|Cover:  Charles A. May, 2d dragoons, charging a Mexican battery during the Battle of Resaca de la Palma.**Cover:***Charles A. May, 2d dragoons, 
      charging a Mexican battery during the Battle of Resaca de la Palma*(U.S. Army Art Collection)
      IntroductionGuns 
            Along the Rio GrandePalo Alto and Resaca de la 
            Palma*Strategic 
            Setting**Operations-Palo 
            Alto**Resaca 
            de la Palma**Analysis***Further 
            Readings**
      Introduction
      The Mexican War (1846-1848) was the U.S. Army's first 
      experience waging extended conflict in foreign land. This brief war is 
      often overlooked by casual students of history since it occurred so close 
      to the American Civil War and is overshadowed by the latter's sheer size 
      and scope. Yet, the Mexican War was instrumental in shaping the 
      geographical boundaries of the United States. At the conclusion of this 
      conflict, the U.S. had added some one million square miles of territory, 
      including what today are the states of Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and 
      California, as well as portions of Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. 
      This newly acquired land also became a battleground between advocates for 
      the expansion of slavery and those who fought to prevent its spread. These 
      sectional and political differences ripped the fabric of the union of 
      states and eventually contributed to the start of the American Civil War, 
      just thirteen years later. In addition, the Mexican War was a proving 
      ground for a generation of U.S. Army leaders who as junior officers in 
      Mexico learned the trade of war and later applied those lessons to the 
      Civil War.
      The Mexican War lasted some twenty-six months from its 
      first engagement through the withdrawal of American troops. Fighting took 
      place over thousands of miles, from northern Mexico to Mexico City, and 
      across New Mexico and California. During the conflict, the U.S. Army won a 
      series of decisive conventional battles, all of which highlighted the 
      value of U.S. Military Academy graduates who time and again paved the way 
      for American victories. The Mexican War still has much to teach us about 
      projecting force, conducting operations in hostile territory with a small 
      force that is dwarfed by the local population, urban combat, the 
      difficulties of occupation, and the courage and perseverance of individual 
      soldiers. The following essay is one of eight planned in this series to 
      provide an accessible and readable account of the U.S. Army's role and 
      achievements in the conflict.
      This brochure was prepared in the U.S. Army Center of 
      Military History by Stephen A. Carney. I hope that this absorbing account, 
      with its list of further readings, will stimulate further study and 
      reflection. A complete list of the Center of Military History's available 
      works is included on the Center's **online catalog**.
      JOHN S. BROWNChief of Military 
        History
      Guns Along the Rio 
      GrandePalo Alto and Resaca de la Palma
      
      The Mexican War was a brief yet significant event in the 
      history of the United States. In eighteen months of fighting, the U.S. 
      Army won a series of decisive victories and captured nearly half of 
      Mexico's territory. In the end, the conflict added some one million square 
      miles of land to the young nation, including the valuable deep-water ports 
      of coastal California.
      A period of distrust and misunderstanding preceded the 
      opening of hostilities between the United States and Mexico. After gaining 
      its independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico controlled most of the land 
      north of the Rio Grande that encompasses the present-day states of Texas, 
      New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Between the 1820s and 1840s, 
      English-speaking settlers filtered into this area, which was only 
      marginally controlled by the overextended government in Mexico City. 
      Thousands of Americans, who changed their citizenship and received large 
      tracts of land from the Mexican government, rebelled in Texas in 1835 for 
      several reasons, including Mexico's abolition of the locally popular Texas 
      provincial government and its inability to protect the settlers against 
      Indian raids. These infringements prompted some of the Mexicans living in 
      the region to side with the rebels. Additional causes of the independence 
      movement include cultural differences springing from the Protestant 
      beliefs of the American immigrants and Mexican demands that all become 
      Catholic. Many settlers, moreover, were from the southern states and 
      wanted to introduce slavery into territory that had been free since 1821, 
      an anathema to most Mexicans. The rebels won their independence in 1836 
      and formed the Republic of Texas. Mexico, however, refused to honor Texas' 
      independence granted by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna after the 
      battle of San Jacinto. Consequently, during their years as an independent 
      nation, the Texans did not have formal diplomatic relations with Mexico. 
      Texans insisted that their southern border was the Rio Grande. That claim 
      not only extended the nascent republic's borders some one hundred miles 
      beyond the boundary sought by Mexico, but also added to Texas almost half 
      of the present-day state of New Mexico by virtue of that river's northward 
      turn west of El Paso. Mexico nevertheless continued a Spanish tradition of 
      designating headlands between watercourses as boundaries and claimed that 
      the line ran some hundred miles to the north on heights that separated the 
      Rio Grande and the Nueces River watersheds. The Mexican approach made some 
      sense, as waterways tend to change come over time.
      **3**
      Map:  U.S. Army Advance, July 1845-18 May 1846
      **Click 
      for larger image**
      **4**
      Poor relations between Texas and Mexico intensified in 
      1844 when Texas applied to become an American state. Mexico declared that 
      it would consider U.S. annexation of the region an act of war. Concerned, 
      President John Tyler directed the U.S. Army to assemble a force called the 
      Army of Observation at Fort Jesup, Louisiana, near the Texas border. After 
      the United States officially annexed Texas on 4 July 1845, the newly 
      elected President James K. Polk ordered the troops to advance into Texas. 
      Polk's decision served as the catalyst for the opening battles of the 
      Mexican War at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in the disputed 
      borderlands.
      The United States had interests beyond the Texas issue in 
      Mexico's northern territory. By 1840, the population of the United States 
      had reached approximately thirteen million and was growing rapidly. 
      Looking westward to expand, the nation justified its demand for land with 
      the concept of Manifest Destiny, the notion that God willed the United 
      States to control the entire North American land mass. As expounded by 
      newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan, the idea became a key part of 
      American ideology in the mid-1840s. Economics also played a central role 
      in the concept. American explorers in California such as 2d Lt. John C. 
      Fremont had reported deepwater ports along the area's coast. These would 
      be valuable when the United States sought to open trade between America's 
      growing industry and lucrative markets in Asia.
