National Park Service 53

Chapter 4 / Appendix

Bibliography

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Carney, Judith. Black Rice: The African Origins 

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54 African Reflections on the American Landscape

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National Park Service 55

Rawick, George P., ed. The American Slave: 

A Composite Autobiography. 31 volumes.

Westport, CT and London: Greenwood 

Press, 1972-1979.

Savage, Beth L., ed. African American Historic

Places. Washington, DC: The Preservation

Press, 1994.

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Archaeological Studies of African-American 

Life. Charlottesville: University Press of

Virginia, 1999.

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“Special Edition.” Southern Folklore Quarterly

42(volumes 2 and 3)(1978).

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—. The Afro-American Tradition in Decorative 

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Grove: The History of a Virginia Slave

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University of Tennessee Press, 1992.

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Ground Project.” New York: Office of Public

Education & Interpretation of the African

Burial Ground, 2001.

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in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 

through the Stono Rebellion. New York: 

W.W. Norton & Company, 1975.
56 African Reflections on the American Landscape

Africanisms in National Park Service

Cultural Resources Programs

This list represents a compilation of the

properties documented and/or recognized 

by the National Park Service’s cultural

resources programs (National Register 

of Historic Places, National Historic

Landmarks, Historic American Building

Survey/Historic American Engineering

Record) as possessing Africanisms. It is not

exhaustive, but the list points out that there

are dozens of properties already documented

and recognized as associated with African

cultural heritage. Additional investigation will

likely yield more entries. 

The National Register of Historic Places

The following National Register properties

are associated with Africanisms. This list is

based on the publication, African American

Historic Places, Beth Savage, ed. (Washington,

DC: The Preservation Press, 1994) and the

files of the National Register of Historic

Places. 

Each entry is listed by state, followed by a

brief statement of how it is associated with

Africanisms.

Arkansas 

Hampton Springs Cemetery (Carthage, Dallas

County) contains black sections that illustrate

African antecedents.

Delaware 

Smyrna Historic District (Smyrna, Kent County)

documents the African presence since the

mid-nineteenth century in a small black 

settlement.

Florida

MacFarlane Homestead Historic District

(Coral Gables, Dade County) is a traditionally

African American residential neighborhood

within Coral Gables that is populated with

shotgun houses, ca. 1933 and after, among

other vernacular forms.

Georgia

Ashby Street Shotgun Row Historic District

(Americus, Sumter County) is located in an

African American neighborhood called

McCoy Hill, which contains three shotgun

houses that date from ca. 1908-1912.

Behavior Cemetery (McIntosh County) is an

African American burial ground on Sapelo

Island associated with the settlement of

Raccoon Bluff and Hog Hammock, the sole

African American community still resident

on Sapelo Island. The cemetery is over 100

years old and is likely to yield information 

on African American burial practices. 

Bethlehem Historic District (Augusta,

Richmond County) is an African American

neighborhood of Augusta with ca. 1870s

shotgun and double shotgun houses and

swept yards.

Brightwell Shotgun Row (Athens, Clarke

County) contains six shotgun houses in an

unusual back-to-back formation in the

Newtown section of Athens, a traditionally

African American neighborhood.

Covington Historic District (Newton County)

includes shotgun houses and swept yards 

in the African American neighborhood of

Covington. 
National Park Service 57

Dawson Historic District (Terrell County) 

is an African American neighborhood 

with shotgun houses and swept yards.

Hog Hammock Historic District (McIntosh

County) is listed in the National Register 

of Historic Places for its association with 

traditional cultural properties and Gullah

language and traditions. It is considered 

to be one of the last viable coastal black 

communities in Georgia.

Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic District

(Atlanta, Fulton County) in Sweet Auburn 

is an African American neighborhood with

shotgun houses, in addition to the King 

birth home.

New Corinth Baptist Church (Americus,

Sumter County) is a 1884 African American

church and cemetery. Burials are in cement

crypts without an overall organization

pattern and could yield information on

African burial practices.

Rocksprings Shotgun Row Historic District

(part of Shotgun Houses of Athens-Clarke

County MPS, Athens, Clarke County) contains

six shotgun houses in a row on Rocksprings

Street, ca. 1925.

