AIP

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

EIGHTEENTH EDITION

17 FEBRUARY 2005

CONSULT NOTAM FOR LATEST INFORMATION

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

AIP

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

EIGHTEENTH EDITION DATED 17 FEBRUARY 2005

AMENDMENT 3

3 AUGUST 2006

CONSULT NOTAM FOR LATEST INFORMATION

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

AIP

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Page Control Chart

AIP Amendment 3

Page Control Chart

3 August 2006

REMOVE PAGES DATED INSERT PAGES DATED

GEN 0.4−1 and 0.4−2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 GEN 0.4−1 and 0.4−2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.4−13 and 3.4−14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 GEN 3.4−13 and 3.4−14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−7 through 3.5−10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 GEN 3.5−7 through 3.5−10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−11 through 3.5−20 . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 GEN 3.5−11 through 3.5−20 . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−21 and 3.5−22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 AUG 05 GEN 3.5−21 and 3.5−22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−23 through 3.5−24 . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 GEN 3.5−23 through 3.5−24 . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−25 and 3.5−26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 AUG 05 GEN 3.5−25 and 3.5−26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−27 through 3.5−72 . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 GEN 3.5−27 through 3.5−72 . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−73 and 3.5−74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 GEN 3.5−73 and 3.5−74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

GEN 3.5−75 through 3.5−78 . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 GEN 3.5−75 through 3.5−79 . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 0.4−1 through 0.4−3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 0.4−1 through 0.4−3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 1.1−3 through 1.1−6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 1.1−3 through 1.1−6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 1.5−9 through 1.5−12 . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 1.5−9 through 1.5−12 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 1.5−59 and 1.5−60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 1.5−59 and 1.5−60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 1.5−63 and 1.5−64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 1.5−63 and 1.5−64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 4.1−37 and 4.1−38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 4.1−37 and 4.1−38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 5.7−7 through 5.7−10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 5.7−7 through 5.7−13 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 6.1−5 and 6.1−6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 ENR 6.1−5 and 6.1−6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

ENR 6.2−7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 ENR 6.2−7 through 6.2−16 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

AD 0.4−1 and 0.4−2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 AD 0.4−1 and 0.4−2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

AD 1.1−9 through 1.1−22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 AD 1.1−9 through 1.1−22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

AD 1.1−23 and 1.1−24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 AD 1.1−23 and 1.1−24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

AD 1.1−25 through 1.1−41 . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEB 05 AD 1.1−25 through 1.1−42 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

AD 2−3 through AD 2−83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 AD 2−3 through AD 2−83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

I−1 through I−11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 FEB 06 I−1 through I−8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AUG 06

3 AUG 06

AIP

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PART 1

GENERAL (GEN)

AIP

United States of America

GEN 0.1−1

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

PART 1 − GENERAL (GEN)

GEN 0.

GEN 0.1 Preface

1. Name of the Publishing Authority

1.1 The United States of America Aeronautical

Information Publication (AIP) is published by the

authority of the Federal Aviation Administration.

2. Applicable ICAO Documents

2.1 The AIP is prepared in accordance with the

Standards and Recommended Practices (SARP) of

Annex 15 to the Convention on International Civil

Aviation and the Aeronautical Information Services

Manual (ICAO Doc 8126). Charts contained in the

AIP are produced in accordance with Annex 4 to the

Convention on International Civil Aviation and the

Aeronautical Chart Manual (ICAO Doc 8697).

Differences from ICAO Standards, Recommended

Practices and Procedures are given in subsection

GEN 1.7.

3. The AIP Structure and Established Regular Amendment Interval

3.1 The AIP structure

The AIP is made up of three Parts; General (GEN),

En Route (ENR), and Aerodromes (AD); each

divided into sections and subsections as applicable,

containing various types of information subjects.

3.1.1 Part 1 − General (GEN)

Part 1 consists of five sections containing information

as briefly described hereafter:

3.1.1.1 GEN 0. − Preface; Record of AIP Amendments; Checklist of AIP Pages; and Table of Contents

to Part 1.

3.1.1.2 GEN 1. National Regulations and Requirements − Designated Authorities; Entry, Transit, and

Departure of Aircraft; Entry, Transit, and Departure

of Passengers and Crew; Entry, Transit, and

Departure of Cargo; Aircraft Instruments, Equipment, and Flight Documents; Summary of National

Regulations and International Agreements/Conventions; and Differences from ICAO Standards,

Recommended Practices, and Procedures.

3.1.1.3 GEN 2. Tables and Codes − Measuring

System, Time System, and Aircraft Markings;

Abbreviations Used in AIS Publications; Chart

Symbols; Location Indicators; List of Radio

Navigation Aids; Conversion Tables; and Sunrise/

Sunset Tables.

3.1.1.4 GEN 3. Services − Aeronautical Information Services; Aeronautical Charts; Air Traffic

Services; Communication Service; Meteorological

Services; Search and Rescue; and Aircraft Rescue

and Fire Fighting Communciations.

3.1.1.5 GEN 4. Charges for Aerodromes/Heliports

and Air Navigation Services − Fees and Charges;

and Air Navigation Facility Charges.

3.1.2 Part 2 − En Route (ENR)

Part 2 consists of seven sections containing

information as briefly described hereafter:

3.1.2.1 ENR 0. − Checklist of AIP Pages; and the

Table of Contents to Part 2.

3.1.2.2 ENR 1. General Rules and Procedures −

General Rules; Visual Flight Rules; Instrument Flight

Rules; ATS Airspace Classification; Holding,

Approach, and Departure Procedures; Altimeter

Setting Procedures; Flight Planning; Interception of

Civil Aircraft, National Security and Interception

Procedures; Medical Facts for Pilots; Safety, Hazard,

and Accident Reports; North Atlantic (NAT)

Timekeeping Procedures; and Area Navigation

(RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance

(RNP).

3.1.2.3 ENR 2. Air Traffic Services Airspace.

3.1.2.4 ENR 3. ATS routes − Area Navigation

Routes; and Other Routes.

3.1.2.5 ENR 4. Navigation Aids/Systems −Navigation Aids − En Route; and Special Navigation

Systems.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 0.1−2

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.1.2.6 ENR 5. Navigation Warnings − Prohibited,

Restricted, and Other Areas; Military Exercise and

Training Areas; Bird Migration and Areas with

Sensitive Fauna; and Potential Flight Hazards.

3.1.2.7 ENR 6. Helicopter Operations − Helicopter

IFR Operations; and Special Operations.

3.1.3 Part 3 − Aerodromes (AD)

Part 3 consists of three sections containing information as briefly described hereafter:

3.1.3.1 AD 0. − Checklist of AIP Pages; and Table

of Contents to Part 3.

3.1.3.2 AD 1. Aerodromes − Introduction − Aerodrome Availability.

3.1.3.3 AD 2. Aerodromes − Listing of Aerodromes.

3.2 Regular Amendment Interval

Regular amendments to the AIP will be issued every

6 months on Aeronautical Information Regulation

and Control (AIRAC) effective dates listed in the

following table:

TBL GEN 0.1−1

Publication Schedule

New Edition or 

Amendment

Cutoff Date

for Submission

Effective Date

of Publication

Eighteenth

Edition

8/5/04 2/17/05

Amendment 1 2/17/05 8/4/05

Amendment 2 8/4/05 2/16/06

Amendment 3 2/16/06 8/3/06

4. Service to Contact in Case of Detected AIP

Errors or Omissions

4.1 In the compilation of the AIP, care has been taken

to ensure that the information contained therein is

accurate and complete. Any errors and omissions

which may be detected, as well as any correspondence concerning the Aeronautical Information

Publication, should be referred to:

Federal Aviation Administration

System Operations Services

System Operations Airspace and AIM Office 

Publications

800 Independence Avenue, S.W.

Washington DC 20591

USA

5. Subscription Information

5.1 The AIP is offered for sale on a subscription basis

from:

Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

P.O. Box 371954

Pittsburgh, PA 15250−7954

Telephone (202) 512−1800

The AIP may be ordered via the internet at:

http://www.gpoaccess.gov.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 0.2−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 0.2 Record of AIP Amendments

AIP Amendments

Amendment Number Effective Date Date Inserted Inserted By

GEN 0.3 Record of AIP Supplements − Not applicable

AIP

United States of America

GEN 0.4−1

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 0.4 Checklist of Pages

PAGE DATE

PART 1 − GENERAL (GEN)

GEN 0

0.1−1 16 FEB 06

0.1−2 16 FEB 06

0.2−1 17 FEB 05

0.4−1 3 AUG 06

0.4−2 3 AUG 06

0.6−1 17 FEB 05

GEN 1

1.1−1 17 FEB 05

1.1−2 17 FEB 05

1.1−3 17 FEB 05

1.1−4 17 FEB 05

1.2−1 17 FEB 05

1.2−2 17 FEB 05

1.2−3 17 FEB 05

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1.3−1 17 FEB 05

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1.4−3 17 FEB 05

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1.5−1 17 FEB 05

1.6−1 17 FEB 05

1.6−2 17 FEB 05

1.7−1 17 FEB 05

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1.7−3 17 FEB 05

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PAGE DATE

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PAGE DATE

1.7−62 17 FEB 05

1.7−63 17 FEB 05

1.7−64 17 FEB 05

1.7−65 17 FEB 05

1.7−66 17 FEB 05

1.7−67 17 FEB 05

GEN 2

2.1−1 17 FEB 05

2.1−2 17 FEB 05

2.2−1 16 FEB 06

2.2−2 16 FEB 06

2.2−3 16 FEB 06

2.2−4 16 FEB 06

2.2−5 16 FEB 06

2.3−1 17 FEB 05

2.4−1 17 FEB 05

2.5−1 17 FEB 05

2.6−1 17 FEB 05

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2.6−3 17 FEB 05

2.6−4 17 FEB 05

2.6−5 17 FEB 05

2.6−6 17 FEB 05

2.6−7 17 FEB 05

2.7−1 17 FEB 05

GEN 3

3.1−1 17 FEB 05

3.1−2 17 FEB 05

3.1−3 17 FEB 05

3.1−4 17 FEB 05

3.1−5 17 FEB 05

3.2−1 16 FEB 06

3.2−2 16 FEB 06

3.2−3 17 FEB 05

3.2−4 17 FEB 05

3.2−5 17 FEB 05

3.2−6 17 FEB 05

3.2−7 17 FEB 05

3.2−8 17 FEB 05

3.2−9 17 FEB 05

3.2−10 17 FEB 05

3.2−11 17 FEB 05

3.2−12 17 FEB 05

3.2−13 17 FEB 05

3.3−1 17 FEB 05

3.3−2 17 FEB 05

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 0.4−2

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

PAGE DATE

3.3−3 17 FEB 05

3.3−4 17 FEB 05

3.3−5 17 FEB 05

3.3−6 17 FEB 05

3.3−7 17 FEB 05

3.3−8 17 FEB 05

3.3−9 16 FEB 06

3.3−10 16 FEB 06

3.3−11 16 FEB 06

3.3−12 16 FEB 06

3.3−13 16 FEB 06

3.3−14 16 FEB 06

3.3−15 17 FEB 05

3.3−16 17 FEB 05

3.4−1 17 FEB 05

3.4−2 17 FEB 05

3.4−3 16 FEB 06

3.4−4 16 FEB 06

3.4−5 17 FEB 05

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3.4−8 16 FEB 06

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3.4−12 16 FEB 06

3.4−13 3 AUG 06

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3.4−15 17 FEB 05

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PAGE DATE

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PAGE DATE

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3.6−1 17 FEB 05

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3.7−1 17 FEB 05

3.7−2 17 FEB 05

GEN 4

4.1−1 17 FEB 05

4.2−1 17 FEB 05

GEN 0.5 List of Hand Amendments to the AIP − Not applicable

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 0.6−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 0.6 Table of Contents to Part 1

Page

GEN 1. National Regulations and Requirements

GEN 1.1 Designated Authorities GEN 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 1.2 Entry, Transit, and Departure of Aircraft GEN 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 1.3 Entry, Transit, and Departure of Passengers and Crew GEN 1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 1.4 Entry, Transit, and Departure of Cargo GEN 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 1.5 Aircraft Instruments, Equipment, and Flight Documents GEN 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 1.6 Summary of National Regulations and International Agreements/Conventions GEN 1.6 . . −1

GEN 1.7 Differences From ICAO Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures GEN 1.7 . . . −1

GEN 2. Tables and Codes

GEN 2.1 Measuring System, Time System, and Aircraft Markings GEN 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 2.2 Abbreviations Used in AIS Publications GEN 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 2.3 Chart Symbols GEN 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 2.4 Location Indicators GEN 2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 2.5 List of Radio Navigation Aids GEN 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 2.6 Conversion Tables GEN 2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 2.7 Sunrise/Sunset Tables GEN 2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3. Services

GEN 3.1 Aeronautical Information Services GEN 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3.2 Aeronautical Charts GEN 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3.3 Air Traffic Services GEN 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3.4 Communication Service GEN 3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3.5 Meteorological Services GEN 3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3.6 Search and Rescue GEN 3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 3.7 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications GEN 3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 4. Charges for Aerodromes/Heliports and Air Navigation Services

GEN 4.1 Fees and Charges GEN 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

GEN 4.2 Air Navigation Facility Charges GEN 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.1−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 1. NATIONAL REGULATIONS

AND REQUIREMENTS

GEN 1.1 Designated Authorities

1. Introduction

1.1 The requirements for entry and departure of

aircraft engaged in international flights and the

standard procedure for clearance of these aircraft at

all international airports are given for the information

and guidance of operators conducting international

flights. The information contained in this section

does not replace, amend or change in any manner, the

current regulations of the designated authorities,

listed below, which are of concern to international air

travel.

2. Designated Authorities

2.1 The postal, telex and telegraphic addresses of the

designated authorities concerned with the entry,

transit, and departures of international air travel are as

follows:

Customs

Postal Address:

Department of the Treasury

U.S. Customs Service

1300 Pennsylvania Ave., NW

Washington, DC 20229

Telephone: 202−927−6724

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None

Immigrations

Postal Address:

Department of Justice

Immigration and Naturalization Service

425 I Street, NW

Washington, D.C. 20001

Telephone: 202−514−2000

Telex: None

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None

Health

Postal Address:

Center for Disease Control

Quarantine Division

Atlanta, Georgia 30333

Telephone: 404−639−3311

Fax: 404−639−2599

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None

Agriculture Quarantine

Postal Address:

Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

4700 River Road, Unit 38

Riverdale, MD 20737

Telephone: 301−734−7799

Fax: 301−734−3222

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None

Regulations Governing Air Carriers

Postal Address:

Department of Transportation

Office of The Secretary

Office of International Aviation

400 7th St. SW

Washington, D.C. 20590

Telephone: 202−366−2423

Fax: 202−366−3694

Commercial Telegraphic Address:

(MARAD WASH) Attention Office of International

Aviation X−40

Regulations Governing Export of Aircraft and

Commodities

Postal Address:

Department of Commerce

Bureau of Export Administration

14th and Constitution Ave., NW

Washington, D.C. 20230

Telephone: 202−482−3881

Fax: 202−482−3322

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None

Regulations Governing Firearms (Import)

Postal Address:

Department of the Treasury

Internal Revenue Service

Director of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms Division

650 Massachusetts Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20226

Telephone: 202−927−7777

Fax: 202−927−7862

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None
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United States of America

GEN 1.1−2

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Regulations Governing Military Type Hardware

(Export)

Postal Address:

Department of State

Defense Trade Center

1701 North Fort Myers Drive

Rosslyn, Virginia 22209

Telephone: 703−875−6650

Fax: 703−875−5663

Commercial Telegraphic Address: None

3. Applicable ICAO Documents

3.1 National regulations and practices concerning

facilitation of international air transport are being

carried out at all international airports as far as

possible in accordance with the provisions set forth in

the Standards and Recommended Practices of

Annex 9 to the Convention on International Civil

Aviation. Differences from certain Annex 9 provisions exist only in those cases where it has not yet

been possible to amend national legislation accordingly. Continuous efforts are being made to eliminate

these differences.

4. Customs Offices Service/Area Port

Directors

4.1 Address all correspondence to the Service/Area

Port Director of Customs at the following locations:

Location Address

Anchorage 605 W Fourth Avenue

Anchorage, AK 99501

Atlanta 700 Doug Davis Drive

Atlanta, GA 30354

Baltimore 40 S Gay Street

Baltimore, MD 21202

Baton Rouge 5353 Essen Lane

Baton Rouge, LA 70809

Blaine 9901 Pacific Highway

Blaine, WA 98230

Boston 10 Causeway Street, Suite 603

Boston, MA 22220

Buffalo 111 W Huron Street

Buffalo, NY 14202

Calais 1 Main Street

Calais, ME 46190

Calexico P.O. Box 632

Calexico, CA 92231

Champlain 198 W Service Road

Champlain, NY 12919

Charleston 200 E Bay Street

Charleston, SC 29401

Location Address

Charlotte 1901 Cross Beam Drive

Charlotte, NC 28217

Charlotte/

Amalie

Main Post Office

Sugar Estate

St. Thomas, USVI 00801

Chicago 610 S Canal Street

Chicago, IL 60607

Christiansted 1B La Grande Princess, 

P.O. Box 249

Christiansted, St. Croix

USVI 00820

Cleveland 6747 Engle Road

Middleburg Heights, OH 44130

Dallas/Ft. Worth P.O. Box 619050

DFW Airport, TX 75261

Denver 4735 Oakland Street

Denver, CO 80239

Derby Line Interstate 91

Derby Line, VT 58300

Detroit 477 Michigan Avenue, 

Suite 200

Detroit, MI 48226

Douglas First Street & Pan American

Avenue

Douglas, AZ 85607

Duluth 515 W First Street

Duluth, MN 55801

El Paso 797 S Saragosa Road

El Paso, TX 79907

Grand Rapids Kent County Airport

Grand Rapids, MI 49512

Great Falls 300 Second Avenue South

Great Falls, MT 59405

Greenville/

Spartansburg

150−A W Phillips Road

Greer, SC 29650

Harrisburg Harrisburg International Airport

Building 135

Middletown, PA 17057

Hartford 135 High Street

Hartford, CT 61030

Highgate Springs RR 2 Box 170

Swanton, VT 54880

Honolulu 335 Merchant Street

Honolulu, HI 96813

Houlton RR 3 Box 5300

Houlton, ME 47300

Houston/

Galveston

2350 N Sam Houston Parkway

East, Suite 1000

Houston, TX 77032
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GEN 1.1−3

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Location Address

Jacksonville 2831 Talleyrand Avenue

Jacksonville, FL 32206

Kansas City 2701 Rockcreek Parkway, 

Suite 202

N Kansas City, MO 64116

Laredo/

Colombia

P.O. Box 3130

Laredo, TX 78044

Los Angeles/

Airport Area

11099 S La Cienega Boulevard

Los Angeles, CA 90045

Los Angeles/

Long Beach

Seaport Area

300 S. Ferry Street

Terminal Island, CA 90731

Louisville 601 W Broadway

Louisville, KY 40202

Miami Airport 6601 W 25th Street

Miami, FL 33102

Miami Seaport 1500 Port Boulevard

Miami, FL 33132

Milwaukee 6269 Ace Industries Drive

Cudahy, WI 53110

Minneapolis 330 Second Avenue South, 

Suite 560

Minneapolis, MN 55401

Mobile 150 N Royal Street, Room 3004

Mobile, AL 36602

Nashville P.O. Box 270008

Nashville, TN 37227

New Orleans 423 Canal Street

New Orleans, LA 70130

New York 6 World Trade Center

New York, NY 10048

New York/JFK

Area

Building 77

Jamaica, NY 11430

New York/

Newark Area

1210 Corbin Street

Elizabeth, NJ 07201

Nogales 9 N Grand Avenue

Nogales, AZ 85621

Norfolk 200 Granby Street, Suite 839

Norfolk, VA 23510

Ogdensburg 127 N Water Street

Ogdensburg, NY 13669

Orlando 5390 Bear Road

Orlando, FL 32827

Oroville Rt 1 Box 130

Oroville, WA 98844

Otay Mesa 9777 Via De La Amistad

San Diego, CA 92173

Pembina 122 W Stutsman

Pembina, ND 58271

Location Address

Philadelphia Second and Chestnut Streets

Philadelphia, PA 19106

Phoenix 1315 S 27th Street

Phoenix, AZ 85034

Port Huron 526 Water Street

Port Huron, MI 48060

Portland, ME 312 Fore Street

Portland, ME 04101

Portland, OR P.O. Box 55580

Portland, OR 97238−5580

Providence 49 Pavilion Avenue

Providence, RI 02905

Raleigh/Durham 120 Southcenter Court, Suite 500

Morrisville, NC 27560

Richmond 4501 Williamsburg Road, Suite G

Richmond, VA 23231

San Antonio 9800 Airport Boulevard, 

Suite 1103

San Antonio, TX 78216

San Francisco 555 Battery Street

San Francisco, CA 94126

San Juan #1 La Puntilla

San Juan, PR 00901

San Luis P.O. Box H

San Luis, AZ 85349

San Ysidro 720 E San Ysidro Boulevard

San Ysidro, CA 92173

Sault Ste Marie International Bridge Plaza

Sault Ste Marie, MI 49783

Savannah One East Bay Street

Savannah, GA 31401

Seattle 1000 Second Avenue, Suite 2100

Seattle, WA 98104

St. Albans P.O. Box 1490

St. Albans, VT 05478

St. Louis 4477 Woodson Road

St. Louis, MO 63134

Syracuse 4034 S Service Road

N Syracuse, NY 13212

Tacoma 2202 Port of Tacoma Road

Tacoma, WA 98421

Tampa 1624 E 7th Avenue, Suite 101

Tampa, FL 33605

Tucson 7150 S Tucson Boulevard

Tucson, AZ 85706

Washington, DC P.O. Box 17423

Washington, DC 20041

Wilmington, NC One Virginia Avenue

Wilmington, NC 28401
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5. Customs Management Centers

5.1 Address all correspondence to the Customs

Management Centers’ Directors at the following

locations:

Arizona 4740 North Oracle Road 

Suite 310

Tucson, AZ 85705

Caribbean Area #1 La Puntilla Street 

Room 203

San Juan, PR 00901

East Great Lakes 4455 Genesee Street

Buffalo, NY 14225

East Texas 2323 S Shepard Street 

Suite 1200

Houston, TX 77019

Gulf 423 Canal Street, Room 337

New Orleans, LA 70130

Mid America 610 S Canal Street, Suite 900

Chicago, IL 60607

Mid Atlantic 103 S Gay Street, Suite 208

Baltimore, MD 21202

Mid Pacific 33 New Montgomery Street

Suite 1601

San Francisco, CA 94105

New York 6 World Trade Center

Room 716

New York, NY 10048

North Atlantic 10 Causeway Street, Room 801

Boston, MA 02222

North Florida 1624 E Seventh Avenue

Suite 301

Tampa, FL 33605

North Pacific 8337 NE Alderwood Road 

Room 200

Mailing Address: P.O. Box 55700

Portland, OR 97238−5700

Northwest Great

Plains

1000 Second Avenue, Suite 2200

Seattle, WA 98104

South Atlantic 1691 Phoenix Boulevard

Suite 270

College Park, GA 30349

South Florida 909 SE First Avenue, Suite 980

Miami, FL 33131

South Pacific One World Trade Center

P.O. Box 32639

Long Beach, CA 90815

South Texas P.O. Box 3130, Building #2

Lincoln−Juarez Bridge

Laredo, TX 78044

Southern

California

610 W Ash Street, Suite 1200

San Diego, CA 92101

West Great Lakes 613 Abbott Street, 3rd Floor

Detroit, MI 48226

West Texas/New

Mexico

9400 Viscount Boulevard

Suite 104

El Paso, TX 79925

6. Customs Headquarters

6.1 Address all correspondence to:

Commissioner of Customs

1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20229.
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GEN 1.2−1

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 1.2 Entry, Transit, and 

Departure of Aircraft

1. General

1.1 All flights into or over the territories of the U.S.

and landing in such territories shall be carried out in

accordance with the regulations of the U.S. regarding

civil aviation.

1.2 Aircraft landing in or departing from the

territories of the U.S. must first land at, or finally

depart from, an international airport (see AD 2)

except as may be otherwise noted in this section.

1.3 All aircraft entering the U.S. must land at a

designated international airport of entry unless prior

approval to land at a landing rights or other airport has

been obtained from U.S. Customs. The terms

“international airport of entry” refers to any airport

designated by the Secretary of the Treasury or the

Commissioner of Customs as a port of entry for civil

aircraft arriving in the U.S. from any place outside

thereof and for cargo carried on such aircraft. (Note:

Frequently the word “international” is included in the

name of an airport for other than Customs purposes,

in which case it has no special Customs meaning.)

The term “landing rights airport” refers to an airport

of entry at which permission to land must be granted

by the appropriate Customs officer with acknowledgement of the Immigration and Naturalization

Service, the Public Health Service, and the Animal

and Plant Health Inspection Service of the

Department of Agriculture. Such landing rights are

required before an aircraft may land at an airport

which has not been designated for Customs purposes

as an international airport of entry. In the case of

scheduled aircraft, such permission shall be obtained

from the Service/Area Director of Customs of the

Port (see GEN 1.1, paragraph 4) where the first

landing will occur. In all other cases, including

private aircraft, landing permission may be obtained

from the Port Director of Customs (see GEN 1.1) or

the Customs officer in charge of the port of entry or

Customs station nearest the intended place of

landing. All persons entering the U.S. must be

inspected for U.S. Customs, Immigration, and Public

Health purposes.

1.4 Subject to the observance of the applicable rules,

conditions, and limitations of the Federal Aviation

Regulations and the Department of Transportation

(DOT)/Office of the Secretary of Transportation

(OST), Office of International Aviation, as described

below, foreign civil aircraft registered and manufactured in any foreign country which is a member of the

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

may be navigated in the U.S. Foreign civil aircraft

manufactured in a country which at the time of

manufacture was not a member of ICAO may be

navigated in the U.S. if the country has notified ICAO

that the aircraft meets the standards described in the

Chicago Convention or if a notice has been filed with

the DOT/OST, Office of International Aviation,

through diplomatic channels, that the aircraft meets

the standards described in the Chicago Convention.

1.5 Aircraft registered under the laws of foreign

countries, not members of the ICAO, may be

navigated in U.S. territory only when authorized by

the DOT/OST, Office of International Aviation.

1.6 All foreign civil aircraft operated to, from, or

within the U.S. must carry on board effective

certificates of registration and air worthiness issued

by the country of registry. Also, each member of the

flight crew must carry a valid airman certificate or

license authorizing that member to perform their

assigned functions in the aircraft.

1.7 Transportation of firearms by aircraft passengers. Regulations of the Alcohol, Tobacco and

Firearms Division of the Internal Revenue Service

make it unlawful for any person knowingly to deliver

or cause to be delivered to any common or contract

carrier for transportation or shipment in interstate or

foreign commerce, to persons other than licensed

importers, licensed manufacturers, licensed dealers,

or licensed collectors, any package or other container

in which there is any firearm or ammunition without

written notice to the carrier that such firearm or

ammunition is being transported or shipped; except

that any passenger who owns or legally possesses a

firearm or ammunition being transported aboard any

common or contract carrier for movement with the

passenger in interstate or foreign commerce may

deliver said firearm or ammunition into the custody
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United States of America

GEN 1.2−2

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

of the pilot, captain, conductor or operator of such

common or contract carrier for the duration of the

trip.

1.8 Miscellaneous Information

1.8.1 Commercial air transport operators in the U.S.

must adhere to Annex 6 − Operation of Aircraft with

the proviso that aircraft which have no operators’

local representative available to them will be required

to carry a fixed fuel reserve of not less than

45 minutes at the approved fuel consumption rate

plus a variable reserve equivalent to 15% of the fuel

required from departure to destination and to an

alternate if an alternate is required; or where the

reserve calculated in accordance with the above

exceeds two hours at the approved fuel consumption

rate − two hours reserve fuel.

2. Scheduled Common Carriage Flights

2.1 General

2.1.1 Generally, when an operator of an aircraft

advertises its transportation services to the general

public or particular classes or segments of the public

for compensation or hire, it is a common carrier. In

turn, the transportation service the operator performs

is considered to be in common carriage. The

scheduled flights into, from and landing in the

territory of the U.S. for purposes of loading or

unloading passengers, cargo and mail (revenue

flights), must first obtain from the U.S. DOT/OST,

Office of International Aviation (X−40), a foreign air

carrier permit. Applications for common carrier

authority must be filed with X−40. If X−40, with the

President’s approval, determines that the carrier is fit,

willing, and able to perform the service it proposes

and that the service is in the public interest, X−40

shall issue the carrier a foreign air carrier permit,

subject to the disapproval of the President of the U.S.

2.1.2 The scheduled flights in transit across the

territory of the U.S. or landing for reasons other than

for the purpose of loading and unloading of

passengers, cargo or mail (nonrevenue flights),

which are registered in a State which is a party to the

International Air Services Transit Agreement, shall

submit a notice of transit to X−40. The notice of

transit must be submitted at least 15 days prior to the

flight and must include:

2.1.2.1 Name, country of organization and nationality (including the nationality of all ownership

interests) of the operator;

2.1.2.2 Name of the country in which the aircraft to

be used in the service is registered;

2.1.2.3 A full description of the proposed operations

including the type of operations (passenger, property,

mail, or combination), date of commencement,

duration and frequency of flights, and routing

(including each terminal and intermediate point that

will be served);

2.1.2.4 Copies of advertising of the flights, if

advertised in the U.S.

2.1.3 If the notice is timely filed, the flights may be

operated in the absence of a contrary notification

from X−40.

2.1.4 Scheduled flights in transit across the territory

of the U.S. or landing for reasons other than for the

purpose of loading and unloading of passengers,

cargo or mail (nonrevenue flights), which are

registered in a State which is not a party to the

International Air Services Transit Agreement, must

obtain prior permission from X−40 at least 15 days

prior to the flight. All permission requests must

include the same information as requested in

paragraph 2.1.2 (See also paragraph 1.5). The carrier

may not transit U.S. territory unless and until it

receives a foreign aircraft permit to do so from X−40.

2.1.5 The permission to transit U.S. territory as

described above also includes the right to make stops

in the U.S. for technical purposes (for example,

refueling and servicing of the aircraft) as long as the

stopover does not exceed 24 hours. Stopovers which

do exceed 24 hours are permitted only in those cases

where a transfer of passengers, property or mail to

another aircraft is necessary for the safety of the

aircraft, passengers, property, or crew. Stopovers for

the pleasure or convenience of passengers are not

included in the transit authority.

2.2 Documentary Requirements for Clearance of

Aircraft

2.2.1 The undermentioned documents must be

submitted to U.S. authorities for clearance on entry

and departure of aircraft. All documents listed below

must follow the ICAO standard format as set forth in

the relevant appendixes to Annex 9, and are

acceptable only when furnished in English.
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United States of America

GEN 1.2−3

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.2.2 Aircraft Documents Required (Arrival and

Departure)

TBL GEN 1.2−1

Required by General 

Declaration

*Passenger

Manifest

Cargo

Manifest

Customs

Agriculture

1 0 1

Plant and

Quarantine

1 0 1

Immigrations 1 0 1

Public Health 1 0 0

Total 4 0 3

*See paragraph 2.4 in GEN 1.3

2.3 Public Health Measures Applied to Aircraft

2.3.1 At airports without Public Health Service

Quarantine staff, the Customs, Immigration, or

Agriculture Officer present will represent the Public

Health Service.

2.3.2 No public health measures are required to be

carried out with respect to aircraft entering U.S.

territory except that disinfection of an aircraft may be

required if it has left a foreign area that is infected

with insect−borne communicable disease and the

aircraft is suspected of harboring insects of public

health importance. Disinfection is defined as: “The

operation in which measures are taken to kill the

insect vectors of human disease present in carriers

and containers.”

2.3.3 Disinfection shall be the responsibility of the

air carrier and shall be subject to monitoring by the

Director of the Public Health Service.

2.3.4 Disinfection of the aircraft shall be accomplished immediately after landing and blocking. The

cargo compartment shall be disinfected before the

mail, baggage, and other cargo are discharged and the

rest of the aircraft shall be disinfected after

passengers and crew deplane.

2.3.5 Disinfection shall be performed with an

approved insecticide in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions. The current list of

approved insecticides and sources may be obtained

from the Division of Quarantine, Center for

Prevention Services, Centers for Disease Control,

Atlanta, GA 30333.

2.3.6 All food and potable water taken on board an

aircraft at any airport and intended for human

consumption thereon shall be obtained from sources

approved in accordance with Title 21, Code of

Federal Regulations, Parts 1240 and 1250.

2.3.7 Aircraft inbound or outbound on an international flight shall not discharge over the U.S. any

excrement or waste water or other polluting

materials. Arriving aircraft shall discharge such

matter only at servicing areas approved under

regulations cited in paragraph 2.3.6 above.

2.3.8 Aircraft on an international voyage, which are

in traffic between U.S. airports, shall be subject to

inspection when there occurs on board, among

passengers or crew, any death, or any ill person, or

when illness is suspected to be caused by insanitary

conditions.

3. Nonscheduled, Noncommon Carriage

Flights

3.1 General

3.1.1 Nonscheduled, noncommon carriage flights

are transportation services for remuneration or hire

that are not offered to the general public.

3.1.2 Nonscheduled flights in transit across the

territory of the U.S. or landing for reasons other than

the purposes of loading and unloading passengers,

cargo or mail (nonrevenue flights) which are

registered in a State which is a member of the

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

may do so without the necessity of obtaining prior

permission, provided passengers are not permitted to

leave the airport during stopover or provided that

each stopover does not exceed 24 hours. Stopovers

which do exceed 24 hours are permitted only in those

cases where a transfer of passengers, property or mail

to another aircraft is necessary for the safety of the

aircraft, passengers, property, or crew. Stopovers for

the pleasure or convenience of passengers are not

included in the transit authority.

3.1.3 Nonscheduled flights landing in the territory of

the U.S. for reasons of loading or unloading

passengers, cargo or mail (revenue flights), must

obtain prior permission from the DOT/OST, Office of

International Aviation (X−40), at least 15 days prior

to the flight. All permission requests must include:

3.1.3.1 Name and address of applicant.

3.1.3.2 Aircraft make, model, and registration or

identification marks.

3.1.3.3 Country in which the aircraft is registered.
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3.1.3.4 Name and address of registered owner of

aircraft.

3.1.3.5 Type of flight(s) (passenger, cargo, or

agricultural or industrial operation).

3.1.3.6 Purpose of flight(s).

3.1.3.7 Date of the flight(s).

3.1.3.8 Routing of the flight(s).

3.1.3.9 Number of flights.

3.1.3.10 Name of charterer.

3.1.3.11 Charter price.

3.1.4 Applications should be made on DOT/OST,

Office of International Aviation Form 4509;

however, if time does not permit, applications by

telegram will be accepted as long as they include the

information described above. Telegraphic applications must include a prepaid voucher sufficient to

allow a sixty word reply. The permit must be carried

aboard the aircraft during flight over U.S. territory.

3.2 The following commercial air operations

require preflight authorization from X−40:

3.2.1 Agricultural and industrial operations which

include, but are not limited to, such services as crop

dusting, pest control, pipeline patrols, mapping,

surveying, banner towing, or skywriting.

3.2.2 Occasional and infrequent planeload charter

flights carrying persons or property to and/or from the

U.S. The number of these flights that may be

performed is limited to six in any calendar year.

Foreign civil aircraft are not permitted to transport

persons or property or mail for compensation or hire

between points wholly within the U.S.

3.2.3 Continuing cargo operations for one or more

contractors. Applicants may be authorized to serve up

to 10 different contractors in a 12−month period;

however, authorization may be granted only if it is

clear that the service is not in common carriage and

the carrier and contractor enter into a contract which

provides for (a) continuing cargo operations for a

period of at least 6 months; (b) an absolute or

minimum number of flights or volume of cargo to be

transported; and (c) a guarantee by the contractor to

the carrier to pay for the minimum number of flights

to be performed or volume of cargo to be transported

whether or not he/she uses the capacity. Continuing

cargo operations wholly within the U.S. cannot be

authorized.

3.2.4 Persons wishing to operate foreign civil

aircraft from, to, or within the U.S. other than as

described in this Section may request permission to

perform those services by filing an application with

X−40. The application should include the information described above in this section. Permission to

perform these services may be granted if X−40 finds

that the service is consistent with applicable law and

is in the interest of the public of the U.S.

3.2.5 Nonscheduled flights in transit across the

territory of the U.S. or landing with or without

purposes of loading and unloading passengers, cargo

or mail (revenue or nonrevenue flights) which are

registered in a State which is not a member of the

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

must obtain prior permission from X−40 at least

15 days prior to the flight. All permission requests

must include the same information as requested in

paragraph 3.1.3. (See also paragraph 1.5).

3.3 Documentary Requirements for Clearance of

Aircraft

3.3.1 Same requirements as for scheduled flights; in

addition, Customs Form 178 must be filled out for all

private aircraft arrivals.

4. Private Flights

4.1 Procedures

4.1.1 If an operator intends to carry out a private

flight in transit across the territory of the U.S. without

landing, he/she may do so without the necessity of

obtaining prior permission.

4.1.2 If an operator intends to carry out a private

flight in transit across the territory of the U.S. with

intermediate landing, the operator must provide

advance notice of arrival to U.S. Customs officials at

or nearest the first intended landing. Custom

officials, upon notification, will notify the necessary

Immigration, Public Health, and Agriculture officials. Advance notice must be received in sufficient

time to enable the officials designated to inspect the

aircraft to reach the place of landing before the arrival

of the aircraft. At least one hour advance notice is

required for this purpose during regular business

hours. More advance notice may be required during

other times (see Aerodrome Section).
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4.1.3 Notification of arrival must include:

4.1.3.1 Type of aircraft and registration number.

4.1.3.2 Name of aircraft commander.

4.1.3.3 Number of alien passengers.

4.1.3.4 Number of U.S. citizen passengers.

4.1.3.5 Place of last foreign departure.

4.1.3.6 Estimated time and location of crossing U.S.

border/coastline.

4.1.3.7 Name of intended U.S. airport of first

landing (designated airport).

4.1.3.8 Estimated time of arrival.

4.1.4 Private aircraft arriving from Canada or

Mexico may request that advance notice of arrival to

Customs officers be included in the flight plan to be

transmitted to a Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) facility which is filed in those countries if

destined to an airport in the U.S. where flight

notification advise Customs (ADCUS) Service is

available. An ADCUS message in the remarks

section of the plan consists of the word ADCUS

followed by the pilots name and the number of

persons on board (POB) with a notation of the

number of non−U.S. citizens (i.e.; ADCUS John Doe

5 POB 2 NON). This notification may be provided

through FAA; however, this entails the relaying of

information and is not as timely or reliable as direct

communication. It is recommended that if possible,

pilots attempt to communicate directly with Customs

by telephone or other means to insure that an officer

will be available at the time requested. It is the

ultimate responsibility of the pilot to insure Customs

is properly notified, and the failure to do so may

subject the pilot to penalty action. At those airports

where ADCUS service is available, the FAA will

forward the ADCUS information to the Customs

official on duty. At a landing rights airport such

notices will then be treated as an application for

permission to land. A flight plan notice must be filed

sufficiently before the estimated time of arrival of the

flight to permit Customs to make a determination as

to whether or not to grant the requested landing

rights.

4.1.5 Aircraft may use the following method of

notifying Customs when departing from a country or

remote area where a pre−departure flight plan cannot

be filed or an advise Customs (ADCUS) message

cannot be included in a pre−departure flight plan: Call

the nearest en route domestic or international FAA

flight service station as soon as it is estimated that

radio communications can be established and file a

VFR or DVFR flight plan and include as the last item

the ADCUS information. The station with which

such a flight plan is filed will forward it to the

appropriate FAA station who will notify the Customs

office responsible for the destination airport.

4.1.6 If the pilot fails to include “advise Customs” in

the radioed flight plan, it will be assumed that the

pilot has made other arrangements, and FAA will not

advise Customs.

4.1.7 FAA assumes no responsibility for any delays

in advising Customs if the flight plan is given to FAA

too late for delivery to Customs before arrival of the

aircraft. It is still the pilot’s responsibility to give

timely notice even though a flight plan is given to

FAA. FAA cannot relay an “advise Customs” flight

plan if the pilot indicates a destination airport where

flight service notice to Customs is NOT available.

When dependable facilities for giving timely notice

of arrival are not available, a landing shall be made at

a place where the necessary facilities do exist before

coming into any area from any place outside the U.S.

4.1.8 All private aircraft arriving in the U.S. via (a)

the U.S./Mexican border or the Pacific Coast from a

foreign place in the Western Hemisphere south of

33 degrees north latitude or (b) the Gulf of Mexico

and Atlantic Coasts from a foreign place in the

Western Hemisphere south of 30 degrees north

latitude, from any place in Mexico, or from the U.S.

Virgin Islands, shall furnish a notice of intended

arrival to the Customs service at the nearest

designated airport, listed in paragraph 6, to the point

of first border or coastline crossing. They must land

at this airport for inspection, unless they have an

overflight exemption, see paragraph 4.5. Landing

rights must be obtained from Customs to land at

designated airports that are not also approved as

international airports. The requirement to furnish an

advance notice of intended arrival shall not apply to

private aircraft departing from Puerto Rico and

conducting their flights under instrument flight rules

(IFR) until crossing the U.S. coastline or proceeding

north of 30 degrees north latitude prior to crossing the

coastline. The notice must be furnished at least one

hour before crossing the U.S. coastline or border. The

notice may be furnished directly to Customs by

telephone, radio, or other means, or may be furnished
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by means of an ADCUS message in the flight plan

through the FAA to Customs. The FAA will accept

these notices up to 23 hours in advance.

4.1.9 A one−hour advance notice of coastline or

border penetration (but not landing) is required of

private aircraft arriving in the continental U.S. from

Puerto Rico that are not conducting their flight on an

IFR flight plan and those private aircraft that have

flown beyond the inner boundary of the Air Defense

Identification Zone (ADIZ) south of 30 degrees north

latitude on the Atlantic Coast, beyond the inner

boundary of the Gulf Coast ADIZ, south of the

U.S./Mexican border, or beyond the inner boundary

of the Pacific Coast ADIZ south of 33 degrees north

latitude which have not landed in a foreign place.

This notice requirement may be satisfied by either

filing a flight plan with the FAA and placing ADCUS

in the remarks section of the flight plan or by

contacting Customs directly at least one hour prior to

the inbound crossing of the U.S. border or coastline.

4.2 Notice to Customs

4.2.1 The notice to Customs required by paragraph 4.1.9 of this section shall include the

following:

4.2.1.1 Aircraft registration number.

4.2.1.2 Name of aircraft commander.

4.2.1.3 Number of U.S. citizen passengers.

4.2.1.4 Number of alien passengers.

4.2.1.5 Place of last departure.

4.2.1.6 Estimated time and location of crossing U.S.

border/coastline.

4.2.1.7 Name of U.S. airport of first landing (one of

the designated airports listed in paragraph 6 of this

section, unless an exemption has been granted in

accordance with paragraph 4.5 of this section).

4.2.1.8 Estimated time of arrival.

4.3 Landing Requirement

4.3.1 Private aircraft that are coming from a foreign

place are required to furnish a notice of intended

arrival in compliance with paragraphs 4.1.9 and 4.2

of this section and must land for Customs processing

at the nearest designated airport to the border or

coastline crossing point as listed in paragraph 6 of

this section, unless exempted from this requirement

in accordance with paragraph 4.5 of this section. In

addition to the requirements of this paragraph, private

aircraft commanders must comply with all other

landing and notice of arrival requirements. This

landing requirement shall not apply to private aircraft

that have not landed in a foreign place or are arriving

directly from Puerto Rico.

4.4 Private Aircraft Defined

4.4.1 For the purpose of this section, “private

aircraft” means any civil aircraft not being used to

transport persons or property for compensation or

hire. The term ‘‘person transported for compensation

or hire” means a person who would not be transported

unless there was some payment or other consideration, including monetary or services rendered, by or

for the person and who is not connected with the

operation of the aircraft or its navigation, ownership,

or business. An aircraft will be presumed to not be

carrying persons or merchandise for hire, and thus

will be a private aircraft for Customs purposes, when

the aircraft is transporting only the aircraft owner’s

employees, invited guests, or the aircraft owner’s

own property. This presumption may be overcome by

evidence that the employees, “guests,” or property

are being transported for compensation or other

consideration. If an aircraft is used by a group of

individuals, one of whom is the pilot making the

flight for his/her own convenience, and all persons

aboard the aircraft including the pilot contribute

equally toward payment of the expense of operating

the aircraft owned or rented by them, the aircraft

would be considered private.

4.5 Exemption from the Landing Requirement

4.5.1 The owner or aircraft commander of a private

aircraft required to furnish a notice of intended arrival

in compliance with paragraph 4.1.9 of this section

may request an exemption from the landing

requirement specified in paragraph 4.3 of this

section. If approved, the applicant is bound to comply

with all other requirements, including operating at or

above 12,500 feet mean sea level, providing advance

notice of penetration to U.S. Customs at least one

hour in advance of crossing the border or coastline,

furnishing advance notice of arrival at the first

intended airport of landing, etc. The request should

be addressed to the Port Director of U.S. Customs

having jurisdiction over the airport to be utilized most

frequently when arriving from points south of the

U.S. Requests for exemptions can be for either a

single specific flight or term (one year) approval.

Applications for a single overflight exemption must
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be received at least 15 days in advance of the intended

date of arrival; for term exemption, at least 30 days

in advance.

4.5.2 Air charters or taxi service cannot be granted

an unqualified term exemption since they cannot

reasonably comply with the requirements of a term

application, namely, comprehensive details of the

passengers they will transport in the course of one

year. By submitting all other details, air charters/taxis

will accrue the benefit of “conditional” approval.

This approval is called conditional because the

operator must receive the concurrence of the Port

Director prior to each trip. Concurrence will be based

upon factors such as the foreign point of departure to

the U.S. and the passengers being transported. The

benefit realized by the charter/taxi operator is that the

time constraints listed above for timely submission of

single overflight exemptions can be drastically

reduced. Local Customs Ports will establish

minimum time frames in accordance with their own

requirements.

4.5.3 Required elements of any overflight exemption include the following:

4.5.3.1 Aircraft registration number and serial

number.

4.5.3.2 Identification information for the aircraft

(make, model, color scheme, and type, such as

turboprop, etc.).

4.5.3.3 A statement that the aircraft is equipped with

a functioning mode C (altitude reporting) transponder which will be in use during the overflight.

4.5.3.4 A statement that the aircraft is capable of

flying above 12,500 feet and that it will be operated

at such an altitude when utilizing the overflight

exemption unless ordered to fly at a lower altitude by

FAA air traffic controllers.

4.5.3.5 Names, home addresses, social security

numbers (optional), and dates of birth of owners of

the aircraft. (If the aircraft is being operated under a

lease, the name and address of the lessee, in addition

to that of the owner.)

4.5.3.6 Names, home addresses, social security

numbers (optional), dates of birth, and any FAA

certificate numbers of all crew members that the

applicant wishes to have approved. Individual

applications from each crew member must also be

attached and should take the form of a signed letter

from the crew member in question. The applicant

must verify the accuracy of the information provided

by the crew member to the best of the applicants

ability. The application must contain a statement to

this effect.

4.5.3.7 Names, home addresses, social security

numbers (optional), and dates of birth of usual and

potential passengers to the greatest extent possible.

An approved passenger must be on board to utilize

the overflight exemption.

4.5.3.8 Description of usual or anticipated cargo or

baggage.

4.5.3.9 Description of the company’s usual business

activity, if the aircraft is company owned.

4.5.3.10 Name of intended airport(s) of first landing

in the U.S. (The overflight exemption will only be

valid to fly to airports preapproved by Customs).

4.5.3.11 Foreign place(s) from which the flight(s)

will originate.

4.5.3.12 Reason for the request of overflight

exemption.

4.5.4 Information should be as complete and

accurate as possible and should be specific rather than

general. The following points will assist in preparing

an acceptable application:

4.5.4.1 Include all potential crew members who

might be present on the aircraft during the term of the

desired exemption. In order for overflight exemptions to remain valid, all crew members on a flight

must have been listed on your application.

4.5.4.2 Provide as many identifiers as possible for all

crew and passengers. Social security numbers,

passport numbers, aircraft pilot license numbers, etc.,

will contribute greatly to expediting background

investigations.

4.5.4.3 Describe the type of business the corporation

is engaged in. If the corporation that owns the aircraft

is merely an air transportation service for the benefit

of an affiliated company, please provide details.

4.5.4.4 List the foreign cities and countries the

aircraft will visit. It is to your advantage to describe

the nature of your business in each location, or to

indicate that certain destinations are vacation/entertainment locations.
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4.5.4.5 The reason for overflight exemption requests

should be as tangible and concretely stated as

possible. Estimate the costs incurred by making an

extra landing at a “designated airport” (fuel, wear on

aircraft components, landing fees, additional time/

distance).

4.5.4.6 Provide an estimate of the number of nautical

flying miles which will be saved on an annual basis

if the exemption is granted.

4.5.4.7 Companies involved in air ambulance−type

operations may be granted a single overflight

exemption when emergency situations arise, as well

as in the case of nonemergency transport for

individuals seeking medical treatment. Both U.S. and

foreign registered aircraft will be eligible for the

special exemption. The applicant must provide all the

necessary information normally required for an

overflight exemption. Customs should be notified at

least 24 hours prior to departure. If this cannot be

accomplished, Customs will allow receipt of the

overflight exemption application up to departure

time, as well as in flight through a flight service

station.

4.5.5 Applicants should be aware that the processing

of term applications requires time for all background

reports to be prepared for the deciding official.

Incomplete applications will not be processed, and

the applicant will be notified of the specific

additional information that must be supplied. Should

an application for overflight be denied at the district

level, an appeal process is available. Letters of denial

will include the name and address of the Service/Area

Director of Customs responsible for the district office

that denied your application. You may petition the

Service/Area Director for reconsideration of your

request.

5. Public Health Measures Applied to

Aircraft

5.1 Same requirements as for scheduled flights.

6. Airports Designated as Entry Points

6.1 Airports Designated as Entry Points for Aircraft

Arriving from Mexico and Other Foreign Countries

in the Western Hemisphere South of 30 Degrees

North Latitude.

TBL GEN 1.2−2

Location Airport Name

ARIZONA

Douglas Bisbee−Douglas International

Douglas Douglas Municipal

Nogales Nogales International

Tucson Tucson International

Yuma Yuma International

CALIFORNIA

Calexico Calexico International

San Diego Brown Field

FLORIDA

Fort Lauderdale Fort Lauderdale Executive

Fort Lauderdale Fort Lauderdale−Hollywood

International

Key West Key West International

Miami Miami International

Miami Opa−Locka

Miami Tamiami

West Palm Beach Palm Beach International

Fort Pierce St. Lucie County

Tampa Tampa International

LOUISIANA

New Orleans New Orleans Lakefront

New Orleans New Orleans International

(Moissant Field)

NEW MEXICO

Santa Teresa Santa Teresa

NORTH CAROLINA

Wilmington New Hanover County

TEXAS

Beaumont Jefferson County

Brownsville Brownsville International

Corpus Christi Corpus Christi International

Del Rio Del Rio International

Eagle Pass Eagle Pass Municipal

El Paso El Paso International

Houston William P. Hobby

Laredo Laredo International

McAllen Miller International

Presidio Presidio−Lely International
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7. Entry and Clearance − Cuba

7.1 Aircraft arriving from or departing for Cuba

must land at or depart from Miami International

Airport. Upon arrival, the pilot will present a

manifest of all passengers on board to an officer of the

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service or to a

Customs officer acting as an Immigration officer. No

passenger arriving from Cuba by aircraft will be

released by Customs, nor will the aircraft be cleared

or permitted to depart before the passenger is released

by an Immigration officer or a Customs officer acting

on behalf of that agency.

7.2 Aircraft proceeding to Cuba are required to have

a validated license issued by the Department of

Commerce or a license issued by the Department of

State.

7.3 These special requirements do not apply to

aircraft arriving from or departing to the U.S. Naval

Base at Guantanamo Bay. Aircraft from this base

must meet the same requirements as aircraft arriving

from other Caribbean nations.

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GEN 1.3 Entry, Transit, and Departure

 of Passengers and Crew

1. Customs Requirements

1.1 Incoming passengers are required to complete a

customs declaration. All baggage or articles

belonging to the disembarking passengers are subject

to customs inspection. Permission of the Customs

officer is required prior to discharging any

merchandise or baggage not previously cleared by

Customs or prior to permitting passengers or persons

employed on the aircraft not cleared by Customs to

depart unless such removal or departure is necessary

for the purpose of safety or the preservation of life or

property. In case of an emergency or forced landing,

Customs, Immigration, Public Health, and Agriculture officials must be notified immediately.

1.2 No departure formalities are required upon

departure for embarking passengers.

1.3 Any aircraft departing from the U.S. on a

business or pleasure flight to unauthorized destinations (see GEN 1.4 paragraphs 3.3 and 3.4) or aircraft

carrying passengers or merchandise for hire, or which

will take on board or discharge passengers anywhere

outside the U.S., is required to obtain clearance at the

customs port of entry at or nearest the last place of

take−off from the U.S.

1.4 A private aircraft departing from the U.S. on a

business or pleasure flight to an authorized

destination, is not required to present a departure

manifest or have a U.S. Customs clearance of any

type, although modified, military−type, privately

owned aircraft are subject to certain restrictions (see

GEN 1.4 paragraph 5.8) under the regulations of the

Office of Munitions Control of the Department of

State.

2. Immigration Requirements

2.1 Aircraft operators are required to present all

persons for U.S. immigration inspection. Aliens

must comply with all provisions of current

immigration laws and regulations. Aliens who are

lawfully domiciled residents of the U.S., must, with

certain exceptions not generally applicable here,

present their valid alien registration cards

(Form I−151) issued by the Immigration Office. U.S.

citizens must be able to satisfy inspectors of their

citizenship and should, therefore, carry with them

sufficient identification.

2.2 Valid passports and visas are required for all

alien passengers arriving and departing on the same

or through flights or transferring to another flight at

the same or a nearby airport. The visa requirement

may be exempted for passengers in direct transit with

a layover period of up to eight hours who are

passengers on scheduled air carriers which are

signatory to a previously approved transit agreement

with the Immigration and Naturalization Service.

2.3 An alien passenger entering the U.S. for the

purpose of immigration must hold a valid passport

and an immigration visa, the latter being issued at

U.S. Consulates abroad. Temporary visitors must be

in possession of a valid passport and visa.

2.4 Flight crew members must be in possession of a

valid passport and visa regardless of length of stay

unless the crew members are exempted through

previous agreement. (See paragraph 2.2).

2.5 Arrival and Departure Manifests

2.5.1 Neither arrival nor departure manifests

containing information on all passengers are required

in the U.S. However, the U.S. Immigration and

Naturalization Service does require the completion

and submission to immigration officials, of an

arrival/departure card for each nonresident alien

entering the U.S., regardless of length of stay.

2.6 Arriving Flights

2.6.1 The captain or agent of every aircraft (other

than private) arriving in the U.S. from a foreign place

or from an outlying possession of the U.S. is

responsible for and must ensure that an arrival/departure card (Form I−94) is prepared by each nonresident

alien passenger and is presented to the immigration

officer at the port of arrival. The I−94 card, however,

is not required for the citizens of Canada and the

French islands of St. Piere and Migueion, near

Newfoundland. In addition, an arrival/departure card

is not required for an arriving, direct transit passenger

at a U.S. port from which the passenger will depart

directly to a foreign place or an outlying possession

of the U.S. on the same flight, provided that a listing

which includes the number of such direct transit
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passengers is provided or that the number of such

passengers are noted on the U.S. Customs Service

Form 7507 or on the International Civil Aviation

Organization’s General Declaration and such passengers remain, during ground time, in a separate area

under the direction and control of the Customs

Service.

2.6.2 Captains of private aircraft not engaged in the

carriage of persons or cargo for hire (nonrevenue

flights) are not required to present arrival−departure

cards (Form I−94). This, however, does not relieve a

nonresident alien passenger from the responsibility

of completing and submitting a Form I−94 to

immigration officials when required. Most alien

passengers must execute and present Form I−94

(revised March 1, 1986). Prior editions may not be

used. Form I−94 must be completed by all persons

except U.S. citizens, returning resident aliens, aliens

with immigrant visas, and Canadians visiting or in

transit. Mexican nationals in possession of Immigration Form I−86 or Form I−586 are exempt from Form

I−94 reporting requirements when their itinerary is

limited to California, Arizona, New Mexico, or Texas

and will not exceed 72 hours in duration. This

exemption does not apply when travel will exceed

25 miles from the international border between

Mexico and the U.S. Travel to Nevada by Mexican

nationals is exempted for periods of less than 30 days.

Mexican nationals proceeding to destinations more

than 25 miles from the border in these states will have

to obtain a visitor’s permit I−444 when arriving in the

U.S. Mexican nationals presenting official or

diplomatic passports and destined to the U.S. for

purposes other than permanent assignment are

exempted from Form I−94 reporting requirements.

2.6.3 Completion of the arrival−departure cards

(Form I−94) must be as follows:

2.6.3.1 Alien passengers on temporary visit in the

U.S. must complete all items of Form I−94 in

duplicate, one copy of which is attached to the

passport for surrender to immigration officials upon

departure.

2.6.3.2 Alien passengers in direct transit, when

required to complete Form I−94, are to insert the

symbol TRWOV on the line headed “Passenger

Boarded At” and need not complete items 3, 8, and

9. Form I−94 is to be completed in single copy only.

2.6.3.3 When the Form I−94 is required by

individuals entering the U.S. by private aircraft it

should indicate PRIVATE in block #7−Airline and

Flight Number. They do not need to complete

block #9−City Where You Boarded. All other items

on the form are self−explanatory and should be

completed prior to actual arrival in the U.S.

2.6.4 When inspection of an arriving passenger is

deferred at the request of the air carrier to another port

of debarkation, the required forms relating to any

such passenger shall be returned, together with a

Form I−92, when the Form I−94 procedure is used,

for presentation by the captain, master, or agent at the

port where inspection is to be conducted.

2.7 Departing Flights

2.7.1 The captain or agent of every aircraft (other

than private) departing from the U.S. for a foreign

place or an outlying possession of the U.S. is

responsible for and must ensure that all alien

passengers on board (except for citizens of Canada

and the French islands of St. Piere and Migueion,

near Newfoundland), surrender to the immigration

officer at the port of departure, prior to departure, the

passport copy of the arrival/departure card (Form

I−94) which was completed upon arrival in the U.S.

Aircraft departing on regularly scheduled flights

from the U.S., however, may collect the cards and

defer their presentation, along with either the Bureau

of Customs Form 7507 or the ICAO General

Declaration, containing the listing of alien direct

transit passengers for whom the arrival/departure

card was not prepared upon arrival.

2.7.2 Private aircraft owners are responsible for the

proper completion and submission of Form I−94 for

all crew and passengers affected by the reporting

requirement. Departure documents should be

annotated on the reverse of the document to indicate

Port of Departure and Date of Departure. Following

Carrier, print the word PRIVATE. In the space

provided for Flight Number/Ship Name, print the

aircraft’s tail number. Departure documents should

be submitted to a U.S. Immigration or U.S. Customs

inspector at the time of departure from the U.S. or

mailed to the Appalachian Computer Service address

in London, KY. Aircraft owners are responsible for

the submission of all I−94 Departure Records upon

departure to a foreign destination.
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2.7.3 Resident aliens of the U.S. who will be

traveling abroad under a foreign passport must ensure

that their Alien Registration Card, Form 151, is

available for presentation to gain re−entry into the

U.S. upon completion of trip.

2.8 Currency Reporting Requirements

2.8.1 There is no limitation in terms of the total

amount of monetary instruments which may be

brought into or taken out of the U.S., nor is it illegal

to do so. However, if you transport or cause to be

transported (including by mail or other means), more

than $10,000 in monetary instruments on any

occasion into or out of the U.S., or if you receive more

than that amount, you must file a report (Customs

Form 4790) with U.S. Customs (Currency and

Foreign Transactions Reporting Act, 31 U.S.C. 1101,

et seq.). Monetary instruments include U.S. or

foreign coin in current circulation, currency,

traveler’s checks, money orders, and negotiable

instruments or investment securities in bearer form.

Failure to comply can result in civil and criminal

penalties.

3. Public Health Requirements

3.1 Disembarking passengers are not required to

present a vaccination certificate except when coming

directly from an area infected with cholera, yellow

fever, or smallpox. Smallpox vaccination is

necessary only if, within the 14 days before arrival,

the traveler has been in a country reporting smallpox.

3.2 The pilot in command of an aircraft destined for

a U.S. airport must report immediately to the

Quarantine Station at or nearest the airport at which

the aircraft will arrive, the occurrence, on board, of

any death or any ill person among passengers or crew.

Ill person is defined as:

3.2.1 Temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit

(38 degrees Celsius) or greater accompanied by rash,

glandular swelling, or jaundice, or which has

persisted for more than 48 hours; or

3.2.2 Diarrhea, defined as the occurrence in a

24−hour period of three or more loose stools or of a

greater than normal (for the person) amount of loose

stools.

3.3 The pilot in command is responsible for

detaining the aircraft and persons and things arriving

thereon and keeping them free from unauthorized

contact pending release when required by

Sections 71.31, 71.46, 71.62, 71.63, and 71.102 of

the Foreign Quarantine Regulations of the Public

Health Service (Part 71, Title 42, Code of Federal

Regulations).

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GEN 1.4 Entry, Transit, and 

Departure of Cargo

1. Requirements Concerning Cargo and

Other Articles

1.1 Customs entry and clearance of cargo and

unaccompanied baggage destined for points within

U.S. territory must be completed at the first

international airport of entry.

1.2 Transshipment of cargo and other articles must

be dealt with at the first international airport of entry

according to related regulations. All aircraft entering

the U.S. or arriving any place in the U.S. from any

other place in the U.S. carrying residue foreign cargo

shall not depart from the place of landing without

receiving permission from the Customs officer.

2. Agricultural Quarantine Requirements

2.1 The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plant

Protection and Quarantine Division (PPQ), has strict

requirements regarding the entry, handling and

disposition of garbage and galley refuse on all flights

arriving from any foreign country, except Canada

(7 CFR Parts 94 and 330). A list of sanitary

international airports approved by PPQ can be

secured from any PPQ office at major airports (see

Aerodrome Section).

2.2 Meat, meat products, milk, live birds, poultry, or

other domestic farm animals can only enter the U.S.

under certain conditions from certain countries under

the regulations of the PPQ.

2.3 No insects or other plant pests shall knowingly

be transported into the U.S. If the pilot of any aircraft

has reason to believe any flying or crawling insects

are aboard his/her aircraft, such information should

be relayed to the nearest PPQ office or inspector when

landing.

2.4 Permits are required to bring most fruits,

vegetables, plants, seeds, etc., into the U.S. from

foreign countries. A guide to restricted or prohibited

products can be secured from any PPQ office.

2.5 Dogs, cats, monkeys, psittacine birds (parrot

family), turtles, shipments of disease organisms and

vectors, and dead bodies are subject to entry

restrictions prescribed in the Foreign Quarantine

Regulations of the Public Health Service (42 CFR

Part 71, Subject J).

3. Exportation of Aircraft, Cargo, and Other

Articles

3.1 All U.S. and foreign registered aircraft departing

the U.S. for a foreign destination on a temporary

sojourn must have export authorization. The two

types of export authorization are a license exception

(AVS) and a license. Detailed information on both the

license exception and the license can be obtained

from:

The U. S. Department of Commerce

Bureau of Export Administration

Exporter Counseling Division

Washington, DC 20230

Telephone: (202) 482−4811

Facsimile: (202) 482−3617

3.2 A license exception (AVS) is an authorization to

export the aircraft if certain criteria are satisfied. This

exception does not require an application nor will

there be an issuance of a license document prior to the

flight.

REFERENCE−

15 CFR Section 740.15

3.3 License exception AVS authorizes an operating

civil aircraft of foreign registry that has been in the

U.S. on a temporary sojourn to depart from the U.S.

under its own power for any destination, provided

that:

3.3.1 No sale or transfer of operational control of the

aircraft to nationals of Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North

Korea, Sudan, or Syria has occurred while in the U.S.

3.3.2 The aircraft is not departing for the purpose of

sale or transfer of operational control to nationals of

Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, or

Syria; and

3.3.3 It does not carry from the U.S. any item for

which an export license is required and has not been

granted by the U.S. Government.
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3.4 License exception AVS authorizes a civil aircraft

of U.S. registry operating under an Air Carrier

Operating Certificate, Commercial Operating Certificate, or Air Taxi Operating Certificate issued by the

Federal Aviation Administration or conducting

flights under operating specifications approved by

the Federal Aviation Administration pursuant to

14 CFR Part 129 of the regulations of the Federal

Aviation Administration, may depart from the U.S.

under its own power for any destination provided

that:

3.4.1 The aircraft does not depart for the purpose of

sale, lease or other disposition of operational control

of the aircraft or its equipment, parts, accessories, or

components to a foreign country or any national

thereof.

3.4.2 The aircraft’s U.S. registration will not be

changed while abroad.

3.4.3 The aircraft is not to be used in any foreign

military activity while abroad; and

3.4.4 The aircraft does not carry from the U.S. any

item for which a license is required and has not been

granted by the U.S. Government.

3.5 License exception AVS authorizes any other

operating civil aircraft of U.S. registry to depart from

the U.S. under its own power for any destination,

except to Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Syria, Libya, and

North Korea (flights to these destinations require a

license), provided that:

3.5.1 The aircraft does not depart for the purpose of

sale, lease or other disposition of operational control

of the aircraft, or its equipment, parts, accessories, or

components to a foreign country or national thereof.

3.5.2 The aircraft’s U.S. registration will not be

changed while abroad.

3.5.3 The aircraft is not to be used in any foreign

military activity while abroad.

3.5.4 The aircraft does not carry from the U.S. any

item for which an export license is required and has

not been granted by the U.S. Government; and

3.5.5 The aircraft will be operated while abroad by

a U.S. licensed pilot, except that during domestic

flights within a foreign country, the aircraft may be

operated by a pilot currently licensed by that foreign

country.

3.6 A license authorizes the departure of the aircraft

within the special limitations set forth in the license

document. It is issued only on the basis of a formal

application requesting the issuance of a license prior

to the flight.

3.7 Once it has been determined that an export

license is required, an application for the license

should be submitted to the Bureau of Export

Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. An

application consists of Form BXA−748P (multipurpose application). This form and information on the

application process can be obtained free of charge

from either the U.S. Department of Commerce in

Washington or any of its District Offices. (See

paragraph 4.)

3.8 Applications for validated licenses by non−U.S.

citizens require that the applicant appoint an agent

subject to U.S. jurisdiction to act in his/her behalf. If

an emergency situation necessitates the expedition of

the application process, contact the Counseling

Division Staff of the Bureau of Export Administration (telephone 202−482−4811) or any Department

of Commerce District Office for assistance.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4. Department of Commerce District Office

Locations

TBL GEN 1.4−1

State City

Alabama Birmingham

Alaska Anchorage

Arizona Phoenix

California Los Angeles

California San Francisco

Colorado Denver

Connecticut Hartford

Florida Miami

Georgia Atlanta

Georgia Savannah

Hawaii Honolulu

Illinois Chicago

Indiana Indianapolis

Iowa Des Moines

Louisiana New Orleans

Maryland Baltimore

Massachusetts Boston

Michigan Detroit

Minnesota Minneapolis

Missouri St. Louis

Nebraska Omaha

Nevada Reno

New Jersey Newark

New Mexico Albuquerque

New York Buffalo

New York New York

North Carolina Greensboro

Ohio Cincinnati

Ohio Cleveland

Oregon Portland

Pennsylvania Philadelphia

Pennsylvania Pittsburgh

Puerto Rico San Juan

South Carolina Columbia

Tennessee Memphis

Texas Dallas

Texas Houston

Utah Salt Lake City

Washington Seattle

West Virginia Charleston

Wisconsin Milwaukee

Wyoming Cheyenne

5. Regulations Concerning Civil Movement

of Arms, Ammunition, and Military Type

Aircraft

5.1 Importation of military type aircraft and the

carriage or importation of firearms or ammunition are

regulated by the U.S. Department of the Treasury,

Division of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms.

5.2 A permit must be obtained from the Alcohol,

Tobacco and Firearms Division for the importation of

certain military type aircraft regardless of demilitarization. Aircraft that are exempt from permits are

specifically listed in the regulations on Importation of

Arms, Ammunition and Implements of War (26 CFR

Part 180).

5.3 A permit must be obtained from the Alcohol,

Tobacco and Firearms Division for the importation of

firearms and ammunition for commercial transactions.

5.4 Transportation or shipment of firearms or

ammunition in interstate or foreign commerce to

persons other than licensed importers, licensed

manufacturers, licensed dealers or licensed collectors, without written notice to the carrier that such

firearms or ammunition is being transported or

shipped is unlawful.

5.5 Any passenger who owns or legally possesses a

firearm or ammunition being transported aboard any

common or contract carrier for movement with the

passenger must deliver said firearm or ammunition

into the custody of the pilot, captain, conductor, or

operator of such common or contract carrier for the

duration of the trip.

5.6 Applications for permits should be made on

Form 6 (Firearms), preferably 30 days in advance of

importation. Form IRS−4522, International Import

Certificate, may also be required by the exporting

country and should accompany applications on Form

6 (Firearms) when necessary.

5.7 Exportation of military type aircraft are

regulated by the U.S. Department of State, Office of

Munitions Control.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5.8 A license must be obtained from the Office of

Munitions Control, Department of State, for the

exportation from the U. S. of certain military type

aircraft regardless of demilitarization. Aircraft that

are exempt from licenses are specifically listed in the

regulations on International Traffic in Arms (22 CFR

Part 121). Applications for licenses are made as

follows:

5.8.1 For permanent export, on Form DSP−5. Apply

at least 30, preferable 60, days in advance. A Form

DSP−63a may also be required from the importing

country.

5.8.2 For temporary export, on Form DSP−73.

Apply at least 10 days in advance.
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United States of America

GEN 1.5−1

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 1.5 Aircraft Instruments, Equipment,

 and Flight Documents

1. General

1.1 Commercial air transport aircraft operating in

the U.S. airspace must adhere to the provisions of

Annex 6, Operation of Aircraft, Part One,

Chapter Six (Airplane Instruments, Equipment and

Flight Documents) and Chapter Seven (Airplane

Communications and Navigation Equipment).

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GEN 1.6−1

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 1.6 Summary of National Regulations and

International Agreements/Conventions

1. Summary of National Regulations

1.1 Air regulations for the U.S. and areas under its

jurisdiction are published in Title 14 of the U.S. Code

of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 1−199, entitled

the Federal Aviation Administration, Department of

Transportation. It is essential that persons engaged in

air operations in the U.S. airspace be acquainted with

the relevant regulations. Copies of the 14 CFR parts

may be purchased from the:

Superintendent of Documents

Attn: New Orders

P.O. Box 371954

Pittsburgh, PA 15250−7954

Telephone: 202−512−1800

The Code of Federal Regulations is available

electronically at www.gpoaccess.gov/nara/index.

html.

1.2 The following is a partial list of Federal Aviation

Regulations and their respective subject matter:

TBL GEN 1.6−1

14 CFR

Part No.

Title

1 Definitions and abbreviations

11 General rulemaking procedures

13 Investigative and enforcement

procedures

21 Certification procedures for products

and parts

23 Airworthiness standards: normal, utility,

acrobatic, and commuter category

airplanes

25 Airworthiness standards: transport

category airplanes

27 Airworthiness standards: normal

category rotorcraft

29 Airworthiness Standards: transport

category rotorcraft

31 Airworthiness standards: manned free

balloons

33 Airworthiness standards: aircraft

engines

14 CFR

Part No.

Title

35 Airworthiness standards: propellers

36 Noise standards: aircraft type and

airworthiness certification

39 Airworthiness directives

43 Maintenance, preventive maintenance,

rebuilding, and alteration

45 Identification and registration marking

47 Aircraft registration

49 Recording of aircraft titles and security

documents

61 Certification: Pilots, flight instructors,

and ground instructors

63 Certification: Flight crewmembers other

than pilots

65 Certification: Airmen other than flight

crewmembers

67 Medical standards and certification

71 Designation of Class A, B, C, D, and E

airspace areas; airways; routes; and

reporting points

73 Special use airspace

77 Objects affecting navigable airspace

91 General operating and flight rules

93 Special air traffic rules and airport

traffic patterns

95 IFR altitudes

97 Standard instrument approach

procedures

99 Security control of air traffic

101 Moored balloons, kites, unmanned

rockets, and unmanned free balloons

103 Ultralight vehicles

105 Parachute jumping

107 Airport security

108 Airplane operator security

109 Indirect air carrier security

119 Certification: Air carriers and

commercial operators

121 Operating requirements: Domestic, flag,

and supplemental operations
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

14 CFR

Part No.

Title

125 Certification and operations: Airplanes

having a seating capacity of 20 or more

passengers or a maximum payload

capacity of 6,000 pounds or more

129 Operations: Foreign air carriers and

foreign operations of U.S. registered

aircraft engaged in common carriage

133 Rotorcraft external load operations

135 Operating requirements: Commuter and

on−demand operations

137 Agricultural aircraft operations

139 Certification and operations: Land

airports serving certain air carriers

141 Pilot schools

142 Training centers

145 Repair stations

147 Aviation maintenance technician

schools

150 Airport noise compatibility planning

151 Federal aid to airports

152 Airport aid program

155 Release of airport property from surplus

property disposal restrictions

14 CFR

Part No.

Title

156 State block grant pilot program

157 Notice of construction, alteration,

activation, and deactivation of airports

158 Passenger facility charges (PFCs)

161 Notice and approval of airport noise and

access restrictions

169 Expenditure of Federal funds for

nonmilitary airports or air navigation

facilities thereon

170 Establishment and discontinuance

criteria for air traffic control services

and navigational facilities

171 Non−Federal navigation facilities

183 Representatives of the Administrator

185 Testimony by employees and

production of records in legal

proceedings, and service of legal

process and pleadings

187 Fees

189 Use of Federal Aviation Administration

communications system

191 Protection of sensitive security

information

198 Aviation insurance
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 1.7 Differences From ICAO Standards,

Recommended Practices and Procedures

NOTE − See GEN 1.6 for the availability of Title 14 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations Parts 1−199.

ANNEX 1 − PERSONNEL LICENSING

Chapter 1 Definitions and General Rules Concerning Licences

1.2.5.2,

1.2.5.2.1

Persons performing airline transport pilot duties must be medically examined at 6−month intervals,

regardless of age or type of aircraft.

1.2.5.2,

1.2.5.2.2

Persons performing air traffic control tower duties must be medically examined at 12−month

intervals, regardless of age.

Chapter 2 Licences and Ratings for Pilots

2.1.3.2 b) Class ratings are required for all grades of certificates.

2.1.4.1,

2.1.4.1.1

Not applied to copilots.

2.1.5.2 b) Not applied to copilots.

2.1.9 An applicant for an airline transport pilot certificate with an airplane rating may credit toward the

total flight time requirement all flight time served as copilot in airplanes required to have more than

one pilot by their approved aircraft flight manual or airworthiness certificate. Flight time served as

copilot of an airplane performing the duties and functions of a pilot−in−command under the

supervision of a pilot−in−command may be credited towards the 250 hours of pilot−in−command

flight time required for an airline transport pilot certificate with an airplane rating (if the aircraft or

the operating rule requires a copilot).

2.3.1.3.1 If the applicant has satisfactorily completed an approved training course, 35 hours of flight time are

required.

2.5.1.5.1 There is no requirement for an applicant to demonstrate skills in a multi−engine airplane required to

be operated with a copilot. Skill demonstration may be performed in a single−engine aircraft or in a

small multi−engine aircraft requiring only one pilot. A certificate may be issued with single−engine

land or sea class rating, as appropriate.

2.9.1.3.1.1 Two−hundred hours in helicopters, of which 75 hours must be as pilot−in−command.

2.12.1.5 Glider pilots are not required to hold medical certificates. However a person shall not act as pilot in

command, or in any other capacity as a required flight crewmember, while that person knows or has

reason to know of any medical condition that would make the person unable to operate the aircraft

in a safe manner.

2.13.1.3.1 Ten hours of flight training in balloons that includes at least 6 training flights.

2.13.1.3.3 There is no night requirement.

2.13.1.5 Free balloon pilots are not required to hold medical certificates. However a person shall not act as

pilot in command, or in any other capacity as a required flight crewmember, while that person

knows or has reason to know of any medical condition that would make the person unable to operate

the aircraft in a save manner.

Chapter 3 Licences for Flight Crew Members Other Than Licences for Pilots

3.3.1.1 Flight engineers must be at least 21 years of age.

Chapter 4 Licences and Ratings for Personnel Other Than Flight Crew Members

4.2.1.3 a) U.S. regulations only require 30 months of the appropriate prior experience, not 48 months.

4.4.1.1 To be eligible for an air traffic control tower operator certificate, a person must be at least 18 years

of age.
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4.4.1.3 Each applicant for a facility rating at any air traffic control tower must have satisfactorily served as

an air traffic control tower operator at that control tower without a facility rating for at least

6 months, or as an air traffic control tower operator with a facility rating at a different control tower

for at least 6 months before the date he/she applies for the rating. However, an applicant who is a

member of an Armed Force of the U.S. meets these requirements if he/she has satisfactorily served

as an air traffic control tower operator for at least 6 months.

4.4.1.4 No person may act as an air traffic control tower operator in connection with civil aircraft unless

he/she holds at least a second class medical certificate. Exception to this is an individual employed

by the Federal Aviation Administration or on active duty with the Department of the Air Force,

Army, Navy, or Coast Guard.

4.5.2.2.1 b) 1) Six months.

4.5.2.2.1 b) 2) Six months.

4.5.2.2.1 b) 3) The U.S. does not specify a minimum number of precision approaches to be completed prior to

receiving a rating.

4.5.2.2.1 c) The U.S. does not specify a minimum number of precision approaches to be completed prior to

receiving a rating.

4.6.1.1 The applicant must be at least 23 years of age.

4.6.1.2 The U.S. requires applicants to pass a written test.

Chapter 6 Medical Provisions for Licencing

6.3.2.5.1 Except for duties requiring an airline transport pilot certificate, electrocardiography is not required.

For duties requiring an airline transport pilot certificate, an applicant who has passed his/her 35th

birthday, but not the 40th birthday, must submit an electrocardiogram on the first examination after

the 35th birthday and annually after the 40th birthday.

6.3.2.8.1 No radiography required.

6.3.2.23 Pregnancy does not prohibit the issue of a medical certificate.

6.3.3.3 Applicants who must wear correcting lenses will not require testing for refractive error. A flight

crew member is not required to have a spare set of suitable correcting lenses available.

6.4.2.5.1 No electrocardiography required.

6.4.2.8.1 No radiography required.

6.4.2.22 Pregnancy does not prohibit the issue of a medical certificate.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 2 − RULES OF THE AIR

Chapter 1 Definitions

Aerodrome

control tower

In the U.S., an “aerodrome control facility” is referred to as a “tower” or “airport traffic control

tower”; “aerodrome control” is referred to as “airport traffic control service.”

Airborne

collision

avoidance

The U.S. uses “traffic alert collision avoidance system (TCAS).” TCAS is an airborne collision

avoidance system based on radar beacon signals and operates independent of ground−based

equipment. TCAS−I generates traffic advisories only. TCAS−II generates traffic advisories and

resolution (collision avoidance) advisories in the vertical plane.

Air−taxiing The U.S. uses “hover taxi” for this maneuver above 100 feet above ground level (AGL) and “air

taxi” below 100 feet AGL.

Area control

service

The U.S. does not use the term “area control service” to indicate controlled flight in controlled

areas.

Area control

centre

The U.S. equivalent facility for an Area Control Centre (ACC) is an Air Route Traffic Control

Center (ARTCC).

ATS route In U.S. domestic airspace, the term “ATS route” is not used. Routes in the U.S. include VOR

airways, jet routes, substitute routes, and off−airway routes. The U.S. also uses instrument departure

procedures (DPs) and standard terminal arrivals (STARs).

Controlled

airspace

The U.S. terms for controlled airspace have different parameters than for ICAO.

Danger area The term “danger area” is not used within the U.S. or any of its possessions or territories.

Estimated

off−block time

The U.S. uses the term “estimated departure time” for domestic operations.

Flight

information

centre

The U.S. does not operate flight information centers (FICs). In the U.S., the services provided by

FICs are performed by air traffic control (ATC) facilities, automated flight service stations (AFSSs),

and rescue coordination centers (RCCs).

Instrument

meteorological

conditions

The U.S. air traffic service units use the phrase “IFR conditions.”

Level The U.S. uses “altitude” or “flight level” rather than “level” and “cruising altitude” rather than

“cruising level.’’ The term “level” is not used to mean “height,” “altitude,” or “flight level.”

Movement area In the U.S., the term “movement area” means “the runways, taxiways, and other areas of an

airport/heliport which are utilized for taxiing, hover taxiing, air−taxiing, take−off and landing of

aircraft, exclusive of loading ramps and parking areas. At those airport/heliports with a tower,

specific approval for entry onto the movement area must be obtained from ATC.”

The U.S. does not use an all−inclusive term to denote the movement area plus loading ramps and

parking areas of an airport, nor does the U.S. use the term “maneuvering area’’ in any related

context.

Repetitive flight

plan (RPL)

The U.S. uses the term “stored flight plan” for domestic operations.

Terminal

control area

In the U.S., “terminal control area” has been replaced by “Class B airspace/area.” Standard IFR

services are provided to IFR aircraft operating in Class B airspace.

Total estimated

elapsed time

The U.S. uses “estimated time en route” for domestic operations.

Transition

altitude

In U.S. domestic airspace, “transition altitude,” “layer” and “level” are not used; however, in the

U.S., flight levels begin at FL 180 where the reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury is used as

the constant atmospheric pressure. Below FL 180, altitudes are based on barometric pressure

readings. QNH and QFE altimeter settings are not provided in domestic U.S. airspace.

Visual

meteorological

conditions

The U.S. air traffic service units use the phrase “VFR conditions.”
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Chapter 2 Applicability of the Rules of the Air

2.2 See difference under “Movement area.”

2.5 Except in an emergency, no pilot of a civil aircraft may allow a person who appears to be

intoxicated or who demonstrates by manner or physical indications that the individual is under the

influence of drugs (except a medical patient under proper care) to be carried in that aircraft.

Chapter 3 General Rules

3.1.8 In addition, aircraft shall not be flown in formation flight when passengers are carried for hire.

3.2 Note See difference under “Movement area.”

3.2.2.6.1 See difference under “Movement area.”

3.2.3.2 d) The U.S. national regulations do not require aircraft on the movement area of an airport, whose

engines are running, to display lights which indicate that fact from sunset to sunrise.

3.2.5 Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within a

Class B, C, or D surface area except for the purpose of landing at, or taking off from, an airport

within that area.

In addition, in the case of a helicopter approaching to land, avoid the flow of fixed−wing aircraft.

In addition, no person may, within a Class B, C, or D surface area operate an aircraft to, from, or on

an airport having a control tower operated by the U.S. unless two−way radio communications are

maintained between that aircraft and the control tower.

3.3.1.2 In the U.S., ATC flight plans are not required for VFR flight in Class C, D, or E airspace.

3.3.1.2.1 d) Requirements pertaining to filing flight plans for flights operating across U.S. borders and for

identification purposes are described in 14 CFR Part 9l (Section 91.84) and Part 99.

3.3.1.2.2 The U.S. requires that domestic flight plans be submitted at least 30 minutes before departure. For

international flights, the U.S. recommends that they be transmitted so that they are received by ATC

authorities in each Flight Information Region (FIR) to be entered, at least 2 hours prior to entry,

unless otherwise provided in that State’s requirements.

3.6.1 Air traffic control clearances are not needed for VFR flight in U.S. Class C, D, or E airspace.

3.6.2.4 When meteorological conditions fall below the minimum specified for en route VFR flights, the

pilot of the aircraft shall not continue his/her flight in such conditions, except in emergency, beyond

the extent necessary to return to his/her departure point or to the nearest suitable landing point.

3.6.5.2.2 In the event of two−way communications failure in the U.S., ATC service is predicated on pilot

compliance with the provisions of 14 CFR Part 91 (Section 91.185). If the failure occurs in IMC, or

if VFR cannot be complied with, each pilot is to continue the flight according to the following:

Route

a) By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received;

b) If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of failure to the fix, route, or

airway specified in the vector clearance;

c) In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected

in a further clearance; or

d) In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in

a further clearance, by the route filed in the flight plan.

Altitude − At the HIGHEST of the following altitudes or flight levels FOR THE ROUTE

SEGMENT BEING FLOWN:

a) The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance received;

b) The minimum altitude/flight level as prescribed for IFR operations; or

c) The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Basic VFR Weather Minimums

Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds

Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not Applicable Not Applicable

Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles Clear of Clouds

Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

Class E

Less than 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

At or above 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above

1 statute mile horizontal

Class G

1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of MSL

altitude).

Day, except as provided in Section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile Clear of clouds

Night, except as provided in Section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than

10,000 feet MSL.

Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above

10,000 feet MSL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

5 statute miles 1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above

1 statute mile horizontal

Chapter 4 Visual Flight Rules

4.1 and

Table 4−1

There is no Class F airspace in the U.S. Basic VFR weather minimums are listed in the table above.

4.1 a) Except as otherwise authorized by the appropriate air traffic control unit for special VFR flights

within Class B, C, D, or E surface areas, no person may operate an aircraft under VFR when the

flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less than that prescribed for the

corresponding altitude and class of airspace in the table above.

4.1 b) Class G Airspace: Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph a) of this section, the following

operations may be conducted in Class G airspace below 1,200 feet above the surface:

1) Helicopter. A helicopter may be operated clear of clouds if operated at a speed that

allows the pilot adequate opportunity to see any air traffic or obstruction in time to avoid collision.

2) Airplane. When the visibility is less than 3 statute miles but not less than 1 statute mile

during night hours, an airplane may be operated clear of clouds if operated in an airport traffic

pattern within one−half mile of the runway.
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4.1 c) Except as provided in 4.2, no person may operate an aircraft under VFR within the lateral

boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an

airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet.

4.1 d) Except as provided in 4.2, no person may take−off or land an aircraft, or enter the traffic pattern area

of an airport under VFR, within the lateral boundaries of the surface area of Class B, Class C,

Class D, or Class E airspace designed for an airport:

1) unless ground visibility at that airport is at least 3 statute miles; or

2) if ground visibility is not reported at that airport, unless flight visibility during landing

or takeoff, or while operating in the traffic pattern is at least 3 statute miles.

4.2 In the U.S., no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral

boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less

than 1,000 feet. No person may take−off or land an aircraft (other than a helicopter) under special

VFR (SVFR) unless ground visibility is at least 1 statute mile or if ground visibility is not reported,

unless flight visibility is at least 1 statute mile.

4.2 a) When an appropriate ATC clearance has been received, the special weather minimums in this

section apply to the operation of an aircraft in a Class B, C, D, or E surface area under VFR.

1) No person may operate an aircraft in a Class B, C, D, or E surface area under VFR

except clear of clouds;

2) No person may operate an aircraft (other than a helicopter) in a Class B, C, D or E

surface area under VFR unless flight visibility is at least 1 statute mile;

3) No person may take−off or land an aircraft (other than a helicopter) at any airport in a

Class B, C, D or E surface area under VFR:

a) unless ground visibility at that airport is at least 1 statute mile; or

b) if ground visibility is not reported at that airport, unless flight visibility during

landing or take−off is at least 1 statute mile.

4.3 The U.S. does not prohibit VFR flight between sunset and sunrise.

4.4 In the U.S., VFR flight is not permitted within Class A airspace designated in 14 CFR Part 71 unless

otherwise authorized by ATC.

In the U.S., an ATC clearance is needed for VFR flight only in Class B airspace area.

4.6 In addition, anywhere, an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without due

hazard to persons or property on the surface.

4.7 In addition, grid tracks are not used to determine cruising altitudes in polar areas. True tracks are

used to determine cruising levels above FL 230 in the area north of Alaska bounded by the true

North Pole to 720000N, 1410000W; to 720000N, 1580000W; to 680000N,

1685823W; to point of beginning. The U.S. has named this area the Anchorage Arctic CTA/FIR

for national reference purposes.

4.8 In U.S. Class C and D airspace/areas, an ATC clearance is not required for VFR flights.

Chapter 5 Instrument Flight Rules

5.1.2 In the U.S., minimum altitudes for IFR flights are 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a

horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown in mountainous terrain and

1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course

to be flown in non−mountainous terrain.

5.2.2 See difference under paragraph 4.7.

5.3.1 See difference under paragraph 4.7.
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Further

differences

which exist by

i t f th

1) The regulations covering the selection and use of alternate airports in respect to ceiling and

visibility minima, require that:

Unless otherwise authorized by the FAA Administrator, no person may include an alternate airport

virtue of the

fact that the

Annex contains

no comparable

Unless otherwise authorized by the FAA Administrator, no person may include an alternate airport

in an IFR flight plan unless current weather forecasts indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at

the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will be at or above the alternate airport

weather minima.

no comparable

standards for

the U.S.

national

l ti

2) Operation under IFR in Class A, B, C, D, or E airspace malfunction reports:

a) The pilot−in−command of each aircraft operated in Class A, B, C, D or E airspace under

IFR shall report as soon as practical to ATC any malfunctions of navigational, approach, or

regulations. i i i i i fli h

p p y g , pp ,

communication equipment occurring in flight.

b) In each report the pilot−in−command shall include:

1) aircraft identification.

2) equipment affected 2) equipment affected.

3) degree to which the capability of the pilot to operate under IFR in the ATC system is

impaired; and

4) nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.

3) When an aircraft has been cleared to maintain ‘‘VFR conditions on top,’’ the pilot is responsible

to fly at an appropriate VFR altitude, comply with VFR visibility and distance from cloud criteria,

and to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft.

4) Aircraft speed:

a) Unless otherwise authorized by the FAA Administrator, no person may operate an aircraft

b l 10 000 f t MSL t i di t d i d f th 250 kt (288 h ) below 10,000 feet MSL at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 kt (288 m.p.h.).

b) Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within

Class B, C, or D surface area at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 kt (230 m r D surface area at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 kt (230 m.p.h.). This

paragraph 4b) does not apply to operations within Class B airspace. Such operations shall comply

with paragraph 4a) of this section.

c) No person may operate an aircraft in the airspace underlying Class B airspace, or in a VFR ) N i f i h i d l i Cl B i i VFR

corridor designated through Class B airspace, at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 kt

(230 m .p.h.).

d) If the minimum safe airspeed for any operation is greater than the maximum speed

prescribed in this section, the aircraft may be operated at that minimum speed.
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5) Operating rules and pilot and equipment requirements for flight in Class B airspace.

a) Operating rules. No person may operate an aircraft within Class B airspace except in

compliance with the following rules:

1) No person may operate an aircraft within Class B airspace unless that person has

received an appropriate authorization from ATC prior to operation of that aircraft in that area.

2) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person operating a large turbine

engine−powered airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at or above the designated floors

while within the lateral limits of the Class B airspace.

3) Any person conducting pilot training operations at an airport within Class B airspace

shall comply with any procedures established by ATC for such operations in Class B airspace.

b) Pilot requirements. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft at an airport within

Class B airspace or operate a civil aircraft within Class B airspace unless:

1) The pilot−in−command holds at least a private pilot certificate; or

2) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot who has met the requirements (14 CFR

Part 61 (Section 61.95)).

c) Communications and navigation requirements. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no

person may operate an aircraft within Class B airspace unless that aircraft is equipped with:

1) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or TACAN receiver, and 

2) For all operations, an operable two−way radio capable of communications with ATC

on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace.

d) Transponder requirements. No person may operate an aircraft in Class B airspace unless

the aircraft is equipped with the applicable operating transponder and automatic altitude reporting

equipment.

6) Operating rules and pilot and equipment requirements for operating in Class C airspace.

a) General. For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the airport designated in

14 CFR Part 71, for which the Class C airspace is designated. A satellite airport is any other airport

within the Class C airspace within the Class C airspace.

b) Deviations. An operator may deviate from any provisions of this section under the

provisions of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility giving jurisdiction of the Class C

airspace. ATC may authorize a deviation on a continuing basis or for an individual flight, as

appropriate.

c) Arrivals and overflights. No person may operate an aircraft in Class C airspace unless

two−way radio communication is established with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the

Class C airspace prior to entering that area and is thereafter maintained with the ATC facility having Class C airspace prior to entering that area and is thereafter maintained with the ATC facility having

jurisdiction over the Class C airspace while within that area.

d) Departures. No person may operate an aircraft within Class C airspace except as follows:

1) From the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower, unless ) p yp p p g ,

two−way radio communication is established and maintained with the control tower, and thereafter

as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class C airspace.

2) From a satellite airport without an operating control tower, unless two−way radio

communication is established as soon as practical after departing and thereafter maintained with the

ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace.

e) Traffic patterns. No person may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport within

Class C airspace except in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns.

f) E i i U l h i h i d b h ATC f ili h i f) Equipment requirements. Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC facility having

jurisdiction over the Class C airspace, no person may operate an aircraft within Class C airspace

unless that aircraft is equipped with the applicable equipment specified in 14 CFR Part 91

(Section 91.215).
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7) Except for persons operating gliders below the floor of Class A airspace, no person may operate

an aircraft in Class B, C, D, or E airspace of the 48 contiguous States and the District of Columbia

above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding that airspace at and below 2,500 feet AGL, unless that aircraft is

equipped with an operable radar beacon transponder having at least a Mode 3/A 4096−code

capability, replying to Mode 3/A interrogation with the code specified by ATC, and automatic

altitude reporting equipment having a Mode C capability that automatically replies to Mode C

interrogations by transmitting pressure altitude information in 100−foot increments.

8) Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions:

a) When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot−in−command may deviate from that

clearance, except in an emergency, unless an amended clearance is obtained. A pilot−in−command

may cancel an IFR flight plan if that pilot is operating in VFR weather conditions outside of Class A

airspace. If a pilot is uncertain of the meaning of an ATC clearance, the pilot shall immediately

request clarification from ATC.

b) Except in an emergency, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC instruction

in an area in which ATC is exercised.

c) Each pilot−in−command who, in an emergency, deviates from an ATC clearance or

instruction shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible.

d) Each pilot−in−command who is given priority by ATC in an emergency shall submit a

detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility, if requested

by ATC.

e) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person operating an aircraft may operate that

aircraft according to any clearance or instruction that has been issued to the pilot of another aircraft

for radar ATC purposes.

Appendix 1 Signals

4.1.1 The flashing white signal to aircraft in flight, meaning ‘‘land at this aerodrome and proceed to

apron’’ is not used in the United States.

In addition, the alternating red and green signal to aircraft on the ground or in flight means exercise

extreme caution.
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PANS − RAC − DOC 4444

There are several substantive differences between the U.S. procedures and those of ICAO, in addition to some minor

variations in detail which are not considered significant. These differences are the result of initiatives and/or

refinements which the U.S. has effected in the interest of improving the safety and efficiency of air traffic services.

Part I Definitions

Airborne

collision

avoidance

system

The U.S. uses traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).

AIRMET

information

In the U.S., AIRMET stands for Airman’s Meteorological Information which is in−flight weather

advisories issued only to amend the area forecast concerning weather phenomena which are of

operational interest to all aircraft and potentially hazardous to aircraft having limited capability

because of lack of equipment, instrumentation, or pilot qualifications. AIRMETs concern weather of

less severity than that covered by SIGMETs or convective SIGMETs. AIRMETs cover moderate

icing, moderate turbulence, sustained winds of 30 kt or more at the surface, widespread areas of

ceilings less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 miles, and extensive mountain obscurement.

Air−report The U.S. does not normally use the term “air−report.’’ Pilot weather reports (PIREPs), position, and

operational reports are used. PIREPs include reports of strong frontal activity, squall lines,

thunderstorms, light to severe icing, wind shear and turbulence (including clear air turbulence) of

moderate or greater intensity, volcanic eruptions and volcanic ash clouds, and other conditions

pertinent to flight safety. They may include information on ceilings, visibility, thunderstorms, icing

of light degree or greater, wind shear and its effect on airspeed, or volcanic ash clouds, but do not

usually include air temperature.

Air−taxiing In the U.S., the term “hover taxi” is sometimes used to indicate the ICAO term “air−taxiing.”

Additionally, in the U.S., air taxi is used to indicate certain commercial aircraft operations. For those

operations, usually a special call sign is used, or the prefix “Tango” is added to the aircraft call sign.

ALERFA The U.S. does not use the code words ALERFA, DETRESFA, and INCERFA to designate an alert

phase, a distress phase, or an uncertainty phase in domestic airspace. The U.S. uses information

request (INREQ) and alert notice (ALNOT) in domestic airspace.

Area control

service

The U.S. does not use the term “area control service” to indicate controlled flight in controlled

areas.

ATS route In U.S. domestic airspace, the term “ATS route” is not used. Routes in the U.S. include VOR

airways, jet routes, substitute routes, off−airway routes, RNAV routes and colored airways. The U.S.

also uses instrument departure procedures (DPs), and standard terminal arrivals (STARs).

Automatic

dependent

surveillance

(ADS)

The U.S. has not yet published ATS procedures for the use of Automatic Dependent Surveillance

(ADS).

Control zone The U.S. uses “surface area” in place of the ICAO term “control zone.” Surface area is defined as

the airspace contained by the lateral boundary of the Class B, C, D or E airspace designated for an

airport that begins at the surface and extends upward.

Controlled

airspace

The U.S. uses the following definition of controlled airspace found in 14 CFR Section 1.1:

“Controlled airspace means an airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control

service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification.”

Cruising level The U.S. uses the term “cruising altitude.”

Decision

altitude

Approach with vertical guidance (VNAV).

DETRESFA See ALERFA.

Flight

information

centre

In the U.S., the services provided by flight information centers (FICs) are conducted by air traffic

control (ATC) facilities, automated flight service stations (AFSSs), and rescue coordination centers

(RCCs).
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Glide path The U.S. uses “glideslope” rather than “glide path” although the terms are sometimes

interchangeable. For the U.S., a glideslope provides vertical guidance for aircraft during approach

and landing.

Holding point The U.S. uses “holding fix” rather than “holding point.”

Holding

procedure

In the U.S., a hold procedure is also used during ground operations to keep aircraft within a

specified area or at a specified point while awaiting further clearance from air traffic control.

INCERFA See ALERFA.

Level The U.S. uses “altitude” or “flight level” rather than “level.”

Movement area In the U.S., the “movement area” is equivalent to the ICAO “maneuvering area” which does not

include parking areas.

Pilot−in−

Command

Designated by operator, or in the case of general aviation, the owner, as being in command and

charged with the safe conduct of a flight.

Slush In the U.S., “slush” is not used as a weather phenomena.

Standard

instrument

arrival (STAR)

The U.S. uses the acronym STAR to define a standard terminal arrival.

Standard

instrument

departure (SID)

The U.S. uses the term departure procedure (DP) in lieu of SID.

Stopway The U.S. does not define a stopway as a rectangular area.

Taxi−holding

position

In the U.S., “taxi into position and hold” means taxi onto the departure runway in take−off position

and hold while the ICAO “taxi−holding position” or “taxi−holding point” is a designated position

that provides adequate clearance from a runway.

Terminal

control area

In the U.S., the term “terminal control area” has been replaced by “Class B airspace.” Standard IFR

services should be provided to IFR aircraft operating in Class B airspace.

Track The U.S. uses the term “course” instead of “track.”

Transition

altitude,

transition layer,

and transition

level

In U.S. domestic airspace, transition altitude, layer, and level are not used. U.S. flight levels begin at

FL 180 where a barometric altimeter setting of 29.92 inches of mercury is used as the constant

atmospheric pressure. Below FL 180, altitudes are based on barometric pressure readings.

Visibility Definitions are different.

Visual approach In the U.S., aircrews may execute visual approaches when the pilot has either the airport or the

preceding aircraft in sight and is instructed to follow it.

Part IV General Provisions

3.2.1.1 Transfer of control points vary depending on numerous factors.

3.2.1.3 Transfer of control varies.

3.3.1a The U.S. does not “release” aircraft. Handoff is used.

4.1 In the U.S., flight information and alerting services are provided by ATC facilities, AFSSs, and

RCCs.

5.7.5.1 The flight crew shall read back to the air traffic controller safety−related parts of ATC clearances.

6.1.5 Mach speeds at or above 7,600 Meters (FL 250).

6.3.6 Only minor speed reductions of 20 knots should be used on intermediate or final approach.

6.3.7 Speed control after 7KM (4NM) should not be applied.

8,

8.4

The U.S. uses a flight plan format different from the ICAO model discussed in Appendix 2. The

U.S. ATS facilities will transmit ICAO repetitive flight plans (RPLs) even though a different format

is used for stored flight plans.
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9.3 ATS units are not required to advise a pilot who has canceled an IFR flight plan that IMC conditions

are likely to be encountered along the route of flight; however, if a pilot informs a controller of a

desire to change from IFR to VFR, the controller will request that the pilot contact the appropriate

AFSS.

10.2.2 Standard IFR services should be provided to IFR aircraft operating in Class B airspace. U.S. Class B

airspace includes a speed restriction of 250 kt indicated airspeed or less.

10.2.3 U.S. ATS controllers do not normally include clearance for transonic acceleration in their ATC

clearances.

12.1.1, 12.1.1.1,

12.2

In U.S. domestic airspace, transition altitude, layer, and level are not used. U.S. flight levels begin at

FL 180 where a barometric altimeter setting of 29.92 inches of mercury is used as the constant

atmospheric pressure. Below FL 180, altitudes are based on barometric pressure readings. QNH and

QFE altimeter settings are not provided in domestic U.S. airspace.

13.1 In the U.S., the word “heavy” is used in all communications with or about heavy jet aircraft in the

terminal environment. In the en route environment, “heavy” is used in all communications with or

about heavy jet aircraft with a terminal facility, when the en route center is providing approach

control service, when the separation from a following aircraft may become less than five miles by

approved procedure, and when issuing traffic advisories.

13.4.1 Flight Progress Strips shall be retained for at least 30 days.

14.3, 14.4 The U.S. has not yet published ATS procedures for the use of Automatic Dependent Surveillance

(ADS).

15.1, 15.2, 15.3,

15.4, 15.5, 15.6,

16

The U.S. does not normally use the term “air−report.” Pilot weather reports (PIREPs), position, and

operational reports are used. PIREPs include reports of strong frontal activity, squall lines,

thunderstorms, light to severe icing, wind shear and turbulence (including clear air turbulence) of

moderate or greater intensity, volcanic eruptions and volcanic ash clouds, and other conditions

pertinent to flight safety. They may include information on ceilings, visibility, thunderstorms, icing

of light degree or greater, wind shear and its effect on airspeed, or volcanic ash clouds, but do not

usually include air temperature.

18 The U.S. has procedures for a duplicate aircraft identification watch and notification to airline

operators but does not publish national procedures for on−the−spot temporary changes to aircraft

call signs in accordance with ICAO guidelines.

19 The U.S. uses traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS). U.S. controllers are not to issue

control instructions that are contrary to the TCAS resolution advisory (RA) procedure that a crew

member advises is being executed.

Part V Separation Methods and Minima

Remark: The U.S. does not use the term “area control service” to indicate controlled flight in

controlled areas.

1.1 In U.S. airspace, only conflict resolution (not separation) is provided between IFR and VFR

operations. Separation is provided between IFR and Special VFR (SVFR) aircraft only within the

lateral boundaries of Class B, C, D, or E control zones (the U.S. term is surface areas) below

10,000 feet MSL.

3.4.1 U.S. rules allow assignment of altitude to second aircraft after first aircraft has been issued

climb/descent and is observed or reports leaving that altitude.

5.2 Whenever the other aircraft concerned are within 5 minutes flying time of the holding area.

8 The U.S. uses the term “course” instead of “track.” “Reciprocal” courses are sometimes referred to

as “opposite” courses. The wording of the definitions for U.S. same, crossing, or opposite/reciprocal

courses differs from the ICAO worded definitions, but the intent appears to be the same.

8.2.1.1,

8.3.1.1.1

The U.S. uses 22 kt instead of 20 kt and 44 kt instead of 40 kt.

8.4.1 The U.S. does not conduct direct pilot−controller high frequency (HF) communications. The U.S. is

establishing direct pilot−controller data link communications where HF is currently being used.
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14.1 In U.S. Class A and B airspace, separation is provided for all aircraft. In U.S. Class C airspace,

separation is provided between IFR and SVFR aircraft; conflict resolution is provided between IFR

and VFR operations.

17.3 In the U.S., if the communications failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if VFR cannot be complied

with, each pilot shall continue the flight according to the following requirements:

Route

a) By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received;

b) If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of failure to the fix, route, or

airway specified in the vector clearance;

c) In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected

in a further clearance; or

d) In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in

a further clearance, by the route filed in the flight plan.

Altitude − At the highest of the following altitudes or flight levels for the route segment being

flown:

a) The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance received;

b) The minimum altitude as prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91 (Section 91.121(c)) for IFR

operations; or

c) The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance.

Part VI Separation in the Vicinity of Aerodromes

5.7.1 Arriving aircraft − delay of 10 minutes or more.

5.8.1 Onward clearance time.

7.3.1.2 Parallel approaches, separate radar controllers

7.3.2.9 PAOAS Criteria.

7.3.2.9 45 degree track.

7.3.2.10 Both controllers are advised when visual separation is applied.

7.3.5.3 SRA

9 In the U.S., aircrews may execute visual approaches when the pilot has either the airport or the

preceding aircraft in sight and is instructed to follow it. A contact approach is one wherein an

aircraft on an IFR flight plan, having an air traffic control authorization, operating clear of clouds

with at least 1 mile flight visibility and a reasonable expectation of continuing to the destination

airport by visual reference in those conditions, may deviate from the instrument approach procedure

and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface. This approach will only be

authorized when requested by the pilot and the reported ground visibility at the destination airport is

at least 1 statute mile.

15 Except where a “runway use” program is in effect, in the U.S. the runway used will be the one most

nearly aligned with the wind when 5 kt or more, or the “calm wind” runway when less than 5 kt

unless use of another runway will be operationally advantageous or is requested by a pilot.

Part VII Aerodrome Control Service

2.2 When neither communications nor radar contact can be established for 30 minutes (or prior, if

appropriate), U.S. controllers will consider an aircraft overdue and will initiate overdue aircraft

procedures including reporting to the ARTCC or AFSS.

5.3.1.1.2 Taxi clearance.

6.1.2 In the U.S., airport lighting is not used for en route navigation.

8.4.3 Takeoff clearance shall include the designator of the runway.

9.3.1 Landing clearance shall include the designator of the runway.

10.3 In the U.S., “taxi into position and hold” means taxi onto the departure runway in takeoff position

and hold while the ICAO “taxi−holding position” or “taxi−holding point” is a designated position

that provides adequate clearance from a runway.
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10.5, 10.5.1 In the U.S., the term “hover taxi” is sometimes used to indicate the ICAO term “air−taxiing.” In the

U.S., air−taxiing is the preferred method for helicopter movements on airports provided ground

operations/conditions permit.

11.2.1 In the U.S., for movements of other than aircraft traffic (i.e., vehicles, equipment, and personnel),

steady green means cleared to cross, proceed, go; flashing green is not applicable; flashing white

means return to starting point on airport; and alternating red and green means a general warning

signal to exercise extreme caution.

11.2.2 U.S. controllers do not normally flash runway or taxiway lights.

15.1, 15.2 In the U.S., landing clearance to a succeeding aircraft in a landing sequence need not be withheld if

the controller observes the positions of the aircraft and determines that prescribed runway separation

will exist when the aircraft crosses the landing threshold. Controllers issue traffic information to the

succeeding aircraft if it has not previously been reported.

16 ICAO aircraft wake turbulence categories (heavy, medium, light) and FAA weight classes (heavy,

large, small) differ. Also, for landing aircraft, wake turbulence separation is defined differently. The

U.S. makes special provisions for any aircraft landing behind a B−757 (4 miles for a large aircraft

behind or 5 miles for a small aircraft behind).

17 Special VFR operations may be conducted in the U.S. under the following weather minimums and

requirements below 10,000 feet MSL within the airspace contained by the upward extension of the

lateral boundaries of the controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport. These

minimums and requirements are found in 14 CFR Section 91.157.

Special VFR operations may only be conducted:

(1) With an ATC clearance;

(2) Clear of clouds;

(3) Except for helicopters, when flight visibility is at least 1 statute mile; and

(4) Except for helicopters, between sunrise and sunset (or in Alaska, when the sun is 6 degrees

or more below the horizon) unless:

(i) The person being granted the ATC clearance meets the applicable requirements for

instrument flight; and

 (ii) The aircraft is equipped as required in 14 CFR Sec. 91.205(d).

No person may take off or land an aircraft (other than a helicopter) under special VFR:

(1) Unless ground visibility is at least 1 statute mile; or

(2) If ground visibility is not reported, unless flight visibility is at least 1 statute mile.

Part VIII Radar Services

6.5.2 The U.S. has not implemented cold temperature corrections to the radar minimum vectoring altitude

chart.

7.4.4.1 See Part VII, Aerodrome Control Service, 16.

7.6 U.S. ATS units do not accept aircraft speeds in metric terms nor do they use the term “minimum

clean speed.” The U.S. does use phrases such as “maintain maximum forward speed” or “maintain

slowest practical speed.”

9.3.5, 9.3.6 The U.S. normally uses “glideslope” rather than “glide path” although they are sometimes

interchangeable. For the U.S., a glideslope provides vertical guidance for aircraft during approach

and landing.

Part IX Flight Information and Alerting Service

1.3.2 See Part IV, General Provision, 15.1.

1.3.7 The U.S. does not have special procedures for the transmission of information to supersonic aircraft.

1.4.1, 1.4.2,

1.4.3

Class F airspace is not used in the U.S. Traffic advisories are provided in Class C airspace and,

workload permitting, in Class D, Class E, and Class G airspace.

2.1.2, 2.1.3,

2.2.1

The U.S. does not use “operations normal” or “QRU” messages. U.S. controllers are not normally

familiar with the term “uncertainty phase.”
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Part X Co−ordination

3.2.10 See Part IV, General Provision, 14.3.

3.3.1.1, 3.3.2.1 Except for a VFR aircraft practicing an instrument approach, an IFR approach clearance in the U.S.

automatically authorizes the aircraft to execute the missed approach procedure depicted for the

instrument approach being flown. No additional coordination is normally needed between the

approach and en route controllers. Once an aircraft commences a missed approach, it may be radar

vectored.

Part XI Air Traffic Services Messages

1.3 The existing U.S. ATS automation system does not process logical acknowledgment messages

(LAMs).

4.2.2.2.1 See Part IV, General Provision, 8.

4.2.3.1, 4.2.3.6,

4.2.4, 4.2.5.1,

4.2.5.4

See 1.3, above.

4.2.5.5 See Part IV, General Provision, 15.1.

4.3.1.2.1 In the U.S., traffic information messages include the position of the traffic (aircraft concerned).

4.3.2.2.1,

4.3.2.3.5

U.S. controllers do not use the term “CAVOK.” However, the ceiling/sky condition, visibility, and

obstructions to vision may be omitted if the ceiling is above 5,000 feet and the visibility is more

than 5 miles.

4.3.2.2.1,

4.3.2.3.2,

4.3.2.3.3

U.S. controllers do not give wind speed, visibility, or RVR/RVV values in metric terms. RVR values

are given in 100− or 200−foot increments while RVV values are given in 1/4−mile increments.

4.3.2.3.1 In the U.S., the criteria for a variable wind is wind speed greater than 6 kt and direction varies by

60 degrees or more. If the wind is 1 kt but 6 kt, the wind direction may be replaced by “VRB”

followed by the speed or reported as observed. “VRB” would be spoken as “wind variable at

<speed>.”

4.3.2.3.3.1 RVR values between 400m and 800m in increments of 50m.

4.3.2.3.4.1 For weather phenomena, the U.S. uses “ice crystals” instead of “diamond dust” and does not use the

term “dust devils.”

4.3.2.3.4.2 Additionally, the U.S. uses “supercooled” (or freezing) and “partial” as descriptors for weather

phenomena.

4.3.2.3.5 In the U.S., CLR is used at automated stations for SKC when no clouds below 12,000 feet are

reported. SCT indicates cloud coverage between 3−4 oktas; FEW indicates cloud coverage >0 but

2 oktas.

4.3.2.3.5.1 Abbreviation NSC.

4.3.2.3.6 In the U.S., since the Celsius scale is not as finely graduated as the Fahrenheit scale, the hourly

temperature and dew point to the nearest tenth of a degree will be encoded in the additive data

section of METAR remarks.

4.3.2.3.7 In the U.S., an “A” precedes the altimeter which is given in inches of mercury.

Part XII Phraseologies

2.3 In the U.S., “proceed” or “hold” may be used for aircraft or equipment/vehicle/personnel operations,

while “taxi” and “cleared” should only be used as appropriate for aircraft instructions.

2.4

2.7

In the U.S., conditional clearances are not usually issued. However, traffic that may affect the

clearance is usually issued to the aircraft with the clearance. Restricted clearances may also be

issued.

2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8 In the U.S., pilots may acknowledge some clearances, instructions, or other information by using

“wilco,” “roger,” “affirmative,” or other words or remarks. If the pilot reads back information, the

controller should ensure the readback is correct or make corrections as appropriate.

2.8,

3.1.1

3.1.2

The U.S. uses “altitude” or “flight level” rather than “level”; and “cruising altitude” rather than

“cruising level.” The term “level” is not used to mean “height,” “altitude,” or “flight level” in the

U.S. The U.S. sometimes uses “altitude” to mean “altitude” or “flight level.”
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.1.1, 3.1.2 U.S. ATS units do not normally accept aircraft speeds or altitudes in metric terms nor do they use

the term “minimum clean speed.” The U.S. does not use the term “level” in lieu of “flight level” or

“altitude.” The U.S. also uses the phrases “maintain the highest/lowest practical speed” and

“increase or reduce to a specified speed or by a specified number of knots.”

3.1.2 See Part IX, Flight Information and Alerting Service, 1.3.7.

Also, the term “step climb” is not used in the U.S. The word “immediately” is used only when

expeditious compliance is required to avoid an imminent situation. Instead of “maintain own

separation and VMC ‘from,’ ‘above,’ or ‘below’ . . . ,” U.S. controllers say “maintain visual

separation ‘from’ that traffic.” For TCAS resolution advisories in the U.S., pilots would advise

“clear of conflict, returning to . . . .”

3.1.2a,ii To and maintain block (level) to (level).

3.1.4 See Part IV, General Provision, 18.

3.1.6 See Part XI, ATS Messages, 4.3.2.2.1.

3.1.6 See Part IV, General Provision, 12.1.

3.1.6 Note 2 “Midpoint” and “rollout” may be omitted.

3.1.9i Temperature issued with Braking Action.

3.2.1 The U.S. uses the phraseology “rest of route remains unchanged.”

3.3.1 Instead of “track,” U.S. controllers would advise pilots to “fly a (degree) bearing/azimuth from/to

(fix) until (time)” or “until reaching (fix or altitude),” and if required, “before proceeding on

course.”

3.4.7 See Part IV, General Provision, 12.1.

3.4.8 See Part VII, Aerodrome Control Service, 10.3.

Also, U.S. controllers do not use the term “backtrack.”

3.4.11 U.S. controllers do not say “line up” or “wait.” Clearance to enter runway and await take−off

clearance is stated “taxi into position and hold.”

3.4.11 The U.S. does not have additional phraseology to stop a take−off after an aircraft has commenced

take−off roll.

3.4.13 See 3.3.1, above.

3.4.14 See Part IV, General Provision, 12.1.

3.4.16 The U.S. does not use the term “low pass” for a clearance.

4.1.1 U.S. controllers do not use the phrases “identified” or “not identified [position]” to replace “radar

contact [position].”

4.1.3 U.S. controllers do not say “closing [slowly (or quickly)] [from the left (or from the right)]” nor

“heading is good” nor “rate of descent is good” nor do they give “(number) meters left (or right) of

course or too high or too low.” In case of elevation failure, U.S. controllers advise “no glidepath

information available . . . .” instead of “elevation element unserviceable . . . .”

4.1.5 The U.S. does not use the phraseology “Start and stop all turns on the command ‘now’.”

4.1.5c Start and stop all turns on the command “NOW.”

4.1.6 See 3.1.1, above.

4.1.10 U.S. controllers say “radar service terminated” not “radar control terminated.” U.S. controllers do

not say “will shortly lose identification” or “identification lost.”

4.1.11 The U.S. does not use the same phraseology for secondary radar failures. The U.S. does use (name

of facility) beacon interrogator inoperative/malfunctioning. Primary radar failure is covered where

secondary radar service is still available with the note that traffic advisories available on radar

transponder aircraft only.

4.2.1 U.S. controllers would use “airport” rather than “field.”

4.2.2 In the U.S., pilots are not told “you will intercept (radio aid or track) (distance) from (significant

point or touchdown).” Neither are pilots informed “closing from left (or right) [report established]”

nor “this turn will take you through (aid) [reason]” nor “taking you through (aid) [reason].”

Also, see 3.1.1, above.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4.2.3 U.S. ATS units use “course” rather than “track.”

4.2.3 The U.S. uses the phraseology for a traffic alert in lieu of the phrase “to avoid traffic”; however, the

sense of urgency is the same as the word “immediately” is used by both PANS ATM and FAA.

4.2.4.1 U.S. controllers say “this will be a P−A−R/surveillance approach to runway (number) or

airport/runway (number) or airport/heliport.” U.S. controllers do not say “approach completed . . . .”

U.S. controllers say “your missed approach procedure is (missed approach procedure)” and, if

needed, “execute missed approach.”

4.2.4.2 For PAR approaches, U.S. controllers say “begin descent” and for surveillance approaches, U.S.

controllers say “descend to your minimum descent altitude.”

4.2.4.4 The wheels down check is only done by U.S. military ATS units; the phraseology is “check wheels

down” for military tower controllers and “wheels should be down” for military ATS radar units.

4.2.4.5 Although U.S. controllers say “go around,” they do not say “continue visually or go around.” In that

case, they would say “if runway, approach/runway lights, not in sight, execute missed approach” or

“if not visual, (advise you) execute missed approach.”

Also, see 4.2.4.1, above.

4.2.5.1 See 4.2.4.1, above.

4.2.5.3 See Part VIII, Radar Services, 9.3.5 and 4.1.3, above.

4.2.5.4 See 4.1.3 and 4.2.4.2, above.

4.2.5.7 See 4.2.4.1, above.

4.2.5.8 See 4.2.4.5, above.

4.3.3 When a transponder appears inoperative or malfunctioning, U.S. controllers would instruct 

“ . . . reset transponder, squawk” or “ . . . your transponder appears inoperative/malfunctioning,

reset, squawk . . . .”

4.3.6, 4.3.8 U.S. controllers do not say “squawk Charlie.” U.S. controllers may ask a pilot to “ident” or “squawk

standby” or “squawk low/normal” or “squawk MAYDAY on 7700” or “squawk altitude.”

4.3.9 For aircraft above FL 180, U.S. controllers would say, “confirm using two niner niner two as your

altimeter setting, verify altitude” or “stop altitude squawk” “stop altitude squawk; altitude differs by

(number) feet.” U.S. controllers would not say “stop squawk Charlie.”

4.3.10 See 4.3.6, above.

4.3.11, 4.3.12 See 4.3.9, above.

4.3.13 U.S. controllers would say “verify at (altitude)” and/or “verify assigned altitude.”

6.1.1 U.S. controllers would issue MEA/MVA/MOCA/MIA instead of QNH.

Part XIV Procedures Related to Emergenices, Communication Failure and Contingencies

3 The U.S. has organized this material from the perspective of the controller. ICAO has outlined

information the pilot can expect to provide.

4.3 The U.S. uses 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle and for separation from other aircraft, 1,000 feet

above or 2,000 feet below and 5 miles. This includes VFR aircraft.

6.1 The U.S. does not have a section pertaining to emergency separation.

6.3 As previously covered in past differences, the U.S. uses TCAS. U.S. orders speak to controller

actions when advised of an aircraft responding to a resolution alert (RA).

Appendix 1 Instructions for Air−reporting by Voice Communications

AIREP Form of

Air−report

See Part IV, General Provision, 15.1.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Appendix 2 Flight Plan

See Part IV, General Provision, 8.

2.2 (Item 15) U.S. ATS units do not accept cruising speeds nor filed altitudes/flight levels in metric terms. The

U.S. accepts filed Mach Number expressed as M followed by 3 figures.

2.2 (Item 18) The U.S. requires filed FIR boundary designators and accumulated estimated elapsed times to such

points or FIR boundaries in the sequence and form as prescribed in 2.2, Item 18 of Doc 4444,

Appendix 2.

Appendix 3 ATS Messages

1.1.1 See Part XI, ATS Messages, 1.3.

1.6.2 See Part XII, Phraseologies, 2.8.

1.8.1 (Field

Type 3), (Field

Type 15), and

(Field Type 18).

See Part XI, ATS Messages. 1.3.

See Appendix 2, Flight Plan, 2.2 (Item 15) and 2.2 (Item 18).

2.1, 2.4.5, 2.5 See Part XI, ATS Messages 1.3.

Attachment B This section now appears in the Air Traffic Services Planning Manual (Doc 9426).

3.2 (Item 15) See Appendix 2, Flight Plan, 2.2 (Item 15).

3.2 (Item 18) See Appendix 2, Flight Plan, 2.2 (Item 18).
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GEN 1.7−19

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 3 − METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE FOR INTERNATIONAL AIR NAVIGATION

Chapter 3 World Area Forecast System and Meteorological Offices

3.2.1 b), c) The capability to comply continues to be developed.

Chapter 4 Meteorological Observations and Reports

4.3.1 c)* The U.S. does not prepare SPECI for changes in air temperature.

4.3.3 a)* Practices require SPECI for wind shift when wind direction changes by 45 degrees or more in less

than 15 minutes and the wind speed is 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.

4.3.3 b)* Practices do not require SPECI for increases of mean surface wind speed.

4.3.3 c)* Practices require SPECI for squall, where squall is defined as a strong wind characterized by a

sudden onset in which the wind speed increases at least 16 knots and is sustained at least 22 knots or

more for at least 1 minute.

4.3.3 d)* Practices do not require SPECI for wind direction changes based on local criteria.

4.3.3 f)* SPECI are not prepared for the equivalents in feet of 150, 350, or 600 meters. U.S. military stations

may not report a SPECI based on RVR.

4.3.3 g)* Practices do not require SPECI for the onset, cessation, or change in intensity of:

− freezing fog.

− moderate or heavy precipitation (including showers thereof).

− low drifting dust, sand or snow.

− blowing dust, sand or snow (including snowstorm).

− duststorm.

− sandstorm.

4.3.3 h)*, j)* Practices do not require SPECI when the height of the lowest BKN or OVC cloud layer or vertical

visibility changes to or passes 100 feet (30 meters) unless an approach minimum exists.

4.5.6*, 

4.5.9 a)*

Practices use 6−knot criterion for average wind speed to report variable wind direction in METAR

and SPECI.

4.5.9 b)* Practices define wind gust as rapid fluctuations in wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more

between peaks and lulls. Wind speed data for the most recent 10 minutes is examined and a gust, the

maximum instantaneous wind speed during that 10−minute period, is reported if the definition

above is met during that period.

4.6.5* Practice is to report prevailing visibility. Prevailing visibility is defined as the visibility that is

considered representative of visibility conditions at the station (automated observation), or the

greatest distance seen throughout at least half the horizon circle, not necessarily continuous (manual

observation).

4.7.14* RVR values, reported in feet (FT), are based on light setting 5 (highest available) for the designated

instrument runway. RVR tendency is not reported.

4.8.2* The following weather elements are augmented manually at designated automated stations

observation sites: FC, TS, GR, GS, and VA. At selected airports, additional present weather

elements may be provided.

With the exception of volcanic ash, present weather is reported when prevailing visibility is less

than 7 statute miles or considered operationally significant. Volcanic ash is always reported when

observed.

4.8.4* The practice is to not report the following weather phenomena at unstaffed stations in METAR or

SPECI: DZ, PL, IC, SG, GR, GS, SA, DU, FU, VA, PY, PO, SQ, FC, DS, and SS.

4.8.5* The practice is to not report the following characteristics of present weather phenomena in METAR

or SPECI: SH, DR, MI, BC, and PR at unstaffed stations.

4.8.6* The practice with respect to the proximity indicator VC is between 5 to 10 statute miles from the

point of observation with the exception of precipitation for which the VC indicates 0 to 10 statute

miles from the point of observation.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.9.5* The U.S. reports only up to 3 layers at automated sites and up to 6 layers at manual sites. Cloud

layer amounts are a summation of layers at or below a given level, utilizing cumulative cloud

amount. In addition, at automated sites which are unstaffed, cloud layers about 12,000 feet are not

reported. At staffed automated sites, clouds above 12,000 feet may be augmented.

4.13.1* Practices require the inclusion of a modifier field to designate AUTO for totally ‘‘automated’’

observations (no human augmentation) or COR for corrected observations between the date and

time of the report and the surface wind direction and speed.

4.13.2 The U.S. does not use the term CAVOK in meteorological reports.

Chapter 6 Forecasts

6.2.5 b)* Change groups and amendment criteria below 1/2 statute mile (800 meters) are not used.

6.2.5 d)* The 100 foot (30 meter) change group and amendment criterion is not used.

6.2.17* Forecast visibility increments used consist of 1/4 mile from 0 (zero) to 1 mile; 1/2 mile from 1 to

2 miles; and 1 mile above 2 miles.

6.2.18* Practices require the forecast of non−convective low−level wind shear within 2,000 feet of the

ground in the Optional Group.

6.2.19* The U.S. does not use CAVOK and NSC in meteorological forecasts.

6.3*, 6.4* Landing and takeoff forecasts are provided by the TAF.

6.5* Upper winds and upper−air temperatures are not included in area forecasts.

6.6.2, 6.6.3 Area forecasts are issued three times a day in the U.S., with the exception of Alaska and Hawaii

where they are issued four times a day. They are valid for a 12−hour period beginning 1 hour after

issuance and have an 18−hour outlook.