      In an attempt to settle the Texas border question and 
      secure California, the United States offered to purchase both regions from 
      Mexico several times between 1842 and 1845. Mexico refused all overtures. 
      Mexican popular opinion insisted that the government preserve all of the 
      territory that their nation had wrested from Spain.
      *Strategic Setting*
      In 1845 Mexico controlled more than one-third of the 
      North American continent. Its population consisted of nearly seven million 
      people. A geographically diverse land with topographic extremes, its 
      highest point soared to 18,700 feet above sea level while its lowest stood 
      below sea level. Coastal plains dominated much of eastern Mexico, but the 
      terrain rapidly inclined into a region of central plateaus and interior 
      mountains. The nation's largest population center, Mexico City, was 
      situated in a volcanic highland region in the center of the country.
      Northern Mexico, where most military operations occurred 
      in 1846, shared many of these characteristics. The Gulf area consisted of 
      coastal flats, while wide flood plains encompassed both banks of the Rio 
      Grande. The topography ascended southward into stretches of arid lowlands, 
      which gradually gave way to cool highlands. The Sierra Madre towered over 
      most
      **5**
      Map:  The Mexican War, 1846-1848.
      **Click 
      for larger image**
      **6-7**
      of the region. North of the Rio Grande, Mexico's holdings 
      extended from the western borders of the states of Louisiana and Arkansas 
      in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. They included more than one 
      million square miles of land in the present-day states of Colorado, 
      Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The geography 
      of this sparsely populated territory included parts of the jagged Rocky 
      Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, the craggy Intermountain Region, and the 
      rugged Coast Ranges. In addition, stretches of largely uninhabited desert 
      contrasted with such potentially valuable agricultural lands as 
      California's Central Valley.
      As with the terrain, Mexico's climate presented huge 
      variations, ranging from oppressive humidity in heavily jungle, tropical 
      regions on the coasts to extreme winter conditions in the interior 
      mountains. Much of the plateau region was desert land that suffered from 
      prolonged droughts.
      On the brink of conflict, Mexico appeared better prepared 
      for war than the United States. Its Army numbered 18,882 regular troops, 
      10,495 active militiamen, and 1,174 irregulars. In comparison, the U. S. 
      Army's authorized strength was 8,613 and its actual establishment only 
      7,365.
      Both the American and Mexican armies shared a similar 
      organization based on European models, with specialized corps
      **7**
      of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers. Organized 
      to guard the frontier and to fight small unit actions against American 
      Indians, the U.S. Army of the 1840s was scattered across America's coastal 
      regions and frontier in small posts manned by units of company size or 
      less. Because entire regiments rarely assembled, the force hardly ever 
      practiced large unit tactics. The Mexican army was little different. It 
      had five territorial divisions, each of which covered a different 
      geographical region out of necessity. That organization required the 
      deployment of small detachments across huge areas. Few of those units had 
      ever served with others in their divisions. Thus neither side had much 
      experience with conventional warfare involving larger units of different 
      arms.
      The U.S. infantry consisted of eight regiments, each 
      containing ten companies. Each company supposedly possessed fifty-five 
      men, but at the onset of the war most were understrength, averaging only 
      thirty-five. Battalions, along with brigades and divisions, were employed 
      frequently during the Mexican War. A battalion denoted an ad hoc 
      collection of companies that assembled to perform a special task during a 
      campaign and then dissolved when the mission was over. Brigades consisted 
      of multiple regiments, while divisions contained several brigades. These 
      larger formations were also temporary organizations.
      The standard American infantry weapon was the 1835 model 
      smoothbore flintlock musket. Inaccurate at best, the musket had an 
      approximate target-hit ratio of 10 percent at one hundred yards. 
      Percussion cap muskets and rifled weapons accurate to distances of five 
      hundred yards were available, but both saw only limited service in the war 
      and did not become standard issue until after the conflict. Drill 
      conformed to Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott's *Infantry Tactics* manual, 
      revised in 1840, which stressed close-order formations, maneuver, and 
      light infantry or skirmish line tactics.
      The Mexican army maintained twelve permanent infantry 
      regiments, each divided into two battalions of eight companies with eighty 
      men per company. In reality these manpower levels were never maintained. 
      Mexican soldiers were poorly armed with out-of-date, inaccurate, and often 
      unserviceable muzzleloading flintlock muskets. Drill thus emphasized 
      precision marching but did not incorporate target practice to reduce wear 
      and tear on the force's limited inventory of antiquated weapons.
      Infantrymen in the American army enlisted for five years 
      and received an average pay of $7 per month. Offering low wages and harsh 
      discipline, the service attracted the poorly educated and those with few 
      opportunities in civilian life. In 1845 the army included 42 percent 
      foreign nationals, of which 50 percent were Irish. The rest came from
      **8**
      Germany, Italy, England, France, and other European 
      nations. By contrast, the Mexican infantry was made up of conscripts who 
      served for six years. Most were Indians or *mestizos*, individuals 
      of mixed European and Indian ancestry.
      America's mounted forces were called dragoons and 
      classified as light cavalry. The Regular Army had two cavalry regiments, 
      both organized into five squadrons, each containing two companies. The 
      primary weapons employed were the 1840 model cavalry sabre, a single-shot 
      pistol, and an 1843 model breechloading carbine for use while 
      dismounted.
      Deeply revered because Mexico's people held horsemen in 
      the highest esteem, Mexico's cavalry was organized into nine regiments, 
      each containing four squadrons made up of two companies. Their troopers 
      carried a variety of weapons, including sabres, pistols, carbines, 
      *escopetas* (a blunderbuss-type shotgun), lassos, and lances. The 
      nine-foot-long lance was a particularly efficient weapon in close combat, 
      especially in the hands of well-trained lancers, who were also excellent 
      horsemen.
      American light field artillery batteries were supposed to 
      have three 2-gun sections. Because of manpower shortages, however, most 
      could only mount four guns at the onset of the Mexican War. The primary 
      field piece was the bronze 6-pounder, which weighed 880 pounds and was 
      accurate to fifteen hundred yards. Twelve-pound pieces weighing 1,800 
      pounds were also sometimes employed. Each light battery came with a large 
      number of horses to transport the guns, ammunition, and most of its crew. 
