, with operations beginning well before construction is complete. 

One example is radio telescopes, for which subsets of the antennas in an array may 

be used for data collection well before the array has been completed. This overlap is 

especially true for distributed facilities, when the components in some locations may be 

fully ready for operations and data collection while those in other locations are in early 

stages of construction. A good example is EarthScope, for which sensor arrays in some 

locations will be operational much earlier than in other locations. 

All MREFC projects use an internal NSF advisory group called a Project Advisory Team 

(PAT) during their development and implementation phases. The PATs generally consist 

of representatives from interested and/or participating directorates and offices, the NSF 

Deputy for Large Facility Projects (DLFP) and routinely the Office of General Counsel 

(OGC), the Office of Budget, Finance and Award Management (BFA), and the Office of 

Legislative and Public Affairs (OLPA). 
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21

effort on ALMA is carried out under cooperative 

agreement with AUI. 

A $26.0 million, three-year design and 

development phase was originally planned for the 

MMA project. However, since the original three-year 

plan was initiated, the United States entered into a 

partnership with a European consortium to develop 

ALMA. Because of the expanded managerial and 

technical complexity of the ALMA concept, an 

additional year of design and development was 

supported in FY 2001, at a budget level of $5.99 

million. U.S. construction was initiated in FY 2002, 

and in Europe in 2003. The U.S. share of ALMA 

construction is estimated to be $344.21 million.

Significant project events during FY 2004 included:

+ groundbreaking at the site near San Pedro de Atacama 

in the second region of Chile in November 2003;

+ the completion of all project agreements with the 

government of Chile;

+ the completion of the ALMA construction camp at the 

site of the mid-altitude Operations Support Facility (OSF), 

and ongoing progress with road and other site works;

+ the establishment by the government of Chile of a 

radio quiet zone centered on the ALMA site;

+ the entry of Japan into an Enhanced ALMA project 

in September 2004;

+ the receipt and evaluation of bids for the ALMA 

production antennas. 

U.S.-funded construction activities are currently 

scheduled to continue through 2010, with project 

completion and full operation beginning in 2012, 

and with early science scheduled to begin at the end 

of 2007. However, a thorough reexamination of the 

project scope, cost and schedule is now under way, 

and is likely to result in a rebaselining.

Two areas of concern in the project are:

+ The cost of the production antennas will be higher 

than originally budgeted. This is largely the result of 

very steep commodity price increases over the past 

18 months. The project intends to purchase fewer 

antennas than originally planned in order to remain 

as close as possible to the original baseline budget.

+ Delays associated with the antenna procurement 

process, details of the Japanese involvement, phasing 

differences in European and U.S. contributions, and a 

better understanding of integrated project requirements 

generated by the new ALMA project office have 

required that a new baseline be established.

Both the ALMA Science Advisory Committee and the 

NRC’s Committee on Astronomy and Astrophysics 

have indicated that an array with fewer than 64 

antennas will still produce the transformational 

results called for in the project’s Level-I science 

requirements. Based on the current understanding 

of costs, NSF is reviewing a proposed contract 

package for the U.S.-funded antennas. A similar 

proposal to procure the same antenna design in 

Europe is now under consideration by ESO.

The project completed rebaselining once the new 

Project Management and Control System was in 

place and fully operational. The entire project is now 

conducting an in-depth, independent review of the 

cost, schedule and management parameters of the 

new baseline using an outside group of experts. The 

NSB has been informed of the antenna procurement 

situation and of plans to rebaseline the project at its 

October 2004, December 2004 and March 2005 

meetings.

The expected operational lifespan of ALMA is at least 

30 years. Early estimates for steady state operational 

costs, which are fully attained in 2012, are about 

$23 million annually. Along with direct operations 

and maintenance support for ALMA, NSF will support 

research performed at the facility, through ongoing 

research and education programs. The annual support 

for such activities is estimated to be about $10 million 

once the facility reaches full operations.

Additional information on ALMA can be found in the MREFC 

Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 Budget Submission to Congress

(http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

An artist’s conception of ALMA in Compact Configuration. When construction is finished in 2011, 

ALMA will be the world’s largest and most powerful radio telescope, operating at millimeter and 

sub-millimeter wavelengths.
22

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EARTHSCOPE

The EarthScope Facility is a distributed, 

multi-purpose geophysical instrument 

array that will make major advances 

in our knowledge and understanding 

of the structure and dynamics of the 

North American continent. EarthScope 

instrumentation is expected to inhabit 

nearly every county within the United 

States over the life span of the program. 

The principal goal of the project is to 

enhance the understanding of the structure 

and evolution of the North American 

continent, including earthquakes and 

seismic hazards, magmatic systems 

and volcanic hazards, lithospheric 

dynamics, regional tectonics, continental 

structure and evolution, fluids in the 

crust and associated educational aspects.

EarthScope also seeks to engage science 

and non-science students in geosciences 

discovery through the use of technology in 

real time or retrospectively with the aim of 

integrating research and education. 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), the Department 

of Energy (DOE) and the International 

Continental Scientific Drilling Programme 

are funding partners, with USGS and NASA 

expected as operating partners. Project 

partners may also include state and local 

governments, geological and engineering 

firms and Canadian and Mexican agencies. 

Over 3,000 earth scientists and students 

are expected to use the facility annually. 

Geotechnical and engineering firms directly 

use data and models, which will be 

enabled by EarthScope. Instrumentation 

firms will collaborate on development for 

state-of-the-art seismic systems, downhole instrumentation and high-precision 

global positioning system (GPS) antenna 

designs.

The EarthScope Program Director, located 

in the Earth Sciences Division (EAR) in 

the Directorate for Geosciences (GEO), 

provides NSF oversight. The Deep Earth 

Processes Section Head in EAR and the 

PAT, provide other internal oversight. 

Following the recommendations of a 

National Academies review of EarthScope, 

an EarthScope Science and Education 

Advisory Committee (ESEC) was formed 

to provide an advisory structure to ensure 

coordination of facility construction 

and operation, science, education and 

outreach and information technology 

efforts.

Startup activities for Phase 2 drilling at 

the San Andreas Fault Observatory at 

Depth (SAFOD) site are under way, with 

drilling expected to begin on June 1, 

2005. At this time, the projected date 

to intersect the main trace of the San 

Andreas Fault is in mid-July. In April, 

2005, scientists from across the United 

States met at the core repository (Texas 

A&M) to examine the core from the 

Phase 1 drilling and to requests samples 

for scientific investigations. Overall, 

GPS and seismic station equipment 

acquisition and installation are slightly 

behind schedule. The Plate Boundary 

Observatory (PBO) installed the 100th

permanent geodetic station on March 

17, 2005. USArray installed the 75th

Transportable Array station in February 

2005. Installations continue on schedule. 

Data from EarthScope have already been 

used in earthquake studies, earthquake 

responses, presentations at professional 

meetings and in some university and 

other educational settings. An EarthScope 

Education and Outreach Manager has 

been hired. FY 2005 highlights to 

date also include the use of USArray 

seismic data in analyses of the SumatraAndaman earthquake (one of the largest 

earthquakes ever recorded), completion of 

the first borehole strainmeter installation 

and a very successful national meeting. 

The EarthScope project has been 

represented at over a dozen professional 

meetings and conferences through an 

exhibit booth, presentations and scientific 

sessions. 

U.S.-funded construction activities are 

scheduled to continue through 2007, 

with project completion and full operation 

beginning in 2008. Scientific results 

utilizing data collected by the EarthScope 

facility have already been presented at 

national meetings and in professional 

publications. The project will undergo a 

baseline review in the fall of 2005. 

Conceptual planning for the EarthScope 

project developed over the past decade. 

NSF funded planning, design and 

The complete EarthScope footprint. 1,600 of 

the transportable sites (moving west to east) 

and all 2,400 campaign stations will continue 

to be deployed after the conclusion of the 

MREFC project. Locations of the campaign 

stations will be determined through the annual 

proposal review process; many of these sites 

likely will change annually.
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23

development since FY 1998, and began 

the implementation of a five-year period of 

acquisition, construction and commissioning in 

FY 2003. The total project cost for EarthScope 

implementation is $197.44 million.

The expected operational lifespan of 

EarthScope is 15 years after construction 

is complete in FY 2007. Along with direct 

operations and maintenance support for 

the EarthScope Facility, expected to total 

approximately $24 million by FY 2007, NSF 

will support research performed utilizing the 

facility through ongoing research and education 

programs. The annual support for such 

activities is estimated to be about $15 million 

once the facility reaches full operations. 

Additional information on EarthScope can 

be found in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s 

FY 2006 Budget Submission to Congress 

(http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

HIGH PERFORMANCE INSTRUMENTED AIRBORNE PLATFORM FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH (HIAPER)

This project is the acquisition, modification 

and instrumentation of a high-altitude 

research aircraft capable of conducting science 

at or near the tropopause (approximately 

51,000 feet) with an extensive scientific 

payload and a flight range in excess of 

6,000 nautical miles. The aircraft will fly 

between 400 and 500 research flight hours 

each year, with extensive mission-specific 

outfitting preceding each research campaign. 

The remaining time will be devoted to aircraft 

maintenance and technology refreshment of 

the platform infrastructure. HIAPER will be a 

national facility, available to the university 

community as well as to NSF’s federal 

partners such as the National Oceanographic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

NASA, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) 

and DOE under existing interagency 

agreements. HIAPER will be based at the 

National Center for Atmospheric Research’s 

(NCAR) Research Aviation Facility (RAF) 

and Jefferson County Airport in Broomfield, 

Colorado. Deployments of the aircraft will 

occur worldwide. HIAPER was ferried from the 

Gulfstream facility to NCAR’s Jefferson County 

facility on March 11, 2005. It is currently 

undergoing infrastructure integration and 

is scheduled to begin its initial progressive 

science mission in late August.

The HIAPER project officially will conclude this 

year and, as noted above, the aircraft will 

transition to progressive science missions to test 

and evaluate the platform in late summer; full 

operations are anticipated at the beginning of 

FY 2006. Numerous requests to use HIAPER 

already have been received. Because the 

aircraft has been formally accepted, it will no 

longer be reported separately, but as part of 

the activities of the aircraft’s operator, NCAR.

HIAPER is a research platform with altitude, 

range and endurance capabilities that 

enable investigators to perform critical Earth 

system science research. With a maximum 

altitude for the aircraft of 51,000 feet, the 

ability to carry significant payloads to such 

high altitudes enables scientists to conduct 

important atmospheric studies in and near the 

tropopause. The modified aircraft is capable of 

covering a range of 6,000 nautical miles in a 

single flight, allowing for such varied missions 

as research flights covering the borders of the 

continental United States, the world’s large 

ocean basins, and studies of the South Pole 

environment conducted from South America 

or New Zealand. The platform will serve the 

entire geosciences community: atmosphere, 

cryosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. 

At NSF a Program Officer in the Atmospheric 

Sciences (ATM) Division in GEO oversees the 

HIAPER project. At NCAR a Project Director 

manages the day-to-day activities of HIAPER, 

and a separate HIAPER Advisory Committee 

(HAC), consisting of representatives of the 

university research community, national 

laboratories, the University Corporation for 

Atmospheric Research (UCAR), NCAR and NSF 

provides advice and recommendations to the 

NCAR Director, to whom the HIAPER Project 

Director reports. 

In late December 2001, UCAR and Gulfstream 

Aircraft Corporation (GAC), a subsidiary of 

General Dynamics, signed a contract for 

the acquisition of a Gulfstream V. The green 

airframe was delivered to Lockheed-Martin in 

June 2002 for extensive airframe structural 

modifications to meet science requirements. 

By October 2004, all the structural 

The HIAPER aircraft backs into the new 

RAF hangar at the Jefferson County 

Airport in Broomfield, CO
24

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modifications were completed and the 

aircraft was ferried back to Savannah 

(Gulfstream) for painting and final 

infrastructure installations. The painting 

was completed in December and HIAPER 

exited the paint hangar on December 21, 

2004 with its final paint scheme. The 

aircraft was ferried to NCAR on March 10, 

2005, and UCAR accepted the aircraft 

on behalf on NSF; installation of interior 

infrastructure is in progress. At NCAR the 

RAF is currently installing the scientific 

infrastructure and also working with the 

instrument developers on instrument 

integration issues as they arise. Fifteen 

research instruments were funded as part 

of the HIAPER MREFC project, and include 

instruments developed at NCAR, other 

national laboratories, universities, private 

industry and collaboration between 

universities and industry or NCAR.

Funds were appropriated by the 

Congress beginning in FY 2000. 

The total construction cost for the project 

is $81.50 million, and the project to date 

is on schedule and under budget. Funds 

set aside for contingency are being used 

to enhance instrumentation and follow on 

phased developments. NCAR, Gulfstream, 

Lockheed Martin and Savannah Air Center 

have executed a superb team effort. 

HIAPER’s expected operational lifespan is 

25 years, pending the full integration of 

scientific instrumentation. A steady state of 

about $5.0 million in operations support 

will occur in FY 2006. Along with direct 

operations and maintenance support 

for HIAPER, NSF will support research 

performed at the facility, through ongoing 

research and education programs. The 

annual support for such activities is 

estimated to be about $10 to $12 million, 

once the facility reaches full operations.

Additional information on HIAPER can be 

found in the Facilities Chapter of NSF’s 

FY 2006 Budget Submission to Congress

(http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/

fy2006/).

ICECUBE NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY

IceCube will be the world’s first highenergy neutrino observatory and will 

be located under the ice at the South 

Pole. It represents a new window on the 

universe, providing unique data on the 

engines that power active galactic nuclei, 

the origin of high-energy cosmic rays, 

the nature of gamma ray bursters, the 

activities surrounding supermassive black 

holes, and other violent and energetic 

astrophysical processes. IceCube 

construction is being carried out by the 

IceCube Consortium, led by the University 

of Wisconsin. Approximately one cubic 

kilometer of ice is being instrumented 

with photomultiplier (PM) tubes to 

detect neutrino-induced, charged reaction 

products produced when a high-energy 

neutrino interacts in the ice within or near 

the cubic kilometer fiducial volume. An 

array of Digital Optical Modules (DOMs), 

each containing a PM and associated 

electronics, will be distributed uniformly 

from 1.5 km to 2.5 km beneath the 

surface of the South Pole ice cap, a 

depth where the ice is highly transparent 

and bubble-free. When completed, 

IceCube will record the energy and arrival 

direction of high-energy neutrinos ranging 

in energy from 100 GeV (1011 electron 

Volts[eV]) to 10 PeV (1016 eV).

HIAPER will serve the atmospheric 

science community’s research needs for 

the next several decades.

This is an image of the HIAPER aircraft in flight.
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25

The principal tasks in the IceCube Project 

are: production of the needed DOMs 

and associated electronics and cables; 

production of an enhanced hot water drill 

and a DOM deployment system capable 

of drilling holes for and deploying DOM 

strings in the ice at the Pole; installation of 

a surface array of air shower detectors to 

both calibrate and eliminate background 

events from the IceCube DOM array; 

construction of a data acquisition and 

analysis system; and associated personnel 

and logistics support.