Sand Hills Historic District (Augusta,

Richmond County) developed as an African

American residential neighborhood with,

among other forms, shotgun houses and

swept yards.

Indiana

Old Richmond Historic District (Richmond,

Wayne County) was once called “Little

Africa.” It was heart the of Richmond’s 

free black community.

Kentucky

Harrison Historic District (Franklin, Simpson

County) is an African American neighborhood that contains shotgun houses, among

other vernacular forms. 

Smoketown Historic District (Louisville,

Jefferson County) is an African American

neighborhood in Louisville that possesses

shotgun houses, among other vernacular 

residential forms.

Louisiana

Congo Square (New Orleans, Orleans Parish)

is a reflection of African heritage. This was

where Sunday slave dances were held and

African dances and music were performed.

Melrose Plantation (Melrose, Natchitoches

Parish) was owned by a formerly enslaved

woman, Marie Therese Coincoin. It contains

architecture designed by transplanted

Africans for their use. 

Massachusetts

Parting Ways Archeological District

(Plymouth, Plymouth County) was a settlement of emancipated Africans during the 

late eighteenth century and includes remains

of housing types and gravesites that have

West African roots. 

Prince Hall Mystic Cemetery (Arlington,

Middlesex County) is the last extant cemetery

associated with Prince Hall Masons. Prince

Hall Masons was formed in 1775 in Boston as

the first African American Masonic group in

the United States. The cemetery was dedicated in 1868 and may yield archeological

information on African burial practices and

how African Americans influenced Masonic

burial practices.

Mississippi 

Holy Family Catholic Church Historic District

(Natchez, Adams County) is an African

American neighborhood with shotgun

houses, among other vernacular and high

style forms. 

Woodlawn Historic District (Natchez, Adams

County) is an African American neighborhood with shotgun houses. 
58 African Reflections on the American Landscape

New Jersey 

Gethsemane Cemetery (Little Ferry, Bergen

County) was founded in 1860 for Hackensack’s

African American community. Archeological

studies may yield information on African and

African American burial practices.

New York 

[The] African-American Cemetery

(Montgomery, Orange County) is a slave 

and African American cemetery.

Mount Moor African-American Cemetery

(Clarkstown, Rockland County) is an African

American cemetery that dates to the midnineteenth century.

Tobias C. Ten Eyck House and Cemeteries

(Coeymans, Albany County) is a plantation

with ca. 1790 slave cemetery, subsequently

used by the local African American 

population. 

North Carolina

Ayden Historic District (Ayden, Pitt County)

includes shotgun houses in community’s

black neighborhoods. 

Puerto Rico 

Manati Municipality Hacienda Azucarera 

La Esperanza (Manati, Manati Municipality)

was Puerto Rico’s wealthiest sugar plantation.

Today, it is an archeological site that illustrates the life and culture of aboriginal 

people and its colonization and settlement 

by people of European and African decent.

South Carolina 

Chicora Wood Plantation (Georgetown 

vicinity, Georgetown County) was a riceproducing plantation during South Carolina’s

rice boom. It served as the home plantation

for R.F.W. Allston’s rice producing complex,

producing 1.5 million pounds yearly of rice 

by 1860. The plantation contains outbuildings

fashioned according to African cultural practices and earthworks for a system of rice

planting of West African origin.

Daufuskie Island Historic District (Hilton

Head, Beaufort County) is one of southernmost Sea Islands, accessible only by boat. 

It is significant for its first settlement 1805-

1842 and extant tabby slave huts. The second

settlement occurred during Reconstruction. 

It is significant for its home to “shouts” 

with African traditional antecedents and

Maryfield Cemetery with African traditional

burial practices.

Eddings Point Community Praise House

(Frogmore, Beaufort County) is the central

place in religious and social lives of black 

Sea Islanders. It includes buildings characteristic of the “vernacular praise house 

architectural form” and home to shouts.

Mary Jenkins Community Praise House

(Frogmore, Beaufort County) is a place 

where shouts were held.