      As a result, the artillery was highly mobile and able to respond to 
      tactical threats over what were great distances by the standards of the 
      1840s. The U.S. Army also used 18- and 24-pound pieces, heavy guns 
      designed primarily for sieges and coastal defense. Unlike the 6-pounders, 
      they were drawn by teams of eight oxen and moved slowly. While cumbersome, 
      they nonetheless provided massive firepower. Because the larger guns were 
      difficult to transport, the U.S. Army often employed artillerymen assigned 
      to costal defense batteries as light infantry.
      In theory, the Mexican artillery deployed at a ratio of 
      four guns for every one thousand soldiers. In reality, brigades usually 
      possessed few guns of mixed types and calibers: 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-, and 
      16-pound guns cast from iron and bronze. As a result, Mexican artillery 
      lacked sufficient logistical support and was generally ineffective on the 
      battlefield. The guns were often quite old, mostly forged in the 1770s. 
      Because of their age and design, they were heavy, difficult to maneuver, 
      slow to reload, and grossly inaccurate. In addition, many were defective 
      and dangerous to fire.
      The U.S. Army employed a small number of highly trained 
      engineers who served in either the Corps of Engineers or the Corps of
      **9**
      Topographical Engineers. Members of the former 
      specialized in bridge and fortification construction. Topographical 
      engineers created maps, surveyed battlefield terrain, and built such civil 
      engineering projects as roads and canals. In contrast, the Mexican 
      Engineer Corps was organized into *Zapadore* or Sapper battalions 
      that combined both of the American specialties.
      Three departments--Quartermaster, Ordnance, and 
      Subsistence-provided logistical support for the U.S. Army. The 
      Quartermaster Department, the most important of the three, supplied troops 
      with all equipment other than weapons: uniforms, horses, saddles, tents, 
      and food. It also arranged transportation, oversaw construction projects, 
      and, during the Mexican War, created and ran a series of advanced supply 
      depots close to field operating forces that ensured a steady flow of 
      provisions and equipment to the troops. Although its long supply lines 
      sometimes became targets for Mexican irregulars and bandits, the 
      Quartermaster Department provided the U.S. Army with one of the most 
      advanced logistical support operations in the world. The Ordnance 
      Department supplied firearms and ammunition, while the Subsistence 
      Department secured bulk items, such as barrels of flour, salt pork, and 
      cured beef; both departments operated in the rear along the Army's lines 
      of communication.
      In contrast, the Mexican army lacked dedicated supply 
      bureaus and employed administrative arrangements common in European armies 
      of the preceding century. Under this system, the war ministry provided 
      funds to regimental commanders to purchase supplies and equipment for 
      their men. The regimental commanders in turn distributed the money to 
      company commanders who made the actual purchases with little 
      accountability. The system was inefficient and burdensome to the tactical 
      commander. These arrangements also allowed underpaid, less than 
      conscientious officers responsible for purchasing supplies to embezzle 
      large sums for their own use. Such practices forced troops to forage for 
      supplies and hampered their ability to march cross-country with any speed. 
      They were also often short on ammunition and gunpowder.
      Although Mexico's army was larger than that of its U.S. 
      enemy, its fighting ability was hampered by low morale; poor training; a 
      high number of conscripts; and an unusually high ratio of officers to 
      enlisted personnel, often one general for every two hundred men. Many of 
      the officers were poorly trained and held their positions because of 
      wealth or political allegiances.
      The U.S. force, for its part, had several advantages that 
      compensated for its small size. United States Military Academy graduates 
      trained in the art and science of war occupied many midlevel and junior 
      command positions and would play key roles in the combat operations. If 
      the senior
      **10**
      commanders of the Regular Amy-Winfield Scott, Zachary 
      Taylor, Stephen W. Kearny, and John E. Wool-lacked formal military 
      education, they nonetheless had learned the art of war during the War of 
      1812 and in numerous campaigns against American Indians. Scott, in 
      particular, had studied widely the professional literature, largely of 
      European origin, to educate himself.
      The Army of Observation that President Tyler established 
      was commanded by Bvt. Brig. Gen. Zachary Taylor, known to his troops as 
      Old Rough and Ready for his casual demeanor, strict discipline, and 
      stubbornness in battle. Although Taylor had served in the army since the 
      War of 1812, promotions in the peacetime army of the period were extremely 
      slow, so he held only a brevet, or honorary rank that gave him the title 
      and authority of a brigadier general but none of the pay and benefits. The 
      force General Taylor was to command numbered 1,200 men, roughly 15 percent 
      of the Regular Army. As tensions mounted in May 1845, however, Secretary 
      of War William L. Marcy augmented it with nearly 2,000 troops and prepared 
      to send it to Texas. When the Texas Congress voted to join the United 
      States on 4 July 1845, newly elected President James K. Polk ordered the 
      force into Texas. Renamed the Army of Occupation by Taylor, it camped on 
      the edge of the disputed territory at Corpus Christi, located at the point 
      where the Nueces River flowed into the Gulf of Mexico.
      Growing to 3,554 men, about half of the Regular Army's 
      strength, the Army of Occupation spent seven months on the plains of 
      Corpus Christi. The weather was pleasant during the late summer, but the 
      cold, wet winter that soon set in made life difficult for the troops. Even 
      so, the men spent up to eight hours a day during much of their encampment 
      practicing regimental and brigade maneuvers, marksmanship, and bayonet 
      techniques, and conducting parades, reviews, and other necessary drills. 
      Those efforts honed the ability of both officers and troops to mount 
      large-scale operations. Large unit tactics were a skill not much practiced 
      since the War of 1812, even though Winfield Scott had established 
      brigade-size camps of instruction in the 1830s, and the army had employed 
      brigades during the Black Hawk and Second Seminole Wars. The training 
      would prove invaluable during the initial battles of the war.