IceCube will be the world’s first observatory 

capable of studying the universe with 

high-energy neutrinos. Measurement of 

the number, direction, timing and energy 

spectrum of such neutrinos will provide 

unique insights regarding the dynamics 

of active galactic nuclei, the acceleration 

mechanisms and locations of the sources 

of high-energy cosmic rays, the properties 

and dynamics of gamma ray bursters and 

the types of processes that take place near 

the event horizon of supermassive black 

holes at the centers of galaxies. Many of 

these phenomena take place at cosmological 

distances in regions shielded by matter and 

shrouded by radiation. Since neutrinos carry 

no charge and interact very weakly with 

matter, easily passing through the entire 

Earth, they are unique messenger particles 

for understanding the astrophysics of such 

extreme phenomena and are capable of 

bringing us information about previously 

undiscovered cosmic objects, ones that 

are invisible to existing observatories that 

record electromagnetic signals or charged 

particles. IceCube data on sources will also 

complement data from existing astrophysical 

observatories in the optical, X-ray and 

gamma ray regions of the electromagnetic 

spectrum, providing new tests of theories of 

the underlying dynamics of these objects.

IceCube also provides a vehicle for helping 

to achieve national and NSF education 

and outreach goals based on the conduct 

of visionary science in the exciting South 

Pole environment. These goals include 

broadening the scientific workforce 

base in the United States and creating 

a technologically facile workforce with 

strong ties to fundamental research that 

is the core of a strong economy. Specific 

outcomes will include the education and 

training of next generation leaders in 

astrophysics, including undergraduate 

students, graduate students and 

postdoctoral research associates; K12 teacher scientific/professional 

development, including development of 

new inquiry-based learning materials; 

increased diversity in science through 

partnerships with minority institutions; 

and enhanced public understanding of 

science through broadcast media and 

museum exhibits (one is currently under 

construction). Some of these outcomes 

will result from separate R&RA grants to 

universities and other organizations for 

work associated with IceCube, selected 

following the standard NSF merit review 

process.

The IceCube Collaboration consists of 

12 U.S. institutions and institutions in 

three other countries: Belgium, Germany 

and Sweden. DOE, through its Lawrence 

Berkeley Laboratory, is also participating. 

The strong project management structure at 

the University of Wisconsin, which includes 

international participation, provided the 

framework for the Start-up Project funded 

in FY 2002 and FY 2003, and the initiation 

of full construction with FY 2004 funding. 

The University of Wisconsin has in place 

an external Scientific Advisory Committee, 

an external Project Advisory Panel and a 

high-level Board of Directors (including the 

Chancellor) providing for their oversight of 

the project. IceCube is managed by a Project 

Director and a Project Manager. Internally, 

NSF has appointed a Project Coordinator 

to manage and oversee the NSF award. A 

comprehensive external baseline review of 

the entire project (including cost, schedule, 

technical aspects and management) was 

carried out in February 2004. There was 

a follow-up external cost review in fall 

2004, and comprehensive annual external 

reviews are planned for each subsequent 

spring following the annual deployment 

season. This is interspersed with written 

monthly progress reports and quarterly 

reports, site visits, weekly teleconferences

and weekly internal NSF project oversight 

and management meetings. Oversight 

and funding responsibility for IceCube 

construction are the responsibility of the 

Office of Polar Programs (OPP); support 

for operations, research, education and 

outreach using IceCube will be shared by 

Pictured in the University of WisconsinMadison Physical Sciences Laboratory before 

being vacuum-sealed, each IceCube digital 

optical module or DOM is very much like 

a small computer. A total of 4,200 DOMs, 

designed to sample high-energy neutrino 

particles from deep space, are being deployed 

in 70 deep holes in the Antarctic ice. 

(November 2004)
26

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OPP and MPS as well as other organizations and 

international partners.

The primary IceCube Project tasks carried out 

to date are: (1) completion and testing of the 

Enhanced Hot Water Drill (EHWD) system for 

drilling the required deep-ice holes into which the 

strings of DOMs will be placed; (2) completion 

and commissioning of the three planned DOM 

production and low temperature (-80oC) testing 

facilities in the United States, Germany and 

Sweden; (3) production and testing of the DOMs 

needed for deployment of four DOM strings 

during one austral summer season (November 

2004 to mid-February 2005); (4) shipping and 

assembly of the entire drilling and deployment 

camp at the Pole, including the shipment and 

re-testing at the Pole of the needed DOMs and 

cables; (5) design, construction and installation 

of the initial data acquisition system at the 

Pole; (6) completion of plans for commissioning 

and verification of the initial DOM strings; 

(7) placement at the Pole of the building that 

will serve as the IceCube permanent counting 

house next season (2005/2006); (8) successful 

drilling of the first deep hole at the Pole and the 

deployment of the first IceCube string (60 DOMs), 

which is now connected to the data acquisition, 

fully operational, and functioning well; and 

(9) successful deployment and operation at 

the Pole of eight surface cosmic ray air shower 

detector modules (2 DOMs/module).

U.S.-funded construction activities are scheduled to 

continue through 2010, with project completion and 

full operation beginning in 2011. Early science is 

scheduled to begin at the end of 2007. Projected

outyear milestones are based on current project 

planning and represent a general outline of 

anticipated activities. These activities are also 

dependent on weather conditions and the 

Antarctic logistics schedule.

The total project cost for IceCube is $271.80 

million. Of this amount, $242.07 million will be 

from the United States and $29.70 million will 

come from foreign contributions. The funding 

history of IceCube includes: $15.0 million 

appropriated in FY 2002 for startup activities; 

$24.54 million appropriated in FY 2003 for 

continuation of startup activities; $41.75 million 

appropriated in FY 2004 to initiate construction; 

and $47.62 million appropriated in FY 2005 for 

continued construction. The FY 2006 Request 

is $50.45 million for continued construction of 

IceCube.

The expected operational lifespan of IceCube 

is 25 years after construction is complete in 

FY 2010. Operations support is estimated at 

$3.5 million for FY 2007 and ramps up to an 

estimated level of $12 million in FY 2011 and 

beyond. These estimates are developed for 

planning purposes and are based on current cost 

profiles. Efforts are underway to further develop 

operating cost estimates; they will be updated 

as new information becomes available. NSF will 

support activities at U.S. institutions working on 

more refined and specific data analyses, data 

interpretation (theory support), and instrumentation 

upgrades, through ongoing research and 

education programs. The annual support for such 

activities is estimated at $2.0 million once the 

facility reaches full operations.

Additional information on IceCube can be found 

in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 Budget 

Submission to Congress (http://www.nsf.gov/

about/budget/fy2006/).

NATIONAL ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATORY NETWORK (NEON)

NEON will be a continental-scale research 

platform consisting of geographically 

distributed infrastructure, networked via 

state-of-the-art communications. It will allow 

researchers to address major ecological 

questions such as: how are the structure 

and function of U.S. ecosystems changing 

as a result of the effects of climate change 

on biogeochemical cycles, and what are 

the ecological drivers for the emergence, 

spread and evolution of infectious disease 

organisms? NEON will include laboratory 

and field instrumentation, sensor arrays, 

analytical and archival infrastructure, and 

computational, analytical and modeling 

capabilities, all linked via cutting edge 

cyberinfrastructure. The suite of technologies 

would include, for example, instrumented 

eddy flux correlation towers to measure 

ecosystem exchange of CO2

, water and trace 

gases; sensor arrays to remotely assess 

photosynthesis; and acoustic sensors for 

animal biodiversity research. Deployed sensor 

networks connected to data portals and 

repositories will permit rapid and widespread 

sensing of the environment. NEON will be 

implemented as a “shared-use” research 

platform. Scientists and engineers will use 

A digital optical module (DOM) 

disappears down the first hole 

drilled for the National Science 

Foundation-supported project 

known as IceCube. When 

completed, 4,200 DOMs will 

be seeded in a cubic kilometer 

of Antarctic ice, making 

IceCube the world’s largest 

scientific instrument. (2005)

IceCube will occupy a volume 

of one cubic kilometer. Here 

we depict one of the strings 

of optical modules (number 

and size not to scale). IceTop 

located at the surface, 

comprises an array of sensors 

to detect air showers. It will be 

used to calibrate IceCube and 

to conduct research on highenergy cosmic rays. 
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27

NEON to conduct real-time ecological 

studies spanning all levels of biological 

organization, across scales ranging from 

seconds to geological time, and from 

microns to thousands of kilometers. NSF 

programs will support NEON research 

projects and educational activities. Data 

collected using NEON will be publicly 

available.

Two federal agencies – the United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest 

Service (USFS) and the USGS – are 

represented on the NEON Advisory Board. 

Both are also members of various NEON 

planning committees along with USDA 

Agricultural Research Service (USDAARS), the Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA), and DOE.

In addition, a NEON Federal Agency 

Coordinating Committee meets on a 

regular basis, and includes representatives 

from USFS, NASA, NOAA, USGS, EPA, 

DOE, USDA-ARS, asa well as the National 

Parks Service; the USDA Cooperative 

State Research, Education, and Extension 

Service; and the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers.

International perspectives are provided 

through two NEON Advisory Board 

members (Environment Canada and 

CONABIO1

, Mexico), and by the presence of 

the Argentine National Research Council on 

planning committees. Private foundations 

including the Heinz Center, Nature Serve, 

and U.S. Landtrust participate on the NEON 

Design Consortium.

NEON-generated information will be 

useful to natural resource industries, such 

as forestry and fisheries. In addition, 

the NEON Program Officer participates 

in planning for the U.S. component of 

the Global Earth Observation System of 

Systems, the Integrated Earth Observation 

System, which is an interagency activity 

of the National Science and Technology 

Council (NSTC) Committee on Environment 

and Natural Resources. NEON’s 

technological and networking infrastructure 

will be forging new technological frontiers 

and thus, will require partnerships with 

industry for development, deployment and 

operation.

The Division of Biological Infrastructure 

(DBI) in the Directorate for Biological 

Sciences (BIO) manages NEON. A 

dedicated Program Officer in consultation 

with a BIO-NEON committee, which 

includes the Deputy for Large Facility 

Projects, formulates NEON programmatic 

development (e.g. drafting of program 

announcements). In addition, a cyber subcommittee of the BIO Advisory Committee 

provides external advice about specific 

programmatic elements. The NEON Program 

Officer ensures coordination with other NSF 

observatories and networks by serving on 

the NSF Environmental Observing Networks 

Planning for NEON includes visual 

rough drafts of sensors and research 

infrastructure deployed across a 

forest ecosystem, from the forest 

canopy to the soil community.

1

Comision Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Bioversidad (National Commission for the 

Understanding and Use of Biodiversity).
28

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Task Force (EONTF) and on the PATs for 

several other large facility projects.

Recent Planning Activities: The American 

Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) 

organized six community workshops 

between August and September 2004 

to identify NEON-specific science 

questions and requirements based on 

the environmental grand challenges 

identified in the NRC NEON report

“NEON: Addressing the Nation’s 

Environmental Challenges,” the 

NSB environment report, and the 

NRC report “Grand Challenges in 

Environmental Sciences.”

Fostering Technology and 

Cyberinfrastructure Development: 

In FY 2004, two workshops were 

conducted in coordination with the 

Ocean Observatories Initiative, and the 

Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) 

program to define the cross cutting 

needs, challenges, and opportunities 

in sensors and cyberinfrastructure. The 

workshops addressed emerging issues 

of interoperability among evolving 

observing systems, leveraging emerging 

technologies and research frontiers, 

fostering collaboration, and stimulating 

robust technology development. 

Award for NEON Design Consortium and 

Project Office: In FY 2004, Congress 

instructed NSF to continue planning 

activities for NEON with R&RA funds. 

On September 15, 2004, BIO made a 

two-year, $6.0 million R&RA award to 

the AIBS to establish a NEON Design 

Consortium and Project Office for the 

purpose of refining the reference design 

in light of recommendations in the NRC 

NEON report and drafting the Project 

Execution Plan for NEON.

In FY 2005, NSF requested $12.0 million 

in the MREFC account and $4.0 million in 

R&RA to baseline and develop the final 

design for NEON research infrastructure and 

begin construction of NEON networking and 

informatics infrastructure. While the FY 2005 

omnibus appropriation did not provide MREFC 

funding, Congress instructed NSF to continue 

NEON planning through the R&RA account. 

In FY 2005 the NEON Design Consortium 

and Project Office was established. 

The DesignConsortium appointed the NEON

Advisory Board and Design Consortium 

subcommittees to (1) refine the NEON 

requirements; (2) develop the facilities 

and infrastructure reference design, along 

with the preliminary baseline definition 

for networking and informatics, and the 

infrastructure requirements for education, 

training and outreach; and (3) design the 

governance and management structures.

Future Activities: In FY 2006, the NEON 

Design Consortium and Project Office will 

finalize the Science Plan and Requirements, 

baseline the Networking and Informatics 

Plan, and review and complete the 

preliminary Project Execution Plan. 

Construction activities are scheduled to begin 

in FY 2007 and continue through 2011. 

Initial operations could begin as early as 

2009 with NEON fully operational in 2012. 

The expected operational lifespan of this 

project is 30 years after construction is 

completed in FY 2011. A steady state 

of $20 million is initially estimated 

for operations support, anticipated by 

FY 2011. Along with direct operations 

and maintenance support, NSF programs 

will support research using NEON. 

Thousands of researchers will be able to 

use NEON, tens of thousands of children 

may participate in NEON activities through 

its educational programs, and hundreds 

of thousands of individuals will be able 

to access NEON data, information and 

research products via the Internet. 

Additional information on NEON can be found 

in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 

Budget Submission to Congress (http://

www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

Using biotelemetry, animals and large insects 

can now be tracked on regional to landscape 

scales (tens to hundreds of miles). Such 

technological abilities can provide information 

on animal health, movement, and survival that 

can be used to predict ecosystem and human 

health. In the future, NEON will transform our 

ability to capture this information by providing 

a networked continental observation platform 

capable of providing rapid information on 

mobile organisms.
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29

NEES: THE GEORGE E. BROWN JR. NETWORK

FOR EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING SIMULATION (NEES)

NEES is a national, networked 

simulation resource of 15 geographically 

distributed, shared-use next-generation

experimental research equipment sites 

with teleobservation and teleoperation 

capabilities. NEES provides national resources 

to advance earthquake engineering research 

and education through collaborative and 

integrated experimentation, computation, 

theory, databases and model-based 

simulation to improve the seismic design 

and performance of U.S. civil infrastructure 

systems. Research equipment includes 

shake tables, geotechnical centrifuges, a 

tsunami wave basin, large-scale laboratory 

experimentation systems, and mobile and 

permanently installed field equipment. NEES 

equipment is located at academic institutions 

(or at off-campus field sites) throughout the 

United States, networked together through 

a high performance Internet2 CI system. 

NEES completed primary construction on 

September 30, 2004, and opened for 

user research and education projects on 

October 1, 2004. Between FY 2005 and 

FY 2014, NEES will be operated by the 

non-profit corporation NEES Consortium Inc. 

(NEESinc), located in Davis, CA. Through a 

cooperative agreement with NSF, NEESinc 

operates the 15 equipment sites and the 

NEES cyberinfrastructure center; coordinates 

education, outreach and training; and 

develops national and international 

partnerships.

NEES’ broad-based national research 

equipment and cyberinfrastructure will 

enhance understanding and provide 

more comprehensive, complete, 

and accurate models of how civil 

infrastructure systems respond to 

earthquake loading (site response, soilfoundation-structure interaction, tsunami 

effects, and structural and nonstructural 

response). This will enable the design 

of new methods, modeling techniques 

and technologies for earthquake 

hazard mitigation. NEES also engages 

engineering, science and other students 

in earthquake engineering discovery 

through on-site use of experimental 

facilities, telepresence technology, archival 

experimental and analytical data, and 

computational resources with the aim of 

integrating research and education. 

NEES has developed an education, outreach

and training strategic plan to develop a 

broad spectrum of education and human 

resource development activities with special 

emphasis on nontraditional users and 

underrepresented groups.