Trapp and Chandler Pottery Site (Kirksey,

Greenwood County) is an antebellum pottery

factory employing free and enslaved African

Americans who influenced manufacturing

processes. 

Tennessee 

Bailey Graveyard (Commerce vicinity, Wilson

County) is a mid-nineteenth and twentieth

century cemetery with African American

burials that could yield information on

African burial practices.

Texas

Freedmen’s Town Historic District (Houston,

Harris County) includes a number of shotgun

houses and is known as the “Mother Ward

for Black Houston.”

Queen City Heights Historic District (Dallas,

Dallas County) includes a ca. 1915-45 residential neighborhood with shotgun houses.
National Park Service 59

Wyatt Street Shotgun House Historic District

(Waxahachie, Ellis County) is a row of small,

single-family dwellings dating from ca. 1918 

in Waxahachie’s historically black neighborhood. The house plans are attributed to

African roots. 

Virgin Islands

Christiansted Historic District (Christiansted, 

St. Croix) is the site of the earliest colonization of U.S. Virgin Islands where enslaved

Africans and free blacks played a major role

in the design and construction of buildings

and structures in the area. It includes the

“Free Gut” residential community for free

African Americans.

Virginia 

Holbrook-Ross Street Historic District

(Danville Independent City) is a residential

area that includes shotgun houses. 

Zion Poplars Baptist Church (Gloucester,

Gloucester County) is an African American

church and cemetery built by former

enslaved Africans in 1894. The location 

of the church may have been chosen based

upon beliefs derived from West African 

religious practices.

National Historic Landmarks

The following National Historic Landmark

properties are associated with Africanisms.

Each entry is listed by state and includes 

a brief statement of what makes it an

Africanism.

New York

[The] African Burial Ground (New York, New

York County) is an urban burial ground used

ca. 1712-1785 and contains remains of some 

of the earliest generations of Africans in

America. It has potential to yield important

information about African Americans in the

eighteenth century.

South Carolina

[The] Stono River Slave Rebellion Site

(Rantowles, Charleston County) is the location of one of the most serious slave insurrections in U.S. history. Reports indicate the

rebels were led by enslaved Angolans and

adhered to Central African martial practices,

due possibly to Central African kinship

bonds.

The Historic American Buildings Survey

The following Historic American Buildings

Survey properties are associated with

Africanisms.

Each entry is listed by state and includes 

a brief statement of what makes it an

Africanism.

District of Columbia

Mt. Zion United Methodist Church

(Georgetown, District of Columbia) was

formed in 1814. Known as the “Ark” or the

“Meeting House,” the church had free and

enslaved members who would have been

only one or two generations removed from

Africa. References in the records of the

church to enslaved Africans having “gone

home” (euphemism for death) is consistent

with Igbo ideology. The Igbo, from presentday Nigeria, were the predominant enslaved

ethnic group in the Chesapeake area. 

Kentucky

Kuntz Shotgun House (Louisville, Jefferson

County) was built between 1889 and 1891 and

is representative of a two-story “camelback”

style shotgun, a more recent modification of

the vernacular architectural style. 

Louisiana

Melrose Plantation (Melrose, Natchitoches

Parish) was owned by a formerly enslaved

woman, Marie Therese Coincoin. It contains

buildings designed by transplanted Africans

for their use. (Property is listed in the

National Register of Historic Places) 
60 African Reflections on the American Landscape

Massachusetts

African Baptist Society Church (Nantucket,

Nantucket County) is the oldest remaining

building in Nantucket associated with people

from West Africa. The building is located 

in a neighborhood called Newtown, on land 

purchased by the African Baptist Society

in 1826 for $10.50. The section of Newtown

where the church resides formerly was

known as “Guinea.”

Virginia

Poplar Forest (Forest vicinity, Bedford

County) is Thomas Jefferson’s other major

land holding in Virginia, aside from

Monticello. It holds archeological information that documents the continuation 

of African dietary, agricultural, and mercantile practices among slave population. The

majority of the slave population was no more 

than one or two generations removed from

African soil. (Property is designated as a

National Historic Landmark)

The Historic American Engineering Record

The following Historic American

Engineering Record property is associated

with Africanisms.