      After a final attempt to pressure Mexico to settle on a 
      boundary for Texas and to sell California, Secretary of War Marcy ordered 
      General Taylor to move his army to the Rio Grande on 8 March 1846. 
      Taylor's destination was on the river's north bank, directly opposite the 
      Mexican town of Matamoros, which stood at a natural choke point on the 
      river and controlled access to well-traveled routes to the south. The Army 
      of Occupation began constructing an earthen fortification called Fort 
      Texas, the present-day site of Brownsville. Point Isabel at the mouth of 
      the Rio Grande served
      **11**
      Painting:  General Taylor
      *General Taylor* (National Portrait Gallery, 
      Smithsonian Institution)
      as Taylor's supply depot. Supplies came by ship across 
      the Gulf of Mexico to an offshore island, moved by ferry to Point Isabel, 
      and then went overland to Fort Texas, twenty miles to the west.
      General Mariano Arista commanded Mexico's Army of the 
      North defending Matamoros. Responsible for guarding the Texas frontier, 
      his force was the best trained and motivated in the Mexican army. Arista 
      considered Taylor's arrival on the Rio Grande an act of aggression and 
      demanded that the Army of Occupation withdraw north of the Nueces
      **12**
      Painting:  Taylor's camp along the beach in Corpus Christi.  The wide and open fields behind the American encampment were crucial for drilling troops and teaching large unit formations.
      *Taylor's camp along the beach in Corpus 
            Christi. The wide and open fields behind the American encampment 
            were crucial for drilling troops and teaching large unit 
            formations.* (Library of Congress)River. At the same time, Mexican authorities made 
      numerous attempts to entice American Catholic soldiers to join their side, 
      but fewer than one hundred deserted.
      When Taylor refused to leave the region, Mexican cavalry 
      ambushed a dragoon detachment under Capt. Seth B. Thornton on 25 April 
      1846. American losses were 11 dead, 6 wounded, and 46 captured. Although 
      there had been earlier skirmishes with Mexican irregulars, the Thornton 
      skirmish became the official start of hostilities. News of the engagement 
      reached President Polk on 9 May 1846. Two days later a declaration of war 
      message was sent to Congress. By then Taylor had fought and won the first 
      two battles of the conflict. This delay was due to the lack of any 
      effective communication channels: The War Department only had access to 
      telegraph lines that ran between Washington, D.C., and the quartermaster 
      depot in Philadelphia. All communiqu�s from the theater of operations had 
      to come by messenger or by ship, a process that greatly slowed the flow of 
      news.
      General Arista planned to cross the Rio Grande downriver 
      from Fort Texas and sever Taylor's supply line. Taylor, however, received 
      intelligence of Arista's actions and hurriedly assembled a 2,300-man 
      relief force to secure his supplies at Point Isabel. He left 500 men under 
      Maj. Jacob Brown to guard Fort Texas. Departing on 1 May
      **13**
      Image:  Drilling newly enlisted Regular Army troops at Corpus Christi.
      *Drilling newly enlisted Regular Army troops at 
            Corpus Christi* (University of Texas at 
        Arlington)1846, Taylor's force reached Point Isabel before Arista 
      could cut the route to the depot. Once there, it began to load 270 wagons 
      with supplies for Fort Texas.
      Unable to prevent Taylor's move, General Arista decided 
      to destroy Fort Texas and its defenders before the American force at Point 
      Isabel could return. Crossing the Rio Grande on 3 May, the general divided 
      his army into two columns. One under his own command blocked the road 
      between Point Isabel and Matamoros to bar Taylor's return to Fort Texas. 
      The other column moved on Fort Texas, where it began a heavy bombardment 
      that lasted over five days. The defenders withstood everything the 
      Mexicans could throw at them, but their commander, Major Brown, died at 
      his post.
      Taylor's force at Point Isabel could hear the cannonade 
      against Fort Texas and hurried to complete its mission. With the depot's 
      defenses
      **14**
      Map:  Theater of Operations, 25 April-18 May 1846
      **Click 
      for larger image**
      well in order and his wagons loaded, Taylor's column 
      began a slow march back to Fort Texas on the afternoon of 7 May. The force 
      traveled only seven miles before bivouacking for the night. When Mexican 
      scouts found it the next morning, General Arista ordered his men to take 
      up position on a broad plain at Palo Alto, eight miles northeast of Ft. 
      Texas on the Point Isabel-Matamoros road. Palo Alto, "Tall Timber," was a 
      two-mile-wide flat prairie with several small ponds located on its 
      perimeter. The center of the plain was marshy owing to several days of 
      heavy rain. The area was covered with sharp, shoulder-high grass, and 
      sections were lightly wooded with mesquite trees that extended southward 
      toward the Rio Grande.
      *Operations*
      *Palo Alto, 8 May 1846*
      General Arista stationed 3,702 men on the south side of 
      the field and faced due north, forming a line that stretched from the road 
      eastward to a tree-covered rise. His flanks were protected by dense 
      chaparral-short, thorny underbrush-that limited movement. He hid part
      **15**
      Map:  Battle of Palo Alto, 8 May 1846
      **Click 
      for larger image**
      of his irregular cavalry to the far left of his line in 
      an attempt to quash any chance that the Americans could flank his position 
      from that direction. When he was done, the only way Taylor could reach 
      Fort Texas was through the Mexican Army of the North.
      American scouts located Arista's line shortly before 
      noon. While Taylor's 2,228 men concentrated at a large lake on the north 
      side of the prairie called Palo Alto Pond, Lt. Jacob E. Blake, a 
      topographical engineer, conducted a reconnaissance of the Mexican 
      position. He observed that the Mexican line was approximately one mile
      **16**
      long. On their far left, General Antonio Canales' 
      irregular cavalry was positioned in the chaparral to the west of the Point 
      Isabel road. Blocking the road and holding the center of the line were a 
      brigade of cavalry under the command of Brig. Gen. Anastasio Torrejon and 
      several infantry brigades led by General Jose Maria Garcia. The infantry 
      units contained Garcia's *4th* and *10th Infantry* regiments 
      and General Romulo Diaz de la Vega's *6th* and *1st 
      Infantry* regiments. On the right stood the *Tampico Corps*, 
      the *2d Light Infantry* regiment, and a sapper battalion. Light 
      cavalry anchored the extreme eastern end of the line, holding against a 
      tree-covered rise. Two 8- and six 4-pound artillery pieces were dispersed 
      along the Mexican front.