Through the congressionally mandated 

National Earthquake Hazards Reduction 

Program (NEHRP), the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA), the 

National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (NIST), NSF and the USGS 

participate to support research related to 

earthquake hazard mitigation. Connections 

to industry include private engineering 

consultants and engineering firms 

engaging in NEES research or using data 

and models developed through NEES. 

NEES is leveraging and complementing 

its capabilities through connections and 

collaborations with large testing facilities 

at foreign earthquake-related centers, 

laboratories and institutions. Through 

such partnerships and joint meetings and 

workshops, NEES shares its expertise in 

testing and cyberinfrastructure, provides 

specialized training opportunities, and 

coordinates access to unique testing 

facilities and the central data repository.

As a non-profit corporation, NEESinc 

operates under its own governance 

structure and is overseen by a Board of 

Directors elected from its membership in 

accordance with its by-laws. Day-to-day 

operation of NEESinc is overseen by its 

headquarters staff led by an Executive 

Director. Each equipment site has a facility 

director responsible for local day-to-day 

equipment management, operations 

and interface with NEESinc, other NEES 

equipment sites, users, and the NEES 

CI center for network coordination. The 

NEES cyberinfrastructure center maintains 

the telepresence, data, collaborative, 

simulation, and other related services for 

the entire NEES network. 

NSF provides oversight to NEES under a 

cooperative agreement. NEES is reviewed 

through annual site visits. The NSF 

Program Manager for NEES is located in 

the Civil and Mechanical Systems (CMS) 

Division in the Directorate for Engineering 

(ENG). 

Currently under construction, the University 

of California, San Diego’s (UCSD) Large 

High Performance Outdoor Shake Table, will 

result in a one-of-a-kind worldwide seismic 

testing facility, and the world’s first outdoor 

shake table. This unique facility will enable 

next-generation seismic experiments to be 

conducted on very large structural systems 

such as full-scale buildings, and utility/lifeline 

structures such as electrical sub-stations, with 

no overhead space and lifting constraints. 
30

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NEES completed its primary construction 

activities at the end of FY 2004. About 

$2.7 million in remaining FY 2004 MREFC 

funds were used to fund construction 

of deferred capabilities for NEES during 

FY 2005. This included four new 

capabilities for CI system integration and 

new capabilities at 13 equipment sites. The 

four new system integration capabilities 

will be completed on September 30, 

2005. The deferred capabilities at the 

13 equipment sites will be completed by 

September 30, 2006. NEES opened for 

user research and education projects on 

October 1, 2004, under the management 

of NEESinc. Commensurate with opening, 

the first round of research awards were 

made by NSF in September/October 

2004 to use the NEES facilities. NEESinc 

operates the 15 equipment sites and the 

NEES CI center; coordinates education, 

outreach and training; and develops 

national and international partnerships. 

The NEES tsunami wave basin provides a 

national resource to calibrate and validate 

tsunami propagation and inundation 

modeling tools, model inundation patterns 

to understand where the threat is most 

significant, and develop design criteria 

for coastal community shelters and other 

critical facilities. Researchers at this facility 

participated on a post-tsunami rapidresponse reconnaissance team with respect 

to the December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean 

earthquake. 

NSF received $7.70 million in FY 2000 

to initiate construction of NEES. Total 

MREFC funding for this project was 

$81.76 million during FY 2000–2004, 

with an additional $1.10 million provided 

to the project for one equipment site 

construction through the Education and 

Human Resources (EHR) account.

The expected operational lifespan of 

this project is 10 years, from FY 2005 

to FY 2014. NEES operations for 

FY 2005–FY 2009 were approved by 

the NSB in May 2004 for up to $106.52 

million total, approximately $21.3 million 

annually. Operations estimates for FY 

2007 and beyond are developed strictly 

for planning purposes and are based 

on current cost profiles. They will be 

updated as new information becomes 

available. Along with direct operations 

and maintenance support for NEES, NSF 

provides support for research performed 

at NEES equipment sites through ongoing 

research and education programs. 

The NEES cyberinfrastructure also 

provides a platform for the earthquake 

engineering community as well as other 

communities to develop new tools for 

shared cyberinfrastructure. In addition, 

NSF has initiated an annual research 

program solicitation for research projects 

that will utilize the NEES experimental 

sites, data and computational resources to 

comprehensively address major research 

questions in earthquake engineering and 

seismic hazard mitigation. The FY 2005 

solicitation includes partnerships with the 

directorates for Computer and Information 

Science and Engineering (CISE) and GEO, 

as well as the Japanese E-Defense shake 

table operated by the National Research 

Institute for Earth Science and Disaster 

Prevention. Support for such activities is 

estimated at about $9.0 million annually.

Additional information on NEES can be found 

in the Facilities Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 

Budget Submission to Congress (http://

www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

The tsunami wave basin at Oregon State 

University is the world’s largest and 

most comprehensive shared-use research 

facility for the study of effects of tsunami 

inundation and storm waves on coastal 

buildings and lifeline infrastructures.
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31

RARE SYMMETRY VIOLATING PROCESSES (RSVP)

RSVP was planned as an NSF-funded, 

university-led project that would use the 

existing Alternating Gradient Synchrotron 

(AGS) at Brookhaven National Laboratory 

(BNL) at incremental cost to advance the 

frontiers of particle physics. Researchers from 

almost 30 institutions from the United States, 

Canada, Switzerland, Italy, Japan and Russia 

were involved. The RSVP experiments were 

designed to address two great mysteries: the 

predominance of matter over antimatter in the 

universe today and the difference between the 

electron and the muon, the former by studying 

matter-antimatter symmetry (CP)-violating 

decays of K-mesons and the latter by searching 

for muon-to-electron conversion. By extending 

current sensitivities for these rare processes by 

orders of magnitude, RSVP would shed light on 

the existence of atomic matter in the universe, 

the nature of dark matter, and could even 

provide evidence for superstrings.

Planning for RSVP was conducted with NSF 

support beginning in FY 2001. Significant 

concept and design work was carried out 

with DOE support prior to this. Congress 

appropriated $14.88 million for RSVP 

in FY 2005. The FY 2006 President’s 

Budget specifies $41.78 million for RSVP. 

The activities to date include R&D for the 

technology needed for the project, simulations 

of the data expected, and design of major 

components. 

In the fall of 2004, significant cost 

increases were identified. NSF notified the 

NSB, the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy (OSTP), the Office of Management 

and Budget (OMB) and the relevant 

congressional committees. Subsequently, 

the project completed a detailed technical, 

cost and schedule baseline review in the 

spring of 2005, and NSF convened an 

independent panel of experts to review it. 

To complement the baselining activities, 

NSF requested that the High Energy Physics 

Advisory Panel (HEPAP) carry out a 

re-evaluation of the science value of the 

two experiments. Based on the results of 

the baseline review and the HEPAP report, 

NSF has concluded that continuing the RSVP 

project would lead to the unacceptable loss 

of opportunities in research in elementaryparticle physics, other areas of physics, and 

across all disciplines in the MPS directorate 

as well as in the construction of large 

facilities across NSF.

At the August 2005 meeting of the NSB, NSF 

recommended and the NSB approved the 

termination of RSVP.2

End view of a collision of two 30-billionelectron-volt gold beams in the Solenoidal 

Tracker at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 

(STAR) at BNL. The beams travel in opposite 

directions at nearly the speed of light before 

colliding. 

2

The resolution states “Resolved, that the National Science Board concurs with the 

recommendation that the Rare Symmetry Violating Processes (RSVP) Project be terminated 

before the start of construction as a result of the significantly increased construction and 

operations costs identified during the final stages of planning and the negative impact on the 

NSF portfolio that would result from proceeding with the project under such circumstances. 

The National Science Board notes the significant lost scientific opportunity that will result from 

this project termination.”
32

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Scientists examine and discuss deep-sea 

rock cores on an Integrated Ocean Drilling 

Program expedition to the western rift flank 

of the mid-Atlantic Ridge. 

SCIENTIFIC OCEAN DRILLING VESSEL (SODV)

This project supports the contracting, 

conversion, outfitting and acceptance trials 

of a deep-sea drilling vessel for long-term 

use in a new international scientific ocean 

drilling program. Commercial drillships 

are not routinely configured or equipped 

to meet the requirements of scientific 

research. The SODV will be prepared for 

year-round operations and will be capable 

of operating in all ocean environments. 

The vessel will accommodate a scientific 

and technical staff of approximately 50. 

The converted drillship will provide the U.S. 

facility contribution to the Integrated Ocean 

Drilling Program (IODP), which began on 

October, 1 2003. The IODP is co-led by the 

NSF and the Ministry of Education, Culture, 

Sport, Science and Technology (MEXT) of 

Japan. European and Asian nations are also 

participating in the program. 

The IODP will recover sediment and 

crustal rock from the seafloor using 

scientific ocean drilling techniques, and 

place observatories in drillholes to study 

the deep biosphere, the flow of fluids in 

sediments and the crust, the processes 

and effects of environmental change, and 

solid Earth cycles and geodynamics. MEXT 

will provide a heavy drillship for deep 

drilling objectives of the programs. NSF 

will provide a light drillship and science 

support services for high-resolution studies 

of environmental and climate change, 

observatory and biosphere objectives. 

The project is managed and overseen 

by a project manager in the Ocean 

Sciences (OCE) Division in GEO. A 

conversion oversight committee has been 

established to provide technical, financial 

and scheduling recommendations and 

advice for the SODV project.

In September 2003, NSF awarded 

a contract to Joint Oceanographic 

Institutions, Inc. (JOI) for IODP drilling 

operations, which included as one task 

the planning and implementation of the 

SODV project. JOI has issued an Request 

for Proposals (RFP) to acquire, upgrade 

and operate a commercial vessel for 

scientific ocean drilling, and a contract 

award is anticipated by September 2005. 

The SODV Project received $14.88 million in 

FY 2005. Engineering design, science lab 

development and long lead item equipment 

procurement activities will be the primary 

FY 2005 SODV activities. 

U.S.-funded construction activities are 

scheduled to continue through 2007, 

with full operations beginning in 

FY 2008. Planning through FY 2004 

cost approximately $3.60 million. In 

FY 2005, approximately $5.40 million 

will be provided to initiate contract 

activity, planning and design. Between

FY 2005 and FY 2007, approximately 

$110.0 million of funds from the MREFC 

account will be required for conversion/

equipping/testing of the drillship.

The expected operational lifespan of the 

SODV is 15 years, once construction is 

complete in FY 2007. A steady state of 

about $55 million in operations support 

for the IODP is expected to occur beginning 

in FY 2008 as the SODV vessel begins 

full operations, but these estimates are 

based on current cost profiles and will 

be updated as new information becomes 

available. Along with direct operations and 

maintenance support for IODP, NSF will 

support research performed at the facility 

through ongoing research and education 

programs. The annual support for such 

activities is estimated to be about $31 

million.

Additional information on SODV can be 

found in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s 

FY 2006 Budget Submission to Congress 

(http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/

fy2006/).
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33

SOUTH POLE STATION MODERNIZATION PROJECT (SPSM)

The SPSM project provides a new station 

to replace the current U.S. station at 

the South Pole, built 30 years ago and 

currently inadequate in terms of capacity, 

efficiency and safety. The new station is 

an elevated complex with two connected 

buildings, supporting 150 people in the 

summer and 50 people in the winter. 

There are approximately 385 separate 

subcontractors for supplies and technical 

services. The U.S. Antarctic Program 

(USAP) prime support contractor is 

Raytheon Polar Services Company (RPSC). 

OPP has the overall management 

responsibility for SPSM, including 

development of the basic requirements, 

design, procurement and construction. 

OPP has contracted for procurement and 

construction management for all phases 

of the project, including design reviews 

of all drawings and specifications; 

conformance of the designs and 

procurements with established 

standardization criteria; assistance 

in establishing functional interfaces; 

transition from the existing to the new 

facilities; and systems integration. Naval 

Facilities Engineering Command, Pacific 

Division (PACDIV) selects, monitors and 

manages architectural and engineering 

firms for design, postconstruction 

services, and construction inspection for 

the project. The project status, including 

cost expenditures and cost projections, is 

monitored on a periodic basis by OPP staff 

and the project’s PAT.

The original estimate for SPSM was 

$127.90 million. NSB approved a change 

in project scope, increasing station capacity 

from 110 to 150 people, as well as a 

project schedule extension, increasing the 

cost estimate to $133.44 million (plus 

$2.52 million for increased scope; plus 

$3.02 million due to weather-induced 

schedule delays). Weather delays in 

previous years adversely impacted planned 

material deliveries resulting in revised 

schedules. The estimated projection has 

been for conditional acceptance (i.e., 

occupation and operations) of the entire 

station by the end of FY 2007, with 

demolition/retrograde of the old station 

and work on punchlist items occurring 

in FY 2008. The current status of the 

project, both schedule and budget, is 

currently under review.

SPSM has received appropriations totaling 

$133.78 million through FY 2004, 

exceeding the most recent NSB-approved 

cost estimate of $133.44 million. Using 

the last updated schedule, the estimated 

total cost of SPSM is $136.96 million. An 

updated project cost and schedule review 

was completed shortly after the end of the 

2004/2005 operating season. No funds 

are being requested for FY 2006.

Advance funding provided in the project’s 

early years made possible advance bulk 

buys of materials, which is ultimately 

more cost-efficient. However, this project’s 

overall outlay is relatively slow due to the 

unusual logistics and shortened Antarctic 

season. As a result, the project has carried 

over fairly significant amounts each year 

since FY 1998, resulting in obligations that 

are significantly lower than appropriated 

amounts. 

The expected lifespan of the modernized 

station is 25 years, through 2031. A 

steady state of operational support 

is anticipated at $15 million by FY 

2007, slightly higher than the current 

operational costs. Operations estimates 

for FY 2007 and beyond are developed 

strictly for planning purposes and are 

based on current cost profiles. They will 

be updated as new information becomes 

available. Along with direct operations 

and maintenance support for South Pole 

Station, NSF will support science and 

engineering research through ongoing 

research and education programs. The 

annual support for such activities is 

currently estimated to be approximately 

$8.0 million.

Additional information on the SPSM, 

including information on appropriations 

and obligations, can be found in the 

MREFC Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 Budget 

Submission to Congress (http://www.

nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

Aurora Australis – the Southern lights – over 

NSF Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. This 

image shows the atmospheric phenomenon over 

a wing of the new station that NSF is building.
34

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TERASCALE COMPUTING SYSTEMS (TCS)

The NSF Terascale Computing Systems 

project funded the construction of the 

Extensible Terascale Facility (ETF). ETF, 

also commonly known as the TeraGrid, 

provides the broad-based academic 

science and engineering community with 

access to scalable, balanced, terascale 

computing resources, including two 10+ 

teraflops supercomputing systems (one at 

the National Center for Supercomputing 

Applications – NCSA – and one scheduled 

to come on line in the spring of 2005 

at the Pittsburgh Supercomputing 

Center – PSC) and over 35 teraflops 

across the ETF. Users also have access to 

at least 1,000 terabytes (1 petabye) of 

storage at a single site (at the SDSC) and 

nearly 2 petabytes across the ETF. Using 

ETF, researchers and educators are able 

to conduct analyses at unprecedented 

scale, to merge multiple data resources 

seamlessly, and to advance discovery at 

the frontiers of science and engineering. 

The principal scientific goal of ETF is to 

provide state-of-the-art cyberinfrastructure 

capabilities that position the nation’s 

researchers and educators to address a 

broad range of state-of-the-art challenges, 

across all science and engineering fields. 