Chapter 7 SIGMET and AIRMET Information, Aerodrome Warnings and Wind Shear Warnings

7.3.1 The U.S. does not include cloud amount or type in AIRMET.

9.6.1, 9.6.3 The U.S. does not report ISOL, OCNL, or FREQ in accordance with the guidance on the use of the

terms given in Attachment F.

*Indicates ICAO Recommended Practice
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 4 − AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

Chapter 1 Definitions

Air taxiway The U.S. does not depict defined surfaces for air−taxiing of helicopters.

Danger area The term “danger area” will not be used in reference to areas within the U.S. or in any of its

possessions or territories.

Final approach

and take−off

area (FATO)

The U.S. does not depict final approach and take−off areas (FATOs).

Helicopter stand The U.S. does not use this term.

Prohibited area

Restricted area

The U.S. will employ the terms “prohibited area” and “restricted area” substantially in accordance

with the definitions established and, additionally, will use the following terms: “Alert area.”

Airspace which may contain a high volume of pilot training activities or an unusual type of aerial

activity, neither of which is hazardous to aircraft.

“Controlled firing area.” Airspace wherein activities are conducted under conditions so controlled as

to eliminate the hazards to nonparticipating aircraft and to ensure the safety of persons and property

on the ground.

“Warning area.” Airspace which may contain hazards to nonparticipating aircraft in international

airspace.

“Maneuvering area.” This term is not used by the U.S.

“Military operations area (MOA).” An MOA is an airspace assignment of defined vertical and

lateral dimensions established outside Class A airspace to separate/segregate certain military

activities from IFR traffic and to identify for VFR traffic where these activities are conducted.

“Movement area.” Movement area is defined by the U.S. as the runways, taxiways, and other areas

of an airport which are utilized for taxiing, take−off, and landing of aircraft, exclusive of loading

ramp and parking areas.

Touchdown and

lift−off area

(TLOF)

The U.S. does not use this term.

Chapter 2 General Specifications

2.1 The titles of charts produced by the U.S. are not those provided for in Annex 4.

2.2.1 The marginal note layouts, in some cases, differ from those set forth in Appendices 1, 5, and 6.

2.4.1 Visibility distances are expressed in statute miles and fractions thereof.

2.4.4 Conversion scale (meters/feet) is not shown on Radio Navigation Charts.

Chapter 3 Aerodrome Obstacle Chart − ICAO Type A (Operating Limitations)

3.1 The U.S. produces an Airport Obstruction Chart which covers the basic requirements called for by

Aerodrome Obstruction Chart − ICAO Type A.

Chapter 4 Aerodrome Obstacle Chart − ICAO Type B

4.1 The U.S. produces an Airport Obstruction Chart which covers the basic requirements called for by

Aerodrome Obstruction Chart − ICAO Type B.

Chapter 5 Aerodrome Obstacle Chart − ICAO Type C

5.8.1 The navigation grid on U.S. Aircraft Position Chart 3097 comprises lines parallel to 54 West

Meridian and the navigation grid on U.S. Aircraft Position Chart 3096 comprises lines parallel to

92 West Meridian. These changes to the ICAO Standard were made to provide navigation grid

lines vertical to a great circle projection base.

Chapter 6 Precision Approach Terrain Chart − ICAO

6.9.1.1 Only outbound magnetic bearings from VOR facilities and inbound magnetic bearings to

low/medium frequency radio navigation facilities are shown.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Chapter 7 En Route Chart − ICAO

7.9.3.1.1 1) and

5)

The U.S. depicts geographic positions in degrees and minutes to the hundredth of a degree.

Chapter 8 Area Chart − ICAO

8.9.3.1.1 1) and

6)

The U.S. depicts geographic positions in degrees and minutes to the hundredth of a degree.

Chapter 9 Standard Departure Chart − Instrument (SID) − ICAO

9.3.1 Charts covering continental U.S. between latitudes 24 and 52 North are based on standard

parallels at 33 and 45 and between latitudes 52 and 72 North on standard parallels at 55 and

65.

9.4.1 The U.S. uses a sheet numbering system which differs from the index in Appendix 7.

9.8.3.2* The elevation of the highest point on any sheet is not always cleared of hypsometric tinting.

9.9.3.1.1 2d)

and 3)

The U.S. depicts geographic positions in degrees and minutes to the hundredth of a degree.

9.10.1 Heliports are not shown.

Chapter 10 Standard Arrival Chart − Instrument (STAR) − ICAO

10.8.3.2* The elevation of the highest point on any sheet is not always cleared of hypsometric tinting.

10.9.3.1.1 2d)

and 3)

The U.S. depicts geographic positions in degrees and minutes to the hundredth of a degree.

Chapter 11 Instrument Approach Chart − ICAO

11.10.4.3 The U.S. does not depict geographic position of the final approach fix.

Chapter 12 Visual Approach Chart − ICAO

12.2.1 Stopways are not indicated.

12.5.5.2.1 The datum (MSL) is stated in the Instrument Approach Chart legend, not on the chart.

12.6.2 Runway threshold elevations are not shown.

Chapter 13 Aerodrome/Heliport Chart − ICAO

13.6.1.d 

Surface type for

heliports.

The U.S. does not show “type of surface for heliports.”

13.6.2 

Elevated 

helidecks, etc.

The U.S. does not show “surface level, elevated, or helidecks.”

Chapter 14 Aerodrome Ground Movement Chart − ICAO

14.6.1 c) The U.S. does not depict geographic positions of aircraft stands.

14.6.1 f) The U.S. does not depict taxiway centerline points.

Appendix 2 ICAO Chart Symbols

No. 21 Tidal flats are shown in brown stipple over the blue open water tint.

No. 45 Rocks awash are shown by a six−armed symbol as adopted by the International Hydrographic

Bureau.

No. 54, 61 Spaces between sides of bridge and road or railroad symbols are filled solid.

No. 70 Oil or gas fields are shown with an oil well derrick symbol.

No. 77 Ruins are shown by a solid square, properly annotated.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

No. 94 The runway surface indicator (letter H) and the lighting indicator (letter L) are not normally used on

high altitude Radio Navigation Charts. Only those airports with a minimum of 5,000 feet

hard−surfaced runways are shown.

The letter H is not used on low altitude Radio Navigation Charts. All airports depicted have

hard−surfaced runways, excepting that where the letter ‘‘S’’ follows the runway length, the runway

surface is soft.

On Visual Navigation Charts of the 1:500 000 scale, a miniature runway layout depiction indicates

airports with hard−surfaced runways at least 1,500 feet long.

No. 110 Aerodrome traffic zones are termed ‘‘SURFACE AREAS’’ in U.S. usage. These are all of standard

dimensions. Limits are not shown, but airports at which SURFACE AREAS have been established

are indicated by a color−coded airport symbol.

No. 113 Limits of advisory areas are shown on Radio Navigation Charts with a crenellated line. This

depiction is indicated in the legend as the border of an Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC).

No. 116 The nomenclature ‘‘non−compulsory’’ is used instead of ‘‘on request’’ for appropriate position

reporting points.

No. 127 Isogonic lines are shown on Radio Navigation Charts only as short sections of continuous lines

extending inward from the neat lines.

*Indicates ICAO Recommended Practice.
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GEN 1.7−24

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 5 − UNITS OF MEASUREMENT TO BE USED IN AIR−GROUND COMMUNICATIONS

General Statement: Most of the individual SI quantities and measurement units listed in the Annex are not commonly

used in routine international air operations. Although most U.S. national standards and practices do not specifically

utilize the SI units, the SI units of measurement are acceptable and not prohibited from use by U.S. regulations. Under

the present operational practices, these differences are not significant and are identified in U.S. Aeronautical

Information and Technical Publications. In accordance with Article 38 of the Convention, the U.S. wishes to file the

enclosed Notice of Differences to Annex 5, Fourth Edition, as amended by Amendment 13. Only those differences

recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of international air navigation and required for day−to−day

operations in U.S. airspace are listed separately in this notification. In addition, we do not support the establishment of

dates for planning purpose for termination of the use of bar, knot, nautical mile, and foot. (Chapter 4, Table 4−1) Until

sufficient operational analysis identifies and resolves the safety issues, the establishment of termination dates for use of

the bar, knot, nautical mile, and foot is unacceptable.

Reference: Table 3−4, Chapter 3, Annex 5, Fourth Edition, as Amended by Amendment 13.

Chapter 3.3 (Table 3−4)

Ref. No. Quantity Unit (SI) Differences as of 5 January 1988

1.4 distance (short) meter foot

1.12 runway length meter foot

1.13 runway visual range meter foot

1.15 time hour and minute,

the day of 24

hours beginning

at midnight UTC

Time may be given in local time

1.16 visibility kilometer statute mile and fraction

2.12 mass (weight) kilogram pound (lb)

3.2 altimeter setting hectopascal inches of mercury

6.7 temperature °C C° except Fahrenheit used for surface air

and dew point temperature

10.1 absorbed dose Gy rd

10.2 absorbed dose rate Gy/s rd/s

10.4 dose equivalent Sv rem

10.5 radiation exposure C/kg R

10.6 exposure rate C/kg⋅s R/s

All non−SI alternative units listed in this table will continue to be utilized where permitted. 

(1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 4.1, 4.7, 4.15, 4.16)
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 6 − OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT

PART I

Chapter 1 Definitions

Aerodrome

operating

minima

This term is not used in the U.S.

Category I 

(Cat I)

operation

For a Category I operation, the U.S. requires a decision height (DH) of not less than 200 feet and

either visibility of not less than 1/2 mile or a runway visual range of 2,400 feet (RVR 1,800 feet with

operative touchdown zone and runway centerline lights).

Category II 

(Cat II)

operation

The U.S. requires that Category II provide approaches to minima of less than 200 feet decision

height/2,400 runway visual range to as low as 100 feet decision height/1,200 feet runway visual

range.

Category IIIA

(Cat IIIA)

operation

U.S. criteria are the same as those adopted in Part 1 of Annex 6. However, the runway visual range

is expressed as not less than 700 feet (200 meters).

Category IIIB

(Cat IIIB)

operation

U.S. criteria are the same as those adopted in Part 1 of Annex 6. However, the runway visual range

is expressed as less than 700 feet (200 meters) but not less than 150 feet (50 meters).

Cruising

level

The term “cruising altitude” is used in lieu of “cruising level” in U.S. ATC phraseology.

Decision height Although not identical, the U.S. definition of decision height is not substantially different.

General

aviation

operation

General aviation is defined as all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air transportation

and nonscheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire. The classification of general

aviation flying by powered aircraft is, as follows:

Instructional flying. Use of an aircraft for purposes of flight instruction with an instructor. The

flights may be performed by aero−clubs, flying schools, fixed−base operators, or commercial

operators.

Business flying. Use of an aircraft to carry personnel and/or property to meet the transport needs of

officials of a business, firm, company, or corporation. These flights may be performed by a

commercial pilot or by a private pilot.

Pleasure flying. Use of an aircraft for personal or recreational purpose not associated with a business

or profession.

Aerial work. Use of an aircraft for activities such as: (1) crop dusting, chemical or fertilizer

spraying, seed dissemination, prevention of frost formation, insect fighting, animal herding, or

(2) aerial photography, patrol and surveillance, prospecting, construction, advertising, medical

relief, and rescue work.

Other flying. All flights by pilots for maintaining their flight proficiency should also be included

under this heading as well as all general aviation flights that cannot be included in the above four

categories.
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United States of America

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Instrument

meteorological

conditions

(IMC)

Visual

meteorological

conditions

(VMC)

The U.S. difference, as stated in the Supplement to Annex 2, 5th Edition, dated February 1967 as

amended by Amendment 1 is as follows:

It will be impracticable to implement the terms ‘‘instrument meteorological conditions’’ and ‘‘visual

meteorological conditions,’’ abbreviated as ‘‘IMC’’ and ‘‘VMC’’ as they appear in Chapter 1,

Definitions, and within the other paragraphs of the Annex where they appear.

Use of the terms ‘‘IFR conditions’’ and ‘‘VFR conditions’’ rather than ‘‘instrument meteorological

conditions’’ and ‘‘visual meteorological conditions’’ will have no effect with respect to the safety of

air navigation. The terms ‘‘IFR conditions’’ and ‘‘VFR conditions’’ have been in effect in the U.S.

for many years and are well known to all pilots and providers of the various aeronautical services.

Therefore Therefore, a change from the present phraseology to the new phraseology would ge from the present phraseology to the new phraseology would, in so far as the

U.S. is concerned, impose a change which is not justified from the standpoint of improvement of the

overall aviation procedures and practices.

U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations specify the use of the phrases ‘‘IFR conditions’’ and ‘‘VFR

conditions.’’

Maximum mass The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations state ‘‘weight’’ rather than “mass.”

Obstacle

clearance limit

(OCL)

This term is not used in the U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations.

Pressure altitude Although not identical, the U.S. definition of pressure altitude is not substantially different.

Synthetic flight

trainer:

flight

simulator,

flight

procedures

trainer,

basic 

instrument

flight trainer

The U.S. does not have a regulatory definition of these terms; however, the terms are in common

usage in the U.S. and have a meaning that is similar to the ICAO definition.

Chapter 4 Flight Operations

4.3.1 d) The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations state “weight” rather than “mass.”

4.3.7.2 When refueling with passengers embarking, on board, or disembarking an airplane, two−way

communication is not required between the ground crew supervising the refueling and the qualified

personnel on board the airplane. The U.S. refueling safety procedures which meet the intent of this

Standard are contained in each operator’s approved operating manual.

4.3.8.2 U.S. regulations require descent within 4 minutes to 14,000 feet rather than 13,000 feet (620 hPa).

4.4.4.4 U.S. regulations require all occupants of seats equipped with combined safety belts and shoulder

harnesses to be properly secured during take−offs and landings and still be able to properly perform

their assigned duties.

4.4.9.2 The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) develops standard flight operational noise

abatement procedures for each airplane type. Alternative flight operational noise procedures are also

developed by the FAA for certain airports that have unique noise situations.

Chapter 5 Aeroplane Performance Operating Limitations

5.2.6, 5.2.7 a),

b), c), d)

The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations state ‘‘weight’’ rather than “mass.”

5.2.8.1 U.S. regulations do not require that account be taken of the loss, if any, of runway length due to

alignment of the airplane prior to take−off in determining the length of the runway available.

Chapter 6 Aeroplane Instruments, Equipment and Flight Documents

6.2.4.2 The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations express lengths in feet and inches.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

6.3 a) Large airplanes that have a U.S. original type certificate issued on or before

30 September 1969, which are certificated for operations above 25,000 feet altitude or are

turbine−engine powered must have one or more flight data recorders that record data from which

time, altitude, airspeed, vertical acceleration, heading and the time of each radio transmission either

to or from air traffic control (ATC) can be determined.

b) Large airplanes that have a U.S. original type certificate issued after 30 September 1969,

which are certificated for operations above 25,000 feet altitude or are turbine−engined powered

must have one or more flight data recorders that record data from which the following information

may be determined: time, altitude, airspeed, vertical acceleration, heading, time of each radio

transmission either to or from ATC, pitch attitude, roll attitude, sideslip angle or lateral acceleration,

pitch trim position, control column or pitch control surface position, control wheel or lateral control

surface position, rudder pedal or yaw control surface position, thrust of each engine, position of

each thrust reverser, trailing edge flap or cockpit flap control position, and leading edge flap or

cockpit flap control position.

6.3.1.1 Pursuant with above paragraph a), recorders do not record engine power, configuration, or

operation. Pursuant with paragraph b), recorders do not record operation.

6.3.1.2 Pursuant with above paragraph a), recorders do not record engine power or configuration of lift and

drag devices.

6.3.5.1 The U.S. does not require such equipage for all aircraft which meet this weight criterion. U.S.

regulations (14 CFR 135.152) only require that multi−engine, turbine−powered airplanes or

rotorcraft with 10−19 seats that are brought onto the U.S. register after 11 October 1991, be

equipped with the flight data recorder specified in this standard.

6.4 Although the U.S. does provide air traffic control services to aircraft operating under VFR, it does

not specifically provide for en route ‘‘controlled VFR flights’’ in the ICAO context. The U.S. does

not, therefore, have specific requirements or regulations regarding airman certification or aircraft

minimum equipment for ‘‘controlled VFR flights.’’

6.5.1 a), c) The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations do not require all seaplanes for all flights to be equipped

with:

a) equipment for making the sound signals prescribed in the International Regulations 

for Preventing Collisions at Sea; or

 b) one sea anchor (drogue).

6.5.3.1 The U.S. defines extended over water operations for aircraft other than helicopters as an operation

over water at a horizontal distance of more than 50 nautical miles from the nearest shoreline.

6.7.5 U.S. regulations require that oxygen dispensing units capable of being automatically presented to

the passengers and cabin attendants (before the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000 feet) be

installed, in all transport category aircraft approved to operate above 30,000 feet, type certificated

on or after 1 September 1977.

6.9.2 The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations state ‘‘weight’’ and express weight in pounds.

6.12 The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations do not require airplanes operated above 15,000 meters

(49,000 feet) to carry equipment to measure and indicate continuously the dose rate of total cosmic

radiation being received and the cumulative dose on each flight.

6.15.1, 6.15.2 The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations state ‘‘weight’’ and express weight in pounds.

6.17.1 The U.S. only requires one automatic−type, emergency locator transmitter in operable condition that

meets the requirement of TSO−C91. However, installations of emergency locator transmitters which

occur after 21 June 1995 must meet the requirements of TSO−C91A.

6.17.2 Emergency locator transmitters are not required for: turbojet−powered aircraft, aircraft while

engaged in scheduled flights by scheduled air carriers, or aircraft while used to show compliance

with regulators or crew training.

6.18.1 U.S. regulations do not require such airplanes to be equipped with an airborne collision avoidance

system (ACAS II). U.S. regulations only require equipage with TCAS II which is not equivalent to

ACAS II.

6.18.2 U.S. regulations do not require such airplanes to be equipped with an airborne collision avoidance

system (ACAS II). U.S. regulations only require equipage with TCAS I.
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United States of America

GEN 1.7−28

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

6.19 U.S. regulations do not require that all airplanes be equipped with pressure−altitude reporting

transponders. The U.S. requirement for pressure altitude reporting transponders depends on the

specific airspace in which airplanes fly.

Chapter 8 Aeroplane Maintenance

8.1.3 U.S. regulations do not require persons who sign maintenance releases to be licensed strictly in

accordance with the provisions of Annex 1. U.S. requirements do not include knowledge of human

performance/limitations or entries on the license such as specific aircraft model and avionic systems

or components (or under broad categories).

8.7.5.4 There is no comparable requirement in U.S. regulations for training in knowledge and skills related

to human performance.

8.7.6.2 U.S. regulations require that records of work shall be retained until the work is repeated, superseded

by other work or for one year after the work is performed.

8.8.2 The U.S. does not require records to be maintained after the end of the operating life of the unit.

Chapter 9 Aeroplane Flight Crew

9.5 The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations do not require a flight crew member to have a spare set of

suitable lenses readily available when exercising the privileges of a license for which he/she was

assessed as fit subject to suitable correcting lenses being worn. However, the U.S. practice is to

require extra correcting lenses when a flight crew member’s defective visual acuity necessitates a

limitation; i.e., worse than 20/100 uncorrected distance visual acuity.

Chapter 11 Manuals, Logs and Records

11.1.11 a) Operators may conduct operations without an approved minimum equipment (MEL) list

provided all instruments and equipment are fully operable.

b) The U.S. prohibits operations to be conducted solely under the provisions of a master minimum

equipment list (MMEL). Each operator must develop its own MEL, based on the MMEL, which

includes operational procedures. When approved, the MEL may be used only by the individual

operator.

PART II

General The U.S. does not accept any provision of Annexes 2, 6, 10, or 11 or any other Annex as a Standard

or Recommended Practice as applicable to State aircraft. In accordance with Article 3(a) of the

Convention of International Civil Aviation, the Convention and its Annexes are not applicable to

State aircraft. In so far as any provisions of Annexes 2, 6, 10 or 11 address the operation or control

of State aircraft, the U.S. considers such provisions to be in the nature of a special recommendation

of the Council, advisory only, and not requiring the filing of differences under Article 38 of the

Convention.

Chapter 1 Definitions

Category I 

(Cat I) 

operation

For a Category I operation, the U.S. requires a decision height (DH) of not less than 200 feet and

either visibility of not less than 1/2 mile or a runway visual range of 2,400 feet (RVR 1,800 feet with

operative touchdown zone and runway centerline lights).

Category II (Cat

II) 

operation

The U.S. requires that Category II provide approaches to minima of less than 200 feet DH/2,400

runway visual range to as low as 100 feet DH/1,200 runway visual range.

Category IIIA 

(Cat IIIA)

operation

U.S. criteria are the same as those adopted in Part 1 of Annex 6. However, the runway visual range

is expressed as not less than 700 feet (200 meters).

Category IIIB 

(Cat IIIB) 

operation

U.S. criteria are the same as those adopted in Part 1 of Annex 6. However, the runway visual range

is expressed as less than 700 feet (200 meters), but not less than 150 feet (50 meters).
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Minimum 

descent 

altitude (MDA)

or minimum 

descent height

(MDH)

The U.S. does not use MDH (or height above airport) as an altitude or height in a nonprecision

approach or circling approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual

reference.

Chapter 3 General

3.5 The pilot−in−command is not required to have available on board the airplane essential information

concerning search and rescue services.

Chapter 4 Flight Preparation and In−Flight Procedures

4.3 Except as provided for in 14 CFR 91.519 for large and turbine−powered, multi−engine airplanes, the

pilot−in−command is not required to ensure that crew members and passengers are familiar with the

location and use of emergency exits, life jackets, oxygen dispensing equipment, or other emergency

equipment provided for individual use.

4.6.2.1 A destination alternate airport is not required when the weather at the airport of intended landing is

forecast to have a ceiling of at least 2,000 feet and a visibility of at least 3 miles. In addition,

standard alternate airport minima are prescribed as follows: 600−foot ceiling and 2 miles visibility

are prescribed for precision approaches, and 800−foot ceiling and 2 miles visibility for nonprecision

approaches.

4.6.2.2 b) The forecast period for the destination alternate airport is from 1 hour before to 1 hour after the

estimated time of arrival. In addition, the minima for ceiling/visibility at the airport of intended

landings are 2,000 feet and 3 miles; that is, when at least such minima exist, no alternate airport is

required.

4.6.3 A flight is permitted to continue towards the airport of intended landing when the latest available

meteorological information indicates that conditions at that airport will, at the expected time of

arrival, be at or below the specified airport meteorological minima.

4.9 The pilot−in−command is not required to ensure that all persons on board the aircraft during an

emergency are instructed in emergency procedures.

4.14 b) The pilot−in−command is not required to discontinue a flight at the nearest suitable airport when

flight crew members’ capacity to perform functions is significantly reduced by impairment of

faculties from causes such as fatigue, sickness or lack of oxygen.

4.18.1, 4.18.2 The recommendation concerning aircraft refueling with passengers on board is not addressed in U.S.

regulations. U.S. experience has not demonstrated a need for such regulation.

Chapter 6 Aeroplane Instruments and Equipment

6.1.3.1.1 All airplanes on all flights are not required to be equipped with an accessible first aid kit, portable

fire extinguishers, seat or berth for each person, current and suitable air navigation charts, or spare

electrical fuses. However, spare fuses are required on all airplanes operated at night or under

instrument flight rules.

In addition, general aviation aircraft presently are not required to carry on board either procedures,

as prescribed in Annex 2, for pilots−in−command of intercepted aircraft or visual signals for use by

intercepting and intercepted aircraft. (See ENR 1.12, Interception of Civil Aircraft National Security

and Interception Procedures.)

6.1.3.1.2 All airplanes on all flights are not required to be equipped with ground/air signal codes for search

and rescue purposes.

6.2.1 b), c) An accurate time piece and a sensitive pressure altimeter are not required for VFR flight.

6.3.1 a), b), c),

and d)

The U.S. does not require all seaplanes on all flights to be equipped with the items listed in

subparagraphs a), b), c), and d).

6.3.2 Single−engine airplanes flying over water are not required to be equipped with life jackets or

equivalent individual flotation devices when the airplane is operated more than 50 nautical miles

from land suitable for an emergency landing.
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United States of America

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

6.3.3 a) Only large and turbine−powered, multi−engine airplanes are required to carry life preservers or an

approved flotation means for each occupant of an airplane on a flight over water more than

50 nautical miles from the nearest shore.

6.3.3 b) Only large and turbine−powered, multi−engine airplanes on flights over water for more than

30 minutes flying time or 100 nautical miles from the nearest shore are required to have life rafts

and pyrotechnic signaling devices.

6.4 Not all airplanes on flights over land areas designated as areas in which search and rescue would be

especially difficult are specifically required to be equipped with signaling devices or life−saving

equipment.

6.5 All airplanes on high altitude flights, both pressurized and unpressurized, are required to carry

oxygen for the crew and passengers.

6.6 f), h), and i) All airplanes when operated in accordance with the instrument flight rules or when the airplane

cannot be maintained in a desired altitude without reference to one or more flight instruments are

not required to be equipped with:

−− an outside air temperature indicator.

−− an airspeed indicating system with a means of preventing malfunctioning due to condensation or

icing; or

−− a rate of climb and descent indicator.

6.7 a), c), d), e)

and f)

All airplanes operated at night are not required to be equipped with:

−− A turn and bank indicator.

−− An attitude indicator (artificial horizon).

−− A heading indicator (directional gyroscope).

−− A means of indicating whether the supply of power to the gyroscope instruments is adequate.

−− A sensitive pressure altimeter.

−− A means of indicating the outside air temperature.

−− A timepiece with a sweep second hand.

−− An airspeed indicating system with a means of preventing malfunctioning due to either

condensation or icing.

−− A rate−of−climb and descent indicator.

−− A landing light.

−− Illumination for flight instruments and equipment.

−− Lights in passenger compartments; or

−− An electric torch for each crewmember station.

6.9 The U.S. does not require general aviation aircraft to be equipped with ground proximity warning

systems.

6.10.3.1 and

Recommendation 6.10.3.2

The requirement for U.S. general aviation airplanes to be equipped with flight data recorders

(FDRs) is based on passenger and engine configurations. Specifically, FDRs are required for U.S.

civil registered multiengine, turbine−powered airplanes having a passenger seating configuration of

10 passengers or more, excluding any pilot seats.

6.10.4.1 and

Recommendation 6.10.4.2

The requirement for U.S. general aviation airplanes to be equipped with cockpit voice recorders

(CVRs) is based on passenger, crew, and engine configurations. Specifically, CVRs are required for

U.S. civil registered multiengine, turbine−powered airplanes having a passenger seating

configuration of six passengers or more, and for which two pilots are required by type certification.

6.10.7.2 U.S. regulations do not require that flight recorders be deactivated upon completion of flight time

following an accident or incident, or prohibit their reactivation before their disposition is

determined. U.S. regulations require that such recorders be operated continuously from the use of

checklist before the flight to completion of the final checklist at the end of the flight (14 CFR

Section 91.609(d) and (g)).

6.12.1 Emergency locator transmitters are not required for: turbojet−powered aircraft while operated in

scheduled flights by scheduled air carriers; training operations within a 50−nautical mile radius of

the airport from which the flight began; flight operations incident to design and testing; flight

operations of new aircraft incident to manufacture, preparation, and delivery; agricultural aircraft

operations; aircraft certificated for research and development purposes; operations showing

compliance with regulations, crew training, exhibition, air racing, or market surveys; or aircraft

equipped to carry not more than one person.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Recommendation 6.14

U.S. regulations do not require that flight crew members communicate through boom or throat

microphones below the transition level/altitude.

Chapter 7 Aeroplane Communication and Navigation Equipment

7.1.1 All airplanes operated at night are not required to have radio communications equipment capable of

conducting two−way communications with aeronautical stations.

7.1.2 When more than one radio communications equipment unit is required, it is not required that each

unit be independent of the other or others.

7.1.4 Except when operating under instrument flight rules, airplanes operated on extended flights over

water or on flights over underdeveloped land are not required to have radio communications

equipment capable of conducting two−way communications at any time during flight with

aeronautical stations.

7.1.5 The U.S. does not base its requirement for radio communications equipment in general aviation

aircraft on the criteria included in ICAO Annex 6, Part II (Chapters 6 and 7); for example, all night

operations, operations over land areas in which search and rescue would be especially difficult, etc.

Instead, U.S. requirements for such equipment is based upon the type of airspace with which the

aircraft is to be involved; that is, use of controlled airspace such as terminal control areas (Class B

Airspace), airport radar service areas, and positive control areas (Class A Airspace). Thus, U.S.

requirements do not depend on such ICAO factors as time of day of the operation or the nature of

the land over which the operation is to be conducted. Where such equipment is required by U.S.

regulations, the aeronautical emergency frequency of 121.5 MHz is automatically available to all

such radio−equipped aircraft since the VHF communications frequency range encompasses the

emergency frequency of 121.5 MHz.

7.2.4 An airplane is not required to be provided with navigation equipment to ensure that, in the event of

the failure of one item of equipment at any stage of the flight, the remaining equipment will enable

the airplane to proceed in accordance with 7.2.1.

Chapter 8 Aeroplane Maintenance

8.3.2 The U.S. does not require records to be maintained after the end of the operating life of the unit.

PART III

SECTION I

General The U.S. does not accept any provision of Annexes 2, 6, 10, or 11 or any other Annex as a Standard

or Recommended Practice as applicable to State aircraft. In accordance with Article 3(a) of the

Convention of International Civil Aviation, the Convention and its Annexes are not applicable to

State aircraft. In so far as any provisions of Annexes 2, 6, 10, or 11 address the operation or control

of State aircraft, the U.S. considers such provisions to be in the nature of a special recommendation

of the Council, advisory only, and not requiring the filing of differences under Article 38 of the

Convention.

Chapter 1 Definitions

Minimum 

descent 

altitude (MDA)

or minimum 

descent height

(MDH)

The U.S. does not use MDH (or height above airport) as an altitude or height in a non−precision

approach or circling approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual

reference.

Performance

Class 1 

helicopter

The U.S. does not have performance class designations for helicopters.

Performance

Class 2 

helicopter

The U.S. does not have performance class designations for helicopters.

Performance

Class 3 

helicopter

The U.S. does not have performance class designations for helicopters.
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United States of America

GEN 1.7−32

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

SECTION II − International Commercial Air Transport

2.2.11 The U.S. regulations require that helicopters flown over water in passenger−carrying operations

must simply be equipped with flotation devices.

2.3.4.1 b) The U.S. has no requirement that a point of no return (PNR) be determined.

2.3.4.3 The U.S. has no related requirement for the use of on−shore versus off−shore alternate heliports.

2.3.6.2 b) The requirement for fuel reserves for VFR operations is 20 minutes at normal cruise speed.

2.3.6.3.1 There is no U.S. requirement for maintenance of a specific altitude above a destination. In addition,

the U.S. requirement is based on normal cruise speed, not holding speed, and provides for a single,

30−minute reserve.

2.3.6.3.2 There is no requirement for maintenance of a specific altitude above an alternate. In addition, the

requirement is based on normal cruise speed, no holding speed, and provides for a single, 30−minute

reserve.

2.3.6.3.3 The U.S. has no related requirement. If the destination weather so requires, an alternate must be

specified and a 30−minute fuel reserve carried.

Chapter 3 Helicopter Performance Operating Limitations

3.1.1 The U.S. has no related performance class requirements.

Chapter 4 Helicopter Instruments, Equipment and Flight Documents

4.3.3.1 and

Recommendation 4.3.3.2

The U.S. requires that multi−engine, turbine−powered rotorcraft having a passenger seating

configuration of 20 or more seats be equipped with one or more flight recorders. In addition,

multi−engine, turbine−powered rotorcraft, brought onto the U.S. register after 1 October 1991

having a passenger seating configuration of 10 to 19 seats must have one or more flight recorders.

4.3.5 The U.S. requires cockpit voice recorders in all multi−engine, turbine−powered rotorcraft having a

passenger seating configuration of 20 or more seats and in all multi−engine, turbine−powered

rotorcraft having a passenger seating configuration of six or more and for which two pilots are

required by certification or operating rules.

4.5.1 U.S. regulations require that helicopters flown over water in passenger−carrying operations must

simply be equipped with flotation devices.

4.5.2.1 Life rafts and pyrotechnic signaling devices are only required for extended over−water operations;

that is, with respect to helicopters, an operation over water at a horizontal distance of more than

50 nautical miles from the nearest shoreline and more than 50 nautical miles from an off−shore

heliport structure.

4.7 (all) The U.S. does not require rotorcraft to carry emergency locator transmitters.

4.11.1 c) The U.S. requires only one landing light for operations conducted at night for hire.

4.15 U.S. regulations do not require that all helicopters be equipped with pressure−altitude reporting

transponders. The U.S. requirement for pressure−altitude reporting transponders depends on the

specific airspace in which helicopters fly.

Chapter 6 Helicopter Maintenance

6.3 There is no comparable requirement in U.S. regulations for training in knowledge and skills related

to human performance.

Chapter 7 Helicopter Flight Crew

7.4.1 Recency of experience need not be in the same type of helicopter.

7.4.2 Recency of experience need not be in the same type of helicopter.

7.4.3.3 There is no U.S. equivalent for nonscheduled, commercial helicopter operations.

7.5 The U.S. has no related requirement.

Chapter 11 Security

11.1 The U.S. has no related requirement.
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SECTION III − International General Aviation

Chapter 2 Flight Operations

2.3.1 b), c), d),

and e

The U.S. has no related requirement.

2.3.2 The U.S. has no related requirement.

2.6.2.1 A destination alternate heliport is not required when the weather at the heliport of intended landing

is forecast to have a ceiling of at least 2,000 feet and a visibility of at least 3 miles. In addition,

standard alternate heliport minima are prescribed as follows: 600−foot ceiling and 2 miles visibility

are prescribed for precision approaches, and 800−foot ceiling and 2 miles visibility for

non−precision approaches.

2.6.2.2 The forecast period for the destination heliport is from 1 hour before to 1 hour after the estimated

time of arrival. In addition, the minima for ceiling/visibility at the heliport of intended landing are

2,000 feet and 3 miles; that is, when at least such minima exist, no alternate heliport is required.

2.7.1 b) The U.S. has no related requirement.

2.7.2 The U.S. has no requirement for one engine inoperative performance capability.

2.8.2b) The U.S. requirement for fuel reserves for VFR operations is 20 minutes at normal cruise speed.

2.8.3.1 There is no U.S. requirement for maintenance of a specific altitude above the destination. In

addition, the requirement is based on normal cruise speed, not holding speed, and provides for a

single 30−minute reserve.

2.8.3.2 There is no U.S. requirement for maintenance of a specific altitude above the alternate. In addition,

the requirement is based on normal cruise speed, not holding speed, and provides for a single

30−minute reserve.

2.8.3.3 The U.S. has no related requirement. If the destination weather so requires, an alternate must be

specified and a 30−minute fuel reserve carried.

2.8.4 d) The U.S. has no related requirement.

2.9.1 The U.S. oxygen supply requirement applies to crew members at altitudes between 12,500 and

14,000 feet. For passengers, the requirement applies above 15,000 feet.

2.10 The U.S. requirement for flight crew members applies at altitudes above 14,000 feet.

2.11 The pilot−in−command is not required to ensure that all persons on board the aircraft during an

emergency are instructed in emergency procedures.

2.14 b) The U.S. has no related requirement.

2.17 The U.S. has no related requirement.

2.18 The recommendations concerning aircraft refueling with passengers on board are not addressed in

U.S. regulations. U.S. experience has not demonstrated a need for such regulation.

2.19 The U.S. has no related requirement.

Chapter 3 Helicopter Performance Operating Limitations

3.3 The U.S. does not have performance class designations for helicopters.

3.4 The U.S. does not have performance class designations for helicopters.

Chapter 4 Helicopter Instruments, Equipment and Flight Documents

4.1.3.1 The U.S. does not require general aviation helicopters to be equipped with a first aid kit or portable

fire extinguishers, or to have procedures for pilots−in−command of intercepted aircraft or a list of

visual signals for use by intercepting and intercepted aircraft. Spare fuses are not required for day

VFR operations.

4.1.3.2 The U.S. has no related requirement.

4.1.3.3 The U.S. requires rotorcraft manufactured after 16 September 1992 to be equipped with a safety belt

and shoulder harness for each occupant’s seat.

4.1.4.1 The U.S. has no related requirement.

4.1.4.2 The U.S. has no related requirement.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.2.1 An accurate time piece is not required for VFR flight. In addition, a non−sensitive pressure altimeter

is required.

4.3.1 The U.S. has no related requirement.

4.3.2.1 Approved flotation gear and at least one pyrotechnic signaling device are required for aircraft

operating for hire over water and beyond a power−off gliding distance from shore.

4.3.2.3 The U.S. has no related requirement.

4.3.2.6 The U.S. has no related requirement.

4.4 The U.S. has no related requirement.

4.6 f) Only one attitude indicator (artificial horizon) is required.

4.7.1 Landing lights and electric torches are not required for all night operations.

4.9.3.1 and

Recommendation 4.9.3.2

The requirement for U.S. general aviation helicopters to be equipped with flight data recorders

(FDRs) is based on passenger and engine configurations. Specifically, FDRs are required for U.S.

civil registered multiengine, turbine−powered rotorcraft having a passenger seating configuration of

10 passengers or more, excluding any pilot seats.

4.9.4.1 and

Recommendation 4.9.4.2

The requirement for U.S. general aviation helicopters to be equipped with cockpit voice recorders

(CVRs) is based on passenger, crew, and engine configurations. Specifically, CVRs are required for

U.S. civil registered multiengine, turbine−powered rotorcraft having a passenger seating

configuration of six passengers or more, and for which two pilots are required by type certification.

4.9.7.2 U.S. regulations do not require that flight recorders be deactivated upon completion of flight time

following an accident or incident, or prohibit their reactivation before their disposition is

determined. U.S. regulations require that such recorders be operated continuously from the use of

checklist before the flight to completion of the final checklist at the end of the flight (14 CFR 91.609

(d) and (g)).

4.10 Emergency locator transmitters are not required for rotorcraft.

4.12 U.S. regulations do not require that flight crew members communicate through boom or throat

microphones below the transition level/altitude.

Chapter 5 Helicopter Communication and Navigation Equipment

5.2.2 The U.S. has no minimum navigation equipment requirement for VFR flights.
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United States of America

GEN 1.7−35

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 7 − AIRCRAFT NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION MARKS

3.3.1 and 4.2.1 The marks on wing surfaces are not required.

3.2.5 and 

Section 8

Identification plates are not required on unmanned, free balloons.

4.2.2 The minimum height of marks on small (12,500 lb or less), fixed−wing aircraft is 3 inches when

none of the following exceeds 180 knots true airspeed: (1) design cruising speed; (2) maximum

operating limit speed; (3) maximum structural cruising speed; and (4) if none of the foregoing

speeds have been determined for the aircraft, the speed shown to be the maximum cruising speed of

the aircraft.

Section 6 A centralized registry of unmanned free balloons is not maintained. Operators are required to

furnish the nearest ATC facility with a prelaunch notice containing information on the date, time,

and location of release, and the type of balloon. This information is not maintained for any specified

period of time.
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United States of America

GEN 1.7−36

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 8 − AIRWORTHINESS OF AIRCRAFT

PART I Definitions

Performance

Class 1, 2 and 3

helicopters.

Large helicopters (heavier than 6,000 lb) are classified as either Category A or B on the basis of

weight, passenger−carrying capacity, and auxiliary systems as well as performance capabilities.

There is no classification scheme for all other helicopters (6,000 lb or less).

Standard 

atmosphere

The U.S. uses the U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962. This standard contains a sea−level molecular

weight (M) of 28.9644 kg (kg−mol)−1.

PART II Administration

4.2.3 The U.S. does not generally issue Airworthiness Directives for non−type certificated aircraft. This

includes foreign aircraft that are U.S.−registered, but operate under experimental, rather than

standard airworthiness certificates.

4.2.7 At this time, the U.S. does not require that the continuing structural integrity program contain

specific information concerning corrosion prevention and control.

PART III Aeroplanes

Chapter 1 General

1.1.3 The U.S. certificates certain airplanes at weights in excess of 5,700 kg (12,566 lb) that will not fully

meet the ICAO Airworthiness Standards of Part III. The Airworthiness Certificate of airplanes that

do not meet ICAO Standards will be endorsed as follows:

‘‘This airplane at weights in excess of 5,700 kg does not meet the airworthiness requirements of

ICAO, as prescribed by Annex 8 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation.’’

1.5.1 The U.S. also uses service experience and equivalent safety findings as a basis for finding

compliance with the appropriate airworthiness requirements.

2.2.3 This ICAO provision requires performance data to be scheduled for ranges of gradient of the

landing surface for landplanes and ranges of water surface conditions, water density, and current

strength for seaplanes. For landplanes, the U.S. requires the landing distance to be determined only

on a level runway. For seaplanes, the U.S. requires the landing distance on water to be determined

only on smooth water. Operational take−off and landing distance margins are applied where

appropriate by U.S. operational regulations and guidance.

PART IV Helicopters

Chapter 1 General

1.2.2 Note 1 The U.S. does not allow the weight and center of gravity limitations to vary as a function of altitude

or phase of flight (take−off, cruise, landing, etc.).

Chapter 2 Flight

2.2.1 and 2.2.2 As stated in the difference with respect to the definitions of classes of helicopters in Part I, U.S.

classifications are based on other factors as well as performance.

2.2.3.1 through

2.2.3.1.4

For Category B helicopters, only take−off distance is required to be included in the performance

data while take−off distance, path, and rejected take−off distance information is required for

Category A helicopters. There are no comparable requirements for helicopters weighing less than

6,000 lb.

2.2.3.2 En route performance is based solely on climb performance for both engines operating and one

engine inoperative situations (Categories A and B). There is no comparable requirement for

helicopters weighing less than 6,000 lb.

2.2.3.3.1 The landing decision point (LDP) is required for Category A helicopters only.

Chapter 4 Design and Construction

4.1.6 e) The U.S. does not provide criteria relative to fire protection/prevention for interior furnishing

materials replaced during major refurbishment. The fire protection levied is dependent on the

original certification basis.

Chapter 7 Instruments and Equipment

7.4.2 Minimum acceptable intensities are prescribed for navigation lights and anti−collision lights; i.e., no

reduction below these levels is possible.
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United States of America

GEN 1.7−37

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 9 − FACILITATION

*The list of differences include Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The status of implementation of

Annex 9 in Guam with respect to public health quarantine is not covered in the list of differences.

Chapter 2 Entry and Departure of Aircraft

2.3 Written crew baggage declaration is required in certain circumstances, and a special

Embarkation/Disembarkation Card is required for most alien crew members.

2.4 A General Declaration for all inbound and for outbound flights with commercial cargo are required.

However, the General Declaration outbound flights with commercial cargo shall not be required if

the declaratory statement is made on the air cargo manifest. No declaration is required for outbound

flights without commercial cargo if Customs clearance is obtained by telephone.

Remarks 19 CFR 122

2.4.1 Each crew member must be listed showing surname, given name, and middle initial.

2.4.4 The signing or stamping of the General Declaration protects the carrier by serving as proof of

clearance.

2.5 The crew list is required by statute.

2.7 There is a statutory requirement for the Cargo Manifest.

2.8 In order to combat illicit drug smuggling, the U.S. requires the additional following information: the

shipper’s and the consignee’s name and address, the type of air waybills, weight, and number of

house air waybills. The manifest submitted in electronic form may become legally acceptable in the

future. However, until the compliance rate for the automated manifest is acceptable, the U.S. must

be able to require the written form of the manifest.

Remarks 19 CFR 122.48

2.9 Nature of goods information is required.

2.10 Stores list required in all cases but may be recorded on General Declaration in lieu of a separate list.

2.17 A cargo manifest is required except for merchandise, baggage and stores arriving from and

departing for a foreign country on the same through flight. “All articles on board which must be

licensed by the Secretary of State shall be listed on the cargo manifest.” “Company mail shall be

listed on the cargo manifest.”

2.18 Traveling general declaration and manifest, crew purchases and stores list as well as a permit to

proceed are required under various conditions when aircraft arrive in the U.S. from a foreign area

with cargo shown on the manifest to be traveling to other airports in the U.S. or to foreign areas.

2.21 There is a statutory requirement that such changes can only be made prior to or at the time of formal

entry of the aircraft.

2.25 The U.S. does not support the use of insecticides in aircraft with passengers present. Pesticides

registered for such use should not be inhaled. In effect, the passenger safety issue has precluded the

use of such insecticides in the presence of passengers since 1979.

2.35 Advance notice is required of the number of citizens and aliens on board (non−scheduled flights

only).

2.40 A copy of the contract for remuneration or hire is required to be a part of the application in the case

of non−common carrier operations.

2.41 Single inspection is accorded certain aircraft not by size of aircraft but rather by type of operation.

Loads (cargo) of an agricultural nature require inspection by a plant or animal quarantine inspector.

2.41c Fees are charged for services provided in connection with the arrival of private aircraft

(nonscheduled aircraft).

Chapter 3 Entry and Departure of Persons and Their Baggage

3.3 Medical reports are required in some cases.

Remarks 8 CFR 212.7 and INA 234

3.4 Documents such as visas with certain security devices serve as identity documents.
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United States of America

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.4.1 The U.S. has not standardized the personal identification data included in all national passports to

conform with the recommendation in Doc 9303.

3.5.6 U.S. passport fees exceed the cost of the operation.

3.5.7 U.S. allows separate passports for minor dependents under the age of 16 entering the U.S. with a

parent or legal guardian.

3.7 The U.S. has a pilot program that allows nationals of certain countries which meet certain criteria to

seek admission to the U.S. without a visa for up to 90 days as a visitor for pleasure or business.

Remarks 22 CFR 41.112(d) INA 212(d)(4), INA 238, 8 CFR 214.2(c) INA 217

The law permits visa waivers for aliens from contiguous countries and adjacent islands or in

emergency cases. Visas are also waived for admissible aliens arriving on a carrier which is signatory

to an agreement assuring immediate transit of its passengers provided they have a travel document

or documents establishing identity, nationality, and ability to enter some country other than the U.S.

3.8 The U.S. charges a fee for visas.

3.8.3 Duration of stay is determined at port of entry.

Remarks INA 217

3.8.4 A visitor to the U.S. cannot enter without documentation.

Remarks INA 212(a) (26)

3.8.5 Under U.S. law, the duration of stay is determined by the Immigration Authorities at the port of

entry and thus cannot be shown on the visa at the time of issuance.

3.10 Embarkation/Disembarkation Card does not conform to Appendix 4 in some particulars.

3.10.1 The operator is responsible for passengers’ presentation of completed embarkation/disembarkation

cards.

Remarks 8 CFR 299.3

3.10.2 Embarkation/Disembarkation cards may be purchased from the U.S. Government, Superintendent of

Documents.

Remarks 8 CFR 299.3

3.14.2 The U.S. fully supports the electronic Advance Passenger Information (API) systems. However, the

WCO/IATA Guideline is too restrictive and does not conform to the advancements in the PAXLIST

EDIFACT international standard.

3.15 U.S. Federal Inspection Services’ officials see individuals more than once.

3.16 Written baggage declarations by crew members are required in some instances.

3.17.1 The U.S. uses a multiple channel system rather than the dual channel clearance system.

3.23, 3.23.1 Statute requires a valid visa and passport of all foreign crew members.

3.24, 3.24.1,

3.25, 3.25.1,

3.25.2, 3.25.3

Crew members, except those eligible under Visa Waiver Pilot Program guidelines, are required to

have valid passports and valid visas to enter the U.S.

Remarks INA 212(a) (26), INA 252 and 253, 8 CFR 214.1(a), 8 CFR 252.1(c)

3.26, 3.27, 3.28,

3.29

Passports and visas are required for crew and non−U.S. nationals to enter the U.S.

3.33 Does not apply to landing card.

3.35 Law requires that the alien shall be returned to the place whence he/she came. Interpretation of this

provision requires that he/she be returned to the place where he/she began his/her journey and not

only to the point where he/she boarded the last−used carrier.

3.35.1 Law requires that certain aliens be deported from the U.S. at the expense of the transportation line

which brought them to the U.S.

3.36 Statute provides for a fine if a passenger is not in possession of proper documents.

3.39.3 NOTE: The U.S. considers security for individuals in airline custody to be the carrier’s

responsibility.
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GEN 1.7−39

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.40.2 Annex 9 recommends that fines and penalties be mitigated if an alien with a document deficiency is

eventually admitted to the country of destination.

3.43 Operator can be held responsible for some detention costs.

Chapter 4 Entry and Departure of Cargo and Other Articles

4.20 The Goods Declaration as defined by the Kyoto Convention serves as the fundamental Customs

document rather than the commercial invoice.

4.40 Aircraft equipment and parts, certified for use in civil aircraft, may be entered duty−free by any

nation entitled to most−favored nation tariff treatment. Security equipment and parts, unless

certified for use in the aircraft, are not included.

4.41 Customs currently penalizes the exporting carrier for late filing of Shipper’s Export Declarations

(SEDs) and inaccuracies on bills of lading with respect to the SEDs.

4.42 Regulations require entry of such items, most of which are dutiable by law.

4.44 Certain items in this category are dutiable by law.

4.48 Carriers are required to submit new documentation to explain the circumstances under which cargo

manifest is not unladen. No penalty is imposed if the carrier properly reports this condition.

4.50 The procedures for adding, deleting, or correcting manifest items require filing a separate document.

4.55 The U.S. requires a transportation in−bond entry or a special manifest bonded movement for this

type of movement.

Chapter 5 Traffic Passing Through the Territory of a Contracting State

5.1 Such traffic must be inspected at airports where passengers are required to disembark from the

aircraft and no suitable sterile area is available.

5.2 Passports and visas are waived for admissible aliens arriving on a carrier which is signatory to an

agreement assuring immediate transit of its passengers provided they have a travel document or

documents establishing identity, nationality, and ability to enter some country other than the U.S.

5.3 Such traffic must be inspected at airports where no suitable sterile area is available.

5.4 Passports and visas are waived for admissible aliens arriving on a carrier which is signatory to an

agreement assuring immediate transit of its passengers provided they have a travel document or

documents establishing identity, nationality, and ability to enter some country other than the U.S.

5.4.1 Passengers will not be required to obtain and present visas if they will be departing from the U.S.

within 8 hours of arrival or on the first flight thereafter departing for their destination.

5.8 Examination of transit traffic is required by law. Transit passengers without visas are allowed one

stopover between the port of arrival and their foreign destination.

5.9 Passports and visas are required generally for transit passengers who are remaining in the U.S.

beyond 8 hours or beyond the first available flight to their foreign destinations.

Chapter 6 International Airports − Facilities and Services for Traffic

6.3.1 Procedures involving scheduling committees raise a number of anti−trust problems under U.S. law.

6.33 Sterile physical facilities shall be provided, and in−transit passengers within those areas shall be

subject to immigration inspection at any time.

Remarks OI 214.2(c)

6.34 The U.S. inspects crew and passengers in transit.

6.36 The U.S. inspects crew and passengers in transit.

6.56 Operators of aircraft are statutorily required to pay overtime charges for federal inspections

conducted outside normal scheduled hours of operation. This requirement places aircraft operators

in a less favorable position than operators of highway vehicles and ferries who are statutorily

exempt from such charges.

Chapter 8 Other Facilitation Provisions

8.1 Separate bonds are required.

8.3.2 Visas are issued by the Department of State and are not issued at ports of entry.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 10 − VOLUME I − AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

PART I

Chapter 3

3.1.4.1

3.1.4.2 3.1.4.3

The U.S. does not require such equipage for aircraft.

3.1.7.3.1 c) When necessary to achieve coverage to the edges of the localizer course, the U.S. authorizes

coverage over a greater distance than that specified in 3.1.7.3.1 c); i.e., up to 1,200 meters

(4,000 feet) along the localizer course centerline.

3.3.8.1 3.3.8.2

 3.3.8.3

The U.S. does not require such equipage for aircraft.

PART II

Chapter 4

4.1.5.2 In the U.S., the shortage of communications channels, compared with the total operational

requirement, has resulted in the geographical separation between facilities working on the same

frequency being considerably less (up to 50 percent reduction) than the Standard defined for such

separation.

ANNEX 10 − VOLUME II − AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Chapter 3

3.3.2 Class B traffic, including reservation messages pertaining to flights scheduled to depart within

72 hours, shall not be acceptable for transmission over U.S. Government operated AFTN circuits,

except in those cases where it has been determined by the U.S. that adequate non−government

facilities are not available.

Chapter 4

4.4.2 In the Caribbean Region, U.S. industry−operated AFTN terminals will continue to accept messages

in both ICAO and non−ICAO formats. The U.S. now accepts only messages in ICAO format from

other states, including the Caribbean Region.

Chapter 5

5.2.1.3.1.1 The U.S. will use the term ‘‘hundred’’ in stating altitude numbers by radiotelephone. Whole

hundreds will be spoken as follows:

400 − “Four hundred”

4,500 − “Four thousand five hundred”

5.2.1.3.1.2 The U.S. will use the term “point” in lieu of “decimal” in stating frequencies:

 126.55 MHz − “One two six point five five”

 8,828.5 MHz − “Eight eight two eight point five”

5.2.1.6.1 Air route traffic control centers will use “center” rather than “control” in their radiotelephone

identification. 

Example: “Washington Center.”

Approach control service units will use “approach control” or “departure control” rather than

“approach” in their radiotelephone identification.

Example: “Washington Approach Control” or “Washington Departure Control.” 

Aerodrome control towers will use “ground control” or “clearance delivery” rather than “tower” in

their radiotelephone identification, where appropriate, to identify ground control services.

Example: “Washington Ground Control” or “Washington Clearance Delivery.”

5.2.1.6

5.2.1.6.2.1.1

5.2.1.6.2.2.1

U.S. procedures allow abbreviation of only Type a) call signs and limit abbreviation to not less than

three characters following the first character of the registration marking or the manufacturer of the

aircraft. Also, the U.S. does not use call signs comprised of aircraft operating agency telephony

designators in combination with aircraft registration markings (Type b).

Remarks To facilitate understanding, examples (5.2.1.6) should follow rather than precede corresponding

provisions which govern them (5.2.1.6.2.1.1 and 5.2.1.6.2.2.1).
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5.2.2.1.1.1

5.2.2.1.1.2

The U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations do not require that a continuous airborne guard on

VHF121.5 MHz be maintained.

ANNEX 10 − VOLUME III − AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

PART I

4.2.1.2

4.2.1.3

In the U.S., AMSS terminals shall have the capability of operating in the frequency bands

1544−1559 MHz and 1645.5−1660.5 MHz bands. (NOTE: Use of the band

1544−1545/1645.5−1646.5 MHz by the mobile satellite service is limited to distress and safety.)

PART II

2.3.3.1

2.3.3.2

2.3.3.3

The U.S. does not require such equipage for aircraft.

ANNEX 10 − VOLUME IV − AERONAUTICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS

4.3.2.2.2

4.3.2.2.2.2

4.3.2.2.2.2.2

4.3.2.2.2.2.3

TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced Interference Limiting Algorithms won’t comply with these

sections of the standards and recommended practices (SARPs). See remark below.

4.3.5.1 TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced won’t comply because it has a 3−second coordination delay. See

remark below.

4.3.5.3 TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced does not comply since the section implies a requirement for

reversals in some instances in encounters between two TCAS II−equipped aircraft. See remark

below.

4.3.5.4 TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced does not comply since the section explicitly requires reversal of

coordinated resolution advisories (RAs) under some circumstances. See remark below.

4.3.5.5 TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced does not comply since it contains a dormancy requirement, does

not have 5−second targets, and only has surveillance of 3,000 feet in altitude. See remark below.

4.3.8.4.2.2.1

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.1

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.3

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.4

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.5

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.6

4.3.8.4.2.2.16.1

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.6.2

4.3.8.4.2.2.1.6.3

TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced has different RA Report formats in DF20, 21 replies. See

remark below.

4.3.8.4.2.2.2

4.3.8.4.2.2.3

TCAS Version 6.04 Enhanced has different Data Link Capability format in DF20, 21 replies. See

remark below.

4.3.8.4.2.3.4

4.3.8.4.2.3.4.1

4.3.8.4.2.3.4.2

4.3.8.4.2.3.4.3

4.3.8.4.2.3.4.4

4.3.8.4.2.3.4.5

4.3.8.4.2.3.4.6

TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced RA does not meet the Broadcast format specified in these

sections. See remark below.

4.3.8.4.2.4.2.1

4.3.8.4.2.4.2.3

4.3.8.4.2.4.2.4

TCAS II Version 6.04A Enhanced has a different Coordination Reply format in DF16 replies. See

remark below.

Remark The U.S. does not require TCAS II Version 7 (ACAS II) equipage in its National Airspace System.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 11 − AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

Chapter 1 Definitions

Air−taxiing U.S. uses ‘‘hover taxi’’ for this maneuver above 100 feet above ground level (AGL) and ‘‘air taxi’’

below 100 feet AGL.

Airborne

collision

avoidance

The U.S. uses “traffic alert collision avoidance system (TCAS).” TCAS is an airborne collision

avoidance system based on radar beacon signals and operates independent of ground−based

equipment. TCAS−1 generates traffic advisories only. TCAS−II generates traffic advisories and

resolution (collision avoidance) advisories in the vertical plane.

Chapter 2 General

2.6 The Class F airspace is not used in the designation of U.S. airspace.

2.9

2.11

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Converting the present U.S. system for identifying ATS routes and significant points to conform to

the provisions of amended paragraphs 2.9 − 2.9.2, 2.11 − 2.11.3, Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 is an

effort of considerable magnitude and complexity. The U.S. has an ongoing program to accomplish

the conversion, but it is estimated that a period of 2 to 5 years will be required for full compliance.

Chapter 3 Air Traffic Control Service

3.3.3 

Exception

Clause

Clearances may be issued to conduct flight in VFR conditions without a pilot request if the

clearance would result in noise abatement benefits or when a pilot conducts a practice instrument

approach.

Chapter 4 Flight Information Service

4.2.2 b) No provision is made for the issuance of collision hazard information to flights operating in Class G

airspace.

4.3.4.4 h)

4.3.4.8

The U.S. requires that the current altimeter setting be included in the ATIS broadcast. Information

contained in a current ATIS broadcast, the receipt of which has been acknowledged by an aircraft, is

not included in a directed transmission to the aircraft unless requested by the pilot.

4.3.5

4.3.6 

4.3.7

The order in which information is listed in ATIS broadcast messages is not mandated and certain

elements are regarded as optional.

Appendix 1 Principles Governing the Identification of RNP Types and the Identification of ATS Routes

Other Than Standard Departure and Arrival Routes

See 2.9, above.

2.2.1 Routes designated to serve aircraft operating from 18,000 MSL up to and including FL 450 are

referred to as ‘‘jet routes’’ and are designated with the letter ‘‘J’’ followed by a number of up to

three digits.

Appendix 2 Principles Governing the Establishment and Identification of Significant Points

See 2.9, above.

2.1 The U.S. will not comply with this guidance in naming the Missed Approach Point (MAP) located

at the landing threshold.

Appendix 4 ATS Airspace Classifications

It should be noted that the term ‘‘Class B airspace’’ as used in the U.S. is more restrictive than that

specified by ICAO. Flights within Class B Airspace in the U.S. must be operated in accord with the

provisions of 14 CFR Part 91 (Section 91.90).

Speed restrictions do not necessarily apply to aircraft operating beyond 12 NM from the coast line

within the U.S. Flight Information Region, in offshore Class E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL.

However, in airspace underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in a VFR

corridor designated through such a Class B airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the

200 knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR Part 91 (Sections 91.117(c) and 91.703). This difference

will allow airspeed adjustments exceeding 250 knots, thereby improving air traffic services,

enhancing safety and expediting air traffic movement.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 12 − SEARCH AND RESCUE

There are no reportable differences between U.S. regulations and the Standards and Recommended Practices contained

in this Annex.
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United States of America

GEN 1.7−44

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 13 − AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Chapter 5 Investigation

5.12 The full exchange of information is vital to effective accident investigation and prevention. The U.S.

supports, in principle, measures that are intended to facilitate the development and sharing of

information. The laws of the U.S. require the determination and public reporting of the facts,

circumstances, and probable cause of every civil aviation accident. This requirement does not

confine the public disclosure of such information to an accident investigation. However, the laws of

the U.S. do provide some protection against public dissemination of certain information of a

medical or private nature.

Also, U.S. law prohibits the disclosure of cockpit voice recordings to the public and limits the

disclosure of cockpit voice recording transcript to that specific information which is deemed

pertinent and relevant by the investigative authority. However, U.S. Courts can order the disclosure

of the foregoing information for other than accident investigation purposes. The standard for

determining access to this information does not consider the adverse domestic or international

effects on investigations that might result from such access.

5.25 h) Investigative procedures observed by the U.S. allow full participation in all progress and

investigation planning meetings; however, deliberations related to analysis, findings, probable

causes, and safety recommendations are restricted to the investigative authority and its staff.

However, participation in these areas is extended through timely written submissions, as specified in

paragraph 5.25 i).

5.26 b) The U.S. supports, in principle, the privacy of the State conducting the investigation regarding the

progress and the findings of that investigation. However, the laws of the U.S. facilitate the public

disclosure of information held by U.S. government agencies and U.S. commercial business. The

standard for determining public access to information requested from a U.S. government agency or

a commercial business does not consider or require the expressed consent of the State conducting

the investigation.

Chapter 6 Reporting

6.13 The U.S. supports the principle of not circulating, publishing, or providing access to a draft report or

any part thereof unless such a report or document has already been published or released by the

State which conducted the investigation. However, the laws of the U.S. facilitate the public

disclosure of information held by government agencies and commercial business. The U.S.

government may not be able to restrict public access to a draft report or any part thereof on behalf of

the State conducting the investigation. The standard for determining public access to information

requested from a U.S. government agency or a commercial business does not consider or require the

expressed consent of the State conducting an investigation.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 14 − AERODROMES

VOLUME 1 − AERODROME DESIGN AND OPERATIONS

Chapter 1 General

1.2.1 Airports in the U.S. are for the most part owned and operated by local governments and

quasi−government organizations formed to operate transportation facilities. The Federal

Government provides air traffic control, operates and maintains NAVAIDs, provides financial

assistance for airport development, certificates major airports, and issues standards and guidance for

airport planning, design, and operational safety.

There is general conformance with the Standards and Recommended Practices of Annex 14,

Volume I. At airports with scheduled passenger service using aircraft having more than nine seats,

compliance with standards is enforced through regulation and certification. At other airports,

compliance is achieved through the agreements with individual airports under which Federal

development funds were granted; or, through voluntary actions.

1.3.1

1.3.2

1.3.3

1.3.4

In the U.S., the Airport Reference Code is a two−component indicator relating the standards used in

the airport’s design to a combination of dimensional and operating characteristics of the largest

aircraft expected to use the airport. The first element, Aircraft Approach Category, corresponds to

the ICAO PANS−OPS approach speed groupings. The second, Airplane Design Group, corresponds

to the wingspan groupings of code element 2 of the Annex 14, Aerodrome Reference Code. See

below:

TBL GEN 1.7−1

Airport Reference Code (ARC)

Aircraft Approach Category Approximate Annex 14 Code Number

A 1

B 2

C 3

D 4

E −

Airplane Design Group Corresponding Annex 14 Code Letter

I A

II B

III C

IV D

V E

VI F

(proposed)

EXAMPLE: AIRPORT DESIGNED FOR B747−400 ARC D−V.

Chapter 2 Aerodrome Data

2.2.1 The airport reference point is recomputed when the ultimate planned development of the airport is

changed.

2.9.6

2.9.7

Minimum friction values have not been established to indicate that runways are ‘‘slippery when

wet.’’ However, U.S. guidance recommends that pavements be maintained to the same levels

indicated in the ICAO Airport Services Manual.

2.11.3 If inoperative fire fighting apparatus cannot be replaced immediately, a NOTAM must be issued. If

the apparatus is not restored to service within 48 hours, operations shall be limited to those

compatible with the lower index corresponding to operative apparatus.

2.12 e) Where the original VASI is still installed, the threshold crossing height is reported as the center of

the on−course signal, not the top of the red signal from the downwind bar.
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Chapter 3 Physical Characteristics

3.1.2* The crosswind component is based on the ARC: 10.5 kt for AI and BI; 13 kt for AII and BII; 16 kt

for AIII, BIII and CI through DIII; 20 kts for AIV through DVI.

3.1.9* Runway widths (in meters) used in design are shown in the table below:

Width of Runway in Meters

Aircraft

Approach

Airplane Design Group

Approach

Category I II III IV V VI

A 181 231 −− −− 45 60

B 181 231 −− −− 45 60

C 30 30 302 45 45 60

D 30 30 302 45 45 60

1The width of a precision (lower than 3/4 statute mile approach visibility minimums) runway is 23 meters for a

runway which is to accommodate only small (less than 5,700 kg) airplanes and 30 meters for runways

accommodating larger airplanes.

2For airplanes with a maximum certificated take−off mass greater than 68,000 kg, the standard runway width is

45 meters.

3.1.12* Longitudinal runway slopes of up to 1.5 percent are permitted for aircraft approach categories C and

D except for the first and last quarter of the runway where the maximum slope is 0.8 percent.

3.1.18* Minimum and maximum transverse runway slopes are based on aircraft approach categories as

follows:

For categories A and B: 1.0 − 2.0 percent

C and D: 1.0 − 1.5 percent

3.2.2 The U.S. does not require that the minimum combined runway and shoulder widths equal 60 meters.

The widths of shoulders are determined independently.

3.2.3* The transverse slope on the innermost portion of the shoulder can be as high as 5 percent.

3.3.3

3.3.4*

3.3.5*

A strip width of 120 meters is used for code 3 and 4 runways for precision, nonprecision, and

non−instrumented operations. For code 1 and 2 precision runways, the width is 120 meters. For

non−precision/visual runways, widths vary from 37.5 meters up to 120 meters.

3.3.9* Airports used exclusively by small aircraft (U.S. Airplane Design Group I) may be graded to

distances as little as 18 meters from the runway centerline.

3.3.14* The maximum transverse slope of the graded portion of the strip can be 3 percent for aircraft

approach categories C and D and 5 percent for aircraft approach categories A and B.

3.3.15* The U.S. does not have standards for the maximum transverse grade on portions of the runway strip

falling beyond the area that is normally graded.

3.3.17* Runways designed for use by smaller aircraft under non−instrument conditions may be graded to

distances as little as 18 meters from the runway centerline (U.S. Airplane Design Groups I and II).

3.4.2* For certain code 1 runways, the runway end safety areas may be only 72 meters.

3.7.1*

3.7.2*

The U.S. does not provide Standards or Recommended Practices for radio altimeter operating areas.

3.8.3* The U.S. specifies a 6 meter clearance for Design Group VI airplanes.

3.8.4* The taxiway width for Design Group VI airplanes is 30 meters.

3.8.5* The U.S. also permits designing taxiway turns and intersections using the judgmental oversteering

method.
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3.8.7* Minimum separations between runway and taxiway centerlines, and minimum separations between

taxiways and taxilanes and between taxiway/taxilanes and fixed/moveable objects are shown in the

tables that follow. Generally, U.S. separations are larger for non−instrumented runways, and smaller

for instrumented runways, than the Annex. Values are also provided for aircraft with wingspans up

to 80 meters.

Minimum Separations Between Runway Centerline and Parallel Taxiway/Taxilane Centerline

Operation

Aircraft

Approach

Airplane Design Group

Operation Approach

Category I1 I II III IV V VI

Visual runways and runways

with not lower than 3/4−statute

mile (1,200 meters) approach

visibility minimums

A and B 150 feet 45

meters

225 feet

67.5 meters

240 feet

 72 meters

300 feet

 90 meters

400 feet

120 meters −− −−

Runways with lower than

3/4−statute mile (1,200 meters)

approach visibility minimums

A and B 200 feet

60 meters

250 feet

 75 meters

300 feet

 90 meters

350 feet

105 meters

400 feet

120 meters −− −−

Visual runways and runways

with not lower than 3/4−statute

mile (1,200 meters) approach

visibility minimums

C and D −− 300 feet

 90 meters

300 feet

 90 meters

400 feet

120 meters

400 feet

120 meters

4002 feet

1202 meters

600 feet

180 meters

Runways with lower than

3/4−statute mile (1,200 meters)

approach visibility minimums

C and D −− 400 feet

120 meters

400 feet

120 meters

400 feet

120 meters

400 feet

120 meters

4002 feet

1202 meters

600 feet

180 meters

1These dimensional standards pertain to facilities for small airplanes exclusively.

2Corrections are made for altitude: 120 meters separation for airports at or below 410 meters; 135 meters for altitudes between 410 meters and

2,000 meters; and, 150 meters for altitudes above 2,000 meters.

Minimum Taxiway and Taxilane Separations:

Airplane Design Group

I II III IV V VI

Taxiway centerline to

parallel taxiway/

taxilane centerline

Fixed or movable object

69 feet

 21 meters

 44.5 feet

 13.5 meters

105 feet 

32 meters

65.5 feet

20 meters

152 feet

46.5 meters

93 feet

 28.5 meters

215 feet

65.5 meters

129.5 feet

39.5 meters

267 feet

81 meters

160 feet

 48 meters

324 feet

99 meters

193 feet

59 meters

Taxilane centerline to

parallel taxilane

centerline

Fixed or movable object

64 feet

19.5 meters

39.5 feet

12 meters

97 feet

29.5 meters

57.5 feet

17.5 meters

140 feet

42.5 meters

81 feet

24.5 meters

198 feet

60 meters

112.5 feet

34 meters

 245 feet

 74.5 meters

138 feet

42 meters

298 feet

91 meters

167 feet

51 meters

3.8.10* Line−of−sight standards for taxiways are not provided in U.S. practice, but there is a requirement

that the sight distance along a runway from an intersecting taxiway must be sufficient to allow a

taxiing aircraft to safely enter or cross the runway.

3.8.11* Transverse slopes of taxiways are based on aircraft approach categories. For categories C and D,

slopes are 1.0−1.5 percent; for A and B, 1.0−2.0 percent.

3.11.5 The runway centerline to taxi−holding position separation for code 1 is 38 meters for non−precision

operations and 53 meters for precision. Code 3 and 4 precision operations require a separation of

75 meters, except for “wide bodies,” which require 85 meters.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Dimensions and Slopes for Protective Areas and Surfaces

Precision

Approach Non−precision Instrument Approach Visual Runway

All runways All runwaysa Runways other

than utilityb

Utility 

runwaysd

Runways other

than utility

Utility 

runways

Width of inner edge 305 meters 305 meters 152 meters 152 meters 152 meters 76 metersc

Divergency

(each side) 15 percent 15 percent 15 percent 15 percent 10 percent 10 percent

Final width 4,877 meters 1,219 meters 1,067 metersc 610 meters 475 metersc 381 metersc

Length 15,240 meters 3,048 metersc 3,048 metersc 1,524 metersc 1,524 metersc 1,524 metersc

Slope: inner

3,049 meters 2 percent 2.94 percentc 2.94 percentc 5 percentc 5 percentc 5 percentc

Slope: beyond

3,048 meters 2.5 percentc

aWith visibility minimum as low as 1.2 km; bwith visibility minimum greater than 1.2 km; ccriteria less demanding than

Annex 14 Table 4−1 dimensions and slopes. dUtility runways are intended to serve propeller−driven aircraft having a

maximum take−off mass of 5,570 kg.

Chapter 4 Obstacle Restriction and Removal

4.1 Obstacle limitation surfaces similar to those described in 4.1−4.20 are found in 14 CFR Part 77.

4.1.21 A balked landing surface is not used.

4.1.25 The U.S. does not establish take−off climb obstacle limitation areas and surface, per se, but does

specify protective surfaces for each end of the runway based on the type of approach procedures

available or planned. The dimensions and slopes for these surfaces and areas are listed in the table

above.

4.2 The dimensions and slopes of U.S. approach areas and surfaces are set forth in the above table.

Aviation regulations do not prohibit construction of fixed objects above the surfaces described in

these sections.

Chapter 5 Visual Aids for Navigation

5.2.1.7* The U.S. does not require unpaved taxiways to be marked.

5.2.2.2* The U.S. does not require a runway designator marking for unpaved runways.

5.2.2.4 Zeros are not used to precede single−digit runway markings. An optional configuration of the

numeral 1 is available to designate a runway 1 and to prevent confusion with the runway centerline.

5.2.4.2*

5.2.4.3*

Threshold markings are not required, but sometimes provided, for non−instrument runways that do

not serve international operations.

5.2.4.5 The current U.S. standard for threshold designation is eight stripes, except that more than eight

stripes may be used on runways wider than 45 meters. After 1 January 2008, the U.S. standard will

comply with Annex 14.

5.2.4.6 The width and spacing of threshold stripes will comply with Annex 14 after 1 January 2008.

5.2.4.10 When a threshold is temporarily displaced, there is no requirement that runway or taxiway edge

markings, prior to the displaced threshold, be obscured. These markings are removed only if the

area is unsuitable for the movement of aircraft.

5.2.5.2

5.2.5.3*

Aiming point markings are required on precision instrument runways and code 3 and 4 runways

used by jet aircraft.

5.2.5.4 The aiming point marking commences 306 meters from the threshold at all runways.

5.2.6.3 The U.S. pattern for touchdown zone markings, when installed on both runway ends, is only

applicable to runways longer than 4,990 feet. On shorter runways, the three pair of markings closest

to the runway midpoint are eliminated.

5.2.6.4 The U.S. standard places the aiming point marking 306 meters from the threshold where it replaces

one of the pair of three stripe threshold markings. The 306 meters location is used regardless of

runway length.
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5.2.6.5* Touchdown zone markings are not required at a non−precision approach runway, though they may

be provided.

5.2.7.4* Runway side stripe markings on a non−instrument runway may have an over−all width of 0.3 meter.

5.2.8.3 Taxiway centerline markings are never installed longitudinally on a runway even if the runway is

part of a standard taxi route.

5.2.9.5* The term ‘‘ILS’’ is used instead of CAT I, CAT II, CAT III.

5.2.11.4

5.2.11.5*

5.2.11.6*

Check−point markings are provided, but the circle is 3 meters in diameter, and the directional line

may be of varying width and length. The color is the yellow used for taxiway markings.

5.2.12 Standards for aircraft stand markings are not provided.

5.2.13.1* Apron safety lines are not required although many airports have installed them.

5.2.14.1 The U.S. does not have standards for holding position markings on roadways that cross runways.

Local traffic control practices are used.

5.3.1.1 5.3.1.2* The U.S. does not have regulations to prevent the establishment of non−aviation ground lights that

might interfere with airport operations.

5.3.1.3

5.3.1.4

New approach lighting installations will meet the frangibility requirements. Some existing

non−frangible systems may not be replaced before 1 January 2005.

5.3.2.1*

5.3.2.2*

5.3.2.3*

There is no requirement for an airport to have emergency runway lighting available if it does not

have a secondary power source. Some airports do have these systems, and there is an FAA

specification for these lights.

5.3.3.1

5.3.3.3

Only airports served by aircraft having more than 30 seats are required to have a beacon, though

they are available at many others.

5.3.3.6 Although the present U.S. standard for beacons calls for 24−30 flashes per minute, some older

beacons may have flash rates as low as 12 flashes per minute.

5.3.3.8 Coded identification beacons are not required and are not commonly installed. Typically, airport

beacons conforming to 5.3.3.6 are installed at locations served by aircraft having more than 30 seats.

5.3.4.1 While the U.S. has installed an approach light system conforming to the specifications in 5.3.4.10

through 5.3.4.19, it also provides for a lower cost system consisting of medium intensity approach

lighting and sequenced flashing lights (MALSF) at some locations.

5.3.4.2 In addition to the system described in 5.3.4.1, a system consisting of omnidirectional strobe lights

(ODALS) located at 90 meters intervals extending out to 450 meters from the runway threshold is

used at some locations.

5.3.4.10 

through 

5.3.4.19

The U.S. standard for a precision approach category I lighting system is a medium intensity

approach lighting system with runway alignment indicator lights (MALSR). This system consists of

3 meters barrettes at 60 meters intervals out to 420 meters from the threshold and sequenced

flashing lights at 60 meters intervals from 480 meters to 900 meters. A crossbar 20 meters in length

is provided 300 meters from the threshold. The total length of this system is dependent upon the ILS

glide path angle. For angles 2.75 and higher, the length is 720 meters.

5.3.4.16

5.3.4.31

The capacitor discharge lights can be switched on or off when the steady−burning lights of the

approach lighting system are operating. However, they cannot be operated when the other lights are

not in operation.

5.3.4.20 The U.S. standard for a precision approach category II and III lighting system has a total length

dependent upon the ILS glide path angle. For angles 2.75 and higher, the length is 720 meters.

5.3.5.1

5.3.5.3

5.3.5.4

Visual approach slope indicator systems are not required for all runways used by turbojets except

runways involved with land and hold short operations that do not have an electronic glideslope

system.

5.3.5.2 In addition to PAPI and APAPI systems, VASI and AVASI type systems remain in service at U.S.

airports with commercial service. Smaller general aviation airports may have various other approach

slope indicators including tri−color and pulsating visual approach slope indicators.

5.3.5.27 The U.S. standard for PAPI allows for the distance between the edge of the runway and the first

light unit to be reduced to 9 meters for code 1 runways used by nonjet aircraft.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5.3.5.42 The PAPI obstacle protection surface used is as follows: The surface begins 90 meters in front of the

PAPI system (toward the threshold) and proceeds outward into the approach zone at an angle

1 degree less than the aiming angle of the third light unit from the runway. The surface flares

10 degrees on either side of the extended runway centerline and extends 4 statute miles from its

point of origin.

5.3.8.4 The U.S. permits the use of omnidirectional runway threshold identification lights.

5.3.13.2 The U.S. does not require the lateral spacing of touchdown zone lights to be equal to that of

touchdown zone marking when runways are less that 45 meters wide.

The lateral distance between the markings is 22 meters when installed on runways with a width of

45 meters or greater. The distance is proportionately smaller for narrower runways. The lateral

distance between touchdown zone lights is nominally 22 meters but may be reduced to 20 meters to

avoid construction problems.

5.3.14 The U.S. has no provision for stopway lights.

5.3.15.1

5.3.15.2*

Taxiway centerline lights are required only below 183 meters RVR on designated taxi routes.

However, they are generally recommended whenever a taxiing problem exists.

5.3.15.3

8.2.3

Taxiway centerline lights are not provided on runways forming part of a standard taxi route even for

low visibility operations. Under these conditions, the taxi path is coincident with the runway

centerline, and the runway lights are illuminated.

5.3.15.5 Taxiway centerline lights on exit taxiways presently are green. However, the new U.S. standard

which is scheduled to be published by 1 January 98 will comply with the alternating green/yellow

standard of Annex 14.

5.3.15.7* The U.S. permits an offset of up to 60 cm.

5.3.16.2

8.2.3

Taxiway edge lights are not provided on runways forming part of a standard taxi route.

5.3.17.1

5.3.17.2*

5.3.17.3

5.3.17.4*

5.3.17.5*

Stop bars are required only for runway visual range conditions less than a value of 183 meters at

taxiway/runway intersections where the taxiway is lighted during low visibility operations. Once

installed, controlled stop bars are operated at RVR conditions less than a value of 350 meters.

5.3.17.6 Elevated stop bar lights are normally installed longitudinally in line with taxiway edge lights. Where

edge lights are not installed, the stop bar lights are installed not more than 3 meters from the taxiway

edge.

5.3.17.9 The beamspread of elevated stop bar lights differs from the inpavement lights. The inner isocandela

curve for the elevated lights is ± 7 horizontal and ± 4 vertical.

5.3.17.12 The U.S. standard for stop bars, which are switchable in groups, does not require the taxiway

centerline lights beyond the stop bars to be extinguished when the stop bars are illuminated. The

taxiway centerline lights which extend beyond selectively switchable stop bars are grouped into two

segments of approximately 45 meters each. A sensor at the end of the first segment re−illuminates

the stop bar and extinguishes the first segment of centerline lights. A sensor at the end of the second

segment extinguishes that segment of centerline lights.

5.3.18.1* Taxiway intersection lights are also used at other hold locations on taxiways such as low visibility

holding points.

5.3.18.2 Taxiway intersection lights are collocated with the taxiway intersection marking. The marking is

located at the following distances from the centerline of the intersecting taxiway:

Airplane Design Group Distance

I 13.5 meters

II 20 meters

III 28.5 meters

IV 39 meters

V 48.5 meters

VI 59 meters
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5.3.19.1

5.3.19.2*

Runway guard lights are required only for runway visual range conditions less than a value of

350 meters.

5.3.19.4

5.3.19.5

Runway guard lights are placed at the same distance from the runway centerline as the aircraft

holding distance, or within a few feet of this location.

5.3.19.12 The new U.S. standard for in−pavement runway guard lights complies with Annex 14. However,

there may be some existing systems that do not flash alternately.

5.3.20.4* The U.S. does not set aviation standards for flood lighting aprons.

5.3.21 The U.S. does not provide standards for visual docking guidance systems. U.S. manufacturers of

these devices generally adhere to ICAO SARPS.

5.3.23.1 The U.S. does not have a requirement for providing roadholding position lights during RVR

conditions less than a value of 350 meters.

5.4.1.2 Signs are often installed a few centimeters taller than specified in Annex 14, Volume 1, Table 5−4.

5.4.1.5 Sign inscriptions are slightly larger, and margins around the sign slightly smaller, than indicated in

Annex 14, Volume 1, Appendix 4.

5.4.1.6 The sign luminance requirements are not as high as specified in Appendix 4. The U.S. does not

specify a nighttime color requirement in terms of chromaticity.

5.4.2.2

5.4.2.4

5.4.2.9

5.4.2.14

5.4.2.16

All signs used to denote precision approach holding positions have the legend ‘‘ILS.’’

5.4.2.6 U.S. practice uses the NO ENTRY sign to prohibit entry by aircraft only.

5.4.2.8

5.4.2.10

The second mandatory instruction sign is usually not installed unless added guidance is necessary.

5.4.2.15 Signs for holding aircraft and vehicles from entering areas where they would infringe on obstacle

limitation surfaces or interfere with NAVAIDs are inscribed with the designator of the approach,

followed by the letters ‘‘APCH’’; for example, ‘‘15−APCH.’

5.4.3.13

5.4.3.15

U.S. practice is to install signs about 3 to 5 meters closer to the taxiway/runway (See Annex 14,

Table 5−4).

5.4.3.16 The U.S. does not have standards for the location of runway exit signs.

5.4.3.24 A yellow border is used on all location signs, regardless of whether they are stand−alone or

collocated with other signs.

5.4.3.26 U.S. practice is to use Pattern A on runway vacated signs, except that Pattern B is used to indicate

that an ILS critical area has been cleared.

5.4.3.30* The U.S. does not have standards for signs used to indicate a series of taxi−holding positions on the

same taxiway.

5.4.4.4* The inscription, ‘‘VOR Check Course,’’ is placed on the sign in addition to the VOR and DME data.

5.4.5.1* The U.S. does not have requirements for airport identification signs, though they are usually

installed.

5.4.6.1* Standards are not provided for signs used to identify aircraft stands.

5.4.7.2 The distance from the edge of road to the road−holding position sign conforms to local highway

practice.

5.5.2.2*

5.5.7.1*

Boundary markers may be used to denote the edges of an unpaved runway.

5.5.3 There is no provision for stopway edge markers.

Chapter 6 Visual Aids for Denoting Obstacles

6.1 Recommended practices for marking and lighting obstacles are found in FAA Advisory

Circular 70/7460−1J, Obstruction Marking and Lighting.

6.2.3* The maximum dimension of the rectangles in a checkered pattern is 6 meters on a side.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

6.3.21*

6.3.22*

The effective intensity, for daylight−luminance background, of Type A high−intensity obstacle lights

is 270,000 cd ± 25 percent.

The effective intensity, for daylight−luminance background, of Type B high−intensity obstacle lights

is 140,000 cd ± 25 percent.

Chapter 7 Visual Aids for Denoting Restricted Use Areas

7.1.2* A ‘‘closed’’ marking is not used with partially closed runways. See 5.2.4.10, above.

7.1.4 Crosses with shapes similar to figure 7.1, illustration b) are used to indicate closed runways and

taxiways.

The cross for denoting a closed runway is yellow.

7.1.5 In the U.S. when a runway is permanently closed, only the threshold marking, runway designation

marking, and touchdown zone marking need be obliterated. Permanently closed taxiways need not

have the markings obliterated.

7.1.7 The U.S. does not require unserviceability lights across the entrance to a closed runway or taxiway

when it is intersected by a night−use runway or taxiway.

7.4.4 Flashing yellow lights are used as unserviceability lights. The intensity is such as to be adequate to

delineate a hazardous area.

Chapter 8 Equipment and Installations

8.1.5*

8.1.6*

8.1.7

8.1.8

A secondary power supply for non−precision instrument and non−instrument approach runways is

not required, nor is it required for all precision approach runways.

The U.S. does not provide secondary power specifically for take−off operations below 550 meters

RVR.

8.2.1 There is no requirement in the U.S. to interleave lights as described in the Aerodrome Design

Manual, Part 5.

8.2.3 See 5.3.15.3 and 5.3.16.2

8.7.2*

8.7.3

8.7.4*

Glide slope facilities and certain other installations located within the runway strip, or which

penetrate obstacle limitation surfaces, may not be frangibly mounted.

8.9.7* A surface movement surveillance system is recommended for operations from 350 meters RVR

down to 183 meters. Below 183 meters RVR, a surface movement radar or alternative technology is

generally required.

Chapter 9 Emergency and Other Services

9.1.1 Emergency plans such as those specified in this section are required only at airports serving

scheduled air carriers using aircraft having more than 30 seats. These airports are certificated under

14 CFR Part 139. In practice, other airports also prepare emergency plans.

9.1.12 Full−scale airport emergency exercises are conducted at intervals, not to exceed three years, at

airports with scheduled passenger service using aircraft with more than 30 seats.

9.2.1 Rescue and fire fighting equipment and services such as those specified in this section are required

only at airports serving scheduled air carriers in aircraft having more than 30 seats. Such airports

generally equate to ICAO categories 4 through 9.

Other airports have varying degrees of services and equipment.

9.2.3* There is no plan to eliminate, after 1 January 2005, the current practice of permitting a reduction of

one category in the index when the largest aircraft has fewer than an average of five scheduled

departures a day.

9.2.4

9.2.5

The level of protection at U.S. airports is derived from the length of the largest aircraft serving the

airport similar to the Annex’s procedure, except that maximum fuselage width is not used.

U.S. indices A−E are close equivalents of the Annex’s categories 5−9. The U.S. does not have an

equivalent to category 10.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Fire Extinguishing Agents and Equipment

Index Aircraft length Total minimum quantities of

extinguishing agents

More than Not more

than

Dry chemical Water for

protein

foam

Minimum trucks Discharge rate1

A 27 meters 225 kg 0 1 See below

B 27 meters 38 meters 225 kg 5,700 L 1 See below

C 38 meters 48 meters 225 kg 5,700 L 2 See below

D 48 meters 60 meters 225 kg 5,700 L 3 See below

E 60 meters 225 kg 11,400 L 3 See below

1Truck size Discharge rate

1,900 L but less than 7,600 at least 1,900 L per minute but not more than 3,800 L per minute

7,600 L or greater at least 2,280 L per minute but not more than 4,560 L per minute

9.2.10 The required firefighting equipment and agents by index are shown in the table above.

The substitution equivalencies between complementary agents and foam meeting performance

level A are also used for protein and fluoroprotein foam. Equivalencies for foam meeting

performance level B are used only for aqueous film forming foams.

9.2.18* There is no specific requirement to provide rescue equipment as distinguished from firefighting

equipment.

9.2.19* At least one apparatus must arrive and apply foam within 3 minutes with all other required vehicles

arriving within 4 minutes.

Response time is measured from the alarm at the equipment’s customary assigned post to the

commencement of the application of foam at the mid−point of the farthest runway.

9.2.29* For ICAO category 6 (U.S. index B), the U.S. allows one vehicle.

9.4.4 At the present time, there is no requirement to perform tests using a continuous friction measuring

device with self−wetting features. Some U.S. airports own these devices, while others use less

formal methods to monitor build−up of rubber deposits and the deterioration of friction

characteristics.

9.4.15 The standard grade for temporary ramps is 15 feet longitudinal per 1 inch of height (0.56 percent

slope) maximum, regardless of overlay depth.

9.4.19 There is no U.S. standard for declaring a light unserviceable if it is out of alignment or if its

intensity is less than 50 percent of its specified value.

*Indicates ICAO Recommended Practice
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−54

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 14 − AERODROMES

VOLUME II − HELIPORTS

Chapter 1 Definitions

Declared

distances

The U.S. does not use declared distances (take−off distance available, rejected take−off distance

available, or landing distance available) in designing heliports.

Final approach

and take−off

area (FATO)

The U.S. ‘‘take−off and landing area’’ is comparable to the ICAO FATO, and the U.S. ‘‘FATO’’ is

more comparable to the ICAO TLOF. The U.S. definition for the FATO stops with ‘‘the take−off

manoeuvre is commenced.’’ This difference in definition reflects a variation in concept. The

rejected take−off distance is an operational computation and is not required as part of the design.

Helicopter stand The U.S. does not use the term “helicopter stand.” Instead, the U.S. considers paved or unpaved

aprons, helipads, and helidecks, all as helicopter parking areas; i.e., helicopter stands.

Safety area The U.S. considers the safety area to be part of the take−off and landing area which surrounds the

FATO and does not call for or define a separate safety area.

Touchdown and

lift−off area

(TLOF)

The U.S. differs in the definition by considering helipads and helidecks to be FATO. The U.S. does

not define the load bearing area on which the helicopter may touch down or lift−off as a TLOF.

Chapter 2 Heliport Data

2.1 d) The U.S. does not measure or report a safety area as a separate feature of a heliport.

2.2 The U.S. does not ‘‘declare’’ distances for heliports.

Chapter 3 Physical Characteristics

3.1.2 The U.S. does not distinguish between single−engine and multi−engine helicopters for the purposes

of heliport design standards. Neither does the U.S. design or classify heliports on the basis of

helicopter performance. The U.S. FATO dimensions are at least equal to the rotor diameter of the

design single rotor helicopter and the area must be capable of providing ground effect. The U.S.

does not have alternative design standards for water FATOs, elevated heliports, or helidecks.

3.1.3 The U.S. has a single gradient standard; i.e., 5 percent, except in fueling areas where the limit is

2 percent, which is applicable for all portions of heliports.

3.1.6 

3.1.7* 

3.1.8*

The U.S. does not require or provide criteria for clearways in its design standards. It does encourage

ownership and clearing of the land underlying the innermost portion of the approach out to where

the approach surface is 10.5 meters above the level of the take−off surface.

3.1.14 to 3.1.21 Safety areas are considered part of the take−off and landing area (or primary surface) in U.S.

heliport design. The take−off and landing area of the U.S. design criteria, based on 2 rotor

diameters, provides for the ICAO safety area; however, the surface does not have to be continuous

with the FATO or be load bearing.

3.1.22 Taxiway widths are twice the undercarriage width of the design helicopter.

3.1.23 The U.S. requires 1.25 rotor diameters plus 2 meters of separation between helicopter ground

taxiways.

3.1.24 The U.S. gradient standard for taxiways is a maximum of 5 percent.

3.1.32* The U.S. sets no gradient standards for air taxiways.

3.1.33 The U.S. requires 1.5 rotor diameters of separation between hover or air taxiways.

3.1.34 The U.S. standards for air taxiways and air transit routes are combined as the standards for hover

taxiways noted in paragraphs 3.1.23, 3.1.24 and 3.1.33.

3.1.35 The U.S. sets no maximum turning angle or minimum radius of turn on hover taxiways.

3.1.36 The U.S. gradient standard for aprons is a maximum of 5 percent except in fueling areas where it is

2 percent.

3.1.37 The U.S. criterion for object clearances is 1/3 rotor diameter or 3 meters, whichever is greater.

3.1.38 The U.S. standard for helipads (comparable to helicopter stands) is 1.5 times the undercarriage

length or width, whichever is greater.
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United States of America

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.1.39 The U.S. standard for separation between FATO center and the centerline of the runway is

120 meters.

3.2.2 The U.S. does not apply either a performance related or an alternative design standard for elevated

heliport facilities.

3.2.5 to 3.2.10 The U.S. does not use safety areas in its heliport design.

3.3 

3.4

In the U.S., shipboard and relocatable off−shore helicopter ‘‘helideck’’ facilities are under the

purview of the U.S. Coast Guard and utilize the International Maritime Organization (IMO) code.

Fixed off−shore helideck facilities are under the purview of the Department of Interior based on

their document 351DM2. Coastal water helideck facilities are under the purview of the individual

affected States.

Chapter 4 Obstacle Restriction and Removal

4.1.1 The U.S. approach surface starts at the edge of the take−off and landing area.

4.1.2 a) The U.S. approach surface width adjacent to the heliport take−off and landing area is a minimum of

2 rotor diameters.

4.1.2 b) 2) The U.S. precision instrument approach surface flares from a width of 2 rotor diameters to a width

of 1,800 meters at the 7,500 meters outer end. The U.S. does not use a note similar to the one that

follows 4.1.4, as it does not differentiate between helicopter requirements on the basis of operational

performance.

4.1.5 The outer limit of the U.S. transitional surfaces adjacent to the take−off and landing area is

76 meters from the centerline of the VFR approach/departure surfaces. The transitional surface

width decreases to zero at a point 1,220 meters from the take−off and landing area. It does not

terminate at an inner horizontal surface or at a predetermined height.

4.1.6 The U.S. transitional surfaces have a fixed width, 76 meters less the width of the take−off and

landing area, from the approach centerline for visual operations and an outwardly flaring width to

450 meters for precision instrument operations. The U.S. does not use an inner horizontal surface

nor terminate the transitional surfaces at a fixed/predetermined height.

4.1.7 b) Since the U.S. includes the safety area in the take−off and landing area, the comparable elevation is

at the elevation of the FATO.

4.1.9 through

4.1.20

The U.S. does not use the inner horizontal surface, the conical surface, or take−off climb surface

described in these paragraphs or the note following paragraph 4.1.20 for heliport design.

4.1.21 through

4.1.25

The U.S. does not have alternative criteria for floating or fixed−in−place helidecks.

4.2 The U.S. has no requirement for a note similar to the one following the heading ‘‘Obstacle

limitation requirements.’’

4.2.1 The U.S. criteria does not require a take−off climb surface or a conical obstacle limitation surface to

establish a precision instrument approach procedure.

4.2.2 The U.S. criteria does not require a take−off climb surface or a conical obstacle limitation surface to

establish a non−precision instrument approach procedure.

4.2.3 The U.S. criteria does not require a take−off climb obstacle limitation surface to establish a

non−instrument approach procedure.

4.2.4* The U.S. has no requirement for protective surfaces such as an inner horizontal surface or a conical

surface.

4.2.5 The U.S. does not have tables for heliport design comparable to the ICAO Tables 4−1 to 4−4.

4.2.6 The U.S. subscribes to the intent of this paragraph to limit object heights in the heliport protective

surfaces but uses fewer surfaces with different dimensions for those surfaces.

4.2.7* The U.S. subscribes to the intent of this paragraph but uses different dimensional surfaces.

4.2.8 The U.S. criterion requires that a heliport have at least one approach and departure route and

encourages multiple approaches separated by arcs of 90 to 180 degrees.

4.2.9* The U.S. has no requirement that a heliport’s approach surfaces provide 95 percent usability.
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United States of America

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.2.10 Since the U.S. does not differentiate between surface level and elevated heliports, the comments to

paragraphs 4.2.1 through 4.2.5 above apply.

4.2.11 The U.S. has no requirement for a take−off climb surface. It does require at least one

approach/departure surface and encourages that there be as many approaches as is practical

separated by arcs of 90 to 180 degrees.

4.2.12 through

4.2.22

Since the U.S. does not have alternative design criteria for helidecks or shipboard heliports, there

are no comparable U.S. protective surface requirements.

Tables 4−1, 4−2,

4−3, 4−4

The U.S. does not have tables comparable to the ICAO Tables 4−1 to 4−4.

Chapter 5 Visual Aids

5.2.1 The U.S. does not have criteria for markings to be used in defining winching areas.

5.2.3.3 The U.S. maximum mass markings are specified in 1,000 pound units rather than tonnes or

kilograms.

5.2.4.3 The U.S. criterion requires FATO markers but is not specific on the number or spacing between

markers.

5.2.4.4 The U.S. criteria for FATO markers is not dimensionally specific.

5.2.6 The U.S. does not require, or have criteria for, marking an aiming point.

5.2.7.1 The U.S. does not require specific criteria for marking floating or off−shore fixed−in−place

helicopter or helideck facilities.

5.2.8 The U.S. does not require marking the touchdown area.

5.2.9 The U.S. does not have criteria for heliport name markings.

5.2.10 The U.S. does not have a requirement to mark helideck obstacle−free sectors.

5.2.12.2 The U.S. criterion places the air taxiway markers along the edges of the routes rather than on the

centerline.

5.2.12.3 The U.S. criterion for air taxiway markers does not specify the viewing area or height to width ratio.

5.3.2.3 The U.S. heliport beacon flashes white−green−yellow colors rather than a series of timed flashes.

5.3.2.5* The U.S. criteria is not specific on the light intensity of the flash.

5.3.3.3 The U.S. criterion specifies a 300 meters approach light system configuration. The light bars are

spaced at 30 meters intervals. The first two bars of the configuration are single lights, the next two

bars are two lights, then two bars with three lights, then two bars with four lights, and finally two

bars with five lights.

5.3.3.4 The U.S. approach light system uses aimed PAR−56 lights.

5.3.3.6 The U.S. heliport approach light system does not contain flashing lights.

5.3.5.2 a) The U.S. requires an odd number of lights, but not less than three lights per side.

5.3.5.2 b) The U.S. requires a minimum of eight lights for a circular FATO and does not specify the distance

between lights.

5.3.5.4* The U.S. criteria does not specify light distribution.

5.3.6 The U.S. does not have specific criteria for aiming point lights.

5.3.8 The U.S. does not have standards for winching area lighting.

Chapter 6 Heliport Services

6.1* The U.S. requirements for rescue and fire fighting services at certificated heliports are found in

14 CFR Part 139. Criteria for other heliports are established by the National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA) pamphlets 403 or 418, or in regulations of local fire departments.

*Indicates ICAO Recommended Practice
AIP

United States of America

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 15 − AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICES

Chapter 2 Definitions

Danger area “Danger area’’ is not used in reference to areas within the U.S. or in any of its possessions or

territories.

Integrated

Aeronautical

Information

Package

The U.S. does not produce the entire information package.

Maneuvering

area

This term is not used by the U.S.

Movement area The runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport/heliport which are utilized for

taxiing/hover−taxiing, air−taxiing, takeoff, and landing of aircraft, exclusive of loading ramps and

parking areas. At those airports/heliports with a tower, specific approval for entry onto the

movement area must be obtained from ATC.

Prohibited area 

Restricted area

The terms ‘‘prohibited area’’ and ‘‘restricted area’’ will be employed substantially in accordance

with the definitions established. Additionally, the following terms will be used:

Alert area. Airspace which may contain a high volume of pilot training activities or an unusual type

of aerial activity, neither of which is hazardous to aircraft. Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical

charts for the information of nonparticipating pilots. All activities within an alert area are conducted

in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations, and pilots of participating aircraft as well as pilots

transiting the area are equally responsible for collision avoidance.

Controlled firing area. Airspace wherein activities are conducted under conditions so controlled as

to eliminate hazards to nonparticipating aircraft and to ensure the safety of persons and property on

the ground.

Warning area. Airspace which may contain hazards to nonparticipating aircraft in international

airspace.

Military operations area (MOA). An airspace assignment of defined vertical and lateral dimensions

established outside Class A airspace to separate/segregate certain military activities from IFR traffic

and to identify for VFR traffic where these activities are conducted.

Chapter 4 Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)

4.2.8

4.3.4

The U.S. does not publish an aeronautical information regulation and control (AIRAC).

4.4

4.5

The U.S. does not issue AIP supplements. Corrections or changes from the latest amendments to the

AIP are carried as NOTAMs.

Chapter 5 NOTAM

5.1.1.2 The U.S. does not routinely issue ‘‘trigger NOTAMs’’ referencing published material when an AIP

amendment is issued.

5.2.1 The current U.S. system numbers international NOTAMs consecutively by the location in the A

field. The U.S. routinely issues over 70,000 outgoing international NOTAMs each year. Only series

A is used for international distribution. This precludes numbering the NOTAMs by the originator.

5.2.3 The U.S. periodically issues multipart NOTAMs which are transmitted as multiple

telecommunication messages. The nature of the NOTAM material is such that it will not always fit

in one message.

5.2.8.1 The monthly checklist of NOTAMs does not specifically reference printed publications, such as AIP

amendments.

5.2.8.3 A monthly printed plain language summary of NOTAMs in force is not issued. The International

NOTAM publication, issued biweekly, is not inclusive of all U.S. international NOTAMs.

5.3.2 The U.S. does not use the System NOTAM format at this time. The format used is based on the

previous ICAO Class I format. See notes on Appendix 6 for details.

Chapter 6 Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC)

See 4.2.8.
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United States of America

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Chapter 8 Pre−Flight and Post−Flight Information

8.1.2.1 f) NOTAMs relating to bird hazards are relayed as local NOTAM information and are not

disseminated internationally. The information is available from the local flight service station during

preflight briefing.

Appendix 1 Contents of Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)

GEN 2.7 The U.S. does not publish sunrise/sunset tables in the AIP.

GEN 3.1.3 4) The U.S. does not publish pre−flight information bulletins (PIBs).

Appendix 2 SNOWTAM Format

The U.S. does not use the SNOWTAM for issuance of winter weather information. Snow conditions

are reported using our current international NOTAM format (Class I).

Appendix 3 ASHTAM Format

1.3 ASHTAM information will continue to be distributed as an International NOTAM.

2.1 The heading will not be entered as stated.

3 ASHTAM information will be distributed in U.S. International NOTAM format.

Appendix 6 NOTAM Format

The U.S. is not prepared to transition to the System NOTAM format. NOTAMs are processed in the

previous ICAO Class I format.

1.2 

General

Multiple conditions, for a single location, may be reported in a NOTAM.

2 

NOTAM 

numbering

The U.S. numbers NOTAMs consecutively by location, not by country of origin. Due to the volume

of international NOTAMs generated by the U.S., the current U.S. numbering scheme is expected to

continue.

3 

Qualifiers

The current software will not accept the Item Q) qualifiers line.

5 

Item B)

Item B) is currently issued as an eight digit date−time group.

The U.S. also uses the initials ‘‘WIE’’ (with immediate effect) for NOTAMs that take effect

immediately upon issuance.

The U.S. does not include an Item B) in NOTAMCs. The assumption is that all cancellations take

effect immediately when issued. While this date−time group could be added to NOTAMCs, the U.S.

position is that it is unnecessary.

6 

Item C)

Item C), like item B), is currently issued as an eight digit date−time group.

The U.S. also uses the initials ‘‘UFN’’ (until further notice) for NOTAMs that have an uncertain

duration.

8 

Item E)

U.S. NOTAMs do not contain Item E) information for NOTAMCs.

Remark: Item E) contains the NOTAM Code (Q−code) in addition to plain language and ICAO

abbreviations.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−59

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 16 − ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

VOLUME I − AIRCRAFT NOISE

Reference: Part 36 of Title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations

Chapter 1

1.7 Each person who applies for a type certificate for an airplane covered by 14 CFR Part 36,

irrespective of the date of application for the type certificate, must show compliance with Part 36.

Chapter 2

2.1.1 For type design change applications made after 14 August 1989, if an airplane is a Stage 3 airplane

prior to a change in type design, it must remain a Stage 3 airplane after the change in type design

regardless of whether Stage 3 compliance was required before the change in type design.

2.3.1 a) Sideline noise is measured along a line 450 meters from and parallel to the extended runway

centerline for two− and three−engine aircraft; for four−engine aircraft, the sideline distance is

0.35 NM.

2.4.2 Noise level limits for Stage 2 derivative aircraft depend upon whether the engine by−pass ratio is

less than two. If it is, the Stage 2 limits apply. Otherwise, the limits are the Stage 3 limits plus 3 dB

or the Stage 2 value, whichever is lower.

2.4.2.2 b) Take−off noise limits for three−engine, Stage 2 derivative airplanes with a by−pass ratio equal to or

greater than 2 are 107 EPNdB for maximum weights of 385,000 kg (850,000 lb) or more, reduced

by 4 dB per halving of the weight down to 92 EPNdB for maximum weights of 28,700 kg

(63,177 lb) or less. Aircraft with a by−pass ratio less than 2 only need meet the Stage 2 limits.

2.5.1 Trade−off sum of excesses not greater than 3 EPNdB and no excess greater than 2 EPNdB.

2.6.1.1 For airplanes that do not have turbo−jet engines with a by−pass ratio of 2 or more, the following

apply:

a) four−engine airplanes − 214 meters (700 feet);

b) all other airplanes − 305 meters (1,000 feet).

For all airplanes that have turbo−jet engines with a by−pass ratio of 2 or more, the following apply:

a) four−engine airplanes − 210 meters (689 feet);

b) three−engine airplanes − 260 meters (853 feet);

c) airplanes with fewer than three engines − 305 meters (1,000 feet).

The power may not be reduced below that which will provide level flight for an engine inoperative

or that will maintain a climb gradient of at least 4 percent, whichever is greater.

Chapter 3

3.1.1 For type design change applications made after 14 August 1989, if an airplane is a Stage 3 airplane

prior to a change in type design, it must remain a Stage 3 airplane after the change in type design

regardless of whether Stage 3 compliance was required before the change in type design.

3.3.1 a) 2) The U.S. has no equivalent provision in 14 CFR Part 36.

3.3.2.2 A minimum of two microphones symmetrically positioned about the test flight track must be used to

define the maximum sideline noise. This maximum noise may be assumed to occur where the

aircraft reaches 305 meters (1,000 feet).

14 CFR Part 36 does not require symmetrical measurements to be made at each and every point for

propeller−driven airplane sideline noise determination.

3.6.2.1 c) Under 14 CFR Part 36, during each test take−off, simultaneous measurements should be made at the

sideline noise measuring stations on each side of the runway and also at the take−off noise

measuring station. If test site conditions make it impractical to simultaneously measure take−off and

sideline noise, and if each of the other sideline measurement requirements is met, independent

measurements may be made of the sideline noise under simulated flight path techniques. If the

reference flight path includes a power cutback before the maximum possible sideline noise level is

developed, the reduced sideline noise level, which is the maximum value developed by the

simulated flight path technique, must be the certificated sideline noise value.
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3.6.2.1 d) 14 CFR Part 36 specifies the day speeds and the acoustic reference speed to be the minimum

approved value of V2 +10 kt, or the all−engines operating speed at 35 feet (for turbine−engine

powered airplanes) or 50 feet (for reciprocating−engine powered airplanes), whichever speed is

greater as determined under the regulations constituting the type certification basis of the airplane.

The test must be conducted at the test day speeds ±3 kt.

3.7.4 If a take−off test series is conducted at weights other than the maximum take−off weight for which

noise certification is requested:

a) at least one take−off test must be at or above that maximum weight;

b) each take−off test weight must be within +5 or −10 percent of the maximum weight.

If an approach test series is conducted at weights other than the maximum landing weight for which

certification is requested:

a) at least one approach test must be conducted at or above that maximum weight;

b) each test weight must exceed 90 percent of the maximum landing weight.

Total EPNL adjustment for variations in approach flight path from the reference flight path and for

any difference between test engine thrust or power and reference engine thrust or power must not

exceed 2 EPNdB.

Chapter 5

5.1.1 Applies to all large transport category aircraft (as they do to all subsonic turbo−jet aircraft regardless

of category). Commuter category aircraft, propeller−driven airplanes below 8,640 kg (19,000 lb) are

subject to 14 CFR Part 36, Appendix F or to Appendix G, depending upon the date of completion of

the noise certification tests.

Chapter 6

6.1.1 Applies to new, all propeller−driven airplane types below 19,000 lb (8,640 kg.) in the normal,

commuter, utility, acrobatic, transport, or restricted categories for which the noise certification tests

are completed before 22 December 1988.

Chapter 8

General 14 CFR Part 36 (Section 36.1 (h)) defines Stage 1 and Stage 2 noise levels and Stage 1 and Stage 2

helicopters. These definitions parallel those used in 14 CFR Part 36 for turbo−jets and are used

primarily to simplify the acoustical change provisions in Section 36.11.

14 CFR Part 36 (Section 36.805(c)) provides for certain derived versions of helicopters for which

there are no civil prototypes to be certificated above the noise level limits.

8.1.1 a) Applicable to new helicopter types for which application for an original type certificate was made

on or after 6 March 1988.

8.1.1 b) Applicable only to “acoustical changes’’ for which application for an amended or supplemental type

certificate was made on or after 6 March 1988.

8.4 14 CFR Part 36 Appendix H specifies a slightly different rate of allowable maximum noise levels as

a function of helicopter mass. The difference can lead to a difference in the calculated maximum

noise limits of 0.1 EPNdB under certain roundoff condition.

8.6.3.1 b) Does not include the VNE speeds.

8.7 14 CFR Part 36 Appendix H does not permit certain negative corrections. Annex 16 has no

equivalent provision.

8.7.4 EPNL correction must be less than 2.0 EPNdB for any combination of lateral deviation, height,

approach angle and, in the case of flyover, thrust or power.

Corrections to the measured data are required if the tests were conducted below the reference

weight.

Corrections to the measured data are required if the tests were conducted at other than reference

engine power.

8.7.5 The rotor speed must be maintained within one percent of the normal operating RPM during the

take−off procedure.

8.7.8 The helicopter shall fly within ±10 from the zenith for approach and take−off, but within ±5 from

the zenith for horizontal flyover.
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Chapter 10

General Exception from acoustical change rule given for aircraft with flight time prior to 1 January 1955 and

land configured aircraft reconfigured with floats or skis.

10.1.1 Applies to new, amended, or supplemental type certificates for propeller−driven airplanes not

exceeding 8,640 kg (19,000 lb) for which noise certification tests have not been completed before

22 December 1988.

10.4 The maximum noise level is a constant 73 dBA up to 600 kg (1,320 lb). Above that weight, the limit

increases at the rate of 1 dBA/75kg (1 dBA/165 lb) up to 85 dBA at 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) after which

it is constant up to and including 8,640 kg (19,000 lb).

10.5.2, second

phase, d)

For variable−pitch propellers, the definition of engine power is different in the second segment of

the reference path. Maximum continuous installed power instead of maximum power is used.

Chapter 11

11.1 14 CFR Part 36 Appendix J was effective 11 September 1992 and applies to those helicopters for

which application for a type certificate was made on or after 6 March 1986.

11.4 14 CFR Part 36 Appendix J specifies a slightly different rate of allowable maximum noise levels as

a function of helicopter mass. The difference can lead to a difference in the calculated maximum

noise limits of 0.1 EPNdB under certain roundoff condition.

11.6 14 CFR Part 36 Appendix J prescribes a ±15 meter limitation on the allowed vertical deviation

about the reference flight path. Annex 16 has no equivalent provision.

PART V

General No comparable provision exists in U.S. Federal Regulations. Any local airport proprietor may

propose noise abatement operating procedures to the FAA which reviews them for safety and

appropriateness.

Appendix 1

General Sections 3, 8, and 9 of Appendix 1 which contain the technical specifications for equipment,

measurement and analysis and data correction for Chapter 2 aircraft and their derivatives differ in

many important aspects from the corresponding requirements in Appendix 2 which has been

updated several times. 14 CFR Part 36 updates have generally paralleled those of Appendix 2 of

Annex 16. These updated requirements are applicable in the U.S. to both Stage 2 and Stage 3

aircraft and their derivatives.

2.2.1 A minimum of two microphones symmetrically positioned about the test flight track must be used to

define the maximum sideline noise. This maximum noise may be assumed to occur where the

aircraft reaches 305 meters (1,000 feet), except for four−engine, Stage 2 aircraft for which 439

meters (1,440 feet) may be used.

2.2.2 No obstructions in the cone defined by the axis normal to the ground and the half−angle 80 from

the axis.

2.2.3 c) Relative humidity and ambient temperature over the sound path between the aircraft and 10 meters

above the ground at the noise measuring site is such that the sound attenuation in the 8 kHz

one−third octave band is not greater than 12 dB/100 meters and the relative humidity is between

20 and 95 percent. However, if the dew point and dry bulb temperature used for obtaining relative

humidity are measured with a device which is accurate to within one−half a degree Celsius, the

sound attenuation rate shall not exceed 14 dB/100 meters in the 8 kHz one−third octave band.

2.2.3 d) Test site average wind not above 12 kt and average cross−wind component not above 7 kt.

2.3.4 The aircraft position along the flight path is related to the recorded noise 10 dB downpoints.

2.3.5 At least one take−off test must be a maximum take−off weight and the test weight must be within +5

or −10 percent of maximum certificated take−off weight.

Appendix 2

2.2.1 A minimum of two symmetrically placed microphones must be used to define the maximum

sideline noise at the point where the aircraft reaches 305 meters.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

2.2.2 When a multiple layering calculation is required, the atmosphere between the airplane and the

ground shall be divided into layers. These layers are not required to be of equal depth, and the

maximum layer depth must be 100 meters.

2.2.2 b) 14 CFR Part 36 specifies that the lower limit of the temperature test window is 36 degrees

Fahrenheit (2.2 degrees Celsius). Annex 16 provides 10 degrees Celsius as the lower limit for the

temperature test window.

14 CFR Part 36 does not specify that the airport facility used to obtain meteorological condition

measurements be within 2,000 meters of the measurement site.

2.2.2 c) 14 CFR Part 36 imposes a limit of 14 dB/100 meters in the 8 kHz one−third octave band when the

temperature and dew point are measured with a device which is accurate to within one−half a degree

Celsius.

2.2.3 14 CFR Part 36 requires that the limitations on the temperature and relative humidity test window

must apply over the whole noise propagation path between a point 10 meters above the ground and

the helicopter. Annex 16 specifies that the limitations on the temperature and relative humidity test

window apply only at a point 10 meters above the ground.

14 CFR Part 36 requires that corrections for sound attenuation must be based on the average of

temperature and relative humidity readings at 10 meters and the helicopter. Annex 16 implies that

the corrections for sound absorption are based on the temperature and relative humidity measured at

10 meters only.

3.2.6 No equivalent requirement.

3.4.5 For each detector/integrator the response to a sudden onset or interruption of a constant sinusoidal

signal at the respective one−third octave band center frequency must be measured at sampling times

0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 seconds after the onset or interruption. The rising responses must be the

following amounts before the steady−state level:

0.5 seconds: 4.0 ± 1.0 dB

1.0 seconds: 1.75 ± 0.75 dB

1.5 seconds: 1.0 ± 0.5 dB

2.0 seconds: 0.6 ± 0.5 dB

3.4.5 (Note 1) No equivalent provision in 14 CFR Part 36.

3.5.2 No equivalent requirement.

5.4 14 CFR Part 36 requires that the difference between airspeed and groundspeed shall not exceed

10 kt between the 10 dB down time period.

8.4.2 14 CFR Part 36 specifies a value of −10 in the adjustment for duration correction. Annex 16

specifies a value of −7.5.

9.1.2, 9.1.3 14 CFR Part 36 always requires use of the integrated procedure if the corrected take−off or approach

noise level is within 1.0 dB of the applicable noise limit.

Appendix 6

4.4.1 The microphone performance, not its dimensions, is specified. The microphone must be mounted

1.2 meters (4 feet) above ground level. A windscreen must be employed when the wind speed is in

excess of 9 km/h (5 kt).

5.2.2 a) Reference conditions are different. Noise data outside the applicable range must be corrected to

77 degrees F and 70 percent humidity.

5.2.2 c) There is no equivalent provision in 14 CFR Part 36. Fixed−pitch propeller−driven airplanes have a

special provision. If the propeller is fixed−pitch and the test power is not within 5 percent of

reference power, a helical tip Mach number correction is required.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−63

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 16 − ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

VOLUME II − AIRCRAFT ENGINE EMISSIONS

Chapter 1

The U.S. currently has regulations prohibiting intentional fuel venting from turbojet, turbofan and

turboprop aircraft, but we do not now have a regulation preventing the intentional fuel venting from

helicopter engines.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−64

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

ANNEX 17 − SECURITY − SAFEGUARDING INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION AGAINST ACTS OF

UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE

There are no reportable differences between U.S. regulations and the Standards and Recommended Practices contained

in this Annex.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−65

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ANNEX 18 − THE SAFE TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS BY AIR

Adopted by the ICAO Council 6/26/81

Effective Date: 1/1/83

Applicability Date: 1/1/84

(Note: Differences are to be filed with ICAO by 6/1/83).
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−66

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

PANS − OPS − 8168/611

VOLUME 1

PART III

Table III−1−1

and

Table III−1−2

The “Max speeds for visual maneuvering (Circling)” must not be applied to circling procedures in the

U.S. Comply with the airspeeds and circling restrictions in ENR 1.5, paragraphs 10.1 and 10.6, in

order to remain within obstacle protection areas. The table listed below shows aircraft categories with

an associated maximum airspeed and distance to remain within from the end of runway.

Aircraft

Category

Speeds for Circling (Kts) Circling Area Maximum Radii 

from Runway Threshold (NM)

A Speed less than 91 Knots 1.3

B Speed 91 Knots or more but less than 121 Knots 1.5

C Speed 121 Knots or more but less than 141 Knots 1.7

D Speed 141 Knots or more but less than 166 Knots 2.3

E Speed 166 Knots or more 4.5

PART IV

1.2.1 The airspeeds contained in ENR 1.5 shall be used in U.S. CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 1.7−67

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

PAN − ABC − DOC 8400

Differences between abbreviations used in U.S. AIP, International NOTAMs Class I and Class II, and Notices to

Airmen Publication and ICAO PANS − ABC are listed in GEN 2.2. For other U.S. listings of abbreviations

(contractions) for general use, air traffic control, and National Weather Service (NWS), which differ in some respects,

see U.S. publication Contractions Handbook (DOT/FAA Order 7340.1). In addition, various U.S. publications contain

abbreviations of terms used therein, particularly those unique to that publication.

AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.1−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2. TABLES AND CODES

GEN 2.1 Measuring System, Time System,

 and Aircraft Markings

1. Units of Measurement

1.1 The following table identifies the units of

measurement that have been selected for use in

messages transmitted by all U.S. aeronautical

stations, in the U.S. AIP, NOTAM dissemination, and

other publications.

2. Time System

2.1 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is used in

the Air Traffic and Communication services provided

and in most documents published by the Aeronautical

Information Services.

2.2 When local mean time is used, it will be so

indicated as local standard time (LST). See

FIG GEN 2.1−1 for a depiction of the standard time

zones within the continental U.S.

3. Geodetic Reference Datum

3.1 All published geographic coordinates indicating

latitude and longitude are expressed in terms of the

World Geodetic System − 1984 (WGS−84) geodetic

reference datum.

4. Nationality and Registration Marks

4.1 The nationality mark for the aircraft registered in

the U.S. is the letter N, followed by a series of

numbers or a series of numbers and letters.

TBL GEN 2.1−1

For Measurements of: Units used:

Distance used in navigation, position reporting, etc. − generally in

excess of 2 to 3 nautical miles

Nautical miles and tenths

Relatively short distances such as those relating to aerodrome

(e.g., runway lengths)

Feet

Altitudes, elevations and heights Feet

Horizontal speed, including wind speed Knots

Vertical speed Feet per minute

Wind direction for landing and taking off Degrees magnetic

Wind direction except for landing and taking off Degrees true

Visibility, including runway visual Statute miles or feet

Altimeter Setting Inches of mercury

Temperature Degrees Fahrenheit

Weight Pounds

Time Hours and minutes, the day of 24 hours

beginning at midnight Coordinated Universal

Time
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.1−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 2.1−1
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.2−1

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2.2 Abbreviations Used in AIS Publications

NOTE − An “s” may be added for plural. ICAO indicates ICAO usage.

A

/ and

AAS airport advisory service

A/C approach control

ICAO: AAP − approach control;

AC − altocumulus

ACFT aircraft

ACR air carrier

ADF automatic direction finder

AER approach end runway

AFT after

AGL above ground level

AHRS Attitude Heading Reference System

AIM Aeronautical Information Manual

ALS approach light system

ALSF−1 standard 2400’ high−intensity approach

lighting system with sequenced flashers

(Category I configuration)

ALSF−2 standard 2400’ high−intensity approach

lighting system with sequenced flashers

(Category II configuration)

ALSTG altimeter setting

ALT altitude

ALTM altimeter

ALTN alternate

AMDT amendment

ICAO: AMD − amendment

APCH approach

APCHG approaching

APRX approximate

APV approve or approved or approval

ARPT airport

ICAO: AD − aerodrome

ARR arrive or arrival

ARSR air route surveillance radar

ARTCC air route traffic control center

ASDE airport surface detection equipment

ASPH asphalt

ATCT air traffic control tower

ATD along−track distance

ASR airport surveillance radar

ATIS automatic terminal information service

AVBL available

AWY airway

B

BC back course

BCN beacon

BCST broadcast

BLDG building

BRG bearing

BTN between

BYD beyond

C

CAT category

ICAO: CAT − clear air turbulence

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CFR crash fire rescue

CLNC clearance

ICAO: CLR − clear/cleared to/clearance

CLSD close or closed or closing

CMSND commissioned

CNTR center

CNTRLN centerline

ICAO: CL − centerline

COMLO compass locator

CONST construction

CPTY capacity

CRS course

CTC contact

ICAO: CTR − control zone

D

ICAO: D − danger area

ICAO: D − downward (tendency in RVR

during previous 10 minutes)

DALGT daylight

DCMSND decommissioned

DDT runway weight bearing capacity for

aircraft with double dual−tandem type

landing gear
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.2−2

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

DEGS degrees

ICAO: C − degrees Celsius (Centigrade) 

F − degrees Fahrenheit

DEP depart; departure

ICAO: DEP − depart/departure/departure

message

DF direction finder

ICAO: DF − I am connecting you to the station

you request

DH decision height

DME UHF standard (TACAN compatible distance measuring equipment)

ICAO: DME − distance meaning equipment

DSPLCD displaced

DSTC distance

ICAO: DIST − distance

DT runway weight bearing capacity for

aircraft with dual−tandem type landing

gear

DURG during

ICAO: DRG − during

DVFR defense visual flight rule

DW runway weight bearing capacity for

aircraft with dual−wheel type landing

gear

E

E east

ICAO: E − east/east longitude

EFAS en route flight advisory service

ELEV elevation

EMERG emergency

EQUIP equipment

ICAO: EQPT − equipment

ETA estimated time of arrival

ETE estimated time en route

EXCP except

ICAO: EXC−except

EXTD extend or extended

F

FAF final approach fix

FAR Federal Aviation Regulation

FDC flight data center

Fl/P flight information (permanent)

Fl/T flight information (temporary)

FL flight level

FM fan marker

FM from

ICAO: FM − from; FM − from (followed by

time weather change is forecast to

begin)

FREQ frequency

FRQ frequent

FSS Flight Service Station

FT feet

G

GOVT government

GP glide path

ICAO: GP − glide path

GS glide slope

ICAO: GS − ground speed; GS − small hail

and/or snow pellets

GWT gross weight

H

HAA height above airport

HAT height above touchdown

ICAO: HGT − height/height above

HIRL High intensity runway lights

HOL holiday

HWY highway

I

IAF initial approach fix

IAP instrument approach procedure

ICAO: INA − initial approach

IDENT identification

ICAO: ID − identifier/identification/identify

IF intermediate fix

ICAO: IF − intermediate approach fix

IFR instrument flight rules

IFSS international flight service station

ILS instrument landing system

INFO information

INOP inoperative

INS Inertial Navigation System

INT intersection

INTL international

INTST intensity

IRU Inertial Reference Unit

ISMLS interim standard microwave landing

system
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.2−3

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

J

J−bar jet runway barrier

K

KHZ kilohertz

L

L left (used only to designate rwys;

e.g., rwy 12L)

ICAO: L − left/runway identification/locator

LAT latitude

LB pounds (weight)

LCTD located

LDA localizer type directional aid

ICAO: LDA − landing distance available LLZ

− localizer

LDIN lead−in lighting system

LGTD lighted

LMM compass locator at ILS middle marker

LNDG landing

ICAO: LDG − landing

LOC localizer

ICAO: LOC−localizer or locally or location or

located

LOM compass locator at ILS outer marker

LONG longitude

LRCO limited remote communications outlet

M

MAA maximum authorized altitude

MAG magnetic

MAINT maintain, maintenance

ICAO: MNTN − maintain; 

MAINT − maintenance

MALS medium intensity approach light system

MALSR medium intensity approach light system

with runway alignment indicator lights

MAP missed approach point

ICAO: MAP − aeronautical maps and charts

MAX maximum

MCA minimum crossing altitude

MDA minimum descent altitude

MEA minimum en route IFR altitude

MHZ megahertz

MIN minimum or minute

MIRL medium intensity runway edge lights

MLS microwave landing system

MM middle marker ILS

MOCA minimum obstruction clearance altitude

MRA minimum reception altitude

MSA minimum safe altitude

MSL mean sea level

MUNI municipal

N

N north

NA not authorized

NATL national

NAVAID navigational aid

NDB nondirectional radio beacon

NM nautical mile(s)

NOPT no procedure turn required

NR number

O

OBSTN obstruction

ODALS omnidirectional approach lighting

system

OM outer marker ILS

OPER operate

OPN operation

ICAO: OPR − operator/operate/operative/

operating/operational

ORIG original

OTS out of service

OVRN overrun

P

PAR precision approach radar

PAT pattern

PCN pavement classification number

PERMLY permanently

POB persons on board

PPR prior permission required

PROC procedure

Q

QUAD quadrant

R

R right (used only to designate rwys; e.g.,

rwy 19R)

ICAO: R − received (acknowledgement of

receipt)/red/restricted area (followed by

identification)/right (runway

identification)
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.2−4

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

RADAR radio detection and ranging

RAPCON radar approach control (USAF)

RCAG remote communications air/ground

RCLS runway centerline lights system

ICAO: RCL − runway centerline

RCO remote communications outlet

RCV receive

RCVG receiving

REIL runway end identifier lights

REQ request

RNAV area navigation

RRP runway reference point

RSTRD restricted

RTS returned to service

RVR runway visual range

RVRM runway visual range midpoint

RVRR runway visual range rollout

RVRT runway visual range touchdown

RVV runway visibility values

RWY runway

ICAO: RWY−runway

S

S runway weight bearing capacity for

aircraft with single−wheel type landing

gear

S south

ICAO: S − south/south latitude

SDF simplified directional facility

SEC second

SFC surface

SFL sequenced flashing lights

SI straight−in approach

ICAO: STA − straight−in approach

SM statute mile(s)

SR sunrise

SS sunset

ICAO: SS − sandstorm

SSALF simplified short approach lighting

system with sequenced flashers

SSALR simplified short approach lighting

system with runway alignment indicator

lights

SSALS simplified short approach lighting

system

STOL short take−off and landing runway

ICAO: STOL − short takeoff and landing

SVC service

ICAO: SVC − service message

T

T true (after a bearing)

ICAO: T − temperature

TAC terminal area chart

TACAN UHF navigational facility −

omnidirectioal course and distance

information

ICAO: TACAN − VHF tactical navigational

aid

TAS true air speed

ICAO: TMA − TERMINAL CONTROL

AREA

TCH threshold crossing height

TFC traffic

THR threshold

THRU through

ICAO: THRU − through/I am connecting you

to another switchboard

TKOF take−off

TEMPRLY temporarily

TMPRY temporary/temporarily

ICAO: TEMPO − Temporary/temporarily

TPA traffic pattern altitude

TRACON terminal radar approach control

TRML terminal

TRSA terminal radar service area

TSNT transient

TWEB transcribed weather broadcast

TWR tower

TWY taxiway

U

UAVBL unavailable

UHF ultra high frequency

UNLGTD unlighted

UNMON unmonitored

UNSKED unscheduled

UNUSBL unusable

ICAO: U/S − unserviceable
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.2−5

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

V

VASI visual approach slope indicator

VCNTY vicinity

VDP visual descent point

VFR visual flight rules

VHF very high frequency

VOR VHF omni−directional radio range

VORTAC Combined VOR and TACAN system

(collocated)

VOT a VOR Receiver testing facility

VSBY visibility

ICAO: VIS − visibility

W

W west

WEA weather

ICAO: WX − weather

WKDAY weekday

WKEND weekend

WPT waypoint

WS Weather Service

WT weight

Z

Z Coordinated Universal Time

ICAO: UTC − Coordinated Universal Time

AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.3−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2.3 Chart Symbols

Aeronautical chart symbols are published in the

Chart Users Guide published by the National

Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO).