      Facing due south, General Taylor concentrated his troops 
      across a half-mile expanse. He divided his force into two wings under Col. 
      David E. Twiggs and Lt. Col. William Belknap. Twiggs controlled the units 
      on the right wing, with Lt. Col. James S. McIntosh's 5th Infantry regiment 
      and a battery of 6-pounders under Bvt. Maj. Samuel Ringgold anchoring the 
      position's extreme right or western flank. They were positioned just 
      beyond the Point Isabel-Matamoros road. Two 18- pounders commanded by Lt. 
      William H. Churchill and the 3d Infantry regiment led by Capt. Lewis N. 
      Morris held the road itself. Capt.. George W. Allen's 4th Infantry 
      regiment guarded Morris' left. Capt. Charles A. May's squadron of dragoons 
      held to the rear in reserve.
      Belknap commanded the left wing, which included a 
      battalion of artillerymen fighting as infantry under Lt. Col. Thomas 
      Childs, who held the center of the American position and was stationed to 
      Captain Allen's left. They were known as red-legged infantry because the 
      legs of artillery uniforms always bore red stripes. Captain William 
      Duncan's battery of 6-pounders supported them. The 8th Infantry regiment 
      under Capt. William Montgomery held the extreme left or eastern flank. It 
      refused its left to the rear at a ninety-degree angle to keep the enemy 
      from flanking the American position. Captain Croghan Ker's squadron of 
      dragoons screened the left flank and protected Taylor's supply train, 
      which was parked on a levee for the Palo Alto Pond.
      The engagement commenced at 1430 when the Mexican 
      artillery opened fire on the deploying Americans at a range of one-half 
      mile. In response, Major Ringgold and Captain Duncan pushed their 
      batteries two hundred yards ahead of Taylor's line and initiated 
      counterbattery fire. From the onset, it was clear that the US. artillery 
      would dominate on the open field of battle, if only because the Mexicans' 
      copper cannons lacked the necessary range to be effective. Their iron 
      round shot often fell short of their targets and bounced slowly toward 
      Taylor's men. By contrast, the American guns were updated 1840 model 
      weapons with
      **17**
      Painting:  First phase of the Battle of Palo Alto.  The U.S. infantrymen are standing in ranks as the American artillery wreaks havoc on the Mexican lines.
      *First phase of the Battle of Palo Alto. The 
            US. infantrymen are standing in ranks as the American artillery 
            wreak havoc on the Mexican lines.* (Library of 
        Congress)a range of fifteen hundred yards and could be reloaded 
      quickly. Moreover, their advanced design allowed cannoneers to vary their 
      ammunition depending on tactical circumstances. The guns primarily used 
      solid shot or spherical case loaded with metal shards that exploded in 
      midair and spread fragments over a large area. Most important, the U.S. 
      artillerists were well trained in techniques designed by Major Ringgold 
      and practiced at the Artillery School located at Fortress Monroe, 
      Virginia; their fire would prove highly accurate.
      As a result of this preparation, the American artillery 
      decimated the Mexican infantry, time and again hitting specific targets in 
      the ranks. In one instance, a gunner in Ringgold's battery used a single 
      explosive shell to lay waste an entire regimental band playing to rally 
      the troops. Lieutenant Churchill's cumbersome 18-pounders soon joined the 
      cannonade. He and Ringgold concentrated their firepower on the Mexican's 
      left, while Captain Duncan continued his counterbattery fire.
      In an attempt to allay the effect of the American 
      artillery, General Arista ordered a western flanking maneuver to turn 
      Taylor's right wing and destroy his supply train. Torrejon's cavalry, 
      supported by two 4-pound guns, closed within fifty yards of the American's 
      right through the thick chaparral. Observing the Mexican advance, Taylor 
      warned Twiggs, who ordered
      **18**
      Painting:  Major Ringgold
      *Major Ringgold* (National Portrait Gallery, 
      Smithsonian Institution)
      the 5th Infantry regiment into a square formation and 
      directed 1st Lt. Randolph Ridgely to rush his two-gun section to the area. 
      When Torrejon's force emerged from the chaparral and charged the west side 
      of the square, concentrated musket and 6-pound artillery fire forced it to 
      pull back. The Mexicans regrouped and attempted to swing further west 
      around the 5th Infantry's arc of fire to strike the American wagons, but 
      blundered into range of the 3d Infantry. Deployed in a square, the force 
      poured lire into the attacking cavalry. In the end, Torrejon retreated to 
      the Mexican line with heavy casualties. The Americans
      **19**
      Image:  Contemporary depiction of the death of Major Ringgold
      *Contemporary depiction of the death of Major 
      Ringgold* (Library of Congress)
      lost no more than a few wounded. For the moment, the 
      American supplies were safe.
      As the U.S. forces asserted control, Major Ringgold moved 
      his guns farther forward and continued to target the Mexican infantry. The 
      onslaught halted only at 1600, when a fire caused by burning paper wads 
      from the guns ignited the prairie grass and obscured the battlefield. 
      During the pause, officers allowed men overwhelmed by the heat of the day 
      and the blazing fire to fall out of line and refill their canteens at a 
      nearby pond.
      After a lull of about an hour, Taylor adjusted his line, 
      advancing his 18- pounders approximately one thousand yards forward on the 
      right side up the Camino de los Indios and pulling his left wing back to 
      maintain a continuous and unbroken line of battle. General Arista 
      responded by moving his left flank to the rear while pushing units on the 
      right forward some four hundred yards. In effect, the two sides had 
      rotated the battle's orientation counterclockwise by approximately 
      thirty-five degrees while maintaining the one-half mile separation between 
      their main lines.