The entry is listed by state and includes a

brief statement of what makes it an

Africanism.

Louisiana

Laurel Valley Sugar Plantation, Shotgun

Quarters (Thibodaux, LaFourche Parish)

were built as a part of the larger plantation.

There are 26 shotgun houses in total, which

represent vernacular architecture with 

African origins. (Property is listed in the

National Register of Historic Places.)
National Park Service 61

Index

A

academic scholarship, 3-5, 9, 40

African-American Cemetery (New York), 58

African Baptist Society Church (Massachusetts), 

29-30, 60

African Burial Ground Complex (New York), 2, 16,

27-28, 59

African School. See African Baptist Society Church

Africanisms, defined, 2

“Africanisms Upon the Land: A Study of African

Influenced Place Names in the USA”, 33-34

agricultural practices and influences, 13, 26, 30-31, 

41-43, 58

archeological sites, 14, 15-16, 27, 32-33, 44-45, 46-47

architecture. See housing types and patterns

Ashby Street Shotgun Row Historic District

(Georgia), 56

Avery Research Center for African American

History and Culture, 40

Ayden Historic District (North Carolina), 58

B

Bailey Graveyard (Tennessee), 58

banners, 28

Behavior Cemetery (Georgia), 56

Bethlehem Historic District (Georgia), 56

Black exodusters, 11

Black Studies programs, 5

Blassingame, John, 5

blended culture. See creolization

Brathwaite, Edward Kamau, 3

Brightwell Shotgun Row (Georgia), 56

Brown, Kenneth L., 32-33

brush arbors, 45

burial practices, 14, 15-16, 27-28, 44-45, 57, 58

bush harbors, 45

C

caille, 12, 25

Carney, Judith, 42

cemeteries, 14, 15-16, 27-28, 44-45, 56, 57, 58

ceremonies, 15-16, 27, 45. See also religious beliefs

Charles Pinckney National Historic Site 

(South Carolina), 40

Chicora Wood Plantation (South Carolina), 41-43, 58

Christianity, African American, 15, 45-46

Christiansted Historic District (Virgin Islands), 

26, 59

churches, 15, 29-30, 45-46, 57, 59, 60

colono-ware, 5, 14, 32, 44

Congo Square (Louisiana), 2, 24, 57

cosmograms, 15-16, 32-33

cosmology, 15

Covington Historic District (Georgia), 56

creole quarters, double, 30-31

creolization, 3, 14, 33, 34

culinary influences, 13-14

cultural syncretism, 5, 9, 12

Curtin, Philip D., 5

D

dance, 15, 24, 45, 57

Daufuskie Island Historic District 

(South Carolina), 58

Dawson Historic District (Georgia), 57

Deetz, James, 3

detached kitchens, 42-43

diaspora, African, 6-7, 8, 9-12

dietary practices and patterns, 13-14, 27, 42-43, 47

dispersion patterns, slaves, 6-7, 39

documenting resources, 23, 29, 30

Donnan, Elizabeth, 4

E

Eddings Point Community Praise House 

(South Carolina), 58

F

Fairbanks, Charles, 5

Ferguson, Leland, 5

foodways, 13-14, 42-43

Frazier, E. Franklin, 3

“Free Gut”, 26, 59

Freedmen’s Town Historic District (Texas), 58

Frogmore Manor Plantation (South Carolina), 32

funerary practices, 14, 15-16, 27-28, 44-45, 57, 58
62 African Reflections on the American Landscape