ETF’s distributed architecture permits 

the seamless integration of large, 

managed scientific data archives; highperformance computational resources 

available within ETF can be used to mine, 

analyze, visualize, and perform related 

simulations on these data. ETF’s principal 

educational goal is to provide current 

and future generations of scientists and 

engineers with access to unique, state-ofthe-art cyberinfrastructure that promises 

to advance discovery, learning and 

innovation across all fields.

Management and oversight of this project 

is provided by a Program Director in CISE. 

During the construction phase, an external 

Technical Advisory Panel made periodic 

site visits to the ETF partner institutions to 

review construction progress and provide 

technical advice to the Program Director. 

The Technical Advisory Panel participated 

in resolution of major technical, 

managerial or scheduling concerns; 

provided technical guidance/advice, 

especially with regard to the integration 

and coordination with other SCI-funded 

program activities; and reviewed and –

where required – approved technical 

reports and information to be delivered by 

the awardees. 

With the October 1, 2004, initiation of 

the operations phase of ETF, a new ETF 

management structure is now in place. 

It consists of a single integrative activity, 

termed the TeraGrid Grid Infrastructure 

Group (GIG), and nine coordinated 

resource provider (RP) activities, one 

at each of the nine participating sites. 

The GIG is designed with a single Project 

Director, supported by four technical 

Area Directors, a Program Manager, a 

Science Coordinator and an Executive 

Steering Committee. Each RP participates 

in a TeraGrid-wide Resource Provider 

Forum and participates in TeraGrid-wide 

operational structures of the GIG in 

areas such as coordinated operations, 

allocations and security. All 10 awardees, 

both the GIG and the nine RPs, report 

directly to a single NSF Program Director. A 

Cyberinfrastructure User Advisory Committee 

(CUAC) is currently being established to 

provide input to ETF and NSF’s other shared 

cyberinfrastructure partners on the needs of 

the broad user community.

The ETF construction phase was completed 

on September 30, 2004; ETF resources 

began allocated usage as part of “early 

operations” in October 2004. Allocations 

for ETF were included, for example, in the 

National Resource Allocation Committee’s 

September 2004 and March 2005 

allocations. The full operations phase for ETF 

is scheduled to begin in the spring of 2005.

ETF was created through a coordinated 

series of investments as follows:

+ In FY 2000, PSC built TCS with peak 

performance of 6 teraflops.

+ The Distributed Terascale Facility (DTF) 

was initiated in FY 2001 by a partnership 

including the NCSA, SDSC, Argonne 

National Laboratory and the California 

Institute of Technology (Caltech). Based 

Photos of the new Cray XT3, “Big Ben,” at the 

Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center.
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35

on multiple Linux clusters, DTF linked its 

sites through a high-performance “DTF 

backplane.” 

+ In FY 2002, NSF provided funding 

to enhance the TCS and DTF and 

initiated the creation of the ETF by 

extending the “DTF backplane” to 

TCS and by placing extensible hubs 

in Chicago and Los Angeles that 

permitted further expansion of this 

new distributed facility.

+ In FY 2003, NSF made awards to extend 

the ETF to four additional sites – Indiana 

University, Purdue University, Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory (ORNL), and the 

Texas Advanced Computing Center at 

the University of Texas at Austin. Via 

high-speed network connections, the 

Spallation Neutron Source at ORNL and 

other unique computational and data 

resources in Indiana and Texas were 

integrated into ETF for use by the nation’s 

research and education communities. 

+ In FY 2004, PSC received an award to 

acquire a 10-teraflop Cray Red Storm 

capability system that has the potential 

to be scalable to 150 teraflops. This 

acquisition constituted the final award 

funded from the MREFC account, TCS.

NSF will support science and engineering 

research and education enabled by ETF 

through ongoing research and education 

programs. Annual support for research and 

education using the ETF is estimated to be 

about $200 million.

Additional information on the Terascale 

Computing Systems can be found in 

the Facilities Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 

Budget Submission to Congress (http://

www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

OCEAN OBSERVATORIES INITIATIVE (OOI)

SECOND PRIORITY: NEW STARTS IN FY 2007 AND FY 2008

This project will construct an integrated 

observatory network that will provide the 

oceanographic research and education 

communities with continuous and interactive 

access to the ocean. The OOI will have three 

elements: (1) a global-scale array of relocatable 

deep-sea buoys; (2) a regional-scaled cabled 

network consisting of interconnected sites 

on the seafloor spanning several geological 

and oceanographic features and processes; 

and (3) an expanded network of coastal 

observatories, developed through new 

construction or enhancements to existing 

facilities. The primary infrastructure for 

all components of the OOI consists of an 

array of seafloor junction boxes connected 

to cables running along the seafloor to 

individual instruments or instrument clusters. 

Depending upon proximity to the coast and 

other engineering requirements, the junction 

box is either terminated by a long, dedicated 

fiber-optic cable to shore, or by a shorter 

cable to a surface buoy that is capable of 

two-way communications with a shore station. 

The observatory infrastructure of the OOI will 

be operated as a shared-use facility with open 

community access to data. 

This image of the Earth’s magnetic 

field represents the result of 

simulations performed on some of 

the highest-performance computers 

available to the U.S. academic 

community. NSF supports these and 

other computing, information and 

networking resources at three of the 

supercomputer centers established by 

NSF in 1985: NCSA at the University 

of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; PSC at 

Carnegie Mellon University and the 

University of Pittsburgh; and SDSC 

at the University of California, San 

Diego.
36

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Scientific problems requiring OOI 

infrastructure are broad in scope and 

encompass nearly every area of ocean 

science. Once established, seafloor 

observatories will provide Earth, 

atmospheric and ocean scientists with 

unique opportunities to study multiple, 

interrelated processes over time scales 

ranging from seconds to decades; 

to conduct comparative studies of regional 

processes and spatial characteristics; 

and to map whole-Earth and basin-scale 

structures. This project will establish 

facilities to meet the following goals: 

continuous observations at frequencies 

from seconds to decades; spatial scales 

of measurement from millimeters to 

kilometers; high-power and bandwidth 

capabilities, as well as two-way data 

transmission for interactive experimentation; 

an ability to operate during storms and 

in harsh conditions; an ability to easily 

connect sensors, instruments, and imaging 

systems; profiling systems for cycling 

instruments up and down the water column, 

either autonomously or on command; 

docking stations enabling autonomous 

underwater vehicles to download data and 

recharge batteries; ability to assimilate data 

into models and make three-dimensional 

forecasts of the oceanic environment; 

means for making data available in real 

time to researchers, schools and the public 

over the Internet; and low cost relative to 

the cost of building and maintaining ships 

and manned submersible systems.

Scientific discoveries arising from the OOI 

will provide new opportunities for ocean 

education and outreach through the 

capabilities for real-time data transmission 

and, particularly, real-time display of visual 

images from the seafloor. Educational 

links will be made with the Digital Library 

for Earth Science Education (DLESE), and 

OCE’s Centers for Ocean Science Education 

Excellence (COSEE). In addition, with 

the planned establishment of the U.S. 

Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS), 

there will be an unprecedented need for 

oceanographers skilled in the use and 

manipulation of large, oceanographic, timeseries data sets. The facilities comprising the 

OOI will provide the ideal platforms to train 

this new generation of oceanographers. 

The project will be managed and overseen 

by a program manager in OCE in GEO. 

The management structure proposed for 

the acquisition and implementation phase 

of the OOI is based on a structure that 

has been successfully used by the Ocean 

Drilling Program (ODP). In this structure, 

management, coordination and oversight 

of the OOI will be the responsibility 

of the Executive Director of the Ocean 

Observatory Project Office established 

through a cooperative agreement with 

NSF. This Director will be accountable to an 

Executive Steering Committee under which 

will be established Scientific and Technical 

Advisory Committees. The Executive 

Steering and Advisory Committees will draw 

their membership from individuals with 

expertise in ocean-observing science and 

engineering. The design of the OOI network 

and experiments utilizing OOI infrastructure 

will be selected on a peer-reviewed basis. 

This project will be coordinated with the 

IOOS that will support operational mission 

objectives of agencies such as NOAA, Navy, 

NASA, and the Coast Guard. 

Numerous community workshops have 

been held and reports written since 

2000. These activities helped to define 

the scientific rationale, determine the 

technical feasibility and develop initial 

implementation plans for the OOI. 

These include two NRC reports, as well 

as two reports for each of the three 

components of the OOI. These planning 

activities were followed by a large, multidisciplinary workshop held in January 2004 

to develop an initial science plan for the OOI 

across coastal, regional, and global scales. 

In March 2004 a cooperative agreement 

was awarded to establish the Ocean 

Research Interactive Observatory Networks 

(ORION) project office. The primary tasks 

of this office are to identify and facilitate 

committees for continued refinement of 

the OOI network design; to develop a 

consensus vision for the OOI organizational 

structure, governance, and operating plans; 

to identify and engage all constituencies of 

the ocean science research community in 

consensus-building activities; and to operate 

an interactive Web site for communicating 

with the ocean science community in 

regard to OOI activities and planning. The 

project office has established an executive 

steering committee that provides a direct 

link between project office planning and 

Artist’s rendition of elements of the OOI.
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37

the research community and is currently in 

the process of establishing the additional 

advisory committees that will make up the 

OOI advisory structure. 

Using R&RA funds, the NSF’s Ocean 

Technology and Interdisciplinary Coordination 

(OTIC) program has continued to provide 

support for proposals whose goals are to 

ensure that infrastructure needed to enable 

OOI experimentation is available for the 

implementation phase of the OOI. As part 

of this process, an announcement has been 

released by NSF to advance interactive 

observing technologies and understanding 

of the coastal benthic boundary layer. To 

accomplish this goal, one or more pilot/

testbed study sites will be established to 

develop and enhance new technologies 

needed to investigate coastal processes at 

appropriate temporal and spatial scales. 

Furthermore, to continue community planning 

for OOI implementation, detailed conceptual 

proposals for ocean science research 

experiments have been solicited through the 

Ocean Observatories Project Office. These 

proposals will be used to further refine designs 

for OOI and to identify specific experimental 

instrumentation needs of the user community. 

A primary goal of this request is to determine 

the nature and cost of ocean observatory 

science and enabling infrastructure to be 

constructed though the OOI.

U.S.-funded construction activities 

are scheduled to continue through 

2012, with project completion and full 

operation beginning in the same year. 

The construction schedule for this project 

is still under review, and therefore the 

milestones will likely be revised as the 

project’s schedule is finalized.

NSF expects to spend approximately 

$30 million in concept and development 

activities through FY 2005. The total 

construction cost for OOI is $269.10 million, 

beginning in FY 2007. Management, 

operations and maintenance will be funded 

through the R&RA account.

The expected operational lifespan of this 

project is 30 years, beginning in FY 2012. 

A steady state of about $50.0 million in 

operations support is expected to occur in 

or about FY 2012. These estimates are 

developed strictly for planning purposes 

and are based on current cost profiles. 

They will be updated as new information 

becomes available. Along with direct 

operations and maintenance support 

for the OOI, NSF will support research 

performed using this infrastructure through 

ongoing research and education programs. 

The annual support for such activities is 

estimated to be about $50 million, once 

the network is fully implemented.

Additional information on OOI can be found 

in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s FY 2006 

Budget Submission to Congress (http://

www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2006/).

ALASKA REGION RESEARCH VESSEL (ARRV)

The ARRV is proposed to replace the 

Research Vessel (R/V) Alpha Helix, which 

at 39 years is the oldest ship in the national 

academic research fleet. At present, science 

activities in the Alaskan region are limited 

by the capabilities of the R/V Alpha Helix, 

which cannot operate in ice or in severe 

winter weather in the open seas. The ARRV 

will operate in the challenging waters of 

the Chukchi, Beaufort and Bering Seas, as 

well as the open Gulf of Alaska, coastal 

Southeast Alaska and Prince William Sound. 

As we strive to understand a variety of 

complex regional and global ecosystem and 

climate issues, the need to conduct research 

at the ice edge and in seasonal ice (up to 

three feet thick) has become increasingly 

urgent. The ARRV will provide improved 

access to the region, enabling further 

exploration to address critical issues. With 

an operating year of 275-300 days, the 

ARRV could accommodate upwards of 500 

scientists and students at sea annually.

The Environmental Sample Processor 

(ESP) is an instrument developed to detect 

multiple microorganisms with molecular 

probe technology, as well as to perform 

sample collection, concentration, different 

analyses, and sample archival. The system 

will also process data and transmit results. 

The ESP is in a period of transition from 

prototype and short-term deployments to 

development and application of a ‘second 

generation’ unit by Chris Scholin, Monterey 

Bay Aquarium Research Institute.
38

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Satellite observations have shown the 

perennial ice in the Arctic thinning at 

9 percent per decade, which will have 

major regional and global consequences. 

Research is urgently needed on topics 

ranging from climate change, ocean 

circulation, ecosystem studies and 

fisheries research to natural hazards and 

cultural anthropology. Most of these 

cutting-edge science projects require an 

oceanographic platform in the Alaska 

region to conduct field research. The 

ARRV will also provide a sophisticated 

and larger platform for scientists, 

graduate and undergraduate students to 

participate in complex multidisciplinary 

research activities and will train the 

next-generation scientists with the latest 

equipment and technology. Broadband 

connections capable of relaying data, 

including high-definition video from 

tools such as remotely operated vehicles 

capable of exploring under the ice and the 

ocean depths, will bring research into the 

K-12 classroom and to the general public.

The NSF Coordinator will be the Program 

Director for Ship Acquisition and 

Upgrade Program, Integrative Programs 

Section (IPS) in OCE, with other staff 

in IPS providing program management 

assistance. The Section Head in IPS and 

another section member hold the Master’s 

Certificate in Project Management 

through NSF-sponsored training. The 

awardee will hire a Systems Integration 

Manager to establish and staff an office 

to provide management oversight to the 

vessel construction phase and to report 

to the NSF Coordinator. In addition, the 

University-National Laboratory System 

(UNOLS) Fleet Improvement Committee, 

an external committee composed of 

representatives from the community that 

meets several times a year, will review 

progress and provide advice regarding 

vessel construction. 

Final model tank testing and data analysis 

were successfully completed in 2003. 

Results from model testing concluded 

that the current design has excellent 

sea-keeping and enhanced icebreaking 

capabilities. In addition, acoustic testing 

demonstrated that the vessel will have 

sufficient “quieting” characteristics to 

support unique fisheries research. Results 

from the design studies have been shared 

with the community on several occasions, 

offering opportunities for interactive 

exchanges to take place between potential 

vessel users and the naval architects. 

Following minor design adjustments based 

upon these inputs, the design phase 

was completed in 2004. A meeting of 

the Oversight Committee and agency 

representatives held at the Seattle offices 

of the naval architects Glosten Associates 

in December 2004 reviewed and accepted 

the final “contract design” document. This 

document provides the complete list of 

specifications and drawings from which a 

shipyard could make a construction bid. 

The next action will be for NSF to issue a 

solicitation for a cooperative agreement 

for the construction and operation of this 

ship. 

The Federal Oceanographic Facilities 

Committee (FOFC) continues to endorse 

the ARRV as the next vessel needed to help 

renew the aging national academic research 

fleet, as it originally stated in its 2001 

report “Charting the Future for the National 

Academic Research Fleet: A Long Range 

Plan for Renewal,” submitted to the National 

Ocean Research Leadership Council.

NSF plans to release a solicitation to build 

and operate the ARRV in FY 2006, and 

to initiate vessel construction in FY 2007. 

U.S.-funded construction activities are 

scheduled to continue through 2008, 

with project completion and full operation 

beginning in 2009. 

Recognizing from the outset that the 

R/V Alpha Helix was of marginal size 

and capability for Alaskan waters, 

replacement planning has been ongoing 

since the 1980s. NSF funded design 

studies in 1980 and 1995, but neither 

was implemented. After communityderived science mission requirements were 

developed in 1999, NSF has since funded 

the concept design, detailed design and 

model testing for a replacement vessel 

and is prepared to initiate a two-year 

construction phase.

The expected operational service life of 

the ARRV is 30 years after construction 

is complete. Ship operations costs are 

estimated to be approximately $6 million 

per year. These estimates are developed 

strictly for planning purposes and are 

Artist’s rendition of the ARRV, an MREFC 

Project that will replace the smaller, aging 

R/V Alpha Helix.
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39

ADVANCED LASER INTERFEROMETER GRAVITATIONAL WAVE OBSERVATORY (ADVLIGO)

AdvLIGO is the upgrade of the Laser 

Interferometer Gravitational Wave 

Observatory (LIGO) that will allow LIGO 

to approach the ground-based limit of 

gravitational-wave detection. LIGO consists 

of the world’s most sophisticated optical 

interferometers, operating at two sites 

(Hanford, WA and Livingston, LA). Each 

interferometer has two 4-km arms at 90 

degrees to one another. In addition, the 

interferometer at Hanford contains a 2-km 

interferometer within the same vacuum 

enclosure used for the 4-km interferometer. 

These interferometers are designed to 

measure the changes in arm lengths 

resulting from the wave-like distortions 

of space-time caused by the passage of 

gravitational waves. The changes in arm 

length that can be detected by the present, 

Phase I LIGO are a thousand times smaller 

than the diameter of a proton over the 

4-km arm length. AdvLIGO is expected 

to be at least 10 times more sensitive. 

The frequency range for which LIGO and 

AdvLIGO are designed will be sensitive to 

many of the most interesting cataclysmic 

cosmic phenomena believed to occur in 

the universe. Furthermore, because LIGO 

and AdvLIGO will push the sensitivity 

of gravitational-wave detection orders 

of magnitude beyond existing frontiers, 

the potential for making discoveries of 

completely new phenomena is significant. 

LIGO will achieve its objectives as planned 

and may detect the first gravitational waves. 

AdvLIGO will greatly increase the sensitivity 

to ensure the detection of gravitational 

waves and to launch the new field of 

gravitational-wave astronomy.

The LIGO project was planned in two phases 

from the very beginning. Phase I would 

produce a gravitational-wave detector that 

would be as sensitive as possible with the 

technology available in the early 1990s 

on a platform that could be upgraded 

to the ultimate sensitivity as the critical 

technologies were further developed. The 

goal of Phase I was to obtain a year’s worth 

of accumulated data at the design sensitivity 

for Phase I (expressed as a dimensionless 

strain h ~ 10-21, the ratio of the change 

in arm length to the length of the arm). 

The LIGO Laboratory expects to have 

those data in 2006. The second phase or 

AdvLIGO project will upgrade LIGO to enable 

attainment of the ultimate sensitivity of an 

Earth-based gravitational-wave observatory, 

limited only by the irreducible effects of 

fluctuations in the Earth’s gravitational field. 

From the outset, the overall LIGO strategy was 

to produce a broadband gravitational-wave 

detector with an unprecedented astronomical 

reach and then to upgrade the initial facility to 

achieve the most sensitive gravitational-wave 

detector possible on Earth. 

based on current cost profiles. They will 

be updated as new information becomes 

available. Along with direct operations and 

maintenance support for the ARRV as part 

of the Academic Research Fleet (ARF), 

NSF will support research performed 

using this infrastructure through ongoing 

research and education programs. It is 

anticipated that the ARRV will greatly 

expand research capabilities in the region, 

going from a maximum of 160 ship 

operating days with the R/V Alpha Helix, 

up to 275-300 days with the ARRV. It 

is anticipated that the vastly increased 

capability of the ARRV, both with regard 

to its ability to accommodate much 

larger interdisciplinary research teams 

and greatly enlarged geographical and 

seasonal ranges, will dramatically increase 

the number of proposals addressed to NSF 

for its utilization.

Additional information on ARRV can be 

found in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s FY 

2006 Budget Submission to Congress 

(http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/

fy2006/).

The MREFC Project AdvLIGO will improve 

the sensitivity of LIGO by more than 

a factor of 10, which will expand the 

volume of space LIGO will be able to “see” 

by more than 1,000.
40

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The LIGO program has strongly stimulated 

the interest in gravitational-wave research 

around the world, producing very vigorous 

programs in other countries that provide 

strong competition. LIGO has pioneered the 

field of gravitational-wave measurement, 

and a timely upgrade is necessary to 

reap the fruits of this bold initiative. 

International partners are contributing 

significant human and financial resources.

Einstein’s general theory of relativity 

predicts that cataclysmic processes 

involving super-dense objects in the 

universe will produce gravitational radiation 

that will travel to Earth. Detection of these 

gravitational waves is of great importance, 

both for fundamental physics and for 

astrophysics. And, although the universe 

is believed to be filled with gravitationalwaves from a host of cataclysmic 

cosmic phenomena, scientists have 

never detected a gravitational wave and 

measured its waveform. 

The principal scientific goals of the LIGO – 

AdvLIGO project are to detect gravitational 

waves on Earth for the first time and to 

develop this capability into gravitational 

wave astronomy – a new window on the 

universe – through which we can observe 

phenomena such as the inspiral and 

coalescence of neutron stars in binary orbit, 

black hole collisions, unstable dynamics 

of newborn neutron stars, supernovae, 

a stochastic background from the early 

universe, and a host of more exotic or 

unanticipated processes.

LIGO has played a significant role in the 

training of Ph.D. graduates for the country’s 

workforce. In addition, LIGO has a diverse 

set of educational activities at its different 

sites, activities that involve a large number 

of undergraduates and outreach activities 

for the public. In 2004 NSF entered into a 

cooperative agreement with Caltech and 

Southern University/Baton Rouge to build a 

Visitor’s Center at the Livingston site.

Substantial connections with industry 

have been required for the state-of-the-art 

construction and measurements involved 

in the LIGO projects. Some have led 

to new products. Areas of involvement 

include novel vacuum-tube fabrication 

technology, seismic isolation techniques, 

ultrastable laser development (new product 

introduced), development of new ultra-fine 

optics polishing techniques, and optical 

inspection equipment (new product).

Active outreach programs have been 

developed at both the Livingston and 

Hanford sites. Teams at both sites have 

provided visual displays, hands-on science 

exhibits, and fun activities for visiting 

students and members of the public. In 

the last three years, more than an average 

of 2,000 students per year have taken 

advantage of this opportunity. More formal 

programs at the sites include participation 

in the Research Experience for Teachers 

(RET) Program, a set of “scientistteacher-student” research projects in 

support of LIGO, and participation in 

the Summer Undergraduate Research 

Fellowships/Research Experience for 

Undergraduates (SURF/REU) programs 

for college students. In collaboration with 

RET participants and networks of local 

educators, both sites have developed Webbased resources for teachers that include 

information on research opportunities 

for schools and a set of standards-based 

classroom activities, lessons and projects 

related to LIGO science. Well under way is 

the project to build the Visitor’s Center at 

the Livingston site that will be filled with 

Exploratorium exhibits and will be the focal 

point for augmenting teacher education 

at Southern University and other studentteacher activities state-wide through the 

Louisiana Systemic Initiative Program. 

Outreach coordinators have been hired at 

each site to augment the existing activities. 

New this year is Einstein@home, a World 

Year of Physics project led by a LIGO 

Scientific Collaboration (LSC) scientist from 

the University of Wisconsin/Milwaukee, 

that allows almost anyone in the world 

with a computer to participate in LIGO data 

analysis. 

LIGO is sponsored by NSF and managed 

by Caltech under a cooperative agreement. 

Under the current agreement, NSF oversight 

is coordinated internally by a dedicated 

LIGO program director in the Physics 

Division in MPS, who also participates in 

the PAT. NSF conducts annual scientific 

and technical reviews involving external 

An aerial photograph of the LIGO site in 

Livingston, LA.
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41

reviewers and participates in meetings of 

the LSC as well as making site visits to the 

Hanford and Livingston interferometers. 

During the AdvLIGO construction phase, 

NSF will continue the activities described 

above and exercise more intensive 

oversight through more frequent reporting 

requirements, stepped-up interaction with 

the project personnel, scheduled reviews 

and site visits at least twice yearly and 

more frequently if need arises. The NSF 

LIGO program director will work closely 

with the LIGO Deputy Director for the 

AdvLIGO Project who has already been 

named. Project management techniques 

used in the successful completion of the 

initial LIGO construction will be employed 

to benefit management of the AdvLIGO 

construction.

All three LIGO interferometers were 

fully operational by the spring of 2002. 

Since then, activity has been divided 

between improving the sensitivity 

of the interferometers and collecting 

scientific data. Four science runs have 

been performed: S-1, in the period from 

August 23, 2002, to September 9, 2002, 

with a sensitivity of about a factor of 

100 from the design goal; S-2, lasting 

59 days from February 14, 2003, to 

April 14, 2003, with a sensitivity of about 

a factor of 10 from the design goal; S-3 

in the period from October 31, 2003, 

to January 8, 2004, with a sensitivity 

of about a factor of 3.5 from the design 

goal; and S-4 from February 22, 2005, 

to March 23, 2005. The improvements 

achieved in S-4 were remarkable. The 

addition of the Hydraulic External PreIsolation (HEPI) system to the Livingston 

interferometer to eliminate interference 

from anthropogenic noise sources was 

totally successful, as indicated in the 

improvement of the Livingston duty cycle 

from 21.8 percent in S-3 to 74.5 percent

in S-4 leading to more than 50 percent

triple coincidence observing during the 

run. In addition, during S-4 all three 

interferometers improved their sensitivity 

to within a factor of 2 of design sensitivity.

The LIGO Laboratory submitted a proposal 

for AdvLIGO in early 2003. The proposal 

was reviewed in June 2003 and the project 

was considered to be ready for construction. 

The AdvLIGO upgrade will include the laser, 

suspension, seismic isolation, and optical 

subsystems. Advanced detector research 

and development has proceeded to the 

point where technology needed for the 

upgrade is well in hand. In particular the 

development of the laser subsystem has 

achieved performance levels essentially 

at the final specifications, and part of the 

AdvLIGO seismic isolation system is already 

in operation at the Livingston site where it 

has successfully eliminated excess vibration 

from various sources. The LIGO Laboratory 

will have spent $40.74 million of R&RA 

funds on advanced R&D for AdvLIGO in the 

period from FY 2000–2007. U.S.-funded 

construction and commissioning activities 

are scheduled to continue through FY 2013, 

with project completion and full operation at 

both sites beginning in September 2013. 

The expected operational lifespan of 

LIGO is about 20 years. Along with direct 

operations and maintenance support for 

LIGO, NSF supports science and engineering 

research directly related to LIGO activities 

by members of the LIGO Scientific 

Collaboration from universities through 

ongoing research and education programs. 

The annual support for such activities is 

estimated to be about $5 million.

In 1997 LIGO founded the LSC to 

organize the major international groups 

doing research that was supportive of 

LIGO. The LSC now has more than 40 

collaborating institutions with about 

500 participating scientists. The role 

and membership responsibilities of each 

participating institution are determined 

by a Memorandum of Understanding 

(MOU) between the LIGO Laboratory and 

the institution. The LSC plays a major 

role in many aspects of the LIGO effort, 

including: R&D for detector improvements, 

R&D for Advanced LIGO, data analysis 

and validation of scientific results, 

and setting priorities for instrumental 

improvements at the LIGO facilities.

Additional information on AdvLIGO can 

be found in the MREFC Chapter of NSF’s 

FY 2006 Budget Submission to Congress 

(http://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/

fy2006/).

The End Test Mass in the x-arm of the 2k-IFO.

(Hanford, WA)
42

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This category is reserved for NSB-approved new starts that have not yet been 

included in an NSF Budget Request to Congress. At the time of the writing 

of this Facility Plan, NSF has requested funding (in FY 2006 or later) for all 

NSB-approved new starts in the FY 2006 Budget Request to Congress. 

Status Report on National Science Board 

Approved New Starts

The MREFC panel annually evaluates projects for admission to this category. 

Candidates are brought forward by the sponsoring directorates and offices 

when those organizations consider the projects ready for MREFC funding 

consideration. At the time of the writing of this Facility Plan, there are no 

projects in the Readiness Stage.

Readiness Stage Projects and Projects Recommended 

for Advancement to Readiness Stage

Projects Under Exploration

Many NSF programs, divisions, offices and directorates are exploring and 

funding the preliminary development of concepts that might eventually 

evolve into MREFC projects. The following projects, which have been brought 

to the attention of the MREFC Panel, illustrate both the wide variety of 

concepts being investigated and the various stages of project development. 

Some are very embryonic and others well-advanced in their planning. Some 

may become MREFC candidates and others perhaps not, either because they 

prove infeasible or because better ways of meeting the scientific objectives 

come to light in the planning process. This chapter is not meant to provide a 

comprehensive overview of projects on either the near or distant horizon.
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43

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY SOLAR TELESCOPE (ATST)

The main purpose of the ATST will be to 

enable study of magnetohydrodynamic 

phenomena in the solar photosphere, 

chromosphere and corona. Understanding 

the role of magnetic fields in the 

outer regions of the Sun is crucial to 

understanding the solar dynamo, solar 

variability and solar activity, including 

flares and mass ejections which can 

affect life on earth. As the first new 

large solar telescope constructed in 

nearly 30 years and because of the 

new range of scientifically compelling 

questions that it can address, the ATST 

is expected to rejuvenate the groundbased solar research community in U.S. 

universities and enable training of the 

next generation of solar physicists and 

instrument builders. Strong linkages 

will be established with a diverse set 

of collaborating institutions, including 

universities, industrial partners, NASA 

centers and other federally funded 

research and development centers 

(FFRDC). There will also be synergy with 

planned space missions such as the Solar 

Dynamics Observer. ATST will contribute 

to curriculum development and teacher 

training through ongoing National Solar 

Observatory (NSO) and NOAO programs, 

and to public outreach through NSO 

Visitors Center, Web presence, etc.

NSF has provided $11.0 million for a 

five-year (FY 2001-2005) design and 

development phase of the ATST project. 

The project conducted an extensive and 

successful conceptual design review in 

August 2003. A set of preliminary and 

systems design reviews will be held in 

early 2005. The project has selected 

Haleakala Peak on the island of Maui 

in Hawaii as its primary site, and the 

environmental assessment process has 

begun. A construction proposal for the 

telescope is currently under review by 

AST. Construction costs that would be 

requested of MREFC are now estimated 

at $161.40 million. Annual ATST 

operations costs will be approximately 

$11.0 million, about $4.0 million of 

which will be accommodated by closing 

existing NSO facilities. Enhanced 

university research enabled by ATST 

would require an additional $3.0 

million annually from NSF grants. 

The earliest possible start date for 

construction is FY 2007.

Artist’s conception of the ATST.
44

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COLLABORATIVE LARGE-SCALE ENGINEERING ANALYSIS NETWORK FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH (CLEANER)

CLEANER will contribute to the NSF 

Science Objective of integrated research 

to understand complex environmental 

systems. The main goal of CLEANER is to 

provide the physical infrastructure and CI 

to develop the knowledge base that can 

be used to solve large-scale, multifaceted 

environmental problems, especially 

in systems that are heavily impacted 

by human activities. CLEANER will be 

a distributed collaborative network of 

interacting sites for large-scale research 

on human-dominated environmental 

systems, comprising a series of 

interacting field sites, an integrating CI 

including data and model repositories, 

and an enabling management 

infrastructure. CLEANER will support 

data collection from advanced sensor 

arrays and analytical tools for data 

mining, aggregation and visualization. 

This will lead to predictive multi-scale 

modeling of dynamic environmental 

systems and experimentation to 

improve engineering approaches 

for environmental protection and 

management. The long-term goal is to 

foster adaptive management strategies 

for large-scale human-dominated 

environmental systems. CLEANER will 

provide information (some in real-time) 

from a series of comparable nationwide 

sites. Theory and computation will be 

used to develop a deep understanding 

of the interplay among air, water and 

land, and how controlling pollutants in 

one compartment affects environmental 

quality in the other media. 

Pollution at the Kanai Moose Range.

Fish Kill at Chautauqua National 

Wildlife Refuge in Illinois.
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45

COHERENT X-RAY LIGHT SOURCE

A coherent X-ray light source will be a 

transformational facility, impacting many 

scientific disciplines and enabling new 

types of scientific investigations that 

cannot be done today. For example, it 

will impact chemistry by allowing timeresolved investigations of the structures 

of macromolecules in solution and of 

the structural evolution of transition 

states in ultrafast chemical reactions. It 

has the potential to do “crystallography 

without crystals” – that is, to enable 

the determination of structural data for 

macromolecules without requiring that they 

be in crystalline form. This is especially 

valuable for biology, as many important 

biomolecules do not form crystals. It will 

also provide biologists with the potential 

to image subcellular organelles, yielding 

protein locations in the natural state. In 

addition, the phase contrast at hard X-ray 

energies provides the potential for realtime, high-resolution medical imaging of 

low-contrast tissues. In condensed-matter 

physics and materials research, a coherent 

X-ray light source will enable measurements 

of microstructure in bulk materials, studies 

of stresses and strains on individual 

grains, and investigations of structure and 

dynamics in materials (e.g., by providing a 

picosecond view of melting, recrystallization 

and annealing, and enabling fundamental 

investigations of plastic deformation). In 

geology and geophysics, a coherent X-ray 

light source will enable time-resolved 

experiments on plasticity, rheology, and 

phase transitions, as well as allowing 

studies of matter at high pressures, probing 

conditions that exist in planetary interiors.

Two concepts for a coherent X-ray light 

source have been discussed with NSF: 

an Energy Recovery Linac (ERL) project 

at Cornell University and an X-ray Free 

Electron Laser (XFEL) project at MIT. Both 

the ERL and XFEL concepts have been 

explored in a number of workshops dating 

back several years. Since NSF expects 

to support the construction of at most 

one coherent X-ray light source, the two 

projects are effectively in competition with 

each other. Either project would provide 

orders of magnitude improvement over 

existing synchrotron X-ray sources in 

reduced pulse duration and intensity of 

coherent X-ray flux. Advanced CI will be 

required for optimal performance of either 

design of instrument (e.g., to provide 

“smart” control of the phasing of electron 

bunches (ERL), or of the phasing between 

electron bunches and laser pulses (XFEL), 

or to achieve synchronization of multiple 

lasers at femtosecond time scales for 

multiple beamlines). Robotic control of 

experiments would often be required to 

enable efficient data collection, including 

software-based data reduction with the 

capability of handling data rates of order 

10 megabytes per second. Data analysis 

software will confront new challenges 

either in concatenating the collection of 

ERL data from billions of individual pulses 

or in analyzing data from “Coulomb 

explosions” produced by an XFEL.

NSF recently awarded $5.15 million 

to Cornell to begin construction of a 

prototype ERL, with which to address 

the many technical issues that must be 

satisfactorily resolved before the potential 

of a full-scale ERL can be realized. These 

issues include the generation of high 

average current high-brightness electron 

beams; acceleration of these beams to 

suitable energies without unacceptable 

emittance degradation; and stable and 

efficient operation of superconducting 

linear accelerators at very high gradients. 

A full-scale ERL is estimated to cost $300 

million. A full-scale XFEL is expected to 

cost as much as $500 million.

This image depicts a 

schematic diagram of an 

ERL, which is a source of 

synchrotron radiation. This 

source injects electrons at 

up to a 1.3GHz rate into 

superconducting radio 

frequency (RF), which is 

instrumental in accelerating 

the electrons to their full 

energy of 5 GeV, illustrated 

by the green balls “surfing” 

on the rest of the RF 

traveling wave in the image. 

Upon circulating, they 

produce X-ray beams in 

undulators, shown by the red 

rectangles and return to the 

linac, decelerating to a lowenergy state, ready to be 

directed to a beam dump. 
46

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DEEP UNDERGROUND SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING LABORATORY (DUSEL)

DUSEL will be to enable experiments that 

require the conditions that are achieved 

only at extreme depths in the earth (8,000 

to 10,000 feet), such as very low rates 

of background cosmic rays or extremes of 

geological temperature (in excess of 120oC) 

and rock stress. The need for and possible 

research programs for an underground 

laboratory have been documented in two 

long-range plans (high energy and nuclear 

physics communities), an NSF sponsored 

workshop, “International Workshop on 

Neutrinos and Subterranean Science 

2002,” and two major NRC reports, 

“Connecting Quarks with the Cosmos” and 

“Neutrinos and Beyond.” The laboratory 

will add major new dimensions to the 

U.S. and worldwide research efforts in 

particle and nuclear physics, astrophysics, 

geosciences and engineering. Work in 

the DUSEL, which will use rare decay 

processes and collisions of neutrinos 

from astrophysical sources with matter in 

underground detectors, will help unlock the 

secret of neutrino mass, diagnose the core 

collapse of a massive star, and perhaps 

solve the mystery of the domination in 

the universe of matter over antimatter. 

Studies of life forms that thrive under 

extreme conditions may provide clues to 

the origin and evolution of life on Earth. 

To support planning for the project for 

the next two years, MPS has initiated 

a three-phase solicitation process 

aimed at identifying: (1) the scientific 

and engineering case for experiments 

that would make up the underground 

laboratory, as well as the technical and 

infrastructural requirements of each 

experiment; (2) conceptual designs for 

specific sites that will accommodate 

as much of the research as possible; 

and (3) baseline designs for the 

infrastructure for an underground 

laboratory, including detailed costs 

and time required for the permitting, 

construction and development of an 

initial suite of experiments. Up to 

$3 million was provided for proposals 

resulting from solicitations 1 and 2, 

and up to three awards totaling up 

to $1 million each will result from 

solicitation 3. This process is expected 

to result in the information needed 

to decide whether NSF will proceed 

with the project. The actual costs 

associated with the development of 

the infrastructure of the laboratory are 

estimated to be about $300 million, 

and the cost of the initial suite of 

experiments that would go into the 

laboratory is also estimated to be 

approximately $300 million.

Located 2,000 feet underground in the Japanese Alps, the SuperKamiokande neutrino detector is composed of 

thousands of PM tubes, which collect light produced by the interaction of the neutrinos and the ultra-pure water 

filling the detector. This device has detected neutrino oscillations among atmospherically generated neutrinos, 

providing evidence that neutrinos have a small but finite mass. It has also detected solar neutrinos, contributing to the 

understanding of the problematic detection rate of neutrinos from the Sun.
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47

EXPANDED VERY LARGE ARRAY (EVLA) PHASE II

The Expanded Very Large Array Phase II 

(EVLA Phase II) would enhance the 

capabilities of the most productive radio 

telescope ever built, the Very Large Array 

(VLA), which is reportedly second only 

to the Hubble Space Telescope in total 

production of resulting publications. The key 

scientific inquiries will follow the evolution 

of the universe: tracing the neutral 

hydrogen mass function back in time; 

observing galaxy and star formation in 

the early universe; studying the formation 

of galaxy clusters; observing the environs 

of active galactic nuclei, including jets; 

using variability of gravitational lensing 

to understand galactic and intergalactic 

dynamics; responding quickly to gamma 

ray burst events; and observing, with 

unprecedented resolution and sensitivity, 

the structure and evolution of our own 

galaxy. The expanded VLA will open a 

vast “discovery space” that is currently 

inaccessible to any instrument. The Phase II 

expansion will add eight new antennas to 

the array at larger physical spacings (up to 

300 km), will connect inner antennas from 

the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) to the 

EVLA by fiber-optic cables, and will add the 

physical infrastructure to support a new, 

extremely compact array configuration. 

The result of the expansion will be an array 

with an order of magnitude improvement in 

sensitivity to both large-scale and smallscale astrophysical structure. The very 

compact array configuration will provide 

maximum sensitivity to extended emission. 

Combined with the Phase I expansion, 

the array will improve its sensitivity, 

frequency agility and resolution by an 

order of magnitude.

The preliminary estimates for the Phase 

II expansion cost is $110 million total (in 

2004 dollars), with the bulk of the cost 

(approximately $90 million) consisting 

of siting and construction of the eight 

new antennas and the installation of 

last-mile fiber-optic cable. The remainder 

will be used to build the physical 

infrastructure for the new compact array 

configuration. Included in these costs is 

approximately 15 percent contingency.

Phase II construction is expected to 

take approximately seven years from 

commencement. Conceptual development, 

proposal writing, and preliminary design 

work for Phase II has been funded from 

NRAO’s operations budget. NRAO is well 

under way on CI planning that will allow 

acquisition, processing, dissemination and 

archiving of the large data sets. The major 

cyber-requirements for this initiative are 

vast storage media, advanced search and 

retrieval technology, rapid data-transfer/

disk-access technology, and wide-bandwidth 

interconnections. All of these requirements 

are being addressed in the present Phase 

I deployment and in the Phase II planning 

process. The Phase II proposal is under 

review by NSF.

The VLA at sunset.
48

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GNSS EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM (GEOS)

The GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite 

System) Earth Observing System 

(GEOS) is based on UCAR’s COSMIC 

(Constellation Observing System for 

Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate) 

and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s 

(JPL) AMORE (Atmospheric Moisture 

and Ocean Reflection Experiment) 

concepts. A constellation of 12 small 

instrumented spacecraft will explore the 

global atmosphere, from the surface of 

the Earth to an altitude of several hundred 

kilometers, providing unique geoscience 

measurements to study the oceans, 

troposphere, stratosphere and ionosphere 

as an integrated, interacting system. 

Using multiple radio frequencies, GEOS 

will provide high-quality, time-continuous 

measurements of temperature, water 

vapor, ozone, ocean topography and 

surface wind, ionospheric electronic density 

distribution and Earth gravity. This will 

enable significant advances in the following 

scientific disciplines: climate, meteorology, 

atmospheric chemistry, space weather, 

oceanography, and solid earth structure 

and dynamics. GEOS will provide 12,000 

GPS radio occultation soundings per day 

from which 1,600 water vapor profiles 

per day could be obtained over all parts 

of the globe. Presently, vertical profiles of 

the atmosphere are made twice a day at 

fewer than 700 sites globally, and vast 

areas of the ocean are not sampled at all. 

In addition, the GEOS constellation will 

provide ocean topography measurements 

with an accuracy of a few centimeters in 

the vertical with a horizontal resolution of 

less than 25 kilometers. Also, other 

geophysical parameters, such as gravity 

variation with wavelength 500~1,000 km. 

will be made by GEOS.

It is expected that the development, 

construction and launching of these 

observing tools will build on existing 

partnerships between NSF and NASA. 

The respective communities supported by 

these agencies have expertise in design, 

development, evaluation, data processing 

and distribution, and use of the GEOS 

system. The earliest possible start date for 

construction of the satellites is FY 2007. 

The total budget for this project is 

estimated at $425 million based on an 

FY 2007 start date and 2011 launch 

date. A six-year operating life time for 

the satellite system is expected, with 

eight to 10 years of post-mission data 

analysis and research.

This COSMIC constellation would be the third generation of applications of the radio occultation techniques.
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49

INTERFEROMETRIC SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (INSAR)

This project, which will be led by NASA, will 

consist of a satellite-based Interferometric 

Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) capable 

of measuring surface motions as slight as 

several millimeters per year, such as during 

strain accumulation between earthquakes. 

This revolutionary new geodetic tool for the 

measurement of Earth surface deformation 

will bring a fundamentally new data type to 

the study of changes of the Earth’s surface: 

time series of spatially continuous surface 

deformation associated with earthquakes, 

volcanoes, ice sheets and glaciers. The 

principal geographic focus areas include 

regions of active tectonics, volcanics and 

glaciation, or approximately 10 percent of 

the area of the Earth. InSAR will achieve 

these diverse goals through a single type 

of measurement: millimeter-level surface 

deformation at resolutions of tens of meters 

with worldwide accessibility. For NSF, 

InSAR is the fourth and final component 

of EarthScope. InSAR will be a great 

improvement over the European Space 

Agency and Canadian Space Agency SAR 

instruments, which use short wavelengths 

and are therefore subject to interference 

from any ground disturbances. InSAR’s 

mission will provide coverage of the same 

area every eight days, providing the large 

number of frequent observations necessary 

to understand the earthquake process. 

Recent workshops have emphasized the 

importance of InSAR for providing highspatial-resolution distortion measurements 

to discriminate competing models of fault 

slip, viscoelastic response and volcanic 

magma movement. A significant fraction of 

the Earth’s population lives in or near areas 

likely to experience earthquakes, volcanic 

eruptions or the consequences of sea-level 

change. Better understanding of these 

hazards through InSAR-related studies can 

help mitigate the consequences, potentially 

saving lives and reducing economic impact. 

The 744 earth science departments 

at U.S. universities that grant degrees 

at the bachelor level or above will be 

empowered to participate in the excitement 

of geoscience research and education by 

accessing InSAR results on line. 

InSAR concepts were developed in 

numerous workshops and proposals over 

the past decade. Technologically, the 

project is low-risk with the instrumentation 

and scientific techniques proven. NASA 

has provided extensive planning, 

design, and development funding for 

approximately ten years. NSF would be 

expected to provide approximately $80 

million toward construction of the satellite 

radar and ground down-link data systems. 

The earliest possible start for construction 

of EarthScope: InSAR is FY 2007. 

InSAR illustrates the ground movement as fringes or contours taken from the satellite’s radar picture of the Earth’s surface. 

The fringes and contours represent identical images taken at various intervals to be compared for differences by a computer 

to produce this picture.
50

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LSST will contribute to the Science 

Objective of Understanding the universe. 

The principal science drivers for the 

LSST are: understanding the physics 

of dark energy via three-dimensional 

mass tomography to great distances 

and the detection of moderate redshift 

supernovae; detecting and cataloging 

small bodies in the solar system, 

including potentially hazardous asteroids 

and objects in the outer solar system; 

opening the time domain through 

repeated deep imaging of the accessible 

sky, which can reveal transient and 

explosive events such as cataclysmic 

variable stars, gamma ray bursters and 

the optical counterparts of X-ray flashes; 

studies of the distances and motions 

of a complete, distance-limited sample 

of stars in the solar neighborhood; 

and measuring of the kinematics and 

structure of the galactic halo. The 8.4m 

optical telescope will be a special-purpose 

instrument, designed and operated for 

the benefit of the entire astronomical 

community. The LSST will be a digital 

celestial camera of unprecedented size 

and capability, collecting and processing 

nightly nearly 20,000 gigabytes of multicolor imaging data over its anticipated 

ten-year lifetime. The processing power 

required to stay abreast of the data 

stream is approximately 140 teraflops. 

Decimation of the data will occur onsite, but substantial network bandwidth 

will be required for dissemination of the 

data products and processed images 

to be produced nightly. The LSST data 

processing systems will produce the 

deepest, widest-field image of the sky 

ever taken along with daily catalogs of 

moving and transient objects. 

The site-selection process for LSST 

has narrowed the choices to four 

mountaintop sites: Cerros Pachon and 

Las Campanas in Chile, San Pedro Martir 

in Baja California, and La Palma in the 

Canary Islands (Spain). Meteorological 

conditions and image quality statistics 

for potential sites are being factored 

into detailed simulations of the design 

reference mission. Cyberinfrastructure, 

in particular the availability or cost of 

high bandwidth connectivity at a given 

site, is also of importance and will weigh 

heavily into the site-selection process. 

Downselect to two potential sites will 

be made in early 2005. A design and 

development proposal is currently under 

review by AST. Preliminary estimates 

excluding the cost of the camera are 

approximately $140 million in FY 2007 

dollars. A full-time project manager with 

extensive experience in large distributed 

technical projects was hired in mid-2003, 

and $30 million of private funds has 

been raised, with some being used to 

mitigate schedule and technical risk by 

early procurement of glass needed for 

the large reflective optical elements. 

AST funded a three-year detectortechnology development proposal for 

$1.3 million in FY 2003. NOAO’s annual 

in-kind contributions to the LSST project 

totals approximately $1.2 million. The 

science cases are being developed 

by an independent science-working 

group and will be critically examined 

by NSF over the coming months. The 

earliest possible start for construction 

of the LSST is FY 2008, which would 

allow science operations to start in late 

2012. If substantial funding is found 

from private sources or other agencies, 

the construction cost to the NSF could 

drop below the MREFC threshold.

The adoption of a competing design 

for a large-aperture survey telescope, 

PanSTARRS, a project at the University 

of Hawaii funded by the U.S. Air Force 

to fulfill a limited mission using four 

2m telescopes, could also drop the cost 

below the MREFC threshold.

LARGE SYNOPTIC SURVEY TELESCOPE (LSST) 

Artist’s conception of the LSST.
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51

The primary goal of the Petascale Earth 

System Collaboratory is to enable frontier 

research in which high-end computational 

modeling is the key investigative tool. 

One of the great intellectual challenges 

facing science in the early 21st century 

is the task of understanding the wide 

range of processes that make up the 

Earth system and the rich complexity that 

results from their interaction. The wide 

range of scales and processes involved 

are challenging to represent in laboratory 

experiments and, in most instances, direct 

manipulative experimentation is difficult 

or impossible. Two trends in Earth system 

research combine to offer scientists a 

way past these obstacles. The first is the 

accelerating development of new sensors 

and observing systems that promise to 

provide a wealth of data at appropriate 

time and/or space scales, and the 

second is the coming of age of numerical 

experimentation. The collaboratory will 

provide hardware and software that 

enhances the capability of computational 

geoscientists for to visualize and analyze 

structure within very large data sets, 

thereby enabling researchers to analyze 

the output of very large models. It will also 

provide two badly needed computational 

capabilities that are currently unavailable, 

namely (1) computational facilities which 

can cater to codes requiring large amounts 

of cycles and very high-bandwidth, 

low-latency processor-to-memory and 

inter-processor communications, and 

(2) facilities amenable to codes requiring 

very large main memory (100-500 TB).

The core facility will include a large diskfarm (eventually multi-petabyte) and 

off-line storage system to support the 

use of the system for very large jobs. The 

disk-farm and the network coupling it to 

the computational system will have to be 

customized to match the computational 

hardware. To facilitate the analysis of 

very large volumes of model output, a 

significant part of the storage will be 

implemented as a smart database rather 

than a traditional file system. Rounding out 

the capacity of the system will be five or 

six satellite facilities providing capabilities 

for medium-size computations so that the 

core facility can be dedicated to very highend computations. Additional components 

will be specialized facilities for visualization 

and for maintaining large data sets. 

All of the primary components of the 

collaboratory will be located in institutions 

connected by very high-bandwidth links 

and united by grid middleware to provide 

a virtualized resource for users. The grid 

associated with the Petascale Earth System 

Collaboratory will be extended to the data 

infrastructure of the major environmental 

observing systems so that data from 

these systems can be readily integrated 

with modeling. Such systems are being 

developed by several vendors both here 

and abroad; for example, as part of the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency’s (DARPA) High Productivity 

Computing System program. Instead of 

purchasing one hardware platform, the 

purchase of a “performance curve” is 

envisioned – that is, a specified level of 

performance, increasing over the duration of 

the project. The performance-curve approach 

provides flexibility to capitalize on emerging 

technology as it becomes commercially 

viable. Implemented at NCAR, this technique 

has proven to be a cost-effective and 

efficient method of providing computational 

resources to the research community. 

Community identification of needs is now 

mature, and the current estimate of total 

infrastructure costs for this project is $489 

million. Development of a science plan, 

system design document, and budget for the 

project has been undertaken by geoscience 

researchers.

PETASCALE EARTH SYSTEM COLLABORATORY

Computed charge density for FeO within the Local Density 

Approximation, with spherical ions subtracted. The colors 

represent the spin density, showing the antiferromagnetic 

ordering. The strong d-lobes on the ions are apparent, and 

strongly affect elastic and partitioning behavior.
52

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SOUTH POLE FUTURE COMMUNICATION NEEDS

The goal of the project is to 

provide modern, broadband digital 

communications connecting South Pole 

Station with the global cyberinfrastructure 

on a 24-hour/seven-day-per-week 

basis. Such communications capabilities 

are desperately needed to support 

remote observation, instrument timesharing among multiple investigators, 

remote troubleshooting, periodic 

software refreshment and continuous 

development, timely data transfer 

for downstream analysis, and timely 

feedback to experimental configuration 

and data acquisition protocols to adapt 

to changing experimental conditions 

and lines of inquiry. At 90oS latitude, 

South Pole Station is outside the 

range of conventional geosynchronous 

satellites. The present communications 

infrastructure consists of a number of 

geosynchronous satellites in inclined 

orbits, which, when in sight of the South 

Pole Station, provide limited direct 

communications contact between the 

continental United States and the station. 

Line-of-sight connectivity is possible 

because those satellites have drifted into 

inclined orbits visible for a few hours at a 

time to the South Pole station. 

Current and future science research 

programs at South Pole Station involve 

instrumentation based on sophisticated 

electronics and computing technology 

that generate large volumes of data. 

The benefits of improved communications 

already experienced by the research 

program are: reduction in cycle-time for 

fielding experimental apparatus and 

reaching productive data collection, 

minimization of the limitations imposed 

on staffing of wintering crews for 

instrument operation, broadening of 

participation by senior researchers 

who would otherwise not be able to 

physically travel to the instruments, 

and shortening the time required for 

analysis and publishing of results. The 

outcomes felt by the research community 

are significant: increasingly challenging 

and sophisticated research programs 

are successfully implemented; the 

time required to produce results and 

communicate findings to the research 

community is reduced; and greater access 

is provided to instrumentation to expand 

the numbers of researchers benefiting. 

Broadband communications also play 

an increasingly important role in the 

health and safety of all station personnel 

through our implementation of modern 

telemedicine capabilities. High-resolution 

digital video transmissions enable remote 

radiologists to guide real-time ultrasound 

diagnostic procedures administered by 

local staff. High-resolution digital video 

transmissions streamed via Internet-2 

support real-time specialist supervision of 

locally administered clinical procedures 

when necessary. 24-hour/seven-day 

broadband communication capability will 

increase current telemedical capabilities, 

permit transmission of vital diagnostic 

information at any time, day or night, 

and leverage on-site medical staff with 

virtually unlimited access to specialized 

medical expertise in the United States. 

Continuous access eliminates the present 

risk that medical emergencies must 

wait for limited daily satellite contacts. 

Enhanced off-site support in medical 

emergencies is essential for positive 

patient outcomes in such a remote, 

hostile environment.

A conceptual plan for incrementally 

increasing South Pole communications 

capability and coverage has been 

developed through user workshops, 

responses to a Request for Information 

published in the Commerce Business 

Daily, and analysis by NSF, NASA 

and NOAA staff and contractors. The 

plan consists of two overlapping 

developmental phases. 

Phase A (up to about 2010):

+ hardware and systems development 

to augment existing satellite service 

with 56 kb/s low/medium bandwidth 

Iridium service to achieve 24x7 

The Earth Station behind Palmer Station 

provides a communication link via the 5-meterdiameter antenna that sees a satellite orbiting 

the equator, allowing people to make phone 

calls and use the Internet, as well as providing 

the remote station with telemedicine capability.
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53

coverage (ca. $15 million);

+ bring existing, more-capable NASA 

and/or existing commercial satellites 

into the constellation to achieve 

bulk data transmission; negotiate to 

incorporate NSF/USAP communication 

requirements in future NASA and 

commercial communication satellite 

design ($5-20 million);

+ research and possibly implement 

additional Iridium services. 

Implementation will require Earth 

station construction and Iridium 

system modifications Investment to 

achieve 1.544 Mb/s service would be 

at least $10 M.

Phase B – Long Term: 

Strong possibilities include:

+ install a trans-Antarctic fiber-optic cable 

connecting South Pole Station over 

the inland high plateau to the more 

northern European Concordia Station, 

where a geosynchronous satellite link 

to the United States and Europe could 

be established (up to $250 million);

+ develop “pole sitter” satellites positioned 

in solar (not Earth) orbit so as to provide 

continuous line-of-sight to South Pole 

Station. Costs to share development of 

this option with NOAA, the Department of 

Defense (DOD), and private developers 

would be approximately $80 million.

Other options analyzed or under analysis 

include the use of tethered balloons as relay 

stations, as well as a series of ground-based 

microwave relay links from South Pole 

Station to Concordia Station.

This image of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station encompasses the skiway, science facilities, and a satellite radome. 
54

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SKA is conceived as the next-generation 

radio telescope for meter and centimeter 

wavelength astronomy. The U.S. SKA 

Consortium concept for the instrument 

consists of 4,400 12-meter-diameter 

parabolic dish antennas with a core 

concentration in the Southwest and 

outlier stations spread throughout the 

continental United States. It will require 

major infrastructure development since 

individual array antennas will be sited 

at many remote locations, requiring 

that signals from some stations be 

transported by optical fiber over 

thousands of kilometers. With roughly 

one square kilometer of collecting 

area, the SKA will be approximately an 

order of magnitude more powerful than 

current instruments and will provide 

unprecedented capabilities for discovery 

and analysis of the radio universe. The 

superior resolving power, sensitivity, and 

image quality will allow fundamental new 

studies of the formation and early history 

of stars, galaxies and quasars, with the 

potential for the discovery of totally new 

astrophysical phenomena. Since the 

focus of SKA design efforts is primarily 

at universities rather than at a national 

center, the development of the various 

technologies necessary for realizing SKA 

will provide training for students and 

postdoctoral researchers.

This is a project in the early stages of 

development, and preliminary design 

efforts are ongoing in a number of 

countries. The International SKA 

Steering Committee (ISSC) has adopted 

a development plan that calls for 

convergence on a single design and 

selection of a site in 2008-2010. The 

earliest possible start for construction of 

the SKA is FY 2010, possibly as late as 

2015, with construction to be completed 

around 2020. MPS funded a three-year 

preliminary design study in 2001 for 

$1.5 million, and expects to receive 

a proposal for expanded technology 

and development during FY 2005. 

The site selection (possibly outside the 

U.S.) has yet to be made. Although the 

international community has a formal 

framework for decision-making, the 

final determination of antenna design 

and site selection may be contentious. 

A reasonably accurate cost estimate for 

SKA will require substantial research. 

However, the goal is to keep the total 

cost at or below $1 billion, which is to be 

shared among the international partners, 

with one-third each from the United 

States, Europe and from the rest of the 

world. Contributing to cost uncertainty is 

the requirement for a massive, specialpurpose computer called a correlator 

to combine signals from all antennas 

and form the necessary “visibilities” 

needed to generate images of the sky. 

Such a computer will be affordable 

only if Moore’s law continues apace for 

the next decade or more. Keeping total 

construction costs below $1 billion is a 

major challenge, and is the primary focus 

of the technology development program.

SQUARE KILOMETER ARRAY (SKA)

Artist’s conception of the SKA.
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55

THIRTY METER TELESCOPE (TMT)

The TMT will be a general-purpose 

telescope of unprecedented size, 

operated for the benefit of a broad 

segment of the astronomical community. 

It had been assumed that this telescope’s 

primary mirror would consist of a 

collection of a large number of individual 

mirrors, so it was called the Giant 

Segmented Mirror Telescope. However, 

in light of recent design studies, it 

is not clear what the realization of 

such an instrument will be and the 

name “Thirty Meter Telescope” is 

now preferred. The TMT would dwarf 

the existing 8-10m optical/infrared 

ground-based telescopes, increasing the 

available light grasp nearly ten-fold and, 

assuming adaptive correction is used 

to realize the diffraction limit of the 

telescope, the angular resolution by a 

factor of three over the world’s largest 

telescope. The TMT would utilize major 

technological breakthroughs in design 

and routine use of adaptive optics to 

provide extraordinary improvements 

over current capabilities. Two competing 

designs are currently being pursued: 

(1) a segmented mirror telescope 

design, which is a similar in concept 

to the Keck 10m telescope, but with a 

30m collecting area; and (2) a smaller 

(22m) telescope employing seven 

8.4m diameter round primary mirror 

segments. Both proposed designs will 

require adaptive correction significantly 

beyond the current state of the art. The 

largest technical hurdles will be those 

associated with extreme adaptive optics 

– achieving the diffraction limit at optical 

wavelengths. This will require significant 

algorithm development during the design 

and development phase and undoubtedly 

will also demand significant processor 

power at the TMT site. Off-site bandwidth 

requirements will be large but probably 

not much larger than those of current 

high performance telescopes. The effects 

of wind loading on such a large telescope 

must be modeled and may require the 

use of adaptive structures. 

Other technical challenges include the 

development of durable reflective coatings 

for the primary mirror segments and 

possible alternatives to glass for the 

primary mirror substrate.

Both the CELT segmented mirror program 

(California Extremely Large Telescope) 

and the Giant Magellan Telescope 

(GMT) have established project offices 

and hired full-time project managers 

with extensive experience in large and 

complex projects. AURA (the Association 

of Universities for Research in Astronomy), 

CELT and ESO are actively collaborating 

on site identification and testing, and 

the test data will be shared among the 

groups. NOAO’s in-kind contributions to 

TMT technology development amount to 

approximately $1.5 million per year. CELT 

has received $35 million from the Moore 

Foundation for design and development 

of a segmented mirror TMT. A 40-month, 

$40 million proposal to support the 

two design studies and development of 

enabling technologies common to both 

designs was submitted in the late spring 

of 2004. In addition, starting in FY 2003, 

$3 million per year is invested in adaptive 

optics technology development aimed at 

components (lasers, deformable mirrors) 

and algorithms needed for the TMT through 

the Adaptive Optics (AO) Development 

Program administered by NOAO. 

Preliminary estimates for the segmentedmirror design are in the range $700 million 

to $1 billion; the GMT design would cost 

approximately $500 million. Depending on 

the final design selection and assuming 

roughly one-half of the construction costs 

would be borne by NSF, the required 

funding will be in the range $200 million 

to $400 million. A down select between 

the two potential designs could occur 

in 2008 with the earliest possible start 

for construction in FY 2010. Assuming 

construction starts in 2010, first light 

would occur in the middle of the next 

decade. The expected lifetime for TMT is 

approximately 30 years.

One concept for the Thirty Meter Telescope.
56

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A d v L I G O

A G S

A I B S

A L M A

A M O R E

A O

A R F

A R R V

A S T

AT L A S

ATM

AT S T

A U I

A U R A

B E B C

B FA

B I O

B N L

C a l t e c h

C E LT

C E R N

C I

C I S E

C L E A N E R

C M S

C O N A B I O

C O S E E

C O S M I C

C P

C U A C

D A R PA

D A S I

D B I

D L E S E

D L FP

D O D

D O E

D O M o r 

D O M s

D T F

D U S E L

E A R

E H R

E H W D

E N G

E O N T F

E PA

E P S C o R

E R L

E S E C

E S O

E S P

E T F

eV

E V L A

FE M A

FFR D C

F O F C

G A C

G e n B a n k

G E O

G E O S

G H z

G I G

G MT

G N S S

G P S

H A C

H E PA P

H E P I

H I A P E R

I nS A R

I O D P

I O O S

I P S

I S S C

I T

J O I

Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory

Alternating Gradient Synchrotron 

American Institute of Biological Sciences

Atacama Large Millimeter Array

Atmospheric Moisture and Ocean Reflection Experiment

Adaptive Optics

Academic Research Fleet

Alaska Region Research Vessel

Division of Astronomical Sciences

A large Toroidal LHC Apparatus

Division of Atmospheric Sciences

Advanced Technology Solar Telescope

Associated Universities, Inc

Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy

Big European Bubble Chamber

Office of Budget, Finance and Award Management

Directorate for Biological Sciences

Brookhaven National Laboratory

California Institute for Technology

California Extremely Large Telescope

European Organization for Nuclear Research

Cyberinfrastructure

Directorate for Computer and Information Science 

and Engineering

Collaborative Large-Scale Engineering Analysis Network For 

Environmental Research

Division of Civil and Mechanical Systems

Comision Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la 

Bioversidad (National Commission for the Understanding and 

Use of Biodiversity)

Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence

Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, 

Ionosphere and Climate

Charge Parity

Cyberinfrastructure User Advisory Committee

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

Degree Angular Scale Interferometer

Division of Biological Infrastructure

Digital Library for Earth Science Education

Deputy for Large Facility Projects

Department of Defense

Department of Energy

Digital Optical Modules

Distributed Terascale Facility

Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory

Division of Earth Sciences

Directorate for Education and Human Resources

Enhanced Hot Water Drill

Directorate for Engineering

Environmental Observing Networks Task Force

Environmental Protection Agency

Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research

Energy Recovery Linac

EarthScope Science and Education Advisory Committee

European Southern Observatory

Environmental Sample Processor

Extensible Terascale Facility

Electron Volts; one billion (“giga”) electon volts is abbreviated 

GeV, and one trillion (“peta”) is abbreviated PeV.

Expanded Very Large Array

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Federally Funded Research and Development Centers

Federal Oceanographic Facilities Committee

Gulfstream Aircraft Corporation

The public DNA sequence database maintained by the National 

Center for Biotechnology Information, part of the National 

Library of Medicine.

Directorate for Geosciences

GNSS Earth Observing System

Gigaherz

Grid Infrastructure Group

Giant Magellan Telescope

Global Navigation Satellite System

Global Positioning System

HIAPER Advisory Committee

High Energy Physics Advisory Panel

Hydraulic External Pre-Isolation

High-performance Instrumented Airborne Platform for 

Environmental Research

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar

Integrated Ocean Drilling Program

Integrated Ocean Observing System

Integrative Programs Section

International SKA (Square Kilometer Array) Steering Committee

Information Technology

Joint Oceanographic Institutions Inc

a c r o n y m s
57

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J O I D E S

J P L

L H C

L I G O

L S C

L S S T

LT E R

M E X T

M M A

M O U

M P S

M R E F C

N A

N A S A

N C A R

N C B I

N C S A

N E E S

N E E S i n c

N E H R P

N E O N

N I S T

N N I

N O A A 

N O A O

N R A O

N R C

N S B

N S F

N S O

N S TC

O C E

O D P

O G C

O L PA

O M B

O N R

O O I

O P P

O R I O N

O R N L

O S F

O S T P

O T I C

PA C D I V

PAT

P B O

PM

P S C

R& R A 

A c c o u n t

R / V

R A F

R E T

R E U

R F

R FP

R P

R P S C

R S V P

S A F O D

S D S C

S K A

S O D V

S P S M

S TA R

S U R F

TC S

TMT

U C A R

U C S D

U N O L S

U. S.

U S A P

U S D A

U S D A -

A R S

U S F S

U S G S

V L A

V L B A

X FE L

Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Large Hadron Collider

Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory

LIGO Scientific Collaboration

Large Synoptic Survey Telescope

Long Term Ecological Research

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sport, Science and Technology 

(Japan)

Millimeter Array

Memorandum of Understanding

Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences

Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction 

National Academies

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Center for Atmospheric Research

National Center for Biotechnology Information, part of the 

National Library of Medicine.

National Center for Supercomputing Applications

George E. Brown Network for Earthquake Engineering 

Simulation

NEES Consortium Inc

National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program

National Ecological Observatory Network

National Institute of Standards and Technology

National Nanotechnology Initiative

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

National Optical Astronomy Observatory

National Radio Astronomy Observatory

National Research Council

National Science Board

National Science Foundation

National Solar Observatory

National Science and Technology Council

Division of Ocean Sciences

Ocean Drilling Program

Office of General Counsel

Office of Legislative and Public Affairs

Office of Management and Budget

Office of Naval Research

Ocean Observatories Initiative

Office of Polar Programs

Ocean Research Interactive Observatory Networks

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Operations Support Facility for ALMA

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Ocean Technology and Interdisciplinary Coordination program

Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 

Pacific Division

Project Advisory Team

Plate Boundary Observatory

Photomultiplier

Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center

Research and Related Activities Account

Research Vessel

Research Aviation Facility

Research Experience for Teachers

Research Experience for Undergraduates

Radio Frequency

Request for Proposals

Resource Provider

Raytheon Polar Services Corporation

Rare Symmetry Violating Processes

San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth

San Diego Supercomputer Center

Sqaure Kilometer Array

Scientific Ocean Drilling Vessel

South Pole Station Modernization project

Solenoidal Tracker at the RHIC (Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider), 

located at Brookhaven National Laboratory

Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships

Terascale Computing Systems

Thirty Meter Telescope

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

University of California, San Diego

University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System

United States

United States Antarctic Program

United States Department of Agriculture

U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service

United States Forest Service

United States Geological Survey

Very Large Array

Very Long Baseline Array

X-ray Free Electron Laser
58

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1. “Science and Engineering Infrastructure Report for the 21st Century -The Role of the National Science 

Foundation,” February 8, 2003; NSB-02-190; 

 http://www.nsf.gov/nsb/documents/2002/nsb02190/nsb02190.pdf

2. Priority Setting for Large Facility Projects (NSB-04-96), National Science Board White Paper, May 2004, 

http://www.nsf.gov/nsb/meetings/2004/may_srprt.doc.

3. “Setting Priorities for Large Research Facility Projects Supported by the National Science Foundation,” a 

2004 National Academies report, http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10895.html.

4. “Complex Environmental Systems, Synthesis for Earth, Life, and Society in the 21st Century, A 10-year 

outlook for the NSF,” NSF Advisory Committee for Environmental Research & Education,” January 2003, 

www.nsf.gov/geo/ere/ereweb/acere_synthesis_rpt.cfm.

5. “Environmental Cyberinfrastructure Needs for Distributed Sensor Networks,” report from a NSF sponsored 

workshop, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, August 2003

6. “NSF Geosciences Beyond 2000, Understanding and Predicting Earth’s Environment and Habitability,” Report 

of NSF Advisory Committee for the Geosciences, 2000. www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf0028/nsf0028.doc.

7. “NEON: Addressing the Nation’s Environmental Challenges,” a report of the National Research Council, 2003, 

http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10807.html.

8. “Grand Challenges in Environmental Sciences, 2001”, National Research Council, Committee on Grand 

Challenges in Environmental Sciences, National Academies Press, 

 http://books.nap.edu/catalog/9975.html.

9. “Facilities to Empower Geosciences Discovery 2004-2008,” (NSF 03-053), NSF Advisory Committee for 

Geosciences, 2003, http://www.nsf.gov/geo/facilities/.

10. “A Science Based Case for Large-Scale Simulation,” report of a Department of Energy workshop June 24-25, 

2003, http://www.pnl.gov/scales/.

11. “Beyond the Molecular Frontier: Challenges for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering;” Report from NAS 

Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, (2003), http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10633.html.

12. “Envisioning the Agenda for Water Resources Research in the Twenty-First Century,” NationalAcademies 

Press (2001), http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10140.html.

13. “National Nanotechnology Initiative; Research and Development Supporting the Next Industrial Revolution, 

Supplement to President’s FY 2004 Budget, Oct. 2003,” 

 http://www.nano.gov/html/res/fy04-pdf/fy04-main.html.

14. “Elementary-Particle Physics: Revealing the Secrets of Energy and Matter,” National Academies Press, 1998, 

http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6045.html.

15. “Physics in a New Era: An Overview,” National Academies Press, 2001, 

 http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10118.html.

16. “The Roadmap for the Revitalization of High-End Computing,” report of a workshop, Computing Research 

Association, 2003, http://www.cra.org/reports/supercomputing.pdf.

R E F E R E N C E S
59

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17. “Connecting Quarks with the Cosmos: Eleven Science Questions for the New Century,” National Academies 

Press, 2003, http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10079.html.

18. “Materials Science and Technology: Challenges for the Chemical Sciences in the 21st Century,” National 

Academies Press, 2001, http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10694.html.

19. “Revolutionizing Science and Engineering through Cyberinfrastructure,” Report of the National Science 

Foundation Blue-Ribbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure, 2004, 

 http://www.nsf.gov/cise/sci/reports/toc.jsp.

20. “Understanding the Sun and Solar System Plasmas: Future Directions in Solar and Space Physics,” National 

Academies Press, 2004, http://books.nap.edu/catalog/11188.html.

21. “The Sun to the Earth -- and Beyond: A Decadal Research Strategy in Solar and Space Physics,” National 

Academies Press, 2002, http://books.nap.edu/catalog/10477.html.

22. “Strengthening the Linkages Between the Sciences and the Mathematical Sciences,” Commission on 

Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications (CPSMA) National Academies Press, 2000, 

 http://www.nap.edu/books/0309069475/html/.

23. “How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School,” National Academies Press, 2000, 

 http://books.nap.edu/catalog/9853.html.
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IM AGE CR EDITS

Introduction

Page 5 

(top)

Acevedo, Arecibo Observatory, Cornell University

Page 5 

(center)

National Solar Observatory (NSO)/Association of 

Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA)/

National Science Foundation (NSF)

Page 5 

(bottom)

Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University

Page 6 Jon Yamasaki, DASI Winterover

Chapter 1: Research Objectives and 

Opportunities at the Frontiers 

of Science and Engineering

Page 8 Robert B. Moore and Kenneth A. Mauritz, 

University of Southern Mississippi

Page 9 

(top)

Paul Thompson and Arthur Toga, University of 

California, Los Angeles

Page 9 

(center)

A. Majumdar, University of California, Berkeley

Page 9 

(bottom)

Gerald Baber, Virginia Tech

Page 10 

(top)

MODIS images from NASA’s Terra satellite supplied 

by Dr. Ted Scambos; National Snow and Ice Data 

Center, University of Colorado, Boulder

Page 10 

(bottom)

Jeffrey B. Weiss, University of Colorado, Boulder

Page 11 Nicolle Rager Fuller, National Science Foundation (NSF)

Page 12 Eric J. Heller, Harvard University

Page 13 Chad Mirkin, Northwestern University

Page 14 © CERN

Page 15 

(top)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA)/European Space Agency (ESA)

Page 15 

(bottom)

Gemini Observatory

Page 16 

(top)

John Bally, University of Colorado; Bo Reipurth, 

University of Hawaii; National Optical Astronomy 

Observatory (NOAO)/Universities for Research in 

Astronomy (AURA)/National Science Foundation (NSF)

Page 16 

(bottom)

David A. Aguilar, Harvard-Smithsonian Center 

for Astrophysics

Page 17 

(top)

Adam Miezianko, Karen Fung, Zavnura Pingkan, 

Kristopher Rambish

Page 17 

(bottom)

Matthias Weber

Chapter 2: Major Research Equipment And 

Facilities Construction Projects

Page 20 National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO)/

Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI)

Page 21 National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO)/

Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI) and European 

Southern Observatory

Page 22 EarthScope

Page 23 © 2002 University Corporation for Atmospheric 

Research. All Rights Reserved

Page 24 © 2002 University Corporation for Atmospheric 

Research. All Rights Reserved

Page 25 Jeff Miller, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Page 26 

(top)

John Jacobsen, courtesy IceCube, University of 

Wisconsin, Madison

Page 26 

(bottom)

National Science Foundation (NSF)/University of 

Wisconsin and Darwin Rianto, University of Wisconsin

Page 27 © 2005 American Institute of Biological Sciences; 

graphic by Jason C. Fisher

Page 28 Steve Maslowski, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Page 29 Jacobs School of Engineering, University of 

California, San Diego

Page 30 Kelly James, Oregon State University

Page 31 Brookhaven National Laboratory

Page 32 Integrated Ocean Drilling Program/

Texas A&M University

Page 33 Jonathan Berry, National Science Foundation (NSF)

Page 34 Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center

Page 35 Gary Glatzmaier and Darcy E. Ogden, University of 

California, Santa Cruz; Paul H. Roberts, University 

of California, Los Angeles

Page 36 John Orcutt, Scripps Institute of Oceanography

Page 37 © 2003 Monterey Bay Aquarium Research 

Institute (MBARI)

Page 38 The Glosten Associates, Inc.

Page 39 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave 

Observatory (LIGO)

Page 40 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave 

Observatory (LIGO)

Page 41 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave 

Observatory (LIGO)

Page 42 

(top)

Cover image: Ed Seidel, Louisiana State 

University; Max Planck Institute for Gravitational 

Physics (Albert Einstein Institute); visualization by 

Werner Benger, Zuse Institute Berlin
61

To Index Page

Page 42 

(center)

© 2004 Pixel Perfect Digital, Inc. and its licensors. 

All rights reserved.

Page 42 

(bottom)

© 2004 RubberBall. All rights reserved.

Page 43 National Solar Observatory (NSO)

Page 44 

(left)

W.L. French, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Page 44 

(right)

Luther Goldman, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Page 45 Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS) 

and Laboratory for Elementary-Particle Physics 

(LEPP), Cornell University

Page 46 Kamioka Observatory, ICRR (Institute for Cosmic 

Ray Research), The University of Tokyo

Page 47 National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO)/

Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI)/National Science 

Foundation (NSF); photographer: Kelly Gatlin

Page 48 Orbital

Page 49 NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California 

Institute of Technology (Caltech)

Page 50 Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) Observatory

Page 51 © Ronald Cohen, Carnegie Institution of Washington

Page 52 Kristan Hutchison, National Science Foundation (NSF)

Page 53 Bill Henriksen, National Science Foundation (NSF)

Page 54 SETI Institute and University of California, 

Berkeley; Isaac Gary, artist

Page 55 Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA)

New Initiatives Office, National Optical 

Astronomy Observatory (NOAO)