      At 1700 the fighting renewed. General Arista began the 
      contest aggressively by ordering Torrejon's cavalry to make another 
      assault on the American's right. Fire from Churchill's 18-pounders and 
      several volleys from Colonel Child's artillery battalion, which had formed 
      a defen-
      **20**
      Image:  Duncan's battery stemming the final Mexican thrust during the Battle of Palo Alto.
      *Duncan's battery stemming the final Mexican 
            thrust during the Battle of Palo Alto.* (University of Texas at 
            Arlington)sive square, beats back the advance. Arista then ordered 
      his artillery to concentrate on Ringgold's battery, which had closed to 
      within four hundred yards of the Mexican line and was, therefore, within 
      effective range of the Mexican cannons. The heavy fire that followed 
      mortally wounded Ringgold and forced the American guns to pull back.
      In a final attempt to destroy Taylor's supplies, Arista 
      tried to turn the American left or eastern flank with a force of light 
      cavalry supported by his *2d Light Infantry* regiment. Obscured by 
      smoke from the still smoldering grass, the Mexican force seemed to have an 
      unimpeded path around the 8th Infantry to the American wagon train. 
      Captain Duncan, however, saw the enemy emerging from the dense chaparral. 
      Racing his battery to the front of the flanking force, he poured canister 
      shot (a large number of small-caliber metal balls loaded into a metal 
      container that produced a shot-gun effect when fired) directly into its 
      center and right flank. The 8th Infantry and Captain Ker's dragoons moved 
      forward as well to provide additional support. With their advance checked 
      and suffering heavy causalities, the Mexicans retreated. Duncan pushed his 
      battery forward in pursuit and unlimbered again less than three hundred 
      yards from the Mexican right flank. After hours of being pounded by the 
      American artillery, the
      **21**
      Mexican line began to falter. When a force of light 
      cavalry retreated across the front of the Mexican position, it caused a 
      general panic, but units at the Mexican center nonetheless held firm, 
      stabilizing Arista's line and preventing a rout.
      By 1900 the Mexicans had nearly exhausted their supplies. 
      With darkness falling, Arista's battered troops withdrew to the rear of 
      the battlefield and camped for the night. At that point, Taylor decided 
      against ordering a night assault to finish the Mexican army. Another 
      encounter would thus be necessary to do the job. In all, the Mexican force 
      had lost about four hundred men dead and an undetermined number of wounded 
      and missing. United States losses came to six dead and forty wounded. 
      Overall, the engagement represented a tremendous tactical victory for 
      America's Regular Army.
      *Resaca de la Palma (9 May 
      1846)*
      Shortly before dawn on 9 May, General Arista decided 
      against engaging Taylor again at Palo Alto primarily because of the 
      effectiveness of U.S. artillery on open ground. Searching for more 
      favorable terrain, the Mexican commander led his army some five miles 
      south to Resaca de la Palma, a place dominated by rolling hills covered 
      with a thick tangle of trees and chaparral that greatly hindered 
      visibility and mobility. There, a *resaca*, or dry riverbed, cut a 
      two-mile-long, two-hundred-yard-wide, twelve-foot-deep furrow across the 
      area. Both banks of the cut were heavily forested. The troops pitched camp 
      in an open field at a point where the resaca crossed the Point 
      Isabel-Matamoros road. Areas of wet swampy ground also protected the 
      Mexican line. Arista and his staff had chosen a defensive position well 
      calculated to minimize the effectiveness of the American artillery.
      Arista ordered the troops besieging Fort Texas to join 
      his command at Resaca de la Palma. This concentration of forces gave him 
      about 3,600 men. Meanwhile, Taylor remained unaware of Arista's movement 
      until his scouts observed the rear guard of the Mexican army departing 
      Palo Alto shortly after daybreak. Calling his senior officers to a council 
      of war to debate options, Taylor decided to construct an earthwork at Palo 
      Alto Pond to protect his supply wagons and then to move his force forward 
      to locate and destroy the Mexicans. Captain Ker's dragoons shadowed the 
      enemy force to Resaca de la Palma. Taylor sent a light battalion of the 
      4th Infantry under the command of Capt. George A. McCall to reconnoiter 
      the position.
      At approximately 1400 Taylor ordered Ringgold's battery, 
      now commanded by Lieutenant Ridgely, to move down the Point Isabel-
      **22**
      Map:  Battle of Resaca de la Palma, 9 May 1846
      **Click 
      for larger image**
      Matamoros road. The 34 4th, 5th, and 8th Infantry 
      regiments and May's squadron of dragoons followed. In all, Taylor had 
      1,800 men to fight at Resaca de la Palma. He divided them into two 
      brigades: the lst, composed of the 4th and 8th Infantry under Colonel 
      Belknap, and the 2d, made up of the 3d and 5th Infantry and the dragoons 
      commanded by Twiggs. This left nearly 500 men-Churchill's two 18-pound 
      guns, Duncan's bat-
      **23**
      tery, Ker's dragoons, and Child's red-legged infantry 
      battalion-to guard the supply train.
      As General Taylor began his march from Palo Alto, 1st Lt. 
      Stephen D. Dobbins and several volunteers under Captain McCall's command 
      deliberately exposed themselves to draw enemy fire and pinpoint Mexican 
      positions. They found that Arista had arrayed the bulk of his infantry on 
      the north bank of the resaca. On the Mexican right or eastern flank, 
      straddling the Matamoros road, stood the *6th*,*10th*, and 
      *1st Infantry* regiments along with a sapper battalion and the 
      *2d Light Infantry*. On the left were the *2d* and *4th 
      Infantry* regiments and the *Tampico Battalion*. Arista's 
      artillery pieces covered the resaca and the Matamoros road to prevent an 
      American breakthrough. Skirmishers were in position several hundred feet 
      to the front to screen the Mexican line. Several light and heavy cavalry 
      regiments meanwhile held in reserve just south of the resaca.
      With Captain McCall's battalion advancing in a skirmish 
      line to provide support, General Taylor sent Lieutenant Ridgely's guns 
      forward on the Matamoros road. As additional regiments came up, Taylor 
      deployed them piecemeal into the chaparral to follow McCall's skirmishers. 
      The 3d Infantry deployed to the west of the road on the extreme right. The 
      4th
      **24**
      Infantry straddled it, and the 5th Infantry occupied the 
      extreme left to its east. The 8th Infantry initially stood in reserve. As 
      these forces moved into place, Taylor planned to use the light artillery 
      to locate weaknesses in the Mexican line that May's dragoons and the 
      infantry could exploit.
      Shortly after Ridgely pushed forward, McCall's troops 
      became scattered in the heavy chaparral and lost contact with the 
      artillery. Meanwhile, the rest of the American force came under heavy fire 
      from the Mexican skirmish line hidden in the underbrush. McCall struggled 
      to organize his men for an attack to relieve the pressure, but found a 
      concerted advance impossible because of the difficult terrain. Instead, 
      his men broke into small groups to navigate through the chaparral, each 
      led by a lieutenant or a noncommissioned officer. There was no 
      coordination between the various squads as they moved forward, but after 
      some sharp fighting, these units successfully drove the Mexican 
      skirmishers to the edge of the resaca. They could not, however, make any 
      headway against Arista's main line, which was firmly positioned on the 
      forested edges of the ravine.
      Arista tried to pave the way for an attack of his own by 
      sending a detachment of cavalry out of reserve to eliminate Ridgley's 
      battery. With his infantry support out of contact, the redoubtable 
      lieutenant beat back the Mexican advance with canister. After stemming the 
      assault, however, he came under heavy fire from a Mexican battery and 
      requested aid from Taylor.
      In response, Taylor ordered May's dragoons to capture the 
      battery. Ridgely exchanged a volley with it, and May's men charged forward 
      before the Mexicans could reload their cannons. The momentum of the 
      thrust, however, carried the dragoons beyond the guns and exposed them to 
      heavy fire from the Mexican infantry lining the bank of the resaca. Facing 
      annihilation, the force retreated hastily, forfeiting its chance to 
      capture the battery. Even so, it did manage to capture one of Arista's 
      commanders, Brig. Gen. Romulo Diaz de la Vega.
      Realizing that a full-scale infantry assault was 
      necessary if he was going to make any headway, Taylor ordered the 5th 
      Infantry forward and brought the 8th Infantry out of reserve. As before, 
      the two units found it difficult to advance through the tangled underbrush 
      in line formation, ultimately breaking into small groups. Nevertheless, 
      rushing forward as best they could, they took the Mexicans on in bloody 
      hand-to-hand combat with bayonets and rifle butts, capturing the guns. The 
      Mexican's right quickly collapsed after that, but the Americans' success 
      came at a price, eight dead and thirty-five wounded.
      While the battle raged on the enemy's right, several 
      companies of the 4th Infantry commanded by Capt. Robert C. Buchanan found 
      a small trail on the western flank that circumvented the Mexican's left. 
      General Arista
      **25**
      observed the American force flanking his position and 
      rushed reinforcements into the area, but a company under Capt. Philip 
      Nathan Barbour nonetheless drove through the Mexican line, crossed the 
      resaca, captured an artillery piece, and turned the Mexican's left. Arista 
      counterattacked the small American contingent twice but failed to dislodge 
      it. With the Mexican infantry physically and emotionally exhausted, the 
      failure of these counterattacks caused the entire Mexican line to 
      disintegrate and flee from the field in an all-out rout. Surprised by the 
      sudden collapse of his army, Arista abandoned his headquarters, leaving 
      all his personal possessions behind. Taylor attempted to finish the 
      Mexican force by sending Captain Ker's dragoons, a battery from Palo Alto, 
      and the 3d Infantry in pursuit, but they were unable to catch the rapidly 
      retreating Mexicans.
      Involving a force that had been outnumbered two to one by 
      an enemy who held a strong defensive position, General Taylor's victory at 
      Resaca de la Palma was decisive; but it was more costly than the one at 
      Palo Alto, which was won mainly by the artillery. Out of the 1,800 
      Americans engaged on 9 May, Taylor lost 45 killed and 98 wounded, most in 
      vicious hand-to-hand combat. Official Mexican casualties were 154 killed, 
      205 wounded, and 156 missing. Many of the missing men most likely drowned 
      while attempting to swim the Rio Grande to escape the pursuing Americans. 
      Besides General de la Vega, Taylor's men captured a number of Mexican 
      soldiers during the two battles. They were repatriated on 10 May 1846 in 
      exchange for the 46 Americans captured in the Thornton ambush.
      *Analysis*
      With the victory at Resaca de la Palma, General Taylor 
      accomplished much. He relieved his besieged troops at Fort Texas-soon 
      renamed Fort Brown in honor of the post's original commander who had died 
      during the siege-and drove the Mexicans south of the Rio Grande. Taylor 
      thus succeeded in securing the southern border that the United States 
      claimed. His victories would pave the way for an invasion of northern 
      Mexico that began on 18 May 1846, when American forces crossed the Rio 
      Grande and occupied Matamoros unopposed. In addition, the president 
      promptly promoted Taylor to major general on 29 June 1846, the &st 
      step in his meteoric rise to the presidency two years later. His triumphs 
      made him a national hero and his name a household word.
      The opening battles of the Mexican War were also 
      important for the U.S. Army. The battle of New Orleans, the last major 
      engagement on land during the War of 1812, had elevated the militia to a 
      near iconic status in
      **26**
      American popular culture. Palo Alto and Resaca de la 
      Palma did something similar for the Regular Army. The opening campaigns of 
      the Mexican War validated the importance of maintaining a professional, 
      standing army. Before the Mexican War, many Americans had argued against 
      funding a regular army and had instead placed their trust in volunteer 
      forces made up of citizen-soldiers. At Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, 
      however, the Army of Occupation consisted entirely of professional 
      soldiers and had proved its mettle on the battlefield. The victories in 
      these two engagements against an enemy with a significant numerical 
      advantage demonstrated the benefits derived from a trained and ready force 
      available at the onset of a conflict, something the United States had 
      never enjoyed in the past and would all too often fail to benefit from in 
      the future. In the opening days of the Mexican War, however, the American 
      Regular Army was able to leverage advantages of training, equipment, 
      organization, and leadership into stunning battlefield victories.
      The two battles also proved that American artillery was 
      as advanced as any in the world. Largely through the efforts of Joel R. 
      Poinsett, while he was the secretary of war from 1837 to 1841, and Major 
      Ringgold, the creation of light and mobile field artillery had given the 
      United States Army a potent weapon. More importantly, the artillerists 
      trained by Ringgold had proved to American officers that artillery was not 
      only a defensive weapon but also, if used correctly, an effective 
      offensive force that could dominate a battlefield from an advanced 
      position. These lessons affected the tactics of the U.S. Army throughout 
      the Mexican War and later.
      In a wider historical perspective, these battles were 
      early instances in which the U.S. Army enjoyed technological superiority 
      over a conventional foe. The result was victory with marked savings in 
      American lives. This circumstance, little noted at the time, was in fact 
      the first harbinger of what would become a dominant theme in American 
      military experience during the second half of the twentieth century.
      The engagements in southern Texas also validated the 
      quality of the education provided by the United States Military Academy at 
      West Point. Because of slow promotions, low pay, and lack of a pension 
      system, field-grade officers often held their commands until death. As a 
      result, many American senior officers were too old or too sick to command 
      their regiments on the Rio Grande. It was their junior officers-younger, 
      desperate for brevets and mostly trained at the academy-who led the fights 
      at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Their training and education were a 
      major reason that those engagements ended in victory for the U.S. 
Army.
      The battle at Resaca de la Palma likewise highlighted the 
      quality of the Army's noncommissioned officers. With large unit movements 
      impossible and visual communication hampered by dense chaparral,
      **27**
      sergeants and corporals led groups of soldiers against 
      hasty Mexican field fortifications. It was largely through their 
      uncoordinated but determined efforts that Taylor's army was able to drive 
      Arista's force south of the Rio Grande.
      Mexico's losses at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma had 
      major repercussions for its armed forces. General Arista was 
      court-martialed for his failure to defend the northern border and replaced 
      by General Pedro de Ampudia, a cruel but capable leader. Ampudia decided 
      to withdraw his command to the south to force Taylor to extend his lines 
      of communication by carrying the fight into the heart of northern Mexico. 
      Arista's inability to keep American forces from advancing also paved the 
      way for Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's return to Mexico from exile in Cuba 
      in August 1846. Subsequently, Santa Anna ascended to the presidency and 
      would personally lead the main Mexican Army through the rest of the 
      conflict.
      
      
      
      
      **28**
      Further 
      Readings
      Bauer, K. Jack. *The Mexican War, 1846-1848*. New 
      York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1974.
      _____. *Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of 
      the Old Southwest*. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University.....Press, 1985.
      DePalo, William A., Jr. *The Mexican National Army, 
      1822-1852*. College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University Press, 
      .....1997.
      Haecker, Charles M., and Jeffrey G. Mauck. *On the 
      Prairie of Palo Alto: Historical Archeology of the U.S.-Mexican.....**War Battlefield*. College Station, 
      Tex.: Texas A&M University Press, 1997.
      Johannsen, Robert W. *To the Halls of the Montezumas: 
      The Mexican War in the American Imagination*. New York: .....Oxford University Press, 1985.
      Lewis, Lloyd. *Captain Sam Grant*. Boston: Little, 
      Brown. 1950.
      Smith, Justin H. *The War with Mexico*. 2 vol. New 
      York: Macmillan Company, 1919.
      Traas, Adrain G. *From the Golden Gate to Mexico City: 
      The U.S. Army Topographical Engineers in the Mexican.....**War, 1846-1848*. Washington, D.C.: 
      Corps of Engineers and U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1993.
      Winders, Richard B. Mr. Polk's Army: *The American 
      Military Experience in the Mexican War*. College Station, Tex.: .....Texas A&M University Press, 1997.
      **29**
      Image:  Streamer for Palo Alto, 1846
      
      Image:  Streamer for Resaca de la Palma, 1846
      
      
      
      CMH Pub 73-2
      PIN: 081784-000
      Return to CMH 
            OnlineLast updated 15 March 2006 | Introduction                                     | Guns 
            Along the Rio GrandePalo Alto and Resaca de la 
            Palma |  | *Strategic 
            Setting* |  | *Operations-Palo 
            Alto* |  | *Resaca 
            de la Palma* |  | *Analysis* | **Further 
            Readings** |  | JOHN S. BROWNChief of Military 
        History | *Taylor's camp along the beach in Corpus 
            Christi. The wide and open fields behind the American encampment 
            were crucial for drilling troops and teaching large unit 
            formations.* (Library of Congress) | *Drilling newly enlisted Regular Army troops at 
            Corpus Christi* (University of Texas at 
        Arlington) | *First phase of the Battle of Palo Alto. The 
            US. infantrymen are standing in ranks as the American artillery 
            wreak havoc on the Mexican lines.* (Library of 
        Congress) | *Duncan's battery stemming the final Mexican 
            thrust during the Battle of Palo Alto.* (University of Texas at 
            Arlington) |  | Return to CMH 
            Online | Last updated 15 March 2006
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|Introduction                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | JOHN S. BROWNChief of Military 
        History
|*Taylor's camp along the beach in Corpus 
            Christi. The wide and open fields behind the American encampment 
            were crucial for drilling troops and teaching large unit 
            formations.* (Library of Congress)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
|*Drilling newly enlisted Regular Army troops at 
            Corpus Christi* (University of Texas at 
        Arlington)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
|*First phase of the Battle of Palo Alto. The 
            US. infantrymen are standing in ranks as the American artillery 
            wreak havoc on the Mexican lines.* (Library of 
        Congress)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
|*Duncan's battery stemming the final Mexican 
            thrust during the Battle of Palo Alto.* (University of Texas at 
            Arlington)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | Return to CMH 
            Online              
|Last updated 15 March 2006