G

Genovese, Eugene, 5

Georgia Writers’ Project (WPA), 4

Gethsemane Cemetery (New Jersey), 58

gravestones and markers, 14, 15-16, 44, 45

Great Migrations of the 1920s, 12

“Guinea”, 29

Gullah/Geechee culture, 4, 14, 40-41, 57

Gundaker, Grey, 3

H

HABS. See Historic American Buildings Survey

HAER. See Historic American Engineering Record

Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo, 9

Hampton Springs Cemetery (Arkansas), 56

Harris, Joseph E., 6-7, 8, 9

Harrison Historic District (Kentucky), 57

Heath, Barbara, 46

Herskovits, Melville J., 3

Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), 

29-30, 59-60

Historic American Engineering Record (HAER), 

30-31, 60

Historic District Development Corporation

(Atlanta), 43-44

historic districts. See specific resource names

Hog Hammock Historic District (Georgia), 57

Holbrook-Ross Street Historic District (Virginia), 59

Holloway, Joseph E., 9

Holy Family Catholic Church Historic District

(Mississippi), 57

housing types and patterns, 12, 14, 25-26, 30-31, 

43-44, 58

Hurston, Zora Neale, 4

I

identifying resources, 23, 24

Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments 

of 1965, 12

indigo industry, 13

interpretation and management of historic sites, 

14, 39-47

“Interwoven Traditions: Archaeology of the

Conjurer’s Cabins and the African American

Cemetery at the Jordan and Frogmore Manor

Plantations”, 32-33

J

Jefferson, Thomas, 46, 60

Jordan Plantation (Texas), 32

K

Kashif, Annette, 33-34

Kingsley Plantation (Florida), 5, 40

kitchens, detached, 42-43

Kuntz Shotgun House (Kentucky), 59

L

Lancaster, Clay, 30

language and linguistics patterns and influences, 

4, 14, 33-34, 40

Laurel Valley Sugar Plantation (Louisiana), 30-31, 60

Levine, Lawrence, 5

Low Country Gullah Culture Special Resource

Study, 40

M

MacFarlane Homestead Historic District 

(Florida), 56

management and interpretation of historic sites, 

14, 39-47

Manati Municipality Hacienda Azucarera 

La Esperanza (Puerto Rico), 58

Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site

(Georgia), 43-44, 57

Mary Jenkins Community Praise House 

(South Carolina), 58

medicinal practices, 14, 47

Melrose Plantation (Louisiana), 57, 59

migration patterns, 6-8, 9, 11-12, 25-26, 39

Mintz, Sidney, 5

Mount Moor African-American Cemetery

(New York), 58

Mount Olivet Cemetery (District of Columbia), 14

Mt. Zion United Methodist Church 

(District of Columbia), 59

music, 2, 15, 24, 45

N

National Historic Landmarks, 27-28, 59

National Park Service (NPS) cultural 

resources programs

criteria for inclusion, 23

Low Country Gullah Culture Special 

Resource Study, 40-41
National Park Service 63

Places of Cultural Memory Conference, 31-43

Teaching With Historic Places, 40

See also Historic American Building Survey, 

Historic American Engineering Survey, 

National Historic Landmarks, 

National Register of Historic Places

National Register of Historic Places, 24-26, 56-59

New Corinth Baptist Church (Georgia), 57

O

Old Richmond Historic District (Indiana), 57

P

Parting Ways Archeological District

(Massachusetts), 44-45, 57

Parting Ways (Museum), 45

pen-style, double, house, 30-31

Penn Center, 40

pharmacopoeia, 14, 47

place-names, 14, 33-34, 45

place, significance of, 14-16

Places of Cultural Memory Conference, 31-34, 41

Poplar Forest Archeological Research (Virginia), 

14, 46-47, 60

population distribution,1830 census, 1

porches, 14

Posnansky, Merrick, 47

Price, Richard, 5

Prince Hall Mystic Cemetery (Massachusetts), 57

Q

Queen City Heights Historic District (Texas), 58

R

Rawick, George, 4

religious beliefs and practices, 12, 15-16, 27, 32-33, 

45-46, 58

return migration to Africa, 8, 12

rice industry, 13, 41-43, 58

rituals, 15-16, 27, 45

Rocksprings Shotgun Row Historic District

(Georgia), 57

S