Copies are available at the following address: 

NACO Distribution Branch, AVN−530

Federal Aviation Administration

Riverdale, MD 20737−1199.

AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.4−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2.4 Location Indicators

Location identifiers authorized by the Federal

Aviation Administration, Department of the Navy,

and Transport Canada and U.S. airspace fixes and

procedure codes are published in FAA Order 7350.7,

Location Identifiers. This publication may be

purchased as a subscription from the U.S.

Government Printing Office.

AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.5−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2.5 List of Radio Navigation Aids

A listing of navigation aids is not available. See

individual aeronautical charts for specific information.

AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2.6 Conversion Tables

TBL GEN 2.6−1

ft/M

ft 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 0.30 0.61 0.91 1.22 1.52 1.83 2.13 2.44 2.74

10 3.05 3.35 3.66 3.96 4.27 4.57 4.88 5.18 5.49 5.79

20 6.10 6.40 6.71 7.01 7.32 7.62 7.92 8.23 8.53 8.84

30 9.14 9.45 9.75 10.06 10.36 10.67 10.97 11.28 11.58 11.89

40 12.19 12.50 12.80 13.11 13.41 13.72 14.02 14.33 14.73 14.94

50 15.24 15.54 15.85 16.15 16.46 16.76 17.07 17.37 17.68 17.98

60 18.29 18.59 18.90 19.20 19.51 19.81 20.12 20.42 20.73 21.03

70 21.34 21.64 21.95 22.25 22.56 22.86 23.16 23.47 23.77 24.08

80 24.38 24.69 24.99 25.30 25.60 25.91 26.21 26.52 26.82 27.13

90 27.43 27.74 28.04 28.35 28.65 28.96 29.26 29.57 29.87 30.18

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100 30.48 33.53 36.58 39.62 42.67 45.72 48.77 51.82 54.86 57.91

200 60.96 64.01 67.06 70.10 73.15 76.20 79.25 82.30 85.34 88.39

300 91.44 94.49 97.54 100.53 103.63 106.68 109.73 112.78 115.82 118.87

400 121.92 124.97 128.02 131.06 134.11 137.16 140.21 143.26 146.30 149.35

500 152.40 155.45 158.50 161.54 164.59 167.64 170.69 173.74 176.78 179.83

600 182.88 185.93 188.98 192.02 195.07 198.12 201.17 204.22 207.26 210.31

700 213.36 216.41 219.46 222.50 225.55 228.60 231.65 234.70 237.74 240.79

800 243.84 246.89 249.94 252.98 256.03 259.09 262.13 265.18 268.22 271.27

900 274.32 277.37 280.42 283.42 268.51 289.56 292.61 295.66 298.70 301.75

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1000 304.80 335.28 365.76 396.24 426.72 457.20 487.68 518.16 548.64 579.12

2000 609.60 640.08 670.56 701.04 731.52 762.00 792.48 822.96 853.44 883.92

3000 914.40 944.88 975.36 1005.8 1036.3 1066.8 1097.3 1127.8 1158.2 1188.7

4000 1219.2 1249.7 1280.2 1310.6 1341.6 1371.6 1402.1 1432.6 1463.0 1493.5

5000 1524.0 1554.5 1585.0 1615.4 1645.9 1676.4 1706.9 1737.4 1767.8 1798.3

6000 1828.8 1859.3 1889.8 1920.2 1950.7 1981.2 2011.7 2042.2 2072.6 2103.1

7000 2133.6 2164.1 2194.6 2225.0 2255.5 2286.0 2316.5 2347.0 2377.4 2407.9

8000 2438.4 2468.9 2499.4 2529.8 2560.3 2590.8 2621.3 2651.8 2682.2 2712.7

9000 2743.2 2773.7 2804.2 2834.6 2865.1 2895.6 2926.1 2956.6 2987.0 3017.5

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

10000 3048.0 3352.8 3657.6 3962.4 4267.2 4572.0 4876.8 5181.6 5486.4 5791.2

20000 6096.0 6400.8 6705.6 7010.4 7315.2 7620.0 7924.8 8229.6 8534.4 8839.2

30000 9144.0 9448.8 9753.6 10058 10363 10668 10937 11278 11582 11887

40000 12192 12497 12802 13106 13411 13716 14021 14326 14630 14935

50000 15240 15545 15850 16154 16459 16764 17069 17374 17678 17983
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL GEN 2.6−2

M/ft

M 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 3.28 6.56 9.84 13.12 16.40 19.68 22.97 26.25 29.53

10 32.81 36.09 39.37 42.65 45.93 49.21 52.49 55.77 59.05 62.34

20 65.62 68.90 72.18 75.46 78.74 82.02 85.30 88.58 91.86 95.14

30 98.42 101.70 104.99 108.27 111.55 114.83 118.11 121.39 124.67 127.95

40 131.23 134.51 137.79 141.07 144.36 147.64 150.92 154.20 157.48 160.76

50 164.04 167.32 170.60 173.88 177.16 180.44 183.72 187.01 190.29 193.57

60 196.85 200.13 203.14 206.69 209.97 213.25 216.53 219.81 223.09 226.38

70 229.66 232.94 236.22 239.50 242.78 246.06 249.34 252.62 255.90 259.18

80 262.46 265.74 269.03 272.31 275.59 278.87 282.15 285.43 288.71 291.99

90 295.27 298.55 301.83 305.11 308.40 311.68 314.96 318.24 321.52 324.80

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100 328.08 360.89 393.70 426.50 459.31 492.12 524.93 557.74 590.54 623.35

200 656.16 688.97 721.78 754.58 787.39 820.20 853.01 885.82 918.62 951.43

300 984.24 1017.0 109.9 1082.7 1115.5 1148.3 1181.1 1213.9 1246.7 1279.5

400 1312.3 1345.1 1377.9 1410.7 1443.6 1476.4 1509.2 1542.0 1574.8 1607.6

500 1640.4 1673.2 1706.0 1738.8 1771.6 1804.4 1837.2 1870.1 1902.9 1935.7

600 1968.5 2001.3 2034.1 2066.9 2099.7 2132.5 2165.3 2198.1 2230.9 2263.8

700 2296.6 2329.4 2362.2 2395.0 2427.8 2460.6 2493.4 2562.2 2559.0 2591.8

800 2624.6 2657.4 2690.3 2723.1 2755.9 2788.7 2821.5 2854.3 2887.1 2919.9

900 2952.7 2985.5 3018.3 3051.1 3084.0 3116.8 3149.6 3182.4 3215.2 3248.0

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1000 3280.8 3608.0 3937.0 4265.0 4593.1 4921.2 5249.3 5577.4 5905.4 6233.5

2000 6561.6 6889.7 7217.8 7545.8 7873.9 8202.0 8530.1 8858.2 9186.2 9514.3

3000 9842.4 10170 10499 10827 11155 11483 11811 12139 12467 12795

4000 13123 13451 13779 14107 14436 14764 15092 15420 15748 16076

5000 16404 16732 17060 17388 17716 18044 18372 18701 19029 19357

6000 19685 20013 20341 20669 20997 21325 21653 21981 22309 22638

7000 22966 23294 23622 23950 24278 24606 24934 25262 25590 25918

8000 26246 26574 26903 27231 27559 27887 28215 28543 28871 29199

9000 29527 29855 30183 30511 30840 31168 31496 31824 32152 32480
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−3

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 2.6−3

INTERNATIONAL NAUTICAL MILES TO STATUTE MILES

1 nautical mile = 6,076.10 feet or 1,852 meters 1 statute mile = 5,280 feet or 1,609.35 meters

NM 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0.000 1.151 2.302 3.452 4.603 5.754 6.905 8.055 9.206 10.357

10 11.508 12.659 13.809 14.960 16.111 17.262 18.412 19.563 20.714 21.865

20 23.016 24.166 25.317 26.468 27.619 28.769 29.920 31.071 32.222 33.373

30 34.523 35.674 36.825 37.976 39.126 40.277 41.428 42.579 43.730 44.880

40 46.031 47.182 48.333 49.483 50.634 51.785 52.936 54.087 55.237 56.388

50 57.539 58.690 59.840 60.991 62.142 63.293 64.444 65.594 66.745 67.896

60 69.047 70.197 71.348 72.499 73.650 74.801 75.951 77.102 78.253 79.404

70 80.554 81.705 82.856 84.007 85.158 86.308 87.459 88.610 89.761 90.911

80 92.062 93.213 94.364 95.515 96.665 97.816 98.967 100.118 101.268 102.419

90 103.570 104.721 105.871 107.022 108.173 109.324 110.475 111.625 112.776 113.927

TBL GEN 2.6−4

STATUTE MILES TO INTERNATIONAL NAUTICAL MILES

SM 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0.000 0.869 1.738 2.607 3.476 4.345 5.214 6.083 6.952 7.821

10 8.690 9.559 10.428 11.297 12.166 13.035 13.904 14.773 15.642 16.511

20 17.380 18.249 19.118 19.986 20.855 21.724 22.593 23.462 24.331 25.200

30 26.069 26.938 27.807 28.676 29.545 30.414 31.283 32.152 33.021 33.890

40 34.759 35.628 36.497 37.366 38.235 39.104 39.973 40.482 41.711 42.580

50 43.449 44.318 45.187 46.056 46.925 47.794 48.663 49.532 50.401 51.270

60 52.139 53.008 53.877 54.746 55.615 56.484 57.353 58.222 59.091 59.959

70 60.828 61.697 62.566 63.435 64.304 65.173 66.042 66.911 67.780 68.649

80 69.518 70.387 71.256 72.125 72.994 73.863 74.732 75.601 76.470 77.339

90 78.208 79.077 79.946 80.815 81.684 82.553 83.422 84.291 85.160 86.029
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−4

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL GEN 2.6−5

CONVERSION TABLE − NM/ft

NM 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 607 1215 1822 2430 3037 3645 4252 4860 5467

1 6075 6682 7289 7897 8504 9112 9719 10327 10934 11542

2 12149 12757 13364 13971 14579 15186 15794 16401 17009 17616

3 18224 18831 19439 20046 20653 21261 21868 22476 23083 23691

4 24298 24906 25513 26121 26728 27335 27943 28550 29158 29765

5 30373 30980 31588 32195 32803 33410 34017 34625 35232 35840

6 36447 37055 37662 38270 38877 39485 40092 40700 41307 41914

7 42522 43129 43737 44344 44952 45559 46167 46774 47328 47989

8 48596 49204 49811 50419 51026 51634 52241 52849 53456 54064

9 54671 55278 55886 56493 57101 57708 58316 58923 59531 60138

TBL GEN 2.6−6

CONVERSION TABLE − ft/NM

ft 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 0.016 0.033 0.049 0.066 0.082 0.099 0.115 0.132 0.148

1000 0.165 0.181 0.197 0.214 0.230 0.247 0.263 0.280 0.296 0.313

2000 0.329 0.346 0.362 0.379 0.395 0.411 0.428 0.444 0.461 0.477

3000 0.494 0.510 0.527 0.543 0.560 0.576 0.593 0.609 0.625 0.642

4000 0.658 0.675 0.691 0.708 0.724 0.741 0.757 0.774 0.790 0.806

5000 0.823 0.839 0.856 0.872 0.889 0.905 0.922 0.938 0.955 0.971

6000 0.988 1.004 1.020 1.037 1.053 1.070 1.086 1.103 1.119 1.136

7000 1.152 1.169 1.185 1.202 1.218 1.234 1.251 1.267 1.284 1.300

8000 1.317 1.333 1.350 1.366 1.383 1.399 1.416 1.432 1.448 1.465

9000 1.481 1.498 1.514 1.531 1.547 1.564 1.580 1.597 1.613 1.629

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

10000 1.646 1.811 1.975 2.140 2.304 2.469 2.634 2.798 2.963 3.127

20000 3.292 3.457 3.621 3.786 3.950 4.115 4.280 4.444 4.609 4.773

30000 4.938 5.103 5.267 5.432 5.596 5.761 5.926 6.090 6.255 6.419

40000 6.584 6.749 6.913 7.078 7.242 7.407 7.572 7.736 7.901 8.065

50000 8.230 8.395 8.559 8.724 8.888 9.053 9.218 9.382 9.547 9.711
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−5

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 2.6−7

MB/INS °C/°F

MB INS MB INS MB INS °C °F °C °F °C °F

948 27.99 982 29.00 1016 30.00 −60 −76.0 −15 15 30 86.0

949 28.02 983 29.03 1017 30.03 −59 −74.2 −14 6.8 31 87.8

950 28.05 984 29.06 1018 30.06 −58 −72.4 −13 8.6 32 89.6

951 28.08 985 29.09 1019 30.09 −57 −70.6 −12 10.4 33 91.4

952 28.11 986 29.12 1020 30.12 −56 −68.8 −11 12.2 34 93.2

953 28.14 987 29.15 1021 30.15 −55 −67.0 −10 14.0 35 95.0

954 28.17 988 29.18 1022 30.18 −54 −65.2 −9 15.8 36 96.8

955 28.20 989 29.21 1023 30.21 −53 −63.4 −8 17.6 37 98.6

956 28.23 990 29.23 1024 30.24 −52 −61.6 −7 19.4 38 100.4

957 28.26 991 29.26 1025 30.27 −51 −59.8 −6 21.2 39 102.2

958 28.29 992 29.29 1026 30.30 −50 −58.0 −5 23.0 40 104.0

959 28.32 993 29.32 1027 30.33 −49 −56.2 −4 24.8 42 105.8

960 28.35 994 29.35 1028 30.36 −48 −54.4 −3 26.6 42 107.6

961 28.38 995 29.38 1029 30.39 −47 −52.6 −2 28.4 43 109.4

962 28.41 996 29.41 1030 30.42 −46 −50.8 −1 30.2 44 111.2

963 28.44 997 29.44 1031 30.45 −45 −49.0 0 32.0 45 113.0

964 28.47 998 29.47 1032 30.47 −44 −47.2 1 33.8 46 114.8

965 28.50 999 29.50 1033 30.50 −43 −45.4 2 35.6 47 116.6

966 28.53 1000 29.53 1034 30.53 −42 −43.6 3 37.4 48 118.4

967 28.56 1001 29.56 1035 30.56 −41 −41.8 4 39.2 49 120.2

968 28.59 1002 29.59 1036 30.59 −40 −40.0 5 41.0 50 122.0

969 28.61 1003 29.62 1037 30.62 −39 −38.2 6 42.8 51 123.8

970 28.64 1004 29.65 1038 30.65 −38 −36.4 7 44.6 52 125.6

971 28.67 1005 29.68 1039 30.68 −37 −34.6 8 46.4 53 127.4

972 28.70 1006 29.71 1040 30.71 −36 −32.8 9 48.2 54 129.2

973 28.73 1007 29.74 1041 30.74 −35 −31.0 10 50.0 55 131.0

974 28.76 1008 29.77 1042 30.77 −34 −29.2 11 51.8 56 132.8

975 28.79 1009 29.80 1043 30.80 −33 −27.4 12 53.6 57 134.6

976 28.82 1010 29.83 1044 30.83 −32 −25.6 13 55.4 58 136.4

977 28.85 1011 29.86 1045 30.86 −31 −23.8 14 57.2 59 138.2

978 28.88 1012 29.88 1046 30.89 −30 −22.0 15 59.0 60 140.0

979 28.91 1013 29.91 1047 30.92 −29 −20.2 16 60.8 61 141.8

980 28.94 1014 29.94 1048 30.95 −28 −18.4 17 62.6 62 143.6

981 28.97 1015 29.97 1049 30.98 −27 −16.6 18 64.4 63 145.4

1050 31.01 −26 −14.8 19 66.2 64 147.2

−24 −11.2 21 69.8 66 150.8

−23 −9.4 22 71.6 67 152.6

−22 −7.6 23 73.4 68 154.4

−21 −5.8 24 75.2 69 156.2

−20 −4.0 25 77.0 70 158.0

−19 −2.2 26 78.7

−18 −0.4 27 80.6

−17 1.4 28 82.4

−16 3.2 29 84.2
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−6

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL GEN 2.6−8

litres/imperial gallons litres/U.S. gallons

L IMP L IMP L IMP L U.S. L U.S. L U.S.

1 .22 41 9.02 81 17.82 1 .26 41 10.83 81 21.40

3 .66 43 9.46 83 18.26 3 .79 43 11.36 83 21.93

4 .88 44 9.68 84 18.48 4 1.06 44 11.63 84 22.19

5 1.10 45 9.90 85 18.70 5 1.32 45 11.89 85 22.46

6 1.32 46 10.12 86 18.92 6 1.59 46 12.15 86 22.72

7 1.54 47 10.34 87 19.14 7 1.85 47 12.42 87 22.99

8 1.76 48 10.56 88 19.36 8 2.11 48 12.68 88 22.35

9 1.98 49 10.78 89 19.58 9 2.38 49 12.95 89 23.51

10 2.20 50 11.00 90 19.80 10 2.64 50 13.21 90 23.78

11 2.42 51 11.22 91 20.02 11 2.91 51 13.47 91 24.04

12 2.64 52 11.44 92 20.24 12 3.17 52 13.74 92 24.31

13 2.86 53 11.66 93 20.46 13 3.44 53 14.00 93 24.57

14 3.08 54 11.88 94 20.68 14 3.70 54 14.27 94 24.84

15 3.30 55 12.10 95 20.90 15 3.96 55 14.53 95 25.10

16 3.52 56 12.32 96 21.12 16 4.23 56 14.80 96 25.36

17 3.74 57 12.54 97 21.34 17 4.49 57 15.06 97 25.63

18 3.86 58 12.76 98 21.56 18 4.76 58 15.32 98 25.89

19 4.18 59 12.98 99 21.78 19 5.02 59 15.59 99 26.16

20 4.40 60 13.20 100 22.00 20 5.28 60 15.85 100 26.42

21 4.62 61 13.42 200 44.00 21 5.55 61 16.12 200 52.84

22 4.84 62 13.64 300 66.00 22 5.81 62 16.38 300 79.26

23 5.06 63 13.86 400 88.00 23 6.08 63 16.65 400 105.68

24 5.28 64 14.08 500 110.00 24 6.34 64 16.91 500 132.10

25 5.50 65 14.30 600 132.00 25 6.61 65 17.17 600 158.52

26 5.72 66 14.52 700 154.00 26 6.87 66 17.44 700 184.94

27 5.94 67 14.74 800 176.00 27 7.13 67 17.70 800 211.36

28 6.16 68 14.96 900 198.00 28 7.40 68 17.97 900 237.78

29 6.38 69 15.18 1000 220.00 29 7.66 69 18.23 1000 264.2

30 6.60 70 15.40 2000 440.00 30 7.93 70 18.49 2000 528.4

31 6.82 71 15.62 3000 660.00 31 8.19 71 18.76 3000 792.6

32 7.04 72 15.84 4000 880.00 32 8.45 72 19.02 4000 1056.8

33 7.26 73 16.06 5000 1100.00 33 8.72 73 19.29 5000 1321.0

34 7.48 74 16.28 6000 1320.00 34 8.98 74 19.55 6000 1585.2

35 7.70 75 16.50 7000 1540.00 35 9.25 75 19.82 7000 1849.4

36 7.92 76 16.72 8000 1760.00 36 9.51 76 20.08 8000 2113.6

37 8.14 77 16.94 9000 1980.00 37 9.78 77 20.34 9000 2377.8

38 8.36 78 17.16 10000 2200.00 38 10.04 78 29.61 10000 2642.0

39 8.58 79 17.38 39 10.30 79 20.87

40 8.80 80 17.60 40 10.57 80 21.14
AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.6−7

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 2.6−9

Kg/lb

kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb

1 2.20 28 61.73 52 114.64 76 167.55 100 220.5 16000 35273.6

2 4.41 29 63.93 53 116.84 77 169.75 200 440.9 17000 37478.2

3 6.61 30 6.14 54 119.05 78 171.96 300 661.4 18000 39682.2

4 8.82 31 68.34 55 121.25 79 174.16 400 881.8 19000 41887.4

5 11.02 32 70.55 56 123.46 80 176.37 500 1102.3 20000 44092.0

6 13.23 33 72.75 57 125.66 81 178.57 600 1322.8 21000 46296.6

7 15.43 34 74.96 58 127.87 82 180.78 700 1543.2 22000 48501.2

8 17.64 35 77.16 59 130.07 83 182.98 800 1763.7 23000 50705.8

9 19.84 36 79.37 60 132.28 84 185.19 900 1984.1 24000 52910.4

10 22.05 37 81.57 61 134.48 85 187.39 1000 2204.6 25000 55115.0

11 24.25 38 83.78 62 136.69 86 189.60 2000 4409.2 26000 57319.6

12 26.46 39 85.98 63 138.98 87 191.80 3000 6613.8 27000 59524.2

13 28.66 40 88.18 64 141.09 88 194.01 4000 8818.4 28000 61728.8

14 30.86 41 90.39 65 143.30 89 196.21 5000 11023.0 29000 63933.5

15 33.07 42 92.59 66 145.50 90 198.41 6000 13227.6 30000 66138.0

16 35.27 43 94.80 67 147.71 91 200.62 7000 15432.2 35000 77161.0

17 37.48 44 97.00 68 149.91 92 202.82 8000 17636.8 40000 88184.0

18 39.68 45 99.21 69 152.12 93 205.03 9000 19841.4 45000 99207.0

19 41.89 46 101.41 70 154.32 94 207.23 10000 22046.0 50000 110230.0

20 44.09 47 103.62 71 156.53 95 209.44 11000 24250.6 60000 132276.0

21 46.30 48 105.82 72 158.73 96 211.64 12000 26455.2 70000 154322.0

22 48.50 49 108.03 73 160.94 97 213.85 13000 28659.8 80000 176368.0

23 50.71 50 110.23 74 163.14 98 216.05 14000 30864.4 90000 198414.0

24 52.91 51 112.44 75 165.35 99 218.26 15000 33069.0 100000 220460.0

25 55.12

26 57.32

27 59.52

AIP

United States of America

GEN 2.7−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 2.7 Sunrise/Sunset Tables

The U.S. does not publish sunrise/sunset tables.

AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.1−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3. SERVICES

GEN 3.1 Aeronautical Information Services

1. Aeronautical Information Service

1.1 The U.S. Aeronautical Information Service is the

National Flight Data Center, which forms a part of the

Air Traffic Airspace Management of the Federal

Aviation Administration.

Postal Address:

Federal Aviation Administration

National Flight Data Center (ATA−110)

800 Independence Avenue, SW.

Washington, D.C. 20591

Telephone: 202−267−9311

Telex: 892−562

Commercial Telegraphic Address: FAA WASH

AFTN Address: KRWAYAYX

1.2 The U.S. NOTAM office is located at the

following address:

Postal Address:

Federal Aviation Administration

U.S. NOTAM Office, ATT−134

Air Traffic Control System Command Center

13600 EDS Drive

Herndon, VA 20171−3225

Telephone: 703−904−4557

Toll Free: 1−888−876−6826

Facsimile: 703−904−4437

Telex: 892−562

AFTN Address (Administrative): 

KDCAYNYX

AFTN (NOTAM): KDZZNAXX

2. Area of Responsibility of AIS

2.1 The National Flight Data Center is responsible

for the collection, validation, and dissemination of

aeronautical information for the U.S. and areas under

its jurisdiction for air traffic control purposes.

3. Aeronautical Publications

3.1 United States AIP

3.1.1 The AIP, issued in one volume, is the basic

aeronautical information document published for

international use. It contains information of a lasting

character, with interim updates published in various

other publications. The AIP is available in English

only and is maintained on a current basis by a

6−month amendment service.

3.2 NOTAM Publication

3.2.1 NOTAM information is published in booklet

form every 28 days, entitled Notices to Airmen. This

booklet disseminates aeronautical information of

operational significance concerning airspace, procedures, and information concerning the status of both

international and domestic airports and navigational

aids.

3.3 Aeronautical Information Circulars

3.3.1 These circulars, called Advisory Circulars,

contain information of general or technical interest

relating to administrative or aviation matters which

are inappropriate to either the AIP or the NOTAM.

Advisory Circulars are available in English only. A

checklist of outstanding circulars is issued annually.

3.4 En route Aeronautical Charts, En Route

Supplements, Approach Procedure Charts, Regional Airport/Facility Directories

3.4.1 These publications, available in English only,

contain specific information on airspace, airports,

navigational aids, and flight procedures applicable to

the regional areas of the U.S. and the territories and

airspace under its jurisdiction. These publications are

available by subscription only.

4. Distribution of Publications

4.1 The AIP subscriptions, including amendments,

are made available to foreign aeronautical authorities

on a reciprocal basis through the Federal Aviation

Administration, AAT−30, 800 Independence Avenue, SW., Washington, D.C. 20591 upon request.

Address corrections and changes in distribution to

foreign aeronautical authorities are also accomplished through this office. See information in

paragraph 1.2 for published NOTAMs.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.1−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.2 Private paying subscriptions must be obtained

for each separate AIP document from the:

Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

P. O. Box 371954

Pittsburgh, PA 15250−7954

Telephone: 202−512−1800

Internet: http://www.gpoaccess.gov

4.3 Advisory Circulars are available, upon request,

from the:

U.S. Department of Transportation

Subsequent Distribution Office

Ardmore East Business Center

3341 Q 75th Avenue

Landover, MD 20785

4.4 All domestic chart and chart products as well as

National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA)

world−wide products are available upon subscription

from the:

NACO Distribution Branch, AVN−530

Federal Aviation Administration

Riverdale, Maryland 20737−1199

Telephone: 800−638−8972

5. NOTAM Service

5.1 NOTAM Publication (Postal Distribution)

5.1.1 NOTAM publication distribution, by means of

the Notices to Airmen publication, is in booklet form

which contains a recapitulation of pertinent or

permanent information of concern to airspace,

facilities, services, and procedures which are of

interest to both international and domestic civil

aviation users. The information contained will

eventually be published in either the U.S. AIP or in

other publications for domestic use, as applicable.

The Notices to Airmen publication will also contain

information regarding temporary changes or unscheduled interruptions to flight procedures and

navigational aids or airport services, the duration of

which is expected to last seven or more days.

Distribution of the Notices to Airmen publication

parallels NOTAM Class I and AIP distribution.

5.2 NOTAM Class I (Telecommunication

Distribution)

5.2.1 NOTAM Class I distribution is used mainly for

the notification of temporary information of timely

significance such as unforeseen changes in services,

facilities, airspace utilization, or any other emergency. Distribution is via telecommunications through

the International NOTAM Office of the National

Flight Data Center, in accordance with the following

classifications:

5.2.1.1 International NOTAM. NOTAM containing full information on all airports, facilities and

flight procedures available for use by international

civil aviation. NOTAMs are given selected distribution to adjacent or appropriate International NOTAM

Offices which require their exchange.

5.2.1.2 International Airspace NOTAM. NOTAM

containing short term information pertaining to

potentially hazardous international and domestic

airspace utilization which is of concern to

international flights. NOTAMs are given selected

distribution to adjacent or appropriate International

NOTAM Offices which require their exchange.

5.2.1.3 International Airspace NOTAM. NOTAM

containing permanent changes−en route airway

structure/aeronautical service and information of a

general nature. NOTAMs are given selected

distribution to adjacent or appropriate International

NOTAM Offices which require their exchange.

5.2.1.4 International OMEGA and LORAN Facilities status of the OMEGA or LORAN Navigational

Aid Facilities. NOTAMs are given selected

distribution to adjacent or appropriate International

NOTAM Offices which require their exchange.

5.2.1.5 Domestic NOTAM. NOTAM containing

information of concern to aircraft other than those

engaged in international civil aviation. Distribution

is to local or national users only. (See ENR 1.10.)

5.2.2 Each NOTAM is assigned a four digit serial

number which is followed by the location indicator

for which the series is applicable. The serial numbers

start with number 0001 at 0000 UTC on 1 July of each

year. Each serial number is preceded by a letter:

5.2.2.1 A for NOTAM classification “1.”

NOTE−

NOTAM number one for the year 1984 for the New York,

John F. Kennedy International Airport would read

A0001/84 KJFK. All NOTAMs issued will be preceded by

an ‘‘A.’’

5.2.2.2 B for NOTAM classification “2.” (Airspace):

the identifier of the affected air traffic control

center/FIR will be used.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.1−3

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

NOTE−

NOTAM number one for the year 1984 for the Oakland

ARTCC/FIR (Pacific Ocean Area) would read A0001/84

KZOA.

5.2.2.3 C for NOTAM classification ‘‘3’’ (Permanent Airspace): The KFDC identifier will be used for

data of permanent airway/aeronautical services and

of a general nature that are transmitted as NOTAMs

and are given selected distribution to adjacent or

appropriate International NOTAM Offices which

require their exchange.

NOTE−

NOTAM number one for the year 1984 for KFDC is

A0001/84 KFDC.

5.2.2.4 D for NOTAM classification “4” (OMEGA/

LORAN facilities): The KNMH will be used for

OMEGA/LORAN information that is transmitted to

all NOTAM Offices that exchange information with

the U.S. International NOTAM Office.

NOTE−

NOTAM number one for the year 1984 concerning the

status of OMEGA Station Norway would read A0001/84

KNMH.

5.2.2.5 E for NOTAM classification “5” (domestic):

No application (see ENR 1.10).

5.3 Each NOTAM is provided with an identification

letter adjoining the end of the word NOTAM

meaning:

5.3.1 NOTAMN: NOTAM containing new information.

5.3.2 NOTAMC: NOTAM cancelling a previous

NOTAM indicated.

5.3.3 NOTAMR: NOTAM replacing a previous

NOTAM indicated.

5.4 A checklist of NOTAMs currently in force for

each international NOTAM classification is issued

each month over the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network (AFTN) to each International

NOTAM office which exchanges International

NOTAMs with the U.S. International NOTAM

Office.

5.5 NOTAM Class I information is exchanged

between the U.S. International NOTAM Office and

the following International NOTAM Offices.

TBL GEN 3.1−1

COUNTRY CITY

AFGHANISTAN KABUL

ALBANIA ROME

ALGERIA ALGIERS

ANGOLA LUANDA

ARGENTINA BUENOS AIRES

AUSTRALIA SIDNEY

AUSTRIA VIENNA

AZORES SANTO MARIA

BAHAMAS NASSAU

BAHRAIN BAHRAIN

BANGLADESH DHAKA (DACCA)

BELGIUM BRUSSELS

BERMUDA BERMUDA

BOLIVIA LA PAZ

BOSNIA ZAGREB

BRAZIL RIO DE JANEIRO

BULGARIA SOFIA

CAMBODIA PHNOM−PEHN

CANADA OTTAWA

CAPE VERDE

ISLANDS

AMILCAR CABRAL

CHILE SANTIAGO

CHINA BEIJING

CHINA

(FORMOSA)

TAIPEI

COLOMBIA BOGOTA

CONGO BRAZZAVILLE

CROATIA ZAGREB

CUBA HAVANA

CYPRUS NICOSIA

CZECH REPUBLIC PRAGUE

DENMARK COPENHAGEN

DOMINICAN

REPUBLIC

SANTO DOMINGO

ECUADOR GUAYAQUIL

ENGLAND LONDON

ESTONIA TALLINN

ETHIOPIA ADDIS ABABA

EYGPT CAIRO

FIJI NANDI

FINLAND HELSINKI

FRANCE PARIS
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.1−4

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

COUNTRY CITY

FRENCH GUIANA MARTINIQUE

FRENCH

POLYNESIA

TAHITI

GERMANY (WEST) FRANKFURT

GHANA ACCRA

GREECE ATHENS

GREENLAND SONDRE STROMFJORD

GUYANA GEORGETOWN

HAITI PORT−AU−PRINCE

HONDURAS TEQUCIGALPA

HONG KONG HONG KONG

HUNGARY BUDAPEST

ICELAND REYKJAVIK

INDIA BOMBAY

INDIA CALCUTTA

INDIA DELHI

INDIA MADRAS

INDONESIA JAKARTA

IRAN TEHRAN (NOT AVBL)

IRELAND SHANNON

ISRAEL TEL AVIV

ITALY ROME

JAMAICA KINGSTON

JAPAN TOKYO

JORDAN AMMAN

KENYA NAIROBI

KOREA (SOUTH) SEOUL

KUWAIT KUWAIT

LATVIA MOSCOW

LEBANON BEIRUT

LIBERIA ROBERTS

LIBYA TRIPOLI

MALAYSIA KUALA LUMPUR

MALTA LUQA

MAURITIUS PLAISANCE

MAYNMAR RANGOON

MEXICO MEXICO CITY

MOROCCO CASABLANCA

MOZAMBIQUE MAPUTO

NAMIBIA JOHANNESBURG

NAURU ISLAND NAURU

NETHERLANDS AMSTERDAM

NETHERLANDS

ANTILLES

CURACAO

COUNTRY CITY

NEW GUINEA PORT MOSEBY

NEW ZEALAND AUCKLAND

NIGERIA LAGOS

NORWAY OSLO

OMAN MUSCAT

PAKISTAN KARACHI

PANAMA TOCUMEN

PARAGUAY ASUNCION

PERU LIMA

PHILLIPINES MANILLA

POLAND WARSAW

PORTUGAL LISBON

ROMANIA BUCHAREST

RUSSIA MOSCOW

SAMOA FALEOLA

SAUDI ARABIA JEDDAH

SENEGAL DAKAR

SEYCHELLES MAHE

SINGAPORE SINGAPORE

SLOVAKIA BRATISLAVA

SOLOMON

ISLANDS

HONIARA

SOUTH AFRICA JOHANNESBURG

SPAIN MADRID

SRI LANKA COLOMBO

SUDAN KHARTOUM

SURINAME PARAMARIBO

SWEDEN STOCKHOLM

SWITZERLAND ZURICH

SYRIA DAMASCUS

TANZANIA DAR−ES−SALAAM

THAILAND BANKOK

TRINIDAD PORT OF SPAIN

TUNISIA TUNIS

TURKEY ANKARA

URUGUAY MONTEVIDEO

VIET NAM HO CHI MINH CITY

VENEZUELA CARACAS

YEMEN ADEN

YUGOSLAVIA BELGRADE

ZAIRE KINSHASA

ZAMBIA LUSAKA

ZIMBABWE HARARE
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.1−5

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

6. Pre−Flight Information Service at

Aerodromes Available to International

Flights

6.1 Pre−Flight Information Units in the U.S. are

either FAA operated Flight Service Stations (FSS) or

National Weather Service operated Weather Service

Offices (WS).

6.2 Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are air traffic

facilities which provide pilot briefings, en route

communications and VFR search and rescue

services, assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergency

situations, relay ATC clearances, originate Notices to

Airmen, broadcast aviation weather and National

Airspace System (NAS) information, receive and

process IFR flight plans, and monitor NAVAIDs. In

addition, at selected locations FSSs provide En Route

Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch), take weather

observations, issue airport advisories, and advise the

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services of

transborder flights.

6.3 Supplemental Weather Service Locations

(SWSLs) are airport facilities staffed with contract

personnel who take weather observations and

provide current local weather to pilots via telephone

or radio. All other services are provided by the parent

FSS.

6.4 FSS locations, services and telephone information are available in the U.S. Airport/Facility

Directory, Supplement Alaska, and Pacific Chart

Supplement.

6.5 Flight Service Station, Pre−Flight information

service coverage is designed primarily to provide

service within a 500−mile area of the Flight Service

Station. All Flight Service Stations, nevertheless, do

have telecommunications access to all of the weather

and NOTAM information available, on an as needed

basis, for preflight briefing to international locations

with which the U.S. International NOTAM office

exchanges information.

AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−1

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3.2 Aeronautical Charts

1. General

1.1 Civil aeronautical charts for the U.S. and its

territories, and possessions are produced by the

National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO),

http://www.naco.faa.gov, which is part of FAA’s

office of Technical Operations Aviation Systems

Standards.

2. Obtaining Aeronautical Charts

2.1 Most charts and publications described in this

chapter can be obtained by subscription or one−time

sales from:

NACO Distribution Division

Federal Aviation Administration

6303 Ivy Lane, Suite 400

Greenbelt, MD 20770

Telephone: 1−800−638−8972

(Toll free within U.S.)

301−436−8301/6990

301−436−6829 (FAX)

e−mail: 9−AMC−Chartsales@faa.gov

2.2 Public sales of charts and publications are also

available through a network of FAA chart agents

primarily located at or near major civil airports. A

listing of products and agents is printed in the free

FAA catalog, Aeronautical Charts and Related

Products. (FAA Stock No. ACATSET). A free

quarterly bulletin, Dates of Latest Editions, (FAA

Stock No. 5318), is also available from NACO.

3. Selected Charts and Products Available

VFR Navigation Charts

IFR Navigation Charts

Planning Charts

Supplementary Charts and Publications

Digital Products

4. General Description of Each Chart Series

4.1 VFR Navigation Charts

4.1.1 Sectional Aeronautical Charts. Sectional

Charts are designed for visual navigation of slow to

medium speed aircraft. The topographic information

consists of contour lines, shaded relief, drainage

patterns, and an extensive selection of visual

checkpoints and landmarks used for flight under

VFR. Cultural features include cities and towns,

roads, railroads, and other distinct landmarks. The

aeronautical information includes visual and radio

aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace,

special−use airspace, obstructions, and related data.

Scale 1 inch = 6.86nm/1:500,000. 60 x 20 inches

folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised semiannually, except

most Alaskan charts are revised annually. 

(See FIG GEN 3.2−1 and FIG GEN 3.2−11.)

4.1.2 VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC). TACs

depict the airspace designated as Class B airspace.

While similar to sectional charts, TACs have more

detail because the scale is larger. The TAC should be

used by pilots intending to operate to or from airfields

within or near Class B or Class C airspace. Areas with

TAC coverage are indicated by a • on the Sectional

Chart indexes. Scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000.

Charts are revised semiannually, except Puerto

Rico−Virgin Islands which is revised annually.

(See FIG GEN 3.2−1 and FIG GEN 3.2−11.)

4.1.3 World Aeronautical Charts (WAC). WACs

cover land areas for navigation by moderate speed

aircraft operating at high altitudes. Included are city

tints, principal roads, railroads, distinctive landmarks, drainage patterns, and relief. Aeronautical

information includes visual and radio aids to

navigation, airports, airways, special−use airspace,

and obstructions. Because of a smaller scale, WACs

do not show as much detail as sectional or TACs, and

therefore are not recommended for exclusive use by

pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft. Scale 1 inch

= 13.7nm/ 1:1,000,000. 60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x

10 inches. WACs are revised annually, except for a

few in Alaska and the Caribbean, which are revised

biennially. 

(See FIG GEN 3.2−12 and FIG GEN 3.2−13.)

4.1.4 U.S. Gulf Coast VFR Aeronautical Chart.

The Gulf Coast Chart is designed primarily for

helicopter operation in the Gulf of Mexico area.

Information depicted includes offshore mineral

leasing areas and blocks, oil drilling platforms, and

high density helicopter activity areas. Scale 1 inch =

13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 55 x 27 inches folded to 5 x 10

inches. Revised annually.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−2

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.2−1

Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for the Conterminous U.S., 

Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands

4.1.5 Grand Canyon VFR Aeronautical Chart.

Covers the Grand Canyon National Park area and is

designed to promote aviation safety, flight free zones,

and facilitate VFR navigation in this popular area.

The chart contains aeronautical information for

general aviation VFR pilots on one side and

commercial VFR air tour operators on the other side.

4.1.6 Helicopter Route Charts. A three−color

chart series which shows current aeronautical

information useful to helicopter pilots navigating in

areas with high concentrations of helicopter activity.

Information depicted includes helicopter routes, four

classes of heliports with associated frequency and

lighting capabilities, NAVAIDs, and obstructions. In

addition, pictorial symbols, roads, and easily

identified geographical features are portrayed.

Helicopter charts have a longer life span than other

chart products and may be current for several years.

All new editions of these charts are printed on a

durable plastic material. Helicopter Route Charts are

updated as requested by the FAA. Scale 1 inch =

1.71nm/1:125,000. 34 x 30 inches folded to 5 x 10

inches.

4.2 IFR Navigation Charts

4.2.1 IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts (Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute low altitude

charts provide aeronautical information for navigation under IFR conditions below 18,000 feet MSL.

This four−color chart series includes airways; limits

of controlled airspace; VHF NAVAIDs with

frequency, identification, channel, geographic coordinates; airports with terminal air/ground communications; minimum enroute and obstruction clearance altitudes; airway distances; reporting points;

special use airspace; and military training routes.

Scales vary from 1 inch = 5nm to 1 inch = 20nm. 50 x

20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Charts revised

every 56 days. Area charts show congested terminal

areas at a large scale. They are included with

subscriptions to any conterminous U.S. Set Low

(Full set, East or West sets). (See FIG GEN 3.2−2 and

FIG GEN 3.2−4.)
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−3

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.2−2

Enroute Low Altitude Instrument Charts for the Conterminous U.S. (Includes Area Charts)

FIG GEN 3.2−3

Enroute High Altitude Charts for the Conterminous U.S.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−4

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.2.2 IFR Enroute High Altitude Charts (Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute high altitude

charts are designed for navigation at or above 18,000

feet MSL. This four−color chart series includes the jet

route structure; VHF NAVAIDs with frequency,

identification, channel, geographic coordinates;

selected airports; reporting points. Scales vary from

1 inch = 45nm to 1 inch = 18nm. 55 x 20 inches folded

to 5 x 10 inches. Revised every 56 days.

(See FIG GEN 3.2−3 and FIG GEN 3.2−5.)

FIG GEN 3.2−4

Alaska Enroute Low Altitude Chart

FIG GEN 3.2−5

Alaskan Enroute High Altitude Chart
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−5

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4.2.3 U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication

(TPP). TPPs are published in 24 loose−leaf or perfect

bound volumes covering the conterminous U.S.,

Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. A Change Notice

is published at the midpoint between revisions in

bound volume format and is available on the internet

for free download at the NACO web site. (See

FIG GEN 3.2−10.) The TPPs include:

4.2.3.1 Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP)

Charts. IAP charts portray the aeronautical data that

is required to execute instrument approaches to

airports. Each chart depicts the IAP, all related

navigation data, communications information, and an

airport sketch. Each procedure is designated for use

with a specific electronic navigational aid, such as

ILS, VOR, NDB, RNAV, etc.

4.2.3.2 Instrument Departure Procedure (DP)

Charts. DP charts are designed to expedite clearance

delivery and to facilitate transition between takeoff

and en route operations. They furnish pilots’

departure routing clearance information in graphic

and textual form.

4.2.3.3 Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

Charts. STAR charts are designed to expedite ATC

arrival procedures and to facilitate transition between

en route and instrument approach operations. They

depict preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in

graphic and textual form. Each STAR procedure is

presented as a separate chart and may serve either a

single airport or more than one airport in a given

geographic area.

4.2.3.4 Airport Diagrams. Full page airport

diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of

ground traffic at locations with complex runway/taxiway configurations and provide information for

updating geodetic position navigational systems

aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are available for

free download at the NACO website.

4.2.4 Alaska Terminal Procedures Publication.

This publication contains all terminal flight procedures for civil and military aviation in Alaska.

Included are IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts,

airport diagrams, radar minimums, and supplementary support data such as IFR alternate minimums,

take−off minimums, rate of descent tables, rate of

climb tables and inoperative components tables.

Volume is 5−3/8 x 8−1/4 inch top bound. Publication

revised every 56 days with provisions for a Terminal

Change Notice, as required.

4.3 Planning Charts

4.3.1 U.S. IFR/VFR Low Altitude Planning

Chart. This chart is designed for prefight and en

route flight planning for IFR/VFR flights. Depiction

includes low altitude airways and mileage,

NAVAIDs, airports, special use airspace, cities, times

zones, major drainage, a directory of airports with

their airspace classification, and a mileage table

showing great circle distances between major

airports. Scale 1 inch = 47nm/ 1:3,400,000. Chart

revised annually, and is available either folded or

unfolded for wall mounting. (See FIG GEN 3.2−6.)

FIG GEN 3.2−6

Planning Charts

4.3.2 Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Planning

Chart. This is a VFR planning chart on the reverse

side of the Puerto Rico − Virgin Islands VFR Terminal

Area Chart. Information shown includes mileage

between airports of entry, a selection of special use

airspace and a directory of airports with their

available services. Scale 1 inch = 85nm/1:6,192,178.

60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. The chart is

revised annually. (See FIG GEN 3.2−6.)
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−6

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.2−7

Airport/Facility Directory Geographic Areas

4.3.3 Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts.

This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected

TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the

associated TAC. Flyway planning charts depict flight

paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass

high traffic areas. Ground references are provided as

a guide for visual orientation. Flyway planning charts

are designed for use in conjunction with TACs and

sectional charts and are not to be used for navigation.

Chart scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000.

4.4 Supplementary Charts and Publications

4.4.1 Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). This

7−volume booklet series contains data on airports,

seaplane bases, heliports, NAVAIDs, communications data, weather data sources, airspace, special

notices, and operational procedures. Coverage

includes the conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico, and the

Virgin Islands. The A/FD shows data that cannot be

readily depicted in graphic form; e.g. airport hours of

operations, types of fuel available, runway widths,

lighting codes, etc. The chart bulletin section of the

A/FD also provides a means for pilots to update visual

charts between edition dates. (A/FD is published

every 56 days while sectional and Terminal Area

Charts are generally revised every six months). The

VFR Chart Update Bulletins are available for free

download from the NACO web site. Volumes are

side−bound 5−3/8 x 8−1/4 inches. 

(See FIG GEN 3.2−7.)

4.4.2 Supplement Alaska. This is a civil/military

flight information publication issued by FAA every

56 days. It is a single volume booklet designed for use

with appropriate IFR or VFR charts. The Supplement

Alaska contains an airport/facility directory, airport

sketches, communications data, weather data

sources, airspace, listing of navigational facilities,

and special notices and procedures. Volume is

side−bound 5−3/8 x 8−1/4 inches.

4.4.3 Chart Supplement Pacific. This supplement

is designed for use with appropriate VFR or IFR

enroute charts. Included in this one−volume booklet

are the airport/facility directory, communications

data, weather data sources, airspace, navigational

facilities, special notices, and Pacific area procedures. IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts, airport

diagrams, radar minimums, and supporting data for

the Hawaiian and Pacific Islands are included. The

manual is published every 56 days. Volume is

side−bound 5−3/8 x 8−1/4 inches.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−7

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4.4.4 North Pacific Route Charts. These charts are

designed for FAA controllers to monitor transoceanic

flights. They show established intercontinental air

routes, including reporting points with geographic

positions. Composite Chart: scale 1 inch =

164NM/1:12,000,000. 48 x 41−1/2 inches. Area

Charts: scale 1 inch = 95.9nm/1:7,000,000. 52 x

40−1/2 inches. All charts are shipped unfolded.

Charts are revised every 56 days. (See

FIG GEN 3.2−8.)

FIG GEN 3.2−8

North Pacific Oceanic Route Charts

4.4.5 North Atlantic Route Chart. Designed for

FAA controllers to monitor transatlantic flights, this

5−color chart shows oceanic control areas, coastal

navigation aids, oceanic reporting points, and

NAVAID geographic coordinates. Full Size Chart:

scale 1 inch = 113.1nm/1:8,250,000. Chart is shipped

flat only. Half Size Chart: scale 1 inch =

150.8nm/1:11,000,000. Chart is 29−3/4 x 20−1/2

inches, shipped folded to 5 x 10 inches only. Chart are

revised every 56 days. (See FIG GEN 3.2−9.)

FIG GEN 3.2−9

North Atlantic Route Chart
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−8

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.4.6 Airport Obstruction Charts (OC). The OC

is a 1:12,000 scale graphic depicting 14 CFR Part 77,

Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace surfaces, a

representation of objects that penetrate these

surfaces, aircraft movement and apron areas,

navigational aids, prominent airport buildings, and a

selection of roads and other planimetric detail in the

airport vicinity. Also included are tabulations of

runway and other operational data.

4.4.7 FAA Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide. A

booklet designed to be used as a teaching aid and

reference document. It describes the substantial

amount of information provided on FAA’s aeronautical charts and publications. It includes explanations

and illustrations of chart terms and symbols

organized by chart type. The users guide is available

for free download at the NACO web site.

4.5 Digital Products

4.5.1 The Digital Aeronautical Information CD

(DAICD). The DAICD is a combination of the

NAVAID Digital Data File, the Digital Chart

Supplement, and the Digital Obstacle File on one

Compact Disk. These three digital products are no

longer sold separately. The files are updated every

56 days and are available by subscription only.

4.5.1.1 The NAVAID Digital Data File. This file

contains a current listing of NAVAIDs that are

compatible with the National Airspace System. This

file contains all NAVAIDs including ILS and its

components, in the U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin

Islands plus bordering facilities in Canada, Mexico,

and the Atlantic and Pacific areas.

4.5.1.2 The Digital Obstacle File. This file describes all obstacles of interest to aviation users in the

U.S., with limited coverage of the Pacific, Caribbean,

Canada, and Mexico. The obstacles are assigned

unique numerical identifiers, accuracy codes, and

listed in order of ascending latitude within each state

or area.

4.5.1.3 The Digital Aeronautical Chart Supplement (DACS). The DACS is specifically designed

to provide digital airspace data not otherwise readily

available. The supplement includes a Change Notice

for IAPFIX.dat at the mid−point between revisions.

The Change Notice is available only by free

download from the NACO website.

The DACS individual data files are:

ENHIGH.DAT: High altitude airways (conterminous U.S.)

ENLOW.DAT: Low altitude airways (conterminous

U.S.)

IAPFIX.DAT: Selected instrument approach procedure NAVAID and fix data.

MTRFIX.DAT: Military training routes data.

ALHIGH.DAT: Alaska high altitude airways data.

ALLOW.DAT: Alaska low altitude airways data.

PR.DAT: Puerto Rico airways data.

HAWAII.DAT: Hawaii airways data.

BAHAMA.DAT: Bahamas routes data.

OCEANIC.DAT: Oceanic routes data.

STARS.DAT: Standard terminal arrivals data.

DP.DAT: Instrument departure procedures data.

LOPREF.DAT: Preferred low altitude IFR routes

data.

HIPREF.DAT: Preferred high altitude IFR routes

data.

ARF.DAT: Air route radar facilities data.

ASR.DAT: Airport surveillance radar facilities data.

4.5.2 The National Flight Database (NFD)

(ARINC 424 [Ver 13 & 15]). The NFD is a basic

digital dataset, modeled to an international standard,

which can be used as a basis to support GPS

navigation. Initial data elements included are: Airport

and Helicopter Records, VHF and NDB Navigation

aids, en route waypoints and airways. Additional data

elements will be added in subsequent releases to

include: departure procedures, standard terminal

arrivals, and GPS/RNAV instrument approach

procedures. The database is updated every 28 days.

The data is available by subscription only and is

distributed on CD−ROM or by ftp download.

4.5.3 Sectional Raster Aeronautical Charts

(SRAC). These digital VFR charts are geo−referenced scanned images of FAA sectional charts.

Additional digital data may easily be overlaid on the

raster image using commonly available Geographic

Information System software. Data such as weather,

temporary flight restrictions, obstacles, or other

geospatial data can be combined with SRAC data to

support a variety of needs. Most SRACs are provided

in two halves, a north side and a south side. The file

resolution is 200 dots per inch and the data is 8−bit

color. The data is provided as a GeoTIFF and

distributed on DVD−R media. The root mean square

error of the transformation will not exceed two pixels.

SRACs DVDs are updated every 28 days and are

available by subscription only.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−9

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.2−10

U.S. Terminal Publication Volumes
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−10

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.2−11

Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for Alaska
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−11

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.2−12

World Aeronautical Charts for Alaska
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−12

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.2−13

World Aeronautical Charts for the Conterminous U.S.

Mexico, and the Caribbean Areas
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.2−13

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5. National Imagery and Mapping Agency

(NIMA) Products

5.1 How to Order NIMA Products. FAA catalog

of NIMA Public Sale Aeronautical Charts and

Publications (FAA Stock No. DMAACATSET), is

available from the FAA NACO Distribution

Division. The catalog describes available charts and

publications primarily covering areas outside the

U.S. A free quarterly bulletin, Dates of Latest

Editions − NIMA Aeronautical Charts and Publications (FAA Stock No. DADOLE), is also available

from FAA.

5.1.1 Flight Information Publication (FLIP)

Planning Documents

General Planning (GP)

Area Planning

Area Planning − Special Use Airspace −

 Planning Charts

5.1.2 FLIP Enroute Charts and Chart

Supplements

Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica

United States − IFR and VFR Supplements

Flight Information Handbook

Caribbean and South America − Low Altitude

Caribbean and South America − High Altitude

Europe, North Africa, and Middle East −

 Low Altitude

Europe, North Africa, and Middle East −

 High Altitude

Africa

Eastern Europe and Asia

Area Arrival Charts

5.1.3 FLIP Instrument Approach Procedures

(IAPs)

Africa

Canada and North Atlantic

Caribbean and South America

Eastern Europe and Asia

Europe, North Africa, and Middle East

Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica

VFR Arrival/Departure Routes − Europe and Korea

United States

5.1.4 Miscellaneous DOD Charts and Products

Aeronautical Chart Updating Manual (CHUM)

DOD Weather Plotting Charts (WPC)

Tactical Pilotage Charts (TPC)

Operational Navigation Charts (ONC)

Global Navigation and Planning Charts (GNC)

Global LORAN−C Navigation Charts (GLCC)

LORAN−C Coastal Navigation Charts (LCNC)

Jet Navigation Charts (JNC) and Universal Jet

 Navigation Charts (JNU)

Jet Navigation Charts (JNCA)

Aerospace Planning Charts (ASC)

Oceanic Planning Charts (OPC)

Joint Operations Graphics − Air (JOG−A)

Standard Index Charts (SIC)

Universal Plotting Sheet (VP−OS)

Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation (PUB249)

Plotting Sheets (VP−30)

Dial−Up Electronic CHUM

AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3.3 Air Traffic Services

1. Responsible Authority

1.1 The authority responsible for the overall

administration of air traffic services provided for civil

aviation in the U.S. and its territories, possessions and

international airspace under its jurisdiction is the

Associate Administrator for Air Traffic Services,

acting under the authority of the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA).

Postal Address:

Director

Air Traffic Operations Program (ATP−1)

Federal Aviation Administration

800 Independence Ave., SW

Washington, D.C. 20591

U.S.A.

Telephone: 202−267−9155

Telex: 892−562

Commercial Telegraphic Address: FAA WSH

AFTN Address: KDCAYAYX

2. Area of Responsibility

2.1 Air traffic services as indicated in the following

paragraphs are provided for the entire territory of the

conterminous U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and

the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Panama Canal Zone,

as well as the international airspace in oceanic areas

under the jurisdiction of the U.S. which lies within the

ICAO Caribbean (CAR), North Atlantic (NAT),

North American (NAM) and Pacific (PAC) regions.

3. Air Traffic Services

3.1 With the exception of terminal control services at

certain civil aerodromes and military aerodromes, air

traffic service in the U.S. is provided by the Air

Traffic Operations Program, FAA, Department of

Transportation (DOT), U.S. Government.

3.2 Air Traffic control is exercised within the area of

responsibility of the U.S.:

3.2.1 On all airways.

3.2.2 In Class B, C, D, and E Airspace; and

3.2.3 Within the Class A airspace whose vertical

extent is from 18,000 feet to and including FL 600

throughout most of the conterminous U.S. and, in

Alaska, from 18,000 feet to and including FL 600 but

not including the airspace less than 1,500 feet above

the surface of the earth and the Alaskan Peninsula

west of longitude 160°00  West. (A complete

description of Class A airspace is contained in the

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 14,

Part 71.)

3.3 Air traffic control and alerting services are

provided by various air traffic control (ATC) units

and are described in ENR 1.1.

3.4 Radar service is an integral part of the air traffic

system. A description of radar services and

procedures is provided in ENR 1.1.

3.5 The description of airspace designated for air

traffic services is found in ENR 1.4.

3.6 Procedural data and descriptions are found in

ENR 1.5.

3.7 Numerous restricted and prohibited areas are

established within U.S. territory. These areas, none of

which interfere with normal air traffic, are explained

in ENR 1.5. Activation of areas subject to intermittent activity is notified in advance by a Notice to

Airmen (NOTAM), giving reference to the area by its

identification.

3.8 In general, the air traffic rules and procedures in

force and the organization of the air traffic services

are in conformity with ICAO Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures. Differences

between the national and international rules and

procedures are given in GEN 1.7. The regional

supplementary procedures and altimeter setting

procedures are reproduced in full with an indication

wherein there is a difference.

3.9 Coordination between the operator and air traffic

services is effected in accordance with 2.11 of

Annex II, and 2.1.1.4 and 2.1.2.5 of Part VIII of the

PANS−RAC (DOC 4444−RAC/501).

3.10 Minimum flight altitudes on the ATS routes as

listed in ENR 1.4 have been determined so as to

ensure at least 1,000 feet vertical clearance above the

highest obstacle within 4 nautical miles (NM) on each

side of the centerline of the route. However, where the

regular divergence (4.5 degrees) of the navigational

aid signal in combination with the distance between

the navigational aids could result in the aircraft being

more than 4 NM on either side of the centerline, the
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4 NM protection limit is increased by the extent to

which the divergence is more than 4 NM from the

centerline.

3.11 Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities. Pilots are

encouraged to visit air traffic facilities (Airport

Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs), Air Route Traffic

Control Centers (ARTCCs), and Flight Service

Stations (FSSs)) and familiarize themselves with the

ATC system. On rare occasions, facilities may not be

able to approve a visit because of workload or other

reasons. Pilots should contact the facility prior to the

visit and advise of the number of persons in the group,

the time and date of the proposed visit, and the

primary interest of the group. With this information

available, the facility can prepare an itinerary and

have someone available to guide the group through

the facility.

3.12 Operation Take−off and Operation Raincheck. Operation Take−off is a program that educates

pilots in how best to utilize the FSS modernization

efforts and services available in Automated Flight

Service Stations (AFSS), as stated in FAA Order

7230.17, Pilot Education Program − Operation

Takeoff. Operation Raincheck is a program designed

to familiarize pilots with the ATC system, its

functions, responsibilities, and benefits.

4. En Route Procedures

4.1 Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)

An ARTCC is a facility established to provide air

traffic control service to aircraft operating on

instrument flight rule (IFR) flight plans within

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE and principally during

the en route phase of flight. When equipment

capabilities and controller workload permit, certain

advisory/assistance services may be provided to

visual flight rule (VFR) aircraft.

4.2 ARTCC Communications

4.2.1 Direct Communications, Controllers and

Pilots

4.2.1.1 ARTCCs are capable of direct communications with IFR air traffic on certain frequencies.

Maximum communications coverage is possible

through the use of Remote Center Air/Ground

(RCAG) sites comprised of very high frequency

(VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF) transmitters

and receivers. These sites are located throughout the

U.S. Although they may be several hundred miles

away from the ARTCC, they are remoted to the

various centers by land lines or microwave links. As

IFR operations are expedited through the use of direct

communications, pilots are requested to use these

frequencies strictly for communications pertinent to

the control of IFR aircraft. Flight plan filing, en route

weather, weather forecasts, and similar data should be

requested through Flight Service Stations, company

radio, or appropriate military facilities capable of

performing these services.

4.2.1.2 An ARTCC is divided into sectors. Each

sector is handled by one or a team of controllers and

has its own sector discrete frequency. As a flight

progresses from one sector to another, the pilot is

requested to change to the appropriate sector discrete

frequency.

4.2.1.3 Controller Pilot Data Link Communications

(CPDLC) is a system that supplements air/ground

voice communications. As a result, it expands

two−way air traffic control air/ground communications capabilities. Consequently, the air traffic

system’s operational capacity is increased and any

associated air traffic delays become minimized. A

related safety benefit is that pilot/controller read−

back and hear−back errors will be significantly

reduced. The CPDLC’s principal operating criteria

are:

a) Voice remains the primary and controlling

air/ground communications means.

b) Participating aircraft will need to have the

appropriate CPDLC avionics equipment in order to

receive uplink or transmit downlink messages.

c) CPDLC Build 1 offers four ATC data link

services. These are altimeter setting (AS), transfer of

communications (TC), initial contact (IC), and menu

text messages (MT).

1) Altimeter settings are usually transmitted

automatically when a CPDLC session and eligibility

has been established with an aircraft. A controller

may also manually send an altimeter setting message.

NOTE−

When conducting instrument approach procedures, pilots

are responsible to obtain and use the appropriate altimeter

setting in accordance with 14 CFR Section 97.20. CPDLC

issued altimeter settings are excluded for this purpose.

2) Initial contact is a safety validation transaction that compares a pilot’s initiated altitude downlink message with an aircraft’s ATC host computer
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stored altitude. If an altitude mismatch is detected, the

controller will verbally provide corrective action.

3) Transfer of communications automatically

establishes data link contact with a succeeding sector.

4) Menu text transmissions are scripted nontrajectory altering uplink messages.

NOTE−

Initial use of CPDLC will be at the Miami Air Route Traffic

Control Center (ARTCC). Air carriers will be the first

users. Subsequently, CPDLC will be made available to all

NAS users. Later versions will include trajectory altering

services and expanded clearance and advisory message

capabilities.

4.2.2 ATC Frequency Change Procedures

4.2.2.1 The following phraseology will be used by

controllers to effect a frequency change:

EXAMPLE−

(Aircraft identification) CONTACT (facility name or

location name and terminal function) (frequency) AT (time,

fix, or altitude).

NOTE−

Pilots are expected to maintain a listening watch on the

transferring controller’s frequency until the time, fix, or

altitude specified. ATC will omit frequency change

restrictions whenever pilot compliance is expected upon

receipt.

4.2.2.2 The following phraseology should be

utilized by pilots for establishing contact with the

designated facility:

a) When operating in a radar environment:

1) On initial contact, the pilot should inform the

controller of the aircraft’s assigned altitude preceded

by the words “level,” or “climbing to,” or

“descending to,” as appropriate; and the aircraft’s

present vacating altitude, if applicable.

EXAMPLE−

1. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEVEL

(altitude or flight level).

2. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEAVING

(exact altitude or flight level), CLIMBING TO OR

DESCENDING TO (altitude or flight level).

NOTE−

Exact altitude or flight level means to the nearest 100 foot

increment. exact altitude or flight level reports on initial

contact provide ATC with information required prior to

using Mode C altitude information for separation

purposes.

b) When operating in a nonradar environment:

1) On initial contact, the pilot should inform the

controller of the aircraft’s present position, altitude

and time estimate for the next reporting point.

EXAMPLE−

(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (POSITION),

(altitude), ESTIMATING (reporting point) at (time).

2) After initial contact, when a position report

will be made, the pilot should give the controller a

complete position report.

EXAMPLE−

(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position),

(time), (altitude), (type of flight plan), (ETA and name of

next reporting point), (the name of the next succeeding

reporting point), AND (remarks).

REFERENCE−

AIP, Position Reporting, Paragraph 6.

4.2.2.3 At times controllers will ask pilots to verify

the fact that they are at a particular altitude. The

phraseology used will be: “VERIFY AT (altitude).”

In climbing/descending situations, controllers may

ask pilots to “VERIFY ASSIGNED ALTITUDE AS

(altitude).” Pilots should confirm that they are at the

altitude stated by the controller or that the assigned

altitude is correct as stated. If this is not the case, they

should inform the controller of the actual altitude

being maintained or the different assigned altitude.

CAUTION−

Pilots should not take action to change their actual

altitude or different assigned altitude to that stated in the

controller’s verification request unless the controller

specifically authorizes a change.

4.2.3 ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage.

ARTCC’s normally have at least one back−up radio

receiver and transmitter system for each frequency

which can usually be pressed into service quickly

with little or no disruption of ATC service.

Occasionally, technical problems may cause a delay

but switchover seldom takes more than 60 seconds.

When it appears that the outage will not be quickly

remedied, the ARTCC will usually request a nearby

aircraft, if there is one, to switch to the affected

frequency to broadcast communications instructions.

It is important, therefore, that the pilot wait at least

one minute before deciding that the ARTCC has

actually experienced a radio frequency failure. When

such an outage does occur, the pilot should, if

workload and equipment capability permit, maintain

a listening watch on the affected frequency while
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attempting to comply with the recommended

communications procedures which follow.

4.2.3.1 If two−way communications cannot be

established with the ARTCC after changing frequencies, a pilot should attempt to recontact the

transferring controller for the assignment of an

alternative frequency or other instructions.

4.2.3.2 When an ARTCC radio frequency failure

occurs after two−way communications have been

established, the pilot should attempt to reestablish

contact with the center on any other known ARTCC

frequency, preferably that of the next responsible

sector when practicable, and ask for instructions.

However, when the next normal frequency change

along the route is known to involve another ATC

facility, the pilot should contact that facility, if

feasible, for instructions. If communications cannot

be reestablished by either method, the pilot is

expected to request communications instructions

from the FSS appropriate to the route of flight.

NOTE−

The exchange of information between an aircraft and an

ARTCC through an FSS is quicker than relay via company

radio because the FSS has direct interphone lines to the

responsible ARTCC sector. Accordingly, when circumstances dictate a choice between the two, during an

ARTCC frequency outage, relay via FSS radio is

recommended.

5. Radio Communications Failure

5.1 Pilots of IFR flights experiencing two−way radio

failure are expected to adhere to the procedures

prescribed in GEN 3.4, paragraph 12.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Section 91.185

6. Position Reporting

6.1 The safety and effectiveness of traffic control

depends to a large extent on accurate position

reporting. In order to provide the proper separation

and expedite aircraft movements, ATC must be able

to make accurate estimates of the progress of every

aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan.

6.2 Position Identification

6.2.1 When a position report is to be made passing a

VOR radio facility, the time reported should be the

time at which the first complete reversal of the

“to/from” indicator is accomplished.

6.2.2 When a position report is made passing a

facility by means of an airborne automatic direction

finder (ADF), the time reported should be the time at

which the indicator makes a complete reversal.

6.2.3 When an aural or light−panel indication is used

to determine the time passing a reporting point, such

as a fan marker, Z marker, cone of silence or

intersection of range courses, the time should be

noted when the signal is first received and again when

it ceases. The mean of these two times should then be

taken as the actual time over the fix.

6.2.4 If a position is given with respect to distance

and direction from a reporting point, the distance and

direction should be computed as accurately as

possible.

6.2.5 Except for terminal transition purposes,

position reports or navigation with reference to aids

not established for use in the structure in which flight

is being conducted will not normally be required by

ATC.

6.3 Position Reporting Points

6.3.1 Federal Aviation Regulations require pilots to

maintain a listening watch on the appropriate

frequency and, unless operating under the provisions

of subparagraph 6.4, to furnish position reports

passing certain reporting points. Reporting points are

indicated by symbols on en route charts. The

designated compulsory reporting point symbol is the

solid triangle ; the “on request” reporting point

symbol is the open triangle . Reports passing an

“on request” reporting point are only necessary when

requested by ATC.

6.4 Position Reporting Requirements

6.4.1 Flights Along Airways or Routes. A position

report is required by all flights regardless of altitude,

including those operating in accordance with an ATC

clearance specifying “VFR−on−top,” over each

designated compulsory reporting point along the

route being flown.

6.4.2 Flight Along a Direct Route. Regardless of

the altitude or flight level being flown, including

flights operating in accordance with an ATC

clearance specifying “VFR−on−top,” pilots shall

report over each reporting point used in the flight plan

to define the route of flight.
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6.4.3 Flights in a Radar Environment. When

informed by ATC that their aircraft are in “RADAR

CONTACT,” PILOTS SHOULD DISCONTINUE

POSITION REPORTS OVER DESIGNATED REPORTING POINTS. They should resume normal

position reporting when ATC advises “RADAR

CONTACT LOST” or “RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.”

NOTE−

ATC will inform pilots that they are in “radar contact”

(a) When their aircraft is initially identified in the ATC

system; and (b) When radar identification is reestablished

after radar service has been terminated or radar contact

has been lost. Subsequent to being advised that the

controller has established radar contact, this fact will not

be repeated to the pilot when handed off to another

controller. At times, the aircraft identity will be confirmed

by the receiving controller; however, this should not be

construed to mean that radar contact has been lost. The

identity of transponder−equipped aircraft will be

confirmed by asking the pilot to “ident, squawk standby,”

or to change codes. Aircraft without transponders will be

advised of their position to confirm identity. In this case, the

pilot is expected to advise the controller if in disagreement

with the position given. If the pilot cannot confirm the

accuracy of the position given because of not being tuned

to the NAVAID referenced by the controller, the pilot should

ask for another radar position relative to the tuned in

NAVAID.

6.5 Position Report Items

6.5.1 Position reports should include the following items:

6.5.1.1 Identification.

6.5.1.2 Position.

6.5.1.3 Time.

6.5.1.4 Altitude or flight level (Include actual

altitude or flight level when operating on a clearance

specifying “VFR−on−top.”).

6.5.1.5 Type of flight plan (not required in IFR

position reports made directly to ARTCCs or

approach control).

6.5.1.6 ETA and name of next reporting point.

6.5.1.7 The name only of the next succeeding

reporting point along the route of flight.

6.5.1.8 Pertinent remarks.

7. Additional Reports

7.1 The following reports should be made to ATC or

FSS facilities without a specific request:

7.1.1 At all times, report:

7.1.1.1 When vacating any previously assigned

altitude/flight level for a newly assigned altitude/

flight level.

7.1.1.2 When an altitude change will be made if

operating on a clearance specifying “VFR−on−top.”

7.1.1.3 When unable to climb/descend at a rate of at

least 500 feet per minute.

7.1.1.4 When approach has been missed. (Request

clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative

airport, another approach, etc.).

7.1.1.5 Change in the average true airspeed (at

cruising altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or

10 knots (whichever is greater) from that filed in the

flight plan.

7.1.1.6 The time and altitude/flight level reaching a

holding fix or point to which cleared.

7.1.1.7 When leaving any assigned holding fix or

point.

NOTE−

The reports in subparagraphs 7.1.1.6 and 7.1.1.7 may be

omitted by pilots of aircraft involved in instrument training

at military area facilities when radar service is being

provided.

7.1.1.8 Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR,

TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver

capability, GPS anomalies while using installed

IFR−certified GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or

partial loss of ILS receiver capability or impairment

of air/ground communications capability. Reports

should include aircraft identification, equipment

affected, degree to which the capability to operate

under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the

nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.

NOTE−

When reporting GPS anomalies, include the location and

altitude of the anomaly. Be specific when describing the

location and include duration of the anomaly if necessary.

7.1.1.9 Any information relating to the safety of

flight.
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NOTE−

Other equipment installed in an aircraft may effectively

impair safety and/or the ability to operate under IFR. If

such equipment; e.g., airborne weather radar, malfunctions and in the pilot’s judgment either safety or IFR

capabilities are affected, reports should be made as above.

7.2 When not in radar contact, report:

7.2.1 When leaving the final approach fix inbound

on final approach (nonprecision approach) or when

leaving the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer

marker inbound on final approach (precision

approach); or

7.2.2 A corrected estimate at any time it becomes

apparent that an estimate as previously submitted is

in error in excess of 3 minutes.

7.3 Pilots encountering weather conditions which

have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions

which have been forecast, are expected to forward a

report of such weather to ATC.

8. Quota Flow Control

8.1 Quota Flow Control is designed to balance the

ATC system demand with system capacity.

8.2 ARTCCs will hold the optimum number of

aircraft that their primary and secondary holding

fixes will safely accommodate without imposing

undue limitations on the control of other traffic

operating within the ARTCC’s airspace. This is based

on the user’s requirement to continue operating to a

terminal regardless of the acceptance rate at that

terminal. When staffing, equipment, or severe

weather will inhibit the number of aircraft the arrival

ARTCC may safely hold, a reduction may be

necessary.

8.3 When an ARTCC is holding the optimum

number of aircraft, the adjacent ARTCCs will be

issued quotas concerning aircraft which can be

cleared into the impacted ARTCC’s airspace. When

the adjacent center’s demand exceeds the quota,

aircraft will be held in the adjacent ARTCC’s airspace

until they can be permitted to proceed.

8.4 The size of the hourly quota will be based

initially on the projected acceptance rate and

thereafter on the actual landing and diversion totals.

Once quotas have been imposed, departures in the

arrival and adjacent ARTCC’s area to the affected

airport may be assigned ground delay, if necessary, to

limit airborne holding to ATC capacity. However,

when a forecast of improved acceptance rate appears

reliable, in the opinion of the arrival ARTCC,

additional above−quota flights may be approved

based on the expectation that by the time these

additional above−quota flights become an operational factor in the affected area, the system will be able

to absorb them without undue difficulty.

8.5 Long distance flights, which originate beyond

the adjacent ARTCC area, will normally be permitted

to proceed to a point just short of the arrival ARTCC

boundary where a delay, at least equal to the delays

(ground/airborne) being encountered, will be assigned.

8.6 ARTCCs imposing ground delays make efforts

to advise the users when lengthy delays are a prospect

to preclude unnecessary boarding and subsequent

unloading prior to actual takeoff due to lengthy

unanticipated ground delays. Users should advise the

ARTCC through FSS or operation offices when there

is any significant change in the proposed departure

time so as to permit more efficient flow control

planning. Airborne aircraft holding in the adjacent

ARTCC airspace generally receive more benefit than

ground delayed aircraft when increases unexpectedly

develop in the quota number because the reaction

time is less. For this reason, whenever operationally

feasible, adjacent ARTCCs may offer airborne delay

within their areas instead of ground delay.

8.7 Flights originating beyond the adjacent ARTCC

areas may not have sufficient fuel to absorb the total

anticipated delay while airborne. Accordingly, the

concerned adjacent ARTCC may permit these flights

to land in its area while retaining previously

accumulated delay for the purpose of quota priority.

When the amount of air traffic backlogging in an

adjacent ARTCC area is approaching the saturation

point, additional en route traffic will be subject to

prior approval.

8.8 Generally, movement of arrival aircraft into the

impacted airport terminal area will be made on the

basis that those flights with the most accumulated

delay, either ground, airborne, or a combination of

both, normally receive priority over other traffic. This

applies only to delays encountered because of the

situation at the airport of intended landing.

8.9 Pilots/operators are advised to check for flow

control advisories which are transmitted to FSSs, to

selected airline dispatch offices, and to ARTCCs.
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9. Advisory and Air Traffic Information

Services

9.1 Approach Control Service for VFR Arriving

Aircraft

9.1.1 Numerous approach control facilities have

established programs for arriving VFR aircraft to

contact approach control for landing information.

This information includes: wind, runway, and

altimeter setting at the airport of intended landing.

This information may be omitted if contained in the

ATIS broadcast and the pilot states the appropriate

ATIS code.

NOTE−

Pilot use of “have numbers” does not indicate receipt of the

ATIS broadcast. In addition, the controller will provide

traffic advisories on a workload permitting basis.

9.1.2 Such information will be furnished upon initial

contact with the concerned approach control facility.

The pilot will be requested to change to the tower

frequency at a predetermined time or point, to receive

further landing information.

9.1.3 Where available, use of this procedure will not

hinder the operation of VFR flights by requiring

excessive spacing between aircraft or devious

routing. Radio contact points will be based on time or

distance rather than on landmarks.

9.1.4 Compliance with this procedure is not

mandatory, but pilot participation is encouraged. (See

ENR 1.1, paragraph 38, Terminal Radar Services for

VFR Aircraft.)

NOTE−

Approach control services for VFR aircraft are normally

dependent on air traffic control radar. These services are

not available during periods of a radar outage. Approach

control services for VFR aircraft are limited when Center

Radar ARTS Presentation/ Processing (CENRAP) is in

use.

9.2 Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers

9.2.1 Airport Operations Without an Operating

Control Tower

9.2.1.1 There is no substitute for alertness while in

the vicinity of an airport. It is essential that pilots be

alert and look for other traffic and exchange traffic

information when approaching or departing an

airport without an operating control tower. This is of

particular importance since other aircraft may not

have communication capability or, in some cases,

pilots may not communicate their presence or

intentions when operating into or out of such airports.

To achieve the greatest degree of safety, it is essential

that all radio−equipped aircraft transmit/receive on a

common frequency identified for the purpose of

airport advisories.

9.2.1.2 An airport may have a full or part−time tower

or FSS located on the airport, a full or part−time

UNICOM station or no aeronautical station at all.

There are three ways for pilots to communicate their

intention and obtain airport/traffic information when

operating at an airport that does not have an operating

tower: by communicating with an FSS, a UNICOM

operator, or by making a self−announce broadcast.

9.2.1.3 Many airports are now providing completely

automated weather, radio check capability and airport

advisory information on an automated UNICOM

system. These systems offer a variety of features,

typically selectable by microphone clicks, on the

UNICOM frequency. Availability of the automated

UNICOM will be published in the Airport/Facility

Directory and approach charts.

9.2.2 Communicating on a Common Frequency

9.2.2.1 The key to communicating at an airport

without an operating control tower is selection of the

correct common frequency. The acronym, CTAF,

which stands for common traffic advisory frequency,

is synonymous with this program. A CTAF is a

frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out

airport advisory practices while operating to or from

an airport without an operating control tower. The

CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS, or

tower frequency and is identified in appropriate

aeronautical publications.

9.2.2.2 The CTAF frequency for a particular airport

is contained in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD),

Alaska Supplement, Alaska Terminal Publication,

Instrument Approach Procedure Charts, and Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) charts. Also, the

CTAF frequency can be obtained by contacting any

FSS. Use of the appropriate CTAF, combined with a

visual alertness and application of the following

recommended good operating practices, will enhance

safety of flight into and out of all uncontrolled

airports.
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GEN 3.3−8

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9.2.3 Recommended Traffic Advisory Practices

9.2.3.1 Pilots of inbound aircraft should monitor and

communicate on the designated CTAF from 10 miles

to landing. Pilots of departing aircraft should

monitor/communicate on the appropriate frequency

from start−up, during taxi, and until 10 miles from the

airport unless the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

or local procedures require otherwise.

9.2.3.2 Pilots of aircraft conducting other than

arriving or departing operations at altitudes normally

used by arriving and departing aircraft should

monitor/communicate on the appropriate frequency

while within 10 miles of the airport unless required to

do otherwise by the CFR or local procedures. Such

operations include parachute jumping/dropping (see

ENR 5.1, paragraph 2.3, Parachute Jump Aircraft

Operations), en route, practicing maneuvers, etc.

9.2.4 Airport Advisory/Information Services

Provided by a FSS

9.2.4.1 There are three advisory type services

provided at selected airports.

a) Local Airport Advisory (LAA) is provided at

airports that have a FSS physically located on the

airport, which does not have a control tower or where

the tower is operated on a part−time basis. The CTAF

for LAA airports is disseminated in the appropriate

aeronautical publications.

b) Remote Airport Advisory (RAA) is provided at

selected very busy GA airports, which do not have an

operating control tower. The CTAF for RAA airports

is disseminated in the appropriate aeronautical

publications. Hours of operation may be changed by

NOTAM D.

c) Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS) is

provided in support of special events at nontowered

airports by request from the airport authority and

shall be published as a NOTAM D.

9.2.4.2 In communicating with a CTAF FSS, check

the airport’s automated weather and establish

two−way communications before transmitting outbound/inbound intentions or information. An inbound aircraft should initiate contact approximately

10 miles from the airport, reporting aircraft

identification and type, altitude, location relative to

the airport, intentions (landing or over flight),

possession of the automated weather, and request

airport advisory or airport information service. A

departing aircraft should initiate contact before

taxiing, reporting aircraft identification and type,

VFR or IFR, location on the airport, intentions,

direction of take−off, possession of the automated

weather, and request airport advisory or information

service, as applicable. Also, report intentions before

taxiing onto the active runway for departure. If you

must change frequencies for other service after initial

report to FSS, return to FSS frequency for traffic

update.

a) Inbound

EXAMPLE−

Vero Beach radio, Centurion Six Niner Delta Delta is ten

miles south, two thousand, landing Vero Beach. I have the

automated weather, request airport advisory.

b) Outbound

EXAMPLE−

Vero Beach radio, Centurion Six Niner Delta Delta, ready

to taxi to runway 22, VFR, departing to the southwest. I

have the automated weather, request airport advisory.

9.2.4.3 Airport advisory service includes wind

direction and velocity, favored or designated runway,

altimeter setting, known airborne and ground traffic,

NOTAMs, airport taxi routes, airport traffic pattern

information, and instrument approach procedures.

These elements are varied so as to best serve the

current traffic situation. Some airport managers have

specified that under certain wind or other conditions

designated runways be used. Pilots should advise the

FSS of the runway they intend to use.

CAUTION−

All aircraft in the vicinity of an airport may not be in

communication with the FSS.

9.2.5 Information Provided by Aeronautical

Advisory Stations (UNICOM)

9.2.5.1 UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground

radio communication station which may provide

airport information at public use airports where there

is no tower or FSS.

9.2.5.2 On pilot request, UNICOM stations may

provide pilots with weather information, wind

direction, the recommended runway, or other

necessary information. If the UNICOM frequency is

designated as the CTAF, it will be identified in

appropriate aeronautical publications.
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9.2.5.3 Unavailability of Information from FSS

or UNICOM. Should LAA by an FSS or

Aeronautical Advisory Station UNICOM be unavailable, wind and weather information may be

obtainable from nearby controlled airports via

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)

frequency.

9.2.6 Self−Announce Position and/or Intentions

9.2.6.1 General. Self-announce is a procedure

whereby pilots broadcast their position or intended

flight activity or ground operation on the designated

CTAF. This procedure is used primarily at airports

which do not have an FSS on the airport. The

self-announce procedure should also be used if a pilot

is unable to communicate with the FSS on the

designated CTAF. Pilots stating, “Traffic in the area,

please advise” is not a recognized Self−Announce

Position and/or Intention phrase and should not be

used under any condition.

9.2.6.2 If an airport has a tower which is temporarily

closed or operated on a part−time basis, and there is

no FSS on the airport or the FSS is closed, use the

CTAF to self−announce your position or intentions.

9.2.6.3 Where there is no tower, FSS, or UNICOM

station on the airport, use MULTICOM frequency

122.9 for self−announce procedures. Such airports

will be identified in appropriate aeronautical

information publications.

9.2.6.4 Practice Approaches. Pilots conducting

practice instrument approaches should be particularly alert for other aircraft that may be departing in the

opposite direction. When conducting any practice

approach, regardless of its direction relative to other

airport operations, pilots should make announcements on the CTAF as follows:

a) Departing the final approach fix, inbound

(nonprecision approach) or departing the outer

marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker, inbound

(precision approach).

b) Established on the final approach segment or

immediately upon being released by ATC.

c) Upon completion or termination of the

approach; and

d) Upon executing the missed approach procedure.

9.2.6.5 Departing aircraft should always be alert for

arrival aircraft coming from the opposite direction.

9.2.6.6 Recommended Self−Announce Phraseologies. It should be noted that aircraft operating to or

from another nearby airport may be making

self−announce broadcasts on the same UNICOM or

MULTICOM frequency. To help identify one airport

from another, the airport name should be spoken at

the beginning and end of each self−announce

transmission.

a) Inbound

EXAMPLE−

Strawn traffic, Apache Two Two Five Zulu, (position),

(altitude), (descending) or entering downwind/base/ final

(as appropriate) runway one seven full stop/touch−

and−go, Strawn.

Strawn traffic Apache Two Two Five Zulu clear of runway

one seven Strawn.

b) Outbound

EXAMPLE−

Strawn traffic, Queen Air Seven One Five Five Bravo

(location on airport) taxiing to runway two six Strawn.

Strawn traffic, Queen Air Seven One Five Five Bravo

departing runway two six. “Departing the pattern to the

(direction), climbing to (altitude) Strawn.”

c) Practice Instrument Approach

EXAMPLE−

Strawn traffic, Cessna Two One Four Three Quebec

(position from airport) inbound descending through

(altitude) practice (name of approach) approach runway

three five Strawn.

Strawn traffic, Cessna Two One Four Three Quebec

practice (type) approach completed or terminated runway

three five Strawn.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−10

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

9.2.7 UNICOM Communication Procedures

9.2.7.1 In communicating with a UNICOM station,

the following practices will help reduce frequency

congestion, facilitate a better understanding of pilot

intentions, help identify the location of aircraft in the

traffic pattern, and enhance safety of flight:

a) Select the correct UNICOM frequency.

b) State the identification of the UNICOM station

you are calling in each transmission.

c) Speak slowly and distinctly.

d) Report approximately 10 miles from the

airport, reporting altitude, and state your aircraft type,

aircraft identification, location relative to the airport,

state whether landing or overflight, and request wind

information and runway in use.

e) Report on downwind, base and final approach.

f) Report leaving the runway.

9.2.7.2 Recommended UNICOM Phraseologies:

a) Inbound.

PHRASEOLOGY−

FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE

TANGO FOXTROT 10 MILES SOUTHEAST DESCENDING THROUGH (altitude) LANDING FREDERICK, REQUEST WIND AND RUNWAY INFORMATION

FREDERICK.

FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE

TANGO FOXTROT ENTERING DOWNWIND/BASE/

FINAL (as appropriate) FOR RUNWAY ONE NINER

FULL STOP/TOUCH−AND−GO FREDERICK.

FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE

TANGO FOXTROT CLEAR OF RUNWAY ONE NINER

FREDERICK.

b) Outbound

PHRASEOLOGY−

FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE

TANGO FOXTROT (location on airport) TAXIING TO

RUNWAY ONE NINE, REQUEST WIND AND TRAFFIC

INFORMATION FREDERICK.

FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE

TANGO FOXTROT DEPARTING RUNWAY ONE NINE.

“REMAINING IN THE PATTERN” OR “DEPARTING

THE PATTERN TO THE (direction) (as appropriate)”

FREDERICK.

9.3 IFR Approaches/Ground Vehicle Operations

9.3.1 IFR Approaches. When operating in accordance with an IFR clearance and ATC approves a

change to the advisory frequency, make an

expeditious change to the CTAF and employ the

recommended traffic advisory procedures.

9.3.2 Ground Vehicle Operation. Airport ground

vehicles equipped with radios should monitor the

CTAF frequency when operating on the airport

movement area and remain clear of runways/taxiways being used by aircraft. Radio transmissions

from ground vehicles should be confined to

safety−related matters.

9.3.3 Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems.

Whenever possible, the CTAF will be used to control

airport lighting systems at airports without operating

control towers. This eliminates the need for pilots to

change frequencies to turn the lights on and allows a

continuous listening watch on a single frequency. The

CTAF is published on the instrument approach chart

and in other appropriate aeronautical information

publications. For further details concerning radio

controlled lights, see Advisory Circular 150/5340.27.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−11

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 3.3−1

Summary of Recommended Communication Procedures

COMMUNICATION/BROADCAST

 PROCEDURES

Facility at

Airport

Frequency Use Outbound Inbound

Practice

Instrument

Approach

1. UNICOM (No

Tower or FSS)

Communicate with UNICOM

station on published CTAF

frequency (122.7; 122.8;

122.725; 122.975; or 123.0).

If unable to contact UNICOM

station, use self-announce

procedures on CTAF.

Before taxiing

and before taxiing

onto the runway

for departure.

10 miles out;

entering

downwind, base,

and final; leaving

the runway.

2. No Tower, FSS, or

UNICOM

Self-announce on

MULTICOM frequency

122.9.

Before taxiing

and before taxiing

onto the runway

for departure.

10 miles out;

entering

downwind, base,

and final; leaving

the runway.

Departing final

approach fix

(name) or on final

approach segment

inbound.

3. No Tower in

operation, FSS open

Communicate with FSS on

CTAF frequency.

Before taxiing

and before taxiing

onto the runway

for departure.

10 miles out;

entering

downwind, base,

and final; leaving

the runway.

Approach

completed/

terminated.

4. FSS closed 

(No Tower)

Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing

and before taxiing

onto the runway

for departure.

10 miles out;

entering

downwind, base,

and final; leaving

the runway.

5. Tower or FSS not in

operation

Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing

and before taxiing

onto the runway

for departure.

10 miles out;

entering

downwind, base,

and final; leaving

the runway.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−12

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

9.4 Designated UNICOM/MULTICOM

Frequencies

9.4.1 Frequency Use

9.4.1.1 TBL GEN 3.3−2 depicts UNICOM and

MULTICOM frequency uses as designated by the

Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

NOTE−

1. In some areas of the country, frequency interference

may be encountered from nearby airports using the same

UNICOM frequency. Where there is a problem, UNICOM

operators are encouraged to develop a “least

interference” frequency assignment plan for airports

concerned using the frequencies designated for airports

without operating control towers. UNICOM licensees are

encouraged to apply for UNICOM 25 KHz spaced channel

frequencies. Due to the extremely limited number of

frequencies with 50 KHz channel spacing, 25 KHz channel

spacing should be implemented. UNICOM licensees may

then request FCC to assign frequencies in accordance with

the plan, which FCC will review and consider for approval.

2. Wind direction and runway information may not be

available on UNICOM frequency 122.950.

9.4.2.1 TBL GEN 3.3−3 depicts other frequency

uses as designated by the FCC.

9.5 Use of UNICOM for ATC purposes

9.5.1 UNICOM service may be used for air traffic

control purposes, only under the following circumstances:

9.5.1.1 Revision to proposed departure time.

9.5.1.2 Takeoff, arrival, or flight plan cancellation

time.

9.5.1.3 ATC clearance, provided arrangements are

made between the ATC facility and the UNICOM

licensee to handle such messages.

TBL GEN 3.3−2

UNICOM/MULTICOM Frequency Usage

Use Frequency

Airports without an

operating control tower.

122.700

122.725

122.800

122.975

123.000

123.050

123.075

(MULTICOM

FREQUENCY) Activities

of a temporary, seasonal,

emergency nature or

search and rescue, as well

as, airports with no tower,

FSS, or UNICOM.

122.900

(MULTICOM

FREQUENCY) Forestry

management and fire

suppression, fish and

game management and

protection, and

environmental monitoring

and protection.

122.925

Airports with a control

tower or FSS on airport.

122.950

TBL GEN 3.3−3

Other Frequency Usage Designated by FCC

Use Frequency

Air-to-air communications

& private airports (not

open to the public).

122.750

122.850

Air-to-air communications

(general aviation

helicopters).

123.025

Aviation instruction,

Glider, Hot Air Balloon

(not to be used for

advisory service).

123.300

123.500
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−13

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9.6 Automatic Terminal Information Service

(ATIS)

9.6.1 ATIS is the continuous broadcast of recorded

noncontrol information in selected high activity

terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller

effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by

automating the repetitive transmission of essential

but routine information. The information is continuously broadcast over a discrete VHF radio frequency

or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. ATIS

transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are

engineered to be receivable to a maximum of 60 NM

from the ATIS site and a maximum altitude of

25,000 feet AGL. At most locations, ATIS signals

may be received on the surface of the airport, but local

conditions may limit the maximum ATIS reception

distance and/or altitude. Pilots are urged to cooperate

in the ATIS program as it relieves frequency

congestion on approach control, ground control, and

local control frequencies. The Airport/Facility

Directory indicates airports for which ATIS is

provided.

9.6.2 ATIS information includes the time of the latest

weather sequence, ceiling, visibility, obstructions to

visibility, temperature, dew point (if available), wind

direction (magnetic), and velocity, altimeter, other

pertinent remarks, instrument approach, and runway

in use. The ceiling/sky condition, visibility, and

obstructions to vision may be omitted from the ATIS

broadcast if the ceiling is above 5,000 feet and the

visibility is more than 5 miles. The departure runway

will only be given if different from the landing

runway except at locations having a separate ATIS for

departure. The broadcast may include the appropriate

frequency and instructions for VFR arrivals to make

initial contact with approach control. Pilots of aircraft

arriving or departing the terminal area can receive the

continuous ATIS broadcast at times when cockpit

duties are least pressing and listen to as many repeats

as desired. ATIS broadcast shall be updated upon the

receipt of any official hourly and special weather. A

new recording will also be made when there is a

change in other pertinent data such as runway change,

instrument approach in use, etc.

SAMPLE BROADCAST−

DULLES INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION SIERRA.

1300ZULU WEATHER. MEASURED CEILING THREE

THOUSAND OVERCAST. VISIBILITY THREE, SMOKE.

TEMPERATURE SIX EIGHT. WIND THREE FIVE ZERO

AT EIGHT. ALTIMETER TWO NINER NINER TWO. ILS

RUNWAY ONE RIGHT APPROACH IN USE. LANDING

RUNWAY ONE RIGHT AND LEFT. DEPARTURE

RUNWAY THREE ZERO. ARMEL VORTAC OUT OF

SERVICE. ADVISE YOU HAVE SIERRA.

9.6.3 Pilots should listen to ATIS broadcasts

whenever ATIS is in operation.

9.6.4 Pilots should notify controllers on initial

contact that they have received the ATIS broadcast by

repeating the alphabetical code word appended to the

broadcast.

EXAMPLE−

“Information Sierra received.”

9.6.5 When the pilot acknowledges receipt of the

ATIS broadcast, controllers may omit those items

contained on the broadcast if they are current.

Rapidly changing conditions will be issued by ATC

and the ATIS will contain words as follows:

EXAMPLE−

“Latest ceiling/visibility/altimeter/wind/(other conditions) will be issued by approach control/tower.”

NOTE−

The absence of a sky condition/ceiling and/or visibility on

ATIS indicates a sky condition/ceiling of 5,000 feet or

above and visibility of 5 miles or more. A remark may be

made on the broadcast, “the weather is better than 5,000

and 5,” or the existing weather may be broadcast.

9.6.6 Controllers will issue pertinent information to

pilots who do not acknowledge receipt of a broadcast

or who acknowledge receipt of a broadcast which is

not current.

9.6.7 To serve frequency−limited aircraft, FSSs are

equipped to transmit on the omnirange frequency at

most en route VORs used as ATIS voice outlets. Such

communication interrupts the ATIS broadcast. Pilots

of aircraft equipped to receive on other FSS

frequencies are encouraged to do so in order that these

override transmissions may be kept to an absolute

minimum.

9.6.8 While it is a good operating practice for pilots

to make use of the ATIS broadcast where it is

available, some pilots use the phrase “Have

Numbers” in communications with the control tower.

Use of this phrase means that the pilot has received

wind, runway and altimeter information ONLY and

the tower does not have to repeat this information. It

does not indicate receipt of the ATIS broadcast and

should never be used for this purpose.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−14

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

9.7 Airport Reservation Operations and Special

Traffic Management Programs

9.7.1 This section describes procedures for obtaining required airport reservations at high density

traffic airports and for airports operating under

Special Traffic Management Programs.

9.7.2 High Density Traffic Airports (HDTA)

9.7.2.1 The FAA, by 14 CFR Part 93, Subpart K, has

designated the John F. Kennedy International (JFK),

LaGuardia (LGA), Ronald Reagan Washington

National (DCA), and Newark International (EWR)

Airports as high density airports and has prescribed

air traffic rules and requirements for operating

aircraft to and from these airports. (The quota for

EWR has been suspended indefinitely.) Reservations

for JFK are required between 3:00 p.m. and 7:59 p.m.

local time. Reservations for LGA and DCA are

required between 6:00 a.m. and 11:59 p.m. local time.

Helicopter operations are excluded from the

requirement for a reservation.

9.7.2.2 The FAA has established an Airport

Reservations Office (ARO) to receive and process all

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) requests for nonscheduled operations at the designated HDTA’s. This office

monitors operation of the high density rule and

allocates reservations on a “first−come−first−served”

basis determined by the time the request is received

at the reservation office. Standby lists are not

maintained. The ARO utilizes the Enhanced

Computer Voice Reservation System (e−CVRS) to

make all reservations. Users may access the computer

system using a touch−tone telephone or via the

Internet. Requests for IFR reservations will be

accepted starting 72 hours prior to the proposed time

of operation at the affected airport.

9.7.2.3 The toll−free telephone number for obtaining

IFR reservations through e−CVRS at HDTA’s is

1−800−875−9694. This number is valid for calls

originating within the United States, Canada, and the

Caribbean. The toll number for other areas is (703)

707−0568. The Internet address for the e−CVRS Web

interface is: http://www.fly.faa.gov/ecvrs.

9.7.2.4 For more detailed information on operations

and reservation procedures at an HDTA, please see

Advisory Circular 93−1, Reservations for Unscheduled Operations at High Density Traffic Airports. A

copy of the Advisory Circular may be obtained via the

Internet at: http://www.faa.gov.

9.7.3 Special Traffic Management Programs

(STMP)

9.7.3.1 Special procedures may be established when

a location requires special traffic handling to

accommodate above normal traffic demand (e.g., the

Indianapolis 500, Super Bowl, etc.) or reduced

airport capacity (e.g., airport runway/taxiway

closures for airport construction). The special

procedures may remain in effect until the problem has

been resolved or until local traffic management

procedures can handle the situation and a need for

special handling no longer exists.

9.7.3.2 There will be two methods available for

obtaining slot reservations at the ATCSCC: the web

interface and the touch−tone interface. If these

methods are used, a NOTAM will be issued relaying

the web site address and toll−free telephone number.

Be sure to check current NOTAMs to determine: what airports are included in the STMP; the

dates and times reservations are required; the time

limits for reservation requests; the point of contact for

reservations; and any other instructions.

9.7.4 Users may contact the ARO at 703−904−4452

if they have a problem making a reservation or have

a question concerning the HDTA/STMP regulations

or procedures.

9.7.5 Making Reservations

9.7.5.1 Internet Users. Detailed information and

User Instruction Guides for using the Web Interface

to the reservation systems are available on the

websites for the HDTA (e−CVRS) and STMP’s

(e−STMP).
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−15

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9.7.5.2 Telephone users. When using the telephone

to make a reservation, you are prompted for input of

information about what you wish to do. All input is

accomplished using the keypad on the telephone. The

only problem with a telephone is that most keys have

a letter and number associated with them. When the

system asks for a date or time, it is expecting an input

of numbers. A problem arises when entering an

aircraft call sign or tail number. The system does not

detect if you are entering a letter (alpha character) or

a number. Therefore, when entering an aircraft call

sign or tail number two keys are used to represent

each letter or number. When entering a number,

precede the number you wish by the number 0 (zero)

i.e., 01, 02, 03, 04, . . .. If you wish to enter a letter, first

press the key on which the letter appears and then

press 1, 2, or 3, depending upon whether the letter you

desire is the first, second, or third letter on that key.

For example to enter the letter “N” first press the “6”

key because “N” is on that key, then press the “2” key

because the letter “N” is the second letter on the “6”

key. Since there are no keys for the letters “Q” and

“Z” e−CVRS pretends they are on the number “1”

key. Therefore, to enter the letter “Q”, press 11, and

to enter the letter “Z” press 12.

NOTE−

Users are reminded to enter the “N” character with their

tail numbers. (See TBL GEN 3.3−4 and TBL GEN 3.3−5

Helpful Key Entries).

TBL GEN 3.3−4

Codes for Call Sign/Tail Number Input Only

A−21 J−51 S−73 1-01

B−22 K−52 T−81 2−02

C−23 L−53 U−82 3−03

D−31 M−61 V−83 4−04

E−32 N−62 W−91 5−05

F−33 O−63 X−92 6−06

G−11 P−71 Y−93 7−07

H−42 Q−11 Z−12 8−08

I−43 R−72 0−00 9−09

TBL GEN 3.3−5

Helpful Key Entries

# After entering a call sign/tail number, depressing the ‘‘pound key” (#) twice will indicate the end of

the entry.

*2 Will take the user back to the start of the process.

*3 Will repeat the call sign/tail number used in a previous reservation.

*5 Will repeat the previous question.

*8 Tutorial Mode: In the tutorial mode each prompt for input includes a more detailed description of what

is expected as input. *8 is a toggle on/off switch. If you are in tutorial mode and enter *8, you will return

to the normal mode.

*0 Expert Mode: In the expert mode, each prompt for input is brief with little or no explanation. Expert

mode is also on/off toggle.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.3−16

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

9.8 Operations at Uncontrolled Airports with

Automated Surface Observing System

(ASOS)/Automated Weather Observation

System (AWOS)

9.8.1 Many airports throughout the National Airspace System are equipped with either ASOS or

AWOS. At most airports with an operating control

tower or human observer, the weather will be

available to you in a METAR hourly or special

observation format on the Automatic Terminal

Information Service (ATIS) or directly transmitted

from the controller/observer.

9.8.2 At uncontrolled airports that are equipped with

ASOS/AWOS with ground−to−air broadcast capability, the one−minute updated airport weather should be

available to you within approximately 25 NM of the

airport below 10,000 feet. The frequency for the

weather broadcast will be published on sectional

charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory. Some

part−time towered airports may also broadcast the

automated weather on their ATIS frequency during

the hours that the tower is closed.

9.8.3 Controllers issue SVFR or IFR clearances

based on pilot request, known traffic and reported

weather; i.e., METAR/SPECI observations, when

they are available. Pilots have access to more current

weather at uncontrolled ASOS/AWOS airports than

do the controllers who may be located several miles

away. Controllers will rely on the pilot to determine

the current airport weather from the ASOS/AWOS.

All aircraft arriving or departing an ASOS/AWOS

equipped uncontrolled airport should monitor the

airport weather frequency to ascertain the status of

the airspace. Pilots in Class E airspace must be alert

for changing weather conditions which may effect the

status of the airspace from IFR/VFR. If ATC service

is required for IFR/SVFR approach/departure or

requested for VFR service, the pilot should advise the

controller that he/she has received the one−minute

weather and state his/her intentions.

EXAMPLE−

“I have the (airport) one−minute weather, request an ILS

runway 14 approach.”

REFERENCE−

Section GEN 3.5, Paragraph 7, Weather Observing Programs.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3.4 Communication Service

1. Responsible Authority

1.1 The authority responsible for the administration

of communications services in the U.S. is the Federal

Aviation Administration, Communication, Navigation, Surveillance, and Infrastructure.

Postal Address:

Federal Aviation Administration

Communications, Navigation, Surveillance,

and Infrastructure (ARN−1 )

400 7th Street, SW

Washington, D.C. 20590

AFTN Address: KDCAYAYX

Commercial Telegraphic Address:

ACIVAIR Washington DC

Telex: 892−562

2. Area of Responsibility

2.1 Communications services are available on a

continuous basis without charge to the user. The Air

Traffic Services Division is responsible for the

establishment of the operational requirements of the

U.S. communications system. Responsibility for the

day to day operation of these services resides with the

local air traffic facility. Enquiries or complaints

regarding any communications services or facilities

should be referred to the relevant air traffic facility or

to the Federal Aviation Administration, Air Traffic

Operations Services, as appropriate.

3. Types of Services

3.1 Radio Navigation Service

3.1.1 Various types of air navigation aids are in use

today, each serving a special purpose. These aids

have varied owners and operators, namely: the

Federal Aviation Administration, the military

services, private organizations; and individual states

and foreign governments. The Federal Aviation

Administration has the statutory authority to

establish, operate, and maintain air navigation

facilities and to prescribe standards for the operation

of any of these aids which are used by both civil and

military aircraft for instrument flight in federally

controlled airspace. These aids are tabulated in the

Airport/Facility Directory by State.

3.1.2 Pilots should be aware of the possibility of

momentary erroneous indications on cockpit displays when the primary signal generator for a

ground−based navigational transmitter (for example,

a glideslope, VOR, or nondirectional beacon) is

inoperative. Pilots should disregard any navigation

indication, regardless of its apparent validity, if the

particular transmitter was identified by NOTAM or

otherwise as unusable or inoperative.

3.1.3 The following types of radio navigation aids

are provided in the U.S.:

3.1.3.1 VHF Direction−Finding (VHF−DF).

3.1.3.2 LF Non−Directional Beacon (NDB).

3.1.3.3 VHF Omni−Directional Radio Range

(VOR).

3.1.3.4 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME).

3.1.3.5 Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN).

3.1.3.6 Instrument Landing System (ILS).

3.1.3.7 Final Approach Simplified Directional

Facility (SDF).

3.1.3.8 Precision Approach Radar (PAR) at certain

military aerodromes.

3.1.3.9 LORAN.

3.1.3.10 Global Positioning System (GPS).

3.1.4 NAVAID Service Volumes

3.1.4.1 Most air navigation radio aids which provide

positive course guidance have a designated standard

service volume (SSV). The SSV defines the reception

limits of unrestricted NAVAIDs which are usable for

random/unpublished route navigation.

3.1.4.2 A NAVAID will be classified as restricted if

it does not conform to flight inspection signal

strength and course quality standards throughout the

published SSV. However, the NAVAID should not be

considered usable at altitudes below that which could

be flown while operating under random route IFR

conditions; even though these altitudes may lie

within the designated SSV.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

NOTE−

Refer to Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR

Section 91.177) for minimum altitudes for IFR

operations. Service volume restrictions are first published

in the Notices to Airman (NOTAMs) and then with the

alphabetical listing of the NAVAIDs in the

Airport/Facility Directory.

3.1.4.3 Standard service volume limitations do not

apply to published IFR routes or procedures.

3.1.4.4 VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes (SSV):

a) SSVs are graphically shown in

FIG GEN 3.4−1, FIG GEN 3.4−2, FIG GEN 3.4−3,

FIG GEN 3.4−4, and FIG GEN 3.4−5. The SSV of a

station is indicated by using the class designator as a

prefix to the station type designation.

EXAMPLE−

TVOR, LDME, and HVORTAC.

b) Within 25 NM, the bottom of the T service

volume is defined by the curve in FIG GEN 3.4−4.

Within 40 NM, the bottoms of the L and H service

volumes are defined by the curve in FIG GEN 3.4−5.

FIG GEN 3.4−1

Standard High Altitude Service Volume

(See FIG GEN 3.4−5 for altitudes below 1,000 feet.)

60,000 ft.

100 NM

130 NM

45,000 ft.

18,000 ft.

14,500 ft.

1,000 ft. 40 NM

FIG GEN 3.4−2

Standard Low Altitude Service Volume

(See FIG GEN 3.4−5 for altitudes below 1,000 feet.)

NOTE: All elevations shown are with respect

to the station's site elevation (AGL).

Coverage is not available in a cone of

airspace directly above the facility.

40 NM

18,000 ft.

1,000 ft.

FIG GEN 3.4−3

Standard Terminal Service Volume

(See FIG GEN 3.4−4 for altitudes below 1,000 feet)

25 NM

12,000 ft.

1,000 ft.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−3

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.1.4.5 Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)

a) NDBs are classified according to their intended

use.

b) The ranges of NDB service volumes are shown

in TBL GEN 3.4−2. The distances (radius) are the

same at all altitudes.

TBL GEN 3.4−1

VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes

SSV Class Designator Altitude and Range Boundaries

T (Terminal) . . . . . . . . . . . . From 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000 feet AGL at radial

distances out to 25 NM.

L (Low Altitude) . . . . . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40

NM.

H (High Altitude)

From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40

NM. From 14,500 AGL up to and including 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM.

From 18,000 feet AGL up to and including 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130

NM.

TBL GEN 3.4−2

NDB Service Volumes

Class Distance (Radius)

Compass Locator 15 NM

MH 25 NM

H 50 NM*

HH 75 NM

* Service ranges of individual facilities may be less than 50 nautical

miles (NM). Restrictions to service volumes are first published as a

Notice to Airmen and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID

in the A/FD.

FIG GEN 3.4−4

Service Volume Lower Edge Terminal

1000

500

0

0 5 10 15 20 25

DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM

ALTITUDE IN FEET
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−4

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.4−5

Service Volume Lower Edge

Standard High and Low

1000

500

0

0 10 20 30 40

DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM

ALTITUDE IN FEET

5 15 25 35

3.1.5 NAVAIDs with Voice

3.1.5.1 Voice equipped en route radio navigational

aids are under the operational control of either an

FAA Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) or an

approach control facility. The voice communication

is available on some facilities. Hazardous Inflight

Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) broadcast

capability is available on selected VOR sites

throughout the conterminous U.S. and does not

provide two-way voice communication. The availability of two-way voice communication and HIWAS

is indicated in the A/FD and aeronautical charts.

3.1.5.2 Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio

navigation aids operate continuously except during

shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of

facilities not operating continuously are annotated on

charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory.

3.2 Mobile Service

3.2.1 The aeronautical stations (Airport Traffic

Control Towers, Air Route Traffic Control Centers,

and Flight Service Stations) maintain a continuous

watch on their assigned frequencies during the

published hours of service unless otherwise notified.

An aircraft should normally communicate with the

air−ground control radio station which exercises

control in the area in which it is flying. Aircraft

should maintain continuous watch on the appropriate

frequency of the control station and should not

abandon watch, except in an emergency, without

informing the control radio station.

3.2.2 Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are allocated

frequencies for different functions. For Airport

Advisory Service, the pilot should contact the FSS on

123.6 MHz. Individually assigned FSS frequencies

are listed in Airport/Facility Directory under the FSS

entry. If you are in doubt as to what frequency to use

to contact an FSS, transmit on 122.1 MHz and advise

the FSS of the frequency on which you are receiving.

3.3 Fixed Service

3.3.1 Messages to be transmitted over the Aeronautical Fixed Service are accepted only if they satisfy the

requirements of:

3.3.1.1 ICAO Annex 10, Vol. II, Chapter 3,

paragraph 3.3.

3.3.1.2 Are prepared in the form specified in

Annex 10.

3.3.1.3 The text of an individual message does not

exceed 200 groups.

3.3.2 General aircraft operating messages, Class B

traffic, including reservation messages pertaining to

flights scheduled to depart within 72 hours, shall not

be acceptable for transmission over U.S. government

operated telecommunications circuits except in those

cases where it has been determined by the U.S. that
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−5

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

adequate non−government facilities are not available.

3.4 Broadcast Service

3.4.1 The following meteorological broadcasts are

available for the use of aircraft in flight:

3.4.1.1 LF Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB).

3.4.1.2 Sub−Area Meteorological Broadcast (Volmet).

3.4.1.3 VHF RTF Meteorological Broadcasts.

3.4.2 Full details of broadcast service are given in

GEN 3.5, Meteorological Services.

3.4.3 All broadcast services to aircraft are provided

in the English language only.

4. Aeronautical Fixed Services

4.1 General

4.1.1 All U.S. ATC facilities have the ability to

communicate with all other ATS facilities via either

telephone or other domestic telecommunications

systems. Circuit diagrams depicting these connections are not available for this publication due to the

number of ATS facilities available in the U.S.

4.2 The Domestic Telecommunications Network

4.2.1 The U.S. Domestic telecommunications network is an automated system operating through the

National Airspace Data Interchange Network

(NADIN) in Atlanta, GA, and Salt Lake City, NV. All

Flight Service Stations (FSS) and Air Route Traffic

Control Centers (ARTCC) connect through the

NATCOM. All FSS and ARTCC facilities have both

transmit and receive capabilities.

4.2.2 Airport Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCT)

and Approach Control (A/C) Facilities do not

connect with this system. Messages originating from

or destined to these facilities are relayed through the

associated FSS. Associated FSSs for these facilities

are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory.

4.2.3 Airport administrative offices, airport managers or airport administrative officials do not normally

connect with the domestic telecommunications

network. Urgent messages destined to these facilities

must be forwarded to the associated FSS for relay or

the message must be sent through commercial

telegraphic systems.

4.3 The International Message Network

(Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications

Network−AFTN)

4.3.1 AFTN messages originating from outside the

U.S. domestic telecommunications system must be

prepared in accordance with ICAO procedures. All

incoming messages are received by NADIN and

relayed to the addressed facility through automated

procedures. The automated system will interpret the

international address group and automatically

forward the message via the domestic system to the

addressee. For example, a message addressed

KIKKYFYX will be accepted by AFTN and relayed

to IKK (Kankakee FSS). The Kankakee FSS will

manually relay this message to the intended recipient

when necessary. Intended recipients are to be

addressed in the first line of the message text.

4.3.2 All international flight plans entering the U.S.

system must adhere to ICAO format. These flight

plans are to be forwarded, via AFTN, to each affected,

U.S. controlled, Flight Information Region (FIR) or

Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) outside

the continental U.S. (e.g., Miami FIR, San Juan, P.R.

ARTCC) or the first FIR/ARTCC for flights entering

the continental U.S. (e.g., New York FIR/ARTCC).

If the flight plan content is acceptable, it is entered

into the ARTCC system and is forwarded,

automatically, via ARTCC computer, to all subsequently affected domestic ARTCCs. Flight plans

which cannot be processed are rejected at the point of

entry into the U.S. system and the originator is

queried. Format adherence, once the flight plan is in

the ARTCC system, is assured since each of the

ARTCCs are automated facilities. Each subsequent

ARTCC computer, however, will process incoming

flight plans according to the requested routing. Flight

plans can be rejected by any ARTCC due to errors in

routing. Rejected flight plans, regardless of reason or

point of rejection, are held in suspense until the

needed clarification is received by the ARTCC

facility.
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−6

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.4 Radio Communications Phraseology and

Techniques

4.4.1 General

4.4.1.1 Radio communications are a critical link in

the ATC system. The link can be a strong bond

between pilot and controller − or it can be broken with

surprising speed and disastrous results. Discussion

herein provides basic procedures for new pilots and

also highlights safe operating concepts for all pilots.

4.4.1.2 The single, most important thought in

pilot−controller communications is understanding. It

is essential, therefore, that pilots acknowledge each

radio communication with ATC by using the

appropriate aircraft call sign. Brevity is important,

and contacts should be kept as brief as possible, but

the controller must know what you want to do before

he/she can properly carry out his/her control duties.

And you, the pilot, must know exactly what he/she

wants you to do. Since concise phraseology may not

always be adequate, use whatever words are

necessary to get your message across. Pilots are to

maintain vigilance in monitoring air traffic control

radio communications frequencies for potential

traffic conflicts with their aircraft especially when

operating on an active runway and/or when

conducting a final approach to landing.

4.4.1.3 All pilots will find the Pilot/Controller

Glossary very helpful in learning what certain words

or phrases mean. Good phraseology enhances safety

and is the mark of a professional pilot. Jargon, chatter

and “CB” slang have no place in ATC communications. The Pilot/Controller Glossary is the same

glossary used in the ATC controller’s handbook. We

recommend that it be studied and reviewed from time

to time to sharpen your communication skills.

4.4.2 Radio Technique

4.4.2.1 Listen before you transmit. Many times you

can get the information you want through ATIS or by

monitoring the frequency. Except for a few situations

where some frequency overlap occurs, if you hear

someone else talking, the keying of your transmitter

will be futile and you will probably jam their

receivers causing them to repeat their call. If you have

just changed frequency, pause for your receiver to

tune, listen, and make sure the frequency is clear.

4.4.2.2 Think before keying your transmitter. Know

what you want to say and if it is lengthy; e.g., a flight

plan or IFR position report, jot it down. (But do not

lock your head in the cockpit.)

4.4.2.3 The microphone should be very close to your

lips and after pressing the mike button, a slight pause

may be necessary to be sure the first word is

transmitted. Speak in a normal conversational tone.

4.4.2.4 When you release the button, wait a few

seconds before calling again. The controller or FSS

specialist may be jotting down your number, looking

for your flight plan, transmitting on a different

frequency, or selecting his/her transmitter to your

frequency.

4.4.2.5 Be alert to the sounds or lack of sounds in

your receiver. Check your volume, recheck your

frequency, and make sure that your microphone is not

stuck in the transmit position. Frequency blockage

can, and has, occurred for extended periods of time

due to unintentional transmitter operation. This type

of interference is commonly referred to as a “stuck

mike,’’ and controllers may refer to it in this manner

when attempting to assign an alternate frequency. If

the assigned frequency is completely blocked by this

type of interference, use the procedures described in

paragraph 12, Two−Way Radio Communications

Failure.

4.4.2.6 Be sure that you are within the performance

range of your radio equipment and the ground station

equipment. Remote radio sites do not always transmit

and receive on all of a facilities’ available

frequencies, particularly with regard to VOR sites

where you can hear but not reach a ground station’s

receiver. Remember that higher altitude increases the

range of VHF “line of sight” communications.

4.4.3 Aircraft Call Signs

4.4.3.1 Improper use of call signs can result in pilots

executing a clearance intended for another aircraft.

Call signs should never be abbreviated on an initial

contact or at any time when other aircraft call signs

have similar numbers/sounds or identical letters/

numbers, (e.g., Cessna 6132F, Cessna 1622F,

Baron 123F, Cherokee 7732F, etc.).

EXAMPLE−

As an example, assume that a controller issues an

approach clearance to an aircraft at the bottom of a

holding stack and an aircraft with a similar call sign (at

the top of the stack) acknowledges the clearance with the

last two or three numbers of his/her call sign. If the

aircraft at the bottom of the stack did not hear the

clearance and intervene, flight safety would be affected,
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−7

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

and there would be no reason for either the controller or

pilot to suspect that anything is wrong. This kind of “human

factors” error can strike swiftly and is extremely difficult

to rectify.

4.4.3.2 Pilots, therefore, must be certain that aircraft

identification is complete and clearly identified

before taking action on an ATC clearance. ATC

specialists will not abbreviate call signs of air carrier

or other civil aircraft having authorized call signs.

ATC specialists may initiate abbreviated call signs of

other aircraft by using the prefix and the last three

digits/letters of the aircraft identification after

communications are established. The pilot may use

the abbreviated call sign in subsequent contacts with

the ATC specialist. When aware of similar/identical

call signs, ATC specialists will take action to

minimize errors by emphasizing certain numbers/letters, by repeating the entire call sign, repeating the

prefix, or by asking pilots to use a different call sign

temporarily. Pilots should use the phrase “Verify

clearance for (your complete call sign)” if doubt

exists concerning proper identity.

4.4.3.3 Civil aircraft pilots should state the aircraft

type, model or manufacturer’s name followed by the

digits/letters of the registration number. When the

aircraft manufacturer’s name or model is stated, the

prefix “N” is dropped.

EXAMPLE−

“Bonanza Six Five Five Golf,” “Douglas One One Zero,”

“Breezy Six One Three Romeo Experimental” (Omit

“Experimental” after initial contact).

4.4.3.4 Air taxi or other commercial operators not

having FAA authorized call signs should prefix their

normal identification with the phonetic word

“Tango.”

EXAMPLE−

“Tango Aztec Two Four Six Four Alpha.”

4.4.3.5 Air carriers and commuter air carriers having

FAA authorized call signs should identify themselves

by stating the complete call sign, using group form for

the numbers.

EXAMPLE−

“United Twenty−five, Midwest Commuter Seven Eleven.”

4.4.3.6 Military aircraft use a variety of systems

including serial numbers, word call signs and

combinations of letters/numbers.

EXAMPLE−

“Army Copter 48931” “Air Force 61782” “REACH

31792” “Pat 157” “AirEvac 17652” “Navy Golf Alpha

Kilo 21” “Marine 4 Charlie 36”

4.4.3.7 Air Ambulance Flights. Because of the

priority afforded air ambulance flights in the ATC

system, extreme discretion is necessary when using

the term “LIFEGUARD.” It is only intended for those

missions of an urgent medical nature and to be

utilized only for that portion of the flight requiring

expeditious handling. When requested by the pilot,

necessary notification to expedite ground handling of

patients, etc., is provided by ATC; however, when

possible, this information should be passed in

advance through non−ATC communications systems.

a) Civilian air ambulance flights responding to

medical emergencies (first call to an accident scene,

carrying patients, organ donors, organs, or other

urgently needed lifesaving medical material) will be

expedited by ATC when necessary. When expeditious handling is necessary, add the word “LIFEGUARD” in the remarks section of the flight plan. In

radio communications, use the call sign “LIFEGUARD” followed by the aircraft registration

letters/numbers.

b) Similar provisions have been made for the use

of “Air−Evac” and “Med−Evac” by military air

ambulance flights, except that these military flights

will receive priority only when specifically requested.

EXAMPLE−

“Lifeguard Two Six Four Six.”

c) Air carrier and air taxi flights responding to

medical emergencies will also be expedited by ATC

when necessary. The nature of these medical

emergency flights usually concerns the transportation of urgently needed lifesaving medical materials

or vital organs. IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT THE

COMPANY/PILOT DETERMINE, BY THE NATURE/URGENCY OF THE SPECIFIC MEDICAL

CARGO, IF PRIORITY ATC ASSISTANCE IS

REQUIRED. Pilots shall ensure that the word

“LIFEGUARD” is included in the remarks section of

the flight plan and use the call sign “LIFEGUARD”

followed by the company name and flight number, for

all transmissions when expeditious handling is

required. It is important for ATC to be aware of

“LIFEGUARD” status, and it is the pilot’s
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−8

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

responsibility to ensure that this information is

provided to ATC.

EXAMPLE−

“Lifeguard Delta Thirty−seven.”

4.4.3.8 Student Pilots Radio Identification. The

FAA desires to help the student pilot in acquiring

sufficient practical experience in the environment in

which he/she will be required to operate. To receive

additional assistance while operating in areas of

concentrated air traffic, a student pilot need only

identify himself/herself as a student pilot during

his/her initial call to an FAA radio facility. For

instance, “Dayton Tower, Fleetwing One Two Three

Four, Student Pilot.” This special identification will

alert FAA air traffic control personnel and enable

them to provide the student pilot with such extra

assistance and consideration as he/she may need. It is

recommended that student pilots identify themselves

as such, on initial contact with each clearance

delivery prior to taxiing, ground control, tower,

approach and departure control frequency, or FSS

contact.

4.4.4 Description of Interchange or Leased

Aircraft

4.4.4.1 Controllers issue traffic information based

on familiarity with airline equipment and color/markings. When an air carrier dispatches a flight using

another company’s equipment and the pilot does not

advise the terminal ATC facility, the possible

confusion in aircraft identification can compromise

safety.

4.4.4.2 Pilots flying an “interchange” or “leased”

aircraft not bearing the colors/markings of the

company operating the aircraft should inform the

terminal ATC facility on first contact the name of the

operating company and trip number, followed by the

company name as displayed on the aircraft, and

aircraft type.

EXAMPLE−

AIR CAL 311, United (Interchange/Lease), Boeing 727.

4.4.5 Ground Station Call Signs

4.4.5.1 Pilots, when calling a ground station, should

begin with the name of the facility being called

followed by the type of the facility being called, as

indicated in the following examples.

TBL GEN 3.4−3

Calling a Ground Station

Facility Call Sign

Airport UNICOM “Shannon UNICOM”

FAA Flight Service

Station “Chicago Radio”

FAA Flight Service

Station (En Route Flight

Advisory Service

(Weather))

“Seattle Flight Watch”

Airport Traffic Control

Tower “Augusta Tower”

Clearance Delivery

Position (IFR)

“Dallas Clearance

Delivery”

Ground Control Position

in Tower “Miami Ground”

Radar or Nonradar

Approach Control

Position

“Oklahoma City

Approach”

Radar Departure Control

Position “St. Louis Departure”

FAA Air Route Traffic

Control Center “Washington Center”

4.5 Radio Communications Phraseology

4.5.1 Phonetic Alphabet

4.5.1.4 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) phonetic alphabet is used by FAA

personnel when communications conditions are such

that the information cannot be readily received

without their use. Air traffic control facilities may

also request pilots to use phonetic letter equivalents

when aircraft with similar sounding identifications

are receiving communications on the same frequency. Pilots should use the phonetic alphabet when

identifying their aircraft during initial contact with air

traffic control facilities. Additionally, use the

phonetic equivalents for single letters and to spell out

groups of letters or difficult words during adverse

communications conditions.
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−9

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 3.4−4

Character Morse Code Telephony

Phonic 

(Pronunciation)

A   Alfa (AL−FAH)

B     Bravo (BRAH−VOH)

C     Charlie (CHAR−LEE) or 

(SHAR−LEE)

D    Delta (DELL−TAH)

E  Echo (ECK−OH)

F     Foxtrot (FOKS−TROT)

G    Golf (GOLF)

H     Hotel (HOH−TEL)

I   India (IN−DEE−AH)

J     Juliett (JEW−LEE−ETT)

K    Kilo (KEY−LOH)

L     Lima (LEE−MAH)

M   Mike (MIKE)

N   November (NO−VEM−BER)

O    Oscar (OSS−CAH)

P     Papa (PAH−PAH)

Q     Quebec (KEH−BECK)

R    Romeo (ROW−ME−OH)

S    Sierra (SEE−AIR−RAH)

T  Tango (TANG−GO)

U

   Uniform (YOU−NEE−FORM)

or

(OO−NEE−FORM)

V     Victor (VIK−TAH)

W    Whiskey (WISS−KEY)

X     Xray (ECKS−RAY)

Y     Yankee (YANG−KEY)

Z     Zulu (ZOO−LOO)

1      One (WUN)

2      Two (TOO)

3      Three (TREE)

4      Four (FOW−ER)

5      Five (FIFE)

6      Six (SIX)

7      Seven (SEV−EN)

8      Eight (AIT)

9      Nine (NIN−ER)

0      Zero (ZEE−RO)

4.5.2 Figures

4.5.2.1 Figures indicating hundreds and thousands

in round numbers, as for ceiling heights, and upper

wind levels up to 9,900, shall be spoken in

accordance with the following:

EXAMPLE−

1. 500 five hundred . . . . . . . 

2. 4,500 four thousand five hundred . . . . . . 

4.5.2.2 Numbers above 9,900 shall be spoken by

separating the digits preceding the word “thousand.”

EXAMPLE−

1. 10,000 one zero thousand . . . . . 

2. 13,500 one three thousand five hundred . . . . . 

4.5.2.3 Transmit airway or jet route numbers as

follows:

EXAMPLE−

1. V12 Victor Twelve . . . . . . . 

2. J533 J Five Thirty . . . . . . . − Three

4.5.2.4 All other numbers shall be transmitted by

pronouncing each digit.

EXAMPLE−

10 one zero . . . . . . . . . . . 

4.5.2.5 When a radio frequency contains a decimal

point, the decimal point is spoken as “Point.”

EXAMPLE−

122.1 one two two point one . . . . . . . . 

NOTE−

ICAO procedures require the decimal point be spoken as

“decimal.” The FAA will honor such usage by military

aircraft and all other aircraft required to use ICAO

procedures.

4.5.3 Altitudes and Flight Levels

4.5.3.1 Up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, by

stating the separate digits of the thousands, plus the

hundreds.

EXAMPLE−

1. 12,000 one two thousand . . . . . 

2. 12,500 one two thousand five hundred . . . . . 

4.5.3.2 At and above 18,000’ MSL (FL 180) by

stating the words “flight level” followed by the

separated digits of the flight level.

EXAMPLE−

1. 190 Flight Level One Niner Zero . . . . . . . 

2. 275 Flight Level Two Seven Five . . . . . . . 
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−10

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.5.4 Directions

4.5.4.1 The three digits of a magnetic course,

bearing, heading or wind direction, should always be

magnetic. The word “true” must be added when it

applies.

EXAMPLE−

1. (Magnetic course) 005 zero zero five . . . 

2. (True course) 050 zero five zero true . . . . . . . 

3. (Magnetic bearing) 360 three six zero . . 

4. (Magnetic heading) 100 heading one zero zero . 

5. (Wind direction) 220 wind two two zero . . . . . 

4.5.5 Speeds

4.5.5.1 The separate digits of the speed are to be

followed by the word “KNOTS” except that

controllers may omit the word “KNOTS” when using

speed adjustment procedures (e.g., “REDUCE/INCREASE SPEED TO TWO FIVE ZERO”).

EXAMPLE−

1. (Speed) 250 two five zero knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

2. (Speed) 190 one niner zero knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4.5.5.2 The separate digits of the Mach number are

to be preceded by the word “Mach.”

EXAMPLE−

1. (Mach number) 1.5 Mach one point five . . . . . . 

2. (Mach number) 0.64 Mach point six four . . . . . 

3. (Mach number) 0.7 Mach point seven . . . . . . 

4.5.6 Time

4.5.6.1 FAA uses Coordinated Universal Time

(UTC) for all operations. The word “local” or the time

zone equivalent shall be used to denote local when

local time is given during radio and telephone

communications. The term “ZULU” may be used to

denote UTC.

EXAMPLE−

0920 UTC zero niner two zero, . . . . . . . 

 zero one two zero pacific or local,

or one twenty AM

4.5.6.2 To convert from Standard Time to UTC:

TBL GEN 3.4−5

Standard Time to Coordinated Universal Time

Eastern Standard Time Central

Standard Time

Mountain Standard Time

Pacific Standard Time Alaska

Standard Time

Hawaii Standard Time

Add 5 hours

Add 6 hours

Add 7 hours

Add 8 hours

Add 9 hours

Add 10 hours

NOTE−

For daylight time, subtract 1 hour.

4.5.6.3 A reference may be made to local daylight or

standard time utilizing the 24−hour clock system.

The hour is indicated by the first two figures and the

minutes by the last two figures.

EXAMPLE−

1. 0000 zero zero zero zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

2. 0920 zero niner two zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4.5.6.4 Time may be stated in minutes only (two

figures) in radio telephone communications when no

misunderstanding is likely to occur.

4.5.6.5 Current time in use at a station is stated in the

nearest quarter minute in order that pilots may use

this information for time checks. Fractions of a

quarter minute or more, but less than eight seconds

more, are stated as the preceding quarter minute;

fractions of a quarter minute of eight seconds or more

are stated as the succeeding quarter minute.

EXAMPLE−

0929:05 time, zero niner two niner . . . . . . . . . . . 

0929:10 time, zero niner two niner and . . . . . . . . . . . 

one−quarter

4.5.7 Communications with Tower when

Aircraft Transmitter/Receiver or Both are

Inoperative

4.5.7.1 Arriving Aircraft

a) Receiver Inoperative. If you have reason to

believe your receiver is inoperative, remain outside

or above Class D airspace until the direction and flow

of traffic has been determined; then, advise the tower

of your type aircraft, position, altitude, intention to

land, and request that you be controlled with light

signals. When you are approximately 3 to 5 miles

from the airport, advise the tower of your position and

join the airport traffic pattern. From this point on,

watch the tower for light signals. Thereafter, if a

complete pattern is made, transmit your position

when downwind and/or turning base leg.
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GEN 3.4−11

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

b) Transmitter Inoperative. Remain outside or

above Class D airspace until the direction and flow of

traffic has been determined, then join the airport

traffic pattern. Monitor the primary local control

frequency as depicted on sectional charts for landing

or traffic information, and look for a light signal

which may be addressed to your aircraft. During

hours of daylight, acknowledge tower transmissions

or light signals by rocking your wings. At night,

acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigational

lights.

NOTE−

To acknowledge tower transmissions during daylight

hours, hovering helicopters will turn in the direction of the

controlling facility and flash the landing light. While in

flight, helicopters should show their acknowledgment of

receiving a transmission by making shallow banks in

opposite directions. At night, helicopters will acknowledge

receipt of transmissions by flashing either the landing or

the search light.

c) Transmitter and Receiver Inoperative. Remain outside or above Class D airspace until the

direction and flow of traffic has been determined,

then join the airport traffic pattern and maintain

visual contact with tower to receive light signals.

4.5.7.2 Departing Aircraft. If you experience radio

failure prior to leaving the parking area, make every

effort to have the equipment repaired. If you are

unable to have the malfunction repaired, call the

tower by telephone and request authorization to

depart without two−way radio communications. If

tower authorization is granted, you will be given

departure information and requested to monitor the

tower frequency or watch for light signals, as

appropriate. During daylight hours, acknowledge

tower transmissions or light signals by moving the

ailerons or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking

the landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction

occurs after departing the parking area, watch the

tower for light signals or monitor tower frequency.

4.5.8 Contact Procedures

4.5.8.1 Initial Contact

a) The terms “initial contact” or “initial call up”

mean the first radio call you make to a given facility,

or the first call to a different controller/FSS specialist

within a facility. Use the following format:

1) Name of facility being called.

2) Your full aircraft identification as filed in the

flight plan or as discussed under aircraft call signs.

3) When operating on an airport surface, state

your position.

4) The type of message to follow or your request

if it is short; and

5) The word “Over,” if required.

EXAMPLE−

1. “New York Radio, Mooney Three One One Echo.” 

2. “Columbia Ground, Cessna Three One Six Zero

Foxtrot, south ramp, I−F−R Memphis.”

3. “Miami Center, Baron Five Six Three Hotel, request

VFR traffic advisories.”

b) Many FSSs are equipped with remote communications outlets and can transmit on the same

frequency at more than one location. The frequencies

available at specific locations are indicated on charts

above FSS communications boxes. To enable the

specialist to utilize the correct transmitter, advise the

location and frequency on which you expect a reply.

EXAMPLE−

St. Louis FSS can transmit on frequency 122.3 at either

Farmington, MO, or Decatur, IL. If you are in the vicinity

of Decatur, your callup should be “Saint Louis radio, Piper

Six Niner Six Yankee, receiving Decatur One Two Two

Point Three.”

c) If radio reception is reasonably assured,

inclusion of your request, your position or altitude,

the phrase “Have numbers” or “Information Charlie

received” (for ATIS) in the initial contact helps

decrease radio frequency congestion. Use discretion

and do not overload the controller with information

he/she does not need. When you do not get a response

from the ground station, recheck your radios or use

another transmitter and keep the next contact short.

EXAMPLE−

“Atlanta Center, Duke Four One Romeo, request VFR

traffic advisories, Twenty Northwest Rome, Seven

Thousand Five Hundred, over.”
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United States of America

GEN 3.4−12

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.5.9 Initial Contact when your Transmitting and

Receiving Frequencies are Different

4.5.9.1 If you are attempting to establish contact

with a ground station and you are receiving on a

different frequency than that transmitted, indicate the

VOR name or the frequency on which you expect a

reply. Most FSSs and control facilities can transmit

on several VOR stations in the area. Use the

appropriate FSS call sign as indicated on charts.

EXAMPLE−

New York FSS transmits on the Kennedy, Deer Park and

Calverton VORTACs. If you are in the Calverton area, your

callup should be “New York Radio, Cessna Three One Six

Zero Foxtrot, receiving Riverhead VOR, over.”

4.5.9.2 If the chart indicates FSS frequencies above

the VORTAC or in FSS communications boxes,

transmit or receive on those frequencies nearest your

location.

4.5.9.3 When unable to establish contact and you

wish to call any ground station, use the phrase “any

radio (tower) (station), give Cessna Three One Six

Zero Foxtrot a call on (frequency) or (VOR).” If an

emergency exists or you need assistance, so state.

4.5.10 Subsequent Contacts and Responses to

Call Up from a Ground Facility. Use the same

format as used for initial contact except you should

state your message or request with the call up in one

transmission. The ground station name and the word

“Over” may be omitted if the message requires an

obvious reply and there is no possibility for

misunderstandings. You should acknowledge all

callups or clearances unless the controller of FSS

specialist advises otherwise. There are some

occasions when the controller must issue time−critical instructions to other aircraft and he/she may be in

a position to observe your response, either visually or

on radar. If the situation demands your response, take

appropriate action or immediately advise the facility

of any problem. Acknowledge with your aircraft

identification, either at the beginning or at the end of

your transmission, and one of the words “Wilco,

Roger, Affirmative, Negative” or other appropriate

remarks; e.g., “Piper Two One Four Lima, Roger.” If

you have been receiving services such as VFR traffic

advisories and you are leaving the area or changing

frequencies, advise the ATC facility and terminate

contact.

4.6 Acknowledgement of Frequency Changes

4.6.1 When advised by ATC to change frequencies,

acknowledge the instruction. If you select the new

frequency without an acknowledgement, the controller’s workload is increased because he/she has no way

of knowing whether you received the instruction or

have had radio communications failure.

4.6.2 At times, a controller/specialist may be

working a sector with multiple frequency assignments. In order to eliminate unnecessary verbiage

and to free the controller/specialist for higher priority

transmissions, the controller/specialist may request

the pilot “(Identification), change to my frequency

123.4.” This phrase should alert the pilot that he/she

is only changing frequencies, not controller/specialist, and that initial call−up phraseology may be

abbreviated.

EXAMPLE−

“United Two Twenty−two on One Two Three Point Four”

or “One Two Three Point Four, United Two Twenty−two.”

4.6.3 Compliance with Frequency Changes.

When instructed by ATC to change frequencies,

select the new frequency as soon as possible unless

instructed to make the change at a specific time, fix,

or altitude. A delay in making the change could result

in an untimely receipt of important information. If

you are instructed to make the frequency change at a

specific time, fix, or altitude, monitor the frequency

you are on until reaching the specified time, fix, or

altitudes unless instructed otherwise by ATC.

5. Communications for VFR Flights

5.1 FSSs and Supplemental Weather Service Locations (SWSLs) are allocated frequencies for different

functions; for example, 122.0 MHz is assigned as the

En Route Flight Advisory Service frequency at

selected FSSs. In addition, certain FSSs provide

Local Airport Advisory on 123.6 MHz or other

frequencies which can be found in the A/FD. If you

are in doubt as to what frequency to use, 122.2 MHz

is assigned to the majority of FSSs as a common en

route simplex frequency.

NOTE−

In order to expedite communications, state the frequency

being used and the aircraft location during initial call−up.

EXAMPLE−

Dayton radio, November One Two Three Four Five on one

two two point two, over Springfield V−O−R, over.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−13

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5.1.1 Certain VOR voice channels are being utilized

for recorded broadcasts; i.e., ATIS, HIWAS, etc.

These services and appropriate frequencies are listed

in the Airport/Facility Directory. On VFR flights,

pilots are urged to monitor these frequencies. When

in contact with a control facility, notify the controller

if you plan to leave the frequency to monitor these

broadcasts.

5.2 Hazardous Area Reporting Service

5.2.1 Selected FSSs provide flight monitoring where

regularly traveled VFR routes cross large bodies of

water, swamps, and mountains, for the purpose of

expeditiously alerting Search and Rescue facilities

when required.

5.2.1.1 When requesting the service either in person,

by telephone or by radio, pilots should be prepared to

give the following information: type of aircraft,

altitude, indicated airspeed, present position, route of

flight, heading.

5.2.1.2 Radio contacts are desired at least every 10

minutes. If contact is lost for more than 15 minutes,

Search and Rescue will be alerted. Pilots are

responsible for cancelling their request for service

when they are outside the service area boundary.

Pilots experiencing two−way radio failure are

expected to land as soon as practicable and cancel

their request for the service. FIG GEN 3.4−6,

Hazardous Area Reporting Service, includes the

areas and the FSS facilities involved in this program.

5.2.2 Long Island Sound Reporting Service

(LIRS)

5.2.2.1 The New York and Bridgeport AFSSs

provide Long Island Sound Reporting service on

request for aircraft traversing Long Island Sound.

5.2.2.2 When requesting the service, pilots should

ask for SOUND REPORTING SERVICE and should

be prepared to provide the following appropriate

information:

a) Type and color of aircraft.

b) The specific route and altitude across the sound

including the shore crossing point.

c) The overwater crossing time.

d) Number of persons on board.

e) True air speed.

5.2.2.3 Radio contacts are desired at least every 10

minutes; however, for flights of shorter duration, a

midsound report is requested. If contact is lost for

more than 15 minutes, Search and Rescue will be

alerted. Pilots are responsible for cancelling their

request for the Long Island Sound Reporting Service

when outside the service area boundary. Aircraft

experiencing radio failure will be expected to land as

soon as practicable and cancel their request for the

service.

5.2.2.4 Communications. Primary communications − pilot transmits 122.1 MHz and listens on the

VOR frequency.

TBL GEN 3.4−6

New York AFSS

Transmits Receives

Hampton RCO 122.6 MHz 122.6 MHz

Calverton VOR 117.2 MHz Standard FSS

frequencies

Kennedy VORTAC 115.9 MHz 122.1 MHz

Bridgeport AFSS

Transmits Receives

Madison VORTAC 110.4 MHz 122.1 MHz

Groton VOR 110.85 MHz 122.1 MHz

Bridgeport VOR 108.8 MHz 122.1 MHz

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−14

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.4−6

Hazardous Area Reporting Service

5.2.3 Block Island Reporting Service (BIRS)

5.2.3.1 Within the Long Island Reporting Service,

the New York FSS/IFSS also provides an additional

service for aircraft operating between Montauk Point

and Block Island. When requesting this service, pilots

should ask for BLOCK ISLAND REPORTING

SERVICE and should be prepared to provide the

same flight information as that required for the Long

Island Sound Reporting Service.

5.2.3.2 A minimum of three position reports are

mandatory for this service. These are:

a) Report leaving Montauk Point or Block Island.

b) Midway report.

c) Report when over Montauk Point or Block

Island at which time the pilot cancels the overwater

service.

5.2.3.3 Communications. Pilots are to transmit and

receive on 122.6 MHz.

5.2.3.4 Pilots are advised that 122.6 MHz is a remote

receiver located at the Hampton VORTAC site and

designed to provide radio coverage between

Hampton and Block Island. Flights proceeding

beyond Block Island may contact the Bridgeport

AFSS by transmitting on 122.1 MHz and listening on

Groton VOR frequency 110.85 MHz.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−15

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5.2.4 Cape Cod and Islands Radar Overwater

Flight Following

5.2.4.1 In addition to normal VFR radar advisory

service, traffic permitting, Otis Approach Control

provides a radar overwater flight following service

for aircraft traversing the Cape Code and adjacent

island area. Pilots desiring this service may contact

Cape RAPCON on 118.2 MHz.

5.2.4.2 Pilots requesting this service should be

prepared to give the following information:

a) Type and color of aircraft.

b) Altitude.

c) Position and heading.

d) Route of flight.

e) True airspeed.

5.2.4.3 For best radar coverage, pilots are encouraged to fly at 1,500 feet MSL or above.

5.2.4.4 Pilots are responsible for cancelling their

request for overwater flight following when they are

over the mainland and/or outside the service area

boundary.

5.2.5 Lake Reporting Service

5.2.5.1 Cleveland and Lansing AFSSs provide Lake

Reporting Service on request for aircraft traversing

the western half of Lake Erie. Green Bay, Kankakee,

Lansing, and Terre Haute AFSSs provide Lake

Reporting Service on request for aircraft traversing

Lake Michigan.

a) When requesting the service, pilots should ask

for LAKE REPORTING SERVICE.

b) Pilots not on a VFR flight plan should be

prepared to provide all information that is normally

provided for a complete VFR flight plan.

c) Pilots already on a VFR flight plan should be

prepared to provide the following information:

1) Aircraft or flight identification.

2) Type of aircraft.

3) Near−shore crossing point or last fix before

crossing.

4) Proposed time over near−shore crossing

point or last fix before crossing.

5) Proposed altitude.

6) Proposed route of flight.

7) Estimated time over water.

8) Next landing point.

9) AFSS/FSS having complete VFR flight plan

information.

d) Radio contacts must not exceed 10 minutes

when pilots fly at an altitude that affords continuous

communications. If radio contact is lost for more than

15 minutes (5 minutes after a scheduled reporting

time), Search and Rescue (SAR) will be alerted.

5.2.5.2 The estimated time for crossing the far shore

will be the scheduled reporting time for aircraft that

fly at an altitude that does not afford continuous

communication coverage while crossing the lake. If

radio contact is not established within 5 minutes of

that time, SAR will be alerted.

5.2.5.3 Pilots are responsible for canceling their

request for Lake Reporting Service when outside the

service area boundary. Aircraft experiencing radio

failure will be expected to land as soon as practicable

and cancel their Lake Reporting Service flight plan.

5.2.5.4 Communications. Primary communications − Pilots should communicate with the following

facilities on the indicated frequencies:

a) Cleveland AFSS Controls:

1) Cleveland RCO (FSS transmits and receives

on 122.35 or 122.55 MHz).

2) Sandusky VOR (FSS transmits on 109.2 and

receives on 122.1 MHz).

b) Green Bay AFSS Controls:

1) Escanaba VORTAC (FSS transmits on 110.8

and receives on 122.1 MHz).

2) Green Bay RCO (FSS transmits and receives

on 122.55 MHz).

3) Manistique RCO (FSS transmits and receives on 122.25 MHz).

4) Manitowoc VOR (FSS transmits on 111.0

and receives on 122.1 MHz).

5) Menominee VOR (FSS transmits on 109.6

and receives on 122.1 MHz).

6) Milwaukee RCO (FSS transmits and receives on 122.65 MHz).

7) Falls VOR (FSS transmits on 110.0 and

receives on 122.1 MHz).
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−16

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

c) Kankakee AFSS Controls:

1) Chicago Heights VORTAC (FSS transmits

on 114.2 and receives on 122.1 MHz).

2) Meigs RCO (FSS transmits and receives on

122.15 MHz).

3) Waukegan RCO (FSS transmits and receives

on 122.55 MHz).

d) Lansing AFSS Controls:

1) Lake Erie. Detroit City RCO (FSS transmits

and receives on 122.55 MHz).

2) Lake Michigan:

(a) Keeler VORTAC (FSS transmits on 116.6

and receives on 122.1 MHz).

(b) Ludington RCO (FSS transmits and

receives on 122.45 MHz).

(c) Manistee VORTAC (FSS transmits on

111.4 and receives on 122.1 MHz).

(d) Muskegon RCO (FSS transmits and

receives on 122.5 MHz).

(e) Pellston RCO (FSS transmits and receives

on 122.3 MHz).

(f) Pullman VORTAC (FSS transmits on

112.1 and receives on 122.1 MHz).

(g) Traverse City RCO (FSS transmits and

receives on 122.65 MHz).

e) Terre Haute AFSS Controls. South Bend

RCO (FSS transmits and receives on 122.6 MHz).

5.2.5.5 Florida Everglades Reporting Service.

This service is offered by Miami Automated

International Flight Service Station (MIA AIFSS), in

extreme southern Florida. The service is provided to

aircraft crossing the Florida Everglades, between Lee

County (Ft. Myers, FL) VORTAC (RSW) on the

northwest side, and Dolphin (Miami, FL) VOR

(DHP) on the southeast side.

a) The pilot must request the service from Miami

AIFSS.

b) MIA AIFSS frequency information, 122.2,

122.3, and 122.65.

c) The pilot must file a VFR flight plan with the

remark: ERS.

d) The pilot must maintain 2000 feet of altitude.

e) The pilot must make position reports every ten

(10) minutes. SAR begins fifteen (15) minutes after

position report is not made on time.

f) The pilot is expected to land as soon as is

practical, in the event of two−way radio failure, and

advise MIA AIFSS that the service is terminated.

g) The pilot must notify Miami AIFSS when the

flight plan is cancelled or the service is suspended.

6. Over−water Flights Radio Procedure

6.1 Pilots should remember that there is a need to

continuously guard the VHF emergency frequency

121.5 MHz when on long over−water flights, except

when communications on other VHF channels,

equipment limitations, or cockpit duties prevent

simultaneous guarding of two channels. Guarding of

121.5 MHz is particularly critical when operating in

proximity to flight information region (FIR)

boundaries; for example, operations on Route R220

between Anchorage and Tokyo, since it serves to

facilitate communications with regard to aircraft

which may experience in−flight emergencies,

communications, or navigational difficulties. (Reference ICAO Annex 10, Vol II Paras. 5.2.2.1.1.1 and

5.2.2.1.1.2.)

7. Radio Communications and Navigation

Facilities

7.1 A complete listing of air traffic radio communications facilities and frequencies and radio

navigation facilities and frequencies is contained in

the Airport/Facility Directory. Similar information

for the Pacific and Alaskan areas is contained in the

Pacific and Alaskan Supplements (See GEN 3.2,

Aeronautical Charts).
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−17

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

8. U.S. Aeronautical Telecommunications

Services

8.1 The following services are available for aircraft

engaged in international or overseas flight.

8.2 The aeronautical voice communication stations

listed are available to and utilized by the U.S. Federal

Aviation Administration Air Traffic Control Centers

for air traffic control purposes.

8.3 The frequencies in use will depend upon the time

of day or night and conditions which affect radio

wave propagation. Voice communications handled

on a single channel simplex basis (i.e., with the

aircraft and the ground station using the same

frequency for transmission and reception) unless

otherwise noted in remarks.

8.4 The stations will remain on continuous watch for

aircraft within their communications areas and, when

practicable, will transfer this watch to another station

when the aircraft reaches the limit of the

communications area.

8.5 Stations listed below which are designated

“FAA” are operated by the U.S. Federal Aviation

Administration. Stations designated “ARINC” are

operated by Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated, 2551

Riva Road, Annapolis, MD 21401. Contact the

Aviation Voice Services Support Section at

410−266−4430, E:Mail AGOPS@arinc.com or cable

HDQXGXA. (See TBL GEN 3.4−7.)

8.6 All users of the North Atlantic HF MWARA

services should consult International NOTAMS and

ICAO Regional Supplementary Procedures, Document 7030, for current procedures concerning the

operational use of the North Atlantic HF families. At

present, procedures for the distribution of HF

communications traffic in the North Atlantic are:

8.6.1 All aircraft registered in the hemisphere west

of 30W should use family alpha on the southern

routes and family bravo on the central and northern

routes. (Southern routes are those which enter the

New York, San Juan and Santa Maria FIRs. The

central and northern routes comprise all others).

8.6.2 All aircraft registered in the hemisphere east of

30W should use family alpha on the southern routes

and family charlie on the central and northern routes.

8.6.3 All aircraft should use family alpha on the

southern route and family delta on the central and

northern routes while outside the organized track

system (OTS).

8.6.4 Aircraft registered in Australia will use

families designated to aircraft registered east of 30W.

8.7 Aircraft operating in the Anchorage Arctic

CTA/FIR beyond line of sight range of remote control

VHF air/ground facilities operated from the

Anchorage ACC, shall maintain communications

with Cambridge Bay radio and a listening or

SELCAL watch on HF frequencies of the North

Atlantic D (NAT D) network (2971 kHz, 4675 kHz,

8891 kHz and 11279 kHz). Additionally, and in view

of reported marginal reception of the Honolulu

Pacific Volmet broadcasts in that and adjacent

Canadian airspace, Cambridge Bay radio can provide

Anchorage and Fairbanks surface observations and

terminal forecasts to flight crews on request.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−18

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL GEN 3.4−7

Station and

Operating Agency Radio Call TransmittingFrequencies Remarks

HONOLULU

(FAA)

Honolulu

Radio

122.6 122.2 #121.5

MHz

#Emergency. Frequency 122.1 also available for

receiving only.

Volmet 2863 6679 8828

13282 kHz

Broadcasts at H+00−05 and H+30−35; Aerodrome

Forecasts, Honolulu, Hilo, Agana, Honolulu. SIGMET.

Hourly Report, Honolulu, Hilo, Kahului, Agana,

Honolulu.

Broadcasts at H+05−10 and H+35−40; Hourly Reports,

San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland,

Sacramento, Ontario, Las Vegas. SIGMET. Aerodrome

Forecasts, San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles.

Broadcasts at H+25−30 and H+55−60; Hourly Reports,

Anchorage, Elmendorf, Fairbanks, Cold Bay, King

Salmon, Vancouver. SIGMET. Aerodrome Forecasts,

Anchorage, Fairbanks, Cold Bay, Vancouver.

MIAMI (FAA) Miami Radio

126.7 118.4 126.9 122.2

122.4 122.75 123.65

127.9 MHz

Local and Short Range.

#121.5 MHz #Emergency.

NEW YORK

(FAA)

New York

Radio

(Volmet)

3485* 6604 10051

13270* kHz

*3485 Volmet broadcasts from 1 hour after sunset to

1 hour before sunrise.

*13270 Volmet broadcasts from 1 hour before sunrise to

1 hour after sunset.

Broadcasts at H+00−05; Aerodrome Forecasts, Detroit,

Chicago, Cleveland. Hourly Reports, Detroit, Chicago,

Cleveland, Niagara Falls, Milwaukee, Indianapolis.

Broadcasts at H+05−10; SIGMET, (Oceanic−New

York). Aerodrome Forecasts, Bangor, Pittsburgh,

Charlotte. Hourly Reports, Bangor, Pittsburgh, Windsor

Locks, St. Louis, Charlotte, Minneapolis.

Broadcasts at H+10−15; Aerodrome Forecasts, New

York, Newark, Boston. Hourly reports, New York,

Newark, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Washington.

Broadcasts at H+15−20; SIGMET (Oceanic−Miami/San

Juan). Aerodrome Forecasts, Bermuda, Miami, Atlanta.

Hourly Reports, Bermuda, Miami, Nassau, Freeport,

Tampa, West Palm Beach, Atlanta.

Broadcasts at H+30−35; Aerodrome Forecasts, Niagara

Falls, Milwaukee, Indianapolis. Hourly Reports Detroit,

Chicago, Cleveland, Niagara Falls, Milwaukee,

Indianapolis.

Broadcasts at H+35−40; SIGMET (Oceanic−New York).

Aerodrome Forecasts, Windsor Locks, St. Louis. Hourly

Reports, Bangor, Pittsburgh, Windsor Locks, St. Louis,

Charlotte, Minneapolis.

Broadcasts at H+40−45; Aerodrome Forecasts,

Baltimore, Philadelphia, Washington. Hourly Reports,

New York, Newark, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia,

Washington.

Broadcasts at H+45−50; SIGMET (Oceanic−Miami/San

Juan). Aerodrome Forecasts, Nassau, Freeport. Hourly

Reports, Bermuda, Miami, Nassau, Freeport, Tampa,

West Palm Beach, Atlanta.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−19

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Station and

Operating Agency Radio Call TransmittingFrequencies Remarks

NEW YORK

(ARINC) New York

3016 5598 8906

13306 17946

21964 kHz

North Atlantic Family A Network.

2962 6628 8825

11309 13354

17952 kHz

North Atlantic Family E Network.

2887 3455 5550 6577

8846 11396 kHz Caribbean Family A Network.

5520 6586 8918

11330 13297

17907 kHz

Caribbean Family B Network.

3494 6640 8933

11342 13330

17925 kHz

Long Distance Operations Control (LDOC) Service

(phone−patch). Communications are limited to

operational control matters only. Public correspondence

(personal messages) to/from crew or passengers cannot

be accepted.

Note: New York ARINC can also provide HF

communciations over South America on these LDOC

frequencies through their remote site located in Santa

Cruz, Boliva.

129.90 MHz

Extended range VHF. Coverage area includes Canadian

Maritime Provinces, and oceanic routes to Bermuda and

the Caribbean, from Boston, New York and Washington

areas to approximately 250 nautical miles from the east

coast.

130.7 MHz

Extended range VHF. Full period service is provided

within most of the Gulf of Mexico. Also on routes

between Miami and San Juan to a distance of

approximately 250 nautical miles from the Florida coast

and within approximately 250 nautical miles of San

Juan.

Note: New York ARINC also provides VHF

communications over the Northern two−thirds of

Mexico on 130.7 MHz for 14 CFR Section 121.99

compliance.

Note: Due to the distances involved, signal levels

received by aircraft communicating with New York

ARINC in the Gulf of Mexico on frequency 130.700

MHz will be weaker than normally encountered in VHF

communications. Most aircraft usually have the squelch

setup to communicate where signal levels are much

higher and to totally eliminate background noise for the

flight crew.

In order to increase the range and maximize the coverage

area, aircraft are asked to utilize the following squelch

settings on their VHF radios while monitoring or

communicating with New York ARINC.

On aircraft with an OPEN/CLOSE squelch switch, the

squelch should be set to the OPEN position while

communicating or after being SELCAL’ed.

Aircraft with an adjustable system should first set their

squelch to fully open position and then adjust to where

the noise is reduced or just closed. This will allow the

weakest signals to be heard.

Utilizing this procedure will increase the background

noise heard by the flight crew but will allow

communications at a much greater range.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−20

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

Station and

Operating Agency Radio Call TransmittingFrequencies Remarks

436623*

631−244−2492 Aircraft operating within the New York Oceanic FIR.

*Note: This satellite Voice Air/Ground calling number is

available to call ARINC and will be recognized and

converted by all Ground Earth Station (GES) service

providers to the appropriate Public Service Telephone

Network (PTSN) or direct dial number for this

communications center.

SAN FRANCISCO

(ARINC) San Francisco 3413 3452 5574 66738843 10057 13354 kHz Central East Pacific One Network.

2869 5547 11282

13288 21964 kHz Central East Pacific Two Network.

2998 4666 6532 8903

11384 13300 17904

21985 kHz

Central West Pacific Network.

3467 5643 8867 13261

17904 kHz South Pacific Network.

2932 5628 5667 6655

8915 8951 10048

11330 13273 13339

17946 21925 kHz

North Pacific Network

3494 6640 11342

13348 17925

21964 kHz

Long Distance Operations Control (LDOC) Service

(phone−patch). Communications are limited to

operational control matters only. Public correspondence

(personal messages) to/from crew or passengers cannot

be accepted.

Note: San Francisco ARINC can also provide HF

communications along the polar routes on these LDOC

frequencies through their remote site located at Barrow,

Alaska.

131.95 MHz

Extended range VHF. Coverage area includes area

surrounding the Hawaiian Islands and along the tracks

from HNL to the mainland. Coverage extends out

approximately 250 NM from Hawaii and from the West

coast.

129.40 MHz For en route communications for aircraft operating on

Seattle/Anchorage/Routes.

436625*

925−371−3920

Aircraft operating within the Oakland and Anchorage

Oceanic FIRs.

*Note: This satellite Voice Air/Ground calling number is

available to call ARINC and will be recognized and

converted by all Ground Earth Station (GES) service

providers to the appropriate Public Service Telephone

Network (PTSN) or direct dial number for this

communications center.

OAKLAND (FAA) Oakland 

Radio

122.5 122.2 #121.5

MHz #Emergency.

SAN JUAN P.R.

(FAA)

San Juan 

Radio

 #121.5 122.2 126.7

123.65 #243.0 255.4

114.0 113.5 108.2

108.6 109.0 110.6

MHz

Unscheduled broadcasts H+00, H+15, H+30 and H+45

as appropriate, for Weather and Military Activity

Advisories, on 110.6, 109.0, 108.6, 108.2, 113.5, and

114.0 MHz. #Emergency. For frequencies 114.0, 113.5,

108.2 and 109.0 MHz use 122.1 MHz for transmissions

to San Juan Radio. For frequency 108.6 use

123.6 MHz.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.4−21

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9. Selective Calling System (SELCAL)

Facilities Available

9.1 The SELCAL is a communication system which

permits the selective calling of individual aircraft

over radio−telephone channels from the ground

station to properly equipped aircraft, so as to

eliminate the need for the flight crew to constantly

monitor the frequency in use.

TBL GEN 3.4−8

Location Operator HF VHF

New York ARINC X X

San Francisco ARINC X X

10. Special North Atlantic, Caribbean, and

Pacific Area Communications

10.1 VHF air−to−air frequencies enable aircraft

engaged on flights over remote and oceanic areas out

of range of VHF ground stations to exchange

necessary operational information and to facilitate

the resolution of operational problems.

10.2 Frequencies have been designated as follows:

TBL GEN 3.4−9

Area Frequency

North Atlantic 123.45 MHz

Caribbean 123.45 MHz

Pacific 123.45 MHz

11. Distress and Urgency Communications

11.1 A pilot who encounters a distress or urgency

condition can obtain assistance simply by contacting

the air traffic facility or other agency in whose area of

responsibility the aircraft is operating, stating the

nature of the difficulty, pilot’s intentions, and

assistance desired. Distress and urgency communications procedures are prescribed by the International

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), however, and

have decided advantages over the informal procedure

described above.

11.2 Distress and urgency communications procedures discussed in the following paragraphs relate to

the use of air ground voice communications.

11.3 The initial communication, and if considered

necessary, any subsequent transmissions by an

aircraft in distress should begin with the signal

MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. The

signal PAN−PAN should be used in the same manner

for an urgency condition.

11.4 Distress communications have absolute priority over all other communications, and the word

MAYDAY commands radio silence on the frequency

in use. Urgency communications have priority over

all other communications except distress, and the

word PAN−PAN warns other stations not to interfere

with urgency transmissions.

11.5 Normally, the station addressed will be the air

traffic facility or other agency providing air traffic

services, on the frequency in use at the time. If the

pilot is not communicating and receiving services,

the station to be called will normally be the air traffic

facility or other agency in whose area of

responsibility the aircraft is operating, on the

appropriate assigned frequency. If the station

addressed does not respond, or if time or the situation

dictates, the distress or urgency message may be

broadcast, or a collect call may be used, addressing

“Any Station (Tower) (Radio) (Radar).”

11.6 The station addressed should immediately

acknowledge a distress or urgency message, provide

assistance, coordinate and direct the activities of

assisting facilities, and alert the appropriate Search

and Rescue coordinator if warranted. Responsibility

will be transferred to another station only if better

handling will result.

11.7 All other stations, aircraft and ground, will

continue to listen until it is evident that assistance is

being provided. If any station becomes aware that the

station being called either has not received a distress

or urgency message, or cannot communicate with the

aircraft in difficulty, it will attempt to contact the

aircraft and provide assistance.

11.8 Although the frequency in use or other

frequencies assigned by ATC are preferable, the

following emergency frequencies can be used for

distress or urgency communications, if necessary or

desirable:

11.8.1 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. Both have a

range generally limited to line of sight. 121.5 MHz is

guarded by direction finding stations and some

military and civil aircraft. 243.0 MHz is guarded by

military aircraft. Both 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are

guarded by military towers, most civil towers, flight

service stations, and radar facilities. Normally

ARTCC emergency frequency capability does not

extend to radar coverage limits. If an ARTCC does
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GEN 3.4−22

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

not respond when called on 121.5 MHz or

243.0 MHz, call the nearest tower or flight service

station.

11.8.2 2182 kHz. The range is generally less than

300 miles for the average aircraft installation. It can

be used to request assistance from stations in the

maritime service. 2182 kHz is guarded by major radio

stations serving Coast Guard Rescue Coordination

Centers and Coast Guard units along the sea coasts of

the U.S. and shores of the Great Lakes. The call

“Coast Guard” will alert all Coast Guard Radio

Stations within range. 2182 kHz is also guarded by

most commercial coast stations and some ships and

boats.

12. Two−Way Radio Communications

Failure

12.1 It is virtually impossible to provide regulations

and procedures applicable to all possible situations

associated with two−way radio communications

failure. During two−way radio communications

failure when confronted by a situation not covered in

the regulation, pilots are expected to exercise good

judgment in whatever action they elect to take.

Should the situation so dictate, they should not be

reluctant to use the emergency action contained in

14 CFR Section 91.3(b).

12.2 Whether two−way communications failure

constitutes an emergency depends on the circumstances, and in any event is a determination made by

the pilot. 14 CFR Section 91.3 authorizes a pilot to

deviate from any rule to the extent required to meet

an emergency.

12.3 In the event of two−way radio communications

failure, ATC service will be provided on the basis that

the pilot is operating in accordance with 14 CFR

Section 91.185. A pilot experiencing two−way

communications failure should (unless emergency

authority is exercised) comply with 14 CFR Section

91.185 as indicated below.

12.4 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each pilot

who has two−way radio communications failure

when operating under IFR shall comply with the

following conditions:

12.4.1 If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if

VFR conditions are encountered after the failure,

each pilot shall continue the flight under VFR and

land as soon as practicable.

NOTE−

This procedure also applies when two-way radio failure

occurs while operating in Class A airspace. The primary

objective of this provision in 14 CFR Section 91.185 is to

preclude extended IFR operation by these aircraft within

the ATC system. Pilots should recognize that operation

under these conditions may unnecessarily as well as

adversely affect other users of the airspace, since ATC

may be required to reroute or delay other users in order to

protect the failure aircraft. However, it is not intended that

the requirement to “land as soon as practicable” be

construed to mean “as soon as possible.” Pilots retain the

prerogative of exercising their best judgment and are not

required to land at an unauthorized airport, at an airport

unsuitable for the type of aircraft flown, or to land only

minutes short of their intended destination.

12.4.2 If the failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if

VFR conditions cannot be complied with, each pilot

shall continue the flight according to the following

requirements.

12.5 Route requirements:

12.5.1 By the route assigned in the last ATC

clearance received.

12.5.2 If being radar vectored, by the direct route

from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or

airway specified in the vector clearance.

12.5.3 In the absence of an assigned route, by the

route that ATC has advised may be expected in a

further clearance.

12.5.4 In the absence of an assigned route or a route

that ATC has advised may be expected in a further

clearance, by the route filed in the flight plan.

12.6 Altitude requirements. At the HIGHEST of the

following altitudes or flight levels FOR THE

ROUTE SEGMENT BEING FLOWN:

12.6.1 The altitude or flight level assigned in the last

ATC clearance received.

12.6.2 The minimum altitude (converted, if appropriate, to minimum flight level as prescribed in

14 CFR Section 91.121(c)) for IFR operations.

12.6.3 The altitude or flight level ATC has advised

may be expected in a further clearance.
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GEN 3.4−23

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NOTE−

The intent of the rule is that a pilot who has experienced

two−way radio failure should select the appropriate

altitude for the particular route segment being flown and

make the necessary altitude adjustments for subsequent

route segments. If the pilot received an “expect further

clearance” containing a higher altitude to expect at a

specified time or fix, he/she should maintain the highest

of the following altitudes until that time/fix: (1) his/her

last assigned altitude, or (2) the minimum altitude/flight

level for IFR operations.

Upon reaching the time/fix specified, the pilot should

commence his/her climb to the altitude he/she was

advised to expect. If the radio failure occurs after the

time/fix specified, the altitude to be expected is not

applicable and the pilot should maintain an altitude

consistent with 1 or 2 above.

If the pilot receives an “expect further clearance”

containing a lower altitude, the pilot should maintain the

highest of 1 or 2 above until that time/fix specified in

paragraph 12.7, Leave Clearance Limit.

EXAMPLE−

1. A pilot experiencing two−way radio failure at an

assigned altitude of 7,000 feet is cleared along a direct

route which will require a climb to a minimum IFR altitude

of 9,000 feet, should climb to reach 9,000 feet at the time

or place where it becomes necessary (see 14 CFR

Section 91.177(b)). Later while proceeding along an

airway with an MEA of 5,000 feet, the pilot would descend

to 7,000 feet (the last assigned altitude), because that

altitude is higher than the MEA.

2. A pilot experiencing two−way radio failure while

being progressively descended to lower altitudes to begin

an approach is assigned 2,700 feet until crossing the VOR

and then cleared for the approach. The MOCA along the

airway is 2,700 feet and MEA is 4,000 feet. The aircraft

is within 22 NM of the VOR. The pilot should remain at

2,700 feet until crossing the VOR because that altitude is

the minimum IFR altitude for the route segment being

flown.

3. The MEA between a and b − 5,000 feet. The MEA

between b and c −5,000 feet. The MEA between c and d

−11,000 feet. The MEA between d and e − 7,000 feet. A

pilot had been cleared via a, b, c, d, to e. While flying

between a and b the assigned altitude was 6,000 feet and

the pilot was told to expect a clearance to 8,000 feet at b.

Prior to receiving the higher altitude assignment, the pilot

experienced two−way failure. The pilot would maintain

6,000 to b, then climb to 8,000 feet (the altitude the pilot

was advised to expect.) The pilot would maintain 8,000

feet, then climb to 11,000 at c, or prior to c if necessary

to comply with an MCA at c. (14 CFR Section 91.177(b).)

Upon reaching d, the pilot would descend to 8,000 feet

(even though the MEA was 7,000 feet), as 8,000 was the

highest of the altitude situations stated in the rule 14 CFR

Section 91.185.

12.7 Leave Clearance Limit

12.7.1 When the clearance limit is a fix from which

an approach begins, commence descent or descent

and approach as close as possible to the expect further

clearance time if one has been received, or if one has

not been received, as close as possible to the

estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed

or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.

12.7.2 If the clearance limit is not a fix from which

an approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the

expect further clearance time if one has been

received, or if none has been received, upon arrival

over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from

which an approach begins and commence descent or

descent and approach as close as possible to the

estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed

or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.

13. Transponder Operation During

Two−Way Communications Failure

13.1 If an aircraft with a coded radar beacon

transponder experiences a loss of two−way radio

capability, the pilot should adjust the transponder to

reply on Mode 3/A, Code 7600.

13.2 The pilot should understand that the aircraft

may not be in an area of radar coverage.
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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

14. Reestablishing Radio Contact

14.1 In addition to monitoring the NAVAID voice

feature, the pilot should attempt to reestablish

communications by attempting contact:

14.1.1 On the previously assigned frequency.

14.1.2 With an FSS or ARINC.

14.2 If communications are established with an FSS

or ARINC, the pilot should advise the aircraft’s

position, altitude, and last assigned frequency; then

request further clearance from the controlling facility.

The preceding does not preclude the use of

121.5 MHz. There is no priority on which action

should be attempted first. If the capability exists, do

all at the same time.

NOTE−

Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) is a

commercial communications corporation which designs,

constructs, operates, leases or otherwise engages in radio

activities serving the aviation community. ARINC has the

capability of relaying information to/from ATC facilities

throughout the country.
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GEN 3.5−1

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3.5 Meteorological Services

1. Meteorological Authority

1.1 The meteorological services for civil aviation are

prepared by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. Department of

Commerce.

Postal Address:

National Weather Service

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Department of Commerce

1325 East West Highway

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

Telephone: 301−713−1726

Telex: None

Commercial Telegraphic Address:

METEO WASHINGTON DC

1.2 Meteorological Offices

1.2.1 FAA Flight Service Stations

1.2.1.1 A complete listing of FAA Flight Service

Stations and their telephone numbers is contained in

the Airport/Facility Directory. Additionally, communications data and en route services provided by FAA

Flight Service Stations are contained in the same

publication. Similar information for the Pacific and

Alaskan areas is contained in the Pacific and Alaskan

Supplements. (See GEN 3.2, Aeronautical Charts.)

1.3 Climatological Summaries

1.3.1 Requests for copies of climatological summaries are made available through the:

National Climatic Data Center

Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

Environmental Data Services Branch

Federal Building

Asheville, North Carolina 28801

2. Area of Responsibility

2.1 The National Weather Service (NWS) is

responsible for providing meteorological services for

the 50 states of the U.S., its external territories, and

possessions.

2.2 International Flight Documentation Sites.

Airports listed below are designated as international

flight documentation sites.

TBL GEN 3.5−1

Location Airport Name Indicator

Anchorage, AK Anchorage International PANC

Atlanta, GA William B. Hartsfield

International KATL

Baltimore, MD Baltimore−Washington

International KBWI

Boston, MA General Edward Lawrence Logan

International KBOS

Charlotte, NC Charlotte/Douglas International KCLT

Chicago, IL O’Hare International KORD

Cincinnati, OH Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky

International KCVG

Dallas−Ft. Worth,

TX Dallas−Ft. Worth International KDFW

Detroit, MI Detroit Metropolitan Wayne

County KDTW

Fairbanks, AK Fairbanks International PAFA

Guam Guam/Agana Naval Air Station NOCD

AGANA

Hartford, CT Bradley International KBDL

Houston, TX George Bush

Intercontinental/Houston KIAH

Kahului, HI Kahului PHOG

Las Vegas, NV McCarran International KLAS

Los Angeles, CA Los Angeles International KLAX

Miami, FL Miami International KMIA

Minneapolis, MN

Minneapolis−St. Paul

International

(Wold−Chamberlain)

KMSP

New Orleans, LA New Orleans International

(Moisant Field) KMSY

New York, NY John F. Kennedy International KJFK

Newark, NJ Newark International KEWR

Orlando, FL Orlando International KMCO

Pago Pago,

American Samoa Pago Pago International NSTU

Philadelphia, PA Philadelphia International KPHL

Pittsburgh, PA Pittsburgh International KPIT

Portland, OR Portland International KPDX

Raleigh−Durham,

NC Raleigh−Durham International KRDU

San Francisco, CA San Francisco International KSFO

San Juan, PR Luis Munoz Marin International TJSJ

Seattle, WA Seattle−Tacoma International KSEA

Tampa, FL Tampa International KTPA

Washington, DC Washington Dulles International KIAD
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GEN 3.5−2

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

2.2.1 Climatological information, basically in the

form of climatological summaries, is available at all

designated international airports in the U.S.

2.2.2 Flight documentation is provided in the form of

copies of facsimile charts, copies of teletype−writer

forecasts, and airport forecast decode sheets. Flight

documentation materials are available at all destination regular airport meteorological stations. English

is the language used for all U.S. flight documentation.

Briefings can be provided either in person or received

by telephone at all airport meteorological offices.

2.2.3 All airport forecasts (TAF) prepared for U.S.

international airports cover the following validity

periods: 00−24 UTC, 06−06 UTC, 12−12 UTC, and

18−18 UTC. At the present time, specific landing

forecasts are not made for any U.S. airport. The

portion of the airport’s TAF valid closest to the time

of landing is used in lieu of a landing forecast.

2.2.4 Supplementary information available at U.S.

meteorological airport offices includes extended

weather and severe weather outlooks, pilot reports,

runway braking action reports (during the winter),

relative humidity, times of sunrise and sunset, surface

and upper air analyses, radar echo charts, and

forecasts of maximum and minimum surface

temperatures.

2.2.5 All meteorological offices shown as taking

routine aviation observations also take unscheduled

special aviation observations when meteorological

conditions warrant.

3. Types of Service Provided

3.1 Area Forecast Charts (Facsimile Form)

3.1.1 The U.S. has one Area Forecast Center, the

National Center for Environmental Predictions

(NCEP), located in Suitland, Maryland. The NCEP

prepares current weather, significant weather,

forecast weather, constant pressure, and tropopause−

vertical wind shear charts for the U.S., the Caribbean

and Northern South America, the North Atlantic, and

the North Pacific areas. The NCEP also prepares a

constant pressure and tropopause−vertical wind shear

chart for Canada.

3.2 Local and Regional Aviation Forecasts

(Printed Form)

3.2.1 Numerous forecasts and weather advisories are

prepared which serve local and regional areas of the

U.S. These forecasts are generally prepared by the

NWS on a scheduled basis or, as in the case of severe

weather advisories, as needed. These forecasts are

Area Forecast (FA), Airport Forecast (TAF), Severe

Weather Forecast (WW), Hurricane Advisories

(WT), Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD),

Simplified Surface Analyses (AS), 12− and 24−Hour

Prognoses (FS), and flight advisory notices, such as

SIGMETs (WS), AIRMETs (WA), Center Weather

Advisories (CWA), and Radar Weather Reports (SD).

3.3 Preflight Briefing Services

3.3.1 Preflight briefing services and flight documentation are provided through the FAA’s Automated

Flight Service Stations (AFSS).

3.4 National Weather Service Aviation Products

3.4.1 Weather service to aviation is a joint effort of

the NWS, the FAA, the military weather services, and

other aviation oriented groups and individuals. The

NWS maintains an extensive surface, upper air, and

radar weather observing program and a nationwide

aviation weather forecasting service. The majority of

pilot weather briefings are provided by FAA

personnel at Flight Service Stations (AFSS/FSS).

Surface weather observations are taken by the NWS

and NWS−certified FAA, contract, and supplemental

observers and by automated observing systems. (See

paragraph 7, Weather Observing Programs.)

3.4.2 Weather element values may be expressed by

using different measurement systems depending on

several factors including the user of the weather

products; i.e., the general public, aviation interests,

international services, or a combination of these

users. FIG GEN 3.5−1, Weather Elements Conversion Tables, provides conversion tables for the

weather elements that will be most often encountered

by pilots.
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FIG GEN 3.5−1

Weather Elements Conversion Tables

3.5 FAA Weather Services

3.5.1 The FAA maintains a nationwide network of

AFSSs/FSSs to serve the weather needs of pilots. In

addition, NWS meteorologists are assigned to all Air

Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) as part the

Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU). They provide

advisory service and short−term forecasts (nowcasts)

to support the needs of the FAA and other users of the

national airspace system.

3.5.2 The primary source of preflight weather

briefings is an individual briefing obtained from a

briefer at the AFSS/FSS. These briefings, which are

tailored to your specific flight, are available 24 hours

a day through the use of toll free lines (INWATS).

Numbers for these services can be found in the

Airport/Facility Directory under the “FAA and NWS

Telephone Numbers” section. They are also listed in

the U.S. Government section of your local telephone

directory under Department of Transportation,
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Federal Aviation Administration or Department of

Commerce, National Weather Service. See paragraph 3.7, Preflight Briefing, for the types of

preflight briefings available and the types of

information contained in each.

3.5.3 Other Sources of Weather Information

3.5.3.1 Telephone Information Briefing Service

(TIBS) (AFSS); and in Alaska, Transcribed Weather

Broadcast (TWEB) locations, and telephone access

to the TWEB (TEL−TWEB) provide continuously

updated recorded weather information for short or

local flights. Separate paragraphs in this section give

additional information regarding these services.

3.5.3.2 Weather and aeronautical information is also

available from numerous private industry sources on

an individual or contract pay basis. Information on

how to obtain this service should be available from

local pilot organizations.

3.5.3.3 The Direct User Access System (DUATS)

can be accessed by U.S. certified pilots with a current

medical certificate toll−free via personal computer.

Pilots can receive alpha−numeric preflight weather

data and file domestic VFR and IFR flight plans. The

following are the contract DUATS vendors:

GTE Information Federal Systems

15000 Conference Center Drive

Chantilly, VA 22021−3808

Computer Modem Access Number:

For filing flight plans and obtaining weather

briefings: 1−800−767−9989

For customer service: 1−800−345−3828

Data Transformation Corporation

108−D Greentree Road

Turnersville, NJ 08012

Computer Modem Access Number:

For filing flight plans and obtaining weather

briefings: 1−800−245−3828

For customer service: 1−800−243−3828

3.5.4 Inflight weather information is available from

any AFSS/FSS within radio range. The common

frequency for all AFSSs is 122.2. Discrete

frequencies for individual stations are listed in the

Airport/Facility Directory. See paragraph 6 for

information on broadcasts. En Route Flight Advisory

Service (EFAS) is provided to serve the non−routine

weather needs of pilots in flight. See paragraph 3.8,

En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), for details

on this service.

3.6 Use of Aviation Weather Products

3.6.1 Air carriers and operators certificated under

the provisions of 14 CFR Part 119 are required to use

the aeronautical weather information systems

defined in the Operations Specifications issued to that

certificate holder by the FAA. These systems may

utilize basic FAA/National Weather Service (NWS)

weather services, contractor− or operator−proprietary weather services and/or Enhanced Weather

Information System (EWINS) when approved in the

Operations Specifications. As an integral part of this

system approval, the procedures for collecting,

producing and disseminating aeronautical weather

information, as well as the crew member and

dispatcher training to support the use of system

weather products, must be accepted or approved.

3.6.2 Operators not certificated under the provisions

of 14 CFR Part 119 are encouraged to use FAA/NWS

products through Flight Service Stations, Direct User

Access Terminal System (DUATS), and/or Flight

Information Services Data Link (FISDL).

3.6.3 The suite of available aviation weather product

types is expanding, with the development of new

sensor systems, algorithms and forecast models. The

FAA and NWS, supported by the National Center for

Atmospheric Research and the Forecast Systems

Laboratory, develop and implement new aviation

weather product types through a comprehensive

process known as the Aviation Weather Technology

Transfer process. This process ensures that user

needs, and technical and operational readiness

requirements are met as experimental product types

mature to operational application.

3.6.4 The development of new weather products

coupled with increased access to these products via

the public Internet, created confusion within the

aviation community regarding the relationship

between regulatory requirements and new weather

products. Consequently, FAA differentiates between

those weather products that may be utilized to comply

with regulatory requirements and those that may only

be used to improve situational awareness. To clarify

the proper use of aviation weather products to meet

the requirements of 14 CFR, FAA defines weather

products as follows:
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3.6.4.1 Primary Weather Product. An aviation

weather product that meets all the regulatory

requirements and safety needs for use in making

flight related, aviation weather decisions.

3.6.4.2 Supplementary Weather Product. An

aviation weather product that may be used for

enhanced situational awareness. If utilized, a

supplementary weather product must only be used in

conjunction with one or more primary weather

product. In addition, the FAA may further restrict the

use of supplementary aviation weather products

through limitations described in the product label.

NOTE−

An aviation weather product produced by the Federal

Government is a primary product unless designated as a

supplementary product by FAA.

3.6.5 In developing the definitions of primary and

supplementary weather products, it is not the intent of

FAA to change or increase the regulatory burden.

Rather, the definitions are meant to eliminate

confusion by differentiating between weather

products that may be utilized to meet regulatory

requirements and other weather products that may

only be used to improve situational awareness.

3.6.6 All flight−related, aviation weather decisions

must be based on primary weather products.

Supplementary weather products augment the

primary products by providing additional weather

information but may not be used as stand−alone

weather products to meet aviation weather regulatory

requirements or without the relevant primary

products. When discrepancies exist between primary

and supplementary weather products describing the

same weather phenomena, users must base flight−related decisions on the primary weather product.

Furthermore, multiple primary products may be

necessary to meet all aviation weather regulatory

requirements.

3.6.7 The development of enhanced communications capabilities, most notably the Internet, has

allowed pilots access to an ever−increasing range of

weather service providers and proprietary products.

The FAA has identified three distinct types of weather

information available to pilots and operators.

3.6.7.1 Observations. Raw weather data collected

by some type of sensor suite including surface and

airborne observations, radar, lightning, satellite

imagery, and profilers.

3.6.7.2 Analysis. Enhanced depiction and/or interpretation of observed weather data.

3.6.7.3 Forecasts. Predictions of the development

and/or movement of weather phenomena based on

meteorological observations and various mathematical models.

3.6.8 Not all sources of aviation weather information

are able to provide all three types of weather

information. The FAA has determined that operators

and pilots may utilize the following approved sources

of aviation weather information:

3.6.8.1 Federal Government. The FAA and NWS

collect raw weather data, analyze the observations,

and produce forecasts. The FAA and NWS

disseminate meteorological observations, analyses,

and forecasts through a variety of systems. In

addition, the Federal Government is the only

approval authority for sources of weather observations; for example, contract towers and airport

operators may be approved by the Federal

Government to provide weather observations.

3.6.8.2 Enhanced Weather Information System

(EWINS). An EWINS is an FAA approved,

proprietary system for tracking, evaluating, reporting, and forecasting the presence or lack of adverse

weather phenomena. An EWINS is authorized to

produce flight movement forecasts, adverse weather

phenomena forecasts, and other meteorological

advisories.

3.6.8.3 Commercial Weather Information Providers. In general, commercial providers produce

proprietary weather products based on NWS/FAA

products with formatting and layout modifications

but no material changes to the weather information

itself. This is also referred to as “repackaging.” In

addition, commercial providers may produce analyses, forecasts, and other proprietary weather products

that substantially alter the information contained in

government−produced products. However, those

proprietary weather products that substantially alter

government−produced weather products or information, may only be approved for use by Part 121 and

Part 135 certificate holders if the commercial

provider is EWINS qualified.
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GEN 3.5−6

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

NOTE−

Commercial weather information providers contracted by

FAA to provide weather observations, analyses, and

forecasts (e.g., contract towers) are included in the Federal

Government category of approved sources by virtue of

maintaining required technical and quality assurance

standards under Federal Government oversight.

3.6.9 Pilots and operators should be aware that

weather services provided by entities other than FAA,

NWS or their contractors (such as the DUATS and

FISDL providers) may not meet FAA/NWS quality

control standards. Hence, operators and pilots

contemplating using such services should request

and/or review an appropriate description of services

and provider disclosure. This should include, but is

not limited to, the type of weather product (e.g.,

current weather or forecast weather), the currency of

the product (i.e., product issue and valid times), and

the relevance of the product. Pilots and operators

should be cautious when using unfamiliar products,

or products not supported by FAA/NWS technical

specifications.

NOTE−

When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station

Specialist.

3.6.10 As a point of clarification, Advisory

Circular 00−62, Internet Communications of Aviation Weather and NOTAMS, describes the process

for a weather information provider to become a

Qualified Internet Communications Provider (QICP)

and only applies to 14 CFR Part 121 and Part 135

certificate holders. Therefore, pilots conducting

operations under 14 CFR Part 91 may access weather

products via DUATS and the public Internet.

3.7 Preflight Briefing

3.7.1 Flight Service Stations are the primary source

of obtaining preflight briefings and inflight weather

information. Flight Service Specialists are qualified

and certificated by the NWS as Pilot Weather

Briefers. They are not authorized to make original

forecasts, but are authorized to translate and interpret

available forecasts (TAF) and reports (METAR/

SPECI) directly into terms describing the weather

conditions which you can expect along your flight

route and at your destination. Available aviation

weather reports and forecasts are displayed at each

AFSS/FSS. Some of the larger AFSSs/FSSs provide

a separate display for pilot use. Pilots should feel free

to use these self−briefing displays where available, or

to ask for a briefing or for assistance from the

specialist on duty. Three basic types of preflight

briefings are available: Standard Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and Outlook Briefing. You should

specify to the briefer the type of briefing you want,

along with appropriate background information. This

will enable the briefer to tailor the information to your

intended flight. The following paragraphs describe

the types of briefings available and the information

provided in each.

3.7.2 Standard Briefing. You should request a

Standard Briefing any time you are planning a flight

and you have not received a previous briefing or have

not received preliminary information through mass

dissemination media; e.g., TIBS, TWEB (Alaska

only), etc. International data may be inaccurate or

incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of

U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you

to check data as soon as practical after entering

foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the

international cautionary advisory. The briefer will

automatically provide the following information in

the sequence listed, except as noted, when it is

applicable to your proposed flight.

3.7.2.1 Adverse Conditions. Significant meteorological and aeronautical information that might

influence the pilot to alter the proposed flight; e.g.,

hazardous weather conditions, runway closures,

NAVAID outages.

3.7.2.2 VFR Flight Not Recommended. When

VFR flight is proposed and sky conditions or

visibilities are present or forecast, surface or aloft,

that in the briefer’s judgment would make flight

under visual flight rules doubtful, the briefer will

describe the conditions, affected locations, and use

the phrase “VFR flight not recommended.” This

recommendation is advisory in nature. The final

decision as to whether the flight can be conducted

safely rests solely with the pilot.

3.7.2.3 Synopsis. A brief statement describing the

type, location, and movement of weather systems

and/or air masses which might affect the proposed

flight.

NOTE−

The first 3 elements of a standard briefing may be combined

in any order when the briefer believes it will help to

describe conditions more clearly.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−7

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.7.2.4 Current Conditions. Reported weather

conditions applicable to the flight will be summarized

from all available sources; e.g., METARs, PIREPs,

RAREPs. This element may be omitted if the

proposed time of departure is beyond two hours,

unless the information is specifically requested by the

pilot.

3.7.2.5 En Route Forecast. En route conditions

forecast for the proposed route are summarized in

logical order; i.e., departure−climbout, en route, and

descent.

3.7.2.6 Destination Forecast. The destination forecast (TAF) for the planned estimated time of arrival

(ETA). Any significant changes within 1 hour before

and after the planned arrival are included.

3.7.2.7 Winds Aloft. Forecast winds aloft for the

proposed route will be provided using degrees of the

compass. The briefer will interpolate wind directions

and speeds between levels and stations as necessary

to provide expected conditions at planned altitudes.

3.7.2.8 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

a) Available NOTAM (D) information pertinent to

the proposed flight.

b) Available NOTAM (L) information pertinent to

the departure and/or local area, and pertinent FDC

NOTAMs.

c) FSS briefers do not provide FDC NOTAM

information for special instrument approach procedures unless specifically asked. Pilots authorized by

the FAA to use special instrument approach

procedures must specifically request FDC NOTAM

information for these procedures.

NOTE−

NOTAM information may be combined with current

conditions when the briefer believes it is logical to do so.

NOTE−

NOTAM (D) information and Flight Data Center NOTAMs

which have been published in the Notices to Airmen

Publication are not included in pilot briefings unless a

review of this publication is specifically requested by the

pilot. For complete flight information you are urged to

review both the Notices to Airmen Publication and the

Airport/Facility Directory in addition to obtaining a

briefing.

3.7.2.9 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Delays. Any

known ATC delays and flow control advisories which

might affect the proposed flight.

3.7.2.10 Pilots may obtain the following from

AFSS/FSS briefers upon request:

a) Information on Special Use Airspace (SUA),

SUA related airspace and Military Training Routes

(MTRs) activity within the flight plan area and a

100 NM extension around the flight plan area.

NOTE−

1. SUA and related airspace includes the following types

of airspace: Alert Area, Military Operations Area (MOA),

Prohibited Area, Restricted Area, Refueling Anchor,

Warning Area and Air Traffic Control Assigned Airspace

(ATCAA). MTR data includes the following types of

airspace: IFR Military Training Route (IR), VFR Military

Training Route (VR), Slow Training Route (SR) and Aerial

Refueling Track (AR).

2. Pilots are encouraged to request updated information

from ATC facilities while in flight.

b) A review of the Notices to Airmen publication

for pertinent NOTAMs and Special Notices.

c) Approximate density altitude data.

d) Information regarding such items as air traffic

services and rules, customs/immigration procedures,

ADIZ rules, and search and rescue.

e) LORAN−C NOTAMs, available military

NOTAMs, runway friction measurement value

NOTAMs.

f) GPS RAIM availability for 1 hour before to

1 hour after ETA, or a time specified by the pilot.

g) Other assistance as required.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−8

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.7.3 Abbreviated Briefing. Request an Abbreviated Briefing when you need information to

supplement mass disseminated data, to update a

previous briefing, or when you need only one or two

specific items. Provide the briefer with appropriate

background information, the time you received the

previous information, and/or the specific items

needed. You should indicate the source of the

information already received so that the briefer can

limit the briefing to the information that you have not

received, and/or appreciable changes in meteorological/aeronautical conditions since your previous

briefing. To the extent possible, the briefer will

provide the information in the sequence shown for a

Standard Briefing. If you request only one or two

specific items, the briefer will advise you if adverse

conditions are present or forecast. Adverse conditions contain both meteorological and aeronautical

information. Details on these conditions will be

provided at your request.

3.7.4 Outlook Briefing. You should request an

Outlook Briefing whenever your proposed time of

departure is 6 or more hours from the time of the

briefing. The briefer will provide available forecast

data applicable to the proposed flight. This type of

briefing is provided for planning purposes only. You

should obtain a Standard or Abbreviated Briefing

prior to departure in order to obtain such items as

adverse conditions, current conditions, updated

forecasts, winds aloft, and NOTAMs.

3.7.5 Inflight Briefing. You are encouraged to

obtain your preflight briefing by telephone or in

person before departure. In those cases where you

need to obtain a preflight briefing or an update to a

previous briefing by radio, you should contact the

nearest AFSS/FSS to obtain this information. After

communications have been established, advise the

specialist of the type briefing you require and provide

appropriate background information. You will be

provided information as specified in the above

paragraphs, depending upon the type briefing

requested. In addition, the specialist will recommend

shifting to the flight watch frequency when

conditions along the intended route indicate that it

would be advantageous for you to do so.

3.7.6 Following any briefing, feel free to ask for any

information that you or the briefer may have missed.

It helps to save your questions until the briefing has

been completed. This way the briefer is able to

present the information in a logical sequence and

lessens the chance of important items being

overlooked.

3.8 En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS)

3.8.1 EFAS is a service specifically designed to

provide en route aircraft with timely and meaningful

weather advisories pertinent to the type of flight

intended, route of flight, and altitude. In conjunction

with this service, EFAS is also a central collection and

distribution point for pilot−reported weather information. EFAS is provided by specially trained

specialists in selected AFSSs/FSSs controlling

multiple remote communications outlets covering a

large geographical area and is normally available

throughout the conterminous U.S. and Puerto Rico

from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. EFAS provides communications capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 feet AGL

to 17,500 feet MSL on a common frequency of

122.0 MHz. Discrete EFAS frequencies have been

established to ensure communications coverage from

18,000 through 45,000 MSL serving in each specific

ARTCC area. These discrete frequencies may be used

below 18,000 feet when coverage permits reliable

communication.

NOTE−

When an EFAS outlet is located in a time zone different from

the zone in which the flight watch control station is located,

the availability of service may be plus or minus 1 hour from

the normal operating hours.

3.8.2 In some regions of the contiguous U.S.,

especially those that are mountainous, it is necessary

to be above 5000 feet AGL in order to be at an altitude

where the EFAS frequency, 122.0 MHz, is available.

Pilots should take this into account when flight

planning. Other AFSS communication frequencies

may be available at lower altitudes. See

FIG GEN 3.5−2.

3.8.3 Contact flight watch by using the name of the

ARTCC facility serving the area of your location,

followed by your aircraft identification and the name

of the nearest VOR to your position. The specialist

needs to know this approximate location to select the

most appropriate outlet for communications coverage.

EXAMPLE−

Cleveland flight watch, Cessna One Three Four Two Kilo,

Mansfield V−O−R, over.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−9

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.8.4 Charts depicting the location of the flight

watch control stations (parent facility) and the outlets

they use are contained in the Airport/Facility

Directory. If you do not know in which flight watch

area you are flying, initiate contact by using the words

“FLIGHT WATCH,” your aircraft identification, and

the name of the nearest VOR. The facility will

respond using the name of the flight watch facility.

EXAMPLE−

Flight watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo, Mansfield

V−O−R, over.

3.8.5 The AFSSs/FSSs which have implemented En

Route Flight Advisory Service are listed in the

Airport/Facility Directory.

3.8.6 EFAS is not intended to be used for filing or

closing flight plans, position reporting, getting

complete preflight briefings, or obtaining random

weather reports and forecasts. En route flight

advisories are tailored to the phase of flight that

begins after climb−out and ends with descent to land.

Immediate destination weather and terminal airport

forecasts will be provided on request. Pilots

requesting information not within the scope of flight

watch will be advised of the appropriate AFSS/FSS

frequency to contact to obtain the information. Pilot

participation is essential to the success of EFAS by

providing a continuous exchange of information on

weather, winds, turbulence, flight visibility, icing or

other hazardous conditions between pilots and flight

watch specialists. Pilots are encouraged to report

good weather as well as bad, and to confirm both

expected conditions and unexpected conditions to

EFAS facilities.

3.9 Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories

3.9.1 Background

3.9.1.1 Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories are

forecasts to advise en route aircraft of development of

potentially hazardous weather. All inflight aviation

weather advisories in the conterminous U.S. are

issued by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in

Kansas City, Missouri. The Weather Forecast

Office (WFO) in Honolulu issues advisories for the

Hawaiian Islands. In Alaska, the Alaska Aviation

Weather Unit (AAWU) issues inflight aviation

weather advisories. All heights are referenced MSL,

except in the case of ceilings (CIG) which indicate

AGL.

3.9.1.2 There are three types of inflight aviation

weather advisories: the Significant Meteorological

Information (SIGMET), the Convective SIGMET

and the Airmen’s Meteorological Information

(AIRMET). All of these advisories use the same

location identifiers (either VORs, airports, or

well−known geographic areas) to describe the

hazardous weather areas. See FIG GEN 3.5−3 and

FIG GEN 3.5−4. Graphics with improved clarity can

be found in Advisory Circular AC 00−45E, Aviation

Weather Services, which is available on the following

web site: http://www.faa.gov.

3.9.1.3 Two other weather products supplement

these Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories:

a) The Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs),

(with associated Alert Messages) (AWW), and

b) The Center Weather Advisories (CWAs).

3.9.2 SIGMET (WS)/AIRMET (WA)

SIGMETs/AIRMETs are issued corresponding to the

Area Forecast (FA) areas described in FIG

GEN 3.5−4, FIG GEN 3.5−6 and FIG GEN 3.5−6.

The maximum forecast period is 4 hours for

SIGMETs and 6 hours for AIRMETs. Both advisories

are considered “widespread” because they must be

either affecting or be forecasted to affect an area of at

least 3,000 square miles at any one time. However, if

the total area to be affected during the forecast period

is very large, it could be that in actuality only a small

portion of this total area would be affected at any one

time.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−10

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−2

EFAS Radio Coverage Areas

NOTE−

EFAS radio coverage at 5000 feet AGL. The shaded areas depict limited coverage areas in which altitudes above 5000 feet

AGL would be required to contact EFAS.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−11

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−3 

Inflight Advisory Plotting Chart

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−12

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−4 

Geographical Areas and Terrain Features

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−13

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−5 

Aviation Area Forecasts

FA Locations − Contiguous United States

FIG GEN 3.5−6

Alaska Area Forecast Sectors

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−14

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−7

Hawaii Area Forecast Locations

3.9.3 SIGMET (WS)

3.9.3.1 A SIGMET advises of nonconvective

weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft.

SIGMETs are unscheduled products that are valid for

4 hours. However, conditions that are associated with

hurricanes are valid for 6 hours. Unscheduled updates

and corrections are issued as necessary. In the

conterminous U.S., SIGMETs are issued when the

following phenomena occur or are expected to occur:

a) Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms.

b) Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air

turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms.

c) Dust storms or sandstorms lowering surface or

inflight visibilities to below 3 miles.

d) Volcanic ash.

3.9.3.2 In Alaska and Hawaii, SIGMETs are also

issued for:

a) Tornadoes.

b) Lines of thunderstorms.

c) Embedded thunderstorms.

d) Hail greater than or equal to 3/4 inch in diameter.

3.9.3.3 SIGMETs are identified by an alphabetic

designator from November through Yankee excluding Sierra and Tango. (Sierra, Tango, and Zulu are

reserved for AIRMETs.) The first issuance of a

SIGMET will be labeled as UWS (Urgent Weather

SIGMET). Subsequent issuances are at the forecasters discretion. Issuance for the same phenomenon

will be sequentially numbered, using the original

designator until the phenomenon ends. For example,

the first issuance in the Chicago (CHI) FA area for

phenomenon moving from the Salt Lake City (SLC)

FA area will be SIGMET Papa 3, if the previous two

issuances, Papa 1 and Papa 2, had been in the SLC FA

area. Note that no two different phenomena across the

country can have the same alphabetic designator at

the same time.

EXAMPLE−

Example of a SIGMET:

BOSR WS 050600

SIGMET ROMEO 2 VALID UNTIL 051000

ME NH VT

FROM CAR TO YSJ TO CON TO MPV TO CAR

MOD TO OCNL SEV TURB BLW 080 EXP DUE TO STG

NWLY FLOW. CONDS CONTG BYD

1000Z.

3.9.3.4 Convective SIGMET (WST)

a) Convective SIGMETs are issued in the

conterminous U.S. for any of the following:

1) Severe thunderstorm due to:

(a) Surface winds greater than or equal to

50 knots.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−15

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

(b) Hail at the surface greater than or equal to

3/4 inches in diameter.

(c) Tornadoes.

2) Embedded thunderstorms.

3) A line of thunderstorms.

4) Thunderstorms producing precipitation

greater than or equal to heavy precipitation affecting

40 percent or more of an area at least 3,000 square

miles.

b) Any convective SIGMET implies severe or

greater turbulence, severe icing, and low−level wind

shear. A convective SIGMET may be issued for any

convective situation that the forecaster feels is

hazardous to all categories of aircraft.

c) Convective SIGMET bulletins are issued for

the western (W), central (C), and eastern (E) United

States. (Convective SIGMETs are not issued for

Alaska or Hawaii.) The areas are separated at 87 and

107 degrees west longitude with sufficient overlap to

cover most cases when the phenomenon crosses the

boundaries. Bulletins are issued hourly at H+55.

Special bulletins are issued at any time as required

and updated at H+55. If no criteria meeting

convective SIGMET requirements are observed or

forecasted, the message “CONVECTIVE SIGMET...

NONE” will be issued for each area at H+55.

Individual convective SIGMETs for each area (W, C,

E) are numbered sequentially from number one each

day, beginning at 00Z. A convective SIGMET for a

continuing phenomenon will be reissued every hour

at H+55 with a new number. The text of the bulletin

consists of either an observation and a forecast or just

a forecast. The forecast is valid for up to 2 hours.

EXAMPLE−

Example of a Convective SIGMET:

MKCC WST 251655

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 54C

VALID UNTIL 1855Z

WI IL

FROM 30E MSN−40ESE DBQ

DMSHG LINE TS 15 NM WIDE MOV FROM 30025KT.

TOPS TO FL450. WIND GUSTS TO 50 KT POSS.

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 55C

VALID UNTIL 1855Z

WI IA

FROM 30NNW MSN−30SSE MCW

DVLPG LINE TS 10 NM WIDE MOV FROM 30015KT.

TOPS TO FL300.

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 56C

VALID UNTIL 1855Z

MT ND SD MN IA MI

LINE TS 15 NM WIDE MOV FROM 27020KT. TOPS TO

FL380.

OUTLOOK VALID 151855−252255

FROM 60NW ISN−INL−TVC−SBN−BRL−FSD−BIL−60N

W ISN

IR STLT IMGRY SHOWS CNVTV CLD TOP TEMPS

OVER SRN WI HAVE BEEN WARMING STEADILY

INDCG A WKNG TREND. THIS ALSO REFLECTED BY

LTST RADAR AND LTNG DATA. WKNG TREND OF

PRESENT LN MAY CONT...HWVR NEW DVLPMT IS

PSBL ALG OUTFLOW BDRY AND/OR OVR NE IA/SW

WI BHD CURRENT ACT.

A SCND TS IS CONTG TO MOV EWD THRU ERN MT

WITH NEW DVLPMT OCRG OVR CNTRL ND. MT ACT

IS MOVG TWD MORE FVRBL AMS OVR THE WRN

DAKS WHERE DWPTS ARE IN THE UPR 60S WITH

LIFTED INDEX VALUES TO MS 6. TS EXPD TO INCR IN

COVERAGE AND INTSTY DURG AFTN HRS.

WST ISSUANCES EXPD TO BE RQRD THRUT AFTN

HRS WITH INCRG PTNTL FOR STGR CELLS TO

CONTAIN LRG HAIL AND PSBLY DMGG SFC WNDS.

3.9.3.5 International SIGMET

a) Some NWS offices have been designated by the

ICAO as Meteorological Watch Offices (MWOs).

These offices are responsible for issuing International

SIGMETs for designated areas that include Alaska,

Hawaii, portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,

and the Gulf of Mexico.

b) The offices which issue International

SIGMETs are:

1) The AWC in Kansas City, Missouri.

2) The AAWU in Anchorage, Alaska.

3) The WFO in Honolulu, Hawaii.

4) The WFO on Guam Island in the Pacific

Ocean.

c) These SIGMETs are considered “widespread”

because they must be either affecting or be forecasted

to affect an area of at least 3,000 square miles at any

one time. The International SIGMET is issued for

12 hours for volcanic ash events, 6 hours for

hurricanes and tropical storms, and 4 hours for all

other events. Like the domestic SIGMETs, International SIGMETs are also identified by an alphabetic

designator from Alpha through Mike and are

numbered sequentially until that weather phenomenon ends. The criteria for an International SIGMET

are:

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−16

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

1) Thunderstorms occurring in lines, embedded

in clouds, or in large areas producing tornadoes or

large hail.

2) Tropical cyclones.

3) Severe icing.

4) Severe or extreme turbulence.

5) Dust storms and sandstorms lowering

visibilities to less than 3 miles.

6) Volcanic ash.

EXAMPLE−

Example of an International SIGMET:

WSNT06 KKCI 022014

SIGA0F

KZMA KZNY TJZS SIGMET FOXTROT 3 VALID

022015/030015 KKCI− MIAMI OCEANIC FIR NEW

YORK OCEANIC FIR SAN JUAN FIR FRQ TS WI AREA

BOUNDED BY 2711N6807W 2156N6654W 2220N7040W

2602N7208W 2711N6807W. TOPS TO FL470. MOV NE

15KT. WKN. BASED ON SAT AND LTG OBS.

MOSHER

3.9.3.6 AIRMET (WA)

a) AIRMETs (WAs) are advisories of significant

weather phenomena but describe conditions at

intensities lower than those which require the

issuance of SIGMETs. AIRMETs are intended for

dissemination to all pilots in the preflight and en route

phase of flight to enhance safety. AIRMET Bulletins

are issued on a scheduled basis every 6 hours

beginning at 0145 UTC during Central Daylight

Time and at 0245 UTC during Central Standard Time.

Unscheduled updates and corrections are issued as

necessary. Each AIRMET Bulletin contains any

current AIRMETs in effect and an outlook for

conditions expected after the AIRMET valid period.

AIRMETs contain details about IFR, extensive

mountain obscuration, turbulence, strong surface

winds, icing, and freezing levels.

b) There are three AIRMETs: Sierra, Tango, and

Zulu. After the first issuance each day, scheduled or

unscheduled bulletins are numbered sequentially for

easier identification.

1) AIRMET Sierra describes IFR conditions

and/or extensive mountain obscurations.

2) AIRMET Tango describes moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater,

and/or nonconvective low−level wind shear.

3) AIRMET Zulu describes moderate icing and

provides freezing level heights.

EXAMPLE−

Example of AIRMET Sierra issued for the Chicago FA

area:

CHIS WA 121345

AIRMET SIERRA UPDT 3 FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN

VALID UNTIL 122000.

AIRMET IFR...SD NE MN IA MO WI LM MI IL IN KY

FROM 70NW RAP TO 50W RWF TO 50W MSN TO GRB

TO MBS TO FWA TO CVG TO HNN TO TRI TO ARG TO

40SSW BRL TO OMA TO BFF TO 70NW RAP

OCNL CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM FG/BR. CONDS

ENDG 15Z−17Z.

AIRMET MTN OBSCN...KY TN

FROM HNN TO TRI TO CHA TO LOZ TO HNN

MTNS OCNL OBSC CLDS/PCPN/BR. CONDS ENDG TN

PTN AREA 18Z− 20Z..CONTG KY BYD 20Z..ENDG 02Z.

EXAMPLE−

Example of AIRMET Tango issued for the Salt Lake City

FA area:

SLCT WA 121345

AIRMET TANGO UPDT 2 FOR TURB VALID UNTIL

122000.

AIRMET TURB...NV UT CO AZ NM 

FROM LKV TO CHE TO ELP TO 60S TUS TO YUM TO

EED TO RNO TO LKV OCNL MOD TURB BLW FL180

DUE TO MOD SWLY/WLY WNDS. CONDS CONTG BYD

20Z THRU 02Z.

AIRMET TURB...NV WA OR CA CSTL WTRS

FROM BLI TO REO TO BTY TO DAG TO SBA TO 120W

FOT TO 120W TOU TO BLI

OCNL MOD TURB BTWN FL180 AND FL400 DUE TO

WNDSHR ASSOCD WITH JTSTR. CONDS CONTG BYD

20Z THRU 02Z.

EXAMPLE−

Example of AIRMET Zulu issued for the San Francisco

FA area:

SFOZ WA 121345

AIRMET ZULU UPDT 2 FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID

UNTIL 122000.

AIRMET ICE...WA OR ID MT NV UT

FROM YQL TO SLC TO WMC TO LKV TO PDT TO YDC

TO YQL

LGT OCNL MOD RIME/MXD ICGICIP BTWN FRZLVL

AND FL220. FRZLVL 080−120. CONDS CONTG BYD

20Z THRU 02Z.

AIRMET ICE...WA OR

FROM YDC TO PDT TO LKV TO 80W MFR TO ONP TO

TOU TO YDC

LGT OCNL MOD RIME/MXD ICGICIP BTWN FRZLVL

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−17

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

AND FL180. FRZLVL 060−080. CONDS CONTG BYD

20Z THRU 02Z.

FRZLVL...WA...060 CSTLN SLPG 100 XTRM E.

OR...060−070 CASCDS WWD. 070−095 RMNDR.

NRN CA...060−100 N OF A 30N FOT−40N RNO LN SLPG

100−110 RMNDR.

3.9.3.7 Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs)

and Alert Messages (AWWs)

a) WWs define areas of possible severe thunderstorms or tornado activity. The bulletins are issued by

the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, OK.

WWs are unscheduled and are issued as required.

b) A severe thunderstorm watch describes areas of

expected severe thunderstorms. (Severe thunderstorm criteria are 3/4−inch hail or larger and/or wind

gusts of 50 knots [58 mph] or greater.)

c) A tornado watch describes areas where the

threat of tornadoes exists.

d) In order to alert the WFOs, CWSUs, FSSs, and

other users, a preliminary notification of a watch

called the Alert Severe Weather Watch bulletin

(AWW) is sent before the WW. (WFOs know this

product as a SAW).

EXAMPLE−

Example of an AWW:

MKC AWW 011734

WW 75 TORNADO TX OK AR 011800Z−020000Z

AXIS..80 STATUTE MILES EAST AND WEST OF A

LINE..60ESE DAL/DALLAS TX/ − 30 NW ARG/ WALNUT

RIDGE AR/

..AVIATION COORDS.. 70NM E/W /58W GGG − 25NW

ARG/

HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT..1 3/4 INCHES. WIND

GUSTS..70 KNOTS. MAX TOPS TO 450. MEAN WIND

VECTOR 24045.

e) Soon after the AWW goes out, the actual watch

bulletin itself is issued. A WW is in the following

format:

1) Type of severe weather watch, watch area,

valid time period, type of severe weather possible,

watch axis, meaning of a watch, and a statement that

persons should be on the lookout for severe weather.

2) Other watch information; i.e., references to

previous watches.

3) Phenomena, intensities, hail size, wind speed

(knots), maximum cumulonimbus (CB) tops, and

estimated cell movement (mean wind vector).

4) Cause of severe weather.

5) Information on updating Convective Outlook

(CA) products.

EXAMPLE−

Example of a WW:

BULLETIN − IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED

TORNADO WATCH NUMBER 381

STORM PREDICTION CENTER NORMAN OK

556 PM CDT MON JUN 2 1997

THE STORM PREDICTON CENTER HAS ISSUED A

TORNADO WATCH FOR PORTIONS OF NORTHEAST

NEW MEXICO TEXAS PANHANDLE

EFFECTIVE THIS MONDAY NIGHT AND TUESDAY

MORNING FROM 630 PM UNTIL MIDNIGHT CDT.

TORNADOES...HAIL TO 2 3/4 INCHES IN DIAMETER...THUNDERSTORM WIND GUSTS TO 80

MPH...AND DANGEROUS LIGHTNING ARE POSSIBLE

IN THESE AREAS.

THE TORNADO WATCH AREA IS ALONG AND 60

STATUTE MILES NORTH AND SOUTH OF A LINE

FROM 50 MILES SOUTHWEST OF RATON NEW

MEXICO TO 50 MILES EAST OF AMARILLO TEXAS.

REMEMBER...A TORNADO WATCH MEANS CONDITIONS ARE FAVORABLE FOR TORNADOES AND

SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE

WATCH AREA. PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD

BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR THREATENING WEATHER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER STATEMENTS AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS.

OTHER WATCH INFORMATION...CONTINUE...

WW 378...WW 379...WW 380

DISCUSSION...THUNDERSTORMS ARE INCREASING

OVER NE NM IN MOIST SOUTHEASTERLY UPSLOPE

FLOW. OUTFLOW BOUNDARY EXTENDS EASTWARD

INTO THE TEXAS PANHANDLE AND EXPECT STORMS

TO MOVE ESE ALONG AND NORTH OF THE

BOUNDARY ON THE N EDGE OF THE CAP. VEERING

WINDS WITH HEIGHT ALONG WITH INCREASGING

MID LVL FLOW INDICATE A THREAT FOR SUPERCELLS.

AVIATION...TORNADOES AND A FEW SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS WITH HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT TO 2

3/4 INCHES. EXTREME TURBULENCE AND SURFACE

WIND GUSTS TO 70 KNOTS. A FEW CUMULONIMBI

WITH MAXIMUM TOPS TO 550. MEAN STORM

MOTION VECTOR 28025.

f) Status reports are issued as needed to show

progress of storms and to delineate areas no longer

under the threat of severe storm activity. Cancellation

bulletins are issued when it becomes evident that no

severe weather will develop or that storms have

subsided and are no longer severe.

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

g) When tornadoes or severe thunderstorms have

developed, the local WFO office will issue the

warnings covering those areas.

3.9.3.8 Center Weather Advisories (CWAs)

a) CWAs are unscheduled inflight, flow control,

air traffic, and air crew advisory. By nature of its short

lead time, the CWA is not a flight planning product.

It is generally a nowcast for conditions beginning

within the next two hours. CWAs will be issued:

1) As a supplement to an existing SIGMET,

Convective SIGMET or AIRMET.

2) When an Inflight Advisory has not been

issued but observed or expected weather conditions

meet SIGMET/AIRMET criteria based on current

pilot reports and reinforced by other sources of

information about existing meteorological conditions.

3) When observed or developing weather

conditions do not meet SIGMET, Convective

SIGMET, or AIRMET criteria; e.g., in terms of

intensity or area coverage, but current pilot reports or

other weather information sources indicate that

existing or anticipated meteorological phenomena

will adversely affect the safe flow of air traffic within

the ARTCC area of responsibility.

b) The following example is a CWA issued from

the Kansas City, Missouri, ARTCC. The “3” after

ZKC in the first line denotes this CWA has been

issued for the third weather phenomena to occur for

the day. The “301” in the second line denotes the

phenomena number again (3) and the issuance

number (01) for this phenomena. The CWA was

issued at 2140Z and is valid until 2340Z.

EXAMPLE−

ZKC3 CWA 032140

ZKC CWA 301 VALID UNTIL 032340

ISOLD SVR TSTM over KCOU MOVG SWWD 10

KTS ETC.

4. Categorical Outlooks

4.1 Categorical outlook terms describing general

ceiling and visibility conditions for advance planning

purposes are used only in area forecasts. They are

defined as follows:

4.1.1 LIFR (Low IFR) − Ceiling less than 500 feet

and/or visibility less than 1 mile.

4.1.2 IFR − Ceiling 500 to less than 1,000 feet and/or

visibility 1 to less than 3 miles.

4.1.3 MVFR (Marginal VFR) − Ceiling 1,000 or

3,000 feet and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive.

4.1.4 VFR − Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and

visibility greater than 5 miles; includes sky clear.

4.2 The cause of LIFR, IFR, or MVFR is indicated

by either ceiling or visibility restrictions or both. The

contraction “CIG” and/or weather and obstruction to

vision symbols are used. If winds or gusts of 25 knots

or greater are forecast for the outlook period, the word

“WIND” is also included for all categories, including

VFR.

EXAMPLE−

LIFR CIG−low IFR due to low ceiling.

IFR FG−IFR due to visibility restricted by fog.

MVFR CIG HZ FU−marginal VFR due both to ceiling and

to visibility restricted by haze and smoke.

IFR CIG RA WIND−IFR due both to low ceiling and to

visibility restricted by rain; wind expected to be 25 knots or

greater.

5. Telephone Information Briefing Service

(TIBS)

5.1 TIBS, provided by automated flight service

stations (AFSSs), is a continuous recording of

meteorological and aeronautical information, available by telephone. Each AFSS provides at least four

route and/or area briefings. In addition, airspace

procedures and special announcements (if applicable) concerning aviation interests are also available.

Depending upon user demand, other items may be

provided; i.e., METAR observations, terminal airport

forecasts, winds aloft, and temperatures aloft

forecasts.

6. Inflight Weather Broadcasts

6.1 Weather Advisory Broadcasts. ARTCCs’

broadcast a Severe Weather Forecast Alert (AWW),

Convective SIGMET, or CWA alert once on all

frequencies, except emergency, when any part of the

area described is within 150 miles of the airspace

under their jurisdiction. These broadcasts contain

SIGMET or CWA identification and a brief

description of the weather activity and general area

affected.

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GEN 3.5−19

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

EXAMPLE−

Attention all aircraft, SIGMET Delta Three, from Myton to

Tuba City to Milford, severe turbulence and severe clear

icing below one zero thousand feet. Expected to continue

beyond zero three zero zero zulu.

EXAMPLE−

Attention all aircraft, Convective SIGMET Two Seven

Eastern. From the vicinity of Elmira to Phillipsburg.

Scattered embedded thunderstorms moving east at one

zero knots. A few intense level five cells, maximum tops four

five zero.

EXAMPLE−

Attention all aircraft, Kansas City Center weather advisory

one zero three. Numerous reports of moderate to severe

icing from eight to niner thousand feet in a three zero mile

radius of St. Louis. Light or negative icing reported from

four thousand to one two thousand feet remainder of

Kansas City Center area.

NOTE−

Terminal control facilities have the option to limit the

AWW, Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA broadcast

as follows: local control and approach control positions

may opt to broadcast SIGMET or CWA alerts only when

any part of the area described is within 50 miles of the

airspace under their jurisdiction.

6.2 Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS). This is a continuous broadcast of

inflight weather advisories including summarized

AWWs, SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs, CWAs,

AIRMETs, and urgent PIREPs. HIWAS has been

adopted as a national program and will be

implemented throughout the conterminous U.S. as

resources permit. In those areas where HIWAS is

commissioned, ARTCC, Terminal ATC, and AFSS/

FSS facilities have discontinued the broadcast of

inflight advisories. HIWAS is an additional source of

hazardous weather information which makes these

data available on a continuous basis. It is not,

however, a replacement for preflight or inflight

briefings or real−time weather updates from Flight

Watch (EFAS). As HIWAS is implemented in

individual center areas, the commissioning will be

advertised in the Notices to Airmen publication.

6.2.1 Where HIWAS has been implemented, a

HIWAS alert will be broadcast on all except

emergency frequencies once upon receipt by ARTCC

and terminal facilities which will include an alert

announcement, frequency instruction, number, and

type of advisory updated; e.g., AWW, SIGMET,

Convective SIGMET, or CWA.

EXAMPLE−

Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information

(SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, AIRMET, urgent pilot

weather report (UUA), or Center Weather Advisory

(CWA)), (number or numbers) for (geographical area)

available on HIWAS, flight watch, or flight service

frequencies.

6.2.2 In HIWAS ARTCC areas, AFSSs/FSSs will

broadcast a HIWAS update announcement once on all

except emergency frequencies upon completion of

recording an update to the HIWAS broadcast.

Included in the broadcast will be the type of advisory

update; e.g., AWW, SIGMET, Convective SIGMET,

or CWA.

EXAMPLE−

Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information for

(geographical area) available from flight watch or flight

service.

6.2.3 HIWAS availability is shown on IFR En Route

Low Altitude Charts and VFR Sectional Charts. The

symbol depiction is identified in the chart legend.

7. Weather Observing Programs

7.1 Manual Observations. Aviation Routine

Weather Reports (METAR) are taken at more than

600 locations in the U.S. With only a few exceptions,

these stations are located at airport sites and most are

staffed by FAA or NWS personnel who manually

observe, perform calculations, and enter the

observation into the distribution system. The format

and coding of these observations are contained in

FIG GEN 3.5−25.

7.2 Automated Weather Observing System

(AWOS)

7.2.1 Automated weather reporting systems are

increasingly being installed at airports. These

systems consist of various sensors, a processor, a

computer−generated voice subsystem, and a transmitter to broadcast local, minute−by−minute weather

data directly to the pilot.

NOTE−

When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches Hg.,

see Section ENR 1.7, Altimeter Setting Procedures.

7.2.2 The AWOS observations will include the

prefix “AUTO” to indicate that the data are derived

from an automated system. Some AWOS locations

will be augmented by certified observers who will

provide weather and obstruction to vision information in the remarks of the report when the reported

3 AUG 06
AIP

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GEN 3.5−20

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

visibility is less than 3 miles. These sites, along with

the hours of augmentation, are published in the

Airport/Facility Directory. Augmentation is identified in the observation as “OBSERVER WEATHER.” The AWOS wind speed, direction and gusts,

temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting are

exactly the same as for manual observations. The

AWOS will also report density altitude when it

exceeds the field elevation by more than 1,000 feet.

The reported visibility is derived from a sensor near

the touchdown of the primary instrument runway.

The visibility sensor output is converted to a visibility

value using a 10−minute harmonic average. The

reported sky condition/ceiling is derived from the

ceilometer located next to the visibility sensor. The

AWOS algorithm integrates the last 30 minutes of

ceilometer data to derive cloud layers and heights.

This output may also differ from the observer sky

condition in that the AWOS is totally dependent upon

the cloud advection over the sensor site.

7.2.3 Referred to as AWOS, these real−time systems

are operationally classified into four basic levels:

7.2.3.1 AWOS−A: only reports altimeter setting.

NOTE−

Any other information is advisory only.

7.2.3.2 AWOS−l: usually reports altimeter setting,

wind data, temperature, dew point, and density

altitude.

7.2.3.3 AWOS−2 provides the information provided

by AWOS−l, plus visibility.

7.2.3.4 AWOS−3 provides the information provided

by AWOS−2, plus cloud/ceiling data.

7.2.4 The information is transmitted over a discrete

VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local

NAVAID. AWOS transmissions on a discrete VHF

radio frequency are engineered to be receivable to a

maximum of 25 NM from the AWOS site and a

maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many

locations, AWOS signals may be received on the

surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit

the maximum AWOS reception distance and/or

altitude. The system transmits a 20− to 30−second

weather message updated each minute. Pilots should

monitor the designated frequency for the automated

weather broadcast. A description of the broadcast is

contained in paragraph 7.3, Automated Weather

Observing System (AWOS) Broadcasts. There is no

two−way communication capability. Most AWOS

sites also have a dial−up capability so that the

minute−by−minute weather messages can be accessed via telephone.

7.2.5 AWOS information (system level, frequency,

phone number) concerning specific locations is

published, as the systems become operational, in the

Airport/Facility Directory and, where applicable, on

published Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP)

charts. Selected individual systems may be incorporated into nationwide data collection and dissemination networks in the future.

7.3 Automated Weather Observing System

(AWOS) Broadcasts. Computer−generated voice is

used in AWOS to automate the broadcast of the

minute−by−minute weather observations. In addition, some systems are configured to permit the

addition of an operator−generated voice message;

e.g., weather remarks, following the automated

parameters. The phraseology used generally follows

that used for other weather broadcasts. Following are

explanations and examples of the exceptions.

7.3.1 Location and Time. The location/name and

the phrase “AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVATION” followed by the time are announced.

7.3.1.1 If the airport’s specific location is included in

the airport’s name, the airport’s name is announced.

EXAMPLE−

“Bremerton National Airport automated weather

observation one four five six zulu.”

“Ravenswood Jackson County Airport automated weather

observation one four five six zulu.”

7.3.1.2 If the airport’s specific location is not

included in the airport’s name, the location is

announced followed by the airport’s name.

EXAMPLE−

“Sault Ste. Marie, Chippewa County International Airport

automated weather observation.”

“Sandusky, Cowley Field automated weather

observation.”

7.3.1.3 The word “TEST” is added following

“OBSERVATION” when the system is not in

commissioned status.

EXAMPLE−

“Bremerton National Airport automated weather

observation test one four five six zulu.”

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GEN 3.5−21

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

7.3.1.4 The phrase “TEMPORARILY INOPERATIVE” is added when the system is inoperative.

EXAMPLE−

“Bremerton National Airport automated weather

observing system temporarily inoperative.”

7.3.2 Ceiling and Sky Cover

7.3.2.1 Ceiling is announced as either “CEILING”

or “INDEFINITE CEILING.” The phrases “MEASURED CEILING” and “ESTIMATED CEILING“

are not used. With the exception of indefinite ceilings,

all automated ceiling heights are measured.

EXAMPLE−

“Bremerton National Airport automated weather

observation one four five six zulu, ceiling two thousand

overcast.”

“Bremerton National Airport automated weather

observation one four five six zulu, indefinite ceiling two

hundred.”

7.3.2.2 The word “CLEAR” is not used in AWOS

due to limitations in the height ranges of the sensors.

No clouds detected is announced as, “No clouds

below XXX”” or, in newer systems as, “Clear below

XXX” (where XXX is the range limit of the sensor).

EXAMPLE−

“No clouds below one two thousand.”

“Clear below one two thousand.”

7.3.2.3 A sensor for determining ceiling and sky

cover is not included in some AWOS. In these

systems, ceiling and sky cover are not announced.

“SKY CONDITION MISSING” is announced only if

the system is configured with a ceilometer, and the

ceiling and sky cover information is not available.

7.3.3 Visibility

7.3.3.1 The lowest reportable visibility value in

AWOS is “less than 1/4.” It is announced as

“VISIBILITY LESS THAN ONE QUARTER.”

7.3.3.2 A sensor for determining visibility is not

included in some AWOSs. In these systems, visibility

is not announced. “VISIBILITY MISSING” is

announced only if the system is configured with a

visibility sensor and visibility information is not

available.

7.3.4 Weather. In the future, some AWOSs are to be

configured to determine the occurrence of precipitation. However, the type and intensity may not always

be determined. In these systems, the word “PRECIPITATION” will be announced if precipitation is

occurring, but the type and intensity are not

determined.

7.3.5 Remarks. If remarks are included in the

observation, the word “REMARKS” is announced

following the altimeter setting. Remarks are

announced in the following order of priority:

7.3.5.1 Automated “remarks.”

a) Variable visibility.

b) Density altitude.

7.3.5.2 Manual input remarks. Manual input

remarks are prefaced with the phrase “OBSERVER

WEATHER.” As a general rule the manual remarks

are limited to:

a) Type and intensity of precipitation.

b) Thunderstorms, intensity (if applicable), and

direction.

c) Obstructions to vision when the visibility is less

than 7 miles.

EXAMPLE−

“Remarks...density altitude, two thousand five

hundred...visibility variable between one and two...wind

direction variable between two four zero and three one

zero...observed weather...thunderstorm moderate rain

showers and mist...thunderstorm overhead.”

7.3.5.3 If an automated parameter is “missing” and

no manual input for that parameter is available, the

parameter is announced as “MISSING.” For

example, a report with the dew point “missing,” and

no manual input available, would be announced as

follows:

EXAMPLE−

“Ceiling one thousand overcast, visibility three, precipitation, temperature three zero, dew point missing, wind calm,

altimeter three zero zero one.”

7.3.5.4 “REMARKS” are announced in the following order of priority:

a) Automated “REMARKS”:

1) Variable visibility.

2) Density altitude.

b) Manual Input “REMARKS.” As a general rule,

the remarks are announced in the same order as the

parameters appear in the basic text of the observation.

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GEN 3.5−22

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

EXAMPLE−

“Remarks, density altitude, two thousand five hundred,

visibility variable between one and two, wind direction

variable between two four zero and three one zero,

observer ceiling estimated two thousand broken, observer

temperature two, dew point minus five.”

7.4 Automated Surface Observing System

(ASOS)/Automated Weather Sensor System

(AWSS)

7.4.1 The ASOS/AWSS is the primary surface

weather observing system of the U.S. The program to

install and operate these systems throughout the U.S.

is a joint effort of the NWS, the FAA and the

Department of Defense. AWSS is a follow−on

program that provides identical data as ASOS.

ASOS/AWSS is designed to support aviation

operations and weather forecast activities. The

ASOS/AWSS will provide continuous minute-byminute observations and perform the basic observing

functions necessary to generate an aviation routine

weather report (METAR) and other aviation weather

information. The information may be transmitted

over a discrete VHF radio frequency or the voice

portion of a local NAVAID. ASOS/AWSS transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are

engineered to be receivable to a maximum of 25 NM

from the ASOS/AWSS site and a maximum altitude

of 10,000 feet AGL. At many locations, ASOS/

AWSS signals may be received on the surface of the

airport, but local conditions may limit the maximum

reception distance and/or altitude. While the

automated system and the human may differ in their

methods of data collection and interpretation, both

produce an observation quite similar in form and

content. For the “objective” elements such as

pressure, ambient temperature, dew point temperature, wind, and precipitation accumulation, both the

automated system and the observer use a fixed

location and time-averaging technique. The quantitative differences between the observer and the

automated observation of these elements are

negligible. For the “subjective” elements, however,

observers use a fixed time, spatial averaging

technique to describe the visual elements (sky

condition, visibility and present weather), while the

automated systems use a fixed location, time

averaging technique. Although this is a fundamental

change, the manual and automated techniques yield

remarkably similar results within the limits of their

respective capabilities. (See FIG GEN 3.5−27 and

FIG GEN 3.5−28, Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS

(METAR) Observation.

7.4.2 System Description

7.4.2.1 The ASOS/AWSS at each airport location

consists of four main components:

a) Individual weather sensors.

b) Data collection and processing units.

c) Peripherals and displays.

7.4.2.2 The ASOS/AWSS sensors perform the basic

function of data acquisition. They continuously

sample and measure the ambient environment, derive

raw sensor data and make them available to the

collection and processing units.

7.4.3 Every ASOS/AWSS will contain the following basic set of sensors.

7.4.3.1 Cloud height indicator (one or possibly

three).

7.4.3.2 Visibility sensor (one or possibly three).

7.4.3.3 Precipitation identification sensor.

7.4.3.4 Freezing rain sensor.

7.4.3.5 Pressure sensors (two sensors at small

airports; three sensors at large airports).

7.4.3.6 Ambient temperature/dew point temperature

sensor.

7.4.3.7 Anemometer (wind direction and speed

sensor).

7.4.3.8 Rainfall accumulation sensor.

7.4.4 The ASOS/AWSS data outlets include:

7.4.4.1 Those necessary for on−site airport users.

7.4.4.2 National communications networks.

7.4.4.3 Computer−generated voice (available

through FAA radio broadcast to pilots and dial−in

telephone line).

NOTE−

Wind direction broadcast over FAA radios is in reference

to magnetic north.

7.5 A comparison of weather observing programs

and the elements observed by each are in

TBL GEN 3.5−2, Weather Observing Programs.

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GEN 3.5−23

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TBL GEN 3.5−2

Weather Observing Programs

Element Reported AWOS−A AWOS−1 AWOS−2 AWOS−3 ASOS MANUAL

Altimeter X X X X X X

Wind X X X X X

Temperature/Dew point X X X X X

Density altitude X X X X

Visibility X X X X

Clouds/Ceiling X X X

Precipitation X X

Remarks X X

7.6 Service Standards. During 1995, a government/

industry team worked to comprehensively reassess

the requirements for surface observations at the

nation’s airports. That work resulted in agreement on

a set of service standards and the FAA and NWS

ASOS sites to which the standards would apply. The

term “Service Standards” refers to the level of detail

in the weather observation. The service standards

consist of four different levels of service (A, B, C, and

D) as described below. Specific observational

elements included in each service level are listed in

TBL GEN 3.5−3, Weather Observation Service

Standards.

7.6.1 Service Level D defines the minimum

acceptable level of service. It is a completely

automated service in which the ASOS observation

will constitute the entire observation; i.e., no

additional weather information is added by a human

observer. This service is referred to as a stand alone

D site.

7.6.2 Service Level C is a service in which the human

observer, usually an air traffic controller, augments or

adds information to the automated observation.

Service Level C also includes backup of ASOS

elements in the event of an ASOS malfunction or an

unrepresentative ASOS report.

7.6.3 In backup, the human observer inserts the

correct or missing value for the automated ASOS

elements. This service is provided by air traffic

controllers under the Limited Aviation Weather

Reporting Station (LAWRS) process, FSS and NWS

observers, and, at selected sites, Non−Federal

Observation Program observers.

Two categories of airports require detail beyond

Service Level C in order to enhance air traffic control

efficiency and increase system capacity. Services at

these airports are typically provided by contract

weather observers, NWS observers, and, at some

locations, FSS observers.

7.6.4 Service Level B is a service in which weather

observations consist of all elements provided under

Service Level C, plus augmentation of additional data

beyond the capability of the ASOS. This category of

airports includes smaller hubs or airports special in

other ways that have worse than average bad weather

operations for thunderstorms and/or freezing/frozen

precipitation, and/or that are remote airports.

7.6.5 Service Level A, the highest and most

demanding category, includes all the data reported in

Service Standard B, plus additional requirements as

specified. Service Level A covers major aviation

hubs and/or high volume traffic airports with average

or worse weather.

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TBL GEN 3.5−3

Weather Observation Service Standards

SERVICE LEVEL A

Service Level A consists of all the elements of

Service Levels B, C and D plus the elements

listed to the right, if observed.

10 minute longline RVR at precedented sites or

additional visibility increments of 1/8, 1/16 and 0

Sector visibility

Variable sky condition

Cloud layers above 12,000 feet and cloud types

Widespread dust, sand and other obscurations

Volcanic eruptions

SERVICE LEVEL B

Service Level B consists of all the elements of

Service Levels C and D plus the elements listed to

the right, if observed.

Longline RVR at precedented sites

(may be instantaneous readout)

Freezing drizzle versus freezing rain

Ice pellets

Snow depth & snow increasing rapidly remarks

Thunderstorm and lightning location remarks

Observed significant weather not at the station

remarks

SERVICE LEVEL C

Service Level C consists of all the elements of Service

Level D plus augmentation and backup by a human

observer or an air traffic control specialist on location

nearby. Backup consists of inserting the correct value if

the system malfunctions or is unrepresentative.

Augmentation consists of adding the elements listed to

the right, if observed. During hours that the observing

facility is closed, the site reverts to Service Level D.

Thunderstorms

Tornadoes

Hail

Virga

Volcanic ash

Tower visibility

Operationally significant remarks as deemed

appropriate by the observer

SERVICE LEVEL D

This level of service consists of an ASOS continually

measuring the atmosphere at a point near the runway. The

ASOS senses and measures the weather parameters listed to

the right.

Wind

Visibility

Precipitation/Obstruction to vision

Cloud height

Sky cover

Temperature

Dew point

Altimeter

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GEN 3.5−25

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

8. Weather Radar Services

8.1 The National Weather Service operates a

network of radar sites for detecting coverage,

intensity, and movement of precipitation. The

network is supplemented by FAA and DOD radar

sites in the western sections of the country. Local

warning radars augment the network by operating on

an as needed basis to support warning and forecast

programs.

8.2 Scheduled radar observations are taken hourly

and transmitted in alpha−numeric format on weather

telecommunications circuits for flight planning

purposes. Under certain conditions special radar

reports are issued in addition to the hourly

transmittals. Data contained in the reports is also

collected by the National Meteorological Center and

used to prepare hourly national radar summary charts

for dissemination on facsimile circuits.

8.3 All En route Flight Advisory Service facilities

and many Automated Flight Service Stations have

equipment to directly access the radar displays from

the individual weather radar sites. Specialists at these

locations are trained to interpret the display for pilot

briefing and inflight advisory services. The Center

Weather Service Units located in the ARTCCs also

have access to weather radar displays and provide

support to all air traffic facilities within their center’s

area.

8.4 A clear radar display (no echoes) does not mean

that there is no significant weather within the

coverage of the radar site. Clouds and fog are not

detected by the radar. However, when echoes are

present, turbulence can be implied by the intensity of

the precipitation, and icing is implied by the presence

of the precipitation at temperatures at or below zero

degrees Celsius. Used in conjunction with other

weather products, radar provides invaluable information for weather avoidance and flight planning.

8.5 Additional information on weather radar products and services can be found in FAA Advisory

Circular 00−45, “Aviation Weather Services.” Also,

see Pilot/Controller Glossary, Radar Weather Echo

Intensity Levels, and paragraph 27, Thunderstorms.

(See Airport/Facility Directory charts, NWS Upper

Air Observing Stations and Weather Network for the

location of specific radar sites.)

9. National Convective Weather Forecast

(NCWF)

9.1 Description

9.1.1 The NCWF is an automatically generated

depiction of: (1) current convection and (2) extrapolated significant current convection. It is a

supplement to, but does NOT substitute for, the report

and forecast information contained in Convective

SIGMETs (see paragraph 3.9.3.4). Convection,

particularly significant convection, is typically

associated with thunderstorm activity.

9.1.2 The National Weather Service Aviation

Weather Center (AWC) updates the NCWF based on

input from the Next Generation Weather Radar

(NEXRAD) and cloud−to−ground lightning data.

9.1.3 The NCWF is most accurate for long−lived

mature multi−storm systems such as organized line

storms. NCWF does not forecast initiation, growth or

decay of thunderstorms. Therefore, NCWF tends to

under−warn on new and growing storms and

over−warn on dying storms. Forecast positions of

small, isolated or weaker thunderstorms are not

displayed.

9.1.4 The NCWF area of coverage is limited to the

48 contiguous states.

9.2 Attributes

9.2.1 The NCWF is updated frequently (every

5 minutes) using the most current available data.

9.2.2 The NCWF is able to detect the existence of

convective storm locations that agree very well with

concurrent radar and lightning observations.

9.2.3 The NCWF is a high−resolution forecast

impacting a relatively small volume of airspace rather

than covering large boxed areas. The location, speeds

and directions of movement of multiple convective

storms are depicted individually.

9.2.4 The NCWF extrapolation forecasts are more

accurate when predicting the location and size of well

organized, unchanging convective storms moving at

uniform speeds. The NCWF does not work well with

sporadic, explosive cells developing and dissipating

in minutes.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−26

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

9.2.5 In displaying forecast cell locations, the

NCWF does NOT distinguish among level 3 through

level 6 on the NCWF hazard scale (see

TBL GEN 3.5−4).

9.2.6 The NCWF may not detect or forecast:

9.2.6.1 Some embedded convection.

9.2.6.2 Low−topped convection containing little or

no cloud−to−ground lightning (such as may occur in

cool air masses).

9.2.6.3 Rapidly evolving convection.

9.2.7 The NCWF cannot provide information on

specific storm hazards such as hail, high winds or

tornadoes.

9.3 Availability and Use

9.3.1 The NCWF is available primarily via the

Internet from the AWC Aviation Digital Data Service

(ADDS) at http://adds.aviationweather.gov. Used in

conjunction with other weather products such as

Convective SIGMETs, the NCWF provides additional information for convective weather avoidance and

flight planning.

9.3.2 The NCWF access by Automated Flight

Service Stations and their associated En Route Flight

Advisory Service Facilities, Air Route Traffic

Control Centers (ARTCCs) or Terminal Radar

Approach Controls is planned but NOT currently

available.

NOTE−

See paragraph 10, ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance

Assistance, for further information.

9.4 Display Summary

9.4.1 Existing convective hazards (based on

NEXRAD and lightning data) are depicted using the

color−coded 6−level NCWF hazard scale shown in

TBL GEN 3.5−4. In displaying forecast cell

locations, the NCWF does NOT distinguish among

level 3 through level 6.

TBL GEN 3.5−4

NCWF Hazard Scale

Level Color Effect

5−6 Red Thunderstorms may contain any

or all of the following:

severe turbulence, severe icing,

hail, frequent lightning,

tornadoes and low−level wind

shear. The risk of hazardous

weather generally increases

with levels on the NCWF

hazard scale.

3−4 Yellow

Orange

1−2 Green

NOTE−

Although similar, the NCWF hazard scale levels are NOT

identical to VIP levels.

REFERENCE−

Pilot/Controller Glossary Term− Radar Weather Echo Intensity Levels.

9.4.2 One−hour forecast locations of signification

convection (NCWF hazard scale levels of 3 or

greater) are depicted with blue polygons. Their

directions of movement and storm tops are also

shown.

9.4.3 The Java display permits some degree of

customization. Other means of viewing the NCWF

may not offer these display options. Java display

options include the following (see FIG GEN 3.5−8):

9.4.3.1 “Current Convective Interest Grid.”

9.4.3.2 “One−Hour Extrapolation Polygons.”

9.4.3.3 “Previous Performance Polygons.”

9.4.3.4 Storm speed and altitude of tops.

9.4.3.5 Overlays of:

a) Airport locations.

b) County boundaries.

c) ARTCC boundaries.

9.4.3.6 Routine Weather Reports (METARs).

9.4.3.7 Unlimited customized zooms (by holding

down the left mouse button and dragging to select the

rectangle of coverage desired).

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−27

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−8 

Example NCWF Java Display

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−28

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−9 

Example NCWF JavaScript Display

9.4.4 The JavaScript display options include the

following (see FIG GEN 3.5−9):

9.4.4.1 Current convective hazard “Detection” field.

9.4.4.2 1−hour extrapolation “Forecast” polygons.

9.4.4.3 Previous hour “Performance” polygons.

9.4.4.4 “2 hr Movie” loops of convective hazard

detection fields (with forecast polygons included on

the last frame).

9.4.4.5 “24 hr Movie” loops of convective hazard

detection fields.

9.4.4.6 Zoomed views of:

a) ARTCC boundaries.

b) Certain major airports.

c) Seven geographical regions: Northwest, North

Central, Northeast, Southwest, South Central,

Southwest, the 48 contiguous states.

9.4.5 Additional information is available via the

“FYI/Help” or “i” links on the Java and JavaScript

displays, respectively.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−29

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

10. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance

Assistance

10.1 ATC Radar Weather Display

10.1.1 Areas of weather clutter are radar echoes from

rain or moisture. Radars cannot detect turbulence.

The determination of the intensity of the weather

displayed is based on its precipitation density.

Generally, the turbulence associated with a very

heavy rate of rainfall will normally be significantly

more severe than any associated with a very light

rainfall rate.

10.1.2 ARTCCs use narrowband radar which

provides the controller with two distinct levels of

weather intensity by assigning radar display symbols

for specific precipitation densities measured by the

narrowband system.

10.2 Weather Avoidance Assistance

10.2.1 To the extent possible, controllers will issue

pertinent information of weather or chaff areas and

assist pilots in avoiding such areas if requested. Pilots

should respond to a weather advisory by either

acknowledging the advisory or by acknowledging the

advisory and requesting an alternative course of

action as follows:

10.2.1.1 Request to deviate off course by stating the

number of miles and the direction of the requested

deviation. In this case, when the requested deviation

is approved the pilot is expected to provide his/her

own navigation, to maintain the altitude assigned by

ATC, and to remain within the specified mileage of

his/her original course.

10.2.1.2 Request a new route to avoid the affected

area.

10.2.1.3 Request a change of altitude.

10.2.1.4 Request radar vectors around the affected

areas.

10.2.2 For obvious reasons of safety, an IFR pilot

must not deviate from the course or altitude/flight

level without a proper ATC clearance. When weather

conditions encountered are so severe that an

immediate deviation is determined to be necessary

and time will not permit approval by ATC, the pilot’s

emergency authority may be exercised.

10.2.3 When the pilot requests clearance for a route

deviation or for an ATC radar vector, the controller

must evaluate the air traffic picture in the affected

area and coordinate with other controllers (if ATC

jurisdictional boundaries may be crossed) before

replying to the request.

10.2.4 It should be remembered that the controller’s

primary function is to provide safe separation

between aircraft. Any additional service, such as

weather avoidance assistance, can only be provided

to the extent that it does not derogate the primary

function. It is also worth noting that the separation

workload is generally greater than normal when

weather disrupts the usual flow of traffic. ATC radar

limitations and frequency congestion may also be

factors in limiting the controller’s capability to

provide additional service.

10.2.5 It is very important that the request for

deviation or radar vector be forwarded to ATC as far

in advance as possible. Delay in submitting it may

delay or even preclude ATC approval or require that

additional restrictions be placed on the clearance.

Insofar as possible, the following information should

be furnished to ATC when requesting clearance to

detour around weather activity:

10.2.5.1 Proposed point where detour will commence.

10.2.5.2 Proposed route and extent of detour

(direction and distance).

10.2.5.3 Point where original route will be resumed.

10.2.5.4 Flight conditions (IFR or VFR).

10.2.5.5 Any further deviation that may become

necessary as the flight progresses.

10.2.5.6 Advise if the aircraft is equipped with

functioning airborne radar.

10.2.6 To a large degree, the assistance that might be

rendered by ATC will depend upon the weather

information available to controllers. Due to the

extremely transitory nature of severe weather

situations, the controller’s weather information may

be of only limited value if based on weather observed

on radar only. Frequent updates by pilots giving

specific information as to the area affected, altitudes,

intensity, and nature of the severe weather can be of

considerable value. Such reports are relayed by radio

or phone to other pilots and controllers, and they also

receive widespread teletypewriter dissemination.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−30

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

10.2.7 Obtaining IFR clearance or an ATC radar

vector to circumnavigate severe weather can often be

accommodated more readily in the en route areas

away from terminals because there is usually less

congestion and, therefore, greater freedom of action.

In terminal areas, the problem is more acute because

of traffic density, ATC coordination requirements,

complex departure and arrival routes, and adjacent

airports. As a consequence, controllers are less likely

to be able to accommodate all requests for weather

detours in a terminal area or be in a position to

volunteer such routes to the pilot. Nevertheless,

pilots should not hesitate to advise controllers of any

observed severe weather and should specifically

advise controllers if they desire circumnavigation of

observed weather.

10.3 ATC Severe Weather Avoidance Plans

10.3.1 Air Route Traffic Control Centers and some

Terminal Radar Control facilities utilize plans for

severe weather avoidance within their control areas.

Aviation−oriented meteorologists provide weather

information. Preplanned alternate route packages

developed by the facilities are used in conjunction

with flow restrictions to ensure a more orderly flow

of traffic during periods of severe or adverse weather

conditions.

10.3.2 During these periods, pilots may expect to

receive alternative route clearances. These routes are

predicated upon the forecasts of the meteorologist

and coordination between the Air Traffic Control

System Command Center and the other centers. The

routes are utilized as necessary in order to allow as

many aircraft as possible to operate in any given area,

and frequently they will deviate from the normal

preferred routes. With user cooperation, this plan may

significantly reduce delays.

10.4 Procedures for Weather Deviations and

Other Contingencies in Oceanic Controlled

Airspace

10.4.1 When the pilot initiates communications with

ATC, rapid response may be obtained by stating

“WEATHER DEVIATION REQUIRED” to indicate

priority is desired on the frequency and for ATC

response. 

10.4.2 The pilot still retains the option of initiating

the communications using the urgency call “PAN−

PAN” three times to alert all listening parties of a

special handling condition which will receive ATC

priority for issuance of a clearance or assistance.

10.4.3 ATC will:

10.4.3.1 Approve the deviation, or

10.4.3.2 Provide vertical separation and then

approve the deviation, or

10.4.3.3 If ATC is unable to establish vertical

separation, ATC shall advise the pilot that standard

separation cannot be applied; provide essential traffic

information for all affected aircraft, to the extent

practicable; and if possible, suggest a course of

action. ATC may suggest that the pilot climb or

descend to a contingency altitude (1,000 feet above or

below that assigned if operating above FL 290;

500 feet above or below that assigned if operating at

or below FL 290).

PHRASEOLOGY−

STANDARD SEPARATION NOT AVAILABLE; DEVIATE

AT PILOT’S DISCRETION; SUGGEST CLIMB (or

descent) TO (appropriate altitude); TRAFFIC (position

and altitude); REPORT DEVIATION COMPLETE.

10.4.4 The pilot will follow the ATC advisory

altitude when approximately 10 NM from track as

well as execute the procedures detailed in paragraph 10.4.5.

10.4.5 If contact cannot be established or a revised

ATC clearance or advisory is not available and

deviation from track is required, the pilot shall take

the following actions:

10.4.5.1 If possible, deviate away from an organized

track or route system.

10.4.5.2 Broadcast aircraft position and intentions

on the frequency in use, as well as on frequency

121.5 MHz at suitable intervals stating: flight

identification (operator call sign), flight level, track

code or ATS route designator, and extent of deviation

expected.

10.4.5.3 Watch for conflicting traffic both visually

and by reference to the Traffic Alert and Collision

Avoidance System (TCAS), if equipped.

10.4.5.4 Turn on aircraft exterior lights.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−31

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

10.4.5.5 Deviations of less than 10 NM or operations

within COMPOSITE (NOPAC and CEPAC) Airspace, should REMAIN at ASSIGNED altitude.

Otherwise, when the aircraft is approximately 10 NM

from track, initiate an altitude change based upon the

following criteria:

TBL GEN 3.5−5

Route

 Centerline/Track

Deviations 

>10 NM Altitude Change

East

000 − 179M

Left

Right

Descend 300 Feet

Climb 300 Feet

West

180−359M

Left

Right

Climb 300 Feet

Descend 300 Feet

Pilot Memory Slogan: “East right up, 

West right down.”

10.4.5.6 When returning to track, be at the assigned

flight level when the aircraft is within approximately

10 NM of centerline.

10.4.5.7 If contact was not established prior to

deviating, continue to attempt to contact ATC to

obtain a clearance. If contact was established,

continue to keep ATC advised of intentions and

obtain essential traffic information.

11. Notifications Required From Operators

11.1 Preflight briefing and flight documentation

services provided by AFSSs do not require prior

notification.

11.2 Preflight briefing and flight documentation

services provided by a National Weather Service

Office (or contract office) are available upon request

for long−range international flights for which

meteorological data packages are prepared for the

pilot−in−command. Briefing times should be coordinated between the local representative and the local

meteorological office.

11.3 Flight Service Stations do not normally have the

capability to prepare meteorological data packages

for a preflight briefing.

12. Weather Observing Systems and

Operating Procedures

For surface wind readings, most meteorological

reporting stations have a direct reading, 3−cup

anemometer wind system for which a 1−minute mean

wind speed and direction (based on true north) is

taken. Some stations also have a continuous wind

speed recorder which is used in determining the

gustiness of the wind.

13. Runway Visual Range (RVR)

There are currently two configurations of the RVR,

commonly identified as Taskers and New Generation

RVR. The Taskers use transmissometer technology.

The New Generation RVRs use forward scatter

technology and are currently being deployed to

replace the existing Taskers.

13.1 RVR values are measured by transmissometers

mounted on 14−foot towers along the runway. A full

RVR system consists of:

13.1.1 A transmissometer projector and related

items.

13.1.2 A transmissometer receiver (detector) and

related items.

13.1.3 An analogue recorder.

13.1.4 A signal data converter and related items.

13.1.5 A remote digital or remote display programmer.

13.2 The transmissometer projector and receiver are

mounted on towers 250 feet apart. A known intensity

of light is emitted from the projector and is measured

by the receiver. Any obscuring matter, such as rain,

snow, dust, fog, haze, or smoke, reduces the light

intensity arriving at the receiver. The resultant

intensity measurement is then converted to an RVR

value by the signal data converter. These values are

displayed by readout equipment in the associated air

traffic facility and updated approximately once every

minute for controller issuance to pilots.

13.3 The signal data converter receives information

on the high−intensity runway edge light setting in use

(step 3, 4, or 5), transmission values from the

transmissometer, and the sensing of day or night

conditions. From the three data sources, the system

will compute appropriate RVR values.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−32

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

13.4 An RVR transmissometer established on a

250−foot baseline provides digital readouts to a

minimum of 600 feet, which are displayed in

200−foot increments to 3,000 feet, and in 500−foot

increments from 3,000 feet to a maximum value of

6,000 feet.

13.5 RVR values for Category IIIa operations extend

down to 700−foot RVR; however, only 600 and

800 feet are reportable RVR increments. The

800 RVR reportable value covers a range of 701 feet

to 900 feet and is therefore a valid minimum

indication of Category IIIa operations.

13.6 Approach categories with the corresponding

minimum RVR values are listed in TBL GEN 3.5−6.

TBL GEN 3.5−6

Approach Category/Minimum RVR Table

Category Visibility (RVR)

Nonprecision 2,400 feet

Category I 1,800 feet

Category II 1,200 feet

Category IIIa 700 feet

Category IIIb 150 feet

Category IIIc 0 feet

13.7 Ten−minute maximum and minimum RVR

values for the designated RVR runway are reported in

the body of the aviation weather report when the

prevailing visibility is less than 1 mile and/or the RVR

is 6,000 feet or less. ATCTs report RVR when the

prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and/or the RVR

is 6,000 feet or less.

13.8 Details on the requirements for the operational

use of RVR are contained in FAA Advisory

Circular 97−1, “Runway Visual Range (RVR).”

Pilots are responsible for compliance with minimums

prescribed for their class of operations in appropriate

Federal Aviation Regulations and/or operations

specifications.

13.8.1 RVR values are also measured by forward

scatter meters mounted on 14−foot frangible

fiberglass poles. A full RVR system consists of:

13.8.1.1 Forward scatter meter with a transmitter,

receiver and associated items.

13.8.1.2 A runway light intensity monitor (RLIM).

13.8.1.3 An ambient light sensor (ALS).

13.8.1.4 A data processor unit (DPU).

13.8.1.5 A controller display (CD).

13.8.2 The forward scatter meter is mounted on a

14−foot frangible pole. Infrared light is emitted from

the transmitter and received by the receiver. Any

obscuring matter such as rain, snow, dust, fog, haze,

or smoke increases the amount of scattered light

reaching the receiver. The resulting measurement

along with inputs from the runway light intensity

monitor and the ambient light sensor are forwarded to

the DPU which calculates the proper RVR value. The

RVR values are displayed locally and remotely on

controller displays.

13.8.3 The runway light intensity monitors both the

runway edge and centerline light step settings (steps 1

through 5). Centerline light step settings are used for

CAT IIIb operations. Edge light step settings are used

for CAT I, II, and IIIa operations.

13.8.4 New Generation RVRs can measure and

display RVR values down to the lowest limits of

Category IIIb operations (150 foot RVR). RVR

values are displayed in 100−foot increments and are

reported as follows:

13.8.4.1 100−foot increments for products below

800 feet.

13.8.4.2 200−foot increments for products between

800 feet and 3,000 feet.

13.8.4.3 500−foot increments for products between

3,000 feet and 6,500 feet.

13.8.4.4 25−meter increments for products below

150 meters.

13.8.4.5 50−meter increments for products between

150 meters and 800 meters.

13.8.4.6 100−meter increments for products

between 800 meters and 1,200 meters.

13.8.4.7 200−meter increments for products

between 1,200 meters and 2,000 meters.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−33

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

14. Reporting of Cloud Heights

14.1 Ceiling, by definition in Federal Aviation

Regulations, and as used in Aviation Weather Reports

and Forecasts, is the height above ground (or water)

level of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring

phenomenon that is reported as “broken,” “overcast,”

or “the vertical visibility into an obscuration.” For

example, an aerodrome forecast which reads

“BKN030” refers to heights above ground level

(AGL). An area forecast which reads “BKN030”

states that the height is above mean sea level (MSL).

See FIG GEN 3.5−25 for the Key to Routine Aviation

Weather Reports and Forecasts for the definition of

“broken,” “overcast,” and “obscuration.”

14.2 Information on cloud base height is obtained by

use of ceilometers (rotating or fixed beam), ceiling

lights, ceiling balloons, pilot reports, and observer

estimations. The systems in use by most reporting

stations are either the observer estimation or the

rotating beam ceilometer.

14.3 Pilots usually report height values above mean

sea level, since they determine heights by the

altimeter. This is taken into account when disseminating and otherwise applying information received

from pilots. (“Ceiling” heights are always above

ground level.) In reports disseminated as pilot

reports, height references are given the same as

received from pilots; that is, above mean sea level.

14.4 In area forecasts or inflight Advisories, ceilings

are denoted by the contraction “CIG” when used with

sky cover symbols as in “LWRG TO CIG OVC005,”

or the contraction “AGL” after the forecast cloud

height value. When the cloud base is given in height

above mean sea level, it is so indicated by the

contraction “MSL” or “ASL” following the height

value. The heights of cloud tops, freezing level, icing,

and turbulence are always given in heights above

mean sea level (ASL or MSL).

15. Reporting Prevailing Visibility

15.1 Surface (horizontal) visibility is reported in

METAR reports in terms of statute miles and

increments thereof; e.g., 1/16, 1/8, 3/16, 1/4, 5/16, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 7/8, 1, 1 1/8, etc. (Visibility reported by an

unaugmented automated site is reported differently

than in a manual report; i.e., ASOS: 0, 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 1 3/4, 2, 2 1/2, 3, 4, 5, etc., AWOS:

M1/4, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 1 3/4, 2, 2 1/2, 3, 4, 5,

etc.) Visibility is determined through the ability to see

and identify preselected and prominent objects at a

known distance from the usual point of observation.

Visibilities which are determined to be less than

7 miles, identify the obscuring atmospheric condition; e.g., fog, haze, smoke, etc., or combinations

thereof.

15.2 Prevailing visibility is the greatest visibility

equalled or exceeded throughout at least one−half the

horizon circle, not necessarily contiguous. Segments

of the horizon circle which may have a significantly

different visibility may be reported in the remarks

section of the weather report; i.e., the southeastern

quadrant of the horizon circle may be determined to

be 2 miles in mist while the remaining quadrants are

determined to be 3 miles in mist.

15.3 When the prevailing visibility at the usual point

of observation, or at the tower level, is less than

4 miles, certificated tower personnel will take

visibility observations in addition to those taken at the

usual point of observation. The lower of these

two values will be used as the prevailing visibility for

aircraft operations.

16. Estimating Intensity of Rain and Ice

Pellets

16.1 Rain

16.1.1 Light. From scattered drops that, regardless

of duration, do not completely wet an exposed surface

up to a condition where individual drops are easily

seen.

16.1.2 Moderate. Individual drops are not clearly

identifiable; spray is observable just above pavements and other hard surfaces.

16.1.3 Heavy. Rain seemingly falls in sheets;

individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray to

a height of several inches is observed over hard

surfaces.

16.2 Ice Pellets

16.2.1 Light. Scattered pellets that do not completely cover an exposed surface regardless of duration.

Visibility is not affected.

16.2.2 Moderate. Slow accumulation on the

ground. Visibility is reduced by ice pellets to less than

7 statute miles.

16.2.3 Heavy. Rapid accumulation on the ground.

Visibility is reduced by ice pellets to less than 3 statute

miles.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−34

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

17. Estimating the Intensity of Snow or

Drizzle (Based on Visibility)

17.1 Light. Visibility more than 1/2 statute mile.

17.2 Moderate. Visibility from more than 1/4 statute

mile to 1/2 statute mile.

17.3 Heavy. Visibility 1/4 statute mile or less.

18. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)

18.1 FAA air traffic facilities are required to solicit

PIREPs when the following conditions are reported

or forecast: ceilings at or below 5,000 feet, visibility

at or below 5 miles (surface or aloft), thunderstorms

and related phenomena, icing of a light degree or

greater, turbulence of a moderate degree or greater,

wind shear, and reported or forecast volcanic ash

clouds.

18.2 Pilots are urged to cooperate and promptly

volunteer reports of these conditions and other

atmospheric data, such as cloud bases, tops and

layers, flight visibility, precipitation, visibility

restrictions (haze, smoke, and dust), wind at altitude,

and temperature aloft.

18.3 PIREPs should be given to the ground facility

with which communications are established; i.e.,

EFAS, AFSS/FSS, ARTCC, or terminal ATC. Radio

call “FLIGHT WATCH,” which serves as a collection

point for the exchange of PIREPs with en route

aircraft, is one of the primary duties of EFAS

facilities.

18.4 If pilots do not make PIREPs by radio, it is

helpful if, upon landing, they report to the nearest

AFSS/FSS or Weather Forecast Office the inflight

conditions which they encountered. Some of the uses

made of the reports are:

18.4.1 The ATCT uses the reports to expedite the

flow of air traffic in the vicinity of the field and for

hazardous weather avoidance procedures.

18.4.2 The AFSS/FSS uses the reports to brief other

pilots, to provide inflight advisories and weather

avoidance information to en route aircraft.

18.4.3 The ARTCC uses the reports to expedite the

flow of en route traffic, to determine most favorable

altitudes, and to issue hazardous weather information

within the center’s area.

18.4.4 The NWS uses the reports to verify or amend

conditions contained in aviation forecasts and

advisories; (In some cases, pilot reports of hazardous

conditions are the triggering mechanism for the

issuance of advisories.)

18.4.5 The NWS, other government organizations,

the military, and private industry groups use PIREPs

for research activities in the study of meteorological

phenomena.

18.4.6 All air traffic facilities and the NWS forward

the reports received from pilots into the weather

distribution system to assure the information is made

available to all pilots and other interested parties.

18.5 The FAA, NWS, and other organizations that

enter PIREPs into the weather reporting system use

the format listed in TBL GEN 3.5−7, PIREP Element

Code Chart. Items 1 through 6 are included in all

transmitted PIREPs along with one or more of items

7 through 13. Although the PIREP should be as

complete and concise as possible, pilots should not be

overly concerned with strict format or phraseology.

The important thing is that the information is relayed

so other pilots may benefit from your observation. If

a portion of the report needs clarification, the ground

station will request the information.

18.6 Completed PIREPs will be transmitted to

weather circuits as in the following examples:

EXAMPLE−

KCMH UA/OV APE 230010/TM 1516/FL085/TP

BE20/SK BKN065/WX FV03SM HZ FU/TA 20/TB LGT.

Translation: one zero miles southwest of Appleton VOR;

time 1516 UTC; altitude eight thousand five hundred;

aircraft type BE20; base of the broken cloud layer is six

thousand five hundred; flight visibility 3 miles with haze

and smoke; air temperature 20 degrees Celsius; light

turbulence.

EXAMPLE−

KCRW UA/OV KBKW 360015−KCRW/TM 1815/

FL120/TP BE99/SK IMC/WX RA−/TA M08/WV

290030/TB LGT−MDT/IC LGT RIME/RM MDT MXD

ICG DURC KROA NWBND FL080−100 1750Z.

Translation: from 15 miles north of Beckley VOR to

Charleston VOR; time 1815 UTC; altitude 12,000 feet;

type aircraft, BE−99; in clouds; rain; temperature

minus 8 Celsius; wind 290 degrees magnetic at 30 knots;

light to moderate turbulence; light rime icing during climb

northwestbound from Roanoke, VA, between 8,000 and

10,000 feet at 1750 UTC.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−35

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 3.5−7

PIREP Element Code Chart

PIREP ELEMENT PIREP CODE CONTENTS

1. 3−letter station identifier XXX Nearest weather reporting location to the reported phenomenon

2. Report type UA or UUA Routine or urgent PIREP

3. Location /OV In relation to a VOR

4. Time /TM Coordinated Universal Time

5. Altitude /FL Essential for turbulence and icing reports

6. Type aircraft /TP Essential for turbulence and icing reports

7. Sky cover /SK Cloud height and coverage (sky clear, few, scattered, broken, or

overcast)

8. Weather /WX Flight visibility, precipitation, restrictions to visibility, etc.

9. Temperature /TA Degrees Celsius

10. Wind /WV Direction in degrees magnetic north and speed in knots

11. Turbulence /TB See paragraph 22

12. Icing /IC See paragraph 20

13. Remarks /RM For reporting elements not included or to clarify previously

reported items

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−36

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

19. Mandatory MET Points

19.1 Within the ICAO CAR/SAM Regions and

within the U.S. area of responsibility, several

mandatory MET reporting points have been

established. These points are located within the

Houston, Miami, and San Juan Flight Information

Regions (FIR). These points have been established

for flights between the South American and

Caribbean Regions and Europe, Canada and the U.S.

19.2 Mandatory MET Reporting Points Within the Houston FIR

Point For Flights Between

ABBOT Acapulco and Montreal, New York, Toronto, Mexico City and New Orleans.

ALARD New Orleans and Belize, Guatemala, San Pedro Sula, Mexico City and Miami, Tampa.

ARGUS Toronto and Guadalajara, Mexico City, New Orleans and Mexico City.

SWORD Dallas−Fort Worth, New Orleans, Chicago and Cancun, Cozumel, and Central America.

19.3 Mandatory MET Reporting Points Within the Miami FIR

Point For Flights Between

Grand

Turk

New York and Aruba, Curacao, Kingston, Miami and Belem, St. Thomas, Rio de Janeiro, San Paulo,

St. Croix, Kingston and Bermuda.

GRATX Madrid and Miami, Havana.

MAPYL New York and Guayaquil, Montego Bay, Panama, Lima, Atlanta and San Juan.

RESIN New Orleans and San Juan.

SLAPP New York and Aruba, Curacao, Kingston, Port−au−Prince. Bermuda and Freeport, Nassau. New York

and Barranquilla, Bogota, Santo Domingo, Washington and Santo Domingo, Atlanta and San Juan.

19.4 Mandatory MET Reporting Points Within the San Juan FIR

Point For Flights Between

GRANN Toronto and Barbados, New York and Fort de France. At intersection of routes A321, A523, G432.

KRAFT San Juan and Buenos Aires, Caracas, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Maarten, San Juan, Kingston and

Bermuda.

PISAX New York and Barbados, Fort de France, Bermuda and Antigua, Barbados.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−37

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 3.5−8

Intensity Ice Accumulation

Trace Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater than rate of sublimation.

Deicing/anti−icing equipment is not utilized unless encountered for an extended period of time (over

1 hour).

Light The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment (over

1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti−icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does not

present a problem if the deicing/anti−icing equipment is used.

Moderate The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of

deicing/anti−icing equipment or diversion is necessary.

Severe The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti−icing equipment fails to reduce or control the

hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary.

Pilot Report: Aircraft Identification, Location, Time (UTC), Intensity of Type1, Altitude/FL, Aircraft Type, Indicated

Air Speed (IAS), and Outside Air Temperature (OAT)2.

1Rime or Clear Ice: Rime ice is a rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled

water droplets. Clear ice is a glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large

supercooled water droplets.

2The Outside Air Temperature (OAT) should be requested by the AFSS/FSS or ATC if not included in the PIREP.

20. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing

20.1 The effects of ice accretion on aircraft are:

cumulative−thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift

lessens, weight increases. The results are an increase

in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft

performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice

can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than

5 minutes. It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the

lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and to

increase the frictional drag by an equal percentage.

20.2 A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible

precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the

temperature is between +02 and −10 degrees Celsius.

When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two

things (particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with

deicing equipment). The pilot should get out of the

area of precipitation or go to an altitude where the

temperature is above freezing. This “warmer”

altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper

preflight action includes obtaining information on the

freezing level and the above−freezing levels in

precipitation areas. Report the icing to an ATC or FSS

facility, and if operating IFR, request new routing or

altitude if icing will be a hazard. Be sure to give the

type of aircraft to ATC when reporting icing.

TBL GEN 3.5−8, describes how to report icing

conditions.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−38

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

21. Definitions of Inflight Icing Terms

See TBL GEN 3.5−9, Icing Types, and

TBL GEN 3.5−10, Icing Conditions.

TBL GEN 3.5−9

Icing Types

Clear Ice See Glaze Ice.

Glaze Ice Ice, sometimes clear and smooth, but usually containing some air pockets, which results in a

lumpy translucent appearance. Glaze ice results from supercooled drops/droplets striking a

surface but not freezing rapidly on contact. Glaze ice is denser, harder, and sometimes more

transparent than rime ice. Factors, which favor glaze formation, are those that favor slow

dissipation of the heat of fusion (i.e., slight supercooling and rapid accretion). With larger

accretions, the ice shape typically includes “horns” protruding from unprotected leading edge

surfaces. It is the ice shape, rather than the clarity or color of the ice, which is most likely to

be accurately assessed from the cockpit. The terms “clear” and “glaze” have been used for

essentially the same type of ice accretion, although some reserve “clear” for thinner accretions

which lack horns and conform to the airfoil.

Intercycle Ice Ice which accumulates on a protected surface between actuation cycles of a deicing system.

Known or Observed or

Detected Ice Accretion

Actual ice observed visually to be on the aircraft by the flight crew or identified by on−board

sensors.

Mixed Ice Simultaneous appearance or a combination of rime and glaze ice characteristics. Since the

clarity, color, and shape of the ice will be a mixture of rime and glaze characteristics, accurate

identification of mixed ice from the cockpit may be difficult.

Residual Ice Ice which remains on a protected surface immediately after the actuation of a deicing system.

Rime Ice A rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled drops/droplets after

they strike the aircraft. The rapid freezing results in air being trapped, giving the ice its opaque

appearance and making it porous and brittle. Rime ice typically accretes along the stagnation

line of an airfoil and is more regular in shape and conformal to the airfoil than glaze ice. It is

the ice shape, rather than the clarity or color of the ice, which is most likely to be accurately

assessed from the cockpit.

Runback Ice Ice which forms from the freezing or refreezing of water leaving protected surfaces and

running back to unprotected surfaces.

Note−

Ice types are difficult for the pilot to discern and have uncertain effects on an airplane in flight. Ice type definitions will

be included in the AIP for use in the “Remarks” section of the PIREP and for use in forecasting.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−39

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL GEN 3.5−10

Icing Conditions

Appendix C Icing Conditions Appendix C (14 CFR, Part 25 and 29) is the certification icing condition standard

for approving ice protection provisions on aircraft. The conditions are specified in

terms of altitude, temperature, liquid water content (LWC), representative droplet

size (mean effective drop diameter [MED]), and cloud horizontal extent.

Forecast Icing Conditions Environmental conditions expected by a National Weather Service or an

FAA−approved weather provider to be conducive to the formation of inflight icing

on aircraft.

Freezing Drizzle (FZDZ) Drizzle is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid water drops

which have diameters less than 0.5 mm and greater than 0.05 mm. Freezing drizzle

is drizzle that exists at air temperatures less than 0C (supercooled), remains in

liquid form, and freezes upon contact with objects on the surface or airborne.

Freezing Precipitation Freezing precipitation is freezing rain or freezing drizzle falling through or outside

of visible cloud.

Freezing Rain (FZRA) Rain is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid water drops which

have diameters greater than 0.5 mm. Freezing rain is rain that exists at air

temperatures less than 0C (supercooled), remains in liquid form, and freezes upon

contact with objects on the ground or in the air.

Icing in Cloud Icing occurring within visible cloud. Cloud droplets (diameter < 0.05 mm) will be

present; freezing drizzle and/or freezing rain may or may not be present.

Icing in Precipitation Icing occurring from an encounter with freezing precipitation, that is, supercooled

drops with diameters exceeding 0.05 mm, within or outside of visible cloud.

Known Icing Conditions Atmospheric conditions in which the formation of ice is observed or detected in

flight.

Note−

Because of the variability in space and time of atmospheric conditions, the existence

of a report of observed icing does not assure the presence or intensity of icing

conditions at a later time, nor can a report of no icing assure the absence of icing

conditions at a later time.

Potential Icing Conditions Atmospheric icing conditions that are typically defined by airframe manufacturers

relative to temperature and visible moisture that may result in aircraft ice accretion

on the ground or in flight. The potential icing conditions are typically defined in the

Airplane Flight Manual or in the Airplane Operation Manual.

Supercooled Drizzle Drops

(SCDD)

Synonymous with freezing drizzle aloft.

Supercooled Drops or /Droplets Water drops/droplets which remain unfrozen at temperatures below 0 C.

Supercooled drops are found in clouds, freezing drizzle, and freezing rain in the

atmosphere. These drops may impinge and freeze after contact on aircraft surfaces.

Supercooled Large Drops (SLD) Liquid droplets with diameters greater than 0.05 mm at temperatures less than

0C, i.e., freezing rain or freezing drizzle.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−40

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

22. PIREPs Relating to Turbulence

22.1 When encountering turbulence, pilots are

urgently requested to report such conditions to ATC

as soon as practicable. PIREPs relating to turbulence

should state:

22.1.1 Aircraft location.

22.1.2 Time of occurrence in UTC.

22.1.3 Turbulence intensity.

22.1.4 Whether the turbulence occurred in or near

clouds.

22.1.5 Aircraft altitude, or flight level.

22.1.6 Type of aircraft.

22.1.7 Duration of turbulence.

EXAMPLE−

1. Over Omaha, 1232Z, moderate turbulence in clouds at

Flight Level three one zero, Boeing 707.

2. From five zero miles south of Albuquerque to three zero

miles north of Phoenix, 1250Z, occasional moderate chop

at Flight Level three three zero, DC8.

22.2 Duration and classification of intensity should

be made using TBL GEN 3.5−11, Turbulence

Reporting Criteria Table.

TBL GEN 3.5−11

Turbulence Reporting Criteria Table

Intensity Aircraft Reaction Reaction inside Aircraft Reporting Term−Definition

Light Turbulence that momentarily causes

slight, erratic changes in altitude

and/or attitude (pitch, roll, yaw).

Report as Light Turbulence; 1

or

Turbulence that causes slight, rapid

and somewhat rhythmic bumpiness

without appreciable changes in altitude

or attitude. Report as Light Chop.

Occupants may feel a slight strain

against seat belts or shoulder straps.

Unsecured objects may be displaced

slightly. Food service may be

conducted, and little or no difficulty is

encountered in walking.

Occasional−Less than 1/3 of the time.

Intermittent−1/3 to 2/3.

Continuous−More than 2/3.

Moderate Turbulence that is similar to Light

Turbulence but of greater intensity.

Changes in altitude and/or attitude

occur, but the aircraft remains in

positive control at all times. It usually

causes variations in indicated airspeed.

Report as Moderate Turbulence; 1

or

Turbulence that is similar to Light

Chop but of greater intensity. It causes

rapid bumps or jolts without

appreciable changes in aircraft altitude

or attitude. Report as Moderate Chop.

1

Occupants feel definite strains against

seat belts or shoulder straps.

Unsecured objects are dislodged. Food

service and walking are difficult.

NOTE

1. Pilots should report location(s), time

(UTC), intensity, whether in or near

clouds, altitude, type of aircraft and,

when applicable, duration of

turbulence.

2. Duration may be based on time

between two locations or over a single

location. All locations should be

readily identifiable.

Severe Turbulence that causes large, abrupt

changes in altitude and/or attitude. It

usually causes large variations in

indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be

momentarily out of control. Report as

Severe Turbulence.1

Occupants are forced violently against

seat belts or shoulder straps.

Unsecured objects are tossed about.

Food service and walking are

impossible.

EXAMPLES:

a. Over Omaha. 1232Z, Moderate

Turbulence, in cloud, Flight Level 310,

B707.

Extreme Turbulence in which the aircraft is

violently tossed about and is

practically impossible to control. It

may cause structural damage. Report

as Extreme Turbulence. 1

b. From 50 miles south of Albuquerque

to 30 miles north of Phoenix, 1210Z to

1250Z, occasional Moderate Chop,

Flight Level 330, DC8.

1 High level turbulence (normally above 15,000 feet ASL) not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms,

should be reported as clear air turbulence (CAT) preceded by the appropriate intensity, or light or moderate chop.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−41

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

23. Wind Shear PIREPs

23.1 Because unexpected changes in wind speed and

direction can be hazardous to aircraft operations at

low altitudes on approach to and departing from

airports, pilots are urged to promptly volunteer

reports to controllers of wind shear conditions they

encounter. An advance warning of this information

will assist other pilots in avoiding or coping with a

wind shear on approach or departure.

23.2 When describing conditions, the use of the

terms “negative” or “positive” wind shear should be

avoided. PIREPs of negative wind shear on final,

intended to describe loss of airspeed and lift, have

been interpreted to mean that no wind shear was

encountered. The recommended method for wind

shear reporting is to state the loss/gain of airspeed and

the altitude(s) at which it was encountered.

EXAMPLE−

1. Denver Tower, Cessna 1234 encountered wind shear,

loss of 20 knots at 400.

2. Tulsa Tower, American 721 encountered wind shear on

final, gained 25 knots between 600 and 400 feet followed

by loss of 40 knots between 400 feet and surface.

Pilots using Inertial Navigation Systems should

report the wind and altitude both above and below the

shear layer.

EXAMPLE−

Miami Tower, Gulfstream 403 Charlie encountered an

abrupt wind shear at 800 feet on final, max thrust required.

Pilots who are not able to report wind shear in these

specific terms are encouraged to make reports in

terms of the effect upon their aircraft.

24. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREPs

24.1 Clear air turbulence (CAT) has become a very

serious operational factor to flight operations at all

levels and especially to jet traffic flying in excess of

15,000 feet. The best available information on this

phenomenon must come from pilots via the PIREP

procedures. All pilots encountering CAT conditions

are urgently requested to report time, location, and

intensity (light, moderate, severe, or extreme) of the

element to the FAA facility with which they are

maintaining radio contact. If time and conditions

permit, elements should be reported according to the

standards for other PIREPs and position reports. See

TBL GEN 3.5−11, Turbulence Reporting Criteria

Table.

25. Microbursts

25.1 Relatively recent meteorological studies have

confirmed the existence of microburst phenomena.

Microbursts are small−scale intense downdrafts

which, on reaching the surface, spread outward in all

directions from the downdraft center. This causes the

presence of both vertical and horizontal wind shears

that can be extremely hazardous to all types and

categories of aircraft, especially at low altitudes. Due

to their small size, short life−span, and the fact that

they can occur over areas without surface precipitation, microbursts are not easily detectable using

conventional weather radar or wind shear alert

systems.

25.2 Parent clouds producing microburst activity

can be any of the low or middle layer convective

cloud types. Note however, that microbursts

commonly occur within the heavy rain portion of

thunderstorms, and in much weaker, benign−appearing convective cells that have little or no precipitation

reaching the ground.

25.3 The life cycle of a microburst as it descends in

a convective rain shaft is seen in FIG GEN 3.5−10,

Evolution of a Microburst. An important consideration

for pilots is the fact that the microburst intensifies for

about 5 minutes after it strikes the ground.

25.4 Characteristics of microbursts include:

25.4.1 Size. The microburst downdraft is typically

less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the

cloud base to about 1,000−3,000 feet above the

ground. In the transition zone near the ground, the

downdraft changes to a horizontal outflow that can

extend to approximately 2 1/2 miles in diameter.

25.4.2 Intensity. The downdrafts can be as strong as

6,000 feet per minute. Horizontal winds near the

surface can be as strong as 45 knots resulting in a

90−knot shear (headwind to tailwind change for a

traversing aircraft) across the microburst. These

strong horizontal winds occur within a few hundred

feet of the ground.

25.4.3 Visual Signs. Microbursts can be found

almost anywhere that there is convective activity.

They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with

a thunderstorm or in light rain in benign− appearing

virga. When there is little or no precipitation at the

surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of

blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its

existence.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−42

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−10 

Evolution of a Microburst

T-5 Min T-5 Min T-2 Min T-2 Min T T + 5 Min T + 5 Min T + 10 Min T + 10 Min

HEIGHT (feet) HEIGHT (feet) 10,000

5,000

WIND SPEED WIND SPEED

10-20 knots 10-20 knots

> 20 knots > 20 knots

SCALE (miles) SCALE (miles)

0 1 2 3

Vertical cross section of the evolution of a microburst wind field. T is the time of initial divergence at

the surface. The shading refers to the vector wind speeds. Figure adapted from Wilson et al., 1984,

Microburst Wind Structure and Evaluation of Doppler Radar for Wind Shear Detection, DOT/FAA

Report No. DOT/FAA/PM-84/29, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 37 pp.

25.4.4 Duration. An individual microburst will

seldom last longer than 15 minutes from the time it

strikes the ground until dissipation. The horizontal

winds continue to increase during the first 5 minutes

with the maximum intensity winds lasting approximately 2−4 minutes. Sometimes microbursts are

concentrated into a line structure and, under these

conditions, activity may continue for as long as

1 hour. Once microburst activity starts, multiple

microbursts in the same general area are not

uncommon and should be expected.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−43

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−11

Microburst Encounter During Takeoff

NOTE−

A microburst encounter during takeoff. The airplane first encounters a headwind and experiences increasing performance

(1), this is followed in short succession by a decreasing headwind component (2), a downdraft (3), and finally a strong

tailwind (4), where 2 through 5 all result in decreasing performance of the airplane. Position (5) represents an extreme

situation just prior to impact. Figure courtesy of Walter Frost, FWG Associates, Inc., Tullahoma, Tennessee.

25.5 Microburst wind shear may create a severe

hazard for aircraft within 1,000 feet of the ground,

particularly during the approach to landing and

landing and take−off phases. The impact of a

microburst on aircraft which have the unfortunate

experience of penetrating one is characterized in

FIG GEN 3.5−11. The aircraft may encounter a

headwind (performance increasing), followed by a

downdraft and a tailwind (both performance

decreasing), possibly resulting in terrain impact.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−44

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−12 

25.6 Detection of Microbursts, Wind Shear, and

Gust Fronts

25.6.1 FAA’s Integrated Wind Shear Detection

Plan

25.6.1.1 The FAA currently employs an integrated

plan for wind shear detection that will significantly

improve both the safety and capacity of the majority

of the airports currently served by the air carriers.

This plan integrates several programs, such as the

Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS),

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather

System Processor (WSP), and Low Level Wind Shear

Alert Systems (LLWAS) into a single strategic

concept that significantly improves the aviation

weather information in the terminal area. 

(See FIG GEN 3.5−12.)

25.6.1.2 The wind shear/microburst information and

warnings are displayed on the ribbon display

terminal (RBDT) located in the tower cabs. They are

identical (and standardized) to those in the LLWAS,

TDWR and WSP systems, and designed so that the

controller does not need to interpret the data, but

simply read the displayed information to the pilot.

The RBDTs are constantly monitored by the

controller to ensure the rapid and timely dissemination of any hazardous event(s) to the pilot.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−45

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−13

25.6.1.3 The early detection of a wind shear/microburst event, and the subsequent warning(s) issued to

an aircraft on approach or departure, will alert the

pilot/crew to the potential of, and to be prepared for,

a situation that could become very dangerous!

Without these warnings, the aircraft may NOT be able

to climb out of or safely transition the event, resulting

in a catastrophe. The air carriers, working with the

FAA, have developed specialized training programs

using their simulators to train and prepare their pilots

on the demanding aircraft procedures required to

escape these very dangerous wind shear and/or

microburst encounters.

25.6.1.4 Low Level Wind Shear Alert System

(LLWAS)

a) The LLWAS provides wind data and software

processes to detect the presence of hazardous wind

shear and microbursts in the vicinity of an airport.

Wind sensors, mounted on poles sometimes as high

as 150 feet, are (ideally) located 2,000 − 3,500 feet,

but not more than 5,000 feet, from the centerline of

the runway. (See FIG GEN 3.5−13.)

b) The LLWAS was fielded in 1988 at 110 airports

across the nation. Many of these systems have been

replaced by new terminal doppler weather radar

(TDWR) and weather systems processor (WSP)

technology. Eventually all LLWAS systems will be

phased out; however, 39 airports will be upgraded to

the LLWAS−NE (Network Expansion) system,

which employs the very latest software and sensor

technology. The new LLWAS−NE systems will not

only provide the controller with wind shear warnings

and alerts, including wind shear/microburst detection

at the airport wind sensor location, but will also

provide the location of the hazards relative to the

airport runway(s). It will also have the flexibility and

capability to grow with the airport as new runways are

built. As many as 32 sensors, strategically located

around the airport and in relationship to its runway

configuration, can be accommodated by the

LLWAS−NE network.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−46

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−14 

25.6.1.5 Terminal Doppler Weather Radar

(TDWR)

a) TDWRs are being deployed at 45 locations

across the U.S. Optimum locations for TDWRs are 8

to 12 miles from the airport proper, and designed to

look at the airspace around and over the airport to

detect microbursts, gust fronts, wind shifts, and

precipitation intensities. TDWR products advise the

controller of wind shear and microburst events

impacting all runways and the areas 1/2 mile on either

side of the extended centerline of the runways and to

a distance of 3 miles on final approach and 2 miles on

departure. FIG GEN 3.5−14 is a theoretical view of

the runway and the warning boxes that the software

uses to determine the location(s) of wind shear or

microbursts. These warnings are displayed (as

depicted in the examples in subparagraph e) on the

ribbon display terminal located in the tower cabs.

b) It is very important to understand what TDWR

DOES NOT DO:

1) It DOES NOT warn of wind shear outside of

the alert boxes (on the arrival and departure ends of

the runways).

2) It DOES NOT detect wind shear that is

NOT a microburst or a gust front.

3) It DOES NOT detect gusty or cross wind

conditions.

4) It DOES NOT detect turbulence.

However, research and development is continuing on

these systems. Future improvements may include

such areas as storm motion (movement), improved

gust front detection, storm growth and decay,

microburst prediction, and turbulence detection.

c) TDWR also provides a geographical situation

display (GSD) for supervisors and traffic management specialists for planning purposes. The GSD

displays (in color) 6 levels of weather (precipitation),

gust fronts and predicted storm movement(s). This

data is used by the tower supervisor(s), traffic

management specialists, and controllers to plan for

runway changes and arrival/departure route changes

in order to reduce aircraft delays and increase airport

capacity.

25.6.1.6 Weather Systems Processor (WSP)

a) The WSP provides the controller, supervisor,

traffic management specialist, and ultimately the

pilot, with the same products as the terminal doppler

weather radar at a fraction of the cost. This is

accomplished by utilizing new technologies to access

the weather channel capabilities of the existing

ASR−9 radar located on or near the airport, thus

eliminating the requirements for a separate radar

location, land acquisition, support facilities, and the

associated communication landlines and expenses.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−47

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

b) The WSP utilizes the same RBDT display as the

TDWR and LLWAS, and, like the TDWR, has a GSD

for planning purposes by supervisors, traffic

management specialists, and controllers. The WSP

GSD emulates the TDWR display; i.e., it also depicts

6 levels of precipitation, gust fronts and predicted

storm movement, and like the TDWR, GSD is used

to plan for runway changes and arrival/departure

route changes in order to reduce aircraft delays and to

increase airport capacity.

c) This system is currently under development and

is operating in a developmental test status at the

Albuquerque, New Mexico, airport. When fielded,

the WSP is expected to be installed at 34 airports

across the nation, substantially increasing the safety

of flying.

25.6.1.7 Operational Aspects of LLWAS, TDWR,

and WSP

To demonstrate how this data is used by both the

controller and the pilot, 3 ribbon display examples

and their explanations are presented:

a) MICROBURST ALERTS

EXAMPLE−

This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display

in the tower cab.

27A MBA 35K− 2MF 250 20

NOTE−

(See FIG GEN 3.5−15 to see how the TDWR/WSP

determines the microburst location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the

alert.

PHRASEOLOGY−

RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, MICROBURST ALERT, 35 KT

LOSS 2 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WINDS 250 AT 20.

In plain language, the controller is telling the pilot

that on approach to runway 27, there is a microburst

alert on the approach lane to the runway, and to

anticipate or expect a 35−knot loss of airspeed at

approximately 2 miles out on final approach (where

the aircraft will first encounter the phenomena). With

that information, the aircrew is forewarned, and

should be prepared to apply wind shear/microburst

escape procedures should they decide to continue the

approach. Additionally, the surface winds at the

airport for landing runway 27 are reported as

250 degrees at 20 knots.

NOTE−

Threshold wind is at pilot’s request or as deemed

appropriate by the controller.

b) WIND SHEAR ALERTS

EXAMPLE−

This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display

in the tower cab.

 27A WSA 20K− 3MF 200 15

NOTE−

(See FIG GEN 3.5−16 to see how the TDWR/WSP

determines the wind shear location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the

alert.

PHRASEOLOGY−

RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT

LOSS 3 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WINDS 200 AT 15.

In plain language, the controller is advising the

aircraft arriving on runway 27 that at 3 miles out the

pilot should expect to encounter a wind shear

condition that will decrease airspeed by 20 knots and

possibly the aircraft will encounter turbulence.

Additionally, the airport surface winds for landing

runway 27 are reported as 200 degrees at 15 knots.

NOTE−

Threshold wind is at pilot’s request or as deemed

appropriate by the controller.

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FIG GEN 3.5−15 

FIG GEN 3.5−16

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−17

c) MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS

EXAMPLE−

This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display

in the tower cab.

27A WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20

27D WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20

NOTE−

(See FIG GEN 3.5−17 to see how the TDWR/WSP

determines the gust front/wind shear location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the

alert.

PHRASEOLOGY−

MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS. 

RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT

GAIN ON RUNWAY;

RUNWAY 27 DEPARTURE, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT

GAIN ON RUNWAY, WINDS 250 AT 20.

EXAMPLE−

In this example, the controller is advising arriving and

departing aircraft that they could encounter a wind shear

condition right on the runway due to a gust front

(significant change of wind direction) with the possibility

of a 20 knot gain in airspeed associated with the gust front.

Additionally, the airport surface winds (for the runway in

use) are reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots.

25.6.1.8 The Terminal Weather Information for

Pilots System (TWIP)

a) With the increase in the quantity and quality of

terminal weather information available through

TDWR, the next step is to provide this information

directly to pilots rather than relying on voice

communications from ATC. The National Airspace

System has long been in need of a means of delivering

terminal weather information to the cockpit more

efficiently in terms of both speed and accuracy to

enhance pilot awareness of weather hazards and to

reduce air traffic controller workload. With the TWIP

capability, terminal weather information, both

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alphanumerically and graphically, is now available

directly to the cockpit on a test basis at 9 locations.

b) TWIP products are generated using weather

data from the TDWR or the Integrated Terminal

Weather System (ITWS) testbed. TWIP products are

generated and stored in the form of text and character

graphic messages. Software has been developed to

allow TDWR or ITWS to format the data and send the

TWIP products to a database resident at Aeronautical

Radio, Inc. (ARINC). These products can then be

accessed by pilots using the ARINC Aircraft

Communications Addressing and Reporting System

(ACARS) data link services. Airline dispatchers can

also access this database and send messages to

specific aircraft whenever wind shear activity begins

or ends at an airport.

c) TWIP products include descriptions and

character graphics of microburst alerts, wind shear

alerts, significant precipitation, convective activity

within 30 NM surrounding the terminal area, and

expected weather that will impact airport operations.

During inclement weather; i.e., whenever a predetermined level of precipitation or wind shear is detected

within 15 miles of the terminal area, TWIP products

are updated once each minute for text messages and

once every 5 minutes for character graphic messages.

During good weather (below the predetermined

precipitation or wind shear parameters) each message

is updated every 10 minutes. These products are

intended to improve the situational awareness of the

pilot/flight crew, and to aid in flight planning prior to

arriving or departing the terminal area. It is important

to understand that, in the context of TWIP, the

predetermined levels for inclement versus good

weather has nothing to do with the criteria for

VFR/MVFR/IFR/LIFR; it only deals with precipitation, wind shears, and microbursts.

26. PIREPs Relating to Volcanic Ash Activity

26.1 Volcanic eruptions which send ash into the

upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the world

several times each year. Flying into a volcanic ash

cloud can be exceedingly dangerous. At least two

B747s have lost all power in all four engines after

such an encounter. Regardless of the type aircraft,

some damage is almost certain to ensue after an

encounter with a volcanic ash cloud.

26.2 While some volcanoes in the U.S. are

monitored, many in remote areas are not. These

unmonitored volcanoes may erupt without prior

warning to the aviation community. A pilot observing

a volcanic eruption who has not had previous

notification of it may be the only witness to the

eruption. Pilots are strongly encouraged to transmit a

PIREP regarding volcanic eruptions and any

observed volcanic ash clouds.

26.3 Pilots should submit PIREPs regarding volcanic activity using the Volcanic Activity Reporting

form (VAR) as illustrated in FIG GEN 3.5−32. (If a

VAR form is not immediately available, relay enough

information to identify the position and type of

volcanic activity.)

26.4 Pilots should verbally transmit the data required

in items 1 through 8 of the VAR as soon as possible.

The data required in items 9 through 16 of the VAR

should be relayed after landing, if possible.

27. Thunderstorms

27.1 Turbulence, hail, rain, snow, lightning, sustained updrafts and downdrafts, and icing conditions

are all present in thunderstorms. While there is some

evidence that maximum turbulence exists at the

middle level of a thunderstorm, recent studies show

little variation of turbulence intensity with altitude.

27.2 There is no useful correlation between the

external visual appearance of thunderstorms and the

severity or amount of turbulence or hail within them.

Also, the visible thunderstorm cloud is only a portion

of a turbulent system whose updrafts and downdrafts

often extend far beyond the visible storm cloud.

Severe turbulence can be expected up to 20 miles

from severe thunderstorms. This distance decreases

to about 10 miles in less severe storms. These

turbulent areas may appear as a well−defined echo on

weather radar.

27.3 Weather radar, airborne or ground−based, will

normally reflect the areas of moderate to heavy

precipitation. (Radar does not detect turbulence.) The

frequency and severity of turbulence generally

increases with the areas of highest liquid water

content of the storm. NO FLIGHT PATH THROUGH

AN AREA OF STRONG OR VERY STRONG

RADAR ECHOES SEPARATED BY 20−30 MILES

OR LESS MAY BE CONSIDERED FREE OF

SEVERE TURBULENCE.

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27.4 Turbulence beneath a thunderstorm should not

be minimized. This is especially true when the

relative humidity is low in any layer between the

surface and 15,000 feet. Then the lower altitudes may

be characterized by strong out−flowing winds and

severe turbulence.

27.5 The probability of lightning strikes occurring to

aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes where

temperatures are between −5 C and +5 C. Lightning

can strike aircraft flying in the clear in the vicinity of

a thunderstorm.

27.6 National Weather Service radar systems are

able to objectively determine radar weather echo

intensity levels by use of Video Integrator Processor

(VIP) equipment. The thunderstorm intensity levels

are on a scale of one to six.

EXAMPLE−

Alert provided by an ATC facility to an aircraft:

(Aircraft identification), LEVEL FIVE INTENSE

WEATHER ECHO BETWEEN TEN O’CLOCK AND TWO

O’CLOCK, ONE ZERO MILES, MOVING EAST AT TWO

ZERO KNOTS, TOPS FLIGHT LEVEL THREE NINER

ZERO.

EXAMPLE−

Alert provided by a Flight Service Station:

(Aircraft identification), LEVEL FIVE INTENSE

WEATHER ECHO, TWO ZERO MILES WEST OF THE

ATLANTA V−O−R, TWO FIVE MILES WIDE, MOVING

EAST AT TWO ZERO KNOTS, TOPS FLIGHT LEVEL

THREE NINER ZERO.

28. Thunderstorm Flying

28.1 Above all, remember this: never regard any

thunderstorm lightly, even when radar observers

report the echoes are of light intensity. Avoiding

thunderstorms is the best policy. Following are some

Do’s and Don’ts of thunderstorm avoidance:

28.1.1 Don’t land or takeoff in the face of an

approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust front of

low−level turbulence could cause loss of control.

28.1.2 Don’t attempt to fly under a thunderstorm

even if you can see through to the other side.

Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be

disastrous.

28.1.3 Don’t fly without airborne radar into a cloud

mass containing scattered embedded thunderstorms.

Scattered thunderstorms not embedded usually can

be visually circumnavigated. 

28.1.4 Don’t trust the visual appearance to be a

reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a

thunderstorm.

28.1.5 Do avoid by at least 20 miles any

thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense

radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil of

a large cumulonimbus.

28.1.6 Do clear the top of a known or suspected

severe thunderstorm by at least 1,000 feet altitude for

each 10 knots of wind speed at the cloud top.

However, the altitude capability of most aircraft

make it unlikely that the aircraft will be able to clear

the storm top.

28.1.7 Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area

has 6/10 thunderstorm coverage.

28.1.8 Do remember that vivid and frequent

lightning indicates the probability of a severe

thunderstorm.

28.1.9 Do regard as extremely hazardous any

thunderstorm that tops 35,000 feet or higher whether

the top is visually sighted or determined by radar.

28.2 If you cannot avoid penetrating a thunderstorm,

before entering the storm, you should do the

following:

28.2.1 Tighten your safety belt, put on your shoulder

harness if you have one, and secure all loose objects.

28.2.2 Plan and hold your course to take you through

the storm in a minimum time.

28.2.3 To avoid the most critical icing, establish a

penetration altitude below the freezing level or above

the level of −15 C.

28.2.4 Verify that pitot heat is on and turn on

carburetor heat or jet engine anti−ice. Icing can be

rapid at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous

power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication.

28.2.5 Establish power settings for turbulence

penetration airspeed recommended in your aircraft

manual.

28.2.6 Turn up cockpit lights to highest intensity to

lessen danger of temporary blindness from lightning.

28.2.7 If using automatic pilot, disengage altitude

hold mode and speed hold mode. The automatic

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altitude and speed controls will increase maneuvers

of the aircraft thus increasing structural stresses.

28.2.8 If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna up and

down occasionally. This will permit you to detect

other thunderstorm activity at altitudes other than the

one being flown.

28.3 Following are some Do’s and Don’ts during the

thunderstorm penetration:

28.3.1 Do keep your eyes on your instruments.

Looking outside the cockpit can increase danger of

temporary blindness from lightning.

28.3.2 Don’t change power settings; maintain

settings for the recommended turbulence penetration

airspeed.

28.3.3 Don’t attempt to maintain constant altitude;

let the aircraft “ride the waves.”

28.3.4 Don’t turn back once you are in the

thunderstorm. A straight course through the storm

most likely will get you out of the hazards more

quickly. In addition, turning maneuvers increase

stress on the aircraft.

29. Wake Turbulence

29.1 General

29.1.1 Every aircraft generates a wake while in

flight. Initially, when pilots encountered this wake in

flight, the disturbance was attributed to “prop wash.”

It is known, however, that this disturbance is caused

by a pair of counterrotating vortices trailing from the

wing tips. The vortices from larger aircraft pose

problems to encountering aircraft. For instance, the

wake of these aircraft can impose rolling moments

exceeding the roll control authority of the encountering aircraft. Further, turbulence generated within the

vortices can damage aircraft components and

equipment if encountered at close range. The pilot

must learn to envision the location of the vortex wake

generated by larger (transport category) aircraft and

adjust the flight path accordingly.

29.1.2 During ground operations and during takeoff,

jet engine blast (thrust stream turbulence) can cause

damage and upsets if encountered at close range.

Exhaust velocity versus distance studies at various

thrust levels have shown a need for light aircraft to

maintain an adequate separation behind large turbojet

aircraft. Pilots of larger aircraft should be particularly

careful to consider the effects of their “jet blast” on

other aircraft, vehicles, and maintenance equipment

during ground operations.

29.2 Vortex Generation

29.2.1 Lift is generated by the creation of a pressure

differential over the wing surface. The lowest

pressure occurs over the upper wing surface and the

highest pressure under the wing. This pressure

differential triggers the roll up of the airflow aft of the

wing resulting in swirling air masses trailing

downstream of the wing tips. After the roll up is

completed, the wake consists of two counter rotating

cylindrical vortices. Most of the energy is within a

few feet of the center of each vortex, but pilots should

avoid a region within about 100 feet of the vortex

core. (See FIG GEN 3.5−18.)

29.3 Vortex Strength

29.3.1 The strength of the vortex is governed by the

weight, speed, and shape of the wing of the generating

aircraft. The vortex characteristics of any given

aircraft can also be changed by extension of flaps or

other wing configuring devices as well as by change

in speed. However, as the basic factor is weight, the

vortex strength increases proportionately. Peak

vortex tangential speeds up to almost 300 feet per

second have been recorded. The greatest vortex

strength occurs when the generating aircraft is

HEAVY, CLEAN, and SLOW.

29.3.2 Induced Roll

29.3.2.1 In rare instances, a wake encounter could

cause inflight structural damage of catastrophic

proportions. However, the usual hazard is associated

with induced rolling moments which can exceed the

roll control authority of the encountering aircraft. In

flight experiments, aircraft have been intentionally

flown directly up trailing vortex cores of larger

aircraft. It was shown that the capability of an aircraft

to counteract the roll imposed by the wake vortex

primarily depends on the wing span and counter−control responsiveness of the encountering aircraft.

29.3.2.2 Counter−control is usually effective and

induced roll minimal in cases where the wing span

and ailerons of the encountering aircraft extend

beyond the rotational flow field of the vortex. It is

more difficult for aircraft with short wing span

(relative to the generating aircraft) to counter the

imposed roll induced by vortex flow. Pilots of

short−span aircraft, even of the high−performance

type, must be especially alert to vortex encounters.

(See FIG GEN 3.5−19.)

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

29.3.2.3 The wake of larger aircraft requires the

respect of all pilots.

29.4 Vortex Behavior

29.4.1 Trailing vortices have certain behavioral

characteristics which can help a pilot visualize the

wake location and thereby take avoidance precautions.

29.4.1.1 Vortices are generated from the moment

aircraft leave the ground, since trailing vortices are a

by−product of wing lift. Prior to takeoff or touchdown

pilots should note the rotation or touchdown point of

the preceding aircraft. (See FIG GEN 3.5−20.)

29.4.1.2 The vortex circulation is outward, upward

and around the wing tips when viewed from either

ahead or behind the aircraft. Tests with large aircraft

have shown that the vortices remain spaced a bit less

than a wing span apart, drifting with the wind, at

altitudes greater than a wing span from the ground. In

view of this, if persistent vortex turbulence is

encountered, a slight change of altitude and lateral

position (preferably upwind) will provide a flight

path clear of the turbulence.

29.4.1.3 Flight tests have shown that the vortices

from larger (transport category) aircraft sink at a rate

of several hundred feet per minute, slowing their

descent and diminishing in strength with time and

distance behind the generating aircraft. Atmospheric

turbulence hastens breakup. Pilots should fly at or

above the preceding aircraft’s flight path, altering

course as necessary to avoid the area behind and

below the generating aircraft. However, vertical

separation of 1,000 feet may be considered safe. 

(See FIG GEN 3.5−21.) 

FIG GEN 3.5−18

Wake Vortex Generation

FIG GEN 3.5−19

Wake Encounter Counter Control

COUNTER

CONTROL

FIG GEN 3.5−20

Wake Ends/Wake Begins

Touchdown Rotation

Wake Ends Wake Begins

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−21 

Vortex Flow Field

AVOID Nominally 500-1000 Ft. Nominally 500-1000 Ft.

Sink Rate

Several Hundred Ft.,/Min.

Sink Rate

Several Hundred Ft.,/Min.

FIG GEN 3.5−22

Vortex Movement Near Ground − No Wind

No Wind No Wind

3K 3K

29.4.1.4 When the vortices of larger aircraft sink

close to the ground (within 100 to 200 feet), they tend

to move laterally over the ground at a speed of 2 or

3 knots. (See FIG GEN 3.5−22.)

29.4.1.5 There is a small segment of the aviation

community that have become convinced that wake

vortices may “bounce” up to twice their nominal

steady state height. With a 200−foot span aircraft, the

“bounce” height could reach approximately 200 feet

AGL. This conviction is based on a single

unsubstantiated report of an apparent coherent

vortical flow that was seen in the volume scan of a

research sensor. No one can say what conditions

cause vortex bouncing, how high they bounce, at

what angle they bounce, or how many times a vortex

may bounce. On the other hand, no one can say for

certain that vortices never “bounce.” Test data have

shown that vortices can rise with the air mass in which

they are embedded. Wind shear, particularly, can

cause vortex flow field “tilting.” Also, ambient

thermal lifting and orographic effects (rising terrain

or tree lines) can cause a vortex flow field to rise.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, pilots are reminded

that they should be alert at all times for possible wake

vortex encounters when conducting approach and

landing operations. The pilot has the ultimate

responsibility for ensuring appropriate separations

and positioning of the aircraft in the terminal area to

avoid the wake turbulence created by a preceding

aircraft.

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−23

Vortex Movement Near Ground − with Cross Winds

6K

(3K + 3K) (3K + 3K)

3K Wind 3K Wind

0 (3K - 3K) 0 (3K - 3K)

FIG GEN 3.5−24

Vortex Movement in Ground Effect − Tailwind

Light Quartering

Tailwind Light Quartering Tailwind

x

Tail Wind Tail Wind

Touchdown Point Touchdown Point

29.4.2 A crosswind will decrease the lateral

movement of the upwind vortex and increase the

movement of the downwind vortex. Thus a light wind

with a cross−runway component of 1 to 5 knots could

result in the upwind vortex remaining in the

touchdown zone for a period of time and hasten the

drift of the downwind vortex toward another runway.

(See FIG GEN 3.5−23.) Similarly, a tailwind

condition can move the vortices of the preceding

aircraft forward into the touchdown zone. THE

LIGHT QUARTERING TAILWIND REQUIRES

MAXIMUM CAUTION. Pilots should be alert to

larger aircraft upwind from their approach and

takeoff flight paths. (See FIG GEN 3.5−24.)

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29.5 Operations Problem Areas

29.5.1 A wake encounter can be catastrophic. In

1972 at Fort Worth, Texas, a DC−9 got too close to a

DC−10 (two miles back), rolled, caught a wingtip,

and cartwheeled coming to rest in an inverted

position on the runway. All aboard were killed.

Serious and even fatal general aviation accidents

induced by wake vortices are not uncommon.

However, a wake encounter is not necessarily

hazardous. It can be one or more jolts with varying

severity depending upon the direction of the

encounter, weight of the generating aircraft, size of

the encountering aircraft, distance from the generating aircraft, and point of vortex encounter. The

probability of induced roll increases when the

encountering aircraft’s heading is generally aligned

with the flight path of the generating aircraft.

29.5.2 AVOID THE AREA BELOW AND

BEHIND THE GENERATING AIRCRAFT,

ESPECIALLY AT LOW ALTITUDE WHERE

EVEN A MOMENTARY WAKE ENCOUNTER

COULD BE HAZARDOUS. This is not easy to do.

Some accidents have occurred even though the pilot

of the trailing aircraft had carefully noted that the

aircraft in front was at a considerably lower altitude.

Unfortunately, this does not ensure that the flight path

of the lead aircraft will be below that of the trailing

aircraft.

29.5.3 Pilots should be particularly alert in calm

wind conditions and situations where the vortices

could:

29.5.3.1 Remain in the touchdown area.

29.5.3.2 Drift from aircraft operating on a nearby

runway.

29.5.3.3 Sink into the takeoff or landing path from a

crossing runway.

29.5.3.4 Sink into the traffic pattern from other

airport operations.

29.5.3.5 Sink into the flight path of VFR aircraft

operating on the hemispheric altitude 500 feet below.

29.5.4 Pilots of all aircraft should visualize the

location of the vortex trail behind larger aircraft and

use proper vortex avoidance procedures to achieve

safe operation. It is equally important that pilots of

larger aircraft plan or adjust their flight paths to

minimize vortex exposure to other aircraft.

29.6 Vortex Avoidance Procedures

29.6.1 Under certain conditions, airport traffic

controllers apply procedures for separating IFR

aircraft. If a pilot accepts a clearance to visually

follow a preceding aircraft, the pilot accepts

responsibility for separation and wake turbulence

avoidance. The controllers will also provide to VFR

aircraft, with whom they are in communication and

which in the tower’s opinion may be adversely

affected by wake turbulence from a larger aircraft, the

position, altitude and direction of flight of larger

aircraft followed by the phrase “CAUTION − WAKE

TURBULENCE.” After issuing the caution for wake

turbulence, the airport traffic controllers generally do

not provide additional information to the following

aircraft unless the airport traffic controllers know the

following aircraft is overtaking the preceding

aircraft. WHETHER OR NOT A WARNING OR

INFORMATION HAS BEEN GIVEN, HOWEVER,

THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO ADJUST AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS AND FLIGHT PATH AS

NECESSARY TO PRECLUDE SERIOUS WAKE

ENCOUNTERS. When any doubt exists about

maintaining safe separation distances between

aircraft during approaches, pilots should ask the

control tower for updates on separation distance and

aircraft groundspeed.

29.6.2 The following vortex avoidance procedures

are recommended for the various situations:

29.6.2.1 Landing Behind a Larger Aircraft − Same Runway. Stay at or above the larger

aircraft’s final approach flight path − note its

touchdown point − land beyond it.

29.6.2.2 Landing Behind a Larger Aircraft − When a Parallel Runway is Closer Than

2,500 Feet. Consider possible drift to your runway.

Stay at or above the larger aircraft’s final approach

flight path − note its touchdown point.

29.6.2.3 Landing Behind a Larger Aircraft − Crossing Runway. Cross above the larger

aircraft’s flight path.

29.6.2.4 Landing Behind a Departing Larger

Aircraft − Same Runway. Note the larger aircraft’s

rotation point − land well prior to rotation point.

29.6.2.5 Landing Behind a Departing Larger

Aircraft − Crossing Runway. Note the larger

aircraft’s rotation point − if past the intersection − continue the approach − land prior to the

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intersection. If larger aircraft rotates prior to the

intersection, avoid flight below the larger aircraft’s

flight path. Abandon the approach unless a landing is

ensured well before reaching the intersection.

29.6.2.6 Departing Behind a Larger Aircraft.

Note the larger aircraft’s rotation point − rotate prior

to larger aircraft’s rotation point − continue climb

above the larger aircraft’s climb path until turning

clear of the larger aircraft’s wake. Avoid subsequent

headings which will cross below and behind a larger

aircraft. Be alert for any critical takeoff situation

which could lead to a vortex encounter.

29.6.2.7 Intersection Takeoffs − Same Runway.

Be alert to adjacent larger aircraft operations,

particularly upwind of your runway. If intersection

takeoff clearance is received, avoid subsequent

headings which will cross below a larger aircraft’s

path.

29.6.2.8 Departing or Landing After a Larger

Aircraft Executing a Low Approach, Missed

Approach, Or Touch−and−go Landing. Because

vortices settle and move laterally near the ground, the

vortex hazard may exist along the runway and in your

flight path after a larger aircraft has executed a low

approach, missed approach, or a touch−and−go

landing, particular in light quartering wind conditions. You should ensure that an interval of at least

2 minutes has elapsed before your takeoff or landing.

29.6.2.9 En Route VFR (Thousand−foot Altitude

Plus 500 Feet). Avoid flight below and behind a large

aircraft’s path. If a larger aircraft is observed above on

the same track (meeting or overtaking) adjust your

position laterally, preferably upwind.

29.7 Helicopters

29.7.1 In a slow hover−taxi or stationary hover near

the surface, helicopter main rotor(s) generate

downwash producing high velocity outwash vortices

to a distance approximately three times the diameter

of the rotor. When rotor downwash hits the surface,

the resulting outwash vortices have behavioral

characteristics similar to wing tip vortices produced

by fixed−wing aircraft. However, the vortex

circulation is outward, upward, around, and away

from the main rotor(s) in all directions. Pilots of small

aircraft should avoid operating within three rotor

diameters of any helicopter in a slow hover−taxi or

stationary hover. In forward flight, departing or

landing helicopters produce a pair of strong,

high−speed trailing vortices similar to wing tip

vortices of larger fixed−wing aircraft. Pilots of small

aircraft should use caution when operating behind or

crossing behind landing and departing helicopters.

29.8 Pilot Responsibility

29.8.1 Government and industry groups are making

concerted efforts to minimize or eliminate the

hazards of trailing vortices. However, the flight

disciplines necessary to ensure vortex avoidance

during VFR operations must be exercised by the pilot.

Vortex visualization and avoidance procedures

should be exercised by the pilot using the same degree

for concern as in collision avoidance.

29.8.2 Wake turbulence may be encountered by

aircraft in flight as well as when operating on the

airport movement area.

29.8.3 Pilots are reminded that in operations

conducted behind all aircraft, acceptance of instructions from ATC in the following situations is an

acknowledgment that the pilot will ensure safe

takeoff and landing intervals and accepts the

responsibility of providing his/her own wake

turbulence separation:

29.8.3.1 Traffic information.

29.8.3.2 Instructions to follow an aircraft.

29.8.3.3 The acceptance of a visual approach

clearance.

29.8.4 For operations conducted behind heavy

aircraft, ATC will specify the word “heavy” when this

information is known. Pilots of heavy aircraft should

always use the word “heavy” in radio communications.

29.8.5 Heavy and large jet aircraft operators should

use the following procedures during an approach to

landing. These procedures establish a dependable

baseline from which pilots of in−trail, lighter aircraft

may reasonably expect to make effective flight path

adjustments to avoid serious wake vortex turbulence.

29.8.5.1 Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake

vortices should make every attempt to fly on the

established glidepath, not above it; or, if glidepath

guidance is not available, to fly as closely as possible

to a “3−1” glidepath, not above it.

EXAMPLE−

Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at

5 miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown.

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29.8.5.2 Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake

vortices should fly as closely as possible to the

approach course centerline or to the extended

centerline of the runway of intended landing as

appropriate to conditions.

29.8.6 Pilots operating lighter aircraft on visual

approaches in−trail to aircraft producing strong wake

vortices should use the following procedures to assist

in avoiding wake turbulence. These procedures apply

only to those aircraft that are on visual approaches.

29.8.6.1 Pilots of lighter aircraft should fly on or

above the glidepath. Glidepath reference may be

furnished by an ILS, by a visual approach slope

system, by other ground−based approach slope

guidance systems, or by other means. In the absence

of visible glidepath guidance, pilots may very nearly

duplicate a 3−degree glideslope by adhering to the “3

to 1” glidepath principle.

EXAMPLE−

Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at

5 miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown.

29.8.6.2 If the pilot of the lighter following aircraft

has visual contact with the preceding heavier aircraft

and also with the runway, the pilot may further adjust

for possible wake vortex turbulence by the following

practices:

a) Pick a point of landing no less than 1,000 feet

from the arrival end of the runway.

b) Establish a line−of−sight to that landing point

that is above and in front of the heavier preceding

aircraft.

c) When possible, note the point of landing of the

heavier preceding aircraft and adjust point of

intended landing as necessary.

EXAMPLE−

A puff of smoke may appear at the 1,000−foot markings of

the runway, showing that touchdown was at that point;

therefore, adjust point of intended landing to the

1,500−foot markings.

d) Maintain the line−of−sight to the point of

intended landing above and ahead of the heavier

preceding aircraft; maintain it to touchdown.

e) Land beyond the point of landing of the

preceding heavier aircraft.

29.8.7 During visual approaches pilots may ask ATC

for updates on separation and groundspeed with

respect to heavier preceding aircraft, especially when

there is any question of safe separation from wake

turbulence.

29.9 Air Traffic Wake Turbulence Separations

29.9.1 Because of the possible effects of wake

turbulence, controllers are required to apply no less

than specified minimum separation for aircraft

operating behind a heavy jet and, in certain instances,

behind large nonheavy aircraft; i.e., B757 aircraft.

29.9.1.1 Separation is applied to aircraft operating

directly behind a heavy and/or B757 jet at the same

altitude or less than 1,000 feet below:

a) Heavy jet behind heavy jet−4 miles.

b) Large/heavy behind B757 − 4 miles.

c) Small behind B757−5 miles.

d) Small/large aircraft behind heavy jet − 5 miles.

29.9.1.2 Also, separation, measured at the time the

preceding aircraft is over the landing threshold, is

provided to small aircraft:

a) Small aircraft landing behind heavy

jet − 6 miles.

b) Small aircraft landing behind B757 − 5 miles.

c) Small aircraft landing behind large aircraft − 4 miles.

NOTE−

Aircraft classes are listed in the Pilot/Controller Glossary

in the Aeronautical Information Manual.

29.9.1.3 Additionally, appropriate time or distance

intervals are provided to departing aircraft. Two

minutes or the appropriate 4 or 5 mile radar separation

when takeoff behind a heavy/B757 jet will be:

a) From the same threshold.

b) On a crossing runway and projected flight paths

will cross.

c) From the threshold of a parallel runway when

staggered ahead of that of the adjacent runway by less

than 500 feet and when the runways are separated by

less than 2,500 feet.

NOTE−

Controllers may not reduce or waive these intervals.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−59

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

29.9.2 A 3−minute interval will be provided for a

small aircraft taking off:

29.9.2.1 From an intersection on the same runway

(same or opposite direction) behind a departing large

aircraft.

29.9.2.2 In the opposite direction on the same

runway behind a large aircraft takeoff or low/missed

approach.

NOTE−

This 3−minute interval may be waived upon specific pilot

request.

29.9.3 A 3−minute interval will be provided for all

aircraft taking off when the operations are as

described in paragraph 29.9.2 above, the preceding

aircraft is a heavy and/or a B757 jet, and the

operations are on either the same runway or parallel

runways separated by less than 2,500 feet.

Controllers may not reduce or waive this interval.

29.9.4 Pilots may request additional separation; i.e.,

2 minutes instead of 4 or 5 miles for wake turbulence

avoidance. This request should be made as soon as

practical on ground control and at least before taxiing

onto the runway.

NOTE−

Federal Aviation Administration Regulations state: “The

pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for

and is the final authority as to the operation of that

aircraft.”

29.9.5 Controllers may anticipate separation and

need not withhold a takeoff clearance for an aircraft

departing behind a large/heavy aircraft if there is

reasonable assurance the required separation will

exist when the departing aircraft starts takeoff roll.

30. International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats

30.1 The U.S. uses the ICAO world standard for

aviation weather reporting and forecasting. The

utilization of terminal forecasts affirms U.S.

commitment to a single global format for aviation

weather. The World Meteorological Organization’s

(WMO) publication No. 782, “Aerodrome Reports

and Forecasts,” contains the base METAR and TAF

code as adopted by the WMO member countries.

30.2 Although the METAR code is adopted

worldwide, each country is allowed to make

modifications or exceptions to the code for use in

their particular country; e.g., the U.S. will continue to

use statute miles for visibility, feet for RVR values,

knots for wind speed, inches of mercury for altimetry,

and will continue reporting prevailing visibility

rather than lowest sector visibility. A METAR report

contains the following sequence of elements in the

following order:

30.2.1 Type of report.

30.2.2 ICAO station identifier.

30.2.3 Date and time of report.

30.2.4 Modifier (as required).

30.2.5 Wind.

30.2.6 Visibility.

30.2.7 Runway Visual Range (RVR).

30.2.8 Weather phenomena.

30.2.9 Sky conditions.

30.2.10 Temperature/Dew point group.

30.2.11 Altimeter.

30.2.12 Remarks (RMK).

30.3 The following paragraphs describe the elements in a METAR report.

30.3.1 Type of Report. There are two types of

reports:

30.3.1.1 The METAR, an aviation routine weather

report.

30.3.1.2 The SPECI, a nonroutine (special) aviation

weather report.

The type of report (METAR or SPECI) will always

appear as the lead element of the report.

30.3.2 ICAO Station Identifier. The METAR code

uses ICAO 4−letter station identifiers. In the

contiguous 48 states, the 3−letter domestic station

identifier is prefixed with a “K”; i.e., the domestic

identifier for Seattle is SEA while the ICAO identifier

is KSEA. For Alaska, all station identifiers start with

“PA”; for Hawaii, all station identifiers start with

“PH.” The identifier for the eastern Caribbean is “T”

followed by the individual country’s letter; i.e.,

Puerto Rico is “TJ.” For a complete worldwide listing

see ICAO Document 7910, “Location Indicators.”

30.3.3 Date and Time of Report. The date and time

the observation is taken are transmitted as a six−digit

date/time group appended with Z to denote

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The first

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−60

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

two digits are the date followed with two digits for

hour and two digits for minutes.

EXAMPLE−

172345Z (the 17th day of the month at 2345Z)

30.3.4 Modifier (As Required). “AUTO” identifies

a METAR/SPECI report as an automated weather

report with no human intervention. If “AUTO” is

shown in the body of the report, the type of sensor

equipment used at the station will be encoded in the

remarks section of the report. The absence of

“AUTO” indicates that a report was made manually

by an observer or that an automated report had human

augmentation/backup. The modifier “COR” indicates a corrected report that is sent out to replace an

earlier report with an error.

NOTE−

There are two types of automated stations, AO1 for

automated weather reporting stations without a

precipitation discriminator, and AO2 for automated

stations with a precipitation discriminator. (A precipitation

discriminator can determine the difference between liquid

and frozen/freezing precipitation). This information

appears in the remarks section of an automated report.

30.3.5 Wind. The wind is reported as a five digit

group (six digits if speed is over 99 knots). The first

three digits are the direction from which the wind is

blowing, in tens of degrees referenced to true north,

or “VRB” if the direction is variable. The next two

digits is the wind speed in knots, or if over 99 knots,

the next three digits. If the wind is gusty, it is reported

as a “G” after the speed followed by the highest gust

reported. The abbreviation “KT” is appended to

denote the use of knots for wind speed.

EXAMPLE−

13008KT − wind from 130 degrees at 8 knots

08032G45KT − wind from 080 degrees at 32 knots with

gusts to 45 knots

VRB04KT − wind variable in direction at 4 knots

00000KT − wind calm

210103G130KT − wind from 210 degrees at 103 knots with

gusts to 130 knots

If the wind direction is variable by 60 degrees or more and

the speed is greater than 6 knots, a variable group

consisting of the extremes of the wind direction separated

by a “V” will follow the prevailing wind group.

32012G22KT 280V350

30.3.5.1 Peak Wind. Whenever the peak wind

exceeds 25 knots, “PK WND” will be included in

Remarks; e.g., PK WND 280045/1955 “Peak wind

two eight zero at four five occurred at one niner five

five.” If the hour can be inferred from the report time,

only the minutes will be appended; e.g., PK WND

34050/38 “Peak wind three four zero at five zero

occurred at three eight past the hour.”

30.3.5.2 Wind Shift. Whenever a wind shift occurs,

“WSHFT” will be included in remarks followed by

the time the wind shift began; e.g., WSHFT 30

FROPA “Wind shift at three zero due to frontal

passage.”

30.3.6 Visibility. Prevailing visibility is reported in

statute miles with “SM” appended to it.

EXAMPLE−

7SM seven statute miles . . . . . . . . . 

15SM fifteen statute miles . . . . . . . . 1/2SM one . . . . . . . . −half statute mile

30.3.6.1 Tower/Surface Visibility. If either tower or

surface visibility is below 4 statute miles, the lesser of

the 2 will be reported in the body of the report; the

greater will be reported in remarks.

30.3.6.2 Automated Visibility. ASOS visibility

stations will show visibility ten or greater than ten

miles as “10SM.” AWOS visibility stations will show

visibility less than 1/4 statute mile as “M1/4SM” and

visibility ten or greater than ten miles as “10SM.”

30.3.6.3 Variable Visibility. Variable visibility is

shown in remarks when rapid increase or decrease by

1/2 statute mile or more and the average prevailing

visibility is less than 3 statute miles; e.g., VIS 1V2

means “visibility variable between 1 and 2 statute

miles.”

30.3.6.4 Sector Visibility. Sector visibility is shown

in remarks when it differs from the prevailing

visibility, and either the prevailing or sector visibility

is less than 3 statute miles.

EXAMPLE−

VIS N2 visibility north two . . . . . . . 

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−61

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

30.3.7 Runway Visual Range (when reported).

“R” identifies the group followed by the runway

heading (and parallel runway designator, if needed)

“/” and the visual range in feet (meters in other

countries) followed with “FT.” (“Feet” is not

spoken.) 

30.3.7.1 Variability Values. When RVR varies by

more than on reportable value, the lowest and highest

values are shown with “V” between them.

30.3.7.2 Maximum/Minimum Range. “P” indicates an observed RVR is above the maximum value

for this system (spoken as “more than”). “M”

indicates an observed RVR is below the minimum

value which can be determined by the system (spoken

as “less than”).

EXAMPLE−

R32L/1200FT − Runway Three Two Left R−V−R one

thousand two hundred

R27R/M1000V4000FT − Runway Two Seven Right R−V−R

variable from less than one thousand to four thousand.

30.3.8 Weather Phenomena. In METAR, weather

is reported in the format:

Intensity / Proximity / Descriptor /

Precipitation / Obstruction to Visibility /

Other

NOTE−

The “/” above and in the following descriptions (except as

the separator between the temperature and dew point) are

for separation purposes in this publication and do not

appear in the actual METARs.

30.3.8.1 Intensity applies only to the first type of

precipitation reported. A “−” denotes light, no symbol

denotes moderate, and a “+” denotes heavy.

30.3.8.2 Proximity applies to and is reported only

for weather occurring in the vicinity of the airport

(between 5 and 10 miles of the point(s) of

observation). It is denoted by the letters “VC.”

(Intensity and “VC” will not appear together in the

weather group.)

30.3.8.3 Descriptor. These eight descriptors apply

to the precipitation or obstructions to visibility:

TS thunderstorm

DR low drifting

SH showers

MI shallow

FZ freezing

BC patches

BL blowing

PR partial

NOTE−

Although “TS” and “SH” are used with precipitation and

may be preceded with an intensity symbol, the intensity still

applies to the precipitation not the descriptor.

30.3.8.4 Precipitation. There are nine types of

precipitation in the METAR code:

RA rain

DZ drizzle

SN snow

GR hail (1/4 or greater)

GS small hail/snow pellets

PL ice pellets

SG snow grains

IC ice crystals

UP unknown precipitation (automated

stations only)

EXAMPLE−

TSRA thunderstorm with moderate rain

+SN heavy snow

−RA FG light rain and fog

BRHZ mist and haze (visibility 5/8 mile or

greater)

FZDZ freezing drizzle

VCSH rain shower in the vicinity

+SHRASNPL heavy rain showers, snow, ice pellets

(Intensity indicator refers to the

predominant rain.)

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−62

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

30.3.8.5 Obstructions to Visibility. Obscurations

are any phenomena in the atmosphere, other than

precipitation, that reduce horizontal visibility. There

are eight types of obscuration phenomena in the

METAR code: 

FG fog (visibility less than 5/8 mile)

HZ haze

FU smoke

PY spray

BR mist (visibility 5/8−6 miles)

SA sand

DU dust

VA volcanic ash

NOTE−

Fog (FG) is observed or forecast only when the visibility is

less than 5/8 mile. Otherwise, mist (BR) is observed or

forecast.

30.3.8.6 Other. There are five categories of other

weather phenomena which are reported when they

occur:

SQ squall

SS sandstorm

DS duststorm

PO dust/sand whirls

FC

+FC

funnel cloud

tornado/waterspout

30.3.9 Sky Condition. In METAR, sky condition is

reported in the format:

Amount / Height / (Type) or Indefinite Ceiling /

Height

30.3.9.1 Amount. The amount of sky cover is

reported in eighths of sky cover, using contractions:

SKC clear (no clouds)

FEW >0/8 to 2/8 cloud cover

SCT scattered (3/8 to 4/8 cloud cover)

BKN broken (5/8 to 7/8 cloud cover)

OVC overcast (8/8 cloud cover)

CB cumulonimbus when present

TCU towering cumulus when present

NOTE−

1. “SKC” will be reported at manual stations. “CLR” will

be used at automated stations when no clouds below

12,000 feet are reported.

2. A ceiling layer is not designated in the METAR code.

For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest broken or

overcast layer, or vertical visibility into obscuration. Also,

there is no provision for reporting thin layers in the METAR

code. When clouds are thin, that layer shall be reported as

if it were opaque.

30.3.9.2 Height. Cloud bases are reported with

three digits in hundreds of feet. (Clouds above 12,000

feet cannot be reported by an automated station.)

30.3.9.3 Type. If towering cumulus clouds (TCU)

or cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are present, they are

reported after the height which represents their base.

EXAMPLE−

SCT025TCU BKN080 BKN250 − “two thousand five

hundred scattered towering cumulus, ceiling eight

thousand broken, two five thousand broken.”

SCT008 OVC012CB − “eight hundred scattered ceiling

one thousand two hundred overcast cumulonimbus

clouds.”

30.3.9.4 Vertical Visibility (indefinite ceiling

height). The height into an indefinite ceiling is

preceded by “VV” and followed by three digits

indicating the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet.

This layer indicates total obscuration.

EXAMPLE− 1/8 SM FG VV006 − visibility one eighth, fog, indefinite

ceiling six hundred.

30.3.9.5 Obscurations are reported when the sky is

partially obscured by a ground−based phenomena by

indicating the amount of obscuration as FEW, SCT,

BKN followed by three zeros (000). In remarks, the

obscuring phenomenon precedes the amount of

obscuration and three zeros.

EXAMPLE−

BKN000 (IN BODY) − “sky partially obscured.”

FU BKN000 (IN REMARKS) − “smoke obscuring five− to

seven−eighths of the sky.”

30.3.9.6 When sky conditions include a layer aloft

other than clouds, such as smoke or haze, the type of

phenomena, sky cover, and height are shown in

remarks.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−63

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

EXAMPLE−

BKN020 (IN BODY) − “ceiling two thousand broken.”

RMK FU BKN020 − “broken layer of smoke aloft, based at

two thousand.”

30.3.9.7 Variable Ceiling. When a ceiling is below

three thousand and is variable, the remark “CIG” will

be shown followed with the lowest and highest

ceiling heights separated by a “V.”

EXAMPLE−

CIG 005V010 − “ceiling variable between five hundred

and one thousand.”

30.3.9.8 Second Site Sensor. When an automated

station uses meteorological discontinuity sensors,

remarks will be shown to identify site specific sky

conditions which differ and are lower than conditions

reported in the body.

EXAMPLE−

CIG 020 RY11 − “ceiling two thousand at Runway One

One.”

30.3.9.9 Variable Cloud Layer. When a layer is

varying in sky cover, remarks will show the

variability range. If there is more than one cloud

layer, the variable layer will be identified by

including the layer height.

EXAMPLE−

SCT V BKN − “scattered layer variable to broken.”

BKN025 V OVC − “broken layer at two thousand five

hundred variable to overcast.”

30.3.9.10 Significant Clouds. When significant

clouds are observed, they are shown in remarks,

along with the specified information as shown below:

a) Cumulonimbus (CB), or Cumulonimbus Mammatus (CBMAM), distance (if known), direction

from the station, and direction of movement, if

known. If the clouds are beyond 10 miles from the

airport, DSNT will indicate distance.

EXAMPLE−

CB W MOV E − “cumulonimbus west moving east.”

CBMAM DSNT S − “cumulonimbus mammatus distant

south.”

b) Towering Cumulus (TCU), location, (if

known), or direction from the station.

EXAMPLE−

TCU OHD − “towering cumulus overhead.”

TCU W − “towering cumulus west.”

c) Altocumulus Castellanus (ACC), Stratocumulus Standing Lenticular (SCSL), Altocumulus

Standing Lenticular (ACSL), Cirrocumulus Standing

Lenticular (CCSL) or rotor clouds, describing the

clouds (if needed), and the direction from the station.

ACC W “altocumulus castellanus

west”

ACSL SW−S “standing lenticular

altocumulus southwest

through south”

APRNT ROTOR CLD S “apparent rotor cloud

south”

CCSL OVR E “standing lenticular

cirrocumulus over the

east”

30.3.10 Temperature/Dew Point. Temperature and

dew point are reported in two, two−digit groups in

degrees Celsius, separated by a solidus (/).

Temperatures below zero are prefixed with an “M.”

If the temperature is available but the dew point is

missing, the temperature is shown followed by a

solidus. If the temperature is missing, the group is

omitted from the report.

EXAMPLE−

15/08 “temperature one five, dew point 8” . . . . . . . . 

00/M02 “temperature zero, dew point minus 2” . . . . . . . 

M05/ “temperature minus five, dew point . . . . . . . . . 

 missing”

30.3.11 Altimeter. Altimeter settings are reported in

a four−digit format in inches of mercury prefixed

with an “A” to denote the units of pressure.

EXAMPLE−

A2995 “altimeter two niner niner five” . . . . . . . . 

30.3.12 Remarks. Remarks will be included in all

observations, when appropriate. The contraction

“RMK” denotes the start of the remarks section of a

METAR report.

Location of a phenomena within 5 statute miles of the

point of observation will be reported as at the station.

Phenomena between 5 and 10 statute miles will be

reported in the vicinity, “VC.” Phenomena beyond

10 statute miles will be shown as distant, “DSNT.”

Distances are in statute miles except for automated

lightning remarks which are in nautical miles.

Movement of clouds or weather will be indicated by

the direction toward which the phenomena is moving.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−64

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

There are two categories of remarks: Automated,

Manual, and Plain Language; and Additive and

Automated Maintenance Data.

30.3.12.1 Automated, Manual, and Plain Language Remarks. This group of remarks may be

generated from either manual or automated weather

reporting stations and generally elaborates on

parameters reported in the body of the report. Plain

language remarks are only provided by manual

stations.

1) Volcanic Eruptions

2) Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout

3) Type of Automated Station (AO1 or AO2)

4) Peak Wind

5) Wind Shift

6) Tower or Surface Visibility

7) Variable Prevailing Visibility

8) Sector Visibility

9) Visibility at Second Location

10) Dispatch Visual Range

11) Lightning (freq) LTG (type) (loc)

12) Beginning/Ending Time of Precipitation

13) Beginning/Ending Time of Thunderstorms

14) Thunderstorm Location; Movement Direction

15) Hailstone Size

16) Virga

17) Variable Ceiling

18) Obscurations

19) Variable Sky Condition

20) Significant Cloud Types

21) Ceiling Height at Second Location

22) Pressure Rising or Falling Rapidly

23) Sea−Level Pressure

24) Aircraft Mishap (not transmitted)

25) No SPECI Reports Taken

26) Snow Increasing Rapidly

27) Other Significant Information

30.3.12.2 Additive and Automated Maintenance

Data Remarks.

1) Hourly Precipitation

2) Precipitation Amount

3) 24−Hour Precipitation

4) Snow Depth on Ground

5) Water Equivalent of Snow on Ground

6) Cloud Types

7) Duration of Sunshine

8) Hourly Temperature and Dew Point (Tenths)

9) 6−Hour Maximum Temperature

10) 6−Hour Minimum Temperature

11) 24−Hour Maximum/Minimum Temperatures

12) Pressure Tendency

13) Sensor Status:

WINO

ZRANO

SNO

VRNO

PNO

VISNO

EXAMPLE−

METAR report and explanation:

METAR KSFO 041453Z AUTO VRB02KT 3SM BR CLR

15/12 A3012 RMK AO2

METAR Type of report (aviation routine weather

report)

KSFO Station identifier (San Francisco, CA)

041453Z Date/Time (4th day of month; time 1453

UTC)

AUTO Fully automated; no human intervention

VRB02KT Wind (wind variable at two)

3SM Visibility (visibility three statute miles)

BR Visibility obscured by mist

CLR No clouds below one two thousand

15/12 Temperature one five; dew point one

two

A3012 Altimeter three zero one two

RMK Remarks

AO2 This automated station has a weather

discriminator (for precipitation).

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−65

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

EXAMPLE−

METAR report and explanation:

METAR KBNA 281250Z 33018KT 290V360 1/2SM

R31/2700FT SN BLSN FG VV008 00/M03 A2991 RMK

RAE42SNB42

METAR Aviation routine weather report

KBNA Nashville, TN

281250Z 28th day of month; time 1250 UTC

(no modifier) This is a manually generated report,

due to the absence of “AUTO” and

“AO1 or AO2” in remarks.

33018KT Wind three three zero at one eight

290V360 Wind variable between two nine zero

and three six zero

1/2SM Visibility one half statute mile

R31/2700FT Runway three one RVR two thousand

seven hundred feet

SN Moderate snow

BLSN FG Visibility obscured by blowing snow

and fog

VV008 Indefinite ceiling eight hundred

00/M03 Temperature zero; dew point minus

three

A2991 Altimeter two niner niner one

RMK Remarks

RAE36 Rain ended at three six

SNB42 Snow began at four two

EXAMPLE− 

SPECI report and explanation:

SPECI KCVG 152224Z 28024G36KT 3/4SM +TSRA

BKN008 OVC020CB 28/23 A3000 RMK TSRAB24 TS W

MOV E.

SPECI Nonroutine aviation special weather

report

KCVG Cincinnati, OH

152224Z 15th day of month; time 2224 UTC

(no modifier) This is a manually generated report

due to the absence of “AUTO” and

“AO1 or AO2” in remarks.

28024G36KT Wind two eight zero at two four gusts

three six

3/4SM Visibility three fourths statute mile

+TSRA Thunderstorms, heavy rain

BKN008 Ceiling eight hundred broken

OVC020CB Two thousand overcast cumulonimbus clouds

28/23 Temperature two eight; dew point two

three

A3000 Altimeter three zero zero zero

RMK Remarks

TSRAB24 Thunderstorm and rain began at two

four

TS W MOV E Thunderstorm west moving east

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−66

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

30.4 Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). A concise

statement of the expected meteorological conditions

at an airport during a specified period (usually 24

hours). TAFs use the same codes as METAR weather

reports. They are scheduled four times daily for

24−hour periods beginning at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z,

and 1800Z. TAFs are issued in the following format:

Type of Report / ICAO Station Identifier / Date

and Time of Origin / Valid Period Date and

Time / Forecast Meteorological Conditions

NOTE−

The “/” above and in the following descriptions are for

separation purposes in this publication and do not appear

in the actual TAFs.

30.4.1 Explanation of TAF elements.

30.4.1.1 Type of Report. There are two types of

TAF issuances, a routine forecast issuance (TAF) and

an amended forecast (TAF AMD). An amended TAF

is issued when the current TAF no longer adequately

describes the on−going weather or the forecaster feels

the TAF is not representative of the current or

expected weather. Corrected (COR) or delayed

(RTD) TAFs are identified only in the communications header which precedes the actual forecasts.

30.4.1.2 ICAO Station Identifier. The TAF code

uses ICAO 4−letter location identifiers as described

in the METAR section.

30.4.1.3 Date and Time of Origin. This element is

the date and time the forecast is actually prepared.

The format is a two−digit date and four−digit time

followed, without a space, by the letter “Z.”

30.4.1.4 Valid Period Date and Time. The UTC

valid period of the forecast is a two−digit date

followed by the two−digit beginning hour and

two−digit ending hour. In the case of an amended

forecast, or a forecast which is corrected or delayed,

the valid period may be for less than 24 hours. Where

an airport or terminal operates on a part−time basis

(less than 24 hours/day), the TAFs issued for those

locations will have the abbreviated statement “NIL

AMD SKED AFT (closing time) Z” added to the end

of the forecasts. For the TAFs issued while these

locations are closed, the word “NIL” will appear in

place of the forecast text. A delayed (RTD) forecast

will then be issued for these locations after two

complete observations are received.

30.4.1.5 Forecast Meteorological Conditions.

This is the body of the TAF. The basic format is:

Wind / Visibility / Weather / Sky Condition /

Optional Data (Wind Shear)

The wind, visibility, and sky condition elements are

always included in the initial time group of the

forecast. Weather is included only if significant to

aviation. If a significant, lasting change in any of the

elements is expected during the valid period, a new

time period with the changes is included. It should be

noted that with the exception of an “FM” group, the

new time period will include only those elements

which are expected to change; i.e., if a lowering of the

visibility is expected but the wind is expected to

remain the same, the new time period reflecting the

lower visibility would not include a forecast wind.

The forecast wind would remain the same as in the

previous time period.

Any temporary conditions expected during a specific

time period are included with that time period. The

following describes the elements in the above format.

a) Wind. This five (or six) digit group includes the

expected wind direction (first 3 digits) and speed (last

2 digits or 3 digits if 100 knots or greater). The

contraction “KT” follows to denote the units of wind

speed. Wind gusts are noted by the letter “G”

appended to the wind speed followed by the highest

expected gust.

NOTE−

A variable wind direction is noted by “VRB” where the

three digit direction usually appears. A calm wind (3 knots

or less) is forecast as “00000KT.”

EXAMPLE−

18010KT − wind one eight zero at one zero (wind is blowing

from 180 at 10 knots).

35012G20KT − wind three five zero at one two gust two

zero

b) Visibility. The expected prevailing visibility up

to and including 6 miles is forecast in statute miles,

including fractions of miles, followed by “SM” to

note the units of measure. Expected visibilities

greater than 6 miles are forecast as P6SM (Plus

six statute miles).

EXAMPLE−

1/2SM . . . . . . . . visibility one−half

4SM visibility four . . . . . . . . . 

P6SM visibility more than six . . . . . . . . 

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−67

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

c) Weather. The expected weather phenomena is

coded in TAF reports using the same format,

qualifiers, and phenomena contractions as METAR

reports (except UP).

Obscurations to vision will be forecast whenever the

prevailing visibility is forecast to be 6 statute miles or

less.

 If no significant weather is expected to occur during

a specific time period in the forecast, the weather

group is omitted for that time period. If, after a time

period in which significant weather has been forecast,

a change to a forecast of no significant weather

occurs, the contraction NSW (no significant weather)

will appear as the weather group in the new time

period. (NSW is included only in becoming

(BECMG) or temporary (TEMPO) groups.)

d) Sky Condition. TAF sky condition forecasts

use the METAR format described in the METAR

section. Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are the only

cloud type forecast in TAFs.

When clear skies are forecast, the contraction “SKC”

will always be used. The contraction “CLR” is never

used in the aerodrome forecast (TAF).

When the sky is obscured due to a surface−based

phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV) into the

obscuration is forecast. The format for vertical

visibility is “VV” followed by a three−digit height in

hundreds of feet.

NOTE−

As in METAR, ceiling layers are not designated in the TAF

code. For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest

broken or overcast layer or vertical visibility into a

complete obscuration.

SKC “sky clear”

SCT005 BKN025CB “five hundred scattered,

ceiling two thousand five

hundred broken

cumulonimbus clouds”

VV008 “indefinite ceiling eight

hundred”

e) Optional Data (Wind Shear). Wind Shear is

the forecast of non−convective, low−level winds (up

to 2,000 feet). The forecast includes the letters “WS”

followed by the height of the wind shear, the wind

direction and wind speed at the indicated height and

the ending letters “KT” (knots). Height is given in

hundreds of feet (AGL) up to and including

2,000 feet. Wind shear is encoded with the

contraction “WS” followed by a three−digit height,

slant character “/” and winds at the height indicated

in the same format as surface winds. The wind shear

element is omitted if not expected to occur. 

WS010/18040KT “low level wind shear at one

thousand, wind one eight

zero at four zero”

30.5 Probability Forecast. The probability or

chance of thunderstorms or other precipitation events

occurring, along with associated weather conditions

(wind, visibility, and sky conditions).

The PROB30 group is used when the occurrence of

thunderstorms or precipitation is 30−39 percent and

the PROB40 group is used when the occurrence of

thunderstorms or precipitation is 40−49 percent. This

is followed by a four−digit group giving the

beginning hour and ending hour of the time period

during which the thunderstorms or precipitation are

expected.

NOTE−

Neither PROB30 nor PROB40 will be shown during the

first six hours of a forecast.

EXAMPLE−

PROB40 2102 1/2SM +TSRA − “chance between 2100Z

and 0200Z of visibility one−half thunderstorm, heavy

rain.”

PROB30 1014 1SM RASN − “chance between 1000Z and

1400Z of visibility one rain and snow.”

30.6 Forecast Change Indicators. The following

change indicators are used when either a rapid,

gradual, or temporary change is expected in some or

all of the forecast meteorological conditions. Each

change indicator marks a time group within the TAF

report.

30.6.1 From (FM) Group. The FM Group is used

when a rapid change, usually occurring in less than

one hour, in prevailing conditions is expected.

Typically, a rapid change of prevailing conditions to

more or less a completely new set of prevailing

conditions is associated with a synoptic feature

passing through the terminal area (cold or warm

frontal passage). Appended to the “FM” indicator is

the four−digit hour and minute the change is expected

to begin and continues until the next change group or

until the end of the current forecast.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−68

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

An “FM” group marks the beginning of a new line in

a TAF report (indented 5 spaces). Each “FM” group

contains all the required elements−wind, visibility,

weather, and sky condition. Weather is omitted in

“FM” groups when it is not significant to aviation.

FM groups do not include the contraction NSW.

EXAMPLE−

FM0100 14010KT P6SM SKC − “after 0100Z, wind one

four zero at one zero, visibility more than six, sky clear.”

30.6.2 Becoming (BECMG) Group. The BECMG

group is used when a gradual change in conditions is

expected over a longer time period, usually

two hours. The time period when the change is

expected is a four−digit group with the beginning

hour and ending hour of the change period which

follows the BECMG indicator. The gradual change

will occur at an unspecified time within this time

period. Only the changing forecast meteorological

conditions are included in BECMG groups. The

omitted conditions are carried over from the previous

time group.

EXAMPLE−

OVC012 BECMG 1416 BKN020 − “ceiling one thousand

two hundred overcast. Then a gradual change to ceiling

two thousand broken between 1400Z and 1600Z.”

30.6.3 Temporary (TEMPO) Group. The TEMPO

group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility,

weather, or sky condition which are expected to last

for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional),

and are expected to occur during less than half the

time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by a

four−digit group giving the beginning hour and

ending hour of the time period during which the

temporary conditions are expected. Only the

changing forecast meteorological conditions are

included in TEMPO groups. The omitted conditions

are carried over from the previous time group.

EXAMPLE−

1. SCT030 TEMPO 1923 BKN030 − “three thousand

scattered with occasional ceilings three thousand broken

between 1900Z and 2300Z.”

2. 4SM HZ TEMPO 0006 2SM BR HZ − “visibility four in

haze with occasional visibility two in mist and haze

between 0000Z and 0600Z.”

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−69

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−25 

U.S. Department

of Transportation

Federal Aviation

Administration

KEY to AERODROME FORECAST (TAF) and

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT

(METAR) (FRONT)

TAF KPIT 091730Z 091818 15005KT 5SM HZ FEW020 WS010/31022KT

FM 1930 30015G25KT 3SM SHRA OVC015 TEMPO 2022 1/2SM +TSRA

OVC008CB

FM0100 27008KT 5SM SHRA BKN020 OVC040 PROB40 0407 1SM −RA BR

FM1015 18005KT 6SM −SHRA OVC020 BECMG 1315 P6SM NSW SKC

METAR KPIT 091955Z COR 22015G25KT 3/4SM R28L/2600FT TSRA OVC010CB

18/16 A2992 RMK SLP045 T01820159

FORECAST EXPLANATION REPORT

TAF Message type : TAF−routine or TAF AMD−amended forecast, 

METAR−hourly, SPECI−special or TESTM−non−commissioned 

ASOS report

METAR

KPIT ICAO location indicator KPIT

091730Z Issuance time: ALL times in UTC “Z”, 2−digit date, 4−digit time 091955z

091818 Valid period: 2−digit date, 2−digit beginning, 2−digit ending times

In U.S. METAR: CORrected of; or AUTOmated ob for automated 

report with no human intervention; omitted when observer logs on

COR

15005KT Wind: 3 digit true−north direction , nearest 10 degrees (or VaRiaBle); 

next 2−3 digits for speed and unit, KT (KMH or MPS); as needed, Gust 

and maximum speed; 00000KT for calm; for METAR, if direction varies 

60 degrees or more, Variability appended, e.g. 180V260

22015G25KT

5SM Prevailing visibility; in U.S., Statute Miles & fractions; above 6 miles in 

TAF Plus6SM. (Or, 4−digit minimum visibility in meters and as required, 

lowest value with direction)

3/4SM

Runway Visual Range: R; 2−digit runway designator Left, Center, or 

Right as needed; “/”, Minus or Plus in U.S., 4−digit value, FeeT in U.S., 

(usually meters elsewhere); 4−digit value Variability 4−digit value (and 

tendency Down, Up or No change)

R28L/2600FT

HZ Significant present, forecast and recent weather: see table (on back) TSRA

FEW020 Cloud amount, height and type: Sky Clear 0/8, FEW >0/8−2/8, 

SCaTtered 3/8−4/8, BroKeN 5/8−7/8, OVerCast 8/8; 3−digit height in 

hundreds of ft; Towering Cumulus or CumulonimBus in METAR; in 

TAF, only CB. Vertical Visibility for obscured sky and height “VV004”. 

More than 1 layer may be reported or forecast. In automated METAR 

reports only, CLeaR for “clear below 12,000 feet”

OVC 010CB

Temperature: degrees Celsius; first 2 digits, temperature “/” last 2 

digits, dew−point temperature; Minus for below zero, e.g., M06

18/16

Altimeter setting: indicator and 4 digits; in U.S., A−inches and 

hundredths; (Q−hectoPascals, e.g. Q1013)

A2992

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−70

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−26 

U.S. Department

of Transportation

Federal Aviation

Administration

KEY to AERODROME FORECAST (TAF) and

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT

(METAR) (BACK)

FORECAST EXPLANATION REPORT

WS010/31022KT In U.S. TAF, non−convective low−level (≤ 2,000 ft) Wind Shear; 

3−digit height (hundreds of ft); “/”; 3−digit wind direction and 2−3 

digit wind speed above the indicated height, and unit, KT

In METAR, ReMarK indicator & remarks. For example: Sea−

Level Pressure in hectoPascals & tenths, as shown: 1004.5 hPa; 

Temp/dew−point in tenths C, as shown: temp. 18.2C, dew−point 

15.9C

RMK

SLP045

T01820159

FM1930 FroM and 2−digit hour and 2−digit minute beginning time: 

indicates significant change. Each FM starts on a new line, 

indented 5 spaces

TEMPO 2022 TEMPOrary: changes expected for <1 hour and in total, < half of 

2−digit hour beginning and 2−digit hour ending time period

PROB40 0407 PROBability and 2−digit percent (30 or 40): probable condition 

during 2−digit hour beginning and 2−digit hour ending time 

period

BECMG 1315 BECoMinG: change expected during 2−digit hour beginning

and 2−digit hour ending time period

Table of Significant Present, Forecast and Recent Weather− Grouped in categories and used in the 

order listed below; or as needed in TAF, No Significant Weather.

QUALIFIER

INTENSITY OR PROXIMITY

‘−’ Light “no sign” Moderate ‘+’ Heavy

VC Vicinity: but not at aerodrome; in U.S. METAR, between 5 and 10SM of the point(s) of 

observation; in U.S. TAF, 5 to 10SM from center of runway complex (elsewhere within 8000m)

DESCRIPTOR

MI Shallow BC Patches PR Partial TS Thunderstorm

BL Blowing SH Showers DR Drifting FZ Freezing

WEATHER PHENOMENA

PRECIPITATION

DZ Drizzle RA Rain SN Snow SG Snow grains

IC Ice Crystals PL Ice Pellets GR Hail GS Small hail/snow

UP Unknown precipitation in automated observations pellets

OBSCURATION

BR Mist (≥5/8SM) FG Fog (<5/8SM) FU Smoke VA Volcanic ash

SA Sand HZ Haze PY Spray DU Widespread dust

OTHER

SQ Squall SS Sandstorm DU Duststorm PO Well developed

FC Funnel cloud +FC tornado/waterspout dust/sand whirls

−Explanations in parentheses “( )” indicate different worldwide practices.

− Ceiling is not specified; defined as the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility.

− NWS TAFs exclude turbulence, icing & temperature forecasts; NWS METARs exclude trend forecasts

January 1999 Department of Transportation

Aviation Weather Directorate FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−71

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

31. Meteorological Broadcasts (ATIS, VHF

and LF)

31.1 Continuous Transcribed Weather Broadcasts (TWEB)

31.1.1 Weather broadcasts are made continuously

over selected navigational aids. These broadcasts

contain the general weather forecasts and winds up to

12,000 feet within a 250−mile radius of the radio. In

some cases the forecasts are for route of flight rather

than the general area. They also broadcast pilot

reports, radar reports, and hourly weather reports of

selected locations within a 400−mile radius of the

broadcast station.

31.2 Automatic Terminal Information Service

(ATIS) Broadcasts

31.2.1 These broadcasts are made continuously and

include as weather information only the ceiling,

visibility, wind, and altimeter setting of the

aerodrome at which they are located.

31.3 Scheduled Weather Broadcasts (SWB)

31.3.1 Scheduled broadcasts are made only in

Alaska at 15 minutes past the hour over en route

navigational aids not used for TWEB or ATIS. These

broadcasts contain hourly weather reports of selected

locations within 150 miles of the station and weather

advisories, pilot weather reports, radar weather

reports, and Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs).

31.4 Navigational Aids Providing Broadcast

Services 

31.4.1 A compilation of navigational aids over

which weather broadcasts are transmitted is not

available for this publication. Complete information

concerning all navigational aids providing this

service is contained in the Airport/Facility directory.

Similar information for the Pacific and Alaskan areas

is contained in the Pacific and Alaska Supplements.

31.5 Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS)

31.5.1 A 24−hour continuous broadcast of hazardous inflight weather is available on selected

navigational outlets. Broadcasts include: severe

weather forecast alerts (AWW), airman’s meteorological information (AIRMET), significant meteorological information (SIGMET), Convective SIGMET (WST), urgent pilot weather reports (UUA),

hazardous portions of the domestic area forecasts

(FA), and center weather advisories (CWA). HIWAS

broadcast outlets are identified on en route/sectional

charts and in airport facility directories. For further

details, contact your nearest FSS.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−72

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL GEN 3.5−12

Meteorological Broadcasts (VOLMET)

Name Call Sign Frequency Broadcast Form Contents Emission Remarks

Honolulu Honolulu Radio 2863, 6679,

8828, 13282

kHz

H00−05 and

H30−35

Forecasts PHNL Honolulu

PHTO Hilo 

PGUM Guam

Voice Plain language

English

SIGMET Oakland FIR

Hourly Reports PHNL Honolulu

PHTO Hilo 

PHOG Kahului

PGUM Guam

E05−10 and

E35−40

Hourly Reports KSFO San Francisco

KSEA Seattle 

KLAX Los Angeles

KPDX Portland

KSMF Sacramento

KONT Ontario 

KLAS Las Vegas

SIGMET Oakland FIR

Aerodrome

Forecasts

KSFO San Francisco

KSEA Seattle 

KLAX Los Angeles

E25−30 and

E55−00

Hourly Reports PANC Anchorage

PAED ElmendorfAFB

PAFA Fairbanks

PACD Cold Bay

PAKN King Salmon

CYVR Vancouver

SIGMET Oakland FIR

Forecasts PANC Anchorage

PAFA Fairbanks

PACD Cold Bay

CYVR Vancouver

New York New York

Radio

3485, 6604,

10051, 13270

kHz

H00−05 Aerodrome

Forecasts

KDTW Detroit 

KCLE Cleveland

KCVG Cincinnati

Voice Plain language

English

Hourly Reports KDTW Detroit 

KCLE Cleveland

KCVG Cincinnati

KIND Indianapolis

KPIT Pittsburgh

H05−10 SIGMET Oceanic − New York

FIR

Aerodrome

Forecasts

KBGR Bangor 

KBDL Windsor Locks

KCLT Charlotte

Hourly Reports KBGR Bangor

KBDL Windsor Locks

KORF Norfolk 

KCLT Charlotte

H10−15 Aerodrome

Forecasts

KJFK New York

KEWR Newark

KBOS Boston

Hourly Reports KJFK New York

KEWR Newark

KBOS Boston 

KBAL Baltimore

KIAD Washington

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−73

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

Meteorological Broadcasts (VOLMET) − continued

Name Call Sign Frequency Broadcast Form Contents Emission Remarks

H15−20 SIGMET Oceanic − Miami

FIR/San Juan FIR

Aerodrome

Forecasts

MXKF Bermuda

KMIA Miami 

KATL Atlanta

Hourly Reports MXKF Bermuda

KMIA Miami 

MYNN Nassau

KMCO Orlando

KATL Atlanta

H30−35 Aerodrome

Forecasts

KORD Chicago

KMKE Milwaukee

KMSP Minneapolis

Hourly Reports KORD Chicago

KMKE Milwaukee

KMSP Minneapolis

KDTW Detroit 

KBOS Boston

E35−40 SIGMET Oceanic − New York

FIR

Aerodrome

Forecasts

KIND Indianapolis

KSTL St. Louis 

KPIT Pittsburgh

Hourly Reports KIND Indianapolis

KSTL St. Louis 

KPIT Pittsburgh

KACY Atlantic City

E40−45 Aerodrome

Forecasts

KBAL Baltimore

KPHL Philadelphia

KIAD Washington

Hourly Reports KBAL Baltimore

KPHL Philadelphia

KIAD Washington

KJFK New York

KEWR Newark

E45−50 SIGMET Oceanic − Miami

FIR/San Juan FIR

Aerodrome

Forecasts

MYNN Nassau

KMCO Orlando

Hourly Reports MXKF Bermuda

KMIA Miami 

MYNN Nassau

KMCO Orlando

KATL Atlanta 

KTPA Tampa 

KPBI West Palm

Beach

All stations operate on A3 emission H24.

All broadcasts are made 24 hours daily, seven days a week.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−74

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−27 

Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation (Front)

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−75

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−28

Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation (Back)

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−76

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−29 

NEXRAD Coverage

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−77

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−30

NEXRAD Coverage

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−78

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.5−31 

NEXRAD Coverage

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.5−79

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.5−32

Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR)

3 AUG 06

AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3.6 Search and Rescue

1. Responsible Authority

1.1 The Search and Rescue (SAR) service in the U.S.

and its area of jurisdiction is organized in accordance

with the Standards and Recommended Practices of

ICAO Annex 12 by the Federal Aviation Administration with the collaboration of the U.S. Coast Guard

and the U.S. Air Force. The Coast Guard and the Air

Force are the responsible SAR authorities and have

the responsibility for making the necessary facilities

available. Postal and telegraphic addresses for the

Federal Aviation Administration are given in

GEN 3.1. The appropriate addresses for Coast Guard

and Air Force offices are:

Air Force

Postal Address:

Inland SAR Coordinator

Commander ARRS

USAF RCC

Langley AFB, VA.

Telegraphic Address: None.

Telex: None.

Telephone: 1−800−851−3051, 

Commercial: 804−764−8112, 

Base Operator: 804−764−1110,

(ask for extension 48112) or

Defense Switching Network: 574−8112.

Coast Guard

Postal Address:

United States Coast Guard

Search and Rescue Division (GOSR/73)

400 7th Street, S.W.

Washington, D.C. 20590

Telegraphic Address: None.

Telex: 89 2427

2. Types of Service

2.1 Details of the Rescue Coordination Centers

(RCCs) and related rescue units are given in this

section. In addition, various elements of state and

local police organizations are available for search and

rescue missions when required. The aeronautical,

maritime and public telecommunication services are

available to the search and rescue organizations.

2.2 Aircraft, both land and amphibious based, are

used, as well as land and seagoing vessels, when

required, and carry survival equipment. Airborne

survival equipment, capable of being dropped,

consists of inflatable rubber dinghies equipped with

medical supplies, emergency rations and survival

radio equipment. Aircraft and marine craft are

equipped to communicate on 121.5, 123.1, 243.0,

500 kHz, 2182 kHz, and 8364 kHz. Ground rescue

teams are equipped to communicate on 121.5 MHz,

500 kHz, and 8364 kHz. SAR aircraft and marine

craft are equipped with direction finding equipment

and radar.

3. SAR Agreements

3.1 Bilateral agreements exist between the U.S. and

the following neighboring States of the NAM region:

Canada and Mexico.

3.1.1 There are two agreements with Canada. One

provides for public aircraft of either country which

are engaged in air search and rescue operations to

enter or leave either country without being subjected

to immigration or customs formalities normally

required. The other permits vessels and wrecking

appliances of either country to render aid and

assistance on specified border waters and on the

shores and in the waters of the other country along the

Atlantic and Pacific Coasts within a distance of

30 miles from the international boundary on those

coasts. A post operations report is required.

3.1.2 The agreement with Mexico applies to

territorial waters and shores of each country within

200 miles of the border on the Gulf Coast and within

270 miles of the border on the Pacific Coast. It

permits the vessels and aircraft of either country to

proceed to the assistance of a distressed vessel or

aircraft of their own registry upon notification of

entry and of departure of the applicable waters and

shores.

3.2 In situations not falling under the above

agreements, requests from States to participate in a

SAR operation within the U.S. for aircraft of their

own registry may be addressed to the nearest RCC.

The RCC would reply, and issue appropriate

instructions.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4. General Conditions of Availability

4.1 The SAR service and facilities in the U.S. are

available to the neighboring States within the NAM,

NAT, CAR, PAC Regions upon request to the

appropriate RCC at all times when they are not

engaged in search and rescue activity in their home

territory. All facilities are specialized in SAR

techniques and functions.

5. Applicable ICAO Documents

Annex 12 . . . . . . . . . Search and Rescue

Annex 13 . . . . . . . . . Aircraft Accident Inquiry

Doc 7030 . . . . . . . . . Regional Supplementary

Procedures for Alerting

and Search and Rescue

Services applicable to the

NAM, NAT, CAR, PAC

Regions.

6. Differences from ICAO Standards,

Recommended Practices and Procedures

6.1 Differences from ICAO Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures are listed in

GEN 1.7.

7. Emergency Locator Transmitters

7.1 General

7.1.1 ELTs are required for most General Aviation

airplanes.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR SECTION 91.207.

7.1.2 ELTs of various types were developed as a

means of locating downed aircraft. These electronic,

battery operated transmitters operate on one of three

frequencies. These operating frequencies are

121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz, and the newer 406 MHz.

ELTs operating on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are

analog devices. The newer 406 MHz ELT is a digital

transmitter that can be encoded with the owner’s

contact information or aircraft data. The latest

406 MHz ELT models can also be encoded with the

aircraft’s position data which can help SAR forces

locate the aircraft much more quickly after a crash.

The 406 MHz ELTs also transmits a stronger signal

when activated than the older 121.5 MHz ELTs.

7.1.2.1 The Federal Communications Commission

(FCC) requires 406 MHz ELTs be registered with the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) as outlined in the ELT’s documentation.

The FAA’s 406 MHz ELT Technical Standard Order

(TSO) TSO−C126 also requires that each 406 MHz

ELT be registered with NOAA. The reason is NOAA

maintains the owner registration database for U.S.

registered 406 MHz alerting devices, which includes

ELTs. NOAA also operates the United States’ portion

of the Cospas−Sarsat satellite distress alerting system

designed to detect activated ELTs and other distress

alerting devices.

7.1.2.2 In the event that a properly registered

406 MHz ELT activates, the Cospas−Sarsat satellite

system can decode the owner’s information and

provide that data to the appropriate search and

rescue (SAR) center. In the United States, NOAA

provides the alert data to the appropriate U.S. Air

Force Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) or U.S.

Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. That RCC

can then telephone or contact the owner to verify the

status of the aircraft. If the aircraft is safely secured

in a hangar, a costly ground or airborne search is

avoided. In the case of an inadvertent 406 MHz ELT

activation, the owner can deactivate the 406 MHz

ELT. If the 406 MHz ELT equipped aircraft is being

flown, the RCC can quickly activate a search.

406 MHz ELTs permit the Cospas−Sarsat satellite

system to narrow the search area to a more confined

area compared to that of a 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz

ELT. 406 MHz ELTs also include a low−power

121.5 MHz homing transmitter to aid searchers in

finding the aircraft in the terminal search phase.

7.1.2.3 Each analog ELT emits a distinctive

downward swept audio tone on 121.5 MHz and

243.0 MHz.

7.1.2.4 If “armed” and when subject to crash−generated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically

activate and continuously emit their respective

signals, analog or digital. The transmitters will

operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide

temperature range. A properly installed, maintained,

and functioning ELT can expedite search and rescue

operations and save lives if it survives the crash and

is activated.

7.1.2.5 Pilots and their passengers should know how

to activate the aircraft’s ELT if manual activation is

required. They should also be able to verify the

aircraft’s ELT is functioning and transmitting an alert

after a crash or manual activation.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−3

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

7.1.2.6 Because of the large number of 121.5 MHz

ELT false alerts and the lack of a quick means of

verifying the actual status of an activated 121.5 MHz

or 243.0 MHz analog ELT through an owner

registration database, U.S. SAR forces do not

respond as quickly to initial 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT

alerts as the SAR forces do to 406 MHz ELT alerts.

Compared to the almost instantaneous detection of a

406 MHz ELT, SAR forces’ normal practice is to wait

for either a confirmation of a 121.5/243.0 MHz alert

by additional satellite passes or through confirmation

of an overdue aircraft or similar notification. In some

cases, this confirmation process can take hours. SAR

forces can initiate a response to 406 MHz alerts in

minutes compared to the potential delay of hours for

a 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.

7.1.3 The Cospas−Sarsat system has announced the

termination of satellite monitoring and reception of

the 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz frequencies in 2009.

The Cospas−Sarsat system will continue to monitor

the 406 MHz frequency. What this means for pilots

is that after the termination date, those aircraft with

only 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz ELTs onboard will

have to depend upon either a nearby Air Traffic

Control facility receiving the alert signal or an

overflying aircraft monitoring 121.5 MHz or

243.0 MHz detecting the alert. To ensure adequate

monitoring of these frequencies and timely alerts

after 2009, all airborne pilots should periodically

monitor these frequencies to try and detect an

activated 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.

7.2 ELT Testing

7.2.1 ELTs should be tested in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions, preferably in a shielded

or screened room or specially designed test container

to prevent the broadcast of signals which could

trigger a false alert.

7.2.2 When this cannot be done, aircraft operational

testing is authorized as follows:

7.2.2.1 Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs should only be

tested during the first 5 minutes after any hour. If

operational tests must be made outside of this period,

they should be coordinated with the nearest FAA

Control Tower or FSS. Tests should be no longer than

three audible sweeps. If the antenna is removable, a

dummy load should be substituted during test

procedures.

7.2.2.2 Digital 406 MHz ELTs should only be tested

in accordance with the unit’s manufacturer’s

instructions.

7.2.2.3 Airborne tests are not authorized.

7.3 False Alarms

7.3.1 Caution should be exercised to prevent the

inadvertent activation of ELTs in the air or while they

are being handled on the ground. Accidental or

unauthorized activation will generate an emergency

signal that cannot be distinguished from the real

thing, leading to expensive and frustrating searches.

A false ELT signal could also interfere with genuine

emergency transmissions and hinder or prevent the

timely location of crash sites. Frequent false alarms

could also result in complacency and decrease the

vigorous reaction that must be attached to all ELT

signals.

7.3.2 Numerous cases of inadvertent activation have

occurred as a result of aerobatics, hard landings,

movement by ground crews and aircraft maintenance. These false alarms can be minimized by

monitoring 121.5 MHz and/or 243.0 MHz as follows:

7.3.2.1 In flight when a receiver is available.

7.3.2.2 Before engine shut down at the end of each

flight.

7.3.2.3 When the ELT is handled during installation

or maintenance.

7.3.2.4 When maintenance is being performed near

the ELT.

7.3.2.5 When a ground crew moves the aircraft.

7.3.2.6 If an ELT signal is heard, turn off the

aircraft’s ELT to determine if it is transmitting. If it

has been activated, maintenance might be required

before the unit is returned to the “ARMED” position.

You should contact the nearest Air Traffic facility and

notify it of the inadvertent activation.

7.4 Inflight Monitoring and Reporting

7.4.1 Pilots are encouraged to monitor 121.5 MHz

and/or 243.0 MHz while in flight to assist in

identifying possible emergency ELT transmissions.

On receiving a signal, report the following

information to the nearest air traffic facility:

7.4.1.1 Your position at the time the signal was first

heard.
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United States of America

GEN 3.6−4

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

7.4.1.2 Your position at the time the signal was last

heard.

7.4.1.3 Your position at maximum signal strength.

7.4.1.4 Your flight altitudes and frequency on which

the emergency signal was heard: 121.5 MHz or

243.0 MHz. If possible, positions should be given

relative to a navigation aid. If the aircraft has homing

equipment, provide the bearing to the emergency

signal with each reported position.

8. National Search and Rescue Plan

8.1 By federal interagency agreement, the National

Search and Rescue Plan provides for the effective use

of all available facilities in all types of SAR missions.

These facilities include aircraft, vessels, pararescue

and ground rescue teams, and emergency radio

fixing. Under the Plan, the U.S. Coast Guard is

responsible for the coordination of SAR in the

Maritime Region, and the U.S. Air Force is

responsible in the Inland Region. To carry out these

responsibilities, the Coast Guard and the Air Force

have established RCCs to direct SAR activities

within their regions. For aircraft emergencies,

distress and urgency information normally will be

passed to the appropriate RCC through an air route

traffic control center (ARTCC) or flight service

station (FSS).

TBL GEN 3.6−1

8.2 Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers

Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers

Alameda, CA

510−437−3701

New York, NY

212−668−7055

Boston, MA

617−223−8555

New Orleans, LA

504−589−6225

Cleveland, OH

216−902−6117

Portsmouth, VA

757−398−6390

Honolulu, HI

808−541−2500

Seattle, WA

206−220−7001

Juneau, AK

907−463−2000

San Juan, PR

809−729−6770

Miami, FL

305−415−6800

8.3 Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers are

served by major radio stations which guard 2182 kHz

(VOICE). In addition, Coast Guard units along the

seacoasts of the U.S. and shores of the Great Lakes

guard 2182 kHz. The call “COAST GUARD” will

alert all Coast Guard Radio Stations within range.

2182 kHz is also guarded by most commercial coast

stations and some ships and boats.

8.4 Air Force Rescue Coordination Centers

TBL GEN 3.6−2

Air Force Rescue Coordination Center

Langley AFB, Virginia Phone

Commercial 804−764−8112

WATS 800−851−3051

DSN 574−8112

TBL GEN 3.6−3

Air Command Rescue Coordination Center

Alaska

Alaskan Air Command Rescue Coordination

Center

Fort Richardson, 11th RCC,

Alaska

Phone

Commercial 907−428−7230 or

800−420−7230

DSN 317−384−6726

8.5 Joint Rescue Coordination Center Hawaii

TBL GEN 3.6−4

Honolulu Joint Rescue Coordination Center

HQ 14th CG District

Honolulu Phone

Commercial 808−541−2500

DSN 448−0301

9. Procedures and Signals for Aircraft in

Emergency

9.1 Search and Rescue

9.1.1 Search and Rescue is a life−saving service

provided through the combined efforts of the federal

agencies signatory to the National SAR Plan, and the

agencies responsible for SAR within each State.

Operational resources are provided by the U.S. Coast

Guard, Department of Defense components, the Civil

Air Patrol, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, state, county

and local law enforcement and other public safety

agencies, and private volunteer organizations.

Services include search for missing aircraft, survival

aid, rescue, and emergency medical help for the

occupants after an accident site is located.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−5

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9.2 Emergency and Overdue Aircraft

9.2.1 ARTCCs and FSSs will alert the SAR system

when information is received from any source that an

aircraft is in difficulty, overdue, or missing.

9.2.2 Radar facilities providing radar flight following or advisories consider the loss of radar and radios,

without service termination notice, to be a possible

emergency. Pilots receiving VFR services from radar

facilities should be aware that SAR may be initiated

under these circumstances.

9.2.3 A filed flight plan is the most timely and

effective indicator that an aircraft is overdue. Flight

plan information is invaluable to SAR forces for

search planning and executing search efforts. Prior to

departure on every flight, local or otherwise,

someone at the departure point should be advised of

your destination and the route of flight if other than

direct. Search efforts are often wasted and rescue is

often delayed because of pilots who thoughtlessly

take off without telling anyone where they are going.

File a flight plan for your safety.

9.2.4 According to the National Search and Rescue

Plan, “The life expectancy of an injured survivor

decreases as much as 80 percent during the first

24 hours, while the chances of survival of uninjured

survivors rapidly diminishes after the first 3 days.”

9.2.5 An Air Force Review of 325 SAR missions

conducted during a 23−month period revealed that

“Time works against people who experience a

distress but are not on a flight plan, since 36 hours

normally pass before family concern initiates an

(alert).”

9.3 VFR Search and Rescue Protection

9.3.1 To receive this valuable protection, file a VFR

or DVFR Flight Plan with an FAA FSS. For

maximum protection, file only to the point of first

intended landing, and refile for each leg to final

destination. When a lengthy flight plan is filed, with

several stops en route and an ETE to final destination,

a mishap could occur on any leg, and unless other

information is received, it is probable that no one

would start looking for you until 30 minutes after

your ETA at your final destination.

9.3.2 If you land at a location other than the intended

destination, report the landing to the nearest FAA

FSS and advise them of your original destination.

9.3.3 If you land en route and are delayed more than

30 minutes, report this information to the nearest FSS

and give them your original destination.

9.3.4 If your ETE changes by 30 minutes or more,

report a new ETA to the nearest FSS and give them

your original destination. Remember that if you fail

to respond within one−half hour after your ETA at

final destination, a search will be started to locate

you.

9.3.5 It is important that you CLOSE YOUR

FLIGHT PLAN IMMEDIATELY AFTER ARRIVAL AT YOUR FINAL DESTINATION WITH

THE FSS DESIGNATED WHEN YOUR FLIGHT

PLAN WAS FILED. The pilot is responsible for

closure of a VFR or DVFR flight plan; they are not

closed automatically. This will prevent needless

search efforts.

9.3.6 The rapidity of rescue on land or water will

depend on how accurately your position may be

determined. If a flight plan has been followed and

your position is on course, rescue will be expedited.

9.4 Survival Equipment

9.4.1 For flight over uninhabited land areas, it is

wise to take suitable survival equipment depending

on type of climate and terrain.

9.4.2 If forced landing occurs at sea, chances for

survival are governed by degree of crew proficiency

in emergency procedures and by effectiveness of

water survival equipment.
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United States of America

GEN 3.6−6

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

9.5 Body Signal Illustrations

9.5.1 If you are forced down and are able to attract

the attention of the pilot of a rescue airplane, the body

signals illustrated on the following pages can be used

to transmit messages to the pilot circling over your

location.

9.5.2 Stand in the open when you make the signals.

9.5.3 Be sure the background, as seen from the air,

is not confusing.

9.5.4 Go through the motions slowly and repeat each

signal until you are positive that the pilot understands

you.

9.6 Observance of a Downed Aircraft

9.6.1 Determine if the crash is marked with yellow

cross; if so, the crash has already been reported and

identified.

9.6.2 Determine, if possible, the type and number of

the aircraft and whether there is evidence of

survivors.

9.6.3 Fix, as accurately as possible, the exact

location of the crash.

9.6.4 If circumstances permit, orbit the scene to

guide in other assisting units or until relieved by

another aircraft.

9.6.5 Transmit information to the nearest FAA or

other appropriate radio facility.

9.6.6 Immediately after landing, make a complete

report to nearest FAA, Air Force, or Coast Guard

installation. The report may be made by long distance

collect telephone.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−7

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.6−1

Ground−Air Visual Code for Use by Survivors

V

X

N

Y

NO. MESSAGE MESSAGE CODE SYMBOL CODE SYMBOL

1 Require assistance Require assistance

Require medical assistance Require medical assistance

No or Negative No or Negative

Yes or Affirmative Yes or Affirmative

Proceeding in this direction Proceeding in this direction

IF IN DOUBT, USE INTERNATIONAL SYMBOL IF IN DOUBT, USE INTERNATIONAL SYMBOL

INSTRUCTIONS INSTRUCTIONS

2

3

4

5

S O S

1. Lay out symbols by using strips of fabric or parachutes, pieces of wood, stones, or any available material.

2. Provide as much color contrast as possible between material used for symbols and background against which symbols are exposed.

3. Symbols should be at least 10 feet high or larger. Care should be taken to lay out symbols exactly as shown.

4. In addition to using symbols, every effort is to be made to attract attention by means of radio, flares, smoke, or other available means.

5. On snow covered ground, signals can be made by dragging, shoveling or tramping. Depressed areas forming symbols will

appear black from the air.

6. Pilot should acknowledge message by rocking wings from side to side.

FIG GEN 3.6−2

Ground−Air Visual Code for use by Ground Search Parties

L L L

L L

X X

N N

NO. MESSAGE MESSAGE CODE SYMBOL CODE SYMBOL

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Operation completed. Operation completed.

We have found all personnel. We have found all personnel.

We have found only some personnel. We have found only some personnel.

We are not able to continue.

Returning to base.

We are not able to continue.

Returning to base.

Have divided into two groups.

Each proceeding in direction indicated.

Have divided into two groups.

Each proceeding in direction indicated.

Information received that aircraft is in this direction. Information received that aircraft is in this direction.

Nothing found. Will continue search. Nothing found. Will continue search.

Note: These visual signals have been accepted for international use and appear in Annex 12 to the Convention on International

Civil Aviation.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−8

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.6−3

Urgent Medical Assistance

NEED MEDICAL

ASSISTANCE-URGENT

Used only when life is at stake

NEED MEDICAL

ASSISTANCE-URGENT

Used only when life is at stake

FIG GEN 3.6−4

All OK

ALL OK-DO NOT WAIT

Wave one arm overhead

ALL OK-DO NOT WAIT

Wave one arm overhead

FIG GEN 3.6−5

Short Delay

CAN PROCEED SHORTLY

WAIT IF PRACTICABLE

One arm horizontal

CAN PROCEED SHORTLY

WAIT IF PRACTICABLE

One arm horizontal

FIG GEN 3.6−6

Long Delay

NEED MECHANICAL HELP

OR PARTS - LONG DELAY

Both arms horizontal

NEED MECHANICAL HELP

OR PARTS - LONG DELAY

Both arms horizontal
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−9

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.6−7

Drop Message

Make throwing motion

FIG GEN 3.6−8

Receiver Operates

OUR RECEIVER IS

OPERATING

Cup hands over ears

OUR RECEIVER IS

OPERATING

Cup hands over ears

FIG GEN 3.6−9

Do Not Land Here

DO NOT ATTEMPT

TO LAND HERE

Both arms waved across face

DO NOT ATTEMPT

TO LAND HERE

Both arms waved across face

FIG GEN 3.6−10

Land Here

LAND HERE

Both arms forward horizontally,

squatting and point in direction

of landing - Repeat

LAND HERE

Both arms forward horizontally,

squatting and point in direction

of landing - Repeat
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−10

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.6−11

Negative (Ground)

NEGATIVE (NO)

White cloth waved horizontally

NEGATIVE (NO)

White cloth waved horizontally

FIG GEN 3.6−12

Affirmative (Ground)

FIG GEN 3.6−13

Pick Us Up

PICK US UPPLANE ABANDONED

Both arms vertical

PICK US UPPLANE ABANDONED

Both arms vertical

FIG GEN 3.6−14

Affirmative (Aircraft)

Affirmative reply from aircraft:

AFFIRMATIVE (YES)

Dip nose of plane several times
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United States of America

GEN 3.6−11

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.6−15

Negative (Aircraft)

NEGATIVE (NO)

Fishtail plane

NEGATIVE (NO)

Fishtail plane

Negative reply from aircraft: Negative reply from aircraft:

FIG GEN 3.6−16

Message received and understood (Aircraft)

Message received and understood by aircraft:

Day or moonlight - Rocking wings

Night - Green flashed from signal lamp

Message received and understood by aircraft:

Day or moonlight - Rocking wings

Night - Green flashed from signal lamp

FIG GEN 3.6−17

Message received and NOT understood (Aircraft)

Message received and NOT understood by aircraft:

Day or moonlight - Making a complete right-hand circle

Night-Red flashes from signal lamp.

Message received and NOT understood by aircraft:

Day or moonlight - Making a complete right-hand circle

Night-Red flashes from signal lamp.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−12

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

10. Pilot Responsibility and Authority

10.1 The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly

responsible for, and is the final authority as to the

operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring

immediate action, the pilot in command may deviate

from any rule in Title 14 of the Code of Federal

Regulations (CFR), Part 91, Subpart A, General, and

Subpart B, Flight Rules, to the extent required to

meet that emergency (14 CFR Section 91.3(b)).

10.2 If the emergency authority of 14 CFR

Section 91.3(b) is used to deviate from the provisions

of an air traffic control clearance, the pilot in

command must notify ATC as soon as possible and

obtain an amended clearance (14 CFR Section 91.123(c)).

10.3 Unless deviation is necessary under the

emergency authority of 14 CFR Section 91.3, pilots

of IFR flights experiencing two−way radio communications failure are expected to adhere to the

procedures prescribed under “IFR operations;

two−way radio communications failure.” (14 CFR

Section 91.185)

11. Distress and Urgency Communications

11.1 A pilot who encounters a distress or urgency

condition can obtain assistance simply by contacting

the air traffic facility or other agency in whose area of

responsibility the aircraft is operating, stating the

nature of the difficulty, pilot’s intentions, and

assistance desired. Distress and urgency communications procedures prescribed by the International Civil

Aviation Organization (ICAO), however, have

decided advantages over the informal procedure

described above.

11.2 Distress and urgency communications procedures discussed in the following paragraphs relate to

the use of air−ground voice communications.

11.3 The initial communication, and if considered

necessary, any subsequent transmissions by an

aircraft in distress should begin with the signal

MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. The

signal PAN−PAN should be used in the same manner

for an urgency condition.

11.4 Distress communications have absolute priority over all other communications, and the word

MAYDAY commands radio silence on the frequency

in use. Urgency communications have priority over

all other communications except distress, and the

word PAN−PAN warns other stations not to interfere

with urgency transmissions.

11.5 Normally, the station addressed will be the air

traffic facility or other agency providing air traffic

services on the frequency in use at the time. If the

pilot is not communicating and receiving services,

the station to be called will normally be the air traffic

facility or other agency in whose area of

responsibility the aircraft is operating on the

appropriate assigned frequency. If the station

addressed does not respond, or if time or the situation

dictates, the distress or urgency message may be

broadcast, or a collect call may be used, addressing

“Any Station (Tower) (Radio) (Radar).”

11.6 The station addressed should immediately

acknowledge a distress or urgency message, provide

assistance, coordinate and direct the activities of

assisting facilities, and alert the appropriate search

and rescue coordinator if warranted. Responsibility

will be transferred to another station only if better

handling will result.

11.7 All other stations, aircraft and ground, will

continue to listen until it is evident that assistance is

being provided. If any station becomes aware that the

station being called either has not received a distress

or urgency message, or cannot communicate with the

aircraft in difficulty, it will attempt to contact the

aircraft and provide assistance.

11.8 Although the frequency in use or other

frequencies assigned by ATC are preferable, the

following emergency frequencies can be used for

distress or urgency communications, if necessary or

desirable:

11.8.1 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz − Both have a

range generally limited to line of sight. 121.5 MHz is

guarded by direction finding stations and some

military and civil aircraft. 243.0 MHz is guarded by

military aircraft. Both 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are

guarded by military towers, most civil towers, flight

service stations, and radar facilities. Normally

ARTCC emergency frequency capability does not

extend to radar coverage limits. If an ARTCC does

not respond when called on 121.5 MHz or

243.0 MHz, call the nearest tower or flight service

station.
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United States of America

GEN 3.6−13

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

11.8.2 2182 kHz − The range is generally less than

300 miles for the average aircraft installation. It can

be used to request assistance from stations in the

maritime service. 2182 kHz is guarded by major radio

stations serving Coast Guard Rescue Coordination

Centers, and Coast Guard units along the sea coasts

of the U.S. and shores of the Great Lakes. The call

“Coast Guard” will alert all Coast Guard Radio

Stations within range. 2182 kHz is also guarded by

most commercial coast stations and some ships and

boats.

12. Emergency Condition − Request Assistance Immediately

12.1 Pilots do not hesitate to declare an emergency

when they are faced with distress conditions such as

fire, mechanical failure, or structural damage.

However, some are reluctant to report an urgency

condition when they encounter situations which may

not be immediately perilous, but are potentially

catastrophic. An aircraft is in at least an urgency

condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful

about position, fuel endurance, weather, or any other

condition that could adversely affect flight safety.

This is the time to ask for help, not after the situation

has developed into a distress condition.

12.2 Pilots who become apprehensive for their

safety for any reason should request assistance

immediately. Ready and willing help is available in

the form of radio, radar, direction finding stations and

other aircraft. Delay has caused accidents and cost

lives. Safety is not a luxury. Take action.

13. Obtaining Emergency Assistance

13.1 A pilot in any distress or urgency condition

should immediately take the following action, not

necessarily in the order listed, to obtain assistance:

13.1.1 Climb, if possible, for improved communications and better radar and direction finding detection.

However, it must be understood that unauthorized

climb or descent under IFR conditions within

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE is prohibited, except as

permitted by 14 CFR Section 91.3(b).

13.1.2 If equipped with a radar beacon transponder

(civil) or IFF/SIF (military):

13.1.2.1 Continue squawking assigned Mode A/3

discrete code/VFR code and Mode C altitude

encoding when in radio contact with an air traffic

facility or other agency providing air traffic services,

unless instructed to do otherwise.

13.1.2.2 If unable to immediately establish communications with an air traffic facility/agency, squawk

Mode A/3, Code 7700/Emergency and Mode C.

13.1.2.3 Transmit a distress or urgency message

consisting of as many as necessary of the following

elements, preferably in the order listed:

a) If distress, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY;

if urgency, PAN−PAN, PAN−PAN, PAN−PAN.

b) Name of station addressed.

c) Aircraft identification and type.

d) Nature of distress or urgency.

e) Weather.

f) Pilots intentions and request.

g) Present position, and heading; or if lost, last

known position, time, and heading since that

position.

h) Altitude or flight level.

i) Fuel remaining in minutes.

j) Number of people on board.

k) Any other useful information.

13.1.3 After establishing radio contact, comply with

advice and instructions received. Cooperate. Do not

hesitate to ask questions or clarify instructions when

you do not understand or if you cannot comply with

clearances. Assist the ground station to control

communications on the frequency in use. Silence

interfering radio stations. Do not change frequency or

change to another ground station unless absolutely

necessary. If you do, advise the ground station of the

new frequency and station name prior to the change,

transmitting in the blind if necessary. If two−way

communications cannot be established on the

frequency, return immediately to the frequency or

station where two−way communications last existed.

13.1.4 When in a distress condition with bailout,

crash landing, or ditching imminent, take the

following additional actions to assist search and

rescue units:

13.1.4.1 Time and circumstances permitting, transmit as many as necessary of the message elements in

subparagraph 13.1.2.3 and any of the following you

think might be helpful:
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−14

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

a) ELT status.

b) Visible landmarks.

c) Aircraft color.

d) Number of persons on board.

e) Emergency equipment on board.

13.1.4.2 Actuate your ELT if the installation

permits.

13.1.4.3 For bailout, and for crash landing or

ditching if risk of fire is not a consideration, set your

radio for continuous transmission.

13.1.4.4 If it becomes necessary to ditch, make every

effort to ditch near a surface vessel. If time permits,

an FAA facility should be able to get the position of

the nearest commercial or Coast Guard vessel from a

Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center.

13.2 After a crash landing unless you have good

reason to believe that you will not be located by

search aircraft or ground teams, it is best to remain

with your aircraft and prepare means for signalling

search aircraft.

14. Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in

Difficulty

14.1 Radar equipped air traffic control facilities can

provide radar assistance and navigation service

(vectors) to VFR aircraft in difficulty when the pilot

can talk with the controller, and the aircraft is within

radar coverage. Pilots should clearly understand that

authorization to proceed in accordance with such

radar navigational assistance does not constitute

authorization for the pilot to violate Federal Aviation

Regulations. In effect, assistance is provided on the

basis that navigational guidance information is

advisory in nature, and the responsibility for flying

the aircraft safely remains with the pilot.

14.2 Experience has shown that many pilots who are

not qualified for instrument flight cannot maintain

control of their aircraft when they encounter clouds

or other reduced visibility conditions. In many cases,

the controller will not know whether flight into

instrument conditions will result from his/her

instructions. To avoid possible hazards resulting

from being vectored into IFR conditions, a pilot in

difficulty should keep the controller advised of the

weather conditions in which he/she is operating and

the weather along the course ahead, and observe the

following:

14.2.1 If a course of action is available which will

permit flight and a safe landing in VFR weather

conditions, noninstrument rated pilots should choose

the VFR condition rather than requesting a vector or

approach that will take them into IFR weather

conditions; or

14.2.2 If continued flight in VFR conditions is not

possible, the noninstrument rated pilot should so

advise the controller and indicating the lack of an

instrument rating, declare a distress condition.

14.2.3 If the pilot is instrument rated and current,

and the aircraft is instrument equipped, the pilot

should so indicate by requesting an IFR flight

clearance. Assistance will then be provided on the

basis that the aircraft can operate safely in IFR

weather conditions.

15. Direction Finding Instrument Approach

Procedure

15.1 Direction finding (DF) equipment has long

been used to locate lost aircraft and to guide aircraft

to areas of good weather or to airports; and now at

most DF equipped airports, DF instrument approaches may be given to aircraft in emergency.

15.2 Experience has shown that a majority of actual

emergencies requiring DF assistance involve pilots

with a minimum of flight experience. With this in

mind, DF approach procedures provide maximum

flight stability in the approach by utilizing small

turns, and descents in a wings level attitude. The DF

specialist will give the pilot headings to fly and tell

the pilot when to begin descent.

15.3 DF instrument approach procedures are for

emergency use only and will not be given to IFR

weather conditions unless the pilot has declared an

emergency.

15.4 To become familiar with the procedures and

other benefits of DF, pilots are urged to request

practice guidance and approaches in VFR weather

conditions. DF specialists welcome the practice and,

workload permitting, will honor such requests.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−15

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

16. Intercept and Escort

16.1 The concept of airborne intercept and escort is

based on the SAR aircraft establishing visual and/or

electronic contact with an aircraft in difficulty,

providing inflight assistance, and escorting it to a safe

landing. If bailout, crash landing or ditching becomes

necessary, SAR operations can be conducted without

delay. For most incidents, particularly those

occurring at night and/or during instrument flight

conditions, the availability of intercept and escort

services will depend on the proximity of SAR units

with suitable aircraft on alert for immediate dispatch.

In limited circumstances, other aircraft flying in the

vicinity of an aircraft in difficulty can provide these

services.

16.2 If specifically requested by a pilot in difficulty

or if a distress condition is declared, SAR

coordinators will take steps to intercept and escort an

aircraft. Steps may be initiated for intercept and

escort if an urgency condition is declared and unusual

circumstances make such action advisable.

16.3 It is the pilot’s prerogative to refuse intercept

and escort services. Escort services will normally be

provided to the nearest adequate airport. Should the

pilot receiving escort services continue on to another

location after reaching a safe airport, or decide not to

divert to the nearest safe airport, the escort aircraft is

not obligated to continue and further escort is

discretionary. The decision will depend on the

circumstances of the individual incident.

17. Visual Emergency Signals

NOTE−

See FIG GEN 3.6−1 through FIG GEN 3.6−17.

18. Ditching Procedures

18.1 In order to select a proper ditching course for an

aircraft, a basic knowledge of sea evaluation and

other factors involved is required. Selection of the

ditching heading may well determine the difference

between survival and disaster.

(See FIG GEN 3.6−18, FIG GEN 3.6−19,

 FIG GEN 3.6−20, and FIG GEN 3.6−21).

18.2 Common Oceanographic Terminology:

18.2.1 Sea. The condition of the surface that is the

result of both waves and swells.

18.2.2 Wave (or Chop). The condition of the

surface caused by local winds.

18.2.3 Swell. The condition of the surface which has

been caused by a distant disturbance.

18.2.4 Swell Face. The side of the swell toward the

observer. The backside is the side away from the

observer. These definitions apply regardless of the

direction of swell movement.

18.2.5 Primary Swell. The swell system having the

greatest height from trough to crest.

18.2.6 Secondary Swells. Those swell systems of

less height than the primary swell.

18.2.7 Fetch. The distance the waves have been

driven by a wind blowing in a constant direction,

without obstruction.

18.2.8 Swell Period. The time interval between the

passage of two successive crests at the same spot in

the water, measured in seconds.

18.2.9 Swell Velocity. The velocity with which the

swell advances with relation to a fixed reference

point, measured in knots. There is little movement of

water in the horizontal direction. Swells move

primarily in a vertical motion, similar to the motion

observed when shaking out a carpet.

18.2.10 Swell Direction. The direction from which

a swell is moving. This direction is not necessarily

the result of the wind present at the scene. The swell

encountered may be moving into or across the local

wind. Swells, once set in motion, tend to maintain

their original direction for as long as they continue in

deep water, regardless of changes in wind direction.

18.2.11 Swell Height. The height between crest and

trough, measured in feet. The vast majority of ocean

swells are lower than 12 to 15 feet, and swells over

25 feet are not common at any spot on the oceans.

Successive swells may differ considerably in height.

18.3 Swells

18.3.1 It is extremely dangerous to land into the

wind without regard to sea conditions. The swell

system, or systems, must be taken into consideration.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−16

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.6−18

Single Swell (15 knot wind)

SWELL

DITCHING

HEADING

WIND

FIG GEN 3.6−19

Double Swell (15 knot wind)

PRIMARY

SWELL

PRIMARY

SWELL

SECONDARY

SWELL

SECONDARY

SWELL

HEADING

WIND

DITCHING

FIG GEN 3.6−20

Double Swell (30 knot wind)

PRIMARY

SWELL

PRIMARY

SWELL

SECONDARY

SWELL

SECONDARY

SWELL

WIND

DITCHING

HEADING

FIG GEN 3.6−21

(50 knot wind)

SWELL

WIND

Aircraft with low landing speeds - land into the wind.

Aircraft with high landing speeds - choose compromise

heading between wind and swell.

Both - land on back side of swell.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−17

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG GEN 3.6−22

Wind−Swell−Ditch Heading

GOOD

GOOD !!

BACK SIDE

POOR!!!

FACE

GOOD

FAIR

BESTE

DIRECTION OF

SWELL MOVEMENT

Landing parallel to the major swell

Landing on the face and back of swell

18.3.2 In ditching parallel to the swell, it makes little

difference whether touchdown is on top of the crest

or in the trough. It is preferable, if possible, to land on

the top or back side of the swell. After determining

which heading (and its reciprocal) will parallel the

swell, select the heading with the most into the wind

component.

18.3.3 If only one swell system exists, the problem

is relatively simple − even with a high, fast system.

Unfortunately, most cases involve two or more

systems running in different directions. With many

systems present, the sea presents a confused

appearance. One of the most difficult situations

occurs when two swell systems are at right angles.

For example, if one system is 8 feet high, and the

other 3 feet, a landing parallel to the primary system,

and down swell on the secondary system is indicated.

If both systems are of equal height, a compromise

may be advisable − selecting an intermediate heading

at 45 degrees down swell to both systems. When

landing down a secondary swell, attempt to touch

down on the back side, not on the face of the swell.

Remember one axiom − AVOID THE FACE OF A

SWELL.

18.3.4 If the swell system is formidable, it is

considered advisable, in landplanes, to accept more

crosswind in order to avoid landing directly into the

swell.

18.3.5 The secondary swell system is often from the

same direction as the wind. Here, the landing may be

made parallel to the primary system, with the wind

and secondary system at an angle. There is a choice

of two headings paralleling the primary system. One

heading is downwind and down the secondary swell;

and the other is into the wind and into the secondary

swell. The choice of heading will depend on the

velocity of the wind versus the velocity and height of

the secondary swell.

18.4 Wind

18.4.1 The simplest method of estimating the wind

direction and velocity is to examine the wind streaks

on the water. These appear as long streaks up and

down wind. Some persons may have difficulty

determining wind direction after seeing the streaks in

the water. Whitecaps fall forward with the wind but

are overrun by the waves thus producing the illusion

that the foam is sliding backward. Knowing this, and

by observing the direction of the streaks, the wind
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−18

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

direction is easily determined. Wind velocity can be

accurately estimated by noting the appearance of the

whitecaps, foam and wind streaks.

18.5 Preditching Preparation

18.5.1 A successful aircraft ditching is dependent on

three primary factors. In order of importance they are:

18.5.1.1 Sea conditions and wind.

18.5.1.2 Type of aircraft.

18.5.1.3 Skill and technique of pilot.

18.5.2 The behavior of the aircraft on making

contact with the water will vary within wide limits

according to the state of the sea. If landed parallel to

a single swell system, the behavior of the aircraft may

approximate that to be expected on a smooth sea. If

landed into a heavy swell or into a confused sea, the

deceleration forces may be extremely great −

resulting in breaking up of the aircraft. Within certain

limits, the pilot is able to minimize these forces by

proper sea evaluation and selection of ditching

heading.

18.5.3 When on final approach the pilot should look

ahead and observe the surface of the sea. There may

be shadows and whitecaps − signs of large seas.

Shadows and whitecaps close together indicate that

the seas are short and rough. Touchdown in these

areas is to be avoided. Select and touchdown in any

area (only about 500 feet is needed) where the

shadows and whitecaps are not so numerous.

18.5.4 Touchdown should be at the lowest speed and

rate of descent which permit safe handling and

optimum nose up attitude on impact. Once first

impact has been made there is often little the pilot can

do to control a landplane.

18.6 Ditching

18.6.1 Once preditching preparations are completed,

the pilot should turn to the ditching heading and

commence letdown. The aircraft should be flown low

over the water, and slowed down until ten knots or so

above stall. At this point, additional power should be

used to overcome the increased drag caused by the

noseup attitude. When a smooth stretch of water

appears ahead, cut power, and touchdown at the best

recommended speed as fully stalled as possible. By

cutting power when approaching a relatively smooth

area, the pilot will prevent over shooting and will

touchdown with less chance of planing off into a

second uncontrolled landing. Most experienced

seaplane pilots prefer to make contact with the water

in a semi−stalled attitude, cutting power as the tail

makes contact. This technique eliminates the chance

of misjudging altitude with a resultant heavy drop in

a fully stalled condition. Care must be taken not to

drop in a fully stalled condition. Care must be taken

not to drop the aircraft from too high altitude, or to

balloon due to excessive speed. The altitude above

water depends on the aircraft. Over glassy smooth

water, or at night without sufficient light, it is very

easy for even the most experienced pilots to misjudge

altitude by 50 feet or more. Under such conditions,

carry enough power to maintain 9 to 12 noseup

attitude, and 10 to 20 over stalling speed until

contact is made with the water. The proper use of

power on the approach is of great importance. If

power is available on one side only, a little power

should be used to flatten the approach; however, the

engine should not be used to such an extent that the

aircraft cannot be turned against the good engines

right down to the stall with a margin of rudder

movement available. When near the stall, sudden

application of excessive unbalanced power may

result in loss of directional control. If power is

available on one side only, a slightly higher than

normal glide approach speed should be used. This

will insure good control and some margin of speed

after leveling off without excessive use of power. The

use of power in ditching is so important that when it

is certain that the coast cannot be reached, the pilot

should, if possible, ditch before fuel is exhausted.

The use of power in a night or instrument ditching is

far more essential than under daylight contact

conditions.

18.6.2 If no power is available, a greater than normal

approach speed should be used down to the flare−out.

This speed margin will allow the glide to be broken

early and more gradually, thereby giving the pilot

time and distance to feel for the surface − decreasing

the possibility of stalling high or flying into the water.

When landing parallel to a swell system, little

difference is noted between landing on top of a crest

or in the trough. If the wings of the aircraft are

trimmed to the surface of the sea rather than the

horizon, there is little need to worry about a wing

hitting a swell crest. The actual slope of a swell is very

gradual. If forced to land into a swell, touchdown

should be made just after passage of the crest. If

contact is made on the face of the swell, the aircraft
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−19

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

may be swamped or thrown violently into the air,

dropping heavily into the next swell. If control

surfaces remain intact, the pilot should attempt to

maintain the proper nose attitude by rapid and

positive use of the controls.

18.7 After Touchdown

18.7.1 In most cases drift caused by crosswind can

be ignored; the forces acting on the aircraft after

touchdown are of such magnitude that drift will be

only a secondary consideration. If the aircraft is under

good control, the “crab” may be kicked out with

rudder just prior to touchdown. This is more

important with high wing aircraft, for they are

laterally unstable on the water in a crosswind, and

may roll to the side in ditching.

NOTE−

This information has been extracted from the publication

“Aircraft Emergency Procedures Over Water.”

19. Fuel Dumping

19.1 Should it become necessary to dump fuel, the

pilot should immediately advise ATC. Upon receipt

of advice that an aircraft will dump fuel, ATC will

broadcast or cause to be broadcast immediately and

every 3 minutes thereafter on appropriate ATC, FSS,

and airline company radio frequencies the following:

EXAMPLE−

ATTENTION ALL AIRCRAFT−FUEL DUMPING IN

PROGRESS−OVER (location) AT (altitude) BY (type

aircraft) (flight direction).

19.2 Upon receipt of such a broadcast, pilots of

aircraft affected, which are not on IFR flight plans or

special VFR clearances, should clear the area

specified in the advisory. Aircraft on IFR flight plans

or special VFR clearances will be provided specific

separation by ATC. At the termination of the fuel

dumping operation, pilots should advise ATC. Upon

receipt of such information, ATC will issue, on

appropriate frequencies, the following:

EXAMPLE−

ATTENTION ALL AIRCRAFT−FUEL DUMPING BY−

(type aircraft) TERMINATED.

20. Special Emergency (Air Piracy)

20.1 A special emergency is a condition of air piracy,

or other hostile act by a person(s) aboard an aircraft,

which threatens the safety of the aircraft or its

passengers.

20.2 The pilot of an aircraft reporting a special

emergency condition should:

20.2.1 If circumstances permit, apply distress or

urgency radio − telephony procedures. Include the

details of the special emergency.

20.2.2 If circumstances do not permit the use of

prescribed distress or urgency procedures, transmit:

20.2.2.1 On the air−ground frequency in use at the

time.

20.2.2.2 As many as possible of the following

elements spoken distinctly and in the following order.

a) Name of the station addressed (time and

circumstances permitting).

b) The identification of the aircraft and present

position.

c) The nature of the special emergency condition

and pilot intentions (circumstances permitting).

d) If unable to provide this information, use code

words and/or transponder setting for indicated

meanings as follows:

Spoken Words

TRANSPONDER SEVEN FIVE ZERO ZERO

Meaning

Am being hijacked/forced to a new destination

Transponder Setting

Mode 3/A, Code 7500

NOTE−

Code 7500 will never be assigned by ATC without prior

notification from the pilot that the aircraft is being

subjected to unlawful interference. The pilot should refuse

the assignment of this code in any other situation and

inform the controller accordingly. Code 7500 will trigger

the special emergency indicator in all radar ATC

facilities.

20.3 Air traffic controllers will acknowledge and

confirm receipt of transponder Code 7500 by asking

the pilot to verify it. If the aircraft is not being

subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot should

respond to the query by broadcasting in the clear that

the aircraft is not being subjected to unlawful

interference. Upon receipt of this information, the

controller will request the pilot to verify the code

selection depicted in the code selector windows in the

transponder control panel and change the code to the

appropriate setting. If the pilot replies in the
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.6−20

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

affirmative or does not reply, the controller will not

ask further questions but will flight follow, respond

to pilot requests, and notify appropriate authorities.

20.4 If it is possible to do so without jeopardizing the

safety of the flight, the pilot of a hijacked U.S.

passenger aircraft, after departing from the cleared

routing over which the aircraft was operating, will

attempt to do one or more of the following things

insofar as circumstances may permit:

20.4.1 Maintain a true airspeed of no more than

400 knots and, preferably, an altitude of between

10,000 and 25,000 feet.

20.4.2 Fly a course toward the destination which the

hijacker has announced.

20.5 If these procedures result in either radio contact

or air intercept, the pilot will attempt to comply with

any instructions received which may direct him/her

to an appropriate landing field.

21. FAA K−9 Explosives Detection Team

Program

21.1 The FAA’s Office of Civil Aviation Security

Operations manages the FAA K−9 Explosives

Detection Team Program, which was established in

1972. Through a unique agreement with law

enforcement agencies and airport authorities, the

FAA has strategically placed FAA−certified K−9

teams (a team is one handler and one dog) at airports

throughout the country. If a bomb threat is received

while an aircraft is in flight, the aircraft can be

directed to an airport with this capability.

21.2 The FAA provides initial and refresher training

for all handlers, provides single purpose explosive

detector dogs, and requires that each team is annually

evaluated in five areas for FAA certification: aircraft

(wide body and narrow body), vehicles, terminal,

freight, (cargo), and luggage. If you desire this

service, notify your company or an FAA air traffic

control facility.

21.3 FAA Sponsored Explosives Detection Dog/

Handler Team Locations

TBL GEN 3.6−5

Airport Symbol Location

ATL Atlanta, Georgia

BHM Birmingham, Alabama

BOS Boston, Massachusetts

BUF Buffalo, New York

CLT Charlotte, North Carolina

ORD Chicago, Illinois

CVG Cincinnati, Ohio

DFW Dallas, Texas

DEN Denver, Colorado

DTW Detroit, Michigan

IAH Houston, Texas

JAX Jacksonville, Florida

MCI Kansas City, Missouri

LAX Los Angeles, California

MEM Memphis, Tennessee

MIA Miami, Florida

MKE Milwaukee, Wisconsin

MSY New Orleans, Louisiana

MCO Orlando, Florida

PHX Phoenix, Arizona

PIT Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

PDX Portland, Oregon

SLC Salt Lake City, Utah

SFO San Francisco, California

SJU San Juan, Puerto Rico

SEA Seattle, Washington

STL St. Louis, Missouri

TUS Tucson, Arizona

TUL Tulsa, Oklahoma

21.4 If due to weather or other considerations an

aircraft with a suspected hidden explosive problem

were to land or intended to land at an airport other

than those listed above, it is recommended they call

the FAA’s Washington Operations Center (telephone

202−267−3333, if appropriate) or have an air traffic

facility with which you can communicate contact the

above center requesting assistance.
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.7−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 3.7 Aircraft Rescue and 

Fire Fighting Communications

1. Discrete Emergency Frequency

1.1 Direct contact between an emergency aircraft

flight crew, Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting

Incident Commander (ARFF IC), and the Airport

Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is possible on an

aeronautical radio frequency (Discrete Emergency

Frequency [DEF]) designated by Air Traffic Control

(ATC) from the operational frequencies assigned to

that facility.

1.2 Emergency aircraft at airports without an ATCT

(or when the ATCT is closed) may contact the

ARFF IC (if ARFF service is provided) on the

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)

published for the airport or the civil emergency

frequency 121.5 MHz.

2. Radio Call Signs

Preferred radio call sign for the ARFF IC is

“(location/facility) Command” when communicating with the flight crew and the FAA ATCT.

EXAMPLE− LAX Command.

Washington Command.

3. ARFF Emergency Hand Signals

In the event that electronic communications cannot

be maintained between the ARFF IC and the flight

crew, standard emergency hand signals as depicted in

FIG GEN 3.7−1 through FIG GEN 3.7−3 should be

used. These hand signals should be known and

understood by all cockpit and cabin aircrew, and all

ARFF firefighters.

FIG GEN 3.7−1

FIG GEN 3.7−2
AIP

United States of America

GEN 3.7−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG GEN 3.7−3
AIP

United States of America

GEN 4.1−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 4. CHARGES FOR AERODROMES/HELIPORTS

 AND AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES

GEN 4.1 Fees and Charges

1. General

1.1 Charges for services and facilities vary from

aerodrome to aerodrome, and information concerning such charges may be obtained at the aerodromes.

Unless alternative arrangements have been made, all

charges for the use of the aerodrome, such as landing

fees, passenger service charges, cargo charges,

storage charges, and the like, are payable on demand

or before the aircraft departs the aerodrome. All such

charges are established by and payable to the various

administrative authorities of the various aerodromes.

1.2 A private aircraft will be charged a processing fee

of $25 once every calendar year. This will be charged

the first time the aircraft arrives from a foreign place

in the calender year or may be paid in advance. This

fee is charged to the aircraft, not the pilot, and the

receipt should be kept with the aircraft.

1.3 Commercial aircraft operators will be charged a

processing fee of $5 per paying passenger for each

arrival from foreign to the U.S. This fee will not be

charged for passengers arriving from Canada,

Mexico, and certain nearby Caribbean countries.

2. Charges for Inspection Services

2.1 Generally speaking, free service is provided at

airports during regular business hours (usually

8 a.m. to 5 p.m.), Monday through Saturday, and

from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Sundays and national

holidays. However, tours of duty at airports are based

on the need for services and are altered at some ports

to coincide with schedule changes and peak

workloads.

2.2 Overtime charges may be imposed, in certain

cases, for Immigration and Naturalization Services

and Public Health Service quarantine inspection of

aircraft whose operations are not covered by

published schedules. Information concerning such

charges may be obtained from the Immigration and

Naturalization Office and the Public Health Service

Medical Officer in Charge at, or nearest, the intended

place of landing.

3. Penalties for Violations

3.1 Since the law provides for substantial penalties

for violations of the Customs regulations, aircraft

operators and pilots should make every effort to

comply with them.

3.2 A $5,000 penalty will be assessed for common

violations such as:

3.2.1 Failure to report arrival.

3.2.2 Failure to obtain landing rights.

3.2.3 Failure to provide advance notice of arrival.

3.2.4 Failure to provide penetration report on

southern border.

3.2.5 Departing without permission or discharging

passengers or cargo without permission.

REFERENCE−

19 CFR 122.161.

NOTE−

1. Importation of contraband, including agricultural

materials, or undeclared merchandise can result in

penalty action and seizure of aircraft, which varies

according to the nature of the violation and pertinent

provision of law.

2. The above penalties are double to $10,000 for a second

offense. Seizure of aircraft may occur at any time

depending upon the circumstances behind the violation.

3. If a penalty is incurred, application may be made to the

customs officer in charge for a reduction in amount or

cancellation, giving the grounds upon which relief is

believed to be justified. If the operator or pilot desires to

petition further for relief of the penalty, he/she may appeal

to the appropriate district Director of Customs. If still

further review of the penalty is desired, written appeal

may be made to the proper regional Commissioner of

Customs and, in some cases, to Customs Headquarters.

3.3 Any person violating any provision of the Public

Health Service regulations shall be subject to a fine

of not more than $1,000 or to imprisonment for not

more than 1 year, or both, as provided in section 368

of the Public Health Service Act (42 U.S.C. 271).

AIP

United States of America

GEN 4.2−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

GEN 4.2 Air Navigation Facility Charges

The Federal Aviation Administration does not charge

for the use of Federal air navigation facilities or

telecommunications services.

AIP

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PART 2

EN ROUTE (ENR)

AIP ENR 0.4−1

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

PART 2 − EN ROUTE (ENR)

ENR 0.

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ENR 0.2 Record of AIP Amendments − See GEN 0.2−1

ENR 0.3 Record of AIP Supplements − Not applicable

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1.5−49 16 FEB 06

1.5−50 16 FEB 06

1.5−51 16 FEB 06

1.5−52 16 FEB 06

1.5−53 16 FEB 06

1.5−54 16 FEB 06

1.5−55 16 FEB 06

1.5−56 16 FEB 06

1.5−57 16 FEB 06

1.5−58 16 FEB 06

1.5−59 3 AUG 06

1.5−60 3 AUG 06

1.5−61 16 FEB 06

1.5−62 16 FEB 06

1.5−63 3 AUG 06

1.5−64 3 AUG 06

1.6−1 17 FEB 05

PAGE DATE

1.7−1 17 FEB 05

1.7−2 17 FEB 05

1.7−3 17 FEB 05

1.7−4 17 FEB 05

1.8−1 17 FEB 05

1.9−1 17 FEB 05

1.10−1 17 FEB 05

1.10−2 17 FEB 05

1.10−3 17 FEB 05

1.10−4 17 FEB 05

1.10−5 17 FEB 05

1.10−6 17 FEB 05

1.10−7 4 AUG 05

1.10−8 4 AUG 05

1.10−9 17 FEB 05

1.10−10 17 FEB 05

1.10−11 17 FEB 05

1.10−12 17 FEB 05

1.10−13 17 FEB 05

1.10−14 17 FEB 05

1.10−15 17 FEB 05

1.11−1 17 FEB 05

1.12−1 17 FEB 05

1.12−2 17 FEB 05

1.12−3 4 AUG 05

1.12−4 4 AUG 05

1.12−5 17 FEB 05

1.12−6 17 FEB 05

1.12−7 17 FEB 05

1.13−1 17 FEB 05

1.14−1 17 FEB 05

1.15−1 17 FEB 05

1.15−2 17 FEB 05

1.15−3 16 FEB 06

1.15−4 16 FEB 06

1.15−5 17 FEB 05

1.15−6 17 FEB 05

1.15−7 17 FEB 05

1.15−8 17 FEB 05

1.16−1 17 FEB 05

1.16−2 17 FEB 05

1.16−3 17 FEB 05

1.17−1 17 FEB 05

1.18−1 4 AUG 05

1.18−2 4 AUG 05

1.18−3 4 AUG 05

1.18−4 4 AUG 05

1.18−5 17 FEB 05

PAGE DATE

ENR 2

2−1 17 FEB 05

ENR 3

3.1−1 17 FEB 05

3.2−1 17 FEB 05

3.3−1 17 FEB 05

3.4−1 17 FEB 05

3.5−1 17 FEB 05

3.5−2 17 FEB 05

3.5−3 17 FEB 05

ENR 4

4.1−1 16 FEB 06

4.1−2 16 FEB 06

4.1−3 17 FEB 05

4.1−4 17 FEB 05

4.1−5 17 FEB 05

4.1−6 17 FEB 05

4.1−7 17 FEB 05

4.1−8 17 FEB 05

4.1−9 17 FEB 05

4.1−10 17 FEB 05

4.1−11 17 FEB 05

4.1−12 17 FEB 05

4.1−13 17 FEB 05

4.1−14 17 FEB 05

4.1−15 17 FEB 05

4.1−16 17 FEB 05

4.1−17 17 FEB 05

4.1−18 17 FEB 05

4.1−19 17 FEB 05

4.1−20 17 FEB 05

4.1−21 16 FEB 06

4.1−22 16 FEB 06

4.1−23 16 FEB 06

4.1−24 16 FEB 06

4.1−25 16 FEB 06

4.1−26 16 FEB 06

4.1−27 16 FEB 06

4.1−28 16 FEB 06

4.1−29 16 FEB 06

4.1−30 16 FEB 06

4.1−31 16 FEB 06

4.1−32 16 FEB 06

4.1−33 16 FEB 06

4.1−34 16 FEB 06

4.1−35 16 FEB 06

4.1−36 16 FEB 06

4.1−37 3 AUG 06

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 0.4−3

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

PAGE DATE

4.1−38 3 AUG 06

4.1−39 16 FEB 06

4.1−40 16 FEB 06

4.1−41 16 FEB 06

4.1−42 16 FEB 06

4.1−43 16 FEB 06

4.1−44 16 FEB 06

4.2−1 17 FEB 05

ENR 5

5.1−1 16 FEB 06

5.1−2 16 FEB 06

5.1−3 16 FEB 06

5.1−4 16 FEB 06

5.1−5 16 FEB 06

5.2−1 16 FEB 06

5.2−2 16 FEB 06

5.3−1 17 FEB 05

5.4−1 17 FEB 05

5.5−1 17 FEB 05

5.6−1 17 FEB 05

5.6−2 17 FEB 05

5.6−3 17 FEB 05

5.7−1 16 FEB 06

5.7−2 16 FEB 06

5.7−3 16 FEB 06

5.7−4 16 FEB 06

5.7−5 16 FEB 06

5.7−6 16 FEB 06

5.7−7 3 AUG 06

5.7−8 3 AUG 06

5.7−9 3 AUG 06

5.7−10 3 AUG 06

5.7−11 3 AUG 06

5.7−12 3 AUG 06

5.7−13 3 AUG 06

ENR 6

6.1−1 17 FEB 05

6.1−2 17 FEB 05

6.1−3 17 FEB 05

6.1−4 17 FEB 05

6.1−5 3 AUG 06

6.1−6 3 AUG 06

6.2−1 17 FEB 05

6.2−2 17 FEB 05

6.2−3 17 FEB 05

6.2−4 17 FEB 05

PAGE DATE

6.2−5 17 FEB 05

6.2−6 17 FEB 05

6.2−7 3 AUG 06

6.2−8 3 AUG 06

6.2−9 3 AUG 06

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6.2−11 3 AUG 06

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6.2−14 3 AUG 06

6.2−15 3 AUG 06

6.2−16 3 AUG 06

PAGE DATE

ENR 0.5 List of Hand Amendments to the AIP − Not applicable

3 AUG 06

AIP ENR 0.6−1

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 0.6 Table of Contents to Part 2

Page

ENR 1. GENERAL RULES AND PROCEDURES

ENR 1.1 General Rules ENR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1−1

ENR 1.2 Visual Flight Rules ENR 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.3 Instrument Flight Rules ENR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3−1

ENR 1.4 ATS Airspace Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.4−1

ENR 1.5 Holding, Approach, and Departure Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.5−1

ENR 1.6 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.6−1

ENR 1.7 Altimeter Setting Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.7−1

ENR 1.8 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.8−1

ENR 1.9 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.9−1

ENR 1.10 Flight Planning (Restriction, Limitation or Advisory Information) . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 1.10−1

ENR 1.11 [Reserved] ENR 1.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.12 Interception of Civil Aircraft, National Security and Interception Procedures ENR . . . 1.12−1

ENR 1.13 [Reserved] ENR 1.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.14 [Reserved] ENR 1.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.15 Medical Facts for Pilots ENR 1.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.16 Safety, Hazard, and Accident Reports ENR 1.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.17 North Atlantic (NAT) Timekeeping Procedures ENR 1.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 1.18 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) ENR . . . . . . . 1.18−1

ENR 2. AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES AIRSPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 2−1

ENR 3. ATS ROUTES

ENR 3.1 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 3.1−1

ENR 3.2 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 3.2−1

ENR 3.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes ENR 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 3.4 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 3.4−1

ENR 3.5 Other Routes ENR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5−1

ENR 4. NAVIGATION AIDS/SYSTEMS

ENR 4.1 Navigation Aids − En Route ENR 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 4.2 Special Navigation Systems ENR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2−1

ENR 5. NAVIGATION WARNINGS

ENR 5.1 Prohibited, Restricted, and Other Areas ENR 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

ENR 5.2 Military Exercise and Training Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 5.2−1

ENR 5.3 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 5.3−1

ENR 5.4 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 5.4−1

ENR 5.5 [Reserved] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 5.5−1

ENR 5.6 Bird Migration and Areas with Sensitive Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 5.6−1

ENR 5.7 Potential Flight Hazards ENR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7−1

ENR 6. HELICOPTER OPERATIONS

ENR 6.1 Helicopter IFR Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 6.1−1

ENR 6.2 Special Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENR 6.2−1

AIP ENR 1.1−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1. GENERAL RULES AND PROCEDURES

ENR 1.1 General Rules

1. Differences between National and

International Rules and Procedures

1.1 The air traffic rules and procedures applicable to

air traffic in U.S. Class A, B, C, D and E airspace

conform with Annexes 2 and 11 to the Convention on

International Civil Aviation and to those portions

applicable to aircraft in the Procedures for Air

Navigation Services −Rules of the Air and Air Traffic

Services (Doc 4444 − RAC/501/10) and to the

Regional Supplementary Procedures (DOC 7030)

applicable to the NAM, NAT, CAR and PAC

Regions, except as noted in the cases below. All

differences have been registered with the International Civil Aviation Organization.

1.1.1 Annex 3 − Rules of the Air

NOTE−

See GEN 1.7.

1.1.2 Annex 11 − Air Traffic Services

NOTE−

See GEN 1.7.

1.1.3 Procedures for Air Navigation Services −

Rules of the Air (DOC 4444) and Air Traffic

Services (RAC/501/10)

NOTE−

See GEN 1.7.

1.1.4 Regional Supplementary Procedures

(Doc 7030)

NOTE−

See GEN 1.7.

2. Airport Operations

2.1 General

2.1.1 Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb

and descent attitudes, and pilots preoccupation with

cockpit duties are some factors that increase the

hazardous accident potential near the airport. The

situation is further compounded when the weather is

marginal; that is, just meeting VFR requirements.

Pilots must be particularly alert when operating in the

vicinity of an airport. This section defines some rules,

practices, and procedures that pilots should be

familiar with, and adhere to, for safe airport

operations.

2.1.2 Each airport operator regularly serving

scheduled air carriers has put into use security

measures designed to prevent or deter unauthorized

persons from having access to “Air Operations Area.”

The “Air Operations Area” means any area of the

airport used or intended to be used for landing,

takeoff, or surface maneuvering of aircraft. Pilots are

encouraged to obtain airport security instructions by

posted signs or radio communication.

3. Airports With an Operating Control Tower

3.1 Towers have been established to provide for a

safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of traffic on and

in the vicinity of an airport. When the responsibility

has been so delegated, towers also provide for the

separation of IFR aircraft in the terminal areas

(Approach Control).

3.2 When operating at an airport where traffic

control is being exercised by a control tower, pilots

are required to maintain two−way radio contact with

the tower while operating within the Class B,

Class C, and Class D surface area unless the tower

authorizes otherwise. Initial callup should be made

about 15 miles from the airport. Unless there is a good

reason to leave the tower frequency before exiting the

Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area, it is a good

operating practice to remain on the tower frequency

for the purpose of receiving traffic information. In the

interest of reducing tower frequency congestion,

pilots are reminded that it is not necessary to request

permission to leave the tower frequency once outside

of Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area. Not all

airports with an operating control tower will have

Class D airspace. These airports do not have weather

reporting which is a requirement for surface−based

controlled airspace, previously known as a control

zone. The controlled airspace over these airports will

normally begin at 700 feet or 1,200 feet above ground

level and can be determined from the visual

aeronautical charts. Pilots are expected to use good

operating practices and communicate with the

control tower as described in this section.
ENR 1.1−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.3 When necessary, the tower controller will issue

clearances or other information for aircraft to

generally follow the desired flight path (traffic

pattern) when flying in the Class D airspace, and the

proper taxi routes when operating on the ground. If

not otherwise authorized or directed by the tower,

pilots approach to land in an airplane must circle the

airport to the left, and pilots approaching to land in a

helicopter must avoid the flow of fixed−wing traffic.

However, an appropriate clearance must be received

from the tower before landing.

3.4 The following terminology for the various

components of a traffic pattern has been adopted as

standard for use by control towers and pilots:

3.4.1 Upwind leg. A flight path parallel to the

landing runway in the direction of landing.

3.4.2 Crosswind leg. A flight path at right angles to

the landing runway off its takeoff end.

3.4.3 Downwind leg. A flight path parallel to the

landing runway in the opposite direction of landing.

3.4.4 Base leg. A flight path at right angles to the

landing runway off its approach end and extending

from the downwind leg to the intersection of the

extended runway centerline.

3.4.5 Final approach. A flight path in the direction

of landing along the extended runway centerline from

the base leg to the runway.

FIG ENR 1.1−1

Components of a Traffic Pattern

NOTE−

FIG ENR 1.1−1 is intended only to illustrate terminology

used in identifying various components of a traffic

pattern. It should not be used as a reference or guide on

how to enter a traffic pattern.

3.5 Many towers are equipped with a tower radar

display. The radar uses are intended to enhance the

effectiveness and efficiency of the local control, or

tower, position. They are not intended to provide

radar services or benefits to pilots except as they may

accrue through a more efficient tower operation. The

four basic uses are:

3.5.1 To determine an aircraft’s exact location. This

is accomplished by radar identifying the VFR aircraft

through any of the techniques available to a radar

position; such as, having the aircraft ident. Once

identified, the aircraft’s position and spatial

relationship to other aircraft can be quickly

determined, and standard instructions regarding VFR

operation in the aircraft traffic area will be issued.

Once initial radar identification of a VFR aircraft has

been established and the appropriate instructions

have been issued, radar monitoring may be

discontinued; the reason being that the local

controller’s primary means of surveillance in VFR

conditions is usually scanning the airport and local

area.

3.5.2 To provide radar traffic advisories. Radar

traffic advisories may be provided to the extent that

the local controller is able to monitor the radar

display. Local control has primary control responsibilities to the aircraft operating on the runways which

will normally supersede radar monitoring duties.

3.5.3 To provide a direction or suggested heading.

The local controller may provide pilots flying VFR

with generalized instructions which will facilitate

operations; e.g., “PROCEED SOUTHWEST

BOUND, ENTER A RIGHT DOWNWIND RUNWAY THREE ZERO;” or provide a suggested

heading to establish radar identification or as an

advisory aid to navigation; e.g., “SUGGESTED

HEADING TWO TWO ZERO, FOR RADAR

IDENTIFICATION.” In both cases, the instructions

are advisory aids to the pilot flying VFR and are not

radar vectors. PILOTS HAVE COMPLETE

DISCRETION REGARDING ACCEPTANCE OF

THE SUGGESTED HEADING OR DIRECTION

AND HAVE SOLE RESPONSIBILITY FOR

SEEING AND AVOIDING OTHER AIRCRAFT.
AIP ENR 1.1−3

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.5.4 To provide information and instructions to

aircraft operating within Class D airspace. In an

example of this situation, the local controller would

use the radar to advise a pilot on an extended

downwind when to turn base leg.

NOTE−

The above tower radar applications are intended to

augment the standard functions of the local control

position. There is no controller requirement to maintain

constant radar identification and, in fact, such a

requirement could compromise the local controller’s

ability to visually scan the airport and local area to meet

FAA responsibilities to the aircraft operating on the

runways and within Class D airspace. Normally, pilots will

not be advised of being in radar contact since that

continued status cannot be guaranteed and since the

purpose of the radar identification is not to establish a link

for the provision of radar services.

3.6 A few of the radar−equipped towers are

authorized to use the radar to ensure separation

between aircraft in specific situations, while still

others may function as limited radar approach

controls. The various radar uses are strictly a function

of FAA operational need. The facilities may be

indistinguishable to pilots since they are all referred

to as tower and no publication lists the degree of radar

use. THEREFORE, WHEN IN COMMUNICATION WITH A TOWER CONTROLLER WHO

MAY HAVE RADAR AVAILABLE, DO NOT

ASSUME THAT CONSTANT RADAR MONITORING AND COMPLETE ATC RADAR SERVICES ARE BEING PROVIDED.

4. Traffic Patterns

4.1 At most airports and military air bases, traffic

pattern altitudes for propeller driven aircraft

generally extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet

above the ground. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for

military turbojet aircraft sometimes extend up to

2,500 feet above the ground. Therefore, pilots of en

route aircraft should be constantly on the alert for

other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas

whenever possible. Traffic pattern altitudes should be

maintained unless otherwise required by the

applicable distance from cloud criteria (14 CFR

Section 91.155.) 

(See FIG ENR 1.1−2 and FIG ENR 1.1−3.)

4.2 Unexpected Maneuvers in the Airport Traffic

Pattern

4.2.1 There have been several incidents in the

vicinity of controlled airports that were caused

primarily by aircraft executing unexpected maneuvers. ATC service is based upon observed or known

traffic and airport conditions. Controllers establish

the sequence of arriving and departing aircraft by

requiring them to adjust flight as necessary to achieve

proper spacing. These adjustments can only be based

on observed traffic, accurate pilot reports, and

anticipated aircraft maneuvers. Pilots are expected to

cooperate so as to preclude disruption of traffic flow

or creation of conflicting patterns. The pilot in

command of an aircraft is directly responsible for and

is the final authority as to the operation of that aircraft.

4.2.2 On occasion it may be necessary for pilots to

maneuver their aircraft to maintain spacing with the

traffic they have been sequenced to follow. The

controller can anticipate minor maneuvering such as

shallow “S” turns. The controller cannot, however,

anticipate a major maneuver such as a 360−degree

turn. If a pilot makes a 360−degree turn after

obtaining a landing sequence, the result is usually a

gap in the landing interval and more importantly it

causes a chain reaction which may result in a conflict

with following traffic and interruption of the

sequence established by the tower or approach

controller. Should a pilot decide to make maneuvering turns to maintain spacing behind a preceding

aircraft, the pilot should always advise the controller

if at all possible. Except when requested by the

controller or in emergency situations, a 360−degree

turn should never be executed in the traffic pattern or

when receiving radar service without first advising

the controller.

3 AUG 06
ENR 1.1−4 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.1−2 

See Key to Traffic Pattern Operations below.

Traffic Pattern Operations

Single Runway

EXAMPLE−

KEY TO TRAFFIC PATTERN OPERATIONS

1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the

runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000’ AGL is recommended

pattern altitude unless established otherwise.)

2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of

the landing runway on downwind leg.

3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway.

4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of

runway.

5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to

crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway

within 300 feet of pattern altitude.

6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or

exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left−hand

traffic pattern; to the right when in a right−hand traffic

pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after

reaching pattern altitude.

7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will

penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.

8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the

departure path of the parallel runway.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 1.1−5

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.1−3 See Key to Traffic Pattern Operations below.

Traffic Pattern Operations

Parallel Runways

EXAMPLE−

KEY TO TRAFFIC PATTERN OPERATIONS

1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the

runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000’ AGL is recommended

pattern altitude unless established otherwise.)

2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of

the landing runway on downwind leg.

3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway.

4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of

runway.

5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to

crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway

within 300 feet of pattern altitude.

6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or

exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left−hand

traffic pattern; to the right when in a right−hand traffic

pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after

reaching pattern altitude.

7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will

penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.

8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the

departure path of the parallel runway.

3 AUG 06
ENR 1.1−6 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5. Visual Indicators at Airports Without an

Operating Control Tower

5.1 At those airports without an operating control

tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if

installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern

information. The segmented circle system consists of

the following components:

5.1.1 The Segmented Circle. Located in a position

affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and

on the ground and providing a centralized location for

other elements of the system.

5.1.2 The Wind Direction Indicator. A wind cone,

wind sock, or wind tee installed near the operational

runway to indicate wind direction. The large end of

the wind cone/wind sock points into the wind as does

the large end (cross bar) of the wind tee. In lieu of a

tetrahedron and where a wind sock or wind cone is

collocated with a wind tee, the wind tee may be

manually aligned with the runway in use to indicate

landing direction. These signaling devices may be

located in the center of the segmented circle and may

be lighted for night use. Pilots are cautioned against

using a tetrahedron to indicate wind direction.

5.1.3 The Landing Direction Indicator. A tetrahedron is installed when conditions at the airport

warrant its use. It may be used to indicate the direction

of landings and takeoffs. A tetrahedron may be

located at the center of a segmented circle and may be

lighted for night operations. The small end of the

tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots

are cautioned against using a tetrahedron for any

purpose other than as an indicator of landing

direction. Further, pilots should use extreme caution

when making runway selection by use of a

tetrahedron in very light or calm wind conditions as

the tetrahedron may not be aligned with the

designated calm−wind runway. At airports with

control towers, the tetrahedron should only be

referenced when the control tower is not in operation.

Tower instructions supersede tetrahedron indications.

5.1.4 Landing strip indicators. Installed in pairs

as shown in the segmented circle diagram, and used

to show the alignment of landing strips.

5.1.5 Traffic pattern indicators. Arranged in pairs

in conjunction with landing strip indicators and used

to indicate the direction of turns when there is a

variation from the normal left traffic pattern. If there

is no segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic

pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end

of the runway.

5.2 Preparatory to landing at an airport without a

control tower, or when the control tower is not in

operation, the pilot should concern himself with the

indicator for the approach end of the runway to be

used. When approaching for landing, all turns must

be made to the left unless a traffic pattern indicator

indicates that turns should be made to the right. If the

pilot will mentally enlarge the indicator for the

runway to be used, the base and final approach legs

of the traffic pattern to be flown immediately become

apparent. Similar treatment of the indicator at the

departure end of the runway will clearly indicate the

direction of turn after takeoff.

5.3 When two or more aircraft are approaching an

airport for the purpose of landing, the pilot of the

aircraft at the lower altitude has the right−of−way

over the pilot of the aircraft at the higher altitude.

However, the pilot operating at the lower altitude

should not take advantage of another aircraft, which

is on final approach to land, by cutting in front of, or

overtaking that aircraft.

6. Ground Control Frequencies

6.1 Pilots of departing aircraft should communicate

with the control tower on the appropriate ground

control/clearance delivery frequency prior to starting

engines to receive engine start time, taxi and/or

clearance information. Unless otherwise advised by

the tower, remain on that frequency during taxiing

and runup, then change to local control frequency

when ready to request takeoff clearance.

NOTE−

Pilots are encouraged to monitor the local tower frequency

as soon as practical consistent with other ATC

requirements.

6.2 The tower controller will consider that pilots of

turbine−powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when

they reach the runway or warm−up block unless

advised otherwise.

6.3 The majority of ground control frequencies are in

the 121.6−121.9 MHz bandwidth. Ground control

frequencies are provided to eliminate frequency

congestion on the tower (local control) frequency and

are limited to communications between the tower and

aircraft on the ground and between the tower and

utility vehicles on the airport, provide a clear VHF

channel for arriving and departing aircraft. They are

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 1.1−7

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

used for issuance of taxi information, clearances, and

other necessary contacts between the tower and

aircraft or other vehicles operated on the airport. A

pilot who has just landed should not change from the

tower frequency to the ground control frequency until

directed to do so by the controller. Normally, only one

ground control frequency is assigned at an airport;

however, at locations where the amount of traffic so

warrants, a second ground control frequency and/or

another frequency designated as a clearance delivery

frequency, may be assigned.

6.4 A controller may omit the ground or local control

frequency if the controller believes the pilot knows

which frequency is in use. If the ground control

frequency is in the 121 MHz bandwidth the controller

may omit the numbers preceding the decimal point;

e.g., 121.7, “CONTACT GROUND POINT

SEVEN.” However, if any doubt exists as to what

frequency is in use, the pilot should promptly request

the controller to provide that information.

6.5 Controllers will normally avoid issuing a radio

frequency change to helicopters, known to be

single-piloted, which are hovering, air taxiing, or

flying near the ground. At times, it may be necessary

for pilots to alert ATC regarding single pilot

operations to minimize delay of essential ATC

communications. Whenever possible, ATC instructions will be relayed through the frequency being

monitored until a frequency change can be

accomplished. Pilots must promptly advise ATC if

they are unable to comply with a frequency change.

Also, pilots should advise ATC if they must land to

accomplish the frequency change unless it is clear the

landing; e.g., on a taxiway or in a helicopter operating

area, will have no impact on other air traffic.

7. Traffic Control Light Signals

7.1 The following procedures are used by airport

traffic control towers in the control of aircraft, ground

vehicles, equipment, and personnel not equipped

with radio. These same procedures will be used to

control aircraft, ground vehicles, equipment, and

personnel equipped with radio if radio contact cannot

be established. Airport traffic control personnel use

a directive traffic control signal which emits an

intense narrow beam of a selected color (either red,

white, or green) when controlling traffic by light

signals.

7.2 Although the traffic signal light offers the

advantage that some control may be exercised over

nonradio−equipped aircraft, pilots should be cognizant of the disadvantages which are:

7.2.1 The pilot may not be looking at the control

tower at the time a signal is directed toward him/her;

and

7.2.2 The directions transmitted by a light signal are

very limited since only approval of a pilot’s

anticipated actions may be transmitted. No supplement or explanatory information may be transmitted

except by the use of the “General Warning Signal”

which advises the pilot to be on the alert.

7.3 Between sunset and sunrise, a pilot wishing to

attract the attention of the control tower should turn

on a landing light and taxi the aircraft into a position,

clear of the active runway, so that light is visible to the

tower. The landing light should remain on until

appropriate signals are received from the tower.

TBL ENR 1.1−1

Air Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals

Meaning

Color and Type of Signal Movement of Vehicles,

Equipment and Personnel

Aircraft on the Ground Aircraft in Flight

Steady green Cleared to cross, proceed or go Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land

Flashing green Not applicable Cleared for taxi Return for landing (to be

followed by steady green at the

proper time)

Steady red STOP STOP Give way to other aircraft and

continue circling

Flashing red Clear the taxiway/runway Taxi clear of the runway in use Airport unsafe, do not land

Flashing white Return to starting point on

airport

Return to starting point on

airport

Not applicable

Alternating red and green Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution
ENR 1.1−8 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

8. Use of Runways/Declared Distances

8.1 Runways are identified by numbers which

indicate the nearest 10−degree increment of the

azimuth of the runway centerline. For example,

where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the

runway designation would be 18; for a magnetic

azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway designation would

be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5,

such as 185, the runway designation could be either

18 or 19. Wind direction issued by the tower is also

magnetic, and wind velocity is in knots.

8.2 Airport proprietors are responsible for taking the

lead in local aviation noise control. Accordingly, they

may propose specific noise abatement plans to the

FAA. If approved, these plans are applied in the form

of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs for

noise abatement purposes.

8.3 At airports where no runway use program is

established, ATC clearance may specify:

8.3.1 The runway most nearly aligned with the wind

when it is five knots or more.

8.3.2 The “calm wind” runway when wind is less

than five knots.

8.3.3 Another runway if operationally advantageous.

NOTE−

It is not necessary for a controller to specifically inquire

if the pilot will use a specific runway or to offer the pilot

a choice of runways. If a pilot prefers to use a different

runway than that specified or the one most nearly aligned

with the wind, the pilot is expected to inform ATC

accordingly.

8.4 At airports where a runway use program is

established, ATC will assign runways deemed to

have the least noise impact. If in the interest of safety

a runway different than that specified is preferred, the

pilot is expected to advise ATC accordingly. ATC

will honor such requests and advise pilots when the

requested runway is noise sensitive. When use of a

runway other that the one assigned is requested, pilot

cooperation is encouraged to preclude disruption of

traffic flows or creation of conflicting patterns.

8.5 At some airports, the airport proprietor may

declare that sections of a runway at one or both ends

are not available for landing or takeoff. For these

airports, the declared distance of runway length

available for a particular operation is published in the

Airport/Facility Directory. These distances are

calculated by adding to the full length of paved

runway any applicable clearway or stopway and

subtracting from that sum the sections of the runway

unsuitable for satisfying the required takeoff run,

takeoff, accelerate/stop, or landing distance.

9. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst

Detection Systems

9.1 Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather

System Processor (WSP), and Integrated Terminal

Weather System (ITWS) display information on

hazardous wind shear and microburst activity in the

vicinity of an airport to air traffic controllers who

relay this information to pilots.

9.1.1 LLWAS provides wind shear alert and gust

front information but does not provide microburst

alerts. The LLWAS is designed to detect low level

wind shear conditions around the periphery of an

airport. It does not detect wind shear beyond that

limitation. Controllers will provide this information

to pilots by giving the pilot the airport wind followed

by the boundary wind.

EXAMPLE−

Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary

wind 170 at 20.

9.1.2 LLWAS “network expansion,” (LLWAS NE)

and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWAS−RS)

are systems integrated with TDWR. These systems

provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts

and wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the

appropriate wind shear alerts or microburst alerts. In

some of these systems controllers also have the

ability to issue wind information oriented to the

threshold or departure end of the runway.

EXAMPLE−

Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile

final.

NOTE−

Reference GEN 3.5, Paragraph 25, Microbursts.

9.1.3 More advanced systems are in the field or

being developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts

for microbursts, wind shear, and significant

thunderstorm activity. ITWS displays wind information oriented to the threshold or departure end of the

runway.
AIP ENR 1.1−9

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9.1.4 The WSP provides weather processor enhancements to selected Airport Surveillance Radar

(ASR)−9 facilities. The WSP provides Air Traffic

with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such

as wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunderstorm activity. The WSP displays terminal area

6 level weather, storm cell locations and movement,

as well as the location and predicted future position

and intensity of wind shifts that may affect airport

operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts

based on Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An

ARENA extends on the runway center line from a

3 mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure.

9.1.5 An airport equipped with the LLWAS, ITWS,

or WSP is so indicated in the Airport/Facility

Directory under Weather Data Sources for that

particular airport.

10. Braking Action Reports and Advisories

10.1 When available, ATC furnishes pilots the

quality of braking action received from pilots or

airport management. The quality of braking action is

described by the terms “good,” “fair,” “poor,” and

“nil,” or a combination of these terms. When pilots

report the quality of braking action by using the terms

noted above, they should use descriptive terms that

are easily understood, such as, “braking action poor

the first/last half of the runway,” together with the

particular type of aircraft.

10.2 For NOTAM purposes, braking action reports

are classified according to the most critical term

(“fair,” “poor,” or “nil”) used and issued as a

NOTAM(D).

10.3 When tower controllers have received runway

braking action reports which include the terms “poor”

or “nil” or whenever weather conditions are

conducive to deteriorating or rapidly changing

runway braking conditions, the tower will include on

the ATIS broadcast the statement, “BRAKING

ACTION ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT.”

10.4 During the time that Braking Action Advisories

are in effect, ATC will issue the latest braking action

report for the runway in use to each arriving and

departing aircraft. Pilots should be prepared for

deteriorating braking conditions and should request

current runway condition information if not

volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also be

prepared to provide a descriptive runway condition

report to controllers after landing.

11. Runway Friction Reports and

Advisories

11.1 Friction is defined as the ratio of the tangential

force needed to maintain uniform relative motion

between two contacting surfaces (aircraft tires to the

pavement surface) to the perpendicular force holding

them in contact (distributed aircraft weight to the

aircraft tire area). Simply stated, friction quantifies

slipperiness of pavement surfaces.

11.2 The Greek letter MU (pronounced “myew”), is

used to designate a friction value representing

runway surface conditions.

11.3 MU (friction) values range from 0 to 100 where

zero is the lowest friction value and 100 is the

maximum friction value obtainable. For frozen

contaminants on runway surfaces, a MU value of 40

or less is the level when the aircraft braking

performance starts to deteriorate and directional

control begins to be less responsive. The lower the

MU value, the less effective braking performance

becomes and the more difficult directional control

becomes.

11.4 At airports with friction measuring devices,

airport management should conduct friction measurements on runways covered with compacted snow

and/or ice.

11.4.1 Numerical readings may be obtained by using

any FAA approved friction measuring device. As

these devices do not provide equal numerical

readings on contaminated surfaces, it is necessary to

designate the type of friction measuring device used.

11.4.2 When the MU value for any one-third zone of

an active runway is 40 or less, a report should be

given to ATC by airport management for dissemination to pilots. The report will identify the runway, the

time of measurement, the type of friction measuring

device used, MU values for each zone, and the

contaminant conditions, e.g., wet snow, dry snow,

slush, deicing chemicals, etc. Measurements for each

one-third zone will be given in the direction of takeoff

and landing on the runway. A report should also be

given when MU values rise above 40 in all zones of

a runway previously reporting a MU below 40.

11.4.3 Airport management should initiate a

NOTAM(D) when the friction measuring device is

out of service.
ENR 1.1−10 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

11.4.4 When MU reports are provided by airport

management, the ATC facility providing approach

control or local airport advisory will provide the

report to any pilot upon request.

11.4.5 Pilots should use MU information with other

knowledge including aircraft performance characteristics, type, weight, previous experience, wind

conditions, and aircraft tire type (i.e., bias ply vs.

radial constructed) to determine runway suitability.

11.4.6 No correlation has been established between

MU values and the descriptive terms “good,” “fair,”

“poor,” and “nil” used in braking action reports.

12. Communications Prior to Departure

12.1 Nontower Controlled Airports

12.1.1 At airports not served by a FSS located on the

airport, the pilot in command should broadcast

his/her intentions on the prescribed frequency prior to

aircraft movement and departure.

12.1.2 At airports served by a FSS located on the

airport, the pilot in command should obtain airport

advisory service prior to aircraft movement and

departure.

12.1.3 Aircraft departing on an IFR clearance must

obtain the clearance prior to departure via telephone,

the appropriate FSS, or via direct communications

with the ATC facility issuing the clearance as

appropriate. An IFR clearance does not relieve the

pilot from the communication stated above prior to

aircraft movement and departure.

12.2 Tower Controlled Airports

12.2.1 Pilots of departing aircraft should communicate with the control tower on the appropriate ground

control/clearance delivery frequency prior to starting

engines to receive engine start time, taxi, and/or

clearance information. Unless otherwise advised by

the tower, remain on the frequency during taxiing and

run up, then change to local control frequency when

ready to request takeoff clearance.

NOTE−

Refer to Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

for continuous broadcast of terminal information.

13. Gate Holding Due to Departure Delays

13.1 Pilots should contact ground control/clearance

delivery prior to starting engines as gate hold

procedures will be in effect whenever departure

delays exceed or are anticipated to exceed 15 minutes. The sequence for departure will be maintained

in accordance with initial call up unless modified by

flow control restrictions. Pilots should monitor the

ground control/clearance delivery frequency for

engine startup advisories or new proposed start time

if the delay changes.

13.2 The tower controller will consider that pilots of

turbine−powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when

they reach the runway/warm−up block unless advised

otherwise.

14. Taxiing

14.1 General. Approval must be obtained prior to

moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area

during the hours an airport traffic control tower is in

operation.

14.1.1 Always state your position on the airport

when calling the tower for taxi instructions.

14.1.2 The movement area is normally described in

local bulletins issued by the airport manager or

control tower. These bulletins may be found in FSSs,

fixed base operators offices, air carrier offices, and

operations offices.

14.1.3 The control tower also issues bulletins

describing areas where they cannot provide airport

traffic control service due to nonvisibility or other

reasons.

14.1.4 A clearance must be obtained prior to taxiing

on a runway, taking off, or landing during the hours

an airport traffic control tower is in operation.

14.1.5 When ATC clears an aircraft to “taxi to” an

assigned takeoff runway, the absence of holding

instructions authorizes the aircraft to “cross” all

runways which the taxi route intersects except the

assigned takeoff runway. It does not include

authorization to “taxi onto” or “cross” the assigned

takeoff runway at any point. In order to preclude

misunderstandings in radio communications, ATC

will not use the word “cleared” in conjunction with

authorization for aircraft to taxi.

14.1.6 In the absence of holding instructions, a

clearance to “taxi to” any point other than an assigned

takeoff runway is a clearance to cross all runways that

intersect the taxi route to that point.

14.1.7 ATC will first specify the runway, issue taxi

instructions, and then state any required hold short

instructions, when authorizing an aircraft to taxi for
AIP ENR 1.1−11

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

departure. This does not authorize the aircraft to

“enter“ or “cross” the assigned departure runway at

any point. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS ARE

REQUIRED TO OBTAIN FROM THE PILOT A

READBACK OF ALL RUNWAY HOLD SHORT

INSTRUCTIONS.

14.1.8 If a pilot is expected to hold short of a runway

approach (“APPCH”) area or ILS holding position

(see FIG AD 1.1−23, Taxiways Located in Runway

Approach Area, in Section AD 1.1, Aerodrome

Availability), ATC will issue instructions.

14.1.9 When taxi instructions are received from the

controller, pilots should always read back:

14.1.9.1 The runway assignment.

14.1.9.2 Any clearance to enter a specific runway.

14.1.9.3 Any instruction to hold short of a specific

runway, or taxi into position and hold.

14.1.10 Controllers are required to request a

readback of runway hold short assignment when it is

not received from the pilot/vehicle.

14.2 ATC clearances or instructions pertaining to

taxiing are predicated on known traffic and known

physical airport conditions. Therefore, it is important

that pilots clearly understand the clearance or

instruction. Although an ATC clearance is issued for

taxiing purposes, when operating in accordance with

the Federal Regulations, it is the responsibility of the

pilot to avoid collision with other aircraft. Since “the

pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible

for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of

that aircraft” the pilot should obtain clarification of

any clearance or instruction which is not understood.

14.2.1 Good operating practice dictates that pilots

acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or

takeoff clearances unless there is some misunderstanding, at which time the pilot should query the

controller until the clearance is understood. AIR

TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS ARE REQUIRED TO

OBTAIN FROM THE PILOT A READBACK OF

ALL RUNWAY HOLD SHORT INSTRUCTIONS.

Pilots operating a single pilot aircraft should monitor

only assigned ATC communications after being

cleared onto the active runway for departure. Single

pilot aircraft should not monitor other than ATC

communications until flight from Class D airspace is

completed. This same procedure should be practiced

from after receipt of the clearance for landing until the

landing and taxi activities are complete. Proper

effective scanning for other aircraft, surface vehicles,

or other objects should be continuously exercised in

all cases.

14.2.2 If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for

any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi

routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi

instructions which include step−by−step routing

directions. Progressive instructions may also be

issued if the controller deems it necessary due to

traffic or field conditions; i.e., construction or closed

taxiways.

14.3 At those airports where the United States

Government operates the control tower and ATC has

authorized noncompliance with the requirement for

two−way radio communications while operating

within Class D airspace, or at those airports where the

United States Government does not operate the

control tower and radio communications cannot be

established, pilots shall obtain a clearance by visual

light signal prior to taxiing on a runway and prior to

takeoff and landing.

14.4 The following phraseologies and procedures

are used in radio−telephone communications with

aeronautical ground stations.

14.4.1 Request for taxi instructions prior to

departure. State your aircraft identification, location, type of operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the

point of first intended landing.

EXAMPLE−

Aircraft: “Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three

One Five Niner at hangar eight, ready to taxi, I−F−R to

Chicago.”

Tower: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner,

Washington ground, taxi to runway three six, wind zero

three zero at two five, altimeter three zero zero four.”

or

Tower: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner,

Washington ground, runway two seven, taxi via taxiways

Charlie and Delta, hold short of runway three three left.”

Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, hold

short of runway three three left.”
ENR 1.1−12 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

14.4.2 Receipt of Air Traffic Control Clearance.

Air route traffic control clearances are relayed to

pilots by airport traffic controllers in the following

manner:

EXAMPLE−

Tower: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to

the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain

eight thousand.”

Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared

to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain

eight thousand.”

NOTE−

Normally, an ATC IFR clearance is relayed to a pilot by

the ground controller. At busy locations, however, pilots

may be instructed by the ground controller to “contact

clearance delivery” on a frequency designated for this

purpose. No surveillance or control over the movement of

traffic is exercised by this position of operation. (See

paragraph 27, ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation.)

14.4.3 Request for Taxi Instructions After

Landing. State your aircraft identification, location,

and that you request taxi instructions.

EXAMPLE−

Aircraft: “Dulles ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six

One clearing runway one right on taxiway echo three,

request clearance to Page.”

Tower: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Dulles

ground, taxi to Page via taxiways echo three, echo one,

and echo niner.”

or

Aircraft: “Orlando ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six

One clearing runway one eight left at taxiway bravo three,

request clearance to Page.”

Tower: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Orlando

ground, hold short of runway one eight right.”

Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, hold short

of runway one eight right.”

15. Taxi During Low Visibility

15.1 Pilots and aircraft operators should be

constantly aware that during certain low visibility

conditions the movement of aircraft and vehicles on

airports may not be visible to the tower controller.

This may prevent visual confirmation of an aircraft’s

adherence to taxi instructions.

15.2 Of vital importance is the need for pilots to

notify the controller when difficulties are encountered or at the first indication of becoming

disoriented. Pilots should proceed with extreme

caution when taxiing toward the sun. When vision

difficulties are encountered, pilots should immediately inform the controller.

15.3 Advisory Circular 120−57, Surface Movement

Guidance and Control System, commonly known as

SMGCS (pronounced “SMIGS”) requires a low

visibility taxi plan for any airport which has takeoff

or landing operations in less than 1,200 feet runway

visual range (RVR) visibility conditions. These

plans, which affect aircrew and vehicle operators,

may incorporate additional lighting, markings, and

procedures to control airport surface traffic. They will

be addressed at two levels: operations less than

1,200 feet RVR to 600 feet RVR and operations less

than 600 feet RVR.

NOTE−

Specific lighting systems and surface markings may be

found in paragraph 14, Taxiway Lights, and

paragraph 18, Taxiway Markings, in Section AD 1.1,

Aerodrome Availability.

15.4 When low visibility conditions exist, pilots

should focus their entire attention on the safe

operation of the aircraft while it is moving.

Checklists and nonessential communication should

be withheld until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes

set.

16. Intersection Takeoffs

16.1 In order to enhance airport capacities, reduce

taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and

provide for more efficient movement of air traffic,

controllers may initiate intersection takeoffs as well

as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY

reason a pilot prefers to use a different intersection or

the full length of the runway or desires to obtain the

distance between the intersection and the runway

end, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC

ACCORDINGLY.

16.2 An aircraft is expected to taxi to (but not onto)

the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval

for an intersection departure is received from ground

control.

16.3 Pilots should state their position on the airport

when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway

intersection.
AIP ENR 1.1−13

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

EXAMPLE−

Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at

the intersection of taxiway oscar and runway two three

right, ready for departure.

16.4 Controllers are required to separate small

aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificated

takeoff weight) departing (same or opposite

direction) from an intersection behind a large

nonheavy aircraft on the same runway by ensuring

that at least a 3−minute interval exists between the

time the preceding large aircraft has taken off and the

succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. To

inform the pilot of the required 3−minute hold, the

controller will state, “Hold for wake turbulence.” If

after considering wake turbulence hazards, the pilot

feels that a lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot

may request a waiver to the 3−minute interval. Pilots

must initiate such a request by stating, “Request

waiver to 3−minute interval,” or by making a similar

statement. Controllers may then issue a takeoff

clearance if other traffic permits, since the pilot has

accepted the responsibility for wake turbulence

separation.

16.5 The 3−minute interval is not required when the

intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure

point of the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are

taking off in the same direction. Controllers may

permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff

to avoid the flight path of the preceding departure.

16.6 The 3−minute interval is mandatory behind a

heavy aircraft in all cases.

17. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas

17.1 Use reasonable restraint in exercising the

prerogative of VFR flight, especially in terminal

areas. The weather minimums and distances from

clouds are minimums. Giving yourself a greater

margin in specific instances is just good judgment.

17.1.1 Approach Area. Conducting a VFR operation

in Class D and E Airspace when the official visibility

is 3 or 4 miles is not prohibited, but good judgment

would dictate that you keep out of the approach area.

17.1.2 Reduced Visibility. It has always been

recognized that precipitation reduces forward

visibility. Consequently, although again it may be

perfectly legal to cancel your IFR flight plan at any

time you can proceed VFR, it is good practice, when

precipitation is occurring, to continue IFR operation

into a terminal area until you are reasonably close to

your destination.

17.1.3 Simulated Instrument Flights. In conducting

simulated instrument flights, be sure that the weather

is good enough to compensate for the restricted

visibility of the safety pilot and your greater

concentration on your flight instruments. Give

yourself a greater margin when your flight plan lies

in or near a busy airway or close to an airport.

18. Low Approach

18.1 A low approach (sometimes referred to as a low

pass) is the go−around maneuver following

approach. Instead of landing or making a touch−and−

go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach) in

order to expedite a particular operation−a series of

practice instrument approaches is an example of such

an operation. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC,

the low approach should be made straight ahead with

no turns or climb made until the pilot has made a

thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area.

18.2 When operating within Class D airspace, a pilot

intending to make a low approach should contact the

tower for approval. This request should be made prior

to starting the final approach.

18.3 When operating to an airport within Class E

airspace, a pilot intending to make a low approach

should, prior to leaving the final approach fix

inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer marker

or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound

(precision approach), so advise the FSS, UNICOM,

or make a broadcast as appropriate.

19. Practice Instrument Approaches

19.1 Various air traffic incidents required adoption

of measures to achieve more organized and controlled

operations where practice instrument approaches are

conducted. Practice instrument approaches are

considered to be instrument approaches made by

either a VFR aircraft not on an IFR flight plan or an

aircraft on an IFR flight plan. To achieve this and

thereby enhance air safety, it is Air Traffic Operations

policy to provide for separation of such operations at

locations where approach control facilities are

located and, as resources permit, at certain other

locations served by ARTCCs or approach control

facilities. Pilot requests to practice instrument

approaches may be approved by ATC subject to

traffic and workload conditions. Pilots should

anticipate that in some instances the controller may
ENR 1.1−14 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

find it necessary to deny approval or withdraw

previous approval when traffic conditions warrant. It

must be clearly understood, however, that even

though the controller may be providing separation,

pilots on VFR flight plans are required to comply

with basic visual flight rules (14 CFR Section 91.155). Application of ATC procedures or any

action taken by the controller to avoid traffic

conflictions does not relieve IFR and VFR pilots of

their responsibility to see and avoid other traffic

while operating in VFR conditions (14 CFR

Section 91.113). In addition to the normal IFR

separation minimums (which includes visual

separation) during VFR conditions, 500 feet vertical

separation may be applied between VFR aircraft and

between a VFR aircraft and an IFR aircraft. Pilots not

on IFR flight plans desiring practice instrument

approaches should always state “practice” when

making requests to ATC. Controllers will instruct

VFR aircraft requesting an instrument approach to

maintain VFR. This is to preclude misunderstandings

between the pilot and controller as to the status of the

aircraft. If the pilot wishes to proceed in accordance

with instrument flight rules, he/she must specifically

request and obtain an IFR clearance.

19.2 Before practicing an instrument approach,

pilots should inform the approach control facility or

the tower of the type of practice approach they desire

to make and how they intend to terminate it; i.e.,

full−stop landing, touch−and−go, or missed/low

approach maneuver. This information may be

furnished progressively when conducting a series of

approaches. Pilots on an IFR flight plan, who have

made a series of instrument approaches to full stop

landings, should inform ATC when they make their

final landing. The controller will control flights

practicing instrument approaches so as to ensure that

they do not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing

itinerant IFR or VFR aircraft. The priority afforded

itinerant aircraft over practice instrument approaches

is not intended to be so rigidly applied that it causes

a grossly inefficient application of services. A

minimum delay to itinerant traffic may be appropriate

to allow an aircraft practicing an approach to

complete that approach.

NOTE−

A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on

the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance

does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any

previously issued restriction.

19.3 At airports without a tower, pilots wishing to

make practice instrument approaches should notify

the facility having control jurisdiction of the desired

approach as indicated on the approach chart. All

approach control facilities and ARTCCs are required

to publish a Letter to Airmen depicting those airports

where they provide standard separation to both VFR

and IFR aircraft conducting practice instrument

approaches.

19.4 The controller will provide approved separation between both VFR and IFR aircraft when

authorization is granted to make practice approaches

to airports where an approach control facility is

located and to certain other airports served by

approach control or an ARTCC. Controller responsibility for separation of VFR aircraft begins at the

point where the approach clearance becomes

effective or when the aircraft enters Class B or TRSA

airspace whichever comes first.

19.5 VFR aircraft practicing instrument approaches

are not automatically authorized to execute the

missed approach procedure. This authorization must

be specifically requested by the pilot and approved by

the controller. Separation will not be provided unless

the missed approach has been approved by ATC.

19.6 Except in an emergency, aircraft cleared to

practice instrument approaches must not deviate

from the approved procedure until cleared to do so by

the controller.

19.7 At radar approach control locations when a full

approach procedure (procedure turn, etc.) cannot be

approved, pilots should expect to be vectored to a

final approach course for a practice instrument

approach which is compatible with the general

direction of traffic at that airport.

19.8 When granting approval for a practice

instrument approach, the controller will usually ask

the pilot to report to the tower prior to or over the final

approach fix inbound (nonprecision approaches) or

over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer

marker inbound (precision approaches).

19.9 When authorization is granted to conduct

practice instrument approaches to an airport with a

tower but where approved standard separation is not

provided to aircraft conducting practice instrument

approaches, the tower will approve the practice

approach, instruct the aircraft to maintain VFR, and

issue traffic information, as required.
AIP ENR 1.1−15

United States of America 17 FEB 05

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19.10 When a pilot notifies an FSS providing

Airport Advisory Service of intent to conduct a

practice instrument approach and if separation will be

provided, he/she will be instructed to contact the

appropriate facility on a specified frequency prior to

initiating the approach. At airports where separation

is not provided, the FSS will acknowledge the

message and issue known traffic information but will

neither approve or disapprove the approach.

19.11 Pilots conducting practice instrument approaches should be particularly alert for other aircraft

operating in the local traffic pattern or in proximity to

the airport.

20. Option Approach

20.1 The “Cleared for the Option” procedure will

permit an instructor pilot/flight examiner/pilot the

option to make a touch−and−go, low approach,

missed approach, stop−and−go, or full stop landing.

This procedure can be very beneficial in a training

situation in that neither the student pilot nor examinee

would know what maneuver would be accomplished.

The pilot should make a request for this procedure

passing the final approach fix inbound on an

instrument approach or entering downwind for a

VFR traffic pattern. The advantages of this procedure

as a training aid are that it enables an instructor/examiner to obtain the reaction of a trainee/examinee

under changing conditions, the pilot would not have

to discontinue an approach in the middle of the

procedure due to student error or pilot proficiency

requirements, and finally it allows more flexibility

and economy in training programs. This procedure

will only be used at those locations with an

operational control tower and will be subject to ATC

approval/disapproval.

21. Communications Release of IFR

Aircraft Landing at an Airport Without an

Operating Control Tower

21.1 Aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan,

landing at an airport without an operating control

tower will be advised to change to the airport

advisory frequency when direct communication with

ATC is no longer required.

22. Pilot Responsibilities When

Conducting Land and Hold Short

Operations (LAHSO)

22.1 LAHSO is an acronym for “Land And Hold

Short Operations.” These operations include landing

and holding short of an intersecting runway, an

intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point

on a runway other than an intersecting runway or

taxiway. (See FIG ENR 1.1−4, FIG ENR 1.1−5,

FIG ENR 1.1−6.)

22.2 Pilot Responsibilities and Basic Procedures

22.2.1 LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that

requires pilot participation to balance the needs for

increased airport capacity and system efficiency,

consistent with safety. This procedure can be done

safely provided pilots and controllers are knowledgeable and understand their responsibilities. The

following paragraphs outline specific pilot/operator

responsibilities when conducting LAHSO.

22.2.2 At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a

pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such

a clearance provided that the pilot−in−command

determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop

within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD

data are published in the special notices section of the

Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and in the U.S.

Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will

also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots

or pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not

participate in the program.

FIG ENR 1.1−4

Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting

Runway
ENR 1.1−16 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.1−5

Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting

Taxiway

EXAMPLE−

FIG ENR 1.1−6 − Holding short at a designated point

may be required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety

area/flight path of a nearby runway.

NOTE−

Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO

markings, signage, and in−pavement lighting when

installed.

REFERENCE−

AIP, Part 3 − Aerodromes.

FIG ENR 1.1−6

Land and Hold Short of a Designated Point on a

Runway Other Than an Intersecting Runway or

Taxiway

22.2.3 The pilot−in−command has the final

authority to accept or decline any land and hold

short clearance. The safety and operation of the

aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot.

Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance

if they determine it will compromise safety.

22.2.4 To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become

familiar with all available information concerning

LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should

have, readily available, the published ALD and

runway slope information for all LAHSO runway

combinations at each airport of intended landing.

Additionally, knowledge about landing performance

data permits the pilot to readily determine that the

ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe

LAHSO. As part of a pilot’s preflight planning

process, pilots should determine if their destination

airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning

process should include an assessment of which

LAHSO combinations would work for them given

their aircraft’s required landing distance. Good pilot

decision−making is knowing in advance whether one

can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.

22.2.5 For those airplanes flown with two crewmembers, effective intra−cockpit communication

between cockpit crewmembers is also critical. There

have been several instances where the pilot working

the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then

simply forgot to tell the pilot flying the aircraft.

22.2.6 If, for any reason, such as difficulty in

discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection,

wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot

elects to request to land on the full length of the

runway, to land on another runway, or to decline

LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform ATC,

ideally even before the clearance is issued. A

LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be

adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance,

unless an amended clearance is obtained or an

emergency occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not

preclude a rejected landing.

22.2.7 A pilot who accepts a LAHSO clearance

should land and exit the runway at the first convenient

taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching

the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop

and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing

becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO

clearance, the pilot should maintain safe separa-
AIP ENR 1.1−17

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

tion from other aircraft or vehicles, and should

promptly notify the controller.

22.2.8 Controllers need a full read back of all

LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their

LAHSO clearance and include the words, “HOLD

SHORT OF (RUNWAY/TAXIWAY/OR POINT)” in

their acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In

order to reduce frequency congestion, pilots are

encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance

without prompting. Don’t make the controller have to

ask for a read back!

22.3 LAHSO Situational Awareness

22.3.1 Situational awareness is vital to the success

of LAHSO. Situational awareness starts with having

current airport information in the cockpit, readily

accessible to the pilot. (An airport diagram assists

pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus

reducing requests for “progressive taxi instructions”

from controllers.)

22.3.2 Situational awareness includes effective

pilot−controller radio communication. ATC expects

pilots to specifically acknowledge and read back all

LAHSO clearances as follows:

EXAMPLE−

ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cleared to land runway six right, hold

short of taxiway bravo for crossing traffic (type aircraft).”

Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cleared to land runway six

right to hold short of taxiway bravo.”

ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cross runway six right at taxiway

bravo, landing aircraft will hold short.”

Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cross runway six right at

bravo, landing traffic (type aircraft) to hold.”

22.3.3 Situational awareness also includes a thorough understanding of the airport markings, signage,

and lighting associated with LAHSO. These visual

aids consist of a three−part system of yellow

hold−short markings, red and white signage and,

in certain cases, in−pavement lighting. Visual aids

assist the pilot in determining where to hold short.

FIG ENR 1.1−4, FIG ENR 1.1−5, FIG ENR 1.1−6

depict how these markings, signage, and lighting

combinations will appear once installed. Pilots are

cautioned that not all airports conducting LAHSO

have installed any or all of the above markings,

signage, or lighting.

22.3.4 Pilots should only receive a LAHSO

clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of

1,000 feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of

having “basic” VFR weather conditions is to allow

pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft

and ground vehicle operations. Pilots should

consider the effects of prevailing inflight visibility

(such as landing into the sun) and how it may affect

overall situational awareness. Additionally, surface

vehicles and aircraft being taxied by maintenance

personnel may also be participating in LAHSO,

especially in those operations that involve crossing

an active runway.
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23. Exiting the Runway after Landing

23.1 The following procedures should be followed

after landing and reaching taxi speed.

23.1.1 Exit the runway without delay at the first

available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by

ATC. Pilots shall not exit the landing runway onto

another runway unless authorized by ATC. At

airports with an operating control tower, pilots should

not stop or reverse course on the runway without first

obtaining ATC approval.

23.1.2 Taxi clear of the runway unless otherwise

directed by ATC. In the absence of ATC instructions,

the pilot is expected to taxi clear of the landing

runway by clearing the hold position marking

associated with the landing runway even if that

requires the aircraft to protrude into or cross another

taxiway or ramp area. This does not authorize an

aircraft to cross a subsequent taxiway/runway/ramp

after clearing the landing runway.

NOTE−

1. The tower will issue the pilot instructions which will

normally permit the aircraft to enter another taxiway,

runway, or ramp area when required to taxi clear of the

runway by clearing the hold position marking associated

with the landing runway.

2. Guidance contained in subparagraphs 23.1.1 and

23.1.2 above is considered an integral part of the landing

clearance and satisfies the requirement of 14 CFR

Section 91.129.

23.1.3 Stop the aircraft after clearing the runway if

instructions have not been received from ATC.

23.1.4 Immediately change to ground control

frequency when advised by the tower and obtain a

taxi clearance.

NOTE−

1. The tower will issue instructions required to resolve

any potential conflictions with other ground traffic prior

to advising the pilot to contact ground control.

2. A clearance from ATC to taxi to the ramp authorizes

the aircraft to cross all runways and taxiway intersections. pilots not familiar with the taxi route should request

specific taxi instructions from ATC.

24. Hand Signals

FIG ENR 1.1−7

Signalman Directs Towing

SIGNALMAN SIGNALMAN

FIG ENR 1.1−8

Signalman’s Position

SIGNALMAN SIGNALMAN
AIP ENR 1.1−19

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.1−9

All Clear

(O.K.)

FIG ENR 1.1−10

Start Engine

POINT

TO

ENGINE

TO BE

STARTED

FIG ENR 1.1−11

Pull Chocks

FIG ENR 1.1−12

Proceed Straight Ahead
ENR 1.1−20 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.1−13

Left Turn

FIG ENR 1.1−14

Right Turn

FIG ENR 1.1−15

Slow Down

FIG ENR 1.1−16

Flagman Directs Pilot
AIP ENR 1.1−21

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.1−17

Insert Chocks

FIG ENR 1.1−18

Cut Engines

FIG ENR 1.1−19

Night Operation

Use same hand movements

as day operation

FIG ENR 1.1−20

Stop
ENR 1.1−22 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

25. Use of Aircraft Lights

25.1 Aircraft position lights are required to be

lighted on aircraft operated on the surface and in

flight from sunset to sunrise. In addition, aircraft

equipped with an anti−collision light system are

required to operate that light system during all types

of operations (day and night). However, during any

adverse meteorological conditions, the pilot−in−

command may determine that the anti−collision

lights should be turned off when their light output

would constitute a hazard to safety (14 CFR

Section 91.209). Supplementary strobe lights should

be turned off on the ground when they adversely

affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in flight

when there are adverse reflection from clouds.

25.2 An aircraft anti−collision light system can use

one or more rotating beacons and/or strobe lights, be

colored either red or white, and have different (higher

than minimum) intensities when compared to other

aircraft. Many aircraft have both a rotating beacon

and a strobe light system.

25.3 The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program,

Operation Lights On, to enhance the see−and−avoid

concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their

landing lights during takeoff; i.e., either after takeoff

clearance has been received or when beginning

takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on

their landing lights when operating below

10,000 feet, day or night, especially when operating

within 10 miles of any airport or in conditions of

reduced visibility and in areas where flocks of birds

may be expected; i.e., coastal areas, lake areas,

around refuse dumps, etc. Although turning on

aircraft lights does enhance the see−and−avoid

concept, pilots should not become complacent about

keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Not all

aircraft are equipped with lights, and some pilots may

not have their lights turned on. Aircraft manufacturers’ recommendations for operation of landing lights

and electrical systems should be observed.

25.4 Prop and jet blast forces generated by large

aircraft have overturned or damaged several smaller

aircraft taxiing behind them. To avoid similar results

and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to

ground personnel from such forces, the FAA

recommends that air carriers and commercial

operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their

aircraft engines are in operation. General aviation

pilots using rotating beacon−equipped aircraft are

also encouraged to participate in this program which

is designed to alert others to the potential hazard.

Since this is a voluntary program, exercise caution

and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an

indication that aircraft engines are in operation.

25.5 At the discretion of the pilot−in−command turn

on all external illumination, including landing lights,

when taxiing on, across, or holding in position on any

runway. This increases the conspicuity of the aircraft

to controllers and other pilots approaching to land,

taxiing, or crossing the runway. Pilots should comply

with any equipment operating limitations and

consider the effects of landing and strobe lights on

other aircraft in their vicinity. When cleared for

takeoff pilots should turn on any remaining exterior

lights.

26. Flight Inspection/“Flight Check”

Aircraft in Terminal Areas

26.1 “Flight Check” is a call sign used to alert pilots

and air traffic controllers when an FAA aircraft is

engaged in flight inspection/certification of

NAVAIDs and flight procedures. Flight check aircraft

fly preplanned high/low altitude flight patterns such

as grids, orbits, DME arcs, and tracks, including low

passes along the full length of the runway to verify

NAVAID performance. In most instances, these flight

checks are being automatically recorded and/or flown

in an automated mode.

26.2 Pilots should be especially watchful and avoid

the flight paths of any aircraft using the call sign

“Flight Check” or “Flight Check Recorded.” The

latter call sign; e.g. “Flight Check 47 Recorded,”

indicates that automated flight inspections are in

progress in terminal areas. These flights will

normally receive special handling from ATC. Pilot

patience and cooperation in allowing uninterrupted

recordings can significantly help expedite flight

inspections, minimize costly, repetitive runs, and

reduce the burden on the U.S. taxpayer.
AIP ENR 1.1−23

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

27. ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation

27.1 Clearance

27.1.1 A clearance issued by ATC is predicated on

known traffic and known physical airport conditions.

An ATC clearance means an authorization by ATC,

for the purpose of preventing collision between

known aircraft, for an aircraft to proceed under

specified conditions within Classes A, B, C, D, and

E airspace. IT IS NOT AUTHORIZATION FOR A

PILOT TO DEVIATE FROM ANY RULE,

REGULATION OR MINIMUM ALTITUDE NOR

TO CONDUCT UNSAFE OPERATION OF THE

AIRCRAFT.

27.1.2 14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: “The pilot in

command of an aircraft is directly responsible for,

and is the final authority as to, the operation of that

aircraft.” If ATC issues a clearance that would cause

a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the

pilot’s opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy,

IT IS THE PILOT’S RESPONSIBILITY TO

REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Similarly, if a pilot prefers to follow a different course of

action, such as make a 360−degree turn for spacing to

follow traffic when established in a landing or

approach sequence, land on a different runway,

takeoff from a different intersection, takeoff from the

threshold instead of an intersection, or delay

operation, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO

INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot

requests a different course of action, however, the

pilot is expected to cooperate so as to preclude the

disruption of the traffic flow or the creation of

conflicting patterns. The pilot is also expected to use

the appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all

ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory

information.

27.1.3 Each pilot who deviates from an ATC

clearance in response to a traffic alert and collision

avoidance system resolution advisory shall notify

ATC of that deviation as soon as possible.

27.1.4 When weather conditions permit, during the

time an IFR flight is operating, it is the direct

responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft since

VFR flights may be operating in the same area

without the knowledge of ATC, and traffic clearances

provide standard separation only between IFR

flights.

27.2 Clearance Prefix

A clearance, information, or request for information

originated by an ATC facility and relayed to the pilot

through an air/ground communication station will be

prefixed by “ATC CLEARS,“ “ATC ADVISES,” or

“ATC REQUESTS.”

27.3 Clearance Items

27.3.1 An ATC clearance normally contains the

following:

27.3.1.1 Clearance Limit. The traffic clearance

issued prior to departure will normally authorize

flight to the airport of intended landing. Under certain

conditions at some locations, a short−range clearance

procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to

a fix within or just outside the terminal area and pilots

are advised of the frequency on which they will

receive the long−range clearance direct from the

center controller.

27.3.1.2 Departure Procedure. Headings to fly

and altitude restrictions may be issued to separate a

departure from other air traffic in the terminal area.

Where the volume of traffic warrants, instrument

departure procedures (DPs) have been developed.

(See ENR 1.5.)

27.3.1.3 Route of Flight

a) Clearances are normally issued for the

altitude/flight level and route filed by the pilot.

However, due to traffic conditions, it is frequently

necessary for ATC to specify an altitude/flight level

or route different from that requested by the pilot. In

addition, flow patterns have been established in

certain congested areas, or between congested areas,

whereby traffic capacity is increased by routing all

traffic on preferred routes. Information on these flow

patterns is available in offices where preflight

briefing is furnished or where flight plans are

accepted.

b) When required, air traffic clearances include

data to assist pilots in identifying radio reporting

points. It is the responsibility of a pilot to notify ATC

immediately if the radio equipment cannot receive

the type of signals the pilot must utilize to comply

with the clearance.
ENR 1.1−24 AIP

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27.3.1.4 Altitude Data

a) The altitude/flight level instructions in an ATC

clearance normally require that a pilot “MAINTAIN”

the altitude/flight level to which the flight will

operate when in Classes A, B, C, D, and E airspace.

Altitude/flight level changes while en route should be

requested prior to the time the change is desired.

b) When possible, if the altitude assigned is

different than that requested by the pilot, ATC will

inform an aircraft when to expect climb or descent

clearance or to request altitude change from another

facility. If this has not been received prior to crossing

the boundary of the ATC facility’s area and

assignment at a different flight level is still desired,

the pilot should reinitiate the request with the next

facility.

c) The term “CRUISE” may be used instead of

“MAINTAIN” to assign a block of airspace, to a pilot,

from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including

the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot

may level off at any intermediate altitude within this

block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is

to be made at the discretion of the pilot. However,

once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports

leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not

return to that altitude without additional ATC

clearance.

27.3.1.5 Holding Instructions

a) Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other

than the destination airport and delay is expected, it

is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue

complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is

charted), an EFC time, and a best estimate of any

additional en route/terminal delay.

b) If the holding pattern is charted and the

controller doesn’t issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the

appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the

controller may omit all holding instructions except

the charted holding direction and the statement “AS

PUBLISHED;” e.g., “HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED.” Controllers shall always issue complete

holding instructions when pilots request them.

NOTE−

Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government

or commercially produced charts which meet FAA

requirements should be used.

c) If no holding pattern is charted and holding

instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask

ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix.

This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an

aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that

desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding

instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to

frequency congestion, stuck microphones, etc.), hold

in a standard pattern on the course on which you

approached the fix and request further clearance as

soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level

of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected

so that separation will be provided as required.

d) When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a

clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not

been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed

reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix,

initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.

e) When no delay is expected, the controller

should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as

possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes

before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.

f) Pilots should report to ATC the time and

altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the

clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit.

NOTE−

In the event of two−way communications failure, pilots

are required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185.

27.4 Amended Clearances

27.4.1 Amendments to the initial clearance will be

issued at any time an air traffic controller deems such

action necessary to avoid possible confliction

between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight

“hold” or change altitude prior to reaching the point

where standard separation from other IFR traffic

would no longer exist.

NOTE−

Some pilots have questioned this action and requested

“traffic information” and were at a loss when the reply

indicated “no traffic reported.” In such cases the

controller has taken action to prevent a traffic confliction

which would have occurred at a distant point.
AIP ENR 1.1−25

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

27.4.2 A pilot may wish an explanation of the

handling of the flight at the time of occurrence;

however, controllers are not able to take time from

their immediate control duties, nor can they afford to

overload the ATC communications channels to

furnish explanations. Pilots may obtain an explanation by directing a letter or telephone call to the chief

controller of the facility involved.

27.4.3 Pilots have the privilege of requesting a

different clearance from that which has been issued

by ATC if they feel that they have information which

would make another course of action more

practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or

company procedures forbid compliance with the

clearance issued.

27.4.4 Pilots should pay particular attention to the

clearance and not assume that the route and

altitude/flight level are the same as requested in the

flight plan. It is suggested that pilots make a written

report of clearances at the time they are received, and

verify, by a repeat back, any portions that are complex

or about which a doubt exists. It will be the

responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse the

clearance issued.

27.5 Special VFR Clearance

27.5.1 An ATC clearance must be obtained prior to

operating within a Class B, Class C, Class D, and

Class E surface area when the weather is less than that

required for VFR flight. A VFR pilot may request and

be given a clearance to enter, leave or operate within

most Class D and Class E surface areas and some

Class B and Class C surface areas in special VFR

conditions, traffic permitting, and providing such

flight will not delay IFR operations. All special VFR

flights must remain clear of clouds. The visibility

requirements for Special VFR aircraft (other than

helicopters) are:

27.5.1.1 At least one statute mile flight visibility for

operations within Classes B, C, D, and E surface

areas.

27.5.1.2 At least one statute mile ground visibility if

taking off or landing. If ground visibility is not

reported at that airport, the flight visibility must be at

least one statute mile.

27.5.1.3 The restrictions in subparagraphs 27.5.1.1

and 27.5.1.2 do not apply to helicopters. Helicopters

must remain clear of clouds and may operate in

Classes B, C, D, and E surface areas with less than

one statute mile visibility.

27.5.2 When a control tower is located within a

Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area, requests

for clearances should be to the tower. If no tower is

located within the surface area, a clearance may be

obtained from the nearest tower, FSS or ARTCC.

27.5.3 It is not necessary to file a complete flight

plan with the request for clearance, but pilots should

state their intentions in sufficient detail to permit

ATC to fit their flight into the traffic flow. The

clearance will not contain a specific altitude as the

pilot must remain clear of clouds. The controller may

require the pilot to fly at or below a certain altitude

due to other traffic, but the altitude specified will

permit flight at or above the minimum safe altitude.

In addition, at radar locations, flight may be vectored

if necessary for control purposes or on pilot request.

NOTE−

The pilot is responsible for obstacle or terrain clearance

(reference 14 CFR Section 91.119).

27.5.4 Special VFR clearances are effective within

Classes B, C, D, and E surface areas only. ATC does

not provide separation after an aircraft leaves Class D

surface area on a special VFR clearance.

27.5.5 Special VFR operations by fixed−wing

aircraft are prohibited in some Classes B and C

surface areas due to the volume of IFR traffic. A list

of these Classes B and C surface areas is contained in

14 CFR Part 91, Appendix D, Section 3 and also

depicted on Sectional Aeronautical Charts.

27.5.6 ATC provides separation between special

VFR flights and between them and other IFR flights.

27.5.7 Special VFR operations by fixed−wing

aircraft are prohibited between sunset and sunrise

unless the pilot is instrument rated and the aircraft is

equipped for IFR flight.

27.5.8 Pilots arriving or departing an uncontrolled

airport that has automated weather broadcast

capability (ASOS/AWOS) should monitor the

broadcast frequency, advise the controller that they

have the “one−minute weather,” and state intentions

prior to operating within the Class B, Class C,

Class D, or Class E surface areas.

NOTE−

One−minute weather is the most recent one minute

updated weather broadcast received by a pilot from an

uncontrolled airport ASOS/AWOS.
ENR 1.1−26 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

28. Pilot Responsibilities Upon Clearance

Issuance

28.1 Record ATC Clearance. When conducting

an IFR operation, make a written record of your ATC

clearance. The specified conditions which are a part

of your air traffic clearance may be somewhat

different from those included in your flight plan.

Additionally, ATC may find it necessary to ADD

conditions, such as a particular departure route. The

very fact that ATC specifies different or additional

conditions means that other aircraft are involved in

the traffic situation.

28.2 ATC Clearance/Instruction Readback.

Pilots of airborne aircraft should read back those parts

of the ATC clearances/instructions containing

altitude assignments or vectors, as a means of mutual

verification. The readback of the “numbers” serves as

a double check between pilots and controllers, and as

such, it is an invaluable aid in reducing the kinds of

communications errors that occur when a number is

either “misheard” or is incorrect.

28.2.1 Include the aircraft identification in all

readbacks and acknowledgments. This aids controllers in determining that the correct aircraft received

the clearance or instruction. The requirement to

include aircraft identification in all readbacks and

acknowledgments becomes more important as

frequency congestion increases and when aircraft

with similar call signs are on the same frequency.

EXAMPLE−

“Climbing to Flight Level three three zero, United

Twelve” or “November Five Charlie Tango, roger,

cleared to land.”

28.2.2 Read back altitudes, altitude restrictions, and

vectors in the same sequence as they are given in the

clearance/instruction.

28.2.3 Altitudes contained in charted procedures

such as DPs, instrument approaches, etc., should not

be read back unless they are specifically stated by the

controller.

28.3 It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or

refuse the clearance issued.

29. IFR Clearance VFR−On−Top

29.1 A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR

weather conditions, may request VFR−on−top in lieu

of an assigned altitude. This would permit pilots to

select an altitude or flight level of their choice

(subject to any ATC restrictions).

29.2 Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze,

smoke, or other meteorological formation and then

either cancel their IFR flight plan or operate

VFR−on−top may request a climb to VFR−on−top.

The ATC authorization shall contain either a top

report or a statement that no top report is available,

and a request to report reaching VFR−on−top.

Additionally, the ATC authorization may contain a

clearance limit, routing and an alternative clearance

if VFR−on−top is not reached by a specified altitude.

29.3 A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR

conditions may request to climb/descend in VFR

conditions.

29.4 ATC may not authorize VFR−on−top/VFR

conditions operations unless the pilot requests the

VFR operation or a clearance to operate in VFR

conditions will result in noise abatement benefits

where part of the IFR departure route does not

conform to an FAA approved noise abatement route

or altitude.

29.5 When operating in VFR conditions with an

ATC authorization to “maintain VFR−on−top” or

“maintain VFR conditions,” pilots on IFR flight

plans must:

29.5.1 Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as

prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159.

29.5.2 Comply with the VFR visibility and distance

from cloud criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic

VFR Weather Minimums).

NOTE− See AIP, GEN 1.7, Annex 2, Rules of the Air, for

a table showing basic VFR weather minimums.

29.5.3 Comply with instrument flight rules that are

applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitude,

position reporting, radio communications, course to

be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc. Pilots

should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to

insure the exchange of accurate traffic information.
AIP ENR 1.1−27

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

29.6 ATC authorization to “maintain VFR−on−top”

is not intended to restrict pilots so that they must

operate only above an obscuring meteorological

formation (layer). Instead, it permits operation

above, below, between layers or in areas where there

is no meteorological obscuration. It is imperative that

clearance to operate “VFR−on−top/VFR conditions”

does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan.

29.7 Pilots operating VFR−on−top/VFR conditions

may receive traffic information from ATC on other

pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, aircraft

operating in Class B or Class C airspace and TRSAs

shall be separated as required by FAA Order 7110.65,

Air Traffic Control.

NOTE−

When operating in VFR weather conditions, it is the

pilot’s responsibility to be vigilant so as to see and avoid

other aircraft.

30. VFR/IFR Flights

30.1 A pilot departing VFR, either intending to or

needing to obtain an IFR clearance en route, must be

aware of the position of the aircraft and the relative

terrain/obstructions. When accepting a clearance

below the minimum en route altitude (MEA)/minimum IFR altitude (MIA)/minimum vector altitude

(MVA)/off route obstruction clearance altitude

(OROCA), pilots are responsible for their own

terrain/obstruction clearance until reaching the

MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA. If the pilots are unable to

maintain terrain/obstruction clearance, the controller

should be advised and pilots should state their

intentions.

NOTE−

OROCA is an off route altitude which provides

obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in

nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in

designated mountainous areas within the U.S. This

altitude may not provide signal coverage from ground

based navigational aids, air traffic control radar, or

communications coverage.

31. Adherence to Clearance

31.1 When air traffic clearance has been obtained

under either the Visual or Instrument Flight Rules,

the pilot in command of the aircraft shall not deviate

from the provisions thereof unless an amended

clearance is obtained. When ATC issues a clearance

or instruction, pilots are expected to execute its

provisions upon receipt. ATC, in certain situations,

will include the word “IMMEDIATELY” in a

clearance or instruction to impress urgency of an

imminent situation, and expeditious compliance by

the pilot is expected and necessary for safety. The

addition of a VFR or other restriction; i.e., climb or

descent point or time, crossing altitude, etc., does not

authorize a pilot to deviate from the route of flight or

any other provision of the ATC clearance.

31.2 When a heading is assigned or a turn is

requested by ATC, pilots are expected to promptly

initiate the turn, to complete the turn, and to maintain

the new heading unless issued additional instructions.

31.3 The term “at pilot’s discretion” included in the

altitude information of an ATC clearance means that

ATC has offered the pilot the option to start climb or

descent when the pilot wishes, is authorized to

conduct the climb or descent at any rate, and to

temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude as

desired. However, once the aircraft has vacated an

altitude, it may not return to that altitude.

31.4 When ATC has not used the term “AT PILOT’S

DISCRETION” nor imposed any climb or descent

restrictions, pilots should initiate climb or descent

promptly on acknowledgement of the clearance.

Descend or climb at an optimum rate consistent with

the operating characteristics of the aircraft to

1,000 feet above or below the assigned altitude, and

then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between

500 and 1,500 fpm until the assigned altitude is

reached. If at anytime the pilot is unable to climb or

descend at a rate of at least 500 feet a minute, advise

ATC. If it is necessary to level off at an intermediate

altitude during climb or descent, advise ATC, except

when leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent, or

2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering

a Class C or Class D surface area), when required for

speed reduction (14 CFR Section 91.117).

NOTE−

Leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent or 2,500 feet

above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class C or

Class D surface area) to comply with 14 CFR

Section 91.117 airspeed restrictions is commonplace.

Controllers anticipate this action and plan accordingly.

Leveling off at any other time on climb or descent may

seriously affect air traffic handling by ATC. Consequently, it is imperative that pilots make every effort to fulfill the

above expected actions to aid ATC in safely handling and

expediting traffic.
ENR 1.1−28 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

31.5 If the altitude information of an ATC

DESCENT clearance includes a provision to

“CROSS (fix) AT” or “AT OR ABOVE/BELOW

(altitude),” the manner in which the descent is

executed to comply with the crossing altitude is at the

pilot’s discretion. This authorization to descend at

pilot’s discretion is only applicable to that portion of

the flight to which the crossing altitude restriction

applies, and the pilot is expected to comply with the

crossing altitude as a provision of the clearance. Any

other clearance in which pilot execution is optional

will so state: “AT PILOT’S DISCRETION.”

EXAMPLE−

1. “United Four Seventeen, descend and maintain six

thousand.”

NOTE−

1. The pilot is expected to commence descent upon

receipt of the clearance and to descend at the suggested

rates until reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet.

EXAMPLE−

2. “United Four Seventeen, descend at pilot’s discretion,

maintain six thousand.”

NOTE−

2. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent within the

context of the term at pilot’s discretion as described

above.

EXAMPLE−

3. “United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview V−O−R at or

above Flight Level two zero zero, descend and maintain

six thousand.”

NOTE−

3. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilot’s

discretion until reaching Lakeview VOR and must comply

with the clearance provision to cross the Lakeview VOR

at or above FL 200. After passing Lakeview VOR, the pilot

is expected to descend at the suggested rates until

reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet.

EXAMPLE−

4. “United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview V−O−R at

six thousand, maintain six thousand.”

NOTE−

4. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilot’s

discretion, however, must comply with the clearance

provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at 6,000 feet.

EXAMPLE−

5. “United Four Seventeen, descend now to Flight

Level two seven zero, cross Lakeview V−O−R at or below

one zero thousand, descend and maintain six thousand.”

NOTE−

5. The pilot is expected to promptly execute and complete

descent to FL 270 upon receipt of the clearance. After

reaching FL 270 the pilot is authorized to descend “at

pilot’s discretion” until reaching Lakeview VOR. The pilot

must comply with the clearance provision to cross

Lakeview VOR at or below 10,000 feet. After Lakeview

VOR the pilot is expected to descend at the suggested rates

until reaching 6,000 feet.

EXAMPLE−

6. “United Three Ten, descend now and maintain Flight

Level two four zero, pilot’s discretion after reaching

Flight Level two eight zero.”

NOTE−

6. The pilot is expected to commence descent upon

receipt of the clearance and to descend at the suggested

rates until reaching FL 280. At that point, the pilot is

authorized to continue descent to FL 240 within the

context of the term “at pilot’s discretion” as described

above.

31.6 In case emergency authority is used to deviate

from the provisions of an ATC clearance, the pilot in

command shall notify ATC as soon as possible and

obtain an amended clearance. In an emergency

situation which results in no deviation from the rules

prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91 but which requires ATC

to give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of such aircraft

shall, when requested by ATC, make a report within

48 hours of such emergency situation to the manager

of that ATC facility.

31.7 The guiding principle is that the last ATC

clearance has precedence over the previous ATC

clearance. When the route or altitude in a previously

issued clearance is amended, the controller will

restate applicable altitude restrictions. If altitude to

maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to

departure or while airborne, and previously issued

altitude restrictions are omitted, those altitude

restrictions are canceled, including Departure

Procedures and Standard Terminal Arrival Route

(STAR) altitude restrictions.

EXAMPLE−

1. A departure flight receives a clearance to destination

airport to maintain FL 290. The clearance incorporates

a DP which has certain altitude crossing restrictions.

Shortly after takeoff, the flight receives a new clearance

changing the maintaining FL from 290 to 250. If the

altitude restrictions are still applicable, the controller

restates them.
AIP ENR 1.1−29

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2. A departing aircraft is cleared to cross Fluky

Intersection at or above 3,000 feet, Gordonville VOR at

or above 12,000 feet, maintain FL 200. Shortly after

departure, the altitude to be maintained is changed to

FL 240. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the

controller issues an amended clearance as follows: “cross

Fluky Intersection at or above three thousand, cross

Gordonville V−O−R at or above one two thousand,

maintain Flight Level two four zero.”

3. An arriving aircraft is cleared to the destination

airport via V45 Delta VOR direct; the aircraft is cleared

to cross Delta VOR at 10,000 feet, and then to maintain

6,000 feet. Prior to Delta VOR, the controller issues an

amended clearance as follows: “turn right heading one

eight zero for vector to runway three six I−L−S approach,

maintain six thousand.”

NOTE− Because the altitude restriction “cross Delta

V−O−R at 10,000 feet” was omitted from the amended

clearance, it is no longer in effect.

31.8 Pilots of turbojet aircraft equipped with

afterburner engines should advise ATC prior to

takeoff if they intend to use afterburning during their

climb to the en route altitude. Often, the controller

may be able to plan traffic to accommodate a high

performance climb and allow the aircraft to climb to

the planned altitude without restriction.

31.9 If an “expedite” climb or descent clearance is

issued by ATC, and the altitude to maintain is

subsequently changed or restated without an expedite

instruction, the expedite instruction is canceled.

Expedite climb/descent normally indicates to the

pilot that the approximate best rate of climb/descent

should be used without requiring an exceptional

change in aircraft handling characteristics. Normally

controllers will inform pilots of the reason for an

instruction to expedite.

32. IFR Separation Standards

32.1 ATC effects separation of aircraft vertically by

assigning different altitudes; longitudinally by

providing an interval expressed in time or distance

between aircraft on the same, converging, or crossing

courses; and laterally by assigning different flight

paths.

32.2 Separation will be provided between all aircraft

operating on IFR flight plans except during that part

of the flight (outside Class B airspace or a TRSA)

being conducted on a VFR−on−top/VFR conditions

clearance. Under these conditions, ATC may issue

traffic advisories, but it is the sole responsibility of

the pilot to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other

aircraft.

32.3 When radar is employed in the separation of

aircraft at the same altitude, a minimum of 3 miles

separation is provided between aircraft operating

within 40 miles of the radar antenna site, and 5 miles

between aircraft operating beyond 40 miles from the

antenna site. These minimums may be increased or

decreased in certain specific situations.

NOTE−

Certain separation standards are increased in the

terminal environment when Center Radar Arts

Presentation/Processing (CENRAP) is being utilized.

33. Speed Adjustments

33.1 ATC will issue speed adjustments to pilots of

radar−controlled aircraft to achieve or to maintain

required or desired spacing.

33.2 ATC will express all speed adjustments in terms

of knots based on indicated airspeed (IAS) in 10−knot

increments except that at or above FL 240 speeds may

be expressed in terms of Mach numbers in .01 increments. The use of Mach numbers is restricted to turbojet aircraft with Mach meters.

33.3 Pilots of aircraft in U.S. domestic Class A, B,

C, D, and E airspace complying with speed

adjustments should maintain a speed within plus or

minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number, whichever is

less, of the assigned speed.

33.4 Pilots of aircraft in offshore controlled airspace

or oceanic controlled airspace shall adhere to the ATC

assigned airspeed and shall request ATC approval

before making any change thereto. If it is essential to

make an immediate temporary change in the Mach

number (e.g., due to turbulence), ATC shall be

notified as soon as possible. If it is not feasible to

maintain the last assigned Mach number during an en

route climb or descent due to aircraft performance,

advise ATC at the time of the request.

33.5 When ATC assigns speed adjustments, it will

be in accordance with the following recommended

minimums:

33.5.1 To aircraft operating between FL 280 and

10,000 feet, a speed not less than 250 knots or the

equivalent Mach number.
ENR 1.1−30 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

NOTE−

1. On a standard day the Mach numbers equivalent to

250 knots CAS (subject to minor variations) are:

FL 240−0.6

FL 250−0.61

FL 260−0.62

FL 270−0.64

FL 280−0.65

FL 290−0.66.

2. When an operational advantage will be realized,

speeds lower than the recommended minima may be

applied.

33.5.2 To arriving turbojet aircraft operating below

10,000 feet, a speed not less than 210 knots, except

within 20 flying miles of the airport of intended

landing, a speed not less than 170 knots.

33.5.3 To arriving reciprocating engine or turboprop

aircraft within 20 flying miles of the runway

threshold of the airport of intended landing, a speed

not less than 150 knots.

33.5.4 Departures, for turbojet aircraft, a speed not

less than 230 knots; for reciprocating engine aircraft,

a speed not less than 150 knots.

33.6 When ATC combines a speed adjustment with

a descent clearance, the sequence of delivery with the

word “then” between, indicates the expected order of

execution; i.e., “DESCEND AND MAINTAIN

(altitude); THEN, REDUCE SPEED TO (speed),” or

“REDUCE SPEED TO (speed); THEN, DESCEND

AND MAINTAIN (altitude).”

NOTE−

The maximum speeds below 10,000 feet as established in

14 CFR Section 91.117 still apply. If there is any doubt

concerning the manner in which such a clearance is to be

executed, request clarification from ATC.

33.7 If ATC determines (before an approach

clearance is issued) that it is no longer necessary to

apply speed adjustment procedures, they will inform

the pilot to resume normal speed. Approach

clearances supersede any prior speed adjustment

assignments, and pilots are expected to make their

own speed adjustments, as necessary, to complete the

approach. Under certain circumstances however, it

may be necessary for ATC to issue further speed

adjustments after approach clearance is issued to

maintain separation between successive arrivals.

Under such circumstances, previously issued speed

adjustments will be restated if that speed is to be

maintained or additional speed adjustments are

requested. ATC must obtain pilot concurrence for

speed adjustments after approach clearances are

issued. Speed adjustments should not be assigned

inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles

from the runway, whichever is closer to the runway.

NOTE−

An instruction to “resume normal speed” does not delete

speed restrictions that are contained in a published

procedure, unless specifically stated by ATC, nor does it

relieve the pilot of those speed restrictions which are

applicable to 14 CFR Section 91.117.

33.8 The pilots retain the prerogative of rejecting the

application of speed adjustment by ATC if the

minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation

is greater than the speed adjustment. IN SUCH

CASES, PILOTS ARE EXPECTED TO ADVISE

ATC OF THE SPEED THAT WILL BE USED.

33.9 Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for

rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC

if, in their opinion, it will cause them to exceed the

maximum indicated airspeed prescribed by 14 CFR

Section 91.117(a), (c) and (d). IN SUCH CASES,

THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO SO INFORM ATC.

Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL who are

issued speed adjustments which exceed 250 knots

IAS and are subsequently cleared below 10,000 feet

MSL are expected to comply with 14 CFR

Section 91.117(a).

33.10 Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to

U.S. registered aircraft operating beyond 12 nautical

miles from the coastline within the U.S. Flight

Information Region, in Class E airspace below

10,000 feet MSL. However, in airspace underlying a

Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in

a VFR corridor designated through such as a Class B

airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the

200 knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR

Section 91.117(c).

33.11 For operations in a Class C and Class D

surface area, ATC is authorized to request or approve

a speed greater than the maximum indicated

airspeeds prescribed for operation within that

airspace (14 CFR Section 91.117(b)).

NOTE−

Pilots are expected to comply with the maximum speed of

200 knots when operating beneath Class B airspace or in

a Class B VFR corridor (14 CFR Section 91.117(c) and

(d)).
AIP ENR 1.1−31

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

33.12 When in communication with the ARTCC or

approach control facility, pilots should, as a good

operating practice, state any ATC assigned speed

restriction on initial radio contact associated with an

ATC communications frequency change.

34. Runway Separation

34.1 Tower controllers establish the sequence of

arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to

adjust flight or ground operation as necessary to

achieve proper spacing. They may “HOLD” an

aircraft short of the runway to achieve spacing

between it and another arriving aircraft; the controller

may instruct a pilot to “EXTEND DOWNWIND” in

order to establish spacing from another arriving or

departing aircraft. At times a clearance may include

the word “IMMEDIATE.” For example:

“CLEARED FOR IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF.” In

such cases “IMMEDIATE” is used for purposes of air

traffic separation. It is up to the pilot to refuse the

clearance if, in the pilot’s opinion, compliance would

adversely affect the operation.

35. Visual Separation

35.1 Visual separation is a means employed by ATC

to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route

airspace. There are two methods employed to effect

this separation:

35.1.1 The tower controller sees the aircraft

involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to

ensure that the aircraft avoid each other.

35.1.2 A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and

upon instructions from the controller provides

separation by maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it.

When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual

separation, they must maintain constant visual

surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is

no longer a factor.

NOTE−

Traffic is no longer a factor when during approach phase

the other aircraft is in the landing phase of flight or

executes a missed approach; and during departure or en

route, when the other aircraft turns away or is on a

diverging course.

35.2 A pilot’s acceptance of instructions to follow

another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is

an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the

aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to

maintain in−trail separation. In operations conducted

behind heavy jet aircraft, it is also an acknowledgment that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake

turbulence separation.

NOTE−

When a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to

provide visual separation from it, the pilot should

promptly notify the controller if visual contact with the

other aircraft is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot

cannot accept the responsibility for the separation for any

reason.

35.3 Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key

factor in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or

the right seat passenger) should continuously scan to

cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit.

Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique

which maximizes one’s visual capabilities. Spotting

a potential collision threat increases directly as more

time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must

use timesharing techniques to effectively scan the

surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments

as well.

35.4 Since the eye can focus only on a narrow

viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished

with a series of short, regularly spaced eye

movements that bring successive areas of the sky into

the central visual field. Each movement should not

exceed ten degrees, and each area should be observed

for at least one second to enable collision detection.

Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of

horizontal back−and−forth scanning every pilot

should develop a scanning pattern that is not only

comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness.

Pilots should remember, however, that they have a

regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section 91.113) to

see and avoid other aircraft when weather conditions

permit.

36. Use of Visual Clearing Procedures

36.1 Before Takeoff. Prior to taxiing onto a runway

or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots

should scan the approach areas for possible landing

traffic, executing appropriate clearing maneuvers to

provide them a clear view of the approach areas.

36.2 Climbs and Descents. During climbs and

descents in flight conditions which permit visual

detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle

banks, left and right at a frequency which permits

continuous visual scanning of the airspace about

them.
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17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

36.3 Straight and Level. Sustained periods of

straight and level flight in conditions which permit

visual detection of other traffic should be broken at

intervals with appropriate clearing procedures to

provide effective visual scanning.

36.4 Traffic Patterns. Entries into traffic patterns

while descending create specific collision hazards

and should be avoided.

36.5 Traffic at VOR Sites. All operators should

emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the

vicinity of VORs and airway intersections due to the

convergence of traffic.

36.6 Training Operations. Operators of pilot

training programs are urged to adopt the following

practices:

36.6.1 Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all

levels should be requested to verbalize clearing

procedures (call out, “Clear” left, right, above, or

below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance

during maneuvering.

36.6.2 High−wing Airplane. Momentarily raise

the wing in the direction of the intended turn and

look.

36.6.3 Low−wing Airplane. Momentarily lower

the wing in the direction of the intended turn and

look.

36.6.4 Appropriate clearing procedures should

precede the execution of all turns including

chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight, climbs,

straight and level, spins, and other combination

maneuvers.

37. Surveillance Systems

37.1 Radar

37.1.1 Capabilities

37.1.1.1 Radar is a method whereby radio waves are

transmitted into the air and are then received when

they have been reflected by an object in the path of the

beam. Range is determined by measuring the time it

takes (at the speed of light) for the radio wave to go

out to the object and then return to the receiving antenna. The direction of a detected object from a radar

site is determined by the position of the rotating antenna when the reflected portion of the radio wave is

received.

37.1.1.2 More reliable maintenance and improved

equipment have reduced radar system failures to a

negligible factor. Most facilities actually have some

components duplicated − one operating and another

which immediately takes over when a malfunction

occurs to the primary component.

37.1.2 Limitations

37.1.2.1 It is very important for the aviation community to recognize the fact that there are limitations to

radar service and that ATC controllers may not always be able to issue traffic advisories concerning

aircraft which are not under ATC control and cannot

be seen on radar. (See FIG ENR 1.1−21).

FIG ENR 1.1−21

Limitations to Radar Service

Precipitation Attenuation

The nearby target absorbs and scatters so much of the out-going and returning

energy that the radar does not detect the distant target.

AREA BLACKED OUT

BY ATTENUATION

NOT OBSERVED

OBSERVED

ECHO

a) The characteristics of radio waves are such that

they normally travel in a continuous straight line

unless they are:

1) “Bent” by abnormal atmospheric phenomena

such as temperature inversions.

2) Reflected or attenuated by dense objects such

as heavy clouds, precipitation, ground obstacles,

mountains, etc.

3) Screened by high terrain features.

b) The bending of radar pulses, often called

anomalous propagation or ducting, may cause many

extraneous blips to appear on the radar operator’s

display if the beam has been bent toward the ground,

or may decrease the detection range if the wave is

bent upward. It is difficult to solve the effects of

anomalous propagation, but using beacon radar and

electronically eliminating stationary and slow
AIP ENR 1.1−33

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

moving targets by a method called moving target

indicator (MTI) usually negate the problem.

c) Radar energy that strikes dense objects will be

reflected and displayed on the operator’s scope,

thereby blocking out aircraft at the same range and

greatly weakening or completely eliminating the

display of targets at a greater range. Again, radar

beacon and MTI are effectively used to combat

ground clutter and weather phenomena, and a method

of circularly polarizing the radar beam will eliminate

some weather returns. A negative characteristic of

MTI is that an aircraft flying a speed that coincides

with the canceling signal of the MTI (tangential or

“blind” speed) may not be displayed to the radar

controller.

d) Relatively low altitude aircraft will not be seen

if they are screened by mountains or are below the

radar beam due to earth curvature. The only solution

to screening is the installation of strategically placed

multiple radars, which has been done in some areas.

e) There are several other factors which affect

radar control. The amount of reflective surface of an

aircraft will determine the size of the radar return.

Therefore, a small light airplane or a sleek jet fighter

will be more difficult to see on radar than a large

commercial jet or military bomber. Here again, the

use of radar beacon is invaluable if the aircraft is

equipped with an airborne transponder. All ARTCC

radars in the conterminous U.S. and many airport

surveillance radars have the capability to interrogate

Mode C and display altitude information to the

controller from appropriately equipped aircraft.

However, there are a number of airport surveillance

radars that do not have Mode C display capability

and, therefore, altitude information must be obtained

from the pilot.

f) At some locations within the ATC en route

environment, secondary−radar−only (no primary

radar) gap filler systems are used to give lower

altitude radar coverage between two larger radar

systems, each of which provides both primary and

secondary radar coverage. In those geographical

areas served by secondary−radar−only, aircraft

without transponders cannot be provided with radar

service. Additionally, transponder equipped aircraft

cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning

primary targets and weather.

g) The controller’s ability to advise a pilot flying

on instruments or in visual conditions of the aircraft’s

proximity to another aircraft will be limited if the

unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no flight

plan information is available, or if the volume of

traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic information. First priority is given to establishing vertical,

lateral, or longitudinal separation between aircraft

flying IFR under the control of ATC.

37.2 Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System

(ATCRBS)

37.2.1 The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as a secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main

components:

37.2.1.1 Interrogator. Primary radar relies on a

signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site

and for this signal to be reflected or “bounced back”

from an object (such as an aircraft). This reflected

signal is then displayed as a “target” on the

controller’s radar scope. In the ATCRBS, the

Interrogator, a ground−based radar beacon transmitter−receiver, scans in synchronism with the primary

radar and transmits discrete radio signals which

repetitiously requests all transponders, on the mode

being used, to reply. The replies received are then

mixed with the primary returns and both are

displayed on the same radar scope.

37.2.1.2 Transponder. This airborne radar beacon

transmitter−receiver automatically receives the

signals from the interrogator and selectively replies

with a specific pulse group (code) only to those

interrogations being received on the mode to which

it is set. These replies are independent of, and much

stronger than a primary radar return.

37.2.1.3 Radar scope. The radar scope used by the

controller displays returns from both the primary

radar system and the ATCRBS. These returns, called

targets, are what the controller refers to in the control

and separation of traffic.

37.2.2 The job of identifying and maintaining

identification of primary radar targets is a long and

tedious task for the controller. Some of the

advantages of ATCRBS over primary radar are:

37.2.2.1 Reinforcement of radar targets.

37.2.2.2 Rapid target identification.

37.2.2.3 Unique display of selected codes.
ENR 1.1−34 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

37.2.3 A part of the ATCRBS ground equipment is

the decoder. This equipment enables the controller to

assign discrete transponder codes to each aircraft

under his/her control. Normally only one code will be

assigned for the entire flight. Assignments are made

by the ARTCC computer on the basis of the National

Beacon Code Allocation Plan. The equipment is also

designed to receive Mode C altitude information

from the aircraft. See FIG ENR 1.1−22 and

FIG ENR 1.1−23 for an illustration of the target

symbology depicted on radar scopes in the NAS

Stage A (en route), the ARTS III (terminal) Systems,

and other nonautomated (broadband) radar systems.

37.3 Surveillance Radar

37.3.1 Surveillance radars are divided into two

general categories: Airport Surveillance Radar

(ASR) and Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR).

37.3.1.1 ASR is designed to provide relatively short

range coverage in the general vicinity of an airport

and to serve as an expeditious means of handling

terminal area traffic through observation of precise

aircraft locations on a radar scope. The ASR can also

be used as an instrument approach aid.

37.3.1.2 ARSR is a long−range radar system

designed primarily to provide a display of aircraft

locations over large areas.

37.3.1.3 Center Radar Automated Radar Terminal

Systems (ARTS) Processing (CENRAP) was

developed to provide an alternative to a nonradar

environment at terminal facilities should an ASR fail

or malfunction. CENRAP sends aircraft radar beacon

target information to the ASR terminal facility

equipped with ARTS. Procedures used for the

separation of aircraft may increase under certain

conditions when a facility is utilizing CENRAP,

because radar target information updates at a slower

rate than the normal ASR radar. Radar services for

VFR aircraft are also limited during CENRAP

operations because of the additional workload

required to provide services to IFR aircraft.

37.3.2 Surveillance radars scan through 360 degrees

of azimuth and present target information on a radar

display located in a tower or center. This information

is used independently or in conjunction with other

navigational aids in the control of air traffic.

37.4 Precision Approach Radar (PAR)

37.4.1 PAR is designed for use as a landing aid rather

than an aid for sequencing and spacing aircraft. PAR

equipment may be used as a primary landing aid (See

ENR 1.5 for additional information), or it may be

used to monitor other types of approaches. It is

designed to display range, azimuth, and elevation

information.

37.4.2 Two antennas are used in the PAR array, one

scanning a vertical plane, and the other scanning

horizontally. Since the range is limited to 10 miles,

azimuth to 20 degrees, and elevation to 7 degrees,

only the final approach area is covered. Each scope is

divided into two parts. The upper half presents

altitude and distance information, and the lower half

presents azimuth and distance.
AIP ENR 1.1−35

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.1−22

ARTS III Radar Scope With Alphanumeric Data

NOTE−

A number of radar terminals do not have ARTS equipment. Those facilities and certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous

U.S. would have radar displays similar to the lower right hand subset. ARTS facilities and NAS Stage A ARTCCs, when

operating in the nonautomation mode, would also have similar displays and certain services based on automation may

not be available.
ENR 1.1−36 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

EXAMPLE−

1. Areas of precipitation (can be reduced by CP)

2. Arrival/departure tabular list

3. Trackball (control) position symbol (A)

4. Airway (lines are sometimes deleted in part)

5. Radar limit line for control

6. Obstruction (video map)

7. Primary radar returns of obstacles or terrain (can be

removed by MTI)

8. Satellite airports

9. Runway centerlines (marks and spaces indicate

miles)

10. Primary airport with parallel runways

11. Approach gates

12. Tracked target (primary and beacon target)

13. Control position symbol

14. Untracked target select code (monitored) with

Mode C readout of 5,000’

15. Untracked target without Mode C

16. Primary target

17. Beacon target only (secondary radar)

(transponder)

18. Primary and beacon target

19. Leader line

20. Altitude Mode C readout is 6,000’ 

(Note: readouts may not be displayed because of

nonreceipt of beacon information, garbled beacon

signals, and flight plan data which is displayed

alternately with the altitude readout)

21. Ground speed readout is 240 knots 

(Note: readouts may not be displayed because of a loss

of beacon signal, a controller alert that a pilot was

squawking emergency, radio failure, etc.)

22. Aircraft ID

23. Asterisk indicates a controller entry in Mode C

block. In this case 5,000’ is entered and “05” would

alternate with Mode C readout.

24. Indicates heavy

25. “Low ALT” flashes to indicate when an aircraft’s

predicted descent places the aircraft in an unsafe

proximity to terrain. 

(Note: this feature does not function if the aircraft is not

squawking Mode C. When a helicopter or aircraft is

known to be operating below the lower safe limit, the

“low ALT” can be changed to “inhibit” and flashing

ceases.)

26. NAVAIDs

27. Airways

28. Primary target only

29. Nonmonitored. No Mode C (an asterisk would

indicate nonmonitored with Mode C)

30. Beacon target only (secondary radar based on

aircraft transponder)

31. Tracked target (primary and beacon target) control

position A

32. Aircraft is squawking emergency code 7700 and is

nonmonitored, untracked, Mode C

33. Controller assigned runway 36 right alternates

with Mode C readout 

(Note: a three letter identifier could also indicate the

arrival is at specific airport)

34. Ident flashes

35. Identing target blossoms

36. Untracked target identing on a selected code

37. Range marks (10 and 15 miles) (can be changed/

offset)

38. Aircraft controlled by center

39. Targets in suspend status

40. Coast/suspend list (aircraft holding, temporary loss

of beacon/target, etc.)

41. Radio failure (emergency information)

42. Select beacon codes (being monitored)

43. General information (ATIS, runway, approach in

use)

44. Altimeter setting

45. Time

46. System data area
AIP ENR 1.1−37

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.1−23

NAS Stage A Controller’s View Plan Display

25 26

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

#

X

X

X

AAL373

280C

191H-33

VIG123

310N

095

NWA258

170 143

AAL353

70 231

2734

R15909

290 170C

2103

N1467F

140 + 143

460

UAL33

100A

296

7700

EMRG

7600

RDOF

1200

1200

85

+++

+ UAL712

310N

228CST

1

22 23

24 27

28

29

29

30

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17 18

19

20

21

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H H

H

H

H

RADAR SERVICES AND PROCEDURES

NOTE−

FIG ENR 1.1−23 illustrates the controller’s radar scope (PVD) when operating in the full automation (RDP)

mode, which is normally 20 hours per day. When not in automation mode, the display is similar to the broadband

mode shown in the ARTS III Radar Scope (FIG ENR 1.1−22). Certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S. also

operate in “broadband” mode.
ENR 1.1−38 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

EXAMPLE−

Target symbols:

1. Uncorrelated primary radar target [] [+]

2. Correlated primary radar target [] 

See note below.

3. Uncorrelated beacon target [ / ]

4. Correlated beacon target [ \ ]

5. Identing beacon target [ ]

Note: in Number 2 correlated means the association of

radar data with the computer projected track of an

identified aircraft.

Position symbols:

6. Free track (no flight plan tracking) []

7. Flat track (flight plan tracking) [◊]

8. Coast (beacon target lost) [#]

9. Present position hold [ ]

Data block information:

10. Aircraft ident 

See note below.

11. Assigned altitude FL 280, Mode C altitude same or

within  200’ of assigned altitude. 

See note below.

12. Computer ID #191, handoff is to sector 33

 (0−33 would mean handoff accepted) 

See note below.

13. Assigned altitude 17,000’, aircraft is climbing, Mode

C readout was 14,300 when last beacon interrogation was

received.

14. Leader line connecting target symbol and data block.

15. Track velocity and direction vector line (projected

ahead of target)

16. Assigned altitude 7,000, aircraft is descending, last

Mode C readout (or last reported altitude) was 100’ above

FL 230

17. Transponder code shows in full data block only when

different than assigned code

18. Aircraft is 300’ above assigned altitude

19. Reported altitude (no Mode C readout) same as

assigned. (An “n” would indicate no reported altitude.)

20. Transponder set on emergency Code 7700. (EMRG

flashes to attract attention.)

21. Transponder Code 1200 (VFR) with no Mode C

22. Code 1200 (VFR) with Mode C and last altitude

readout

23. Transponder set on radio failure Code 7600 (RDOF

flashes)

24. Computer ID #228, CST indicates target is in coast

status

25. Assigned altitude FL 290, transponder code (these

two items constitute a “limited data block”)

Note: numbers 10, 11, and 12 constitute a “full data

block”

Other symbols: 

26. Navigational aid

27. Airway or jet route

28. Outline of weather returns based on primary radar.

“H” represents areas of high density precipitation which

might be thunderstorms. Radial lines indicated lower

density precipitation.

29. Obstruction

30. Airports

 Major:

Small:
AIP ENR 1.1−39

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

37.5 Airport Surface Detection Equipment −

Model X (ASDE−X)

37.5.1 The Airport Surface Detection Equipment −

Model X (ASDE−X) is a multi−sensor surface

surveillance system the FAA is acquiring for airports

in the United States. This system will provide high

resolution, short−range, clutter free surveillance

information about aircraft and vehicles, both moving

and fixed, located on or near the surface of the

airport’s runways and taxiways under all weather and

visibility conditions. The system consists of:

37.5.1.1 A Primary Radar System. ASDE−X

system coverage includes the airport surface and the

airspace up to 200 feet above the surface. Typically

located on the control tower or other strategic

location on the airport, the Primary Radar antenna is

able to detect and display aircraft that are not

equipped with or have malfunctioning transponders.

37.5.1.2 Interfaces. ASDE−X contains an automation interface for flight identification via all

automation platforms and interfaces with the

terminal radar for position information.

37.5.1.3 ASDE−X Automation. A Multi−sensor

Data Processor (MSDP) combines all sensor reports

into a single target which is displayed to the air traffic

controller.

37.5.1.4 Air Traffic Control Tower Display. A

high resolution, color monitor in the control tower

cab provides controllers with a seamless picture of

airport operations on the airport surface.

37.5.2 The combination of data collected from the

multiple sensors ensures that the most accurate information about aircraft location is received in the tower,

thereby increasing surface safety and efficiency.

37.5.3 The following facilities have been projected

to receive ASDE−X:

TBL ENR 1.1−2

STL Lambert−St. Louis International

CLT Charlotte Douglas International

SDF Louisville International Standiford

DFW Dallas/Ft. Worth International

ORD Chicago O’Hare International

LAX Los Angeles International

ATL Hartsfield Atlanta International

IAD Washington Dulles International

SEA Seattle−Tacoma International

MKE General Mitchell International

MCO Orlando International

PVD Theodore Francis Green State

PHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International

MEM Memphis International

RDU Raleigh−Durham International

HOU William P. Hobby (Houston, TX)

BDL Bradley International

SJC San Jose International

SAT San Antonio International

SMF Sacramento International

FLL Ft. Lauderdale/Hollywood

HNL Honolulu International − Hickam AFB

OAK Metropolitan Oakland International

IND Indianapolis International

TPA Tampa International

BUR Burbank−Glendale−Pasadena

CMH Port Columbus International

MDW Chicago Midway

COS Colorado Springs Municipal

SNA John Wayne − Orange County

ONT Ontario International

AUS Austin−Bergstrom International

RNO Reno/Tahoe International

ABQ Albuquerque International Sunport

SJU San Juan International

NOTE− The installation of ASDE−X is projected to be

completed by 2009.
ENR 1.1−40 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

37.6 Radar Availability

37.6.1 FAA radar units operate continuously at the

locations shown in the Airport/Facility Directory,

and their services are available to all pilots, both civil

and military. Contact the associated FAA control

tower or ARTCC on any frequency guarded for initial

instructions, or in an emergency, any FAA facility for

information on the nearest radar service.

37.7 Transponder Operation

37.7.1 General

37.7.1.1 Pilots should be aware that proper

application of these procedures will provide both

VFR and IFR aircraft with a high degree of safety in

the environment where high−speed closure rates are

possible. Transponders substantially increase the

capability of radar to see an aircraft, and the Mode C

feature enables the controller to quickly determine

where potential traffic conflicts may exist. Even VFR

pilots who are not in contact with ATC will be

afforded greater protection from IFR aircraft and

VFR aircraft which are receiving traffic advisories.

Nevertheless, pilots should never relax their visual

scanning vigilance for other aircraft.

37.7.1.2 ATCRBS is similar to and compatible with

military coded radar beacon equipment. Civil Mode

A is identical to military Mode 3.

37.7.1.3 Civil and military transponders should be

adjusted to the “on” or normal operating position as

late as practicable prior to takeoff and to “off” or

“standby” as soon as practicable after completing

landing roll, unless the change to “standby” has been

accomplished previously at the request of ATC. IN

ALL CASES, WHILE IN CLASS A, B, C, D, AND

E AIRSPACE EACH PILOT OPERATING AN

AIRCRAFT EQUIPPED WITH AN OPERABLE

ATC TRANSPONDER MAINTAINED IN ACCORDANCE WITH 14 CFR SECTION 91.413

SHALL OPERATE THE TRANSPONDER, INCLUDING MODE C IF INSTALLED, ON THE

APPROPRIATE CODE OR AS ASSIGNED BY

ATC. IN CLASS G AIRSPACE, THE TRANSPONDER SHOULD BE OPERATING WHILE

AIRBORNE UNLESS OTHERWISE REQUESTED BY ATC.

37.7.1.4 If a pilot on an IFR flight elects to cancel the

IFR flight plan prior to reaching destination, the pilot

should adjust the transponder according to VFR

operations.

37.7.1.5 If entering U.S. domestic controlled

airspace from outside the U.S., the pilot should

advise on first radio contact with a U.S. radar ATC

facility that such equipment is available by adding

“transponder” to the aircraft identification.

37.7.1.6 It should be noted by all users of ATC

transponders that the coverage they can expect is

limited to “line of sight.” Low altitude or aircraft

antenna shielding by the aircraft itself may result in

reduced range. Range can be improved by climbing

to a higher altitude. It may be possible to minimize

antenna shielding by locating the antenna where dead

spots are only noticed during abnormal flight

attitudes.

37.7.1.7 If operating at an airport with Airport

Surface Detection Equipment − Model X

(ASDE−X), transponders should be transmitting

“on” with altitude reporting continuously while

moving on the airport surface if so equipped.

37.7.2 Transponder Code Designation

37.7.2.1 For ATC to utilize one or a combination of

the 4096 discrete codes, FOUR DIGIT CODE

DESIGNATION will be used; e.g., code 2100 will be

expressed as TWO ONE ZERO ZERO. Due to the

operational characteristics of the rapidly expanding

automated ATC system, THE LAST TWO DIGITS

OF THE SELECTED TRANSPONDER CODE

SHOULD ALWAYS READ ‘00’ UNLESS SPECIFICALLY REQUESTED BY ATC TO BE OTHERWISE.

37.7.3 Automatic Altitude Reporting (Mode C)

37.7.3.1 Some transponders are equipped with a

Mode C automatic altitude reporting capability. This

system converts aircraft altitude in 100 foot

increments to coded digital information which is

transmitted together with Mode C framing pulses to

the interrogating radar facility. The manner in which

transponder panels are designed differs, therefore, a

pilot should be thoroughly familiar with the

operation of the transponder so that ATC may realize

its full capabilities.
AIP ENR 1.1−41

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

37.7.3.2 Adjust transponder to reply on the

Mode A/3 code specified by ATC and, if equipped, to

reply on Mode C with altitude reporting capability

activated unless deactivation is directed by ATC or

unless the installed aircraft equipment has not been

tested and calibrated as required by 14 CFR Section

91.217. If deactivation is required by ATC, run off the

altitude reporting feature of your transponder. An

instruction by ATC to “STOP ALTITUDE

SQUAWK, ALTITUDE DIFFERS (number of feet)

FEET,” may be an indication that your transponder is

transmitting incorrect altitude information or that

you have an incorrect altimeter setting. While an

incorrect altimeter setting has no effect on the

Mode C altitude information transmitted by your

transponder (transponders are preset at 29.92), it

would cause you to fly at an actual altitude different

from your assigned altitude. When a controller

indicates that an altitude readout is invalid, the pilot

should initiate a check to verify that the aircraft

altimeter is set correctly.

37.7.3.3 Pilots of aircraft with operating Mode C

altitude reporting transponders should exact altitude/

flight level to the nearest hundred foot increment

when establishing initial contact with an ATC. Exact

altitude/flight level reports on initial contact provide

ATC with information that is required prior to using

Mode C altitude information for separation purposes.

This will significantly reduce altitude verification

requests.

37.7.4 Transponder IDENT Feature

37.7.4.1 The transponder shall be operated only as

specified by ATC. Activate the “IDENT” feature only

upon request of the ATC controller.

37.7.5 Code Changes

37.7.5.1 When making routine code changes, pilots

should avoid inadvertent selection of codes 7500,

7600, or 7700 thereby causing momentary false

alarms at automated ground facilities. For example

when switching from Code 2700 to Code 7200,

switch first to 2200 then 7200, NOT to 7700 and then

7200. This procedure applies to nondiscrete

Code 7500 and all discrete codes in the 7600 and

7700 series (i.e., 7600−7677, 7700−7777) which will

trigger special indicators in automated facilities.

Only nondiscrete Code 7500 will be decoded as the

hijack code.

37.7.5.2 Under no circumstances should a pilot of a

civil aircraft operate the transponder on Code 7777.

This code is reserved for military interceptor

operations.

37.7.5.3 Military pilots operating VFR or IFR

within restricted/warning areas should adjust their

transponders to Code 4000, unless another code has

been assigned by ATC.

37.7.6 Mode C Transponder Requirements

37.7.6.1 Specific details concerning requirements to

carry and operate Mode C transponders, as well as

exceptions and ATC authorized deviations from the

requirements are found in 14 CFR Sections 91.215

and 99.12.

37.7.6.2 In general, the CFR requires aircraft to be

equipped with Mode C transponders when operating:

a) At or above 10,000 feet MSL over the

48 contiguous states or the District of Columbia,

excluding that airspace below 2,500 feet AGL.

b) Within 30 miles of a Class B airspace primary

airport, below 10,000 feet MSL. Balloons, gliders,

and aircraft not equipped with an engine driven

electrical system are excepted from the above

requirements when operating below the floor of

Class A airspace and/or; outside of Class B airspace

and below the ceiling of the Class B airspace (or

10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower).

c) Within and above all Class C airspace up to

10,000 feet MSL.

d) Within 10 miles of certain designated airports

from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL, excluding that

airspace which is both outside Class D airspace and

below 1,200 feet AGL. Balloons, gliders and aircraft

not equipped with an engine driven electrical system

are excepted from this requirement.

37.7.6.3 14 CFR Section 99.12 requires all aircraft

flying into, within, or across the contiguous U.S.

ADIZ be equipped with a Mode C or Mode S

transponder. Balloons, gliders, and aircraft not

equipped with an engine driven electrical system are

excepted from this requirement.

37.7.6.4 Pilots shall ensure that their aircraft

transponder is operating on an appropriate ATC

assigned VFR/IFR code and Mode C when operating

in such airspace. If in doubt about the operational

status of either feature of your transponder while

airborne, contact the nearest ATC facility or FSS and
ENR 1.1−42 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

they will advise you what facility you should contact

for determining the status of your equipment.

37.7.6.5 Inflight requests for “immediate” deviation

from the transponder requirements may be approved

by controllers only when the flight will continue IFR

or when weather conditions prevent VFR descent and

continued VFR flight in airspace not affected by the

CFR. All other requests for deviation should be made

by contacting the nearest FSS or air traffic facility in

person or by telephone. The nearest ARTCC will

normally be the controlling agency and is responsible

for coordinating requests involving deviations in

other ARTCC’s areas.

37.7.7 Transponder Operation Under Visual

Flight Rules (VFR)

37.7.7.1 Unless otherwise instructed by an ATC

Facility, adjust transponder to reply on Mode 3/A

Code 1200 regardless of altitude.

37.7.7.2 Adjust transponder to reply on Mode C,

with altitude reporting capability activated if the

aircraft is so equipped, unless deactivation is directed

by ATC or unless the installed equipment has not

been tested and calibrated as required by 14 CFR

Section 91.217. If deactivation is required and your

transponder is so designed, turn off the altitude

reporting switch and continue to transmit Mode C

framing pulses. If this capability does not exist, turn

off Mode C.

37.7.8 Radar Beacon Phraseology

37.7.8.1 Air traffic controllers, both civil and

military, will use the following phraseology when

referring to operation of the ATCRBS. Instructions

by ATC refer only to Mode A/3 or Mode C operations

and do not affect the operation of the transponder on

other modes.

a) SQUAWK (number). Operate radar beacon

transponder on designated code in Mode A/3.

b) IDENT. Engage the “IDENT” feature (military I/P) of the transponder.

c) SQUAWK (number) AND IDENT. Operate

transponder on specified code in Mode A/3 and

engage the “IDENT” (military I/P) feature.

d) SQUAWK STANDBY. Switch transponder

to standby position.

e) SQUAWK LOW/NORMAL. Operate transponder on low or normal sensitivity as specified.

Transponder is operated in “NORMAL” position

unless ATC specified “LOW.” (“ON” is used instead

of “NORMAL” as a master control label on some

types of transponders.)

f) SQUAWK ALTITUDE. Activate Mode C

with automatic altitude reporting.

g) STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK. Turn off

altitude reporting switch and continue transmitting

Mode C framing pulses. If your equipment does not

have this capability, turn off Mode C.

h) STOP SQUAWK (mode in use). Switch off

specified mode. (Use for military aircraft when the

controller is unaware if a military service requires the

aircraft to continue operating on another mode.)

i) STOP SQUAWK. Switch off transponder.

j) SQUAWK MAYDAY. Operate transponder in

the emergency position. (Mode A Code 7700 for civil

transponder. Mode 3 Code 7700 and emergency

feature for military transponder.)

k) SQUAWK VFR. Operate radar beacon transponder on code 1200 in the MODE A/3, or other

appropriate VFR code.

37.8 Emergency Operation

37.8.1 When an emergency occurs, the pilot of an

aircraft equipped with a coded radar beacon transponder who desires to alert a ground radar facility to

an emergency condition and who cannot establish

communications without delay with an ATC facility

may adjust the transponder to reply on Mode A/3,

Code 7700.

37.8.2 Pilots should understand that they may not be

within a radar coverage area and that, even if they are,

certain radar facilities are not yet equipped to

automatically recognize Code 7700 as an emergency

signal. Therefore, they should establish radio

communications with an ATC facility as soon as

possible.

37.9 Radio Failure Operation

37.9.1 Should the pilot of an aircraft equipped with

a coded radar beacon transponder experience a loss of

two−way radio capability the pilot should:

37.9.1.1 Adjust the transponder to reply on

MODE A/3, Code 7600.

37.9.1.2 Understand that the aircraft may not be in an

area of radar coverage.
AIP ENR 1.1−43

United States of America 17 FEB 05

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37.9.2 Pilots should understand that they may not be

in an area of radar coverage. Also, many radar

facilities are not presently equipped to automatically

display Code 7600 and will interrogate 7600 only

when the aircraft is under direct radar control at the

time of radio failure. However, replying on

Code 7700 first, increases the probability of early

detection of a radio failure condition.

37.10 Radar Services

37.10.1 Safety Alert

37.10.1.1 A safety alert will be issued to pilots of

aircraft being controlled by ATC if the controller is

aware the aircraft is at an altitude which, in the

controller’s judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe

proximity to terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft.

The provision of this service is contingent upon the

capability of the controller to have an awareness of

situations involving unsafe proximity to terrain,

obstructions, and uncontrolled aircraft. The issuance

of a safety alert cannot be mandated, but it can be

expected on a reasonable, though intermittent, basis.

Once the alert is issued, it is solely the pilot’s

prerogative to determine what course of action, if any,

will be taken. This procedure is intended for use in

time critical situations where aircraft safety is in

question. Noncritical situations should be handled

via the normal traffic alert procedures.

37.10.2 Terrain/Obstruction Alert

37.10.2.1 Controllers will immediately issue an

alert to the pilots of aircraft under their control when

they recognize that the aircraft is at an altitude which,

in their judgment, may be in unsafe proximity to

terrain/obstructions. The primary method of detecting unsafe proximity is through Mode C automatic

altitude reports.

EXAMPLE−

Low altitude alert, check your altitude immediately. The,

as appropriate, MEA/MVA/MOCA in your area is

(altitude) or, if past the final approach fix (nonprecision

approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the

outer marker (precision approach), the, as appropriate,

MDA/DH (if known) is (altitude).

37.10.2.2 Terminal Automated Radar Terminal

System (ARTS) IIIA, Common ARTS (to include

ARTS IIIE and ARTS IIE) (CARTS), Micro En

Route Automated Radar Tracking System

(MEARTS), and Standard Terminal Automation

Replacement System (STARS) facilities have an

automated function which, if operating, alerts

controllers when a tracked Mode C equipped aircraft

under their control is below or is predicted to be

below a predetermined minimum safe altitude. This

function, called Minimum Safe Altitude Warning

(MSAW), is designed solely as a controller aid in

detecting potentially unsafe aircraft proximity to

terrain/obstructions. The ARTS IIIA, CARTS,

MEARTS, and STARS facility will, when MSAW is

operating, provide MSAW monitoring for all aircraft

with an operating Mode C altitude encoding

transponder that are tracked by the system and are:

a) Operating on a IFR flight plan.

b) Operating VFR and have requested MSAW

monitoring.

37.10.2.3 Terminal AN/TPX−42A (number beacon

decoder system) facilities have an automated

function called Low Altitude Alert System (LAAS).

Although not as sophisticated as MSAW, LAAS

alerts the controller when a Mode C transponder

equipped aircraft operating on a IFR flight plan is

below a predetermined minimum safe altitude.

NOTE−

Pilots operating VFR may request MSAW or LAAS

monitoring if their aircraft are equipped with Mode C

transponders.

EXAMPLE−

Apache Three Three Papa requests MSAW/LAAS.

37.10.3 Aircraft Conflict Alert

37.10.3.1 Controllers will immediately issue an

alert to the pilots of aircraft under their control if they

are aware of an aircraft that is not under their control

at an altitude which, in the controller’s judgment,

places both aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other.

With the alert, when feasible, the controller will offer

the pilot the position of the traffic if time permits and

an alternate course(s) of action. Any alternate course

of action the controller may recommend to the pilot

will be predicated only on other traffic in the

controller’s jurisdiction.

EXAMPLE−

American Three, traffic alert, (position of traffic, if time

permits), advise you turn right/left heading (degrees)

and/or climb/descend to (altitude) immediately.
ENR 1.1−44 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

37.10.4 Radar Traffic Information Service

(RTIS)

37.10.4.1 This is a service provided by radar ATC

facilities. Pilots receiving this service are advised of

any radar target observed on the radar display which

may be in such proximity to the position of their

aircraft or its intended route of flight that it warrants

their attention. This service is not intended to relieve

the pilot of the responsibility for continual vigilance

to see and avoid other aircraft.

a) Purpose of this Service

1) The issuance of traffic information as

observed on a radar display is based on the principle

of assisting and advising a pilot that a particular radar

target’s position and track indicates it may intersect

or pass in such proximity to the intended flight path

that it warrants the pilot’s attention. This is to alert the

pilot to the traffic, to be on the lookout for it, and

thereby be in a better position to take appropriate

action should the need arise.

2) Pilots are reminded that the surveillance

radar used by ATC does not provide altitude

information unless the aircraft is equipped with

Mode C and the radar facility is capable of displaying

altitude information.

b) Provisions of the Service

1) Many factors, such as limitations of the radar,

volume of traffic, controller workload, and communications frequency congestion could prevent the

controller from providing this service. Controllers

possess complete discretion for determining whether

they are able to provide or continue to provide this

service in a specific case. The controller’s reason

against providing or continuing to provide the service

in a particular case is not subject to question nor need

it be communicated to the pilot. In other words, the

provision of this service is entirely dependent upon

whether controllers believe they are in a position to

provide it. Traffic information is routinely provided

to all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except

when the pilot declines the service, or the pilot is

operating within Class A airspace. Traffic information may be provided to flights not operating on IFR

Flight Plans when requested by pilots of such flights.

NOTE−

Radar ATC facilities normally display and monitor both

primary and secondary radar when it is available, except

that secondary radar may be used as the sole display

source in Class A airspace, and under some circumstances

outside of Class A airspace (beyond primary coverage

and in en route areas where only secondary is available).

Secondary radar may also be used outside Class A

airspace as the sole display source when the primary

radar is temporarily unusable or out of service. Pilots in

contact with the affected ATC facility are normally

advised when a temporary outage occurs; i.e., “primary

radar out of service; traffic advisories available on

transponder aircraft only.” This means simply that only

the aircraft which have transponders installed and in use

will be depicted on ATC radar indicators when the

primary radar is temporarily out of service.

2) When receiving VFR radar advisory service,

pilots should monitor the assigned frequency at all

times. This is to preclude controllers’ concern for

radio failure of emergency assistance to aircraft under

the controller’s jurisdiction. VFR radar advisory

service does not include vectors away from

conflicting traffic unless requested by the pilot. When

advisory service is no longer desired, advise the

controller before changing frequencies, then change

your transponder code to 1200 if applicable. THE, as

appropriate, MEA/MVA/MOCA IN YOUR AREA

IS (altitude) or if past the final approach fix, THE, as

appropriate, MDA/DH (if known) is (altitude).

Except in programs where radar service is

automatically terminated, the controller will advise

the aircraft when radar is terminated.

NOTE−

Participation by VFR pilots in formal programs

implemented at certain terminal locations constitutes

pilot request. This also applies to participating pilots at

those locations where arriving VFR flights are

encouraged to make their first contact with the tower on

the approach control frequency.

c) Issuance of Traffic Information. Traffic

information will include the following concerning a

target which may constitute traffic for an aircraft that

is:

1) Radar identified.

(a) Azimuth from the aircraft in terms of the

twelve hour clock.

(b) When rapidly maneuvering civil test or

military aircraft prevent accurate issuance of traffic as

in a) above, specify the direction from an aircraft’s

position in terms of the eight cardinal compass points

(N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW). This method shall be

terminated at the pilot’s request.
AIP ENR 1.1−45

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

(c) Distance from the aircraft in nautical

miles.

(d) Direction in which the target is proceeding.

(e) Type of aircraft and altitude if known.

EXAMPLE−

Traffic 10 o’clock, 3 miles, west−bound (type aircraft and

altitude, if known, of the observed traffic). The altitude

may be known, by means of Mode C, but not verified with

the pilot for accuracy. (To be valid for separation

purposes by ATC, the accuracy of Mode C readouts must

be verified. This is usually accomplished upon initial

entry into the radar system by a comparison of the readout

to pilot stated altitude, or the field elevation in the case of

continuous readout being received from an aircraft on the

airport.) When necessary to issue traffic advisories

containing unverified altitude information, the controller

will issue the advisory in the same manner as if it were

verified due to the accuracy of these readouts. The pilot

may, upon receipt of traffic information, request a vector

(heading) to avoid such traffic. The vector will be

provided to the extent possible as determined by the

controller provided the aircraft to be vectored is within the

airspace under the jurisdiction of the controller.

2) Not radar identified

(a) Distance and direction with respect to a

fix.

(b) Direction in which the target is proceeding.

(c) Type of aircraft and altitude if known.

EXAMPLE−

Traffic 8 miles south of the airport northeastbound, (type

aircraft and altitude if known).

d) The examples depicted in FIG ENR 1.1−24

and FIG ENR 1.1−25 point out the possible error in

the position of this traffic when it is necessary for a

pilot to apply drift correction to maintain this track.

This error could also occur in the event a change in

course is made at the time radar traffic information is

issued.

FIG ENR 1.1−24

Induced Error in Position of Traffic

TRACK

(A) (B)

WIND

TRACK

EXAMPLE−

In FIG ENR 1.1−24, traffic information would be issued

to the pilot of aircraft “A” as 12 o’clock. The actual

position of the traffic as seen by the pilot of aircraft “A”

would be one o’clock. Traffic information issued to

aircraft “B” would also be given as 12 o’clock, but in this

case, the pilot of “B” would see the traffic at 11 o’clock.

FIG ENR 1.1−25

Induced Error in Position of Traffic

TRACK

(C)

(D)

WIND TRACK

EXAMPLE−

In FIG ENR 1.1−25, traffic information would be issued

to the pilot of aircraft “C” as two o’clock. The actual

position of the traffic as seen by the pilot of aircraft “C”

would be three o’clock. Traffic information issued to

aircraft “D” would be at an 11 o’clock position. Since it

is not necessary for the pilot of aircraft “D” to apply wind

correction (CRAB) to remain on track, the actual position

of the traffic issued would be correct. Since the radar

controller can only observe aircraft track (course) on the

radar display, traffic advisories are issued accordingly,

and pilots should give due consideration to this fact when

looking for reported traffic.

37.11 Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft

37.11.1 Radar equipped FAA ATC facilities provide

radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to

VFR aircraft provided the aircraft can communicate

with the facility, are within radar coverage, and can

be radar identified.

37.11.2 Pilots should clearly understand that

authorization to proceed in accordance with such

radar navigational assistance does not constitute

authorization for the pilot to violate Federal Aviation

Regulations. In effect, assistance provided is on the

basis that navigational guidance information issued
ENR 1.1−46 AIP

4 AUG 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

is advisory in nature and the job of flying the aircraft

safely remains with the pilot.

37.11.3 In many cases, controllers will be unable to

determine if flight into instrument conditions will

result from their instructions. To avoid possible

hazards resulting from being vectored into IFR

conditions, pilots should keep controllers advised of

the weather conditions in which they are operating

and along the course ahead.

37.11.4 Radar navigation assistance (vectors) may

be initiated by the controller when one of the following conditions exist:

37.11.4.1 The controller suggests the vector and the

pilot concurs.

37.11.4.2 A special program has been established

and vectoring service has been advertised.

37.11.4.3 In the controller’s judgment the vector is

necessary for air safety.

37.11.5 Radar navigation assistance (vectors) and

other radar derived information may be provided in

response to pilot requests. Many factors, such as

limitations of radar, volume of traffic, communications frequency, congestion, and controller workload

could prevent the controller from providing it.

Controllers have complete discretion for determining

if they are able to provide the service in a particular

case. Their decision not to provide the service in a

particular case is not subject to question.

38. Operational Policy/Procedures for

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum

(RVSM) in the Domestic U.S., Alaska,

Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR

38.1 Applicability and RVSM Mandate (Date/

Time and Area)

38.1.1 Applicability. The policies, guidance and

direction in this section apply to RVSM operations in

the airspace over the lower 48 states, Alaska, Atlantic

and Gulf of Mexico High Offshore Airspace and

airspace in the San Juan FIR where VHF or UHF

voice direct controller−pilot communication (DCPC)

is normally available. Policies, guidance and

direction for RVSM operations in oceanic airspace

where VHF or UHF voice DCPC is not available and

the airspace of other countries are posted on the FAA

“RVSM Documentation” Webpage described in

paragraph 38.3, Aircraft and Operator Approval

Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and Databases for Aircraft and Operator Approval.

38.1.2 Mandate. At 0901 UTC on January 20,

2005, the FAA implemented RVSM between flight

level (FL) 290−410 (inclusive) in the following

airspace: the airspace of the lower 48 states of the

United States, Alaska, Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico

High Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR. (A

chart showing the location of offshore airspace is

posted on the Domestic U.S. RVSM (DRVSM)

Webpage. See paragraph 38.3.) On the same time and

date, RVSM was also introduced into the adjoining

airspace of Canada and Mexico to provide a seamless

environment for aircraft traversing those borders. In

addition, RVSM was implemented on the same date

in the Caribbean and South American regions.

38.1.3 RVSM Authorization. In accordance with

14 CFR Section 91.180, with only limited exceptions, prior to operating in RVSM airspace, operators

and aircraft must have received RVSM authorization

from the responsible civil aviation authority. (See

paragraph 38.10, Procedures for Accommodation of

Non−RVSM Aircraft.) If the operator or aircraft or

both have not been authorized for RVSM operations,

the aircraft will be referred to as a “non−RVSM”

aircraft. Paragraph 38.10 discusses ATC policies for

accommodation of non−RVSM aircraft flown by the

Department of Defense, Air Ambulance (Lifeguard)

operators, foreign State governments and aircraft

flown for certification and development. Paragraph 38.11, Non−RVSM Aircraft Requesting

Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels Above

RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off,

contains policies for non−RVSM aircraft climbing

and descending through RVSM airspace to/from

flight levels above RVSM airspace.

38.1.4 Benefits. RVSM enhances ATC flexibility,

mitigates conflict points, enhances sector throughput, reduces controller workload and enables

crossing traffic. Operators gain fuel savings and

operating efficiency benefits by flying at more fuel

efficient flight levels and on more user preferred

routings.
AIP ENR 1.1−47

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

38.2 Flight Level Orientation Scheme

Altitude assignments for direction of flight follow a

scheme of odd altitude assignment for magnetic

courses 000−179 degrees and even altitudes for

magnetic courses 180−359 degrees for flights up to

and including FL 410, as indicated in

FIG ENR 1.1−26.

FIG ENR 1.1−26

Flight Level Orientation Scheme

NOTE−

Odd Flight Levels: Magnetic Course 000−179 Degrees

Even Flight Levels: Magnetic Course 180−359 Degrees.

38.3 Aircraft and Operator Approval

Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and

Databases for Aircraft and Operator Approval

38.3.1 RVSM Authority. 14 CFR Section 91.180

applies to RVSM operations within the U.S. 14 CFR

Section 91.706 applies to RVSM operations outside

the U.S. Both sections require that the operator obtain

authorization prior to operating in RVSM airspace.

14 CFR Section 91.180 requires that, prior to

conducting RVSM operations within the U.S., the

operator obtain authorization from the FAA or from

the responsible authority, as appropriate. In addition,

it requires that the operator and the operator’s aircraft

comply with the standards of 14 CFR Part 91

Appendix G (Operations in RVSM Airspace).

38.3.2 Sources of Information. The FAA RVSM

Website Homepage can be accessed at:

www.faa.gov/ats/ato/rvsm1.htm. The “RVSM

Documentation” and “Domestic RVSM” webpages

are linked to the RVSM Homepage. “RVSM

Documentation” contains guidance and direction for

an operator to obtain aircraft and operator approval to

conduct RVSM operations. It provides information

for DRVSM and oceanic and international RVSM

airspace. It is recommended that operators planning

to operate in Domestic U.S. RVSM airspace first

review the following documents to orient themselves

to the approval process.

38.3.2.1 Under “Area of Operations Specific

Information,” the document, “Basic Operator

Information on DRVSM Programs,” provides an

overview of the DRVSM program and the related

aircraft and operator approval programs.

38.3.2.2 In the “Getting Started” section, review the

“RVSM Approval Checklist − U.S. Operators” or

“RVSM Approval Checklist − Non−U.S. Operators”

(as applicable). These are job aids or checklists that

show aircraft/operator approval process events with

references to related RVSM documents published on

the website.

38.3.2.3 Under “Documents Applicable to All

RVSM Approvals,” review “RVSM Area New to the

Operator.” This document provides a guide for

operators that are conducting RVSM operations in

one or more areas of operation, but are planning to

conduct RVSM operations in an area where they have

not previously conducted RVSM operations, such as

the U.S.

38.3.3 TCAS Equipage. TCAS equipage requirements are contained in 14 CFR Sections 121.356,

125.224, 129.18 and 135.189. Part 91 Appendix G

does not contain TCAS equipage requirements

specific to RVSM, however, Appendix G does

require that aircraft equipped with TCAS II and flown

in RVSM airspace be modified to incorporate

TCAS II Version 7.0 or a later version.

38.3.4 Aircraft Monitoring. Operators are required to participate in the RVSM aircraft monitoring

program. The “Monitoring Requirements and

Procedures” section of the RVSM Documentation

Webpage contains policies and procedures for

participation in the monitoring program. Ground−

based and GPS−based monitoring systems are

available for the Domestic RVSM program.

Monitoring is a quality control program that enables

the FAA and other civil aviation authorities to assess

the in−service altitude−keeping performance of

aircraft and operators.
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38.3.5 Registration on RVSM Approvals Databases. The “Registration on RVSM Approvals Database” section of the RVSM Documentation Webpage

provides policies/procedures for operator and aircraft

registration on RVSM approvals databases.

38.3.5.1 Purpose of RVSM Approvals Databases.

ATC does not use RVSM approvals databases to

determine whether or not a clearance can be issued

into RVSM airspace. RVSM program managers do

regularly review the operators and aircraft that

operate in RVSM airspace to identify and investigate

those aircraft and operators flying in RVSM airspace,

but not listed on the RVSM approvals databases.

38.3.5.2 Registration of U.S. Operators. When

U.S. operators and aircraft are granted RVSM

authority, the FAA Flight Standards office makes an

input to the FAA Program Tracking and Reporting

Subsystem (PTRS). The Separation Standards Group

at the FAA Technical Center obtains PTRS operator

and aircraft information to update the FAA

maintained U.S. Operator/Aircraft RVSM Approvals

Database. Basic database operator and aircraft

information can be viewed on the RVSM Documentation Webpage by clicking on the appropriate

database icon.

38.3.5.3 Registration of Non−U.S. Operators.

Non−U.S. operators can find policy/procedures for

registration on the North American Approvals

Registry and Monitoring Organization (NAARMO)

database in the “Registration on RVSM Approvals

Database” section of RVSM Documentation.

38.4 Flight Planning into RVSM Airspace

38.4.1 Operators that do not file the correct aircraft

equipment suffix on the FAA or ICAO Flight Plan

may be denied clearance into RVSM airspace.

Policies for the FAA Flight Plan are detailed in

subparagraph 38.4.3 below. Policies for the ICAO

Flight Plan are detailed in subparagraph 38.4.4.

38.4.2 The operator will annotate the equipment

block of the FAA or ICAO Flight Plan with an aircraft

equipment suffix indicating RVSM capability only

after the responsible civil aviation authority has

determined that both the operator and its aircraft are

RVSM−compliant and has issued RVSM authorization to the operator.

38.4.3 General Policies for FAA Flight Plan

Equipment Suffix. TBL ENR 1.10−1, Aircraft Suffixes, allows operators to indicate that the aircraft has

both RVSM and Advanced Area Navigation (RNAV)

capabilities or has only RVSM capability.

38.4.3.1 The operator will annotate the equipment

block of the FAA Flight Plan with the appropriate

aircraft equipment suffix from TBL ENR 1.10−1.

38.4.3.2 Operators can only file one equipment

suffix in block 3 of the FAA Flight Plan. Only this

equipment suffix is displayed directly to the

controller.

38.4.3.3 Aircraft with RNAV Capability. For flight

in RVSM airspace, aircraft with RNAV capability, but

not Advanced RNAV capability, will file “/W”. Filing

“/W” will not preclude such aircraft from filing and

flying direct routes in en route airspace.

38.4.4 Policy for ICAO Flight Plan Equipment

Suffixes.

38.4.4.1 Operators/aircraft that are RVSM−compliant and that file ICAO flight plans will file “/W” in

block 10 (Equipment) to indicate RVSM authorization and will also file the appropriate ICAO Flight

Plan suffixes to indicate navigation and communication capabilities. The equipment suffixes in

TBL ENR 1.10−1 are for use only in an FAA Flight

Plan (FAA Form 7233−1).

38.4.4.2 Operators/aircraft that file ICAO flight

plans that include flight in Domestic U.S. RVSM

airspace must file “/W” in block 10 to indicate RVSM

authorization.

38.4.5 Importance of Flight Plan Equipment Suffixes. The operator must file the appropriate

equipment suffix in the equipment block of the FAA

Flight Plan (FAA Form 7233−1) or the ICAO Flight

Plan. The equipment suffix informs ATC:

38.4.5.1 Whether or not the operator and aircraft are

authorized to fly in RVSM airspace.

38.4.5.2 The navigation and/or transponder

capability of the aircraft (e.g., advanced RNAV,

Transponder with Mode C).
AIP ENR 1.1−49

United States of America 16 FEB 06

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38.4.6 Significant ATC uses of the flight plan

equipment suffix information are:

38.4.6.1 To issue or deny clearance into RVSM

airspace.

38.4.6.2 To apply a 2,000 foot vertical separation

minimum in RVSM airspace to aircraft that are not

authorized for RVSM, but are in one of the limited

categories that the FAA has agreed to accommodate.

(See paragraphs 38.10, Procedures for Accommodation of Non−RVSM Aircraft, and 38.11, Non−RVSM

Aircraft Requesting Climb to and Descent from

Flight Levels Above RVSM Airspace Without

Intermediate Level Off, for policy on limited

operation of unapproved aircraft in RVSM airspace).

38.4.6.3 To determine if the aircraft has “Advanced

RNAV” capabilities and can be cleared to fly

procedures for which that capability is required.

38.5 Pilot RVSM Operating Practices and

Procedures

38.5.1 RVSM Mandate. If either the operator or

the aircraft or both have not received RVSM

authorization (non−RVSM aircraft), the pilot will

neither request nor accept a clearance into RVSM

airspace unless:

38.5.1.1 The flight is conducted by a non−RVSM

DOD, Lifeguard, certification/development or foreign State (government) aircraft in accordance with

paragraph 38.10, Procedures for Accommodation of

Non−RVSM Aircraft.

38.5.1.2 The pilot intends to climb to or descend

from FL 430 or above in accordance with

paragraph 38.11, Non−RVSM Aircraft Requesting

Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels Above

RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off.

38.5.1.3 An emergency situation exists.

38.5.2 Basic RVSM Operating Practices and

Procedures. Appendix 4 of Guidance 91−RVSM

contains pilot practices and procedures for RVSM.

Operators must incorporate Appendix 4 practices and

procedures, as supplemented by the applicable

paragraphs of this section, into operator training or

pilot knowledge programs and operator documents

containing RVSM operational policies. Guidance 91−RVSM is published on the RVSM Documentation Webpage under “Documents Applicable to

All RVSM Approvals.”

38.5.3 Appendix 4 contains practices and procedures for flight planning, preflight procedures at the

aircraft, procedures prior to RVSM airspace entry,

inflight (en route) procedures, contingency procedures and post flight.

38.5.4 The following paragraphs either clarify or

supplement Appendix 4 practices and procedures.

38.6 Guidance on Severe Turbulence and

Mountain Wave Activity (MWA)

38.6.1 Introduction/Explanation

38.6.1.1 The information and practices in this

paragraph are provided to emphasize to pilots and

controllers the importance of taking appropriate

action in RVSM airspace when aircraft experience

severe turbulence and/or MWA that is of sufficient

magnitude to significantly affect altitude−keeping.

38.6.1.2 Severe Turbulence. Severe turbulence

causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or

attitude usually accompanied by large variations in

indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be momentarily out

of control. Encounters with severe turbulence must

be remedied immediately in any phase of flight.

Severe turbulence may be associated with MWA.

38.6.1.3 Mountain Wave Activity (MWA)

a) Significant MWA occurs both below and above

the floor of RVSM airspace, FL 290. MWA often

occurs in western states in the vicinity of mountain

ranges. It may occur when strong winds blow

perpendicular to mountain ranges resulting in up and

down or wave motions in the atmosphere. Wave

action can produce altitude excursions and airspeed

fluctuations accompanied by only light turbulence.

With sufficient amplitude, however, wave action can

induce altitude and airspeed fluctuations accompanied by severe turbulence. MWA is difficult to

forecast and can be highly localized and short lived.

b) Wave activity is not necessarily limited to the

vicinity of mountain ranges. Pilots experiencing

wave activity anywhere that significantly affects

altitude−keeping can follow the guidance provided

below.
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c) Inflight MWA Indicators (Including Turbulence). Indicators that the aircraft is being subjected

to MWA are:

1) Altitude excursions and/or airspeed fluctuations with or without associated turbulence.

2) Pitch and trim changes required to maintain

altitude with accompanying airspeed fluctuations.

3) Light to severe turbulence depending on the

magnitude of the MWA.

38.6.1.4 Priority for Controller Application of

Merging Target Procedures

a) Explanation of Merging Target Procedures. As described in subparagraph 38.6.3.3 below,

ATC will use “merging target procedures” to mitigate

the effects of both severe turbulence and MWA. The

procedures in subparagraph 38.6.3.3 have been

adapted from existing procedures published in FAA

Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, paragraph 5−1−8,

Merging Target Procedures. Paragraph 5−1−8 calls

for en route controllers to advise pilots of potential

traffic that they perceive may fly directly above or

below his/her aircraft at minimum vertical separation. In response, pilots are given the option of

requesting a radar vector to ensure their radar target

will not merge or overlap with the traffic’s radar

target.

b) The provision of “merging target procedures”

to mitigate the effects of severe turbulence and/or

MWA is not optional for the controller, but rather is

a priority responsibility. Pilot requests for vectors for

traffic avoidance when encountering MWA or pilot

reports of “Unable RVSM due turbulence or MWA”

are considered first priority aircraft separation and

sequencing responsibilities. (FAA Order 7110.65,

paragraph 2−1−2, Duty Priority, states that the

controller’s first priority is to separate aircraft and

issue safety alerts).

c) Explanation of the term “traffic permitting.” The contingency actions for MWA and severe

turbulence detailed in paragraph 38.9, Contingency

Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System

Failures, state that the controller will “vector aircraft

to avoid merging targets with traffic at adjacent flight

levels, traffic permitting.” The term “traffic permitting” is not intended to imply that merging

target procedures are not a priority duty. The term is

intended to recognize that, as stated in FAA

Order 7110.65, paragraph 2−1−2, Duty Priority, there

are circumstances when the controller is required to

perform more than one action and must “exercise

their best judgment based on the facts and

circumstances known to them” to prioritize their

actions. Further direction given is: “That action

which is most critical from a safety standpoint is

performed first.”

38.6.1.5 TCAS Sensitivity. For both MWA and

severe turbulence encounters in RVSM airspace, an

additional concern is the sensitivity of collision

avoidance systems when one or both aircraft

operating in close proximity receive TCAS advisories in response to disruptions in altitude hold

capability.

38.6.2 Pre−flight tools. Sources of observed and

forecast information that can help the pilot ascertain

the possibility of MWA or severe turbulence are:

Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD), Area

Forecast (FA), SIGMETs and PIREPs.

38.6.3 Pilot Actions When Encountering

Weather (e.g., Severe Turbulence or MWA)

38.6.3.1 Weather Encounters Inducing Altitude

Deviations of Approximately 200 feet. When the

pilot experiences weather induced altitude deviations

of approximately 200 feet, the pilot will contact ATC

and state “Unable RVSM Due (state reason)”

(e.g., turbulence, mountain wave). See contingency

actions in paragraph 38.9.

38.6.3.2 Severe Turbulence (including that associated with MWA). When pilots encounter severe

turbulence, they should contact ATC and report the

situation. Until the pilot reports clear of severe

turbulence, the controller will apply merging target

vectors to one or both passing aircraft to prevent their

targets from merging:

EXAMPLE−

“Yankee 123, FL 310, unable RVSM due severe

turbulence.”

“Yankee 123, fly heading 290; traffic twelve o’clock,

10 miles, opposite direction; eastbound MD−80 at

FL 320” (or the controller may issue a vector to the

MD−80 traffic to avoid Yankee 123).
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38.6.3.3 MWA. When pilots encounter MWA, they

should contact ATC and report the magnitude and

location of the wave activity. When a controller

makes a merging targets traffic call, the pilot may

request a vector to avoid flying directly over or under

the traffic. In situations where the pilot is

experiencing altitude deviations of 200 feet or

greater, the pilot will request a vector to avoid traffic.

Until the pilot reports clear of MWA, the controller

will apply merging target vectors to one or both

passing aircraft to prevent their targets from merging:

EXAMPLE−

“Yankee 123, FL 310, unable RVSM due mountain wave.”

“Yankee 123, fly heading 290; traffic twelve o’clock,

10 miles, opposite direction; eastbound MD−80 at

FL 320” (or the controller may issue a vector to the

MD−80 traffic to avoid Yankee 123).

38.6.3.4 FL Change or Re−route. To leave airspace where MWA or severe turbulence is being

encountered, the pilot may request a FL change

and/or re−route, if necessary.

38.7 Guidance on Wake Turbulence

38.7.1 Pilots should be aware of the potential for

wake turbulence encounters in RVSM airspace.

Experience gained since 1997 has shown that such

encounters in RVSM airspace are generally moderate

or less in magnitude.

38.7.2 Prior to DRVSM implementation, the FAA

established provisions for pilots to report wake

turbulence events in RVSM airspace using the NASA

Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). A

“Safety Reporting” section established on the FAA

RVSM Documentation webpage provides contacts,

forms, and reporting procedures.

38.7.3 To date, wake turbulence has not been

reported as a significant factor in DRVSM

operations. European authorities also found that

reports of wake turbulence encounters did not

increase significantly after RVSM implementation

(eight versus seven reports in a ten−month period). In

addition, they found that reported wake turbulence

was generally similar to moderate clear air

turbulence.

38.7.4 Pilot Action to Mitigate Wake Turbulence

Encounters

38.7.4.1 Pilots should be alert for wake turbulence

when operating:

a) In the vicinity of aircraft climbing or

descending through their altitude.

b) Approximately 10−30 miles after passing 1,000

feet below opposite−direction traffic.

c) Approximately 10−30 miles behind and

1,000 feet below same−direction traffic.

38.7.4.2 Pilots encountering or anticipating wake

turbulence in DRVSM airspace have the option of

requesting a vector, FL change, or if capable, a lateral

offset.

NOTE−

1. Offsets of approximately a wing span upwind generally

can move the aircraft out of the immediate vicinity of

another aircraft’s wake vortex.

2. In domestic U.S. airspace, pilots must request clearance

to fly a lateral offset. Strategic lateral offsets flown in

oceanic airspace do not apply.

38.7.5 The FAA will track wake turbulence events as

an element of its post implementation program. The

FAA will advertise wake turbulence reporting

procedures to the operator community and publish

reporting procedures on the RVSM Documentation

Webpage (See address in paragraph 38.3, Aircraft

and Operator Approval Policy/Procedures, RVSM

Monitoring and Databases for Aircraft and Operator

Approval.

38.8 Pilot/Controller Phraseology

TBL ENR 1.1−3 shows standard phraseology that

pilots and controllers will use to communicate in

DRVSM operations.
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TBL ENR 1.1−3

Pilot/Controller Phraseology

Message Phraseology

For a controller to ascertain the RVSM approval status of

an aircraft:

(call sign) confirm RVSM approved

Pilot indication that flight is RVSM approved Affirm RVSM

Pilot report of lack of RVSM approval (non−RVSM status).

Pilot will report non−RVSM status, as follows:

Negative RVSM, (supplementary information,

e.g., “Certification flight”).

a. On the initial call on any frequency in the RVSM

airspace and . . .

b. In all requests for flight level changes pertaining to

flight levels within the RVSM airspace and . . .

c. In all read backs to flight level clearances pertaining

to flight levels within the RVSM airspace and . . .

d. In read back of flight level clearances involving

climb and descent through RVSM airspace 

(FL 290 − 410)

Pilot report of one of the following after entry into RVSM

airspace: all primary altimeters, automatic altitude control

systems or altitude alerters have failed. 

(See paragraph 38.9, Contingency Actions: Weather

Encounters and Aircraft System Failures). 

NOTE−

This phrase is to be used to convey both the initial indication of

RVSM aircraft system failure and on initial contact on all

frequencies in RVSM airspace until the problem ceases to exist

or the aircraft has exited RVSM airspace.

Unable RVSM Due Equipment

ATC denial of clearance into RVSM airspace Unable issue clearance into RVSM airspace, maintain FL

*Pilot reporting inability to maintain cleared flight level

due to weather encounter. (See paragraph 38.9,

Contingency Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft

System Failures).

*Unable RVSM due (state reason) (e.g., turbulence,

mountain wave)

ATC requesting pilot to confirm that an aircraft has

regained RVSM−approved status or a pilot is ready to

resume RVSM

Confirm able to resume RVSM

Pilot ready to resume RVSM after aircraft system or

weather contingency

Ready to resume RVSM
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38.9 Contingency Actions: Weather Encounters

and Aircraft System Failures

TBL ENR 1.1−4 provides pilot guidance on actions

to take under certain conditions of aircraft system

failure and weather encounters. It also describes the

expected ATC controller actions in these situations. It

is recognized that the pilot and controller will use

judgment to determine the action most appropriate to

any given situation.

TBL ENR 1.1−4

Contingency Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System Failures

Initial Pilot Actions in Contingency Situations

Initial pilot actions when unable to maintain flight level (FL) or unsure of aircraft altitude−keeping

capability: 

Notify ATC and request assistance as detailed below. 

Maintain cleared flight level, to the extent possible, while evaluating the situation.

Watch for conflicting traffic both visually and by reference to TCAS, if equipped.

Alert nearby aircraft by illuminating exterior lights (commensurate with aircraft limitations).

Severe Turbulence and/or Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) Induced 

Altitude Deviations of Approximately 200 feet

Pilot will: Controller will:

When experiencing severe turbulence and/or

MWA induced altitude deviations of

approximately 200 feet or greater, pilot will

contact ATC and state “Unable RVSM Due (state

reason)” (e.g., turbulence, mountain wave)

If not issued by the controller, request vector

clear of traffic at adjacent FLs

If desired, request FL change or re−route

Report location and magnitude of turbulence or

MWA to ATC

Vector aircraft to avoid merging target with

traffic at adjacent flight levels, traffic permitting

Advise pilot of conflicting traffic

Issue FL change or re−route, traffic permitting

Issue PIREP to other aircraft

See paragraph 38.6, Guidance on Severe Turbulence

and Mountain Wave Activity (MWA), for detailed

guidance.

Paragraph 38.6 explains “traffic permitting.”
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Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) Encounters − General

Pilot actions: Controller actions:

Contact ATC and report experiencing MWA

If so desired, pilot may request a FL change or

re−route 

Report location and magnitude of MWA to ATC

Advise pilot of conflicting traffic at adjacent FL

If pilot requests, vector aircraft to avoid merging

target with traffic at adjacent RVSM flight levels,

traffic permitting

Issue FL change or re−route, traffic permitting

Issue PIREP to other aircraft

See paragraph 38.6 for guidance on MWA. Paragraph 38.6 explains “traffic permitting.”

NOTE−

MWA encounters do not necessarily result in altitude deviations on the order of 200 feet. The guidance below is

intended to address less significant MWA encounters.

Wake Turbulence Encounters

Pilot should: Controller should:

Contact ATC and request vector, FL change or,

if capable, a lateral offset

Issue vector, FL change or lateral offset clearance, traffic permitting

See paragraph 38.7, Guidance on Wake Turbulence. Paragraph 38.6 explains “traffic permitting.”

“Unable RVSM Due Equipment”

Failure of Automatic Altitude Control System, Altitude Alerter or All Primary Altimeters

Pilot will: Controller will:

Contact ATC and state “Unable RVSM Due

Equipment”

Request clearance out of RVSM airspace unless

operational situation dictates otherwise

Provide 2,000 feet vertical separation or

appropriate horizontal separation

Clear aircraft out of RVSM airspace unless

operational situation dictates otherwise

One Primary Altimeter Remains Operational

Pilot will: Controller will:

Cross check stand−by altimeter

Notify ATC of operation with single primary

altimeter

If unable to confirm primary altimeter accuracy,

follow actions for failure of all primary altimeters

Acknowledge operation with single primary

altimeter
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Transponder Failure

Pilot will: Controller will:

Contact ATC and request authority to continue

to operate at cleared flight level

Comply with revised ATC clearance, if issued

Consider request to continue to operate at

cleared flight level

Issue revised clearance, if necessary

NOTE−

14 CFR Section 91.215 (ATC transponder and altitude

reporting equipment and use) regulates operation with the

transponder inoperative.

38.10 Procedures for Accommodation of

Non−RVSM Aircraft

38.10.1 General Policies for Accommodation of

Non−RVSM Aircraft

38.10.1.1 The RVSM mandate calls for only RVSM

authorized aircraft/operators to fly in designated

RVSM airspace with limited exceptions. The policies

detailed below are intended exclusively for use by

aircraft that the FAA has agreed to accommodate.

They are not intended to provide other operators a

means to circumvent the normal RVSM approval

process.

38.10.1.2 If either the operator or aircraft or both

have not been authorized to conduct RVSM

operations, the aircraft will be referred to as a

“non−RVSM” aircraft. 14 CFR Section 91.180 and

Part 91 Appendix G enable the FAA to authorize a

deviation to operate a non−RVSM aircraft in RVSM

airspace.

38.10.1.3 Non−RVSM aircraft flights will be

handled on a workload permitting basis. The vertical

separation standard applied between aircraft not

approved for RVSM and all other aircraft shall be

2,000 feet.

38.10.1.4 Required Pilot Calls. The pilot of

non−RVSM aircraft will inform the controller of the

lack of RVSM approval in accordance with the

direction provided in paragraph 38.8, Pilot/Controller Phraseology.

38.10.2 Categories of Non−RVSM Aircraft that

may be Accommodated

Subject to FAA approval and clearance, the following

categories of non−RVSM aircraft may operate in

domestic U.S. RVSM airspace provided they have an

operational transponder.

38.10.2.1 Department of Defense (DOD) aircraft.

38.10.2.2 Flights conducted for aircraft certification

and development purposes.

38.10.2.3 Active air ambulance flights utilizing a

“Lifeguard” call sign.

38.10.2.4 Aircraft climbing/descending through

RVSM flight levels (without intermediate level off)

to/from FLs above RVSM airspace (Policies for these

flights are detailed in paragraph 38.11, Non−RVSM

Aircraft Requesting Climb to and Descent from

Flight Levels Above RVSM Airspace Without

Intermediate Level Off.

38.10.2.5 Foreign State (government) aircraft.

38.10.3 Methods for operators of non−RVSM

aircraft to request access to RVSM Airspace.

Operators may:

38.10.3.1 LOA/MOU. Enter into a Letter of

Agreement (LOA)/Memorandum of Understanding

(MOU) with the RVSM facility (the Air Traffic

facility that provides air traffic services in RVSM

airspace). Operators must comply with LOA/MOU.
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38.10.3.2 File−and−Fly. File a flight plan to notify

the FAA of their intention to request access to RVSM

airspace.

NOTE−

Priority for access to RVSM airspace will be afforded to

RVSM compliant aircraft, then File−and−Fly flights.

38.10.3.3 DOD. Some DOD non−RVSM aircraft

will be designated as aircraft requiring special

consideration. For coordination purposes they will be

referred to as STORM flights. DOD enters STORM

flights on the DOD Priority Mission website and

notifies the departure RVSM facility for flights that

are within 60 minutes of departure.

NOTE−

Special consideration will be afforded a STORM flight;

however, accommodation of any non−RVSM flight is

workload permitting.

38.10.4 Center Phone Numbers. Center phone

numbers are posted on the RVSM Documentation

Webpage, North American RVSM, Domestic U.S.

RVSM section. This address provides direct access to

the phone number listing:

http://www.faa.gov/ats/ato/150_docs/Center_

Phone_No._Non−RVSM_Acft.doc

38.11 Non−RVSM Aircraft Requesting Climb to

and Descent from Flight Levels Above RVSM

Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off

38.11.1 File−and−Fly. Operators of Non−RVSM

aircraft climbing to and descending from RVSM

flight levels should just file a flight plan.

38.11.2 Non−RVSM aircraft climbing to and descending from flight levels above RVSM airspace

will be handled on a workload permitting basis. The

vertical separation standard applied in RVSM

airspace between non−RVSM aircraft and all other

aircraft shall be 2,000 feet.

38.11.3 Non−RVSM aircraft climbing to/descending

from RVSM airspace can only be considered for

accommodation provided:

38.11.3.1 Aircraft is capable of a continuous

climb/descent and does not need to level off at an

intermediate altitude for any operational considerations and

38.11.3.2 Aircraft is capable of climb/descent at the

normal rate for the aircraft.

38.11.4 Required Pilot Calls. The pilot of non−

RVSM aircraft will inform the controller of the lack

of RVSM approval in accordance with the direction

provided in paragraph 38.8, Pilot/Controller Phraseology.

39. Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft

39.1 Basic Radar Service

39.1.1 In addition to the use of radar for the control

of IFR aircraft, all commissioned radar facilities

provide the following basic radar services for VFR

aircraft:

39.1.1.1 Safety alerts.

39.1.1.2 Traffic advisories.

39.1.1.3 Limited radar vectoring (on a workload

permitting basis).

39.1.1.4 Sequencing at locations where procedures

have been established for this purpose and/or when

covered by a letter of agreement.

NOTE−

When the stage services were developed, two basic radar

services (traffic advisories and limited vectoring) were

identified as “Stage I.” This definition became

unnecessary and the term “Stage I” was eliminated from

use. The term “Stage II” has been eliminated in

conjunction with the airspace reclassification, and

sequencing services to locations with local procedures

and/or letters of agreement to provide this service have

been included in basic services to VFR aircraft. These

basic services will still be provided by all terminal radar

facilities whether they include Class B, C, D, or E airspace.

“Stage III” services have been replaced with “Class B”

and “Terminal Radar Service Area” service where

applicable.

39.1.2 Vectoring service may be provided when

requested by the pilot or with pilot concurrence when

suggested by ATC.

39.1.3 Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact

approach control on the publicized frequency and

give their position, altitude, aircraft call sign, type

aircraft, radar beacon code (if transponder equipped),

destination, and should request traffic information.

39.1.4 Approach control will issue wind and

runway, except when the pilot states “have numbers”

or this information is contained in the ATIS broadcast

and the pilot states that the current ATIS information

has been received. Traffic information is provided on

a workload permitting basis. Approach control will
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specify the time or place at which the pilot is to

contact the tower on local control frequency for

further landing information. Radar service is

automatically terminated and the aircraft need not be

advised of termination when an arriving VFR aircraft

receiving radar services to a tower−controlled airport

where basic radar service is provided has landed, or

to all other airports, is instructed to change to tower

or advisory frequency.

39.1.5 Sequencing for VFR aircraft is available at

certain terminal locations (see locations listed in the

Airport/Facility Directory). The purpose of the

service is to adjust the flow of arriving VFR and IFR

aircraft into the traffic pattern in a safe and orderly

manner and to provide radar traffic information to

departing VFR aircraft. Pilot participation is urged

but is not mandatory. Traffic information is provided

on a workload permitting basis. Standard radar

separation between VFR or between VFR and IFR

aircraft is not provided.

39.1.5.1 Pilots of arriving VFR aircraft should

initiate radio contact on the publicized frequency

with approach control when approximately 25 miles

from the airport at which sequencing services are

being provided. On initial contact by VFR aircraft,

approach control will assume that sequencing service

is requested. After radar contact is established, the

pilot may use pilot navigation to enter the traffic

pattern or, depending on traffic conditions, approach

control may provide the pilot with routings or vectors

necessary for proper sequencing with other participating VFR and IFR traffic en route to the airport.

When a flight is positioned behind a preceding

aircraft and the pilot reports having that aircraft in

sight, the pilot will be instructed to follow the

preceding aircraft. THE ATC INSTRUCTION TO

FOLLOW THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT DOES

NOT AUTHORIZE THE PILOT TO COMPLY

WITH ANY ATC CLEARANCE OR INSTRUCTION ISSUED TO THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT.

If other “nonparticipating” or “local” aircraft are in

the traffic pattern, the tower will issue a landing

sequence. If an arriving aircraft does not want radar

service, the pilot should state “NEGATIVE RADAR

SERVICE” or make a similar comment, on initial

contact with approach control.

39.1.5.2 Pilots of departing VFR aircraft are

encouraged to request radar traffic information by

notifying ground control on initial contact with their

request and proposed direction of flight.

EXAMPLE−

Xray ground control, November One Eight Six, Cessna One

Seventy Two, ready to taxi, VFR southbound at 2,500, have

information bravo and request radar traffic information.

NOTE−

Following takeoff, the tower will advise when to contact

departure control.

39.1.5.3 Pilots of aircraft transiting the area and in

radar contact/communication with approach control

will receive traffic information on a controller

workload permitting basis. Pilots of such aircraft

should give their position, altitude, aircraft call sign,

aircraft type, radar beacon code (if transponder

equipped), destination, and/or route of flight.

39.2 Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)

Service (Radar Sequencing and Separation

Service for VFR Aircraft in a TRSA).

39.2.1 This service has been implemented at certain

terminal locations. The service is advertised in the

Airport/Facility Directory. The purpose of this

service is to provide separation between all

participating VFR aircraft and all IFR aircraft

operating within the airspace defined as the TRSA.

Pilot participation is urged but is not mandatory.

39.2.2 If any aircraft does not want the service, the

pilot should state “NEGATIVE TRSA SERVICE” or

make a similar comment, on initial contact with

approach control or ground control, as appropriate.

39.2.3 TRSAs are depicted on sectional aeronautical

charts and listed in the Airport/Facility Directory.

39.2.4 While operating within a TRSA, pilots are

provided TRSA service and separation as prescribed

in this paragraph. In the event of a radar outage,

separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be

suspended as this service is dependent on radar. The

pilot will be advised that the service is not available

and will be issued wind, runway information, and the

time or place to contact the tower. Traffic information

will be provided on a workload permitting basis.

39.2.5 Visual separation is used when prevailing

conditions permit and it will be applied as follows:

39.2.5.1 When a VFR flight is positioned behind a

preceding aircraft and the pilot reports having that

aircraft in sight, the pilot will be instructed by ATC

to follow the preceding aircraft. THE ATC
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INSTRUCTION TO FOLLOW THE PRECEDING

AIRCRAFT DOES NOT AUTHORIZE THE

PILOT TO COMPLY WITH ANY ATC CLEAR−

ANCE OR INSTRUCTION ISSUED TO THE

PRECEDING AIRCRAFT. Radar service will be

continued to the runway.

39.2.5.2 If other “nonparticipating” or “local”

aircraft are in the traffic pattern, the tower will issue

a landing sequence.

39.2.5.3 Departing VFR aircraft may be asked if

they can visually follow a preceding departure out of

the TRSA. The pilot will be instructed to follow the

other aircraft provided that the pilot can maintain

visual contact with that aircraft.

39.2.6 VFR aircraft will be separated from VFR/IFR

aircraft by one of the following:

39.2.6.1 500 feet vertical separation.

39.2.6.2 Visual separation.

39.2.6.3 Target resolution (a process to ensure that

correlated radar targets do not touch) when using

broadband radar systems.

39.2.7 Participating pilots operating VFR in a

TRSA:

39.2.7.1 Must maintain an altitude when assigned by

ATC unless the altitude assignment is to maintain at

or below a specified altitude. ATC may assign

altitudes for separation that do not conform to

14 CFR Section 91.159. When the altitude assignment is no longer needed for separation or when

leaving the TRSA, the instruction will be broadcast,

“RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES.”

Pilots must then return to an altitude that conforms to

14 CFR Section 91.159 as soon as practicable.

39.2.7.2 When not assigned an altitude, the pilot

should coordinate with ATC prior to any altitude

change.

39.2.8 Within the TRSA, traffic information on

observed but unidentified targets will, to the extent

possible, be provided to all IFR and participating

VFR aircraft. The pilot will be vectored upon request

to avoid the observed traffic, provided the aircraft to

be vectored is within the airspace under the

jurisdiction of the controller.

39.2.9 Departing aircraft should inform ATC of their

intended destination and/or route of flight and

proposed cruising altitude.

39.2.10 ATC will normally advise participating

VFR aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of

the TRSA. Radar service is not automatically

terminated with this advisory unless specifically

stated by the controller.

39.3 Class C Service. This service provides, in

addition to basic radar service, approved separation

between IFR and VFR aircraft, and sequencing of

VFR arrivals to the primary airport.

39.4 Class B Service. This service provides, in

addition to basic radar service, approved separation

of aircraft based on IFR, VFR, and/or weight, and

sequencing of VFR arrivals to the primary airport(s).

39.5 PILOT RESPONSIBILITY. THESE SERVICES ARE NOT TO BE INTERPRETED AS

RELIEVING PILOTS OF THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES TO SEE AND AVOID OTHER TRAFFIC

OPERATING IN BASIC VFR WEATHER CONDITIONS, TO ADJUST THEIR OPERATIONS AND

FLIGHT PATH AS NECESSARY TO PRECLUDE

SERIOUS WAKE ENCOUNTERS, TO MAINTAIN

APPROPRIATE TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION

CLEARANCE, OR TO REMAIN IN WEATHER

CONDITIONS EQUAL TO OR BETTER THAN

THE MINIMUMS REQUIRED BY 14 CFR

SECTION 91.155. WHENEVER COMPLIANCE

WITH AN ASSIGNED ROUTE, HEADING

AND/OR ALTITUDE IS LIKELY TO COMPROMISE PILOT RESPONSIBILITY RESPECTING

TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE,

VORTEX EXPOSURE, AND WEATHER MINIMUMS, APPROACH CONTROL SHOULD BE SO

ADVISED AND A REVISED CLEARANCE OR

INSTRUCTION OBTAINED.

39.6 ATC services for VFR aircraft participating in

terminal radar services are dependent on ATC radar.

Services for VFR aircraft are not available during

periods of radar outage and are limited during

CENRAP operations. The pilot will be advised when

VFR services are limited or not available.

NOTE−

Class B and Class C airspace are areas of regulated

airspace. The absence of ATC radar does not negate the

requirement of an ATC clearance to enter Class B

airspaceor two−way radio contact with ATC to enter

Class C airspace.
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40. Tower En Route Control (TEC)

40.1 TEC is an ATC program to provide a service to

aircraft proceeding to and from metropolitan areas. It

links designated approach control areas by a network

of identified routes made up of the existing airway

structure of the National Airspace System. The FAA

has initiated an expanded TEC program to include as

many facilities as possible. The program’s intent is to

provide an overflow resource in the low altitude

system which would enhance ATC services. A few

facilities have historically allowed turbojets to

proceed between certain city pairs, such as

Milwaukee and Chicago, via tower en route and these

locations may continue this service. However, the

expanded TEC program will be applied, generally,

for nonturbojet aircraft operating at and below

10,000 feet. The program is entirely within the

approach control airspace of multiple terminal

facilities. Essentially, it is for relatively short flights.

Participating pilots are encouraged to use TEC for

flights of 2 hours duration or less. If longer flights are

planned, extensive coordination may be required

with the multiple complex which could result in

unanticipated delays.

40.2 There are no unique requirements upon pilots to

use the TEC program. Normal flight plan filing

procedures will ensure proper flight plan processing.

Pilots should include the acronym “TEC” in the

remarks selection of the flight plan when requesting

tower en route.

40.3 All approach controls in the system may not

operate up to the maximum TEC altitude of

10,000 feet. IFR flight may be planned to any satellite

airport in proximity to the major primary airport via

the same routing.

41. Services in Offshore Controlled

Airspace

41.1 Pilots requesting TEC are subject to the same

delay factor at the destination airport as other aircraft

in the ATC system. In addition, departure and en route

delays may occur depending upon individual facility

workload. When a major metropolitan airport is

incurring significant delays, pilots in the TEC

program may want to consider an alternative airport

experiencing no delay.

41.2 Flights which operate between the U.S. 3−mile

territorial limit and the adjoining oceanic controlled

airspace/flight information region (CTA/FIR)

boundaries generally operate in airspace designated

by federal regulation as “controlled airspace,” or

“offshore controlled airspace.”

41.3 Within the designated areas ATC radar

surveillance, ground based navigational signal

coverage, and air/ground communications are

capable of supporting air traffic services comparable

to those provided over U.S. domestic controlled

airspace.

41.4 Pilots should be aware that domestic procedures will be applied in offshore controlled airspace

to both VFR and IFR aircraft using ATC services.

42. Pilot/Controller Roles/Responsibilities

42.1 General

42.1.1 The roles and responsibilities of the pilot and

controller for effective participation in the ATC

system are contained in several documents. Pilot

responsibilities are in the Federal Aviation Regulations (Title 14 of the U.S. Code of Federal

Regulations) and the air traffic controller’s are in

FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, and

supplemental FAA directives. Additional and

supplemental information for pilots can be found in

the current Aeronautical Information Manual,

Notices to Airmen, advisory circulars, and aeronautical charts. Since there are many other excellent

publications produced by nongovernment organizations as well as other Government organizations with

various updating cycles, questions concerning the

latest or most current material can be resolved by

cross−checking with the above mentioned documents.

42.1.2 The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly

responsible for and is the final authority as to the safe

operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring

immediate action, the pilot in command may deviate

from any rule in the General, Subpart A, and Flight

Rules, Subpart B, in accordance with 14 CFR

Section 91.3.

42.1.3 The air traffic controller is responsible to give

first priority to the separation of aircraft and to the

issuance of radar safety alerts; second priority to

other services that are required, but do not involve

separation of aircraft; and third priority to additional

services to the extent possible.
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42.1.4 In order to maintain a safe and efficient air

traffic system, it is necessary that every party fulfill

their responsibilities to the fullest.

42.1.5 The responsibilities of the pilot and the

controller intentionally overlap in many areas

providing a degree of redundancy. Should one or the

other fail in any manner, this overlapping responsibility is expected to compensate, in many cases, for

failures that may affect safety.

42.1.6 The following, while not intended to be all

inclusive, is a brief listing of pilot and controller

responsibilities for some commonly used procedures

or phases of flight. More detailed explanations are

contained in the appropriate Federal Aviation

Regulations, Advisory Circulars, and similar publications. The information provided here is an

overview of the principles involved and is not meant

as an interpretation of the rules nor is it intended to

extend or diminish responsibilities.

42.2 Air Traffic Clearance

42.2.1 Pilot

42.2.1.1 Acknowledges receipt and understanding

of an ATC clearance.

42.2.1.2 Reads back any hold short of runway

instructions issued by ATC.

42.2.1.3 Requests clarification or amendment, as

appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully

understood, or considered unacceptable from a safety

standpoint.

42.2.1.4 Promptly complies with an air traffic

clearance upon receipt, except as necessary to cope

with an emergency. Advises ATC as soon as possible

and obtains an amended clearance if deviation is

necessary.

NOTE−

A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on

the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance

does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any

previously issued altitude crossing restriction.

42.2.2 Controller

42.2.2.1 Issues appropriate clearances for the

operation being, or to be, conducted in accordance

with established criteria.

42.2.2.2 Assigns altitudes in IFR clearances that are

at or above the minimum IFR altitudes in Classes A,

B, C, D, and E airspace.

42.2.2.3 Ensures acknowledgements by the pilot for

issued information, clearance, or instructions.

42.2.2.4 Ensures that readbacks by the pilot of

altitude, heading, or other items are correct. If

incorrect, distorted, or incomplete, makes corrections

as appropriate.

42.3 Contact Approach

42.3.1 Pilot

42.3.1.1 This approach must be requested by the

pilot and is made in lieu of a standard or special

instrument approach.

42.3.1.2 By requesting the contact approach, the

pilot indicates that the flight is operating clear of

clouds, has at least 1 mile flight visibility, and can

reasonably expect to continue to the destination

airport in those conditions.

42.3.1.3 Be aware that while conducting a contact

approach, the pilot assumes responsibility for

obstruction clearance.

42.3.1.4 Advises ATC immediately if you are unable

to continue the contact approach or if you encounter

less than 1 mile flight visibility.

42.3.1.5 Be aware that, if radar service is being

received, it may automatically terminate when the

pilot is told to contact the tower. “Radar service

terminated” is used by ATC to inform a pilot that

he/she will no longer be provided any of the services

that could be received while in radar contact.

REFERENCE−

The Pilot/Controller Glossary is published in the Aeronautical

Information Manual (AIM) and FAA Orders 7110.10, Flight Services, and

7110.65, Air Traffic Control.

42.3.2 Controller

42.3.2.1 Issues clearance for contact approach only

when requested by the pilot. Does not solicit the use

of this procedure.

42.3.2.2 Before issuing clearance, ascertains that

reported ground visibility at destination airport is at

least 1 mile.

42.3.2.3 Provides approved separation between

aircraft cleared for contact approach and other IFR or

special VFR aircraft. When using vertical separation,

does not assign a fixed altitude but clears the aircraft
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at or below an altitude which is at least 1,000 feet

below any IFR traffic but not below minimum safe

altitudes prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.119.

42.3.2.4 Issues alternative instructions if, in the

controller’s judgment, weather conditions may make

completion of the approach impractical.

42.4 Instrument Approach

42.4.1 Pilot

42.4.1.1 Be aware that the controller issues

clearance for approach based only on known traffic.

42.4.1.2 Follows the procedures as shown on the

instrument approach chart including all restrictive

notations, such as:

a) Procedure not authorized at night.

b) Approach not authorized when local area

altimeter not available.

c) Procedure not authorized when control tower

not in operation.

d) Procedure not authorized when glide slope not

used.

e) Straight−in minimums not authorized at night.

f) Radar required.

g) The circling minimums published on the

instrument approach chart provide adequate obstruction clearance. The pilot should not descend below

the circling altitude until the aircraft is in a position

to make final descent for landing. Sound judgment

and knowledge of the pilot’s and the aircraft’s

capabilities are the criteria for a pilot to determine the

exact maneuver in each instance since airport design

and the aircraft position, altitude, and airspeed must

all be considered. (See ENR 1.5, paragraph 11.6,

Circling Minimums.)

42.4.1.3 Upon receipt of an approach clearance

while on an unpublished route or being radar

vectored:

a) Complies with the minimum altitude for IFR.

b) Maintains last assigned altitude until established on a segment of a published route or

Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP), at which time

published altitudes apply.

42.4.2 Controller

42.4.2.1 Issues an approach clearance based on

known traffic.

42.4.2.2 Issues an IFR approach clearance only after

aircraft is established on a segment of published route

or IAP; or assigns an appropriate altitude for the

aircraft to maintain until so established.

42.5 Missed Approach

42.5.1 Pilot

42.5.1.1 Executes a missed approach when one of

the following conditions exist:

a) Arrival at the missed approach point (MAP) or

the decision height (DH) and visual reference to the

runway environment is insufficient to complete the

landing.

b) Determines that a safe approach or landing is

not possible (see ENR 1.5 paragraph 26.7).

c) Instructed to do so by ATC.

42.5.1.2 Advises ATC that a missed approach will be

made. Include the reason for the missed approach

unless initiated by ATC.

42.5.1.3 Complies with the missed approach instructions for the IAP being executed from the MAP,

unless other missed approach instructions are

specified by ATC.

42.5.1.4 If executing a missed approach prior to

reaching the MAP, fly the lateral navigation path of

the instrument procedure to the MAP. Climb to the

altitude specified in the missed approach procedure,

except when a maximum altitude is specified

between the final approach fix (FAF) and the MAP. In

that case, comply with the maximum altitude

restriction. Note, this may require a continued

descent on the final approach.

42.5.1.5 Following a missed approach, requests

clearance for specific action; i.e., another approach,

hold for improved conditions, proceed to an alternate

airport, etc.

42.5.2 Controller

42.5.2.1 Issues an approved alternate missed approach procedure if it is desired that the pilot execute

a procedure other than as depicted on the instrument

approach chart.

42.5.2.2 May vector a radar identified aircraft

executing a missed approach when operationally

advantageous to the pilot or the controller.
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42.5.2.3 In response to the pilot’s stated intentions,

issues a clearance to an alternate airport, to a holding

fix, or for reentry into the approach sequence, as

traffic conditions permit.

42.6 Radar Vectors

42.6.1 Pilot

42.6.1.1 Promptly complies with headings and

altitudes assigned to you by the controller.

42.6.1.2 Questions any assigned heading or altitude

believed to be incorrect.

42.6.1.3 If operating VFR and compliance with any

radar vector or altitude would cause a violation of any

Federal Aviation Regulation, advises ATC and obtain

a revised clearance or instruction.

42.6.2 Controller

42.6.2.1 Vectors aircraft in Class A, B, C, D, and

E airspace:

a) For separation.

b) For noise abatement.

c) To obtain an operational advantage for the pilot

or the controller.

42.6.2.2 Vectors aircraft in Class A, B, C, D, E, and

G airspace when requested by the pilot.

42.6.2.3 Vectors IFR aircraft at or above minimum

vectoring altitudes.

42.6.2.4 May vector VFR aircraft, not at an ATC

assigned altitude, at any altitude. In these cases,

terrain separation is the pilot’s responsibility.

42.7 Speed Adjustments

42.7.1 Pilot (In U.S. Domestic Class A, B, C, D,

and E airspace)

42.7.2 Except as stated in paragraphs 42.7.5 and

42.7.6, advises ATC anytime the true airspeed at

cruising level varies or is expected to vary by plus or

minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number, whichever is

less, of the filed true airspeed.

42.7.3 Complies with speed adjustments from ATC

unless:

42.7.3.1 Except as stated in paragraphs 42.7.5 and

42.7.6, advises ATC anytime the true airspeed at

cruising level varies or is expected to vary by plus or

minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number, whichever is

less, of the filed true airspeed.

42.7.3.2 Complies with speed adjustments from

ATC unless:

a) The minimum or maximum safe airspeed for

any particular operation is greater or less than the

requested airspeed. In such cases, advises ATC.

b) Operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on an

ATC assigned SPEED ADJUSTMENT of more than

250 knots IAS and subsequent clearance is received

for descent below 10,000 feet MSL. In such cases,

pilots are expected to comply with 14 CFR

Section 97.117(a).

42.7.4 Controller (In U.S. Domestic Class A, B, C,

D, and E Airspaces)

42.7.4.1 Assigns aircraft to speed adjustments when

necessary, but not as a substitute for good vectoring

technique.

42.7.4.2 Adheres to the restrictions of FAA

Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, as to when speed

adjustment procedures may be applied.

42.7.4.3 Avoids speed adjustments requiring alternate decreases and increases.

42.7.4.4 Assigns speed adjustments to a specified

IAS knots/Mach number or to increase or decrease

speed utilizing increments of 10 knots or multiples

thereof.

42.7.4.5 Advises pilots to resume normal speed

when speed adjustments are no longer required.

42.7.4.6 Gives due consideration to aircraft capabilities to reduce speed while descending.

42.7.5 Pilot (In Oceanic Class A and E Airspace)

42.7.5.1 If ATC has not assigned an airspeed, advises

ATC anytime the true airspeed at cruising level varies

or is expected to vary by ±10 knots or 0.02 Mach

number, whichever is less, of the filed true airspeed.

42.7.5.2 If ATC has assigned an airspeed, aircraft

shall adhere to the ATC assigned airspeed and shall

request ATC approval before making any change

thereto. If it is essential to make an immediate

temporary change in the Mach number (e.g., due to

turbulence), ATC shall be notified as soon as

possible. If it is not feasible, due to aircraft

performance, to maintain the last assigned Mach
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number during an en route climb or descent, advises

ATC at the time of the request.

42.7.6 Controller (In Oceanic Class A and E

Airspace)

42.7.6.1 Assigns airspeed when necessary for

separation of aircraft to comply with 14 CFR, ICAO

regulations and procedures, or letters of agreement.

42.8 Traffic Advisories (Traffic Information)

42.8.1 Pilot

42.8.1.1 Acknowledges receipt of traffic advisories.

42.8.1.2 Informs controller if traffic is in sight.

42.8.1.3 Advises ATC if a vector to avoid traffic is

desired.

42.8.1.4 Does not expect to receive radar traffic

advisories on all traffic. Some aircraft may not appear

on the radar display. Be aware that the controller may

be occupied with high priority duties and unable to

issue traffic information for a variety of reasons.

42.8.1.5 Advises controller if service is not desired.

42.8.2 Controller

42.8.2.1 Issues radar traffic to the maximum extent

consistent with higher priority duties except in

Class A airspace.

42.8.2.2 Provides vectors to assist aircraft to avoid

observed traffic when requested by the pilot.

42.8.2.3 Issues traffic information to aircraft in

Class D airspace for sequencing purposes.

42.9 Safety Alert

42.9.1 Pilot

42.9.1.1 Initiates appropriate action if a safety alert

is received from ATC.

42.9.1.2 Be aware that this service is not always

available and that many factors affect the ability of

the controller to be aware of a situation in which

unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another

aircraft may be developing.

42.9.2 Controller

42.9.2.1 Issues a safety alert if aware an aircraft

under their control is at an altitude which, in the

controller’s judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe

proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another aircraft.

Types of safety alerts are:

a) Terrain/Obstruction Alerts. Immediately issued to an aircraft under their control if aware the

aircraft is at an altitude believed to place the aircraft

in unsafe proximity to terrain/obstruction.

b) Aircraft Conflict Alerts. Immediately issued

to an aircraft under their control if aware of an aircraft

not under their control at an altitude believed to place

the aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other. With the

alert, they offer the pilot an alternative if feasible.

42.9.2.2 Discontinues further alerts if informed by

the pilot action is being taken to correct the situation

or that the other aircraft is in sight.

42.10 See and Avoid

42.10.1 Pilot

42.10.1.1 When meteorological conditions permit,

regardless of type of flight plan or whether or not

under control of a radar facility, the pilot is

responsible to see and avoid other traffic, terrain, or

obstacles.

42.10.2 Controller

42.10.2.1 Provides radar traffic information to radar

identified aircraft operating outside positive control

airspace on a workload permitting basis.

42.10.2.2 Issues a safety advisory to an aircraft

under their control if aware the aircraft is at an altitude

believed to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to

terrain, obstructions or other aircraft.

42.11 Visual Approach

42.11.1 Pilot

42.11.1.1 If a visual approach is not desired, advises

ATC.

42.11.1.2 Complies with controller’s instructions for

vectors toward the airport of intended landing or to a

visual position behind a preceding aircraft.

42.11.1.3 The pilot must, at all times, have either the

airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. After being

cleared for a visual approach, proceed to the airport

in a normal manner or follow the preceding aircraft.

Remain clear of clouds while conducting a visual

approach.
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42.11.1.4 If the pilot accepts a visual approach

clearance to visually follow a preceding aircraft, you

are required to establish a safe landing interval behind

the aircraft you were instructed to follow. You are

responsible for wake turbulence separation.

42.11.1.5 Advises ATC immediately if the pilot is

unable to continue following the preceding aircraft,

cannot remain clear of clouds, or loses sight of the

airport.

42.11.1.6 Be aware that radar service is automatically terminated, without being advised by ATC, when

the pilot is instructed to change to advisory frequency.

42.11.1.7 Be aware that there may be other traffic in

the traffic pattern and the landing sequence may differ

from the traffic sequence assigned by the approach

control or ARTCC.

42.11.2 Controller

42.11.2.1 Does not clear an aircraft for a visual

approach unless reported weather at the airport is

ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility is 3 miles

or greater. When weather is not available for the

destination airport, informs the pilot and does not

initiate a visual approach to that airport unless there

is reasonable assurance that descent and flight to the

airport can be made visually.

42.11.2.2 Issues visual approach clearance when the

pilot reports sighting either the airport or a preceding

aircraft which is to be followed.

42.11.2.3 Provides separation except when visual

separation is being applied by the pilot.

42.11.2.4 Continues flight following and traffic

information until the aircraft has landed or has been

instructed to change to advisory frequency.

42.11.2.5 Informs the pilot when the preceding

aircraft is a heavy.

42.11.2.6 When weather is available for the

destination airport, does not initiate a vector for a

visual approach unless the reported ceiling at the

airport is 500 feet or more above the MVA and

visibility is 3 miles or more. If vectoring weather

minima are not available but weather at the airport is

ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility of 3 miles

or greater, visual approaches may still be conducted.

42.11.2.7 Informs the pilot conducting the visual

approach of the aircraft class when pertinent traffic is

known to be a heavy aircraft.

42.12 Visual Separation

42.12.1 Pilot

42.12.1.1 Acceptance of instructions to follow

another aircraft or to provide visual separation from

it is an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver

the aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or

to maintain in−trail separation. Pilots are responsible

to maintain visual separation until flight paths

(altitudes and/or courses) diverge.

42.12.1.2 If instructed by ATC to follow another

aircraft or to provide visual separation from it,

promptly notify the controller if you lose sight of that

aircraft, are unable to maintain continued visual

contact with it, or cannot accept the responsibility for

your own separation for any reason.

42.12.1.3 The pilot also accepts responsibility for

wake turbulence separation under these conditions.

42.12.2 Controller Applies Visual Separation

Only:

42.12.2.1 Within the terminal area when a controller

has both aircraft in sight or by instructing a pilot who

sees the other aircraft to maintain visual separation

from it.

42.12.2.2 Pilots are responsible to maintain visual

separation until flight paths (altitudes and/or courses)

diverge.

42.12.2.3 Within en route airspace when aircraft are

on opposite courses and one pilot reports having seen

the other aircraft and that the aircraft have passed

each other.

42.13 VFR−on−top

42.13.1 Pilot

42.13.1.1 This clearance must be requested by the

pilot on an IFR flight plan, and if approved, allows the

pilot the choice to select (subject to any ATC

restrictions) an altitude or flight level in lieu of an

assigned altitude.

NOTE−

1. VFR−on−top is not permitted in certain airspace areas,

such as Class A airspace, certain restricted areas, etc.

Consequently, IFR flights operating VFR−on−top will

avoid such airspace.
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2. See paragraph 32 of this section, IFR Separation

Standards; GEN 3.3 paragraph 6, Position Reporting; and

GEN 3.3 paragraph 7, Additional Reports.

42.13.1.2 By requesting a VFR−on−top clearance,

the pilot assumes the sole responsibility to be vigilant

so as to see and avoid other aircraft and to:

a) Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as

prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159.

b) Comply with the VFR visibility and distance

from clouds criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic

VFR Weather Minimums).

c) Comply with instrument flight rules that are

applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitudes,

position reporting, radio communications, course to

be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.

d) Advise ATC prior to any altitude change to

ensure the exchange of accurate traffic information.

42.13.2 Controller

42.13.2.1 May clear an aircraft to maintain VFR−

on−top if the pilot of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan

requests the clearance.

42.13.2.2 Informs the pilot of an aircraft cleared to

climb to VFR−on−top the reported height of the tops

or that no top report is available; issues an alternate

clearance if necessary; and once the aircraft reports

reaching VFR−on−top, reclears the aircraft to

maintain VFR−on−top.

42.13.2.3 Before issuing clearance, ascertains that

the aircraft is not in or will not enter Class A airspace.

42.14 Instrument Departures

42.14.1 Pilot

42.14.1.1 Prior to departure, considers the type of

terrain and other obstructions on or in the vicinity of

the departure airport.

42.14.1.2 Determines if obstruction avoidance can

be maintained visually or that the departure

procedure should be followed.

42.14.1.3 Determines whether a departure procedure and/or instrument departure procedure (DP) is

available for obstruction avoidance.

42.14.1.4 At airports where instrument approach

procedures have not been published, hence no

published departure procedure, determines what

action will be necessary and takes such action that

will assure a safe departure.

42.14.2 Controller

42.14.2.1 At locations with airport traffic control

service, when necessary, specifies direction of

takeoff/turn or initial heading to be flown after

takeoff.

42.14.2.2 At locations without airport traffic control

service but within Class E surface area, when

necessary to specify direction of takeoff/turn or initial

heading to be flown, obtains pilot’s concurrence that

the procedure will allow him/her to comply with local

traffic patterns, terrain, and obstruction avoidance.

42.14.2.3 Includes established departure procedures

as part of the air traffic control clearance when pilot

compliance is necessary to ensure separation.

42.15 Minimum Fuel Advisory

42.15.1 Pilot

42.15.1.1 Advises ATC of your “minimum fuel”

status when your fuel supply has reached a state

where, upon reaching destination, you cannot accept

any undue delay.

42.15.1.2 Be aware that this is not an emergency

situation but merely an advisory that indicates an

emergency situation is possible should any undue

delay occur.

42.15.1.3 On initial contact the term “minimum

fuel” should be used after stating call sign.

EXAMPLE−

Salt Lake Approach, United 621, “minimum fuel.”

42.15.1.4 Be aware a minimum fuel advisory does

not imply a need for traffic priority.

42.15.1.5 If the remaining usable fuel supply

suggests the need for traffic priority to ensure a safe

landing, you should declare an emergency due to low

fuel, and report the fuel remaining in minutes.

42.15.2 Controller

42.15.2.1 When an aircraft declares a state of

“minimum fuel,” relay this information to the facility

to whom control jurisdiction is transferred.

42.15.2.2 Be alert for any occurrence which might

delay the aircraft.
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43. Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance

System (TCAS I & II)

43.1 TCAS I provides proximity warning only, to

assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder

aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are

provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TCAS

I warning. It is intended for use by smaller commuter

aircraft holding 10 to 30 passenger seats, and general

aviation aircraft.

43.2 TCAS II provides traffic advisories (TAs) and

resolution advisories (RAs). RAs provide recommended maneuvers in a vertical direction (climb or

descend only) to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline

aircraft, and larger commuter and business aircraft

holding 31 passenger seats or more, use TCAS II

equipment.

43.3 Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance

in response to a TCAS II RA shall notify ATC of that

deviation as soon as practicable and expeditiously

return to the current ATC clearance when the traffic

conflict is resolved.

43.4 Deviations from rules, policies, or clearances

should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy a

TCAS II RA.

43.5 The serving IFR air traffic facility is not

responsible for providing approved standard IFR

separation to an aircraft after a TCAS II RA maneuver

until one of the following conditions exists:

43.5.1 The aircraft has returned to its assigned

altitude and course.

43.5.2 Alternate ATC instructions have been issued.

43.6 TCAS does not alter or diminish the pilot’s

basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe

flight. Since TCAS does not respond to aircraft which

are not transponder equipped or aircraft with a

transponder failure, TCAS alone does not ensure safe

separation in every case.

43.7 At this time, no air traffic service nor handling

is predicated on the availability of TCAS equipment

in the aircraft.

44. Heavy Traffic Around Military Fields

44.1 Pilots are advised to exercise vigilance when in

close proximity to most military airports. These

airports may have jet aircraft traffic patterns

extending up to 2,500 feet above the surface. In

addition, they may have an unusually heavy

concentration of jet aircraft operating within a

25−nautical mile radius and from the surface to all

altitudes. The precautionary note also applies to the

larger civil airports.
AIP ENR 1.1−67

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

return to the current ATC clearance when the traffic

conflict is resolved.

43.4 Deviations from rules, policies, or clearances

should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy

a TCAS II RA.

43.5 The serving IFR air traffic facility is not

responsible for providing approved standard IFR

separation to an aircraft after a TCAS II RA maneuver

until one of the following conditions exists:

43.5.1 The aircraft has returned to its assigned

altitude and course.

43.5.2 Alternate ATC instructions have been issued.

43.6 TCAS does not alter or diminish the pilot’s

basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe

flight. Since TCAS does not respond to aircraft which

are not transponder equipped or aircraft with a

transponder failure, TCAS alone does not ensure safe

separation in every case.

43.7 At this time, no air traffic service nor handling

is predicated on the availability of TCAS equipment

in the aircraft.

44. Heavy Traffic Around Military Fields

44.1 Pilots are advised to exercise vigilance when in

close proximity to most military airports. These

airports may have jet aircraft traffic patterns

extending up to 2,500 feet above the surface. In

addition, they may have an unusually heavy

concentration of jet aircraft operating within a

25−nautical mile radius and from the surface to all

altitudes. The precautionary note also applies to the

larger civil airports.

AIP ENR 1.2−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.2 Visual Flight Rules

See ENR 1.1, ENR 1.4, and ENR 1.10.

AIP ENR 1.3−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.3 Instrument Flight Rules

See ENR 1.1, ENR 1.4, and ENR 1.10.

AIP ENR 1.4−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.4 ATS Airspace Classification

1. General

1.1 There are two categories of airspace or airspace

areas:

1.1.1 Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace

areas, restricted and prohibited areas).

1.1.2 Nonregulatory (military operations areas

(MOAs), warning areas, alert areas, and controlled

firing areas).

NOTE−

Additional information on special use airspace (prohibited

areas, restricted areas, warning areas, MOAs, alert areas,

and controlled firing areas) may be found in

Section ENR 5.1, Prohibited, Restricted and Other Areas,

paragraph 1 and Section ENR 5.2, Military Exercise and

Training Areas, paragraphs 1 through 3.

1.2 Within these two categories, there are four types:

1.2.1 Controlled.

1.2.2 Uncontrolled.

1.2.3 Special use.

1.2.4 Other airspace.

1.3 The categories and types of airspace are dictated

by:

1.3.1 The complexity or density of aircraft movements.

1.3.2 The nature of the operations conducted within

the airspace.

1.3.3 The level of safety required.

1.3.4 The national and public interest.

1.4 It is important that pilots be familiar with the

operational requirements for each of the various types

or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections will cover

each class in sufficient detail to facilitate understanding.

1.5 General Dimensions of Airspace Segments

1.5.1 Refer to Title 14 of the U.S. Code of Federal

Regulations (14 CFR) for specific dimensions,

exceptions, geographical areas covered, exclusions,

specific transponder or equipment requirements, and

flight operations.

REFERENCE−

See GEN 1.7, Annex 2, for U.S. Differences From ICAO Standards,

Recommended Practices and Procedures.

1.6 Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace

Designations

1.6.1 When overlapping airspace designations apply

to the same airspace, the operating rules associated

with the more restrictive airspace designation apply.

1.6.2 For the purpose of clarification:

1.6.2.1 Class A airspace is more restrictive than

Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G

airspace.

1.6.2.2 Class B airspace is more restrictive than

Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace.

1.6.2.3 Class C airspace is more restrictive than

Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace.

1.6.2.4 Class D airspace is more restrictive than

Class E or Class G airspace.

1.6.2.5 Class E is more restrictive than Class G

airspace.

1.7 Basic VFR Weather Minimums

1.7.1 No person may operate an aircraft under basic

VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance

from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the

corresponding altitude and class of airspace. (See

TBL ENR 1.4−1.)

NOTE−

Student pilots must comply with 14 CFR Section 61.89(A)

(6) and (7).

1.7.2 Except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.157,

Special VFR Minimums, no person may operate an

aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the

lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated

to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less

than 1,000 feet. (See 14 CFR Section 91.155(c).)

1.8 VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels

(See TBL ENR 1.4−2.)
ENR 1.4−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL ENR 1.4−1

Basic VFR Weather Minimums

Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds

Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not Applicable Not Applicable

Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles Clear of Clouds

Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

Class E

Less than 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

At or above 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above

1 statute mile horizontal

Class G

1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of MSL altitude).

Day, except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile Clear of clouds

Night, except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than 10,000 feet

MSL.

Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below

1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal

More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above 10,000

feet MSL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

5 statute miles 1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above

1 statute mile horizontal

TBL ENR 1.4−2

VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels

If your magnetic course 

(ground track) is:

And you are more than 3,000 feet above the

surface but below 18,000 feet MSL, fly:

And you are above 18,000 feet MSL

 to FL 290, fly:

0to 179. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odd thousands MSL, plus 500 feet (3,500;

5,500; 7,500, etc.)

Odd Flight Levels plus 500 feet

(FL 195; FL 215; FL 235, etc.)

180 to 359. . . . . . . . . . . . . Even thousands MSL, plus 500 feet

(4,500; 6,500; 8,500, etc.)

Even Flight Levels plus 500 feet

(FL 185; FL 205; FL 225, etc.)
AIP ENR 1.4−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2. Controlled Airspace

2.1 General

2.1.1 Controlled Airspace. A generic term that

covers the different classification of airspace

(Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E

airspace) and defined dimensions within which air

traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and

to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace

classification. (See TBL ENR 1.4−3 for Airspace

Classes). Airspace classes are pronounced in the

ICAO phonetics for clarification. The term “class”

may be dropped when referring to airspace in

pilot/controller communications.

2.1.2 IFR Requirements. IFR operations in any

class of controlled airspace requires that a pilot must

file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC

clearance.

2.1.3 IFR Separation. Standard IFR separation is

provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in

controlled airspace.

2.1.4 VFR Requirements. It is the responsibility of

the pilot to insure that ATC clearance or radio

communication requirements are met prior to entry

into Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The pilot

retains this responsibility when receiving ATC radar

advisories. (See 14 CFR Part 91.)

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Part 91.

2.1.5 Traffic Advisories. Traffic advisories will be

provided to all aircraft as the controller’s work

situation permits.

2.1.6 Safety Alerts. Safety Alerts are mandatory

services and are provided to ALL aircraft. There are

two types of Safety Alerts, Terrain/Obstruction Alert

and Aircraft Conflict/Mode Intruder Alert.

2.1.6.1 Terrain/Obstruction Alert. A Terrain/Obstruction Alert is issued when, in the controller’s

judgment, an aircraft’s altitude places it in unsafe

proximity to terrain and/or obstructions.

TBL ENR 1.4−3

Airspace Classes

MSL - mean sea level

AGL - above ground level

FL - flight level

CLASS B CLASS B

CLASS C CLASS C

CLASS E CLASS E

CLASS D CLASS D

CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G

Nontowered

Airport

Nontowered

Airport

FL 600

18,000 MSL

FL 600

18,000 MSL

14,500 MSL 14,500 MSL

700 AGL 1,200 AGL

CLASS A CLASS A
ENR 1.4−4 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

2.1.6.2 Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert.

An Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert is issued

if the controller observes another aircraft which

places it in an unsafe proximity. When feasible, the

controller will offer the pilot an alternative course of

action.

2.1.7 Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate

an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C,

or Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of

the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an

airport unless that person has prior authorization from

the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that

airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.)

2.1.8 Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise

authorized by ATC, no person may operate an

unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the

surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B,

Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for

an airport. (See 14 CFR Part 101.)

2.1.9 Parachute Jumps. No person may make a

parachute jump, and no pilot in command may allow

a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, in or

into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace

without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC

authorization issued by the ATC facility having

jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.)

2.2 Class A Airspace

2.2.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from

18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,

including the airspace overlying the waters within

12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous

States and Alaska; and designated international

airspace beyond 12 nautical miles of the coast of the

48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of

domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar

coverage, and within which domestic procedures are

applied.

2.2.2 Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment

Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all

persons must operate their aircraft under IFR.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Section 71.33 and Sections 91.167 through 91.193.

2.2.3 Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically

charted.

2.3 Class B Airspace

2.3.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from the

surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s

busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or

passenger enplanements. The configuration of each

Class B airspace area is individually tailored and

consists of a surface area and two or more layers

(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside−down

wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all

published instrument procedures once an aircraft

enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for

all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that

are so cleared receive separation services within the

airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR

operations is “clear of clouds.”

2.3.2 Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of

weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required

prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots

should not request a clearance to operate within

Class B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR

Section 91.215 and Section 91.131 are met. Included

among these requirements are:

2.3.2.1 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft

must be equipped with an operable two−way radio

capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate

frequencies for that Class B airspace.

2.3.2.2 No person may take off or land a civil aircraft

at the following primary airports within Class B

airspace unless the pilot in command holds at least a

private pilot certificate:

a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD.

b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA.

c) Boston Logan Airport, MA.

d) Chicago O’Hare Intl. Airport, IL.

e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX.

f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA.

g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL.

h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ.

i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY.

j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY.

k) Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport,

DC.

l) San Francisco Intl. Airport, CA.
AIP ENR 1.4−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.3.2.3 No person may take off or land a civil aircraft

at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil

aircraft within Class B airspace unless:

a) The pilot in command holds at least a private

pilot certificate; or,

b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot or

recreational pilot who seeks private pilot certification

and has met the requirements of 14 CFR

Section 61.95.

2.3.2.4 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each

person operating a large turbine engine−powered

airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at

or above the designated floors while within the lateral

limits of Class B airspace.

2.3.2.5 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each

aircraft must be equipped as follows:

a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or

TACAN receiver.

b) For all operations, a two−way radio capable of

communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that area.

c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an

operable radar beacon transponder with automatic

altitude reporting equipment.

NOTE−

ATC may, upon notification, immediately authorize

deviations from the altitude reporting equipment

requirement; however, a request for deviation from the

4096 transponder equipment requirement must be

submitted to the controlling ATC facility at least one hour

before the proposed operation. (See ENR 1.1,

paragraph 37.7, Transponder Operation).

2.3.2.6 Mode C Veil

a) The airspace within 30 nautical miles of an

airport listed in Appendix D, Section 1 of 14 CFR

Part 91 (generally primary airports within Class B

airspace areas), from the surface upward to

10,000 feet mean seal level (MSL). Unless otherwise

authorized by air traffic control, aircraft operating

within this airspace must be equipped with automatic

pressure altitude reporting equipment having Mode C

capability.

b) However, aircraft that was not originally

certificated with an engine−driven electrical system

or which has not subsequently been certified with a

system installed, may conduct operations within a

Mode C veil provided the aircraft remains outside

Class A, B, or C airspace; and below the altitude of the

ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace area

designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL,

whichever is lower.

2.3.3 Charts. Class B airspace is charted on

Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude Charts,

and Terminal Area Charts.

2.3.4 Flight Procedures

2.3.4.1 Flights. Aircraft within Class B airspace are

required to operate in accordance with current IFR

procedures. A clearance for a visual approach to a

primary airport is not authorization for turbine

powered airplanes to operate below the designated

floors of the Class B airspace.

2.3.4.2 VFR Flights

a) Arriving aircraft must obtain an ATC clearance

prior to entering Class B airspace and must contact

ATC on the appropriate frequency, and in relation to

geographical fixes shown on local charts. Although a

pilot may be operating beneath the floor of the

Class B airspace on initial contact, communications

with ATC should be established in relation to the

points indicated for spacing and sequencing

purposes.

b) Departing aircraft require a clearance to depart

Class B airspace and should advise the clearance

delivery position of their intended altitude and route

of flight. ATC will normally advise VFR aircraft

when leaving the geographical limits of the Class B

airspace. Radar service is not automatically terminated with this advisory unless specifically stated by

the controller.

c) Aircraft not landing or departing the primary

airport may obtain an ATC clearance to transit the

Class B airspace when traffic conditions permit and

provided the requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.131

are met. Such VFR aircraft are encouraged, to the

extent possible, to operate at altitudes above or below

the Class B airspace or transit through established

VFR corridors. Pilots operating in VFR corridors are

urged to use frequency 122.750 MHz for the

exchange of aircraft position information.

2.3.5 ATC Clearances and Separation. An ATC

clearance is required to enter and operate within

Class B airspace. VFR pilots are provided sequencing and separation from other aircraft while operating
ENR 1.4−6 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

within Class B airspace. (See ENR 1.1, paragraph 38,

Terminal Radar Service for VFR Aircraft.)

NOTE−

1. Separation and sequencing of VFR will be suspended in

the event of a power outage as this service is dependent on

radar. The pilot will be advised that the service is not

available and issued wind, runway information, and the

time or place to contact the tower.

2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during

Center Radar Presentation (CENRAP) Operations. Traffic

advisories and sequencing to the primary airport will be

provided on a workload permitting basis. The pilot will be

advised when CENRAP is in use.

2.3.5.1 VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR

aircraft which weigh 19,000 pounds or less by a

minimum of:

a) Target resolution; or

b) 500 feet vertical separation; or

c) Visual separation.

2.3.5.2 VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR

aircraft which weigh more than 19,000 and turbojets

by no less than:

a) 1 1/2 miles lateral separation; or

b) 500 feet vertical separation; or

c) Visual separation.

2.3.5.3 This program is not to be interpreted as

relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and

avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather

conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path

as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to

maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clearance, or to remain in weather conditions equal to or

better than the minimums required by 14 CFR

Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised

and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when

compliance with an assigned route, heading, and/or

altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility

with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance,

vortex exposure, and weather minimums.

2.3.5.4 ATC may assign altitudes to VFR aircraft

that do not conform to 14 CFR Section 91.159.

“RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES”

will be broadcast when the altitude assignment is no

longer needed for separation or when leaving Class B

airspace. Pilots must return to an altitude that

conforms to 14 CFR Section 91.159.

2.3.5.5 Proximity Operations. VFR aircraft operating in proximity to Class B airspace are cautioned

against operating too closely to the boundaries,

especially where the floor of the Class B airspace is

3,000 feet or less or where VFR cruise altitudes are at

or near the floor of higher levels. Observance of this

precaution will reduce the potential for encountering

an aircraft operating at the altitudes of Class B floors.

Additionally, VFR aircraft are encouraged to utilize

the VFR Planning Chart as a tool for planning flight

in proximity to Class B airspace. Charted VFR

Flyway Planning charts are published on the back of

the existing VFR Terminal Area Charts.

2.4 Class C Airspace

2.4.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from the

surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation

(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have

an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar

approach control, and that have a certain number of

IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although

the configuration of each Class C airspace area is

individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of

a surface area with a 5 NM radius, and an outer area

with a 10 NM radius that extends no lower than

1,200 feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport

elevation.

2.4.2 Outer Area. Class C airspace areas have a

procedural (nonregulatory) Outer Area. Normally

this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace

airport. Its vertical limit extends from the lower limits

of radio/radar coverage up to the ceiling of the

approach control’s delegated airspace, excluding the

Class C airspace itself, and other airspace as

appropriate. (This outer area is not charted.)

2.4.3 Charts. Class C airspace is charted on

Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and

Terminal Area Charts where appropriate.

2.4.4 Operating Rules and Pilot Equipment

Requirements

2.4.4.1 Pilot Certification. No specific certification required.
AIP ENR 1.4−7

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.4.4.2 Equipment.

a) Two−way radio.

b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an

operable radar beacon transponder with automatic

altitude reporting equipment.

NOTE−

See Section ENR 1.1, paragraph 37.7, Transponder

Operation, subparagraph 37.7.6 for Mode C Transponder

Requirements for operating above Class C airspace.

c) Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements. Two−way radio communication must be

established with the ATC facility providing ATC

services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those

communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of

arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace

ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give

their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destination, and request Class C service. Radio contact

should be initiated far enough from the Class C

airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C

airspace before two−way radio communications are

established.

NOTE−

1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft

callsign) standby,” radio communications have been

established and the pilot can enter the Class C airspace.

2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate

provision of Class C services, the controller will inform the

pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until

conditions permit the services to be provided.

3. It is important to understand that if the controller

responds to the initial radio call without using the aircraft

identification, radio communications have not been

established and the pilot may not enter the Class C

airspace.

EXAMPLE−

1. [Aircraft callsign] “remain outside the Class Charlie

airspace and standby.”

2. “Aircraft calling Dulles approach control, standby.”

d) Departures from:

1) A primary or satellite airport with an

operating control tower. Two−way radio communications must be established and maintained with the

control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC

while operating in Class C airspace.

2) A satellite airport without an operating

control tower. Two−way radio communications must

be established as soon as practicable after departing

with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the

Class C airspace.

e) Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise authorized

or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft

at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within

4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a Class C

airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more than

200 knots (230 mph).

2.4.5 Air Traffic Services. When two−way radio

communications and radar contact are established, all

participating VFR aircraft are:

2.4.5.1 Sequenced to the primary airport.

2.4.5.2 Provided Class C services within the Class C

airspace and the Outer Area.

2.4.5.3 Provided basic radar services beyond the

outer area on a workload permitting basis. This can be

terminated by the controller if workload dictates.

2.4.6 Aircraft Separation. Separation is provided

within the Class C airspace and the Outer Area after

two−way radio communications and radar contact are

established. VFR aircraft are separated from IFR

aircraft within the Class C airspace by any of the

following:

2.4.6.1 Visual separation.

2.4.6.2 500 feet vertical; except when operating

beneath a heavy jet.

2.4.6.3 Target resolution.

NOTE−

1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be

suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is

dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the

service is not available and issued wind, runway

information, and the time or place to contact the tower.

2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during

CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to

the primary airport will be provided on workload

permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when CENRAP

is in use.

3. Pilot participation is voluntary within the outer area

and can be discontinued within the outer area at the pilots

request. Class C services will be provided in the outer area

unless the pilot requests termination of the service.
ENR 1.4−8 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4. Some facilities provide Class C services only during

published hours. At other times, terminal IFR radar service

will be provided. It is important to note that the

communications requirements for entry into the airspace

and transponder Mode C requirements are in effect at all

times.

2.4.7 Secondary Airports

2.4.7.1 In some locations, Class C airspace may

overlie the Class D surface area of a secondary

airport. In order to allow that control tower to provide

service to aircraft, portions of the overlapping

Class C airspace may be procedurally excluded when

the secondary airport tower is in operation. Aircraft

operating in these procedurally excluded areas will

only be provided airport traffic control services when

in communication with the secondary airport tower.

2.4.7.2 Aircraft proceeding inbound to a satellite

airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to

allow time to change to the appropriate tower or

advisory frequency. Class C services to these aircraft

will be discontinued when the aircraft is instructed to

contact the tower or change to advisory frequency.

2.4.7.3 Aircraft departing secondary controlled

airports will not receive Class C services until they

have been radar identified and two−way communications have been established with the Class C airspace

facility.

2.4.7.4 This program is not to be interpreted as

relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and

avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather

conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path

as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to

maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clearance, or to remain in weather conditions equal to or

better than the minimums required by 14 CFR

Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised

and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when

compliance with an assigned route, heading, and/or

altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility

with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance,

vortex exposure, and weather minimums.

2.5 Class D Airspace

2.5.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from the

surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation

(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have

an operational control tower. The configuration of

each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and

when instrument procedures are published, the

airspace will normally be designed to contain the

procedures.

2.5.2 Operating Rules and Pilot Equipment

Requirements

2.5.2.1 Pilot Certification. No specific certification required.

2.5.2.2 Equipment. Unless otherwise authorized

by ATC, an operable two−way radio is required.

2.5.2.3 Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements. Two−way radio communication must be

established with the ATC facility providing ATC

services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those

communications while in the Class D airspace. Pilots

of arriving aircraft should contact the control tower

on the publicized frequency and give their position,

altitude, destination, and any request(s). Radio

contact should be initiated far enough from the

Class D airspace boundary to preclude entering the

Class D airspace before two−way radio communications are established.

NOTE−

1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft

callsign) standby,” radio communications have been

established, and the pilot can enter the Class D airspace.

2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate

entry into Class D airspace, the controller will inform the

pilot to remain outside the Class D airspace until

conditions permit entry.

EXAMPLE−

1. “[Aircraft callsign] remain outside the Class Delta

airspace and standby.”

It is important to understand that if the controller responds

to the initial radio call without using the aircraft callsign,

radio communications have not been established, and the

pilot may not enter the Class D airspace.

2. “Aircraft calling Manassas tower standby.”

At those airports where the control tower does not operate

24 hours a day, the operating hours of the tower will be

listed on the appropriate charts and in the A/FD. During

the hours the tower is not in operation, the Class E surface

area rules or a combination of Class E rules to 700 feet

above ground level and Class G rules to the surface will

become applicable. Check the A/FD for specifics.
AIP ENR 1.4−9

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.5.2.4 Departures From:

a) A primary or satellite airport with an operating

control tower. Two−way radio communications must

be established and maintained with the control tower,

and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating

in the Class D airspace.

b) A satellite airport without an operating control

tower. Two−way radio communications must be

established with the ATC facility having jurisdiction

over the Class D airspace as soon as practicable after

departing.

2.5.2.5 Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an

aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface

within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a

Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more

than 200 knots (230 mph).

2.5.3 Class D airspace areas are depicted on

Sectional and Terminal charts with blue segmented

lines, and on IFR En Route Low Altitude charts with

a boxed [D].

2.5.4 Arrival extensions for instrument approach

procedures may be Class D or Class E airspace. As a

general rule, if all extensions are 2 miles or less, they

remain part of the Class D surface area. However, if

any one extension is greater than 2 miles, then all

extensions become Class E.

2.5.5 Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation

services are provided to VFR aircraft.

2.6 Class E Airspace

2.6.1 Definition. Generally, if the airspace is not

Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is

controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace.

2.6.2 Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements.

2.6.2.1 Pilot Certification. No specific certification

required.

2.6.2.2 Equipment. No specific equipment required by the airspace.

2.6.2.3 Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements. No specific requirements.

2.6.3 Charts. Class E airspace below 14,500 feet

MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, and IFR

Enroute Low Altitude charts.

2.6.4 Vertical limits. Except for 18,000 feet MSL,

Class E airspace has no defined vertical limit but

rather it extends upward from either the surface or a

designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent

controlled airspace.

2.6.5 Types of Class E Airspace

2.6.5.1 Surface Area Designated for an Airport.

When designated as a surface area for an airport, the

airspace will be configured to contain all instrument

procedures.

2.6.5.2 Extension to a Surface Area. There are

Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to

Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas

designated for an airport. Such airspace provides

controlled airspace to contain standard instrument

approach procedures without imposing a communications requirement on pilots operating under VFR.

2.6.5.3 Airspace Used For Transition. There are

Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or

1,200 feet AGL used to transition to/from the

terminal or en route environment.

2.6.5.4 En Route Domestic Areas. There are

Class E airspace areas that extend upward from a

specified altitude and are en route domestic airspace

areas that provide controlled airspace in those areas

where there is a requirement to provide IFR en route

ATC services, but the Federal airway system is

inadequate.

2.6.5.5 Federal Airways. The Federal airways are

Class E airspace areas and, unless otherwise

specified, extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not

including, 18,000 feet MSL. The colored airways are

Green, Red, Amber, and Blue. The VOR airways are

classified as Domestic, Alaskan, and Hawaiian.

2.6.5.6 Offshore Airspace Areas. There are

Class E airspace areas that extend upward from a

specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000 feet

MSL and are designated as offshore airspace areas.

These areas provide controlled airspace beyond

12 nautical miles from the coast of the U.S. in those

areas where there is a requirement to provide IFR en

route ATC services and within which the U.S. is

applying domestic procedures.

2.6.5.7 Unless designated at a lower altitude,

Class E airspace begins at 14,500 feet MSL to, but

not including 18,000 feet MSL overlying the

48 contiguous States including the waters within

12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous
ENR 1.4−10 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

States, the District of Columbia, Alaska, including

waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of Alaska,

and that airspace above FL 600; excluding the Alaska

peninsula west of longitude 160°00’00”W; and the

airspace less than 1,500 feet above the surface of the

earth unless specifically so designated.

2.6.6 Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation

services are provided to VFR aircraft.

3. Class G Airspace

3.1 General

Class G airspace (uncontrolled) is that portion of

airspace that has not been designated as Class A,

Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace.

3.2 VFR Requirements

Rules governing VFR flight have been adopted to

assist the pilot in meeting his/her responsibility to see

and avoid other aircraft. Minimum flight visibility

and distance from clouds required for VFR flight are

contained in 14 CFR Section 91.155. (See

TBL ENR 1.4−1 for a tabular presentation of these

rules).

3.3 IFR Requirements

3.3.1 Title 14 CFR specifies the pilot and aircraft

equipment requirements for IFR flight. Pilots are

reminded that in addition to altitude or flight level

requirements, 14 CFR Section 91.177 includes a

requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet

in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest

obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical

miles from the course to be flown.

3.3.2 IFR Altitudes. (See TBL ENR 1.4−4.)

4. Other Airspace Areas

4.1 Airport Advisory/Information Services

4.1.1 There are three advisory type services

available at selected airports. Airports offering these

services are listed in the A/FD and the published

service hours may be changed by NOTAM D.

4.1.1.1 Local Airport Advisory (LAA) service is

operated within 10 statute miles of an airport where

a control tower is not operating but where a FSS is

located on the airport. At such locations, the FSS

provides a complete local airport advisory service to

arriving and departing aircraft. During periods of fast

changing weather the FSS will automatically provide

Final Guard as part of the service from the time the

aircraft reports “on−final” or “taking−the−active−

runway” until the aircraft reports “on−the−ground” or

“airborne.”

NOTE−

Current FAA policy, when requesting remote ATC services,

requires that a pilot monitor the automated weather

broadcast at the landing airport prior to requesting ATC

services. The FSS automatically provides Final Guard,

when appropriate, during LAA/Remote Airport Advisory

(RAA) operations. Final Guard is a value added

wind/altimeter monitoring service, which provides an

automatic wind and altimeter check during active weather

situations when the pilot reports on−final or taking the

active runway. During the landing or take−off operation

when the winds or altimeter are actively changing the FSS

will blind broadcast significant changes when the

specialist believes the change might affect the operation.

Pilots should acknowledge the first wind/altimeter check

but due to cockpit activity no acknowledgement is expected

for the blind broadcasts. It is prudent for a pilot to report

on−the−ground or airborne to end the service.

TBL ENR 1.4−4

IFR Altitudes

Class G Airspace

If your magnetic course 

(ground track) is:

And you are below 

18,000 feet MSL, fly:

0 to 179 Odd thousands MSL, (3,000; 5,000; 7,000, etc.)

180 to 359 Even thousands MSL, (2,000; 4,000; 6,000, etc.)
AIP ENR 1.4−11

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4.1.1.2 RAA service is operated within 10 statute

miles of specified high activity GA airports where a

control tower is not operating. Final Guard is

automatically provided with RAA.

4.1.1.3 Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS)

is provided in support of short term special events like

small to medium fly−ins. The service is advertised by

NOTAM D only. The FSS will not have access to a

continuous readout of the current winds and

altimeter; therefore, RAIS does not include weather

and/or Final Guard service. However, known traffic,

special event instructions, and all other services are

provided.

NOTE−

The airport authority and/or manager should request RAIS

support on official letterhead directly with the manager of

the FSS that will provide the service at least 60 days in

advance. Approval authority rests with the FSS manager

and is based on workload and resource availability.

REFERENCE−

See GEN 3.3, Air Traffic Services, paragraph 9.2, Traffic Advisory

Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers.

4.1.1.4 It is not mandatory that pilots participate in

the Airport Advisory programs. Participation enhances safety for everyone operating around busy GA

airports; therefore, everyone is encouraged to

participate and provide feedback that will help

improve the program.

4.2 Published VFR Routes. Published VFR routes

for transitioning around, under, and through complex

airspace such as Class B airspace were developed

through a number of FAA and industry initiatives. All

of the following terms; i.e., “VFR Flyway,” “VFR

Corridor,” “Class B Airspace VFR Transition

Route,” and “Terminal Area VFR Route” have been

used when referring to the same or different types of

routes or airspace. The following paragraphs identify

and clarify the functionality of each type of route, and

specify where and when an ATC clearance is

required.

4.2.1 VFR Flyways

4.2.1.1 VFR Flyways and their associated Flyway

Planning charts were developed from the recommendations of a National Airspace Review Task Group.

A VFR Flyway is defined as a general flight path not

defined as a specific course, for use by pilots in

planning flights into, out of, through, or near complex

terminal airspace to avoid Class B airspace. An ATC

clearance is NOT required to fly these routes.

4.2.1.2 VFR Flyways are depicted on the reverse

side of some of the VFR Terminal Area Charts

(TACs), commonly referred to as Class B airspace

charts. Eventually all TACs will include a VFR

Flyway Planning Chart. These charts identify VFR

flyways designed to help VFR pilots avoid major

controlled traffic flows. They may further depict

multiple VFR routings throughout the area which

may be used as an alternative to flight within Class B

airspace. The ground references provide a guide for

improved visual navigation. These routes are not

intended to discourage requests for VFR operations

within Class B airspace but are designed solely to

assist pilots in planning for flights under and around

busy Class B airspace without actually entering

Class B airspace.

4.2.1.3 It is very important to remember that these

suggested routes are not sterile of other traffic. The

entire Class B airspace, and the airspace underneath

it, may be heavily congested with many different

types of aircraft. Pilot adherence to VFR rules must

be exercised at all times. Further, when operating

beneath Class B airspace, communications must be

established and maintained between your aircraft and

any control tower while transiting the Class B,

Class C, and Class D surface areas of those airports

under Class B Airspace.

4.2.2 VFR Corridors

4.2.2.1 The design of a few of the first Class B

airspace areas provided a corridor for the passage of

uncontrolled traffic. A VFR corridor is defined as

airspace through Class B airspace, with defined

vertical and lateral boundaries, in which aircraft may

operate without an ATC clearance or communication

with air traffic control.

4.2.2.2 These corridors are, in effect, a “hole”

through Class B airspace. (See FIG ENR 1.4−1.) A

classic example would be the corridor through the

Los Angeles Class B airspace, which has been

subsequently changed to Special Flight Rules

airspace (SFR). A corridor is surrounded on all sides

by Class B airspace and does not extend down to the

surface like a VFR Flyway. Because of their finite

lateral and vertical limits, and the volume of VFR

traffic using a corridor, extreme caution and vigilance

must be exercised.
ENR 1.4−12 AIP

4 AUG 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.4−1

Class B Airspace

4.2.2.3 Because of the heavy traffic volume and the

procedures necessary to efficiently manage the flow

of traffic, it has not been possible to incorporate VFR

corridors in the development or modifications of

Class B airspace in recent years.

4.2.3 Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes

4.2.3.1 To accommodate VFR traffic through certain

Class B airspace, such as Seattle, Phoenix, and Los

Angeles, Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes

were developed. A Class B Airspace VFR Transition

Route is defined as a specific flight course depicted

on a Terminal Area Chart (TAC) for transiting a

specific Class B airspace. These routes include

specific ATC assigned altitudes, and pilots must

obtain an ATC clearance prior to entering Class B

airspace on the route.

4.2.3.2 These routes, as depicted in FIG ENR 1.4−2,

are designed to show the pilot where to position

his/her aircraft outside of, or clear of, the Class B

airspace where an ATC clearance can normally be

expected with minimal or no delay. Until ATC

authorization is received, pilots must remain clear of

Class B airspace. On initial contact, pilots should

advise ATC of their position, altitude, route name

desired, and direction of flight. After a clearance is

received, the pilot must fly the route as depicted and,

most importantly, adhere to ATC instructions.

4.3 Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)

4.3.1 Background. The terminal radar service

areas (TRSAs) were originally established as part of

the Terminal Radar Program at selected airports.

TRSAs were never controlled airspace from a

regulatory standpoint because the establishment of

TRSAs were never subject to the rulemaking process;

consequently, TRSAs are not contained in 14 CFR

Part 71 nor are there any TRSA operating rules in

Part 91. Part of the Airport Radar Service Area

(ARSA) program was to eventually replace all

TRSAs. However, the ARSA requirements became

relatively stringent, and it was subsequently decided

that TRSAs would have to meet ARSA criteria before

they would be converted. TRSAs do not fit into any

of the U.S. Airspace Classes; therefore, they will

continue to be non−Part 71 airspace areas where

participating pilots can receive additional radar

services which have been redefined as TRSA Service.

4.3.2 TRSA Areas. The primary airport(s) within

the TRSA become(s) Class D airspace. The

remaining portion of the TRSA overlies other

controlled airspace which is normally Class E

airspace beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and

established to transition to/from the en route/terminal

environment.

4.3.3 Participation. Pilots operating under VFR

are encouraged to contact the radar approach control

and avail themselves of the TRSA Services.

However, participation is voluntary on the part of the

pilot. See ENR 1.1, paragraph 39.2, for details and

procedures.

4.3.4 Charts. TRSAs are depicted on VFR sectional and terminal area charts with a solid black line and

altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion is

charted with a blue segmented line.
AIP ENR 1.4−13

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.4−2

VFR Transition Route

AIP ENR 1.5−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.5 Holding, Approach, and

 Departure Procedures

1. Holding Procedures

1.1 Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes

are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or

commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)

Low or High Altitude En route, Area, and STAR

charts. Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern

depicted unless specifically advised otherwise by

ATC. (See ENR 1.1, paragraph 27, ATC Clearances

and Aircraft Separations.)

NOTE−

Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding

airspeed other than the standard may be depicted by an

icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard

holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed

restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed

restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding

pattern symbol.

1.2 An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at

a fix where the pattern is not charted will include the

following information:

1.2.1 Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the

eight cardinal compass points; i.e., N, NE, E, SE, etc.

1.2.2 Holding fix. (The fix may be omitted if it is

included at the beginning of the transmission as the

clearance limit.)

1.2.3 Radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on

which the aircraft is to hold.

1.2.4 Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be

used. (Leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot

request or if the controller considers it necessary.)

1.2.5 Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the

pilot requests, or the controller considers it necessary.

1.2.6 Time to expect further clearance, and any

pertinent additional delay information.

1.3 Typical Holding Pattern Example

1.3.1 When holding at a VOR station, pilots should

begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the

first complete reversal of the “to−from” indicator.

See GEN 3.4, paragraph 12, Two−Way Radio

Communications Failure, for holding at the approach

fix when radio failure occurs.

1.3.2 Holding Pattern Airspace Protection

Holding pattern airspace protection is based on the

following procedures.

NOTE−

Holding pattern airspace protection design criteria is

contained in FAA Handbook 7130.3, Holding Pattern

Criteria.

1.3.2.1 Airspeeds

a) All aircraft may hold at the following altitudes

and maximum holding airspeeds:

TBL ENR 1.5−1

Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS)

MHA − 6,000’ 200

6,001’ − 14,000’ 230

14,001’ and above 265

b) The following are exceptions to the maximum

holding airspeeds:

1) Holding patterns from 6,001’ to 14,000’ may

be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 210 KIAS.

This nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon.

2) Holding patterns may be restricted to a

maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS. An icon will depict

this nonstandard pattern. Pilots of aircraft unable to

comply with the maximum airspeed restriction

should notify ATC.

3) Holding patterns at USAF airfields only −

310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.

4) Holding patterns at Navy fields only −

230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
ENR 1.5−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−1

Holding Patterns

TYPICAL PROCEDURE ON AN ILS OUTER MARKER TYPICAL PROCEDURE ON AN ILS OUTER MARKER

EXAMPLES OF HOLDING EXAMPLES OF HOLDING

L OM M M MM

RUNWAY RUN

VORR

VORR

TYPICAL PROCEDURE AT INTERSECTION TYPICAL PROCEDURE AT INTERSECTION

OF VOR RADIALS OF VOR RADIALS

HOLDING COURSE

AWAY FROM NAVAID

HOLDING COURSE

AWAY FROM NAVAID

HOLDING COURSE

TOWARD NAVAID

HOLDING COURSE

TOWARD NAVAID

VORTAC

15 NM DME FIX 15 NM DME FIX 10 NM DME FIX 10 NM DME FIX

TYPICAL PROCEDURE AT DME FIX TYPICAL PROCEDURE AT DME FIX
AIP ENR 1.5−3

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−2

Holding Pattern Descriptive Terms

ABEAM

HOLDING SIDE HOLDING SIDE

OUTBOUND

END

OUTBOUND

HOLDING

COURSE

HOLDING

COURSE

OUTBOUND OUTBOUND

INBOUND INBOUND

NONHOLDING SIDE NONHOLDING SIDE

FIX END FIX END

RECIPROCAL RECIPROCAL

FIX

FIG ENR 1.5−3

Holding Pattern Entry Procedures
ENR 1.5−4 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5) When a climb−in hold is specified by a

published procedure (e.g., “Climb−in holding

pattern to depart XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000.”

or “All aircraft climb−in TRUCK holding pattern to

cross TRUCK Int at or above 11,500 before

proceeding on course.”), additional obstacle protection area has been provided to allow for greater

airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft requiring

them. The holding pattern template for a maximum

airspeed of 310 KIAS has been used for the holding

pattern if there are no airspeed restrictions on the

holding pattern as specified in subparagraph b)2) of

this paragraph. Where the holding pattern is restricted

to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS, the 200 KIAS

holding pattern template has been applied for

published climb−in hold procedures for altitudes

6,000 feet and below and the 230 KIAS holding

pattern template has been applied for altitudes above

6,000 feet. The airspeed limitations in 14 CFR

Section 91.117, Aircraft Speed, still apply.

c) The following phraseology may be used by an

ATC specialist to advise a pilot of the maximum

holding airspeed for a holding pattern airspace area.

PHRASEOLOGY−

(AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (holding instructions,

when needed) MAXIMUM HOLDING AIRSPEED IS

(speed in knots).

1.3.2.2 Entry Procedures (See FIG ENR 1.5−3.)

a) Parallel Procedure. When approaching the

holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel

entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to

parallel the holding course outbound on the

nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction

of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees,

and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding

course inbound.

b) Teardrop Procedure. When approaching the

holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop

entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn

outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry

within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of

one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding

pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.

c) Direct Entry Procedure. When approaching

the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the direct

entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and

turn to follow the holding pattern.

d) While other entry procedures may enable the

aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within

protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop, and direct

entries are the procedures for entry and holding

recommended by the FAA.

1.3.2.3 Timing

a) Inbound Leg

1) At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.

2) Above 14,000 feet MSL: 11/2 minutes.

NOTE−

The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or

11/2 minutes (appropriate to altitude). Timing for

subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as

necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may

use any navigational means available; i.e. DME, RNAV,

etc., to insure the appropriate inbound leg times.

b) Outbound Leg timing begins over/abeam the

fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position

cannot be determined, start timing when turn to

outbound is completed.

1.3.2.4 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)/

GPS Along−Track Distance (ATD). DME/GPS

holding is subject to the same entry and holding

procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are

used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of

the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound

leg of the pattern. The controller or the instrument

approach procedure chart will specify the length of

the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is

determined by the DME or ATD readout. The holding

fix on conventional procedures, or controller defined

holding based on a conventional navigation aid with

DME, is a specified course or radial and distances are

from the DME station for both the inbound and

outbound ends of the holding pattern. When flying

published GPS overlay or stand alone procedures

with distance specified, the holding fix will be a

waypoint in the database and the end of the outbound

leg will be determined by the ATD. Some GPS

overlay and early stand alone procedures may have

timing specified. (See FIG ENR 1.5−4,

FIG ENR 1.5−5 and FIG ENR 1.5−6.) See ENR 4.1,

paragraph 18, Global Positioning System (GPS), for

requirements and restriction on using GPS for IFR

operations.
AIP ENR 1.5−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

1.3.2.5 Pilot Action

a) Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or less

from the holding fix. Cross the holding fix, initially,

at or below the maximum holding airspeed.

b) Make all turns during entry and while holding

at:

1) 3 degrees per second.

2) 30 degree bank angle.

3) 25 degree bank angle provided a flight

director system is used.

NOTE−

Use whichever requires the least bank angle.

FIG ENR 1.5−4

Inbound Toward NAVAID

NOTE−

When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID, the fix distance is 10 NM, and the leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the

outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 15 NM.

FIG ENR 1.5−5

Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID

NOTE−

When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end

of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 20 NM.

FIG ENR 1.5−6

GPS/RNAV Holding

NOTE−

The inbound course is always toward the waypoint and the ATD is zero at the waypoint. The end of the outbound leg of the

holding pattern is reached when the ATD reads the specified distance.
ENR 1.5−6 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift

correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When

outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid

major turning adjustments; e.g., if correcting left by

8 degrees when inbound, correct right by 24 degrees

when outbound.

d) Determine entry turn from aircraft heading

upon arrival at the holding fix. Plus or minus 5° in

heading is considered to be within allowable good

operating limits for determining entry.

e) Advise ATC immediately what increased

airspeed is necessary, if any, due to turbulence, icing,

etc., or if unable to accomplish any part of the holding

procedures. After such higher speeds are no longer

necessary, operate according to the appropriate

published holding speed and notify ATC.

NOTE−

Airspace protection for holding in turbulent air is based on

a maximum of 280 KIAS or Mach 0.8, whichever is lower.

Considerable impact on traffic flow will result when

turbulent air holding patterns are used; thus, pilot

discretion will ensure their use is limited to bona fide

conditions/requirements.

1.3.2.6 Nonstandard Holding Pattern

a) Fix end and outbound end turns are made to the

left. Entry procedures to a nonstandard pattern are

oriented in relation to the 70 degreeline on the

holding side just as in the standard pattern.

b) When holding at a fix and instructions are

received specifying the time of departure from the fix,

the pilot should adjust the aircraft’s flight path within

the limits of the established holding pattern in order

to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After

departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be

resumed with respect to other governing speed

requirements such as terminal area speed limits,

specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated

with an instrument approach, and timed approaches

are in effect, a procedure turn shall not be executed

unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding

are expected to proceed inbound on final approach

directly from the holding pattern when approach

clearance is received.

c) If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published

minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared

for the approach, the pilot may descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern

would only be a segment of the instrument approach

procedure if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.

d) For those holding patterns where there are no

published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon

receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the

last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern

and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the

published minimum altitude of the route segment

being flown will apply. It is expected that the pilot

will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a

normal descent on the inbound course.

1.4 Radar Surveillance of Outer−Fix Holding

Pattern Airspace Areas

1.4.1 Whenever aircraft are holding at an outer fix,

ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the

outer fix holding pattern airspace area, or any portion

of it, if it is shown on the controller’s radar scope.

1.4.2 The controller will attempt to detect any

holding aircraft that stray outside the holding pattern

airspace area and will assist any detected aircraft to

return to the assigned airspace area.

1.4.3 Many factors could prevent ATC from

providing this additional service, such as workload,

number of targets, precipitation, ground clutter, and

radar system capability. These circumstances may

make it unfeasible to maintain radar identification of

aircraft or to detect aircraft straying from the holding

pattern. The provision of this service depends entirely

upon whether the controller is in a position to provide

it and does not relieve a pilot of the responsibility to

adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.

2. Approach Procedures

2.1 Approach Control

2.1.1 Approach control is responsible for controlling

all instrument flight operating within its area of

responsibility. Approach control may serve one or

more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by

direct pilot/controller communications. Prior to

arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions

will be received from ARTCC to contact approach

control on a specified frequency.
AIP ENR 1.5−7

United States of America 17 FEB 05

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2.2 Radar Approach Control

2.2.1 Where radar is approved for approach control

service, it is used not only for radar approaches

(Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and Precision

Approach Radar (PAR)) but is also used to provide

vectors in conjunction with published nonradar

approaches based on radio NAVAIDs (ILS, MLS,

VOR, NDB, TACAN). Radar vectors can provide

course guidance and expedite traffic to the final

approach course of any established instrument

approach procedure or to the traffic pattern for a

visual approach. Approach control facilities that

provide this radar service will operate in the

following manner:

2.2.1.1 Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an outer

fix most appropriate to the route being flown with

vertical separation and, if required, given holding

information or, when radar handoffs are effected

between the ARTCC and approach control, or

between two approach control facilities, aircraft are

cleared to the airport or to a fix so located that the

handoff will be completed prior to the time the

aircraft reaches the fix. When radar handoffs are

utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed

off to approach control with radar separation in lieu

of vertical separation.

2.2.1.2 After release to approach control, aircraft are

vectored to the appropriate final approach course

(ILS, MLS, VOR, ADF, etc.). Radar vectors and

altitude or flight levels will be issued as required for

spacing and separating aircraft. Therefore, pilots must

not deviate from the headings issued by approach

control. Aircraft will normally be informed when it is

necessary to vector across the final approach course

for spacing or other reasons. If approach course

crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been

informed that the aircraft will be vectored across the

final approach course, the pilot should query the

controller.

2.2.1.3 The pilot is not expected to turn inbound on

the final approach course unless an approach

clearance has been issued. This clearance will

normally be issued with the final vector for

interception of the final approach course, and the

vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish

the aircraft on the final approach course prior to

reaching the final approach fix.

2.2.1.4 In the case of aircraft already inbound on the

final approach course, approach clearance will be

issued prior to the aircraft reaching the final approach

fix. When established inbound on the final approach

course, radar separation will be maintained, and the

pilot will be expected to complete the approach

utilizing the approach aid designated in the clearance

(ILS, MLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the primary

means of navigation. Therefore, once established on

the final approach course, pilots must not deviate

from it unless a clearance to do so is received from

ATC.

2.2.1.5 After passing the final approach fix on final

approach, aircraft are expected to continue inbound

on the final approach course and complete the

approach or effect the missed approach procedure

published for that airport.

2.2.2 ARTCCs are approved for and may provide

approach control services to specific airports. The

radar systems used by these centers do not provide the

same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach

control facilities and towers, and the update rate is not

as fast. Therefore, pilots may be requested to report

established on the final approach course.

2.2.3 Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropriate final approach course or provide their own

navigation on published routes to it, radar service is

automatically terminated when the landing is

completed or when instructed to change to advisory

frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs

first.

3. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR), 

Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR, and Flight

Management System Procedures (FMSP) for

Arrivals

3.1 A STAR is an ATC coded IFR arrival route

established for application to arriving IFR aircraft

destined for certain airports. RNAV STAR/FMSP

procedures for arrivals serve the same purpose but are

only used by aircraft equipped with FMS or GPS. The

purpose of both is to simplify clearance delivery

procedures and facilitate transition between en route

and instrument approach procedures.

3.1.1 STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP procedures may

have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes

published. Other STARs may have planning

information depicted to inform pilots what clearances

or restrictions to “expect.” “Expect” altitudes/speeds

are not considered STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP
ENR 1.5−8 AIP

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procedures crossing restrictions unless verbally

issued by ATC.

NOTE−

The “expect” altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots

may have the information for planning purposes. These

altitudes/speeds shall not be used in the event of lost

communications unless ATC has specifically advised the

pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further

clearance.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Section 91.185c(2)(iii).

3.1.2 Pilots navigating on STAR/RNAV STAR/

FMSP procedures shall maintain last assigned

altitude until receiving authorization to descend so as

to comply with all published/issued restrictions. This

authorization will contain the phraseology “DESCEND VIA.”

3.1.2.1 Clearance to “descend via” authorizes pilots

to:

a) Vertically and laterally navigate on a STAR/

RNAV STAR/FMSP.

b) When cleared to a waypoint depicted on a

STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP, to descend from a

previously assigned altitude at pilot’s discretion to the

altitude depicted for that waypoint, and once

established on the depicted arrival, to navigate

laterally and vertically to meet all published

restrictions.

NOTE−

1. Air traffic is responsible for obstacle clearance when

issuing a “descend via” instruction to the pilot. The

descend via is used in conjunction with STARs/RNAV

STARs/FMSPs to reduce phraseology by not requiring the

controller to restate the altitude at the next waypoint/fix to

which the pilot has been cleared.

2. Air traffic will assign an altitude to cross the

waypoint/fix, if no altitude is depicted at the waypoint/fix,

for aircraft on a direct routing to a STAR/RNAV

STAR/FMSP.

3. Minimum en route altitudes (MEA) are not considered

restrictions; however, pilots are expected to remain above

MEAs.

EXAMPLE−

1. Lateral/routing clearance only.

“Cleared Hadly One arrival.”

2. Routing with assigned altitude:

“Cleared Hadly One arrival, descend and maintain

Flight Level two four zero.”

“Cleared Hadly One arrival, descend at pilot’s

discretion, maintain Flight Level two four zero.”

3. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance.

“Descend via the Civit One arrival.”

“Descend via the Civit One arrival, except, cross Arnes

at or above one one thousand.”

4. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance

when assigning altitude not published on procedure.

“Descend via the Haris One arrival, except after Bruno,

maintain one zero thousand.”

“Descend via the Haris One arrival, except cross Bruno

at one three thousand then maintain one zero thousand.”

5. Direct routing to intercept a STAR/RNAV

STAR/FMSP and vertical navigation clearance.

“Proceed direct Mahem, descend via Mahem One

arrival.”

“Proceed direct Luxor, cross Luxor at or above flight

level two zero zero, then descend via the Ksino One

Arrival.”

NOTE−

1. In Example 2, pilots are expected to descend to FL 240

as directed, and maintain FL 240 until cleared for further

vertical navigation with a newly assigned altitude or a

“descend via” clearance.

2. In Example 4, the aircraft should track laterally and

vertically on the Haris One arrival and should descend so

as to comply with all speed and altitude restrictions until

reaching Bruno and then maintain 10,000. Upon reaching

10,000, aircraft should maintain 10,000 until cleared by

ATC to continue to descend.

3.1.2.2 Pilots cleared for vertical navigation using

the phraseology “DESCEND VIA” shall inform ATC

upon initial contact with a new frequency.

EXAMPLE−

“Delta One Twenty One leaving FL 240, descending via

the Civit One arrival.”

3.1.2.3 Pilots of IFR aircraft destined to locations for

which STARs have been published may be issued a

clearance containing a STAR whenever ATC deems

it appropriate.

3.2 Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at

least the approved chart. RNAV STARs must be

retrievable by the procedure name from the aircraft

database and conform to charted procedure. As with

any ATC clearance or portion thereof, it is the

responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse an

issued STAR. Pilots should notify ATC if they do not

wish to use a STAR by placing “NO STAR” in the

remarks section of the flight plan or by the less

desirable method of verbally stating the same to ATC.
AIP ENR 1.5−9

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.3 STAR charts are published in the Terminal

Procedures Publication (TPP) and are available on

subscription from the National Aeronautical Charting Office.

3.4 RNAV STAR.

3.4.1 There are two general types of public RNAV

STARs:

3.4.1.1 Type A. These procedures require system

performance currently met by GPS, DME/DME, or

DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the

criteria discussed in AC 90−100, U.S. Terminal and

En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.

Type A terminal procedures require the aircraft’s

track keeping accuracy remain bounded by 2 NM

for 95% of the total flight time.

NOTE−

If not equipped with GPS (or for multi−sensor systems with

GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be

capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME

or DME/DME/IRU for Type A STARs.

3.4.1.2 Type B. These procedures require system

performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/

IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed

in AC 90−100. Type B procedures may require the

aircraft’s track keeping accuracy remain bounded by

1 NM for 95% of the total flight time.

NOTE−

If not equipped with GPS (or for multi−sensor systems with

GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be

capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME/

IRU for Type B STARs.

3.4.2 For procedures requiring GPS, if the navigation system does not automatically alert the flight

crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must develop

procedures to verify correct GPS operation.

4. Local Flow Traffic Management Program

4.1 This program is a continuing effort by the FAA

to enhance safety, minimize the impact of aircraft

noise, and conserve aviation fuel. The enhancement

of safety and reduction of noise are achieved in this

program by minimizing low altitude maneuvering of

arriving turbojet and turboprop aircraft weighing

more that 12,500 pounds and, by permitting departure

aircraft to climb to high altitudes sooner, as arrivals

are operating at higher altitudes at the points where

their flight paths cross. The application of these

procedures also reduces exposure time between

controlled aircraft and uncontrolled aircraft at the

lower altitudes in and around the terminal environment. Fuel conservation is accomplished by

absorbing any necessary arrival delays for aircraft

included in this program operating at the higher and

more fuel efficient altitudes.

4.2 A fuel efficient descent is basically an

uninterrupted descent (except where level flight is

required for speed adjustment) from cruising altitude

to the point when level flight is necessary for the pilot

to stabilize the aircraft on final approach. The

procedure for a fuel efficient descent is based on an

altitude loss which is most efficient for the majority

of aircraft being served. This will generally result in

a descent gradient window of 250−350 feet per

nautical mile.

4.3 When crossing altitudes and speed restrictions

are issued verbally or are depicted on a chart, ATC

will expect the pilot to descend first to the crossing

altitude and then reduce speed. Verbal clearances for

descent will normally permit an uninterrupted

descent in accordance with the procedure as

described in paragraph 4.2 above. Acceptance of a

charted fuel efficient descent (Runway Profile

Descent) clearance requires the pilot to adhere to the

altitudes, speeds, and headings depicted on the charts

unless otherwise instructed by ATC. PILOTS

RECEIVING A CLEARANCE FOR A FUEL

EFFICIENT DESCENT ARE EXPECTED TO

ADVISE ATC IF THEY DO NOT HAVE RUNWAY

PROFILE DESCENT CHARTS PUBLISHED FOR

THAT AIRPORT OR ARE UNABLE TO COMPLY

WITH THE CLEARANCE.

5. Advance Information on Instrument

Approaches

5.1 When landing at airports with approach control

services and where two or more instrument approach

procedures are published, pilots will be provided in

advance of their arrival with the type of approach to

expect or that they may be vectored for a visual

approach. This information will be broadcast either

by a controller or on ATIS. It will not be furnished

when the visibility is three miles or better and the

ceiling is at or above the highest initial approach

altitude established for any low altitude instrument

approach procedure for the airport.

5.2 The purpose of this information is to aid the pilot

in planning arrival actions; however, it is not an ATC

clearance or commitment and is subject to change.

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Pilots should bear in mind that fluctuating weather,

shifting winds, blocked runway, etc., are conditions

which may result in changes to approach information

previously received. It is important that pilots advise

ATC immediately if they are unable to execute the

approach ATC advised will be used, or if they prefer

another type of approach.

5.3 Aircraft destined to uncontrolled airports which

have automated weather data with broadcast

capability should monitor the ASOS/AWOS frequency to ascertain the current weather for the airport. The

pilot shall advise ATC when he/she has received the

broadcast weather and state his/her intentions.

NOTE−

1. ASOS/AWOS should be set to provide one−minute

broadcast weather updates at uncontrolled airports that

are without weather broadcast capability by a human

observer.

2. Controllers will consider the long line disseminated

weather from an automated weather system at an

uncontrolled airport as trend and planning information

only and will rely on the pilot for current weather

information for the airport. If the pilot is unable to receive

the current broadcast weather, the last long−line

disseminated weather will be issued to the pilot. When

receiving IFR services, the pilot/aircraft operator is

responsible for determining if weather/visibility is

adequate for approach/landing.

5.4 When making an IFR approach to an airport not

served by a tower or FSS, after the ATC controller

advises “CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY

APPROVED,” you should broadcast your intentions,

including the type of approach being executed, your

position, and when over the final approach fix

inbound (nonprecision approach) or when over the

outer marker or the fix used in lieu of the outer marker

inbound (precision approach). Continue to monitor

the appropriate frequency (UNICOM, etc.) for

reports from other pilots.

6. Approach Clearance

6.1 An aircraft which has been cleared to a holding

fix and subsequently “cleared . . . approach” has not

received new routing. Even though clearance for the

approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft

reaching the holding fix, ATC would expect the pilot

to proceed via the holding fix (the last assigned

route), and the feeder route associated with that fix (if

a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to

the initial approach fix (IAF) to commence the

approach. WHEN CLEARED FOR THE APPROACH, THE PUBLISHED OFF AIRWAY

(FEEDER) ROUTES THAT LEAD FROM THE EN

ROUTE STRUCTURE TO THE IAF ARE PART OF

THE APPROACH CLEARANCE.

6.2 If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a fix located

along the route of flight prior to reaching the holding

fix, and clearance for an approach is issued, a pilot

should commence the approach via the published

feeder route; i.e., the aircraft would not be expected

to overfly the feeder route and return to it. The pilot

is expected to commence the approach in a similar

manner at the IAF, if the IAF for the procedure is

located along the route of flight to the holding fix.

6.3 If a route of flight directly to the initial approach

fix is desired, it should be so stated by the controller

with phraseology to include the words “direct . . . ,”

“proceed direct” or a similar phrase which the pilot

can interpret without question. If a pilot is uncertain

of the clearance, immediately query ATC as to what

route of flight is desired.

7. Landing Priority

7.1 A clearance for a specific type of approach (ILS,

MLS, ADF, VOR, or straight−in approach) to an

aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan does not mean

that landing priority will be given over other traffic.

Traffic control towers handle all aircraft, regardless

of the type of flight plan, on a “first−come,

first−served” basis. Therefore, because of local traffic

or runway in use, it may be necessary for the

controller, in the interest of safety, to provide a

different landing sequence. In any case, a landing

sequence will be issued to each aircraft as soon as

possible to enable the pilot to properly adjust the

aircraft’s flight path.

8. Procedure Turns

8.1 A procedure turn is the maneuver prescribed

when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish

the aircraft inbound on an intermediate or final

approach course. The procedure turn or hold−in−

lieu−of−PT is a required maneuver when it is depicted

on the approach chart. However, the procedure turn

or hold−in−lieu−of−PT is not permitted when the

symbol “No PT” is depicted on the initial segment

being used, when a RADAR VECTOR to the final

approach course is provided, or when conducting a

timed approach from a holding fix. The altitude

prescribed for the procedure turn is a minimum

altitude until the aircraft is established on the inbound

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AIP ENR 1.5−11

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

course. The maneuver must be completed within the

distance specified in the profile view.

NOTE− The pilot may elect to use the procedure turn or

hold−in−lieu−of−PT when it is not required by the

procedure, but must first receive an amended clearance

from ATC. When ATC is radar vectoring to the final

approach course or to the intermediate fix, ATC may

specify in the approach clearance “CLEARED

STRAIGHT−IN (type) APPROACH” to ensure the

procedure turn or hold−in−lieu−of−PT is not to be flown. If

the pilot is uncertain whether the ATC clearance intends

for a procedure turn to be conducted or to allow for a

straight−in approach, the pilot shall immediately request

clarification from ATC (14 CFR Section 91.123).

8.1.1 On U.S. Government charts, a barbed arrow

indicates the direction or side of the outbound course

on which the procedure turn is made. Headings are

provided for course reversal using the 45−degree type

procedure turn. However, the point at which the turn

may be commenced and the type and rate of turn is left

to the discretion of the pilot. Some of the options are

the 45−degree procedure turn, the racetrack pattern,

the teardrop procedure turn, or the 80 degree −

260 degree course reversal. Some procedure turns are

specified by procedural track. These turns must be

flown exactly as depicted.

8.1.2 When the approach procedure involves a

procedure turn, a maximum speed of not greater than

200 knots (IAS) should be observed from first

overheading the course reversal IAF through the

procedure turn maneuver to ensure containment

within the obstruction clearance area. Pilots should

begin the outbound turn immediately after passing

the procedure turn fix. The procedure turn maneuver

must be executed within the distance specified in the

profile view. The normal procedure turn distance is

10 miles. This may be reduced to a minimum of

5 miles where only Category A or helicopter aircraft

are to be operated or increased to as much as 15 miles

to accommodate high performance aircraft.

8.1.3 A teardrop procedure or penetration turn may

be specified in some procedures for a required course

reversal. The teardrop procedure consists of

departure from an initial approach fix on an outbound

course followed by a turn toward and intercepting the

inbound course at or prior to the intermediate fix or

point. Its purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse

direction and lose considerable altitude within

reasonably limited airspace. Where no fix is available

to mark the beginning of the intermediate segment, it

shall be assumed to commence at a point 10 miles

prior to the final approach fix. When the facility is

located on the airport, an aircraft is considered to be

on final approach upon completion of the penetration

turn. However, the final approach segment begins on

the final approach course 10 miles from the facility.

8.1.4 A holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn may

be specified for course reversal in some procedures.

In such cases, the holding pattern is established over

an intermediate fix or a final approach fix. The

holding pattern distance or time specified in the

profile view must be observed. Maximum holding

airspeed limitations as set forth for all holding

patterns apply. The holding pattern maneuver is

completed when the aircraft is established on the

inbound course after executing the appropriate entry.

If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the

holding fix, and the aircraft is at the prescribed

altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are

not necessary nor expected by ATC. If pilots elect to

make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude or

to become better established on course, it is their

responsibility to so advise ATC upon receipt of their

approach clearance.

8.1.5 A procedure turn is not required when an

approach can be made directly from a specified

intermediate fix to the final approach fix. In such

cases, the term “NoPT” is used with the appropriate

course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn

is not required. If a procedure turn is desired, and

when cleared to do so by ATC, descent below the

procedure turn altitude should not be made until the

aircraft is established on the inbound course, since

some NoPT altitudes may be lower than the

procedure turn altitudes.

8.2 Limitations on Procedure Turns

8.2.1 In the case of a radar initial approach to a final

approach fix or position, or a timed approach from a

holding fix, or where the procedure specifies NoPT,

no pilot may make a procedure turn unless, when final

approach clearance is received, the pilot so advises

ATC and a clearance is received to executive a

procedure turn.

8.2.2 When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and

a course reversal is required, this type turn must be

executed.

8.2.3 When a holding pattern replaces a procedure

turn, the holding pattern must be followed, except

when RADAR VECTORING is provided or when

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NoPT is shown on the approach course. The

recommended entry procedures will ensure the

aircraft remains within the holding pattern’s

protected airspace. As in the procedure turn, the

descent from the minimum holding pattern altitude to

the final approach fix altitude (when lower) may not

commence until the aircraft is established on the

inbound course. Where a holding pattern is

established in−lieu−of a procedure turn, the maximum holding pattern airspeeds apply.

NOTE−

See paragraph 1.3.2.1, Airspeeds.

8.2.4 The absence of the procedure turn barb in the

plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not

authorized for that procedure.

9. RNP SAAAR Instrument Approach

Procedures

These procedures require authorization analogous to

the special authorization required for Category II or

III ILS procedures. Special aircraft and aircrew

authorization required (SAAAR) procedures are to

be conducted by aircrews meeting special training

requirements in aircraft that meet the specified

performance and functional requirements.

9.1 Unique characteristics of RNP SAAAR

Approaches

9.1.1 RNP value. Each published line of minima

has an associated RNP value. The indicated value

defines the lateral and vertical performance requirements. A minimum RNP type is documented as part

of the RNP SAAAR authorization for each operator

and may vary depending on aircraft configuration or

operational procedures (e.g., GPS inoperative, use of

flight director vice autopilot).

9.1.2 Curved path procedures. Some RNP approaches have a curved path, also called a

radius−to−a−fix (RF) leg. Since not all aircraft have

the capability to fly these arcs, pilots are responsible

for knowing if they can conduct an RNP approach

with an arc or not. Aircraft speeds, winds and bank

angles have been taken into consideration in the

development of the procedures.

9.1.3 RNP required for extraction or not.

Where required, the missed approach procedure may

use RNP values less than RNP−1. The reliability of

the navigation system has to be very high in order to

conduct these approaches. Operation on these

procedures generally requires redundant equipment,

as no single point of failure can cause loss of both

approach and missed approach navigation.

9.1.4 Non−standard speeds or climb gradients.

RNP SAAAR approaches are developed based on

standard approach speeds and a 200 ft/NM climb

gradient in the missed approach. Any exceptions to

these standards will be indicated on the approach

procedure, and the operator should ensure they can

comply with any published restrictions before

conducting the operation.

9.1.5 Temperature Limits. For aircraft using

barometric vertical navigation (without temperature

compensation) to conduct the approach, low and

high−temperature limits are identified on the

procedure. Cold temperatures reduce the glidepath

angle while high temperatures increase the glidepath

angle. Aircraft using baro VNAV with temperature

compensation or aircraft using an alternate means for

vertical guidance (e.g., SBAS) may disregard the

temperature restrictions. The charted temperature

limits are evaluated for the final approach segment

only. Regardless of charted temperature limits or

temperature compensation by the FMS, the pilot may

need to manually compensate for cold temperature on

minimum altitudes and the decision altitude.

9.1.6 Aircraft size. The achieved minimums may

be dependent on aircraft size. Large aircraft may

require higher minimums due to gear height and/or

wingspan. Approach procedure charts will be

annotated with applicable aircraft size restrictions.

9.2 Types of RNP SAAAR Approach Operations

9.2.1 RNP Stand−alone Approach Operations.

RNP SAAAR procedures can provide access to

runways regardless of the ground−based NAVAID

infrastructure, and can be designed to avoid

obstacles, terrain, airspace, or resolve environmental

constraints.

9.2.2 RNP Parallel Approach (RPA) Operations.

RNP SAAAR procedures can be used for parallel

approaches where the runway separation is adequate

(See FIG ENR 1.5−7). Parallel approach procedures

can be used either simultaneously or as stand−alone

operations. They may be part of either independent or

dependent operations depending on the ATC ability

to provide radar monitoring.

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United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−7

9.2.3 RNP Parallel Approach Runway Transitions (RPAT) Operations. RPAT approaches begin

as a parallel IFR approach operation using

simultaneous independent or dependent procedures.

(See FIG ENR 1.5−8). Visual separation standards

are used in the final segment of the approach after the

final approach fix, to permit the RPAT aircraft to

transition in visual conditions along a predefined

lateral and vertical path to align with the runway

centerline.

FIG ENR 1.5−8

9.2.4 RNP Converging Runway Operations. At

airports where runways converge, but may or may not

intersect, an RNP SAAAR approach can provide a

precise curved missed approach path that conforms to

aircraft separation minimums for simultaneous

operations (See FIG ENR 1.5−9). By flying this

curved missed approach path with high accuracy and

containment provided by RNP, dual runway

operations may continue to be used to lower ceiling

and visibility values than currently available. This

type of operation allows greater capacity at airports

where it can be applied.

FIG ENR 1.5−9

10. Side−step Maneuver

10.1 ATC may authorize a standard instrument

approach procedure which serves either one of

parallel runways that are separated by 1,200 feet or

less followed by a straight-in landing on the adjacent

runway.

10.2 Aircraft that will execute a side-step maneuver

will be cleared for a specified approach procedure

and landing on the adjacent parallel runway.

Example, “cleared ILS runway 7 left approach,

side-step to runway 7 right.” Pilots are expected to

commence the side-step maneuver as soon as

possible after the runway or runway environment is

in sight.

NOTE−

Side−step minima are flown to a Minimum Descent Altitude

(MDA) regardless of the approach authorized.
ENR 1.5−14 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

10.3 Landing minimums to the adjacent runway will

be based on nonprecision criteria and therefore higher

than the precision minimums to the primary runway,

but will normally be lower than the published circling

minimums.

11. Approach and Landing Minimums

11.1 Landing Minimums. The rules applicable to

landing minimums are contained in 14 CFR

Section 91.175. TBL ENR 1.5−2 may be used to

convert RVR to ground or flight visibility. For

converting RVR values that fall between listed

values, use the next higher RVR value; do not

interpolate. For example, when converting

1800 RVR, use 2400 RVR with the resultant visibility

of 1/2 mile.

11.1.1 Aircraft approach category means a grouping

of aircraft based on a speed of VREF, if specified, or

if VREF not specified, 1.3 VSO at the maximum

certificated landing weight. VREF, VSO, and the

maximum certificated landing weight are those

values as established for the aircraft by the

certification authority of the country of registry.

Helicopters are Category A aircraft. An aircraft must

fit in only one category. Pilots are responsible for

determining and briefing which category minimums

will be used for each instrument approach. If a higher

approach speed is used on final that places the aircraft

in a higher approach category, the minimums for the

higher category must be used. Approaches made with

inoperative flaps, circling approaches at higher−than

normal straight−in approach speeds, and approaches

made in icing conditions for some types of airplanes

are all examples of situations that can necessitate the

use of a higher approach category. See the following

category limits:

11.1.1.1 Category A: Speed less than 91 knots.

11.1.1.2 Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but

less than 121 knots.

11.1.1.3 Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but

less than 141 knots.

11.1.1.4 Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but

less than 166 knots.

11.1.1.5 Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.

TBL ENR 1.5−2

RVR Value Conversions

RVR Visibility

(statute miles)

1600 1/4

2400 1/2

3200 5/8

4000 3/4

4500 7/8

5000 1

6000 1 1/4

11.2 Published Approach Minimums. Approach

minimums are published for different aircraft

categories and consist of a minimum altitude (DA,

DH, MDA) and required visibility. These minimums

are determined by applying the appropriate TERPS

criteria. When a fix is incorporated in a nonprecision

final segment, two sets of minimums may be

published; one for the pilot that is able to identify the

fix, and a second for the pilot that cannot. Two sets of

minimums may also be published when a second

altimeter source is used in the procedure. When a

nonprecision procedure incorporates both a stepdown fix in the final segment and a second altimeter

source, two sets of minimums are published to

account for the stepdown fix and a note addresses

minimums for the second altimeter source.
AIP ENR 1.5−15

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−10

Final Approach Obstacle Clearance

CIRCLING APPROACH AREA RADII

CIRCLING APPROACH AREA

RADI (r) DEFINING SIZE

OF AREAS, VARY WITH THE

APPROACH CATEGORY

r

r

r

r

r

A

B

C

D

E

1.3

1.5

1.7

2.3

4.5

Approach Category Radius (Miles)

11.3 Obstacle Clearance. Final approach obstacle

clearance is provided from the start of the final

segment to the runway or missed approach point,

whichever occurs last. Side-step obstacle protection

is provided by increasing the width of the final

approach obstacle clearance area.

11.3.1 Circling approach protected areas are defined

by the tangential connection of arcs drawn from each

runway end. The arc radii distance differs by aircraft

approach category. Because of obstacles near the

airport, a portion of the circling area may be restricted

by a procedural note: e.g., “Circling NA E of

RWY 17−35.” Obstacle clearance is provided at the

published minimums for the pilot that makes a

straight-in approach, side-steps, circles, or executes

the missed approach. Missed approach obstacle

clearance requirements may dictate the published

minimums for the approach. (See FIG ENR 1.5−10.)

11.3.2 Precision Object Free Zone (POFZ). A

volume of airspace above an area beginning at the

runway threshold, at the threshold elevation, and

centered on the extended runway centerline. The

POFZ is 200 feet (60m) long and 800 feet (240m)

wide. The POFZ must be clear when an aircraft on a

vertically guided final approach is within 2 nautical

miles of the runway threshold and the reported ceiling

is below 250 feet or visibility less than 3/4 statute mile

(SM) (or runway visual range below 4,000 feet). If the

POFZ is not clear, the MINIMUM authorized height

above touchdown (HAT) and visibility is 250 feet and 3/4SM. The POFZ is considered clear even if the wing

of the aircraft holding on a taxiway waiting for

runway clearance penetrates the POFZ; however,

neither the fuselage nor the tail may infringe on the

POFZ. The POFZ is applicable at all runway ends

including displaced thresholds. 

(See FIG ENR 1.5−11.)
ENR 1.5−16 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−11

Precision Object Free Zone (POFZ)

NOTE−

The target date for mandatory POFZ compliance from every airport nationally is January 1, 2007.

11.4 Straight−In Minimums are shown on the IAP

when the final approach course is within 30 degrees

of the runway alignment (15 degrees for GPS IAPs)

and a normal descent can be made from the IFR

altitude shown on the IAP to the runway surface.

When either the normal rate of descent or the runway

alignment factor of 30 degrees (15 degrees for GPS

IAPs) is exceeded, a straight−in minimum is not

published and a circling minimum applies. The fact

that a straight−in minimum is not published does not

preclude pilots from landing straight−in if they have

the active runway in sight and have sufficient time to

make a normal approach for landing. Under such

conditions and when ATC has cleared them for

landing on that runway, pilots are not expected to

circle even though only circling minimums are

published. If they desire to circle, they should advise

ATC.

11.5 Side−Step Maneuver Minimums. Landing

minimums for a side−step maneuver to the adjacent

runway will normally be higher than the minimums

to the primary runway.
AIP ENR 1.5−17

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

11.6 Circling Minimums. In some busy terminal

areas, ATC may not allow circling and circling

minimums will not be published. Published circling

minimums provide obstacle clearance when pilots

remain within the appropriate area of protection.

Pilots should remain at or above the circling altitude

until the aircraft is continuously in a position from

which a descent to a landing on the intended runway

can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal

maneuvers. Circling may require maneuvers at low

altitude, at low airspeed, and in marginal weather

conditions. Pilots must use sound judgment, have an

in−depth knowledge of their capabilities, and fully

understand the aircraft performance to determine the

exact circling maneuver since weather, unique airport

design, and the aircraft position, altitude, and

airspeed must all be considered. The following basic

rules apply:

11.6.1 Maneuver the shortest path to the base or

downwind leg, as appropriate, considering existing

weather conditions. There is no restriction from

passing over the airport or other runways.

11.6.2 It should be recognized that circling maneuvers may be made while VFR or other flying is in

progress at the airport. Standard left turns or specific

instruction from the controller for maneuvering must

be considered when circling to land.

11.6.3 At airports without a control tower, it may be

desirable to fly over the airport to observe wind and

turn indicators and other traffic which may be on the

runway or flying in the vicinity of the airport.

11.7 Instrument Approaches at a Military Field.

When instrument approaches are conducted by civil

aircraft at military airports, they shall be conducted in

accordance with the procedures and minimums

approved by the military agency having jurisdiction

over the airport.

12. Instrument Approach Procedure Charts

12.1 14 CFR Section 91.175(a), Instrument approaches to civil airports, requires the use of SIAP’s

prescribed for the airport in 14 CFR Part 97 unless

otherwise authorized by the Administrator (including

ATC). If there are military procedures published at a

civil airport, aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91

must use the civil procedure(s). Civil procedures are

defined with “FAA” in parenthesis; e.g., (FAA), at the

top, center of the procedure chart. DOD procedures

are defined using the abbreviation of the applicable

military service in parenthesis; e.g., (USAF), (USN),

(USA). 14 CFR Section 91.175(g), Military airports,

requires civil pilots flying into or out of military

airports to comply with the IAP’s and takeoff and

landing minimums prescribed by the authority

having jurisdiction at those airports. Unless an

emergency exists, civil aircraft operating at military

airports normally require advance authorization,

commonly referred to as “Prior Permission Required” or “PPR.” Information on obtaining a PPR for

a particular military airport can be found in the

Airport/Facility Directory.

NOTE−

Civil aircraft may conduct practice VFR approaches using

DOD instrument approach procedures when approved by

the air traffic controller.

12.1.1 IAPs (standard and special, civil and military)

are based on joint civil and military criteria contained

in the U.S. Standard for TERPS. The design of IAPs

based on criteria contained in TERPS, takes into

account the interrelationship between airports,

facilities, and the surrounding environment, terrain,

obstacles, noise sensitivity, etc. Appropriate altitudes, courses, headings, distances, and other

limitations are specified and, once approved, the

procedures are published and distributed by

government and commercial cartographers as

instrument approach charts.

12.1.2 Not all IAPs are published in chart form.

Radar IAPs are established where requirements and

facilities exist but they are printed in tabular form in

appropriate U.S. Government Flight Information

Publications.

12.1.3 The navigation equipment required to join

and fly an instrument approach procedure is indicated

by the title of the procedure and notes on the chart.

12.1.3.1 Straight−in IAPs are identified by the

navigational system providing the final approach

guidance and the runway to which the approach is

aligned (e.g., VOR RWY 13). Circling only

approaches are identified by the navigational system

providing final approach guidance and a letter

(e.g., VOR A). More than one navigational system

separated by a slash indicates that more than one type

of equipment must be used to execute the final

approach (e.g., VOR/DME RWY 31). More than

one navigational system separated by the word “or”

indicates either type of equipment may be used to
ENR 1.5−18 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

execute the final approach (e.g., VOR or GPS

RWY 15).

12.1.3.2 In some cases, other types of navigation

systems including radar may be required to execute

other portions of the approach or to navigate to the

IAF (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS, an NDB

in the missed approach, or radar required to join the

procedure or identify a fix). When radar or other

equipment is required for procedure entry from the

en route environment, a note will be charted in the

planview of the approach procedure chart

(e.g., RADAR REQUIRED or ADF REQUIRED).

When radar or other equipment is required on

portions of the procedure outside the final approach

segment, including the missed approach, a note will

be charted in the notes box of the pilot briefing

portion of the approach chart (e.g., RADAR

REQUIRED or DME REQUIRED). Notes are not

charted when VOR is required outside the final

approach segment. Pilots should ensure that the

aircraft is equipped with the required NAVAID(s) in

order to execute the approach, including the missed

approach.

12.1.3.3 The FAA has initiated a program to provide

a new notation for LOC approaches when charted on

an ILS approach requiring other navigational aids to

fly the final approach course. The LOC minimums

will be annotated with the NAVAID required

(e.g., “DME Required” or “RADAR Required”).

During the transition period, ILS approaches will still

exist without the annotation.

12.1.3.4 The naming of multiple approaches of the

same type to the same runway is also changing.

Multiple approaches with the same guidance will be

annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the

end of the alphabet and working backwards for

subsequent procedures (e.g., ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y

RWY 28, etc.). The existing annotations such as

ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased

out and replaced with the new designation. The Cat II

and Cat III designations are used to differentiate

between multiple ILSs to the same runway unless

there are multiples of the same type.

12.1.3.5 WAAS (LPV, LNAV/VNAV and LNAV),

and GPS (LNAV) approach procedures are charted as

RNAV (GPS) RWY (Number) (e.g., RNAV (GPS)

RWY 21). VOR/DME RNAV approaches will

continue to be identified as VOR/DME RNAV RWY

(Number) (e.g., VOR/DME RNAV RWY 21).

VOR/DME RNAV procedures which can be flown by

GPS will be annotated with “or GPS” (e.g., VOR/

DME RNAV or GPS RWY 31).

12.1.4 Approach minimums are based on the local

altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated

otherwise; e.g., Oklahoma City/Will Rogers World

approaches are based on having a Will Rogers World

altimeter setting. When a different altimeter source is

required, or more than one source is authorized, it will

be annotated on the approach chart; e.g., use Sidney

altimeter setting, if not received, use Scottsbluff

altimeter setting. Approach minimums may be raised

when a nonlocal altimeter source is authorized. When

more than one altimeter source is authorized, and the

minima are different, they will be shown by separate

lines in the approach minima box or a note; e.g., use

Manhattan altimeter setting; when not available use

Salina altimeter setting and increase all MDAs

40 feet. When the altimeter must be obtained from a

source other than air traffic a note will indicate the

source; e.g., Obtain local altimeter setting on CTAF.

When the altimeter setting(s) on which the approach

is based is not available, the approach is not

authorized. Baro−VNAV must be flown using the

local altimeter setting only. Where no local altimeter

is available, the LNAV/VNAV line will still be

published for use by WAAS receivers with a note that

Baro−VNAV is not authorized. When a local and at

least one other altimeter setting source is authorized

and the local altimeter is not available Baro−VNAV

is not authorized; however, the LNAV/VNAV

minima can still be used by WAAS receivers using the

alternate altimeter setting source.

12.1.5 A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flight paths,

and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart or

vectors and altitudes issued by the radar controller, is

assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and

runway or airport alignment during approach for

landing.

12.1.6 IAPs are designed to provide an IFR descent

from the en route environment to a point where a safe

landing can be made. They are prescribed and

approved by appropriate civil or military authority to

ensure a safe descent during instrument flight

conditions at a specific airport. It is important that

pilots understand these procedures and their use prior

to attempting to fly instrument approaches.
AIP ENR 1.5−19

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

12.1.7 TERPS criteria are provided for the following

types of instrument approach procedures:

12.1.7.1 Precision Approach (PA). An instrument

approach based on a navigation system that provides

course and glidepath deviation information meeting

the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10. For

example, PAR, ILS,and GLS are precision approaches.

12.1.7.2 Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV).

An instrument approach based on a navigation

system that is not required to meet the precision

approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides

course and glidepath deviation information. For

example, Baro−VNAV, LDA with glidepath, LNAV/

VNAV and LPV are APV approaches.

12.1.7.3 Nonprecision Approach (NPA). An instrument approach based on a navigation system which

provides course deviation information, but no

glidepath deviation information. For example, VOR,

NDB and LNAV. As noted in subparagraph 12.8,

Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision

Approaches, some approach procedures may provide

a Vertical Descent Angle as an aid in flying a

stabilized approach, without requiring its use in order

to fly the procedure. This does not make the approach

an APV procedure, since it must still be flown to an

MDA and has not been evaluated with a glidepath.

12.2 The method used to depict prescribed altitudes

on instrument approach charts differs according to

techniques employed by different chart publishers.

Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in four different

configurations: minimum, maximum, mandatory,

and recommended. The U.S. Government distributes

charts produced by National Imagery and Mapping

Agency (NIMA) and FAA. Altitudes are depicted on

these charts in the profile view with underscore,

overscore, both or none to identify them as minimum,

maximum, mandatory or recommended.

12.2.1 Minimum altitude will be depicted with the

altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to

maintain altitude at or above the depicted value,

e.g., 3000.

12.2.2 Maximum altitude will be depicted with the

altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to

maintain altitude at or below the depicted value,

e.g., 4000.

12.2.3 Mandatory altitude will be depicted with the

altitude value both underscored and overscored.

Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the

depicted value, e.g., 5000.

12.2.4 Recommended altitude will be depicted with

no overscore or underscore. These altitudes are

depicted for descent planning, e.g., 6000.

NOTE−

Pilots are cautioned to adhere to altitudes as prescribed

because, in certain instances, they may be used as the basis

for vertical separation of aircraft by ATC. When a depicted

altitude is specified in the ATC clearance, that altitude

becomes mandatory as defined above.

12.3 Minimum Safe/Sector Altitudes (MSA) are

published for emergency use on IAP charts. For

conventional navigation systems, the MSA is

normally based on the primary omnidirectional

facility on which the IAP is predicated. The MSA

depiction on the approach chart contains the facility

identifier of the NAVAID used to determine the MSA

altitudes. For RNAV approaches, the MSA is based

on the runway waypoint (RWY WP) for straight−in

approaches, or the airport waypoint (APT WP) for

circling approaches. For GPS approaches, the MSA

center will be the missed approach waypoint

(MAWP). MSAs are expressed in feet above mean

sea level and normally have a 25 NM radius;

however, this radius may be expanded to 30 NM if

necessary to encompass the airport landing surfaces.

Ideally, a single sector altitude is established and

depicted on the plan view of approach charts;

however, when necessary to obtain relief from

obstructions, the area may be further sectored and as

many as four MSAs established. When established,

sectors may be no less than 90in spread. MSAs

provide 1,000 feet clearance over all obstructions but

do not necessarily assure acceptable navigation

signal coverage.
ENR 1.5−20 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

12.4 Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)

12.4.1 The objective of the TAA is to provide a

seamless transition from the en route structure to the

terminal environment for arriving aircraft equipped

with Flight Management System (FMS) and/or

Global Positioning System (GPS) navigational

equipment. The underlying instrument approach

procedure is an area navigation (RNAV) procedure

described in this section. The TAA provides the pilot

and air traffic controller with a very efficient method

for routing traffic into the terminal environment with

little required air traffic control interface, and with

minimum altitudes depicted that provide standard

obstacle clearance compatible with the instrument

procedure associated with it. The TAA will not be

found on all RNAV procedures, particularly in areas

of heavy concentration of air traffic. When the TAA

is published, it replaces the MSA for that approach

procedure. See FIG ENR 1.5−20 for a depiction of a

RNAV approach chart with a TAA.

12.4.2 The RNAV procedure underlying the TAA

will be the “T” design (also called the “Basic T”), or

a modification of the “T.” The “T” design

incorporates from one to three IAFs; an intermediate

fix (IF) that serves as a dual purpose IF (IAF); a final

approach fix (FAF), and a missed approach point

(MAP) usually located at the runway threshold. The

three IAFs are normally aligned in a straight line

perpendicular to the intermediate course, which is an

extension of the final course leading to the runway,

forming a “T.” The initial segment is normally from

3−6 NM in length; the intermediate 5−7 NM, and the

final segment 5 NM. Specific segment length may be

varied to accommodate specific aircraft categories

for which the procedure is designed. However, the

published segment lengths will reflect the highest

category of aircraft normally expected to use the

procedure.

12.4.2.1 A standard racetrack holding pattern may

be provided at the center IAF, and if present may be

necessary for course reversal and for altitude

adjustment for entry into the procedure. In the latter

case, the pattern provides an extended distance for the

descent required by the procedure. Depiction of this

pattern in U.S. Government publications will utilize

the “hold−in−lieu−of−PT” holding pattern symbol.

12.4.2.2 The published procedure will be annotated

to indicate when the course reversal is not necessary

when flying within a particular TAA area; e.g.,

“NoPT.” Otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute

the course reversal under the provisions of 14 CFR

Section 91.175. The pilot may elect to use the course

reversal pattern when it is not required by the

procedure, but must inform air traffic control and

receive clearance to do so. (See FIG ENR 1.5−12 and

FIG ENR 1.5−13.)
AIP ENR 1.5−21

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−12

Basic “T” Design
ENR 1.5−22 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−13

Basic “T” Design
AIP ENR 1.5−23

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−14

Modified Basic “T”

12.4.3 The “T” design may be modified by the

procedure designers where required by terrain or air

traffic control considerations. For instance, the “T”

design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly

shaped “Y”, or may even have one or both outboard

IAFs eliminated resulting in an upside down “L” or

an “I” configuration. (See FIG ENR 1.5−14 and

FIG ENR 1.5−21). Further, the leg lengths associated

with the outboard IAFs may differ. (See

FIG ENR 1.5−16 and FIG ENR 1.5−17.)
ENR 1.5−24 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−15

Modified “T” Approach to Parallel Runways

12.4.4 Another modification of the “T” design may

be found at airports with parallel runway configurations. Each parallel runway may be served by its own

“T” IAF, IF (IAF), and FAF combination, resulting in

parallel final approach courses. (See FIG

ENR 1.5−15). Common IAFs may serve both

runways; however, only the intermediate and final

approach segments for the landing runway will be

shown on the approach chart. (See FIG ENR 1.5−16

and FIG ENR 1.5−17.)
AIP ENR 1.5−25

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−16

 “T” Approach with Common IAFs to Parallel Runways

FIG ENR 1.5−17

“T” Approach with Common IAFs to Parallel Runways
ENR 1.5−26 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−18

TAA Area

12.4.5 The standard TAA consists of three areas

defined by the extension of the IAF legs and the

intermediate segment course. These areas are called

the straight−in, left−base, and right−base areas. (See

FIG ENR 1.5−18). TAA area lateral boundaries are

identified by magnetic courses TO the IF (IAF). The

straight−in area can be further divided into

pie−shaped sectors with the boundaries identified by

magnetic courses TO the IF (IAF), and may contain

stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNAV

distances (DME or ATD) from the IF (IAF). The

right/left−base areas can only be subdivided using

arcs based on RNAV distances from the IAFs for

those areas. Minimum MSL altitudes are charted

within each of these defined areas/subdivisions that

provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance, or

more as necessary in mountainous areas.

12.4.5.1 Prior to arriving at the TAA boundary, the

pilot can determine which area of the TAA the aircraft

will enter by selecting the IF (IAF) to determine the

magnetic bearing TO the center IF (IAF). That

bearing should then be compared with the published

bearings that define the lateral boundaries of the TAA

areas. Using the end IAFs may give a false indication

of which area the aircraft will enter. This is critical

when approaching the TAA near the extended

boundary between the left and right−base areas,

especially where these areas contain different

minimum altitude requirements. 

12.4.5.2 Pilots entering the TAA and cleared by air

traffic control, are expected to proceed directly to the

IAF associated with that area of the TAA at the

altitude depicted, unless otherwise cleared by air

traffic control. Pilots entering the TAA with two−way

radio communications failure (14 CFR Section 91.185, IFR Operations: Two−way Radio

Communications Failure), must maintain the highest

altitude prescribed by Section 91.185(c)(2) until

arriving at the appropriate IAF.
AIP ENR 1.5−27

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−19

Sectored TAA Areas

12.4.5.3 Depiction of the TAA on U.S. Government

charts will be through the use of icons located in the

plan view outside the depiction of the actual approach

procedure. (See FIG ENR 1.5−20). Use of icons is

necessary to avoid obscuring any portion of the “T”

procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum altitudes,

etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be located and

oriented on the plan view with respect to the direction

of arrival to the approach procedure, and will show all

TAA minimum altitudes and sector/radius subdivisions for that area. The IAF for each area of the TAA

is included on the icon where it appears on the

approach, to help the pilot orient the icon to the

approach procedure. The IAF name and the distance

of the TAA area boundary from the IAF are included

on the outside arc of the TAA area icon. Examples

here are shown with the TAA around the approach to

aid pilots in visualizing how the TAA corresponds to

the approach and should not be confused with the

actual approach chart depiction. 

12.4.5.4 Each waypoint on the “T”, except the

missed approach waypoint, is assigned a pronounceable 5−character name used in air traffic control

communications, and which is found in the RNAV

databases for the procedure. The missed approach

waypoint is assigned a pronounceable name when it

is not located at the runway threshold.

12.4.6 Once cleared to fly the TAA, pilots are

expected to obey minimum altitudes depicted within

the TAA icons, unless instructed otherwise by air

traffic control. In FIG ENR 1.5−19, pilots within the

left or right−base areas are expected to maintain a

minimum altitude of 6,000 feet until within 17 NM of

the associated IAF. After crossing the 17 NM arc,

descent is authorized to the lower charted altitudes.

Pilots approaching from the northwest are expected

to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000 feet, and

when within 22 NM of the IF (IAF), descend to a

minimum altitude of 2,000 feet MSL until reaching

the IF (IAF).
ENR 1.5−28 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−20

RNAV (GPS) Approach Chart

NOTE− This chart has been modified to depict new concepts and may not reflect actual approach minima.
AIP ENR 1.5−29

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−21

TAA with Left and Right

 Base Areas Eliminated

12.4.7 Just as the underlying “T” approach procedure may be modified in shape, the TAA may contain

modifications to the defined area shapes and sizes.

Some areas may even be eliminated, with other areas

expanded as needed. FIG ENR 1.5−21 is an example

of a design limitation where a course reversal is

necessary when approaching the IF (IAF) from

certain directions due to the amount of turn required

at the IF (IAF). Design criteria require a course

reversal whenever this turn exceeds 120 degrees. In

this generalized example, pilots approaching on a

bearing TO the IF (IAF) from 300 clockwise

through 060 are expected to execute a course

reversal. The term “NoPT” will be annotated on the

boundary of the TAA icon for the other portion of the

TAA.
ENR 1.5−30 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−22

TAA with Right Base Eliminated

12.4.8 FIG ENR 1.5−22 depicts another TAA modification that pilots may encounter. In this generalized

example, the right−base area has been eliminated.

Pilots operating within the TAA between 360 

clockwise to 060 bearing TO the IF (IAF) are

expected to execute the course reversal in order to

properly align the aircraft for entry onto the

intermediate segment. Aircraft operating in all other

areas from 060clockwise to 360bearing TO the IF

(IAF) need not perform the course reversal, and the

term “NoPT” will be annotated on the TAA boundary

of the icon in these areas. TAAs are no longer being

produced with sections removed; however, some may

still exist on previously published procedures.
AIP ENR 1.5−31

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−23

Examples of a TAA with Feeders from an Airway

12.4.9 When an airway does not cross the lateral

TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established to

provide a transition from the en route structure to the

appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate at

the TAA boundary, and will be aligned along a path

pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend

to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary

and cleared by air traffic control.

(See FIG ENR 1.5−23.)
ENR 1.5−32 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−24

Minimum Vectoring Altitude Charts

1500

2000

3000

3000

3000

3500

2500

5000

5500

5

10

15

20

25

30

348 013

057

102

160

250

277

289

N

12.5 Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MVAs) are

established for use by ATC when radar ATC is

exercised. MVA charts are prepared by air traffic

facilities at locations where there are numerous

different minimum IFR altitudes. Each MVA chart

has sectors large enough to accommodate vectoring

of aircraft within the sector at the MVA. Each sector

boundary is at least 3 miles from the obstruction

determining the MVA. To avoid a large sector with an

excessively high MVA due to an isolated prominent

obstruction, the obstruction may be enclosed in a

buffer area whose boundaries are at least 3 miles from

the obstruction. This is done to facilitate vectoring

around the obstruction. (See FIG ENR 1.5−24.)

12.5.1 The minimum vectoring altitude in each

sector provides 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle

in nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet above the

highest obstacle in designated mountainous areas.

Where lower MVAs are required in designated

mountainous areas to achieve compatibility with

terminal routes or to permit vectoring to an IAP,

1,000 feet of obstacle clearance may be authorized

with the use of Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR).

The minimum vectoring altitude will provide at least

300 feet above the floor of controlled airspace.

NOTE−

OROCA is an off−route altitude which provides

obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in

nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in

designated mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude

may not provide signal coverage from ground−based

navigational aids, air traffic control radar, or

communications coverage.

12.5.2 Because of differences in the areas considered

for MVA, and those applied to other minimum

altitudes, and the ability to isolate specific obstacles,

some MVAs may be lower than the nonradar

Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs), Minimum

Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs) or other

minimum altitudes depicted on charts for a given

location. While being radar vectored, IFR altitude

assignments by ATC will be at or above MVA.

12.6 Visual Descent Points (VDPs) are being

incorporated in nonprecision approach procedures.

The VDP is a defined point on the final approach

course of a nonprecision straight-in approach

procedure from which normal descent from the MDA

to the runway touchdown point may be commenced,

provided visual reference required by 14 CFR

Section 91.175(c)(3) is established. The VDP will

normally be identified by DME on VOR and LOC
AIP ENR 1.5−33

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

procedures and by along track distance to the next

waypoint for RNAV procedures. The VDP is

identified on the profile view of the approach chart by

the symbol: V.

12.6.1 VDPs are intended to provide additional

guidance where they are implemented. No special

technique is required to fly a procedure with a VDP.

The pilot should not descend below the MDA prior to

reaching the VDP and acquiring the necessary visual

reference.

12.6.2 Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should

fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had

been provided.

12.7 Visual Portion of the Final Segment. Instrument procedures designers perform a visual area

obstruction evaluation off the approach end of each

runway authorized for instrument landing, straight−

in, or circling. Restrictions to instrument operations

are imposed if penetrations of the obstruction

clearance surfaces exist. These restrictions vary

based on the severity of the penetrations, and may

include increasing required visibility, denying VDPs

and prohibiting night instrument operations to the

runway.

12.8 Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches. The FAA intends to eventually

publish VDAs on all nonprecision approaches.

Published along with the VDA is the threshold

crossing height (TCH); i.e., the height of the descent

angle above the landing threshold. The descent angle

describes a computed path from the final approach fix

(FAF) and altitude to the runway threshold at the

published TCH. The optimum descent angle is

3.00 degrees; and whenever possible the approach

will be designed to accommodate this angle.

12.8.1 The VDA provides the pilot with information

not previously available on nonprecision approaches.

It provides the means for the pilot to establish a

stabilized approach descent from the FAF or

stepdown fix to the TCH. Stabilized descent along

this path is a key factor in the reduction of controlled

flight into terrain (CFIT) incidents. Pilots can use the

published angle and estimated/actual groundspeed to

find a target rate of descent from a rate of descent

table published in the back of the U.S. Terminal

Procedures Publication.

12.8.2 Normally, the VDA will first appear on the

nonprecision approach chart as the procedure is

amended through the normal process. However, in

some cases, pilots may see this data provided via a

D−NOTAM.

EXAMPLE−

GPS RWY 9L, AMDT 2. . .

ADD: AWZAC WP TO RW09L: 2.96 DEGREES,

TCH 50.

THIS IS GPS RWY 9L, AMDT 2A

Translated, this means that the currently published

GPS RWY 9L procedure, Amendment 2, is changed

by the addition of a 2.96−degree descent angle from

AWZAC WP to a point 50 feet above the RWY 9L

threshold. This constitutes Amendment 2A to the

published procedure.

12.8.3 Pilots should be aware that the published

angle is for information only − it is strictly advisory

in nature. There is no implicit additional obstacle

protection below the MDA. Pilots must still respect

the published minimum descent altitude (MDA)

unless the visual cues stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175 are present. In rare cases, the published

procedure descent angle will not coincide with the

Visual Glide Slope Indicator (VGSI); VASI or PAPI.

In these cases, the procedure will be annotated:

“VGSI and descent angle not coincident.”

12.9 Pilot Operational Considerations When

Flying Nonprecision Approaches. The missed

approach point (MAP) on a nonprecision approach is

not designed with any consideration to where the

aircraft must begin descent to execute a safe landing.

It is developed based on terrain, obstructions,

NAVAID location and possibly air traffic considerations. Because the MAP may be located anywhere

from well prior to the runway threshold to past the

opposite end of the runway, the descent from the

Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) to the runway

threshold cannot be determined based on the MAP

location. Descent from MDA at the MAP when the

MAP is located close to the threshold would require

an excessively steep descent gradient to land in the

normal touchdown zone. Any turn from the final

approach course to the runway heading may also be

a factor in when to begin the descent.

12.9.1 Pilots are cautioned that descent to a

straight−in landing from the MDA at the MAP may

be inadvisable or impossible, on a nonprecision

approach, even if current weather conditions meet the

published ceiling and visibility. Aircraft speed, height

above the runway, descent rate, amount of turn and
ENR 1.5−34 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

runway length are some of the factors which must be

considered by the pilot to determine if a landing can

be accomplished.

12.9.2 Visual descent points (VDPs) provide pilots

with a reference for the optimal location to begin

descent from the MDA, based on the designed

vertical descent angle (VDA) for the approach

procedure, assuming required visual references are

available. Approaches without VDPs have not been

assessed for terrain clearance below the MDA, and

may not provide a clear vertical path to the runway at

the normally expected descent angle. Therefore,

pilots must be especially vigilant when descending

below the MDA at locations without VDPs. This does

not necessarily prevent flying the normal angle; it

only means that obstacle clearance in the visual

segment could be less and greater care should be

exercised in looking for obstacles in the visual

segment. Use of visual glide slope indicator (VGSI)

systems can aid the pilot in determining if the aircraft

is in a position to make the descent from the MDA.

However, when the visibility is close to minimums,

the VGSI may not be visible at the start descent point

for a “normal” glidepath, due to its location down the

runway.

12.9.3 Accordingly, pilots are advised to carefully

review approach procedures, prior to initiating the

approach, to identify the optimum position(s), and

any unacceptable positions, from which a descent to

landing can be initiated (in accordance with 14 CFR

Section 91.175(c)).

12.10 Area Navigation (RNAV) Instrument Approach Charts. Reliance on RNAV systems for

instrument approach operations is becoming more

commonplace as new systems such as GPS, Wide

Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and Local Area

Augmentation System (LAAS) are developed and

deployed. In order to foster and support full

integration of RNAV into the National Airspace

System (NAS), the FAA has developed a new

charting format for IAPs. (See FIG ENR 1.5−20).

This format avoids unnecessary duplication and

proliferation of instrument approach charts. The

approach minimums for unaugmented GPS (the

present GPS approaches) and WAAS augmented

GPS will be published on the same approach chart.

The approach chart will be titled “RNAV (GPS)

RWY XX.” The first new RNAV approach charts

appeared as stand alone “GPS” procedures, prior to

WAAS becoming operational, with only an LNAV

minima line. The follow−on charts contained as many

as four lines of approach minimums: GLS (Global

Navigation Satellite System [GNSS] Landing

System); LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical

navigation); LNAV; and CIRCLING. GLS was a

placeholder for WAAS and LAAS when they became

available and is marked N/A. LNAV/VNAV is a new

type of instrument approach called APV, with lateral

and vertical navigation. The vertical portion can be

flown by approach certified Baro−VNAV and by

WAAS electronic VNAV as well. A new line will be

added to these charts titled LPV. This will replace the

GLS N/A line. The decision of whether the WAAS

and LAAS precision lines of minima will remain on

this chart or be moved to a precision only chart will

be determined later. RNAV procedures which

incorporate a final approach stepdown fix may be

published without vertical navigation, on a separate

chart, titled RNAV (GPS) RWY XX and then Z, Y, X,

etc., as indicated in subparagraph 12.1.3. During a

transition period until all GPS procedures are retitled

both “RNAV (GPS)” and “GPS” approach charts and

formats will be published. ATC clearance for the

RNAV procedure authorizes a properly certified pilot

to utilize any landing minimums for which the

aircraft is certified. The RNAV chart includes

formatted information required for quick pilot or

flight crew reference located at the top of the chart.

This portion of the chart, developed based on a study

by the Department of Transportation, Volpe National

Transportation Systems Center, is commonly referred to as the pilot briefing.

12.10.1 The minima lines are:

12.10.1.1 GLS. “GLS” is the acronym for GNSS

Landing System; GNSS is the acronym for Global

Navigation Satellite System. The minimums line

labeled GLS will accommodate aircraft equipped

with precision approach certified WAAS receivers

operating to their fullest capability or LAAS and may

support precision (GLS) approach minimums as low

as 200−foot height above touchdown (HAT) and

1/2 statute mile (SM) visibility. This line has been

published as N/A as a place holder for the minima

when published. The WAAS and LAAS precision

minima may be moved to a different chart in the

future. 

12.10.1.2 LPV. “LPV” is the acronym for localizer

performance with vertical guidance. LPV identifies

the APV minimums with electronic lateral and
AIP ENR 1.5−35

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

vertical guidance. The lateral guidance is equivalent

to localizer, and the protected area is considerably

smaller than the protected area for the present LNAV

and LNAV/VNAV lateral protection. Aircraft can fly

this minima line with a statement in the Aircraft

Flight Manual that the installed equipment supports

LPV approaches. This includes Class 3 and 4

TSO−C146 WAAS equipment, and future LAAS

equipment.

12.10.1.3 LNAV/VNAV identifies APV minimums

developed to accommodate an RNAV IAP with

vertical guidance, usually provided by approach

certified Baro−VNAV, but with lateral and vertical

integrity limits larger than a precision approach or

LPV. LNAV stands for Lateral Navigation; VNAV

stands for Vertical Navigation. This minima line can

be flown by aircraft with a statement in the Aircraft

Flight Manual that the installed equipment supports

GPS approaches and has an approach−approved

barometric VNAV, or if the aircraft has been

demonstrated to support LNAV/VNAV approaches.

This includes Class 2, 3 and 4 TSO−C146 WAAS

equipment. Aircraft using LNAV/VNAV minimums

will descend to landing via an internally generated

descent path based on satellite or other approach

approved VNAV systems. WAAS equipment may

revert to this mode of operation when the signal does

not support precision or LPV integrity. Since

electronic vertical guidance is provided, the minima

will be published as a DA. Other navigation systems

may be specifically authorized to use this line of

minima, see Section A, Terms/Landing Minima Data,

of the U.S. Terminal Procedures books.

12.10.1.4 LNAV. This minima is for lateral navigation only, and the approach minimum altitude will be

published as a minimum descent altitude (MDA).

LNAV provides the same level of service as the

present GPS stand alone approaches. LNAV

minimums support the following navigation systems:

WAAS, when the navigation solution will not support

vertical navigation; and, GPS navigation systems

which are presently authorized to conduct GPS

approaches. Existing GPS approaches continue to be

converted to the RNAV (GPS) format as they are

revised or reviewed.

NOTE−

GPS receivers approved for approach operations in

accordance with: AC 20−138, Airworthiness Approval of

Global Positioning System (GPS) Navigation Equipment

for Use as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation

System, for stand−alone Technical Standard Order (TSO)

TSO−C129 Class A(1) systems; or AC 20−130A,

Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight

Management Systems Integrating Multiple Navigation

Sensors, for GPS as part of a multi−sensor system, qualify

for this minima. WAAS navigation equipment must be

approved in accordance with the requirements specified in

TSO−C145 or TSO−C146 and installed in accordance with

Advisory Circular AC 20−138A, Airworthiness Approval

of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Equipment.

12.10.2 Other systems may be authorized to utilize

these approaches. See the description in Section A of

the U.S. Terminal Procedures books for details. These

systems may include aircraft equipped with an FMS

that can file /E or /F. Operational approval must also

be obtained for Baro−VNAV systems to operate to the

LNAV/VNAV minimums. Baro−VNAV may not be

authorized on some approaches due to other factors,

such as no local altimeter source being available.

Baro−VNAV is not authorized on LPV procedures.

Pilots are directed to their local Flight Standards

District Office (FSDO) for additional information.

NOTE−

RNAV and Baro−VNAV systems must have a manufacturer

supplied electronic database which shall include the

waypoints, altitudes, and vertical data for the procedure to

be flown. The system shall also be able to extract the

procedure in its entirety, not just as a manually entered

series of waypoints.

12.10.3 Required Navigation Performance

(RNP)

12.10.3.1 Pilots are advised to refer to the

“TERMS/LANDING MINIMUMS DATA” (Section A) of the U.S. Government Terminal Procedures

books for aircraft approach eligibility requirements

by specific RNP level requirements.

12.10.3.2 Some aircraft have RNP approval in their

AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of

sensors that the FAA will support for RNP service is

DME/DME. However, necessary DME signal may

not be available at the airport of intended operations.

For those locations having an RNAV chart published

with LNAV/VNAV minimums, a procedure note may

be provided such as “DME/DME RNP−0.3 NA.”

This means that RNP aircraft dependent on

DME/DME to achieve RNP−0.3 are not authorized to

conduct this approach. Where DME facility

availability is a factor, the note may read “DME/DME

RNP−0.3 Authorized; ABC and XYZ Required.”

This means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been

determined by flight inspection to be required in the
ENR 1.5−36 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

navigation solution to assure RNP−0.3. VOR/DME

updating must not be used for approach procedures.

12.10.4 CHART TERMINOLOGY

12.10.4.1 Decision Altitude (DA) replaces the

familiar term Decision Height (DH). DA conforms to

the international convention where altitudes relate to

MSL and heights relate to AGL. DA will eventually

be published for other types of instrument approach

procedures with vertical guidance, as well. DA

indicates to the pilot that the published descent profile

is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed approach

will be initiated if visual references for landing are not

established. Obstacle clearance is provided to allow

a momentary descent below DA while transitioning

from the final approach to the missed approach. The

aircraft is expected to follow the missed instructions

while continuing along the published final approach

course to at least the published runway threshold

waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before

executing any turns.

12.10.4.2 Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) has

been in use for many years, and will continue to be

used for the LNAV only and circling procedures.

12.10.4.3 Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) has

been traditionally used in “precision” approaches as

the height of the glide slope above threshold. With

publication of LNAV/VNAV minimums and RNAV

descent angles, including graphically depicted

descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the

“descent angle,” or glidepath, at the threshold. Unless

otherwise required for larger type aircraft which may

be using the IAP, the typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet.

12.10.5 The MINIMA FORMAT will also change

slightly.

12.10.5.1 Each line of minima on the RNAV IAP is

titled to reflect the level of service available; e.g.,

GLS, LPV, LNAV/VNAV, and LNAV. CIRCLING

minima will also be provided.

12.10.5.2 The minima title box indicates the nature

of the minimum altitude for the IAP. For example:

a) DA will be published next to the minima line

title for minimums supporting vertical guidance such

as for GLS, LPV or LNAV/VNAV.

b) MDA will be published where the minima line

was designed to support aircraft with only lateral

guidance available, such as LNAV. Descent below the

MDA, including during the missed approach, is not

authorized unless the visual conditions stated in

14 CFR Section 91.175 exist.

c) Where two or more systems, such as LPV and

LNAV/VNAV, share the same minima, each line of

minima will be displayed separately.

12.10.6 Chart Symbology changed slightly to

include:

12.10.6.1 Descent Profile. The published descent

profile and a graphical depiction of the vertical path

to the runway will be shown. Graphical depiction of

the RNAV vertical guidance will differ from the

traditional depiction of an ILS glide slope (feather)

through the use of a shorter vertical track beginning

at the decision altitude.

a) It is FAA policy to design IAPs with minimum

altitudes established at fixes/waypoints to achieve

optimum stabilized (constant rate) descents within

each procedure segment. This design can enhance the

safety of the operations and contribute toward

reduction in the occurrence of controlled flight into

terrain (CFIT) accidents. Additionally, the National

Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recently

emphasized that pilots could benefit from publication

of the appropriate IAP descent angle for a stabilized

descent on final approach. The RNAV IAP format

includes the descent angle to the hundredth of a

degree; e.g., 3.00 degrees. The angle will be provided

in the graphically depicted descent profile.

b) The stabilized approach may be performed by

reference to vertical navigation information provided

by WAAS or LNAV/VNAV systems; or for

LNAV−only systems, by the pilot determining the

appropriate aircraft attitude/groundspeed combination to attain a constant rate descent which best

emulates the published angle. To aid the pilot, U.S.

Government Terminal Procedures Publication charts

publish an expanded Rate of Descent Table on the

inside of the back hard cover for use in planning and

executing precision descents under known or

approximate groundspeed conditions.

12.10.6.2 Visual Descent Point (VDP). A VDP

will be published on most RNAV IAPs. VDPs apply

only to aircraft utilizing LNAV minima, not LPV or

LNAV/VNAV minimums.

12.10.6.3 Missed Approach Symbology. In order

to make missed approach guidance more readily

understood, a method has been developed to display

missed approach guidance in the profile view through
AIP ENR 1.5−37

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

the use of quick reference icons. Due to limited space

in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be

shown. However, the icons may not provide

representation of the entire missed approach

procedure. The entire set of textual missed approach

instructions are provided at the top of the approach

chart in the pilot briefing. (See FIG ENR 1.5−20.)

12.10.6.4 Waypoints. All RNAV or GPS stand−

alone IAPs are flown using data pertaining to the

particular IAP obtained from an onboard database,

including the sequence of all WPs used for the

approach and missed approach, except that step down

waypoints may not be included in some TSO−C−129

receiver databases. Included in the database, in most

receivers, is coding that informs the navigation

system of which WPs are fly−over (FO) or fly−by

(FB). The navigation system may provide guidance

appropriately − including leading the turn prior to a

fly−by WP; or causing overflight of a fly−over WP.

Where the navigation system does not provide such

guidance, the pilot must accomplish the turn lead or

waypoint overflight manually. Chart symbology for

the FB WP provides pilot awareness of expected

actions. Refer to the legend of the U.S. Terminal

Procedures books.

12.10.6.5 TAAs are described in subparagraph 12.4,

Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). When published, the

RNAV chart depicts the TAA areas through the use of

“icons” representing each TAA area associated with

the RNAV procedure (See FIG ENR 1.5−20). These

icons are depicted in the plan view of the approach

chart, generally arranged on the chart in accordance

with their position relative to the aircrafts arrival from

the en route structure. The WP, to which navigation

is appropriate and expected within each specific TAA

area, will be named and depicted on the associated

TAA icon. Each depicted named WP is the IAF for

arrivals from within that area. TAAs may not be used

on all RNAV procedures because of airspace

congestion or other reasons.

12.10.6.6 Cold Temperature Limitations. A

minimum temperature limitation is published on

procedures which authorize Baro−VNAV operation.

This temperature represents the airport temperature

below which use of the Baro−VNAV is not authorized

to the LNAV/VNAV minimums. An example

limitation will read: “Baro−VNAV NA below

−20C(−4F).” This information will be found in the

upper left hand box of the pilot briefing.

NOTE−

Temperature limitations do not apply to flying the

LNAV/VNAV line of minima using approach certified

WAAS receivers.

12.10.6.7 WAAS Channel Number/Approach ID.

The WAAS Channel Number is an equipment

optional capability that allows the use of a 5−digit

number to select a specific final approach segment.

The Approach ID is an airport unique 4−letter

combination for verifying selection of the correct

final approach segment, e.g. W−35L, where W stands

for WAAS and 35L is runway 35 left. The WAAS

Channel Number and Approach ID will be displayed

in the upper left corner of the approach procedure

pilot briefing.

12.10.6.8 At locations where outages of WAAS

vertical guidance may occur daily due to initial

system limitations, a negative W symbol ( ) will be

placed on RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Many of

these outages will be very short in duration, but may

result in the disruption of the vertical portion of the

approach. The symbol indicates that NOTAMs or

Air Traffic advisories are not provided for outages

which occur in the WAAS LNAV/VNAV or LPV

vertical service. Use LNAV minima for flight

planning at these locations, whether as a destination

or alternate. For flight operations at these locations,

when the WAAS avionics indicate that LNAV/VNAV

or LPV service is available, then vertical guidance

may be used to complete the approach using the

displayed level of service. Should an outage occur

during the procedure, reversion to LNAV minima

may be required. As the WAAS coverage is

expanded, the will be removed.

13. Special Instrument Approach

Procedures

13.1 Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) charts

reflect the criteria associated with the U.S. Standard

for Terminal Instrument [Approach] Procedures

(TERPs), which prescribes standardized methods for

use in developing IAPs. Standard IAPs are published

in the Federal Register (FR) in accordance with

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 97,

and are available for use by appropriately qualified

pilots operating properly equipped and airworthy

aircraft in accordance with operating rules and

procedures acceptable to the FAA. Special IAPs are

also developed using TERPS but are not given public

notice in the FR. The FAA authorizes only certain

individual pilots and/or pilots in individual organiza-
ENR 1.5−38 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

tions to use special IAPs, and may require additional

crew training and/or aircraft equipment or performance, and may also require the use of landing aids,

communications, or weather services not available

for public use. Additionally, IAPs that service private

use airports or heliports are generally special IAPs.

14. Radar Approaches

14.1 The only airborne radio equipment required for

radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter

and receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft

to align it with the runway centerline. The controller

continues the vectors to keep the aircraft on course

until the pilot can complete the approach and landing

by visual reference to the surface. There are two types

of radar approaches, “Precision” (PAR) and

“Surveillance” (ASR).

14.2 A radar approach may be given to any aircraft

upon request and may be offered to pilots of aircraft

in distress or to expedite traffic; however, a

surveillance approach might not be approved unless

there is an ATC operational requirement, or in an

unusual or emergency situation. Acceptance of a

precision or surveillance approach by a pilot does not

waive the prescribed weather minimums for the

airport or for the particular aircraft operator

concerned. The decision to make a radar approach

when the reported weather is below the established

minimums rests with the pilot.

14.3 Precision and surveillance approach minimums

are published on separate pages in the Federal

Aviation Administration Instrument Approach Procedure charts.

14.3.1 A Precision Approach (PAR) is one in which

a controller provides highly accurate navigational

guidance in azimuth and elevation to a pilot. Pilots are

given headings to fly to direct them to and keep their

aircraft aligned with the extended centerline of the

landing runway. They are told to anticipate glidepath

interception approximately 10 to 30 seconds before it

occurs and when to start descent. The published

decision height will be given only if the pilot requests

it. If the aircraft is observed to deviate above or below

the glidepath, the pilot is given the relative amount of

deviation by use of terms “slightly” or “well” and is

expected to adjust the aircrafts rate of descent to

return to the glidepath. Trend information is also

issued with respect to the elevation of the aircraft and

may be modified by the terms “rapidly” and

“slowly”; e.g., “well above glidepath, coming down

rapidly.” Range from touchdown is given at least

once each mile. If an aircraft is observed by the

controller to proceed outside of specified safety zone

limits in azimuth and/or elevation and continues to

operate outside these prescribed limits, the pilot will

be directed to execute a missed approach or to fly a

specified course unless the pilot has the runway

environment (runway, approach lights, etc.) in sight.

Navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation is

provided the pilot until the aircraft reaches the

published decision height (DH). Advisory course and

glidepath information is furnished by the controller

until the aircraft passes over the landing threshold, at

which point the pilot is advised of any deviation from

the runway centerline. Radar service is automatically

terminated upon completion of the approach.

14.3.2 A Surveillance Approach (ASR) is one in

which a controller provides navigational guidance in

azimuth only. The pilot is furnished headings to fly to

align the aircraft with the extended centerline of the

landing runway. Since the radar information used for

a surveillance approach is considerably less precise

than that used for a precision approach, the accuracy

of the approach will not be as great, and higher

minimums will apply. Guidance in elevation is not

possible but the pilot will be advised when to

commence descent to the minimum descent altitude

(MDA) or, if appropriate, to an intermediate “step

down fix” minimum crossing altitude and subsequently to the prescribed MDA. In addition, the pilot

will be advised of the location of the missed approach

point (MAP) prescribed for the procedure and the

aircrafts position each mile on final from the runway,

airport/heliport, or MAP, as appropriate. If requested

by the pilot, recommended altitudes will be issued at

each mile, based on the descent gradient established

for the procedure, down to the last mile that is at or

above the MDA. Normally, navigational guidance

will be provided until the aircraft reaches the MAP.

Controllers will terminate guidance and instruct the

pilot to execute a missed approach unless at the MAP

the pilot has the runway, airport/heliport in sight or,

for a helicopter point−in−space approach, the

prescribed visual reference with the surface is

established. Also, if at any time during the approach

the controller considers that safe guidance for the

remainder of the approach cannot be provided, the

controller will terminate guidance and instruct the

pilot to execute a missed approach. Similarly,
AIP ENR 1.5−39

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

guidance termination and missed approach will be

effected upon pilot request, and for civil aircraft only,

controllers may terminate guidance when the pilot

reports the runway, airport/heliport, or visual surface

route (point−in−space approach) in sight or otherwise

indicates that continued guidance is not required.

Radar service is automatically terminated at the

completion of a radar approach.

NOTE−

1. The published MDA for straight−in approaches will be

issued to the pilot before beginning descent. When a

surveillance approach will terminate in a circle−to−land

maneuver, the pilot must furnish the aircraft approach

category to the controller. The controller will then provide

the pilot with the appropriate MDA.

2. ASR approaches are not available when an ATC facility

is using center radar arts presentation/ processing

(CENRAP).

14.3.3 A No−Gyro Approach is available to a pilot

under radar control who experiences circumstances

wherein the directional gyro or other stabilized

compass is inoperative or inaccurate. When this

occurs, the pilot should so advise ATC and request a

No−Gyro vector or approach. Pilots of aircraft not

equipped with a directional gyro or other stabilized

compass who desire radar handling may also request

a No−Gyro vector or approach. The pilot should make

all turns at standard rate and should execute the turn

immediately upon receipt of instructions. For

example, “TURN RIGHT,” “STOP TURN.” When a

surveillance or precision approach is made, the pilot

will be advised after the aircraft has been turned onto

final approach to make turns at half standard rate.

15. Radar Monitoring of Instrument

Approaches

15.1 PAR facilities operated by the FAA and the

military services at some joint−use (civil/military)

and military installations monitor aircraft on

instrument approaches and issue radar advisories to

the pilot when weather is below VFR minimum

(1,000 and 3), at night, or when requested by a pilot.

This service is provided only when the PAR final

approach course coincides with the final approach of

the navigational aid and only during the operational

hours of the PAR. The radar advisories serve only as

a secondary aid since the pilot has selected the

navigational aid as the primary aid for the approach.

15.2 Prior to starting final approach, the pilot will be

advised of the frequency on which the advisories will

be transmitted. If, for any reason, radar advisories

cannot be furnished, the pilot will be so advised.

15.3 Advisory information, derived from radar

observations, includes information on:

15.3.1 Passing the final approach fix inbound

(nonprecision approach) or passing the outer marker

or the fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound

(precision approach).

NOTE−

At this point, the pilot may be requested to report sighting

the approach lights or the runway.

15.3.2 Trend advisories with respect to elevation

and/or azimuth radar position and movement will be

provided.

NOTE−

Whenever the aircraft nears the PAR safety limit, the pilot

will be advised that he/she is well above or below the

glidepath or well left or right of course. Glidepath

information is given only to those aircraft executing a

precision approach, such as ILS or MLS. Altitude

information is not transmitted to aircraft executing other

than precision approaches because the descent portions of

these approaches generally do not coincide with the

depicted PAR glidepath. At locations where the MLS

glidepath and PAR glidepath are not coincidental, only

azimuth monitoring will be provided.

15.3.3 If, after repeated advisories, the aircraft

proceeds outside the PAR safety limit or if a radical

deviation is observed, the pilot will be advised to

execute a missed approach if not visual.

15.4 Radar service is automatically terminated upon

completion of the approach.

16. ILS Approach

16.1 Communications should be established with the

appropriate FAA control tower or with the FAA FSS

where there is no control tower, prior to starting an

ILS approach. This is in order to receive advisory

information as to the operation of the facility. It is also

recommended that the aural signal of the ILS be

monitored during an approach as to assure continued

reception and receipt of advisory information, when

available.
ENR 1.5−40 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

17. ILS/MLS Approaches to Parallel

Runways

17.1 ATC procedures permit ILS instrument approach operations to dual or triple parallel runway

configurations. ILS/MLS approaches to parallel

runways are grouped into three classes: Parallel

(dependent) ILS/MLS Approaches; Simultaneous

Parallel (independent) ILS/MLS Approaches; and

Simultaneous Close Parallel (independent) ILS

Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Approaches. (See

FIG ENR 1.5−25.) The classification of a parallel

runway approach procedure is dependent on adjacent

parallel runway centerline separation, ATC procedures, and airport ATC radar monitoring and

communications capabilities. At some airports one or

more parallel localizer courses may be offset up to

3 degrees. Offset localizer configurations result in

loss of Category II capabilities and an increase in

decision height (50 feet).

17.2 Parallel approach operations demand heightened pilot situational awareness. A thorough

Approach Procedure Chart review should be

conducted with, as a minimum, emphasis on the

following approach chart information: name and

number of the approach, localizer frequency, inbound

localizer/azimuth course, glide slope intercept

altitude, decision height, missed approach instructions, special notes/procedures, and the assigned

runway location/proximity to adjacent runways.

Pilots will be advised that simultaneous ILS/MLS or

simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM approaches are

in use. This information may be provided through the

ATIS.

17.3 The close proximity of adjacent aircraft

conducting simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS and

simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM approaches

mandates strict pilot compliance with all ATC

clearances. ATC assigned airspeeds, altitudes, and

headings must be complied with in a timely manner.

Autopilot coupled ILS/MLS approaches require pilot

knowledge of procedures necessary to comply with

ATC instructions. Simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS

and simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM

approaches necessitate precise localizer tracking to

minimize final monitor controller intervention, and

unwanted No Transgression Zone (NTZ) penetration.

In the unlikely event of a breakout, a vector off the

approach course prior to the decision altitude (DA),

ATC will not assign altitudes lower than the

minimum vectoring altitude. Pilots should notify

ATC immediately if there is a degradation of aircraft

or navigation systems.

17.4 Strict radio discipline is mandatory during

parallel ILS/MLS approach operations. This includes

an alert listening watch and the avoidance of lengthy,

unnecessary radio transmissions. Attention must be

given to proper call sign usage to prevent the

inadvertent execution of clearances intended for

another aircraft. Use of abbreviated call signs must be

avoided to preclude confusion of aircraft with similar

sounding call signs. Pilots must be alert to unusually

long periods of silence or any unusual background

sounds in their radio receiver. A stuck microphone

may block the issuance of ATC instructions by the

final monitor controller during simultaneous parallel

ILS/MLS and simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM

approaches. For additional communications information, pilots should refer to GEN 3.4, paragraph 4.4,

Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques.

17.5 Use of Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems

(TCAS) provides an additional element of safety to

parallel approach operations. Pilots should follow

recommended TCAS operating procedures presented

in approved flight manuals, original equipment

manufacturer recommendations, professional newsletters, and FAA publications.
AIP ENR 1.5−41

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−25

Parallel ILS Approaches
ENR 1.5−42 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−26

Staggered ILS Approaches

DIAGONAL

SEPARATION

Parallel ILS Approaches

Runway centerlines spaced 2500’ or greater.

Radar monitoring not required.

Staggered Approaches.

18. Parallel ILS/MLS Approaches

(Dependent) (See FIG ENR 1.5−26)

18.1 Parallel approaches are an ATC procedure

permitting parallel ILS/MLS approaches to airports

having parallel runways separated by at least

2,500 feet between centerlines. Integral parts of a

total system are ILS/MLS, radar, communications,

ATC procedures, and required airborne equipment.

18.2 A parallel (dependent) approach differs from a

simultaneous (independent) approach in that, the

minimum distance between parallel runway centerlines is reduced; there is no requirement for radar

monitoring or advisories; and a staggered separation

of aircraft on the adjacent localizer/azimuth course is

required.

18.3 Aircraft are afforded a minimum of 1.5 miles

radar separation diagonally between successive

aircraft on the adjacent localizer/azimuth course

when runway centerlines are at least 2,500 feet but no

more than 4,300 feet apart. When runway centerlines

are more than 4,300 feet but no more than 9,000 feet

apart, a minimum of 2 miles diagonal radar separation

is provided. Aircraft on the same localizer/azimuth

course within 10 miles of the runway end are

provided a minimum of 2.5 miles radar separation. In

addition, a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical or a

minimum of three miles radar separation is provided

between aircraft during turn on to the parallel final

approach course.
AIP ENR 1.5−43

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−27

Simultaneous Parallel ILS Approaches

NO TRANSGRESSION ZONE

2200’

2200’

2200’

2200’

OM

OM INTERCEPT GLIDE

SLOPE AT 2200’

3200’

3200’

EXTEND RADAR MONITORING AND NTZ TO 7NM BEYOND RUNWAY

DEPARTURE END FOR QUADRUPLE SIMULTANEOUS ILS APPROACHES.

7NM

14L

14R

RADAR MONITORING

PROVIDED TO

ENSURE SEPARATION

BETWEEN AIRCRAFT ON

PARALLEL LOCALIZERS.

AIRCRAFT MAY BE

VECTORED TO EITHER

14L OR 14R ILS

FROM OUTER FIX.

MEADOWVIEW INT (NW COURSE OHA ILS &

OBK VOR R-227) ESTABLISHED WHERE

3200’ ALTITUDE INTERCEPTS GLIDE SLOPE.

RADAR MONITORING PROVIDED TO ENSURE SEPARATION

BETWEEN AIRCRAFT ON PARALLEL LOCALIZERS. WHEN GLIDE

SLOPE INOPERATIVE BEGIN DESCENT AT MEADOW INTERSECTION.

(RUNWAY CENTERLINES SPACED 4300’ OR MORE [DUAL RUNWAYS]

OR 5000’ OR MORE, [TRIPLE OR QUADRUPLE RUNWAYS] - RADAR MONITORING REQUIRED)

18.4 Whenever parallel ILS/MLS approaches are in

progress, pilots are informed that approaches to both

runways are in use. In addition, the radar controller

will have the interphone capability of communicating

with the tower controller where separation responsibility has not been delegated to the tower.

19. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/MLS

Approaches (Independent) 

(See FIG ENR 1.5−27)

19.1 System. This approach system permits simultaneous ILS/MLS approaches to parallel runways

with centerlines separated by 4,300 to 9,000 feet, and

equipped with final monitor controllers. Simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS approaches require radar

monitoring to ensure separation between aircraft on

the adjacent parallel approach course. Aircraft

position is tracked by final monitor controllers who

will issue instructions to aircraft observed deviating

from the assigned localizer course. Staggered radar

separation procedures are not utilized. Integral parts

of a total system are ILS/MLS, radar, communications, ATC procedures, and required airborne

equipment. The Approach Procedure Chart permitting simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS approaches will

contain the note “simultaneous approaches authorized RWYS 14L and 14R,” identifying the

appropriate runways as the case may be. When

advised that simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS approaches are in progress, pilots shall advise approach

control immediately of malfunctioning or inoperative

receivers, or if a simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS

approach is not desired.
ENR 1.5−44 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

19.2 Radar Monitoring. This service is provided

for each simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS approach to

ensure aircraft do not deviate from the final approach

course. Radar monitoring includes instructions if an

aircraft nears or penetrates the prescribed NTZ (an

area 2,000 feet wide located equidistant between

parallel final approach courses). This service will be

provided as follows:

19.2.1 During turn onto parallel final approach

aircraft will be provided 3 miles radar separation or

a minimum of 1,000 feet vertical separation. Aircraft

will not be vectored to intercept the final approach

course at an angle greater than thirty degrees.

19.2.2 The final monitor controller will have the

capability of overriding the tower controller on the

tower frequency.

19.2.3 Pilots will be instructed to monitor the tower

frequency to receive advisories and instructions.

19.2.4 Aircraft observed to overshoot the turn−on or

to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ

will be instructed to return to the correct final

approach course immediately. The final monitor

controller may also issue missed approach or

breakout instructions to the deviating aircraft.

PHRASEOLOGY−

“(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL

APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY AND RETURN TO THE LOCALIZER/AZIMUTH

COURSE.”

or

“(Aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO

THE LOCALIZER/AZIMUTH COURSE.”

19.2.5 If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such

instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the

aircraft on the adjacent final approach course may be

instructed to alter course.

PHRASEOLOGY−

“TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right)

IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend)

AND MAINTAIN (altitude).”

19.2.6 Radar monitoring will automatically be

terminated when visual separation is applied, the

aircraft reports the approach lights or runway in sight,

or the aircraft is 1 mile or less from the runway

threshold (for runway centerlines spaced 4,300 feet

or greater). Final monitor controllers will not advise

pilots when radar monitoring is terminated.
AIP ENR 1.5−45

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−28

ILS PRM Approaches

 (Simultaneous Close Parallel)

20. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS PRM

Approaches (Independent) and

Simultaneous Offset Instrument

Approaches (SOIA) (See FIG ENR 1.5−28)

20.1 System.

20.1.1 ILS/PRM is an acronym for Instrument

Landing System/Precision Runway Monitor.

20.1.1.1 An approach system that permits simultaneous ILS/PRM approaches to dual runways with

centerlines separated by less than 4,300 feet but at

least 3,400 feet for parallel approach courses, and at

least 3,000 feet if one ILS if offset by 2.5 to

3.0 degrees. The airspace between the final approach

courses contains a No Transgression Zone (NTZ)

with surveillance provided by two PRM monitor

controllers, one for each approach course. To qualify

for reduced lateral runway separation, monitor

controllers must be equipped with high update radar

and high resolution ATC radar displays, collectively

called a PRM system. The PRM system displays

almost instantaneous radar information. Automated

tracking software provides PRM monitor controllers

with aircraft identification, position, speed and a

ten−second projected position, as well as visual and

aural controller alerts. The PRM system is a

supplemental requirement for simultaneous close

parallel approaches in addition to the system

requirements for simultaneous parallel ILS/MLS

approaches described in paragraph 19, Simultaneous

Parallel ILS/MLS Approaches (Independent).
ENR 1.5−46 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

20.1.1.2 Simultaneous close parallel ILS/PRM

approaches are depicted on a separate Approach

Procedure Chart titled ILS/PRM Rwy XXX

(Simultaneous Close Parallel).

20.1.2 SOIA is an acronym for Simultaneous Offset

Instrument Approach, a procedure used to conduct

simultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than

3,000 feet, but at least 750 feet apart. The SOIA

procedure utilizes an ILS/PRM approach to one

runway and an offset Localizer Type Directional Aid

(LDA)/PRM approach with glide slope to the

adjacent runway.

20.1.2.1 The ILS/PRM approach plates used in

SOIA operations are identical to other ILS/PRM

approach plates, with an additional note, which

provides the separation between the two runways

used for simultaneous approaches. The LDA/PRM

approach plate displays the required notations for

closely spaced approaches as well as depicting the

visual segment of the approach, and a note that

provides the separation between the two runways

used for simultaneous operations.

20.1.2.2 Controllers monitor the SOIA ILS/PRM

and LDA/PRM approaches with a PRM system using

high update radar and high−resolution ATC radar

displays in exactly the same manner as is done for

ILS/PRM approaches. The procedures and system

requirements for SOIA ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM

approaches are identical with those used for

simultaneous close parallel ILS/PRM approaches

until near the LDA/PRM approach missed approach

point (MAP)−−−where visual acquisition of the ILS

aircraft by the LDA aircraft must be accomplished.

Since the ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM approaches are

identical except for the visual segment in the SOIA

concept, an understanding of the procedures for

conducting ILS/PRM approaches is essential before

conducting a SOIA ILS/PRM or LDA/PRM

operation.

20.1.2.3 In SOIA, the approach course separation

(instead of the runway separation) meets established

close parallel approach criteria. Refer to

FIG ENR 1.5−28 for the generic SOIA approach

geometry. A visual segment of the LDA/PRM

approach is established between the LDA MAP and

the runway threshold. Aircraft transition in visual

conditions from the LDA course, beginning at the

LDA MAP, to align with the runway and can be

stabilized by 500 feet above ground level (AGL) on

the extended runway centerline. Aircraft will be

“paired” in SOIA operations, with the ILS aircraft

ahead of the LDA aircraft prior to the LDA aircraft

reaching the LDA MAP. A cloud ceiling for the

approach is established so that the LDA aircraft has

nominally 30 seconds to acquire the leading ILS

aircraft prior to the LDA aircraft reaching the LDA

MAP. If visual acquisition is not accomplished, a

missed approach must be executed.

20.2 Requirements.

20.2.1 Besides system requirements as identified in

subpara 20.1 above all pilots must have completed

special training before accepting a clearance to

conduct ILS/PRM or LDA/PRM Simultaneous Close

Parallel Approaches.

20.2.1.1 Pilot Training Requirement. Pilots must

complete special pilot training, as outlined below,

before accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close

parallel ILS/PRM or LDA/PRM approach.

a) For operations under 14 CFR Parts 121, 129,

and 135 pilots must comply with FAA approved

company training as identified in their Operations

Specifications. Training, at a minimum, must require

pilots to view the FAA video “ILS PRM AND SOIA

APPROACHES: INFORMATION FOR AIR CARRIER PILOTS.” Refer to http://www.faa.gov for

additional information and to view or download the

video.

b) For operations under Part 91:

1) Pilots operating transport category aircraft

must be familiar with PRM operations as contained in

this section of the Aeronautical Information

Publication (AIP). In addition, pilots operating

transport category aircraft must view the FAA video

“ILS PRM AND SOIA APPROACHES:

INFORMATION FOR AIR CARRIER PILOTS.”

Refer to http://www.faa.gov for additional

information and to view or download the video.

2) Pilots not operating transport category

aircraft must be familiar with PRM and SOIA

operations as contained in this section of the AIP. The

FAA strongly recommends that pilots not involved in

transport category aircraft operations view the FAA

video, “ILS PRM AND SOIA APPROACHES:

INFORMATION FOR GENERAL AVIATION

PILOTS.” Refer to http://www.faa.gov for additional information and to view or download the video.
AIP ENR 1.5−47

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 1.5−29

SOIA Approach Geometry

NOTE−

SAP The SAP is a design point along the extended centerline of the intended landing runway on the

glide slope at 500 feet above the landing threshold. It is used to verify a sufficient distance is

provided for the visual maneuver after the missed approach point (MAP) to permit the pilots to

conform to approved, stabilized approach criteria.

MAP The point along the LDA where the course separation with the adjacent ILS reaches 3,000 feet.

The altitude of the glide slope at that point determines the approach minimum descent altitude

and is where the NTZ terminates. Maneuvering inside the MAP is done in visual conditions.

Angle Angle formed at the intersection of the extended LDA runway centerline and a line drawn between

the LDA MAP and the SAP. The size of the angle is determined by the FAA SOIA computer design

program, and is dependent on whether Heavy aircraft use the LDA and the spacing between the

runways.

Visibility Distance from MAP to runway threshold in statute miles (light credit applies).

Procedure LDA aircraft must see the runway landing environment and, if less than standard radar

separation exists between the aircraft on the adjacent ILS course, the LDA aircraft must visually

acquire the ILS aircraft and report it in sight to ATC prior to the LDA MAP.

CC Clear Clouds.
ENR 1.5−48 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

20.2.1.2 ATC Directed Breakout. An ATC directed “breakout” is defined as a vector off the ILS or

LDA approach course in response to another aircraft

penetrating the NTZ, the 2,000 foot wide area located

equidistance between the two approach courses that

is monitored by the PRM monitor controllers.

20.2.1.3 Dual Communications. The aircraft flying the ILS/PRM or LDA/PRM approach must have

the capability of enabling the pilot/s to listen to two

communications frequencies simultaneously.

20.3 Radar Monitoring. Simultaneous close parallel ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM approaches require

that final monitor controllers utilize the PRM system

to ensure prescribed separation standards are met.

Procedures and communications phraseology are

also described in paragraph 19, Simultaneous Parallel

ILS/MLS Approaches (Independent). A minimum of

3 miles radar separation or 1,000 feet vertical

separation will be provided during the turn−on to

close parallel final approach courses. To ensure

separation is maintained, and in order to avoid an

imminent situation during simultaneous close

parallel ILS/PRM or SOIA ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM

approaches, pilots must immediately comply with

PRM monitor controller instructions. In the event of

a missed approach, radar monitoring is provided to

one−half mile beyond the most distant of the two

runway departure ends for ILS/RPM approaches. In

SOIA, PRM radar monitoring terminates at the LDA

MAP. Final monitor controllers will not notify pilots

when radar monitoring is terminated.

20.4 Attention All Users Page (AAUP). ILS/PRM

and LDA/PRM approach charts have an AAUP

associated with them that must be referred to in

preparation for conducting the approach. This page

contains the following instructions that must be

followed if the pilot is unable to accept an ILS/PRM

or LDA/PRM approach.

20.4.1 At airports that conduct PRM operations,

(ILS/PRM or, in the case of airports where SOIAs are

conducted, ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM approaches)

pilots not qualified to except PRM approaches must

contact the FAA Command Center prior to departure

(1−800−333−4286) to obtain an arrival reservation

(see FAA Advisory Circular 90−98, Simultaneous

Closely Spaced Parallel Operations at Airports Using

Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Systems). Arriving flights that are unable to participate in ILS/PRM

or LDA/PRM approaches and have not received an

arrival reservation are subject to diversion to another

airport or delays. Pilots en route to a PRM airport

designated as an alternate, unable to reach their filed

destination, and who are not qualified to participate

in ILS/PRM or LDA/PRM approaches must advise

ATC as soon as practical that they are unable to

participate. Pilots who are qualified to participate but

experience an en route equipment failure that would

preclude participation in PRM approaches should

notify ATC as soon as practical.

20.4.2 The AAUP covers the following operational

topics:

20.4.2.1 ATIS. When the ATIS broadcast advises

ILS/PRM approaches are in progress (or ILS PRM

and LDA PRM approaches in the case of SOIA),

pilots should brief to fly the ILS/PRM or LDA/PRM

approach. If later advised to expect the ILS or LDA

approach (should one be published), the ILS/PRM or

LDA/PRM chart may be used after completing the

following briefing items:

a) Minimums and missed approach procedures are

unchanged.

b) PRM Monitor frequency no longer required.

c) ATC may assign a lower altitude for glide slope

intercept.

NOTE−

In the case of the LDA/PRM approach, this briefing

procedure only applies if an LDA approach is also

published.

In the case of the SOIA ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM

procedure, the AAUP describes the weather

conditions in which simultaneous approaches are

authorized:

Simultaneous approach weather minimums are

X,XXX feet (ceiling), x miles (visibility).

20.4.2.2 Dual VHF Communications Required.

To avoid blocked transmissions, each runway will

have two frequencies, a primary and a monitor

frequency. The tower controller will transmit on both

frequencies. The monitor controller’s transmissions,

if needed, will override both frequencies. Pilots will

ONLY transmit on the tower controller’s frequency,

but will listen to both frequencies. Begin to monitor

the PRM monitor controller when instructed by ATC

to contact the tower. The volume levels should be set

about the same on both radios so that the pilots will

be able to hear transmissions on at least one frequency

if the other is blocked. Site specific procedures take
AIP ENR 1.5−49

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

precedence over the general information presented in

this paragraph. Refer to the AAUP for applicable

procedures at specific airports.

20.4.2.3 Breakouts. Breakouts differ from other

types of abandoned approaches in that they can

happen anywhere and unexpectedly. Pilots directed

by ATC to break off an approach must assume that an

aircraft is blundering toward them and a breakout

must be initiated immediately.

a) Hand−fly breakouts. All breakouts are to be

hand−flown to ensure the maneuver is accomplished

in the shortest amount of time.

b) ATC Directed “Breakouts.” ATC directed

breakouts will consist of a turn and a climb or descent.

Pilots must always initiate the breakout in response to

an air traffic controller’s instruction. Controllers will

give a descending breakout only when there are no

other reasonable options available, but in no case will

the descent be below the minimum vectoring altitude

(MVA) which provides at least 1,000 feet required

obstruction clearance. The AAUP provides the MVA

in the final approach segment as X,XXX feet at

(Name) Airport.

NOTE−

“TRAFFIC ALERT.” If an aircraft enters the “NO

TRANSGRESSION ZONE” (NTZ), the controller will

breakout the threatened aircraft on the adjacent approach.

The phraseology for the breakout will be:

PHRASEOLOGY−

TRAFFIC ALERT, (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right)

IMMEDIATELY, HEADING (degrees), CLIMB/

DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude).

20.4.2.4 ILS/PRM Navigation. The pilot may find

crossing altitudes along the final approach course.

The pilot is advised that descending on the ILS

glideslope ensures complying with any charted

crossing restrictions.

20.4.2.5 SOIA AAUP differences from ILS PRM

AAUP

a) ILS/PRM LDA Traffic (only published on

ILS/PRM AAUP when the ILS PRM approach is

used in conjunctions with an LDA/PRM approach

to the adjacent runway). To provide better

situational awareness, and because traffic on the LDA

may be visible on the ILS aircraft’s TCAS, pilots are

reminded of the fact that aircraft will be maneuvering

behind them to align with the adjacent runway. While

conducting the ILS/PRM approach to Runway XXX,

other aircraft may be conducting the offset

LDA/PRM approach to Runway XXX. These aircraft

will approach from the (left/right)−rear and will

realign with runway XXX after making visual contact

with the ILS traffic. Under normal circumstances

these aircraft will not pass the ILS traffic.

b) SOIA LDA/PRM AAUP Items. The AAUP

for the SOIA LDA/PRM approach contains most

information found on ILS/PRM AAUPs. It replaces

certain information as seen below and provides pilots

with the procedures to be used in the visual segment

of the LDA/PRM approach, from the time the ILS

aircraft is visually acquired until landing.

c) SOIA LDA/PRM Navigation (replaces ILS/

PRM 20.4.2.4 and 20.4.2.5a) above). The pilot may

find crossing altitudes along the final approach

course. The pilot is advised that descending on the

LDA glideslope ensures complying with any charted

crossing restrictions. Remain on the LDA course

until passing XXXXX (LDA MAP name) intersection prior to maneuvering to align with the centerline

of runway XXX.

d) SOIA (Name) Airport Visual Segment

(replaces ILS/PRM 20.4.2.5a) above). Pilot procedures for navigating beyond the LDA MAP are

spelled out. If ATC advises that there is traffic on the

adjacent ILS, pilots are authorized to continue past

the LDA MAP to align with runway centerline when:

1) the ILS traffic is in sight and is expected to

remain in sight,

2) ATC has been advised that “traffic is in

sight.”

3) the runway environment is in sight.

Otherwise, a missed approach must be executed.

Between the LDA MAP and the runway threshold,

pilots of the LDA aircraft are responsible for

separating themselves visually from traffic on the ILS

approach, which means maneuvering the aircraft as

necessary to avoid the ILS traffic until landing, and

providing wake turbulence avoidance, if applicable.

Pilots should advise ATC, as soon as practical, if

visual contact with the ILS traffic is lost and execute

a missed approach unless otherwise instructed by

ATC.
ENR 1.5−50 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

20.5 SOIA LDA Approach Wake Turbulence.

Pilots are responsible for wake turbulence avoidance

when maneuvering between the LDA missed

approach point and the runway threshold.

20.6 Differences between ILS and ILS/PRM

approaches of importance to the pilot.

20.6.1 Runway Spacing. Prior to ILS/PRM and

LDA/PRM approaches, most ATC directed breakouts

were the result of two aircraft in−trail on the same

final approach course getting too close together. Two

aircraft going in the same direction did not mandate

quick reaction times. With PRM approaches, two

aircraft could be along side each other, navigating on

courses that are separated by less than 4,300 feet. In

the unlikely event that an aircraft “blunders” off its

course and makes a worst case turn of 30 degrees

toward the adjacent final approach course, closing

speeds of 135 feet per second could occur that

constitute the need for quick reaction. A blunder has

to be recognized by the monitor controller, and

breakout instructions issued to the endangered

aircraft. The pilot will not have any warning that a

breakout is eminent because the blundering aircraft

will be on another frequency. It is important that,

when a pilot receives breakout instructions, he/she

assumes that a blundering aircraft is about to or has

penetrated the NTZ and is heading toward his/her

approach course. The pilot must initiate a breakout as

soon as safety allows. While conducting PRM

approaches, pilots must maintain an increased sense

of awareness in order to immediately react to an ATC

instruction (breakout) and maneuver as instructed by

ATC, away from a blundering aircraft.

20.6.2 Communications. To help in avoiding

communication problems caused by stuck microphones and two parties talking at the same time, two

frequencies for each runway will be in use during

ILS/PRM and LDA/PRM approach operations, the

primary tower frequency and the PRM monitor

frequency. The tower controller transmits and

receives in a normal fashion on the primary frequency

and also transmits on the PRM monitor frequency.

The monitor controller’s transmissions override on

both frequencies. The pilots flying the approach will

listen to both frequencies but only transmit on the

primary tower frequency. If the PRM monitor

controller initiates a breakout and the primary

frequency is blocked by another transmission, the

breakout instruction will still be heard on the PRM

monitor frequency.

20.6.3 Hand−flown Breakouts. The use of the

autopilot is encouraged while flying an ILS/PRM or

LDA/PRM approach, but the autopilot must be

disengaged in the rare event that a breakout is issued.

Simulation studies of breakouts have shown that a

hand−flown breakout can be initiated consistently

faster than a breakout performed using the autopilot.

20.6.4 TCAS. The ATC breakout instruction is the

primary means of conflict resolution. TCAS, if

installed, provides another form of conflict resolution

in the unlikely event other separation standards

would fail. TCAS is not required to conduct a closely

spaced approach.

The TCAS provides only vertical resolution of

aircraft conflicts, while the ATC breakout instruction

provides both vertical and horizontal guidance for

conflict resolutions. Pilots should always immediately follow the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA),

whenever it is received. Should a TCAS RA be

received before, during, or after an ATC breakout

instruction is issued, the pilot should follow the RA,

even if it conflicts with the climb/descent portion of

the breakout maneuver. If following an RA requires

deviating from an ATC clearance, the pilot shall

advise ATC as soon as practical. While following an

RA, it is extremely important that the pilot also

comply with the turn portion of the ATC breakout

instruction unless the pilot determines safety to be

factor. Adhering to these procedures assures the pilot

that acceptable “breakout” separation margins will

always be provided, even in the face of a normal

procedural or system failure.

20.6.5 Breakouts. The probability is extremely low

that an aircraft will “blunder” from its assigned

approach course and enter the NTZ, causing ATC to

“breakout” the aircraft approaching on the adjacent

ILS course. However, because of the close proximity

of the final approach courses, it is essential that pilots

follow the ATC breakout instructions precisely and

expeditiously. The controller’s “breakout” instructions provide conflict resolution for the threatened

aircraft, with the turn portion of the “breakout” being

the single most important element in achieving

maximum protection. A descending breakout will

only be issued when it is the only controller option. In

no case will the controller descend an aircraft below

the MVA, which will provide at least 1,000 feet

clearance above obstacles. The pilot is not expected
AIP ENR 1.5−51

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

to exceed 1,000 feet per minute rate of descent in the

event a descending breakout is issued.

21. Simultaneous Converging Instrument

Approaches

21.1 ATC may conduct instrument approaches

simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways

having an included angle from 15 to 100 degrees, at

airports where a program has been specifically

approved to do so.

21.2 The basic concept requires that dedicated,

separate standard instrument approach procedures be

developed for each converging runway included.

Missed approach points must be at least 3 miles apart

and missed approach procedures ensure that missed

approach protected airspace does not overlap.

21.3 Other requirements are: radar availability,

nonintersecting final approach courses, precision

(ILS/MLS) approach systems on each runway, and if

runways intersect, controllers must be able to apply

visual separation as well as intersecting runway

separation criteria. Intersecting runways also require

minimums of at least 700−foot ceilings and 2 miles

visibility. Straight−in approaches and landings must

be made.

21.4 Whenever simultaneous converging approaches are in progress, aircraft will be informed by

the controller as soon as feasible after initial contact

or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller will

have direct communications capability with the tower

controller where separation responsibility has not

been delegated to the tower.

22. Timed Approaches From a Holding Fix

22.1 Timed approaches may be conducted when the

following conditions are met:

22.1.1 A control tower is in operation at the airport

where the approaches are conducted.

22.1.2 Direct communications are maintained between the pilot and the center/approach controller

until the pilot is instructed to contact the tower.

22.1.3 If more than one missed approach procedure

is available, none requires a course reversal.

22.1.4 If only one missed approach procedure is

available, the following conditions are met.

22.1.4.1 Course reversal is not required.

22.1.4.2 Reported ceiling and visibility are equal to

or greater than the highest prescribed circling

minimums for the instrument approach procedure.

22.1.5 When cleared for the approach, pilots shall

not execute a procedure turn. (See 14 CFR

Section 91.175j.)

22.2 Although the controller will not specifically

state that “timed approaches are in progress,” the

assigning a time to depart the final approach fix

inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer marker

or the fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound

(precision approach) is indicative that timed

approach procedures are being utilized, or in lieu of

holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the

final approach course to establish a mileage interval

between aircraft that will insure the appropriate time

sequence between the final approach fix/outer marker

or the fix used in lieu of the outer marker and the

airport.

22.3 Each pilot in an approach sequence will be

given advance notice as to the time he/she should

leave the holding point on approach to the airport.

When a time to leave the holding point has been

received, the pilot should adjust his/her flight path to

leave the fix as closely as possible to the designated

time. (See FIG ENR 1.5−30.)
ENR 1.5−52 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−30

Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix

ONE MINUTE

FLYING TIME

APPROXIMATELY 5 MILES

12:03 CLEARANCE RECEIVED

:04 INITIAL TIME

OVER FIX

1000 FT.

1000 FT.

1000 FT.

1000 FT.

:06 1/2

:07 REPORT

LEAVING FINAL

APPROACH TIME

:05 1/2

:05

30 SEC.

REPORT LEAVING

PREVIOUS ALTITUDE FOR

NEW ASSIGNED ALTITUDE

LOM LMM

AIRPORT

EXAMPLE−

At 12:03 local time, in the example shown, a pilot holding, receives instructions to leave the fix inbound at 12:07. These

instructions are received just as the pilot has completed turn at the outbound end of the holding pattern and is proceeding

inbound toward the fix. Arriving back over the fix, the pilot notes that the time is 12:04 and that there are 3 minutes to lose

in order to leave the fix at the assigned time. Since the time remaining is more than two minutes, the pilot plans to fly a race

track pattern rather than a 360 degree turn, which would use up 2 minutes. The turns at the ends of the race track pattern

will consume approximately 2 minutes. Three minutes to go, minus 2 minutes required for the turns, leaves 1 minute for level

flight. Since two portions of level flight will be required to get back to the fix inbound, the pilot halves the 1 minute remaining
AIP ENR 1.5−53

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

and plans to fly level for 30 seconds outbound before starting the turn back to the fix on final approach. If the winds were

negligible at flight altitude, this procedure would bring the pilot inbound across the fix precisely at the specified time of

12:07. However, if expecting headwind on final approach, the pilot should shorten the 30 second outbound course somewhat,

knowing that the wind will carry the aircraft away from the fix faster while outbound and decrease the ground speed while

returning to the fix. On the other hand, compensating for a tailwind on final approach, the pilot should lengthen the

calculated 30 second outbound heading somewhat, knowing that the wind would tend to hold the aircraft closer to the fix

while outbound and increase the ground speed while returning to the fix.

23. Contact Approach

23.1 Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR

flight plan, provided they are clear of clouds and have

at least 1 mile flight visibility and can reasonably

expect to continue to the destination airport in those

conditions, may request ATC authorization for a

“contact approach.”

23.2 Controllers may authorize a “contact approach”

provided:

23.2.1 The contact approach is specifically requested by the pilot. ATC cannot initiate this

approach.

EXAMPLE−

Request contact approach.

23.2.2 The reported ground visibility at the

destination airport is at least 1 statute mile.

23.2.3 The contact approach will be made to an

airport having a standard or special instrument

approach procedure.

23.2.4 Approved separation is applied between

aircraft so cleared and between these aircraft and

other IFR or special VFR aircraft.

EXAMPLE−

Cleared contact approach (and if required) at or below

(altitude) (routