U.S. Department of Education

NCES 2006–002

fathers of U.S.

children Born in 2001

Findings From the Early

Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Birth Cohort (ECLS-B)

E.D. TAB

Fathers of U.S. Children 

Born in 2001 

Findings From the Early 

Childhood Longitudinal 

Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) 

E.D. TAB 

July 2006 

U.S. Department of Education 

Institute of Education Sciences 

NCES 2006-002 

Frank Avenilla 

Education Statistics Services Institute 

Emily Rosenthal 

Teachers College, Columbia University 

Pete Tice 

National Center for Education Statistics 

Jen Park 

Project Officer 

National Center for Education Statistics 
ii

U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider 

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, 

and reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional 

mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report full and complete statistics on the condition of education 

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herein is in the public domain. 

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information effectively. If you have any comments or suggestions about this or any other NCES product or 

report, we would like to hear from you. Please direct your comments to 

 National Center for Education Statistics 

 Institute of Education Sciences 

 U.S. Department of Education 

 1990 K Street NW 

 Washington, DC 20006-5651 

July 2006 

The NCES World Wide Web Home Page address is http://nces.ed.gov. 

The NCES World Wide Web Electronic Catalog is http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch. 

Suggested Citation 

Avenilla, F., Rosenthal, E., and Tice, P. (2006). Fathers of U.S. Children Born in 2001: Findings From the Early 

Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) (NCES 2006-002). U.S. Department of Education, 

National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

For ordering information on this report, write to 

U.S. Department of Education 

 ED Pubs 

 P.O. Box 1398 

 Jessup, MD 20794-1398 

or call toll free 1-877-4ED-Pubs or order online at http://www.edpubs.org. 

Content Contact

Jen Park 

(202) 219-7002 

jennifer.park@ed.gov
iii

Foreword 

This E.D. TAB presents information about the biological fathers of children born in the United States in 

the year 2001. It is the first publication of findings using the data collected from fathers during the baseyear collection of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). It presents 

information on the demographic characteristics of resident fathers, their attitudes about fathering, and 

their engagement in their child’s development. 

We hope that the information provided in this report will be useful to a wide range of interested readers, 

including both researchers and policymakers. We further hope that the results reported here will 

encourage others to use the ECLS-B data, both now and in the future, as additional waves of data 

collection become available. 

Mark Schneider, Commissioner 

National Center for Education Statistics 
iv
v

Acknowledgments 

The authors thank Jen Park, Shelley Burns, Kerry Gruber, Stephen Broughman, Marilyn Seastrom, and 

Val Plisko of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES); Sandy Eyster, Kristin Denton 

Flanagan, Zeyu Xu, Stephen Mistler, Jed Tank, and Monika Amtz of the American Institutes for Research 

(AIR); and Duc-Le To of the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) for their helpful suggestions and 

reviews of the report. We also thank Kirsten Ellingsen, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 

Christine Winquist Nord, Westat for their contributions to earlier drafts of this report, and Jerry West, 

formerly of NCES, who contributed to the design of the father data collection and the ECLS-B study in 

general. Finally, we thank the many fathers of the children in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, 

Birth Cohort who participated in the study. 
vi
vii 

Contents 

Page

Foreword.......................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................ v

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... ix

Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1

The ECLS-B and the Father Component............................................................................. 1

Focus of This E.D. TAB...................................................................................................... 2

Selected Findings............................................................................................................................. 3

Demographic Characteristics of Children’s Fathers............................................................ 3

Resident Fathers’ Rating of Themselves as Fathers and Indicators of Delight in 

Their Child ....................................................................................................................

4

Resident Fathers’ Attitudes About the Role of Fathers ....................................................... 4

What Resident Fathers Are Doing With and For Their Very Young Children ................... 5

Tables............................................................................................................................................... 7

References........................................................................................................................................ 25

Appendix A: Technical Notes and Glossary.................................................................................... A-1

Survey Methodology ........................................................................................................... A-1

Response Rates.................................................................................................................... A-2

Data Reliability.................................................................................................................... A-3

Glossary: Constructs and Variables Used in Analysis ........................................................ A-5
viii
ix 

List of Tables 

Table Page

 

1. Percentage of children with or without fathers in the household when the children 

were about 9 months of age, by child and family characteristics: Fall 2001 

through fall 2002 .......................................................................................................... 7

 

1a. Standard errors of the percentage of children with or without fathers in the 

household when the children were about 9 months of age, by child and family 

characteristics: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 .................................................................. 8 

 

2. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by demographic 

characteristics of resident fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002.................................... 9 

 

2a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, 

by demographic characteristics of resident fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002........ 10 

 

3. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by resident fathers’ 

rating of themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in child: Fall 2001 

through fall 2002 ........................................................................................................ 11 

 

3a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, 

by resident fathers’ rating of themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in 

child: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 .............................................................................. 12 

 

4. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by resident fathers’ 

attitudes about the role of fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002.................................. 13 

 

4a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, 

by resident fathers’ attitudes about the role of fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002.. 15 

 

5. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by selected activities 

their resident fathers engaged in with them in a typical week: Fall 2001 through 

fall 2002...................................................................................................................... 17 

 

5a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, 

by selected activities their resident fathers engaged in with them in a typical 

week: Fall 2001 through fall 2002.............................................................................. 18 

 

6. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by their resident 

father’s caretaking and play activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 .......................... 19 

 

6a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, 

by their resident father’s caretaking and play activities: Fall 2001 through fall 

2002 ............................................................................................................................ 21 

 

7. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by how often their 

resident father is responsible for selected caretaking activities: Fall 2001 

through fall 2002 ........................................................................................................ 23 
x

List of Tables—Continued 

Table Page

 

7a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, 

by how often their resident father is responsible for selected caretaking 

activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002........................................................................ 24 
1 

Introduction 

This E.D. TAB presents findings about children’s biological fathers from the Early Childhood 

Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), a nationally representative study of young children, their 

families, and their early care and education environments. The ECLS-B is sponsored by the National 

Center for Education Statistics (NCES) within the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), in collaboration 

with several agencies of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NCES and the other 

sponsors of the ECLS-B recognize the need to better understand the role that fathers play in promoting 

their children’s health and education, and view the ECLS-B as an important tool to examine specific roles 

fathers play in children’s development and well-being. 

The ECLS-B is one of the first nationally representative studies of children in the United States to collect 

information directly from fathers. Fathers are increasingly recognized as having an important influence on 

children’s development (Marsiglio et al. 2000; Pleck 1997; Lamb 1997). Studies suggest that fathers 

interact differently with their young children when compared to mothers and such differences may have 

implications for children’s development (Yogman 1982). Limited data exist, however, about what fathers 

think about being fathers and the types of activities they engage in with their children. In the ECLS-B, 

children’s resident and nonresident fathers completed short self-administered questionnaires responding 

to questions about themselves, their attitudes about fatherhood, and their involvement with their children. 

The purpose of this E.D. TAB is to introduce new NCES survey data through the presentation of selected 

descriptive information. The E.D. TAB is purely descriptive in nature. Readers are cautioned not to draw 

causal inferences based solely on the bivariate results presented in this E.D. TAB. It is important to note 

that many of the variables examined in this report are related to one another, and complex interactions and 

relationships have not been explored here. The variables examined here are also just a few of the variables 

that can be examined in these data and were selected to demonstrate the range of information that helped 

shape the design and now is available from the study. The selected findings are examples of statements 

that can be made using the data and are not designed to emphasize any particular issue. Release of this 

E.D. TAB is intended to encourage more in-depth analysis of the data, using more sophisticated statistical 

methods. 

The ECLS-B and the Father Component 

The ECLS-B is a longitudinal study designed to collect information on the early learning experiences of 

America’s children born in 2001 and their families from birth to kindergarten entry. The sample of 

children for this study was selected from birth certificates through agreements with states. The 9-month 

data collection took place from fall 2001 through fall 2002 (when children born in January through 

December 2001 turned 9 months of age). Data were collected by computer-assisted personal interviews 

(CAPI) and self-administered questionnaires with parents/guardians (99 percent of whom were the 

biological mother) and direct child assessments during an in-person home visit. During the 9-month data 

collection, there were about 10,700 primary caregiver interviews and about 10,200 children who were 

directly assessed. Field staff observed children’s behavior and home setting during the home visit.1

 The 

response rate for the 9-month data collection was 74.1 percent, based on weighted data, using the parent 

weight (W1R0). 

 

1

The ECLS-B survey instruments are available on the study website (http://nces.ed.gov/ecls). For details on the content of the different survey 

instruments and for information about the direct child assessments and sample, see Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

User’s Manual for the ECLS-B 9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-092; U.S. Department of Education, 

National Center for Education Statistics, 2004). 
2 

Resident biological fathers were identified during the parent interview. Resident fathers were defined as 

the spouse/partner of the parent respondent who lived in the child’s household (99 percent of resident 

fathers were the biological father). Resident fathers were asked to complete a 20-minute self-administered 

questionnaire that included items that capture many dimensions of father involvement, including the types 

and frequency of activities that resident fathers engaged in with their children, their attitudes about their 

role as fathers, and selected questions about their attitudes toward fathering, as well their education and 

employment status. Biological fathers were asked whether the pregnancy resulting in the child was 

wanted at the time the mother became pregnant and about their involvement during the mother’s 

pregnancy and delivery. During the 9-month data collection, data were collected from about 6,300 

resident fathers, of whom about 6,250 completed the resident father self-administered questionnaire and 

51 completed the main parent interview. In addition to the larger set of questions within the parent 

interview, the resident fathers who responded to the main parent interview were asked questions identical 

to those contained in the father self-administered questionnaire. The response rate for resident fathers, 

conditioned on the identification of a spouse or partner by the parent respondent, was 76.1 percent based 

on weighted data using the father weight (W1F0).2

 See appendix A for additional information about 

resident father response rates. 

Focus of This E.D. TAB 

This E.D. TAB presents data about the resident biological fathers of American children born in 2001. 

The focus on resident biological fathers is based mainly on the fact that among the 80 percent of children 

with resident fathers (when the children were about 9 months of age) approximately 99 percent were the 

biological or birth fathers.3

 

The following four topics are covered: 

• Demographic characteristics of children’s fathers; 

• Fathers’ rating of themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in their child; 

• Fathers’ attitudes about the role of fathers; 

• What fathers are doing with and for their very young children 

For information on data reliability and test procedures, please refer to appendix A. The W1F0 father 

weight is the weight used to produce all estimates in this report. The estimates are weighted in order to 

adjust for the unequal probability of being sampled in the study, as well as to provide estimates that are 

representative of the population of 9-month-old children with resident biological fathers in 2001. See 

appendix A for a description of the variables and measures used in this report. Data collection procedures 

for resident and nonresident fathers are also described in appendix A. 

 

2

The overall response rate for resident fathers, conditioned on the completion of the parent interview, was 56.4 percent (76.1 percent times the 

parent response rate of 74.1 percent). 

3

Even though the ECLS-B collected data from nonresident fathers, the response rate for these data was too low (37.1 percent) to report results 

from the data. See appendix A for information on the nonresident father data collection and response rates. 
3 

Selected Findings 

Demographic Characteristics of Children’s Fathers 

This report provides basic information about the residential biological fathers of sampled children born in 

the United States in 2001. Children were about 9 months of age at the time of the first data collection. 

Data collection occurred during the fall of 2001 through fall of 2002. Information on the demographic 

characteristics of children’s fathers was provided by both fathers and mothers as part of the ECLS-B. 

Information in this report relies on the fathers’ reports.4

 

Table 1 presents some basic information about the percentage of children living with a father figure when 

the children were about 9 months of age. 

When children were about 9 months of age, 

• 80 percent lived in households where a father or father figure resided; 20 percent lived in 

households where no father or father figure resided. 

• Of the 80 percent of children who lived in households where a father or a father figure resided, 99 

percent lived with their biological or birth father (in other words, about 79 percent of all children 

lived with their biological or birth father). 

 

Table 2 presents some basic demographic information about the resident biological fathers5

 of children 

when they were about 9 months of age. 

Among children with resident fathers, 

• 1 percent had fathers who were under 20 years old; 38 percent had fathers who were in their 

twenties; and 62 percent had fathers who were 30 years old or older. 

• 63 percent had fathers who were White non-Hispanic; 8 percent had fathers who were Black nonHispanic; 21 percent had fathers who were Hispanic; 4 percent had fathers who were 

Asian/Pacific Islanders; and 1 percent had fathers who were American Indian/Alaska Native. 

• 10 percent had fathers who were under 20 years old when their first child was born. 

• 21 percent had fathers who had not completed high school; 49 percent had fathers whose highest 

level of education was a high school diploma/GED or some college/vocational or technical 

certificate; and 29 percent had fathers with a bachelor’s degree or more education. 

 

4

All information in this report relies on father report except for father’s education and father’s work status. If the father did not provide 

information on education or work status, the variable was completed with information provided by the mother. For more information for the 

source and derivation of the variable, please see appendix A: Technical Notes and Glossary. 

5

For ease of presentation, resident biological fathers will be referred to as resident fathers for the remainder of this report.
4 

Resident Fathers’ Rating of Themselves as Fathers and Indicators of Delight in 

Their Child 

Resident fathers were asked to provide an overall rating of themselves as fathers and respond to questions 

that indicated their delight in their children. 

Table 3 presents resident fathers’ ratings of themselves as fathers, of children who were about 9 months 

of age. 

Among children with resident fathers, 

• 79 percent had fathers who said they were a better than average father or a very good father. 

• 2 percent had fathers who said they were not very good at being a father or had some trouble 

being a father. 

• 69 percent had fathers who reported that they talked all of the time to family and friends about the 

child. 

• 74 percent had fathers who reported finding themselves thinking about the child all of the time. 

Resident Fathers’ Attitudes About the Role of Fathers 

Resident fathers were asked to rank a list of six roles or responsibilities that they felt were the most 

important things for them to do as fathers. They were also asked to report whether they agreed or 

disagreed with a series of statements about the role of fathers.

Table 4 presents estimates of resident fathers’ attitudes about their role as fathers, when their children 

were about 9 months of age. 

Among children with resident fathers, 

• 64 percent had fathers who reported that showing my child love and affection was the most 

important thing they do as a father. 

• 23 percent had fathers who reported that making sure child is safe and protected was the most 

important thing they do as a father. 

• 54 percent had fathers who strongly agreed that a father should be as heavily involved as the 

mother in the care of the child. 

• 77 percent had fathers who strongly agreed that the way a father treats his baby has long-term 

effects on the child. 

• 84 percent had fathers who strongly agreed that fatherhood is a highly rewarding experience. 
5 

What Resident Fathers Are Doing With and For Their Very Young Children 

Resident fathers were also asked about the many ways they directly interact with and care for their infants 

including their level of participation in both play and routine infant care. 

Resident fathers’ involvement in selected activities in a typical week when their children were about 9 

months of age, is shown in table 5. 

Among children with resident fathers, 

• 72 percent were read to by their fathers at least once a week. 

• 71 percent had fathers who told them stories at least once a week. 

• 89 percent had fathers who sang songs to them at least once a week. 

Tables 6 and 7 show estimates of resident fathers’ frequency of involvement in play and caretaking 

activities in a typical week, when their children were about 9 months of age. 

Among children with resident fathers, 

• 49 percent had fathers who changed their diapers more than once a day. 

• 96 percent of children had fathers who engaged in some type of physical play with them daily 

(i.e., tickle or blow on his/her belly). 

• 64 percent of children had fathers who played a game like peek-a-boo with them every day. 

• 93 percent of children had fathers who held them more than once a day. 

• 37 percent of children had fathers who always or often was the one who got up with them if they 

woke during the night. 

• 25 percent of children had fathers who always or often was the one who stayed home to care for 

them when they were ill. 
6 
7 

Tables 

Table 1. Percentage of children with or without fathers in the household when the children were 

about 9 months of age, by child and family characteristics: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Father in household 

Child and family characteristics 

Population 

(in thousands) All children1 Biological 

Nonbiological2

No father 

in 

household 

 

 Total 3,997 100 79 1 20 

Child’s sex 

 Male 2,041 51 79 1 19 

 Female 1,956 49 78 1 20 

 

Child’s race/ethnicity 

 White, non-Hispanic 2,133 54 88 2 10 

 Black, non-Hispanic 547 14 41 1 58 

 Hispanic 1,018 25 78 1 20 

 Asian, non-Hispanic 111 3 93 # 6 

 Other, non-Hispanic3 178 4 74 1 ! 25 

 

Poverty status4 

 Below poverty threshold 914 23 53 1 45 

 At or above poverty threshold 3,083 77 86 1 12 

#Rounds to zero. 

!Interpret data with caution. Standard error is .33 or more of the estimate.

1

The “All children” column presents column percentages. Please note, the remainder of the table presents row percentages. 

2

In the absence of a biological parent, the father designation (i.e., non-biological) was assigned to the adoptive, step, foster/guardian, partner 

(including household members defined as spouses/partners of the parent respondent but who were not identified by the respondent as 

mothers/female guardians), or “unknown-type” parent. 

3

Other includes Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islanders, American Indian, Alaska Native, and multiracial children. 

4

Poverty status is based on Census guidelines from 2001 where, for example, a family of 4 with an income of less than $18,104.00 was 

considered to be living in poverty. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding or missing data. Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: Flanagan, K.D., and West, J. (2004). Children Born in 2001: First Results from the Base Year of the Early Childhood Longitudinal 

Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) (NCES 2005-036). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
8 

Table 1a. Standard errors of the percentage of children with or without fathers in the household 

when the children were about 9 months of age, by child and family characteristics: Fall 

2001 through fall 2002 

Father in household 

Child and family characteristics All children1 Biological 

Nonbiological2

No father in 

household 

 

 Total † 0.5 0.1 0.5 

 

Child’s sex 

 Male 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.7 

 Female 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.8 

 

Child’s race/ethnicity 

 White, non-Hispanic 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.2 1.7 0.2 1.7 

 Hispanic 0.4 1.4 0.3 1.3 

 Asian, non-Hispanic 0.1 1.1 — 1.1 

 Other, non-Hispanic3 0.1 2.4 0.5 2.3 

 

Poverty status4 

 Below poverty threshold 0.6 1.3 0.3 1.3 

 At or above poverty threshold 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.4 

— Not available. Estimate associated with the standard error rounds to zero. 

†Not applicable.

1

The “All children” column presents column percentages. Please note, the remainder of the table presents row percentages. 

2

In the absence of a biological parent, the father designation (i.e., non-biological) was assigned to the adoptive, step, foster/guardian, partner 

(including household members defined as spouses/partners of the parent respondent but who were not identified by the respondent as 

mothers/female guardians), or “unknown-type” parent. 

3

Other includes Native Hawaiian, other Pacific Islanders, American Indian, Alaska Native, and multiracial children. 

4

Poverty status is based on Census guidelines from 2001 where, for example, a family of 4 with an income of less than $18,104.00 was 

considered to be living in poverty. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: Flanagan, K.D., and West, J. (2004). Children Born in 2001: First Results from the Base Year of the Early Childhood Longitudinal 

Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) (NCES 2005-036). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
9 

Table 2. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by demographic characteristics of 

resident fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Characteristics Number (thousands) Percent 

 

 Total children with resident fathers 3,106 100 

 

Age 

Under 20 years 34 1 

20-24 years 420 14 

25-29 years 739 24 

30-34 years 933 30 

35 years and older 979 32 

 

Race/ethnicity 

White, non-Hispanic 1,959 63 

Black, non-Hispanic 250 8 

Hispanic 636 21 

Asian/Pacific Islander/Hawaiian Native 112 4 

American Indian/Alaska Native 18 1 

Unknown/Not stated 128 4 

 

Citizenship status 

Citizen 2,570 84 

Noncitizen 486 16 

 

Age at birth of first child 

Under 20 years 308 10 

20-24 years 855 28 

25-29 years 867 29 

30-34 years 669 22 

35 years and older 335 11 

 

Highest level of education 

Less than high school 662 21 

High school diploma/GED 695 22 

Some college/vocational technical degree 835 27 

Bachelor’s or higher 914 29 

 

Work status 

35 hours or more per week 2,578 86 

Less than 35 hours per week 143 5 

Looking for work 107 4 

Not in labor force 176 6 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates 

weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
10 

Table 2a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by 

demographic characteristics of resident fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Characteristics Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers † 

Age 

Under 20 years 0.2 

20-24 years 0.5 

25-29 years 0.6 

30-34 years 0.8 

35 years and older 0.8 

Race/ethnicity 

White, non-Hispanic 0.6 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.3 

Hispanic 0.5 

Asian/Pacific Islander/Hawaiian Native 0.1 

American Indian/Alaska Native # 

Unknown/Not stated 0.4 

Citizenship status 

Citizen 0.8 

Noncitizen 0.8 

Age at birth of first child 

Under 20 years 0.6 

20-24 years 0.7 

25-29 years 0.8 

30-34 years 0.6 

35 years and older 0.6 

Highest level of education 

Less than high school 0.7 

High school diploma/GED 0.7 

Some college/vocational technical degree 0.8 

Bachelor’s or higher 0.6 

Work status 

35 hours or more per week 0.6 

Less than 35 hours per week 0.4 

Looking for work 0.4 

Not in labor force 0.4 

†Not applicable. Estimate associated with standard error is 100 percent. 

#Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
11 

Table 3. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by resident fathers’ rating of 

themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in child: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Fathers’ ratings of themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in child 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

 

 Total children with resident fathers 3,106 100 

 

Father’s rating of himself as a father 

A very good father 1,493 49 

A better than average father 924 30 

An average father 524 17 

Has some trouble being a father 73 2 

Not very good at being a father 15 # 

Indicators of delight 

Talk a lot about the child to friends and family 

All of the time 2,106 69 

Some of the time 886 29 

Rarely 58 2 

Never 9 # 

Carry pictures of the child with you wherever you go 

All of the time 2,020 66 

Some of the time 476 16 

Rarely 287 9 

Never 273 9 

Often find self thinking about the child 

All of the time 2,250 74 

Some of the time 778 25 

Rarely 25 1 

Never # # 

Think holding and cuddling the child is fun 

All of the time 2,583 85 

Some of the time 449 15 

Rarely 8 # 

Never 5 # 

Think it’s more fun to get the child something new than himself 

All of the time 2,006 66 

Some of the time 963 32 

Rarely 58 2 

Never 15 # 

#Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
12 

Table 3a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by 

resident fathers’ rating of themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in child: Fall 2001 

through fall 2002 

Fathers’ ratings of themselves as fathers and indicators of delight in child Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers † 

Father’s rating of himself as a father 

A very good father 0.9 

A better than average father 0.7 

An average father 0.7 

Has some trouble being a father 0.3 

Not very good at being a father 

Indicators of delight 

Talk a lot about the child to friends and family 

All of the time 0.8 

Some of the time 0.8 

Rarely 0.2 

Never 0.1 

Carry pictures of the child with you wherever you go 

All of the time 1.0 

Some of the time 0.7 

Rarely 0.6 

Never 0.4 

Often find self thinking about the child 

All of the time 0.9 

Some of the time 0.8 

Rarely 0.2 

Never — 

Think holding and cuddling the child is fun 

All of the time 0.6 

Some of the time 0.6 

Rarely 0.1 

Never 0.1 

Think it’s more fun to get the child something new than himself 

All of the time 0.9 

Some of the time 0.8 

Rarely 0.2 

Never 0.1 

†Not applicable. Estimate associated with standard error is 100 percent. 

#Rounds to zero. 

— Not available. Estimate associated with standard error rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
13 

Table 4. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by resident fathers’ attitudes 

about the role of fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Attitudes about role of fathers 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers 3,106 100

Fathers’ ranking of the most important thing to do as a father 

Showing the child love and affection 1,623 64

Taking time to play with the child 53 2 

Taking care of the child financially 156 6

Giving the child moral and ethical guidance 84 3 

Making sure the child is safe and protected 587 23 

Teaching the child and encouraging curiosity 26 1 ! 

Selected beliefs about the role of fathers 

It is difficult for men to express affectionate feelings toward babies. 

 Strongly agree 140 5 

 Agree 353 12 

 Disagree 1,437 48 

 Strongly disagree 1,080 36

A father should be as heavily involved as the mother in the care of the child. 

 Strongly agree 1,615 54

 Agree 1,153 38 

 Disagree 236 8 

 Strongly disagree 10 #

The way a father treats his baby has long-term effects on the child. 

 Strongly agree 2,313 77 

 Agree 647 21 

 Disagree 43 1 

 Strongly disagree 11 #

The activities a father does with his children do not matter. What matters 

 more is whether he provides for them. 

 

 Strongly agree 154 5 

 Agree 184 6

 Disagree 1,150 38 

 Strongly disagree 1,509 50

See notes at end of table. 
14 

Table 4. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by resident fathers’ attitudes 

about the role of fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002—Continued 

Attitudes about role of fathers 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

One of the most important things a father can do for his children is give 

 their mother encouragement and emotional support. 

 

Strongly agree 1,482 49 

Agree 1,328 44 

Disagree 174 6 

Strongly disagree 32 1 

 

All things considered, fatherhood is a highly rewarding experience. 

Strongly agree 2,515 84 

Agree 462 15 

Disagree 17 1 

Strongly disagree 11 # 

#Rounds to zero. 

!Interpret data with caution. Standard error is .33 or more of the estimate. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
15 

Table 4a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by 

resident fathers’ attitudes about the role of fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Attitudes about role of fathers Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers † 

Fathers’ ranking of the most important thing to do as a father 

Showing the child love and affection 0.9 

Taking time to play with the child 0.7 

Taking care of the child financially 1.2 

Giving the child moral and ethical guidance 0.9 

Making sure the child is safe and protected 1.0 

Teaching the child and encouraging curiosity 0.7 

Selected beliefs about the role of fathers 

It is difficult for men to express affectionate feelings toward babies. 

Strongly agree 0.4 

Agree 0.5 

Disagree 1.0 

Strongly disagree 0.9 

A father should be as heavily involved as the mother in the care of the child. 

Strongly agree 0.9 

Agree 0.8 

Disagree 0.5 

Strongly disagree 0.1 

The way a father treats his baby has long-term effects on the child. 

Strongly agree 0.8 

Agree 0.8 

Disagree 0.2 

Strongly disagree 0.1 

The activities a father does with his children do not matter. What matters more is 

 whether he provides for them. 

Strongly agree 0.4 

Agree 0.5 

Disagree 0.8 

Strongly disagree 0.9 

See notes at end of table. 
16 

Table 4a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by 

resident fathers’ attitudes about the role of fathers: Fall 2001 through fall 2002—Continued 

Attitudes about role of fathers Percent 

One of the most important things a father can do for his children is give their mother 

 encouragement and emotional support. 

Strongly agree 0.8 

Agree 0.8 

Disagree 0.3 

Strongly disagree 0.2 

All things considered, fatherhood is a highly rewarding experience. 

Strongly agree 0.8 

Agree 0.8 

Disagree 0.1 

Strongly disagree — † Not applicable. Estimate associated with standard error is 100 percent. 

— Not available. Estimate associated with standard error rounds to zero. 

Note: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
17 

 

Table 5. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by selected activities their 

resident fathers engaged in with them in a typical week: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Selected child engagement activities 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

 

 Total children with resident fathers 3,106 100 

 

Read books with your child 

Every day 254 8 

Three to six times a week 535 18 

Once or twice a week 1,411 46 

Not at all 841 28 

 

Tell stories to your child 

Every day 320 11 

Three to six times a week 491 16 

Once or twice a week 1,311 44 

Not at all 882 29 

 

Sing songs with your child 

Every day 1,052 35 

Three to six times a week 743 25 

Once or twice a week 872 29 

Not at all 338 11 

 

Take your child along while doing errands 

Every day 745 24 

Three to six times a week 907 30 

Once or twice a week 1,111 36 

Not at all 298 10 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
18 

Table 5a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by 

selected activities their resident fathers engaged in with them in a typical week: Fall 2001 

through fall 2002 

Selected child engagement activities Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers † 

Read books with your child 

Every day 0.8 

Three to six times a week 0.8 

Once or twice a week 0.6 

Not at all 0.5 

Tell stories to your child 

Every day 0.7 

Three to six times a week 0.9 

Once or twice a week 0.6 

Not at all 0.5 

Sing songs with your child 

Every day 0.5 

Three to six times a week 0.7 

Once or twice a week 0.7 

Not at all 0.8 

Take your child along while doing errands 

Every day 0.5 

Three to six times a week 0.8 

Once or twice a week 0.8 

Not at all 0.9 

†Not applicable. Estimate associated with standard error is 100 percent. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Estimates weighted by father weight 

(W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
19 

 

Table 6. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by their resident fathers’ 

caretaking and play activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Selected activities 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

 

 Total children with resident fathers 3,106 100 

 

Change the child’s diaper 

More than once a day 1,497 49 

About once a day 629 21 

A few times a week 514 17 

A few times a month 165 5 

Rarely 161 5 

Not at all 899 3 

 

Prepare meals or bottles for the child 

More than once a day 1,383 45 

About once a day 694 23 

A few times a week 564 19 

A few times a month 180 6 

Rarely 135 4 

Not at all 90 3 

 

Feed the child or give the child a bottle 

More than once a day 1,393 46 

About once a day 798 26 

A few times a week 547 18 

A few times a month 173 6 

Rarely 75 2 

Not at all 52 2 

 

Wash or bathe the child 

More than once a day 240 8 

About once a day 431 14 

A few times a week 983 33 

A few times a month 590 20 

Rarely 488 16 

Not at all 264 9 

 

Dress the child 

More than once a day 537 18 

About once a day 795 26 

A few times a week 1,119 37 

A few times a month 337 11 

Rarely 191 6 

Not at all 67 2 

See notes at end of table. 
20 

Table 6. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by their resident father’s 

caretaking and play activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002—Continued 

Selected activities 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

 

Put the child to sleep 

More than once a day 884 29 

About once a day 912 30 

A few times a week 792 26 

A few times a month 238 8 

Rarely 149 5 

Not at all 57 2 

 

Tickle him/her or blow on his/her belly 

More than once a day 2,554 84 

About once a day 354 12 

A few times a week 107 4 

A few times a month 186 1 

Rarely 7 # 

Not at all 7 # 

 

Play peek-a-boo with the child 

More than once a day 1,046 35 

About once a day 882 29 

A few times a week 751 25 

A few times a month 172 6 

Rarely 103 3 

Not at all 72 2 

 

Take the child outside for a walk or to play 

More than once a day 330 11 

About once a day 496 16 

A few times a week 1,074 35 

A few times a month 668 22 

Rarely 312 10 

Not at all 153 5 

 

Hold him/her 

More than once a day 281 93 

About once a day 148 5 

A few times a week 42 1 

A few times a month 7 # 

Rarely 4 # 

Not at all 2 # 

#Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
21 

 

Table 6a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by their 

resident father’s caretaking and play activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Selected activities Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers † 

Change the child’s diaper 

More than once a day 0.9 

About once a day 0.6 

A few times a week 0.6 

A few times a month 0.4 

Rarely 0.4 

Not at all 0.3 

Prepare meals or bottles for the child 

More than once a day 0.8 

About once a day 0.7 

A few times a week 0.7 

A few times a month 0.4 

Rarely 0.4 

Not at all 0.3 

Feed the child or give the child a bottle 

More than once a day 0.9 

About once a day 0.7 

A few times a week 0.7 

A few times a month 0.4 

Rarely 0.3 

Not at all 0.2 

Wash or bathe the child 

More than once a day 0.5 

About once a day 0.7 

A few times a week 0.8 

A few times a month 0.8 

Rarely 0.6 

Not at all 0.4 

Dress the child 

More than once a day 0.8 

About once a day 0.8 

A few times a week 0.9 

A few times a month 0.5 

Rarely 0.4 

Not at all 0.3 

See notes at end of table. 
22 

 

Table 6a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by their 

resident father’s caretaking and play activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002—Continued 

Selected activities Percent 

Put the child to sleep 

More than once a day 0.8 

About once a day 0.7 

A few times a week 0.7 

A few times a month 0.5 

Rarely 0.4 

Not at all 0.3 

Tickle him/her or blow on his/her belly 

More than once a day 0.6 

About once a day 0.5 

A few times a week 0.3 

A few times a month 0.1 

Rarely 0.1 

Not at all 0.1 

Play peek-a-boo with the child 

More than once a day 0.8 

About once a day 0.8 

A few times a week 0.7 

A few times a month 0.4 

Rarely 0.3 

Not at all 0.3 

Take the child outside for a walk or to play 

More than once a day 0.6 

About once a day 0.7 

A few times a week 0.8 

A few times a month 0.7 

Rarely 0.5 

Not at all 0.4 

Hold him/her 

More than once a day 0.4 

About once a day 0.4 

A few times a week 0.2 

A few times a month — 

Rarely — 

Not at all — †Not applicable. Estimate associated with standard error is 100 percent. 

— Not available. Estimate associated with standard error rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
23 

 

Table 7. Percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by how often their resident 

father is responsible for selected caretaking activities: Fall 2001 through fall 2002 

Selected caretaking activities 

Number 

(thousands) Percent 

 

 Total children with resident fathers 3,106 100 

 

Get up with the child during the night 

Always 431 14 

Often 718 23 

Sometimes 1,033 34 

Rarely 637 21 

Never 240 8 

 

Soothe the child when he/she is upset 

Always 541 18 

Often 1,503 50 

Sometimes 861 29 

Rarely 112 4 

Never 19 1 

 

Take the child to the doctor 

Always 562 18 

Often 500 16 

Sometimes 904 30 

Rarely 716 24 

Never 357 12 

 

Stay home to care for the child when he/she is ill 

Always 356 12 

Often 390 13 

Sometimes 832 27 

Rarely 820 27 

Never 632 21 

 

Of children who attend child care, take the child to or from child care 

Always 398 14 

Often 381 13 

Sometimes 383 13 

Rarely 326 11 

Never 136 48 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates 

weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
24 

 

Table 7a. Standard errors of the percentage distribution of children about 9 months of age, by how 

often their resident father is responsible for selected caretaking activities: Fall 2001 through 

fall 2002 

Selected caretaking activities Percent 

 Total children with resident fathers † 

Get up with the child during the night 

Always 0.8 

Often 0.8 

Sometimes 0.8 

Rarely 0.7 

Never 0.5 

Soothe the child when he/she is upset 

Always 0.7 

Often 0.9 

Sometimes 0.8 

Rarely 0.3 

Never 0.2 

Take the child to the doctor 

Always 0.6 

Often 0.7 

Sometimes 0.7 

Rarely 0.7 

Never 0.6 

Stay home to care for the child when he/she is ill 

Always 0.6 

Often 0.6 

Sometimes 0.8 

Rarely 0.7 

Never 0.8 

Of children who attend child care, take the child to or from child care 

Always 0.7 

Often 0.6 

Sometimes 0.7 

Rarely 0.6 

Never 1.0 

†Not applicable. Estimate associated with standard error is 100 percent. 

NOTE: Estimates provided in this table pertain only to children with resident fathers. Estimates weighted by father weight (W1F0). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 

9-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004-093). 
25 

References 

Flanagan, K.D., and West, J. (2004). Children Born in 2001: First Results from the Base Year of the 

Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) (NCES 2005-036). U.S. Department 

of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Lamb, M.E. (1997). The Development of Father-Infant Relationships. In M.E. Lamb (Ed.), The Role of 

the Father in Child Development. (3rd ed., pp. 104-120). New York: Wiley. 

Marsiglio, W., Amato, P., Day, R.D., and Lamb, M.E. (2000). Scholarship on Fatherhood in the 1990s 

and Beyond. Journal of Marriage and the Family 62(4): 1173-1191. 

Pleck, J.H. (1997). Paternal Involvement: Levels, Sources, and Consequences. In M.E. Lamb (Ed.), The 

Role of the Father in Child Development (3rd ed., pp. 104-120). New York: Wiley. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). Early Childhood 

Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Nine-Month Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic 

Code Book (NCES 2004-093), by Christine Nord, Brad Edwards, Richard Hilpert, Laura Branden, 

Carol Andreassen, Anne Elmore, Desrene Sesay, Philip Fletcher, Jim Green, Ray Saunders, Rick 

Dulaney, Lizabeth Reaney, and Kristen Flanagan. Washington, DC: Author. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). Early Childhood 

Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Methodology Report for the 9-Month Data Collection 

(2001-2002) Volume 2: Sampling (NCES 2005-147). Washington, DC: Author. 

Yogman. M.W. (1982). Development of the Father-Infant Relationship. In H.E. Fitzgerald, B.M. Lester, 

and M.W. Yogman (Eds.), Theory and Research in Behavioral Pediatrics (pp. 221-279). New 

York: Plenum Press. 
A-1 
A-1 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Survey Methodology 

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) is sponsored by the U.S. Department of 

Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The ECLSB is designed to provide detailed information on children’s development, health, and in- and out-of-home 

experiences in the years leading up to school. The children participating in the ECLS-B are being 

followed longitudinally through kindergarten entry. Estimates in this report are based on data collected 

from and about children during the first wave of data collection when they were approximately 9 months 

old. Westat conducted the first wave of the study. 

A nationally representative sample of about 10,700 children born in the United States in 2001 and/or their 

parents participated in the first wave of the ECLS-B. The sample includes children from different 

racial/ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds, and includes oversamples of Chinese and other Asian and 

Pacific Islander children, American Indian/Alaska Native children, twins, and children with moderately 

low and very low birth weight. 

The sample of infants was selected using a clustered, list frame sampling design. The list frame was 

registered births in the National Center for Health Statistics’ (NCHS) vital statistics system (from lists 

provided by state registrars). Births were sampled from 96 core primary sampling units (PSU) 

representing all infants born in the United States in the year 2001. The PSUs were counties and county 

groups. To support the American Indian/Alaska Native oversample, 18 additional PSUs were selected 

from a supplemental frame consisting of areas where the population had a higher proportion of American 

Indian/Alaska Native births (for more information see section 4.1.3 in the ECLS-B 9-month Data File 

User’s Manual6

). Sampling was based on occurrence of the birth as listed on the birth certificate. 

Sampled children subsequently identified by the state registrars as having died or who had been adopted 

after the issuance of the birth certificate were excluded from the sample. Also, infants whose birth 

mothers were younger than 15 years at the time of the child’s birth were excluded from the sampling 

frame in response to state confidentiality and sensitivity concerns. Sampled children whom the states 

identified as having died before or been adopted prior to the 9-month assessment were removed from the 

study in field operations. 

Resident fathers. The resident father information was collected through a 20-minute, hard-copy, selfadministered questionnaire. Or, if the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview, resident 

father information was collected as part of the parent interview. For the resident father self-administered 

questionnaire, if a household member was identified as the parent respondent’s partner or spouse, the 

field interviewer prepared the questionnaire package for the resident father. The questionnaire was titled 

“Questions for Fathers and Other Important People” (referred to often as the resident father 

questionnaire). A Spanish version of this questionnaire was also available. If the father was present during 

the home visit, he was asked to complete the questionnaire before the field interviewer left the home. 

Otherwise, the resident father questionnaire was left in the home for the parent respondent’s 

spouse/partner to complete and send back to the contractor’s home office. Resident fathers who were the 

respondents to the parent interview were, of course, also considered resident fathers, but they did not 

complete the resident father questionnaire. Rather, the computer-assisted parent interview included 

special paths for father respondents that contained the same questions that were asked in the resident 

father questionnaire. All resident biological fathers who responded to the parent survey or the resident 

father survey were included in these analyses (n = about 6,200). 

 

6

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2004). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 9-month Restricted-use 

Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004–093). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
A-2 

The person identified as the resident father was typically the biological father of the study child (99 

percent). There were circumstances, however, when the biological father was not the person who 

completed the resident father questionnaire. The types of respondents to the resident father questionnaire 

included biological fathers, adoptive fathers, foster fathers, stepfathers, boyfriends of the child’s mother, 

or, in some cases, a same-sex partner of the mother. If the study child’s grandmother completed the parent 

interview, the child’s grandfather may have been asked to complete the questionnaire; if the child’s aunt 

completed the parent interview, her spouse or partner was asked to complete the questionnaire. Such 

cases are not included in this report unless otherwise noted in a particular table.7

Nonresident fathers. In cases where the child’s biological father did not reside with the child, information 

was gathered from the biological mother about the biological father. A nonresident biological father may 

have been asked to complete a 10-minute nonresident father questionnaire. Whether he was asked 

depended on whether the biological mother was the respondent to the parent interview, the father’s 

frequency of contact with the child or the birth mother, and whether the mother granted permission to 

contact the father. To be eligible for the questionnaire, the father must have (1) seen the child at least once 

in the last month; (2) seen the child at least 7 days in the last 3 months; or (3) been in touch with the 

child’s birth mother at least once a month in the 3 months preceding the parent interview. The screening 

criteria were used for nonresident fathers in order to obtain reliable information on caregiving and 

involvement activities from nonresident fathers. 

For more information on any of the components of the ECLS-B, please refer to the ECLS-B 9-month 

Data File User’s Manual.8

Response Rates 

The ECLS-B is a nationally representative sample of the 3.9 million children born in the year 2001. The 

response rate for the 9-month data collection was 74.1 percent, weighted for differences in the probability 

of selection between certain kinds of children and differential nonresponse across different kinds of 

children. The response rate is the number of completed parent interviews divided by the total eligible 

sample. To be considered complete, the first three sections of the parent interview had to be completed. 

These sections pertained to the introduction (Introduction–IN), information on the family structure in the 

child’s household (Family Structure–FS), and basic information about the child’s health and development 

(Child Development–CD). The response rate for the 9-month resident father questionnaire was 76.1 

percent. This response rate is the number of completed resident father questionnaires received divided by 

the number of eligible resident fathers. The overall response rate for resident fathers, conditioned on the 

completion of the parent interview was 56.4 percent (76.1 percent times the parent response rate of 74.1 

percent). The response rate for the 9-month nonresident father questionnaire (conditioned on the 

completion of the parent interview and based on (1) the identification of the biological father by the 

mother in the parent interview, (2) her consent to his participation in the study, and (3) the father meeting 

the criteria for frequency and recency of contacts with either mother or child outlined above) was 50 

percent. It is the number of completed nonresident father questionnaires received divided by the number 

of eligible nonresident fathers. The overall response rate for nonresident fathers, conditioned on both the 

completion of the parent interview and the meeting eligibility requirements to receive the nonresident 

 

7

As noted above, the majority (99 percent) of the resident father questionnaires, when the children were about 9 months of age, were completed 

by the child’s biological father. 

8

National Center for Education Statistics (2004). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 9-month Restricted-use Data File 

and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004–093). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
A-3 

father questionnaire, was 37.1 percent (50.0 percent times the parent response rate of 74.1 percent). These 

response rates are too low to have confidence in reporting out the nonresident father data.9

A nonresponse bias analysis which included data from the father component was conducted (Early 

Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) Methodology Report for the 9-Month Data 

Collection (2001-2002) Volume 2: Sampling (NCES 2005-147)). The evaluation consisted of the 

following elements: 

• Evaluation of response rates; 

• Comparison of frame data between respondents and nonrespondents to the parent component; 

• Evaluation of the effect of weighting nonresponse adjustments by comparing sample 

characteristics at different stages of weighting to the sampling frame; 

• Comparison of ECLS-B data with other surveys; and 

• Evaluation of the impact of substitution on nonresponse bias. 

The analysis benefited from the detailed information available on the frame. The birth record contains a 

number of important variables on the mother and the child that support many comparisons between 

respondents and nonrespondents. 

In accordance with National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) statistical standards, item response 

rates were examined for key variables from the parent questionnaire, child assessment, and resident and 

nonresident father questionnaires with unweighted item responses rates less than 85 percent. Response 

rates were computed excluding cases where the item was not applicable to the respondent. According to 

this item level response rate analysis, no variables used in this E.D. TAB were identified as having an 

item level response rate less than 85 percent. 

Data Reliability 

Estimates produced using data from the ECLS-B are subject to two types of error, sampling and 

nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors are errors made in the collection and processing of data. 

Sampling errors occur because the data are collected from a sample rather than a census of the population. 

Nonsampling Errors. Nonsampling error is the term used to describe variations in the estimates that may 

be caused by population coverage limitations, as well as data collection, processing, and reporting 

procedures. The sources of nonsampling errors are typically problems like unit and item nonresponse, 

differences in respondents’ interpretations of the meaning of the questions, response differences related to 

the particular time the survey was conducted, and mistakes in data preparation. 

In general, it is difficult to identify and estimate either the amount of nonsampling error or the bias caused 

by this error. In the ECLS-B, efforts were made to prevent such errors from occurring and to compensate 

for them where possible. 

Another potential source of nonsampling error is respondent bias that occurs when respondents 

systematically misreport (intentionally or unintentionally) information in a study. One potential source of 

respondent bias in this survey is social desirability bias. An associated error occurs when respondents give 

unduly positive assessments about those close to them. For example, parents may give higher assessments 

 

9

For more information on the response rates for nonresident fathers see: National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). Early Childhood 

Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) Methodology Report for the 9-month Data Collection (2001-2002) Volume 2: Sampling (NCES 

2005-147). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
A-4 

of their children’s motor accomplishments (like feeding themselves) than might be obtained from direct 

assessment. 

Readers should be aware that respondent bias may be present in this survey as in any survey. It is not 

possible to state precisely how such bias may affect the results. NCES has tried to minimize some of these 

biases by asking some of the same questions about the sampled child of both the mother and father (e.g., 

activities the father engages in with the child). 

Sampling Errors and Weighting. The sample of children born in the United States during 2001 was just 

one of many possible samples of 2001 births that could have been selected. Therefore, estimates produced 

from the ECLS-B sample may differ from estimates that would have been produced from other samples. 

This type of variability is called sampling error because it arises from using a sample of children, rather 

than including all children born in 2001. 

The standard error is a measure of variability due to sampling when estimating a statistic. Standard errors 

for estimates presented in this report were computed using a jackknife replication method. Standard errors 

can be used as a measure for the precision expected from a particular sample. The probability that a 

complete census count would differ from the sample estimate by less than 1 standard error is 68 percent. 

The chance that the difference would be less than 1.65 standard errors is about 90 percent, and that the 

difference would be less than 1.96 standard errors, about 95 percent. 

In order to produce national estimates from the ECLS-B data collected during the 9-month data 

collection, the sample data were weighted. Weighting the data adjusts for unequal selection probabilities 

at the child level and the weights are adjusted for unit nonresponse. The father weight (W1F0), which is 

the weight used to produce all estimates found in this report, is the weight that accounts for the child’s 

probability of selection in the sample as well as nonresponse to the parent interview and to the father 

questionnaires. Separate weights were used to calculate response rate estimates, see chapter 4 of the 

ECLS-B 9-month Data File User’s Manual for details. Weighting adjustments were made to the father 

weight using data from completed parent interviews, completed father interviews, and information for 

both respondents and nonrespondents that were available from birth certificate data. A parent interview is 

considered complete if the first three sections were finished (IN, FS, CD). Father-level completes were 

defined as cases where either the resident father questionnaire only or the nonresident father questionnaire 

only, or both component items were complete (i.e., provided one or more item responses in the relevant 

self-administered questionnaire), as appropriate for the case. The father weight sums to the population of 

children born in the United States in 2001 with fathers. The approach used to develop weights for the 

ECLS-B is described in chapter 4 of the ECLS-B 9-month Restricted-Use Data File User’s Manual.

10 

In addition to properly weighting the responses, special procedures for estimating the statistical 

significance of the estimates were employed, because the data were collected using a complex sample 

design. Complex sample designs, like that used in the ECLS-B, result in data that violate the assumptions 

that are normally required to assess the statistical significance of the results. Frequently, the standard 

errors of the estimates are larger than would be expected if the sample were a simple random sample and 

the observations were independent and identically distributed random variables. 

Replication methods of variance estimation were used to reflect the actual sample design used in the 

ECLS-B. A form of the jackknife replication method (JK2) using 90 replicate weights was used to 

compute approximately unbiased estimates of the standard errors of the estimates in the report, using 

 

10 National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2004). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 9-month Restricted-use 

Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004–093). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
A-5 

SAS/SUDAAN version 8.0. Jackknife methods were used to estimate the precision of the estimates of the 

reported national percentages and means. 

Glossary: Constructs and Variables Used in Analysis 

Father Characteristics 

Several of the variables used in this report were derived by combining information from one or more 

questions in the ECLS-B parent CAPI instrument, the father questionnaires, and the birth certificate data. 

The name of the source variable as presented on the ECLS-B Restricted-Use Data File is shown after the 

description in all capital letters within brackets. More information on the derivation of key variables is 

described in Chapter 7 of the ECLS-B 9-month Data File User’s Manual.

11

• Father in household. [X1FTHTYP] As part of providing information on who lives in the 

household, the household respondent could identify one of the people within the household as 

the child’s father. These individuals were located within the household roster, and their 

relationship to the child (biological, adoptive, foster, step-, partner of parent, or unknown) 

was established. For households containing more than one father, a hierarchy was used to 

designate the “current” or residential father. The biological parent, if present, was always the 

current father. In the absence of a biological parent, the current father designation was 

assigned to the adoptive, step-, foster/guardian, partner (including household members 

defined as spouses/partners of the parent respondent but who were not identified by the 

respondent as fathers/male guardians), or “unknown-type” parent. If there were no household 

members who could be identified as one of the father types outlined above, the composite 

variables were set to equal 7 (no resident father). 

• Resident father’s age. [X1HFAGE] The composite calculated the age of resident father/male 

guardian identified in X1FTHTYP, as of the date the parent interview was conducted. If there 

is more than one male guardian in the household, priority is given to the biological father. 

• Resident father’s race/ethnicity. [Variable not on file] This variable was derived from the 

birth certificate based on how the father’s race/ethnicity was identified on the birth certificate. 

This variable was derived from the birth certificate variables [BCFTHRC] and [BCFTHHSP]. 

Hispanics included Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, and Other 

and Unknown Hispanic; Asians included Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Korean, 

Samoan, Vietnamese, and Guamanian; Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders included Hawaiian, 

Other Asian or Pacific Islander, and Combined Asian/Pacific Islander. 

• Resident father’s citizenship status. [Variable not on file] This variable was derived using 

resident father’s place of birth [F1CTRYBN] and resident father’s citizenship status 

[F1USCTZN]. U.S. citizens were defined as resident fathers who were (1) born in the U.S. or 

a U.S territory [F1CTRYBN = 1 or 2], or (2) born outside of the U.S. but reported being a 

U.S. citizen [F1CTRYBN = 91 and F1USCTZN = 1]. 

• Resident father’s age at the birth of his first child. [F1AGECH1, P1AGECH1] These 

variables were derived from the father’s self-reported age at the birth of his first child. 

[P1AGECH1] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to 

the parent interview. 

 

11 National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2004). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 9-month Restricted-use 

Data File and Electronic Code Book (NCES 2004–093). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
A-6 

• Resident father’s education. [X1FTHED] This composite presents the highest level of 

education the resident father received. This variable includes only birth, adoptive, step-, or 

foster fathers residing in the household. For example, if the child was not living with a birth, 

adoptive, step-, or foster parents but was living with another relative (such as an aunt) who 

served as the parent respondent, the education of the relative and his or her spouse was not 

used in the creation of the composites. At 9 months of age, less than 1 percent of children did 

not have at least one parent in the household. 

• Resident father’s work status. [X1HFEMP] This composite classifies the work status of the 

household father/male guardian identified in X1FTHTYP as working 35 hours or more per 

week (1), working less than 35 hours per week (2), actively looking for work (3), or not in the 

labor force (4). If there is a household resident father/male guardian and he is the parent 

respondent, then the total hours per week that the father works [P1PAIDHR] was used to 

determine if the father worked full-time or part-time. If the resident father was the parent 

respondent and he was actively looking for work [P1LKJOB4] and he specified how he was 

looking for work [P1SWPBAG, P1SWPRAG, P1SWEMPD, P1SWFRFH, P1SWSNRS, 

P1SWRDAD], then the father was considered to be looking for work. If the resident father 

was the parent respondent and he was actively looking for work [P1LKJOB4] and he did not 

specify how he was looking for work [P1SWPBAG, P1SWPRAG, P1SWEMPD, 

P1SWFRFH, P1SWSNRS, P1SWRDAD], then the father was considered to be not in the 

labor force. If the resident father was the parent respondent, and he did not work for pay 

[P1WRKLWK], and he was not on leave or vacation [P1VACTN], and he was not actively 

looking for work [P1LKJOB4], then he was considered to be not in the labor force. If the 

resident father was not the parent respondent then the father’s report of his employment status 

from the resident father self-administered questionnaire was used [F1WRPTWK, F1VACTN, 

F1HRSWK, F1LOOKJB, F1PUBAGY, F1PRIAGY, F1EMPRES, F1FRIFAM, F1RESADS, 

F1WNTADS]. If the resident father was not the parent respondent and he has missing data 

for the employment variables in the resident father self-administered questionnaire, then the 

mother’s report of the father’s work status was used [P1SPWORK, P1SPVCTN, P1SPJBHR, 

P1SPLKWK, P1SPSWPA, P1SPSWEA, P1SPSWEM, P1SPSWFF, P1SPSWSR]. 

• Resident father’s rating of himself as a father. [F1FTHSLF, P1FTHSLF] This variable 

was derived from the father’s self-perceptions as a father. [P1FTHSLF] was used only for 

those cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father talks a lot about the child to friends and family. [F1FTHTLK, 

P1FTHTLK] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he talks about 

the child to friends and family. [P1FTHTLK] was used only for those cases where the 

resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father carries pictures of the child with him wherever he goes. [F1CRRYPX, 

P1CRRYPX] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he carries 

pictures of the child with him wherever he goes. [P1CRRYPX] was used only for those cases 

where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father often finds himself thinking about the child. [F1FTHKCH, P1FTHKCH] 

This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he finds himself often 

thinking about the child. [P1FTHKCH] was used only for those cases where the resident 

father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father thinks holding and cuddling the child is fun. [F1HLDFUN, P1HLDFUN] 

This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he thinks holding and 
A-7 

cuddling his child is fun. [P1HLDFUN] was used only for those cases where the resident 

father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father thinks it is more fun to get the child something new than for himself. 

[F1FTHGFT, P1FTHGFT] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often 

he thinks it is more fun to get the child something new than to get himself something new. 

[P1FTHGFT] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to 

the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s ranking of the most important thing he does as a father. This variable 

was derived from the father’s ranking of six items. The father was asked to rank the most 

important thing he does as a father. The six items the father was asked to rank were: show 

child love and affection [F1DLOVE, P1DLOVE], take time to play with child [F1DPLAY, 

P1DIPLAY], take care of child financially [F1DMNY, P1DMNY], give child moral and 

ethical guidance [F1DMRL, P1DMRL], make sure child is safe and protected [F1DSAFE, 

P1DSAFE], and teaching child and encouraging curiosity [F1DTCHNG, P1DTCHNG]. 

[P1DLOVE, P1DIPLAY, P1DMNY, P1DMRL, P1DSAFE, P1DTCHNG] were used only for 

those cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s belief about whether or not it is difficult for men to express 

affectionate feelings toward babies. [F1MENFLG, P1MENFLG] This variable was derived 

from the father’s agreement or disagreement with the statement that it is difficult for men to 

express affectionate feelings toward babies. [P1MENFLG] was used only for those cases 

where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s belief about whether or not a father should be as heavily involved as 

the mother in the care of the child. [F1FTHINV, P1FTHINV] This variable was derived 

from the father’s agreement or disagreement with the statement that a father should be as 

heavily involved as the mother in the care of the child. [P1FTHINV] was used only for those 

cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s belief about whether or not the way a father treats his baby has longterm effects on the child. [F1FTHEFF, P1FTHEFF] This variable was derived from the 

father’s agreement or disagreement with the statement that the way a father treats his baby 

has long-term effects on the child. [P1FTHEFF] was used only for those cases where the 

resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s belief about whether or not the activities a father does with his 

children do not matter; what matters more is whether he provides for them.

[F1FTHACT, P1FTHACT] This variable was derived from the father’s agreement or 

disagreement with the statement that the activities a father does with his children do not 

matter; what matters more is whether he provides for them. [P1FTHACT] was used only for 

those cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s belief about whether or not one of the most important things a father 

can do for his children is to give their mother encouragement and emotional support.

[F1FTSPMT, P1FTSPMT] This variable was derived from the father’s agreement or 

disagreement with the statement that one of the most important things a father can do for his 

children is to give their mother encouragement and emotional support. [P1FTSPMT] was 

used only for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s belief about whether or not, all things considered, fatherhood is a 

highly rewarding experience. [F1FTHREW, P1FTHREW] This variable was derived from 

the father’s agreement or disagreement with the statement that all things considered, 
A-8 

fatherhood is a highly rewarding experience. [P1FTHREW] was used only for those cases 

where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he reads books with his child. [F1READBO, 

P1READBO] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he reads 

books with his child. [P1READBO] was used only for those cases where the resident father 

was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he tells stories to his child. [F1TELLST, 

P1TELLST] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he tells stories 

to his child. [P1TELLST] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the 

respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he sings songs with his child. [F1SINGSO, 

P1SINGSO] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he sings songs 

with his child. [P1SINGSO] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the 

respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he takes his child along while doing errands.

[F1ERRAND, P1ERRAND] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how 

often he takes his child along while doing errands. [P1ERRAND] was used only for those 

cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he changes his child’s diaper. [F1CGDIAP, 

P1CGDIAP] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he changes 

his child’s diaper. [P1CGDIAP] was used only for those cases where the resident father was 

the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he prepares meals or bottles for the child. 

[F1PREPFD, P1PREPFD] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often 

he prepares meals or bottles for the child. [P1PREPFD] was used only for those cases where 

the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he feeds the child or gives the child a bottle.

[F1FEEDBT, P1FEEDBT] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often 

he feeds the child or gives the child a bottle. [P1FEEDBT] was used only for those cases 

where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he washes or bathes the child. [F1WASHCH, 

P1WASHCH] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he washes 

or bathes the child. [P1WASHCH] was used only for those cases where the resident father 

was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he dresses the child. [F1DRSSCH, P1DRSSCH] 

This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he dresses the child. 

[P1DRSSCH] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to 

the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he puts the child to sleep. [F1PTSLEP, P1PTSLEP] 

This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he puts the child to sleep. 

[P1PTSLEP] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to 

the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he tickles his child or blows on his child’s belly.

[F1TCKL, P1DTCKL] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he 
A-9 

tickles his child or blows on his child’s belly. [P1DTCKL] was used only for those cases 

where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he plays peek-a-boo with the child. [F1PEEKC, 

P1DPEEKC] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he plays 

peek-a-boo with the child. [P1DPEEKC] was used only for those cases where the resident 

father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he takes the child outside for a walk or to play.

[F1PLAY, P1DPLAY] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he 

takes the child outside for a walk or to play. [P1DPLAY] was used only for those cases where 

the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

Resident father’s report of how often he holds the child. [F1HOLDCH, P1HOLDCH] 

This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he holds the child. 

[P1HOLDCH] was used only for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to 

the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he gets up with the child during the night.

[F1GETUP, P1GETUP] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he 

gets up with the child during the night. [P1GETUP] was used only for those cases where the 

resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he soothes the child when the child is upset.

[F1SOOTHE, P1SOOTHE] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how 

often he soothes the child when the child is upset. [P1SOOTHE] was used only for those 

cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he takes the child to the doctor. [F1DCTR, 

P1DCTR] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he takes the 

child to the doctor. [P1DCTR] was used only for those cases where the resident father was 

the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he stays home to care for the child when the child 

is sick. [F1STYHM, P1STYHM] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how 

often he stays home to care for the child when the child is sick. [P1STYHM] was used only 

for those cases where the resident father was the respondent to the parent interview. 

• Resident father’s report of how often he takes the child to or from child care. [F1STTR, 

P1STTR] This variable was derived from the father’s response to how often he takes the child 

to or from child care. [P1STTR] was used only for those cases where the resident father was 

the respondent to the parent interview.