Sand Hills Historic District (Georgia), 57

Savage, Beth, 56

scholarship, Africanisms, 3-5, 9, 40

settlement patterns, 11-12, 39

shotgun houses, 12, 25-26, 31, 43-44, 56-59

Slave Narrative Collection (WPA), 4

slave rebellion, 28

slave trade, 4, 6-7, 10, 11

Smoketown Historic District (Kentucky), 25-26, 57

Smyrna Historic District (Delaware), 56

Snee Farm (South Carolina), 40

Sobel, Mechal, 9

spiritual practices, 15-16

Stampp, Kenneth, 4

Stono River Slave Rebellion Site 

(South Carolina), 28, 59

sugar production, 26, 30-31, 58

Sweet Auburn District (Georgia), 43-44

swept yards, 15

T

tabby slave huts, 58

Teaching With Historic Places (NPS Program), 41-43

Thompson, Robert Farris, 5

Tobias C. Ten Eyck House and Cemeteries 

(New York), 58

toponyms, 14, 33-34, 45

Trapp and Chandler Pottery Site 

(South Carolina), 58

Treaty of 1873, 7

Turner, Lorenzo Dow, 4

V

vernacular architecture. See housing types 

and patterns

Vlach, John, 9

W

“When Rice Was King” (Teaching With 

Historic Places), 41-42

Wood, Peter, 28

Woodlawn Historic District (Mississippi), 57

Works Progress Administration (WPA), 4

Wyatt Street Shotgun House Historic District

(Texas), 58

Y

yards, swept, 15

Z

Zion Poplars Baptist Church (Virginia), 45-46, 59
64 African Reflections on the American Landscape

Illustrations and Tables

Illustration 1, 1830 Census, 1

Illustration 2, Africanisms: African fiddle and

American banjo, 2

Illustration 3, Former slave Bob Lemmons, 4

Illustration 4, Colono-ware bowl, 5

Illustration 5, The African Diaspora Map – I, 6-7

Illustration 5a, The African Diaspora Map – II, 8

Table 1, Countries in West and Central Africa

Affected by the Atlantic Slave Trade, 10

Table 1a, Historical Regional Names for Areas of

West and Central Africa, and their Coordinating

Countries, 10

Illustration 6, Areas of rice cultivation in West 

Africa, 13

Illustration 7, West African beliefs: a burial mound 

in Mount Olivet Cemetery, Washington, DC, 14

Illustration 8, African cosmology: a sharecropper’s

grave in Hale County, AL, 15

Illustration 9, Caroline Atwater sweeping her yard 

in 1939, 15

Illustration 10, Congo Square, New Orleans, LA, 24

Illustration 11, Shotgun houses on E. Breckenridge

Street, Louisville, KY, 25

Illustration 11a, Double shotgun houses on 

S. Hancock Street, Smoketown Historic 

District, Louisville, KY, 25

Illustration 12, Hipped roof houses, Christiansted

Historic District, St. Croix, Virgin Islands, 26

Illustration 13, Headstones and cobbles, African

Burial Ground, New York, NY, 27

Illustration 13a, Tack-decorated coffin lid, African

Burial Ground, New York, NY, 27

Illustration 14, South elevation drawing, African

Baptist Society Church, Nantucket, MA, 29

Illustration 14a, African Baptist Society Church,

Nantucket, MA, 29

Illustration 15, Orthographic architectural drawing 

of double Creole quarters, 30

Illustration 15a, Creole quarters, Laurel Valley Sugar

Plantation, Thibodaux, LA, 30

Illustration 16, Shotgun houses, Laurel Valley Sugar

Plantation, Thibodaux, LA, 31

Illustration 17, Rice producing areas around Chicora

Wood Plantation, Georgetown County, SC, 41

Illustration 18, Winnowing house and rice mill,

Chicora Wood Plantation, Georgetown County,

SC, 42

Illustration 19, Kitchen separated from the house,

Chicora Wood Plantation, Georgetown County,

SC, 42

Illustration 20, Double shotgun house, Martin

Luther King, Jr. Historic District, Atlanta, GA, 43

Illustration 21, Grave marker, Parting Ways

Archeological District, Plymouth, MA, 44

Illustration 21a, Excavation at the Plato Turner home,

Parting Ways Archeological District, Plymouth,

MA, 44

Illustration 22, A poplar grove serving as shelter and

place of worship, Zion Poplars Baptist Church,

near Glouster, VA, 46

Illustration 22a, Zion Poplars Baptist Church, near

Glouster, VA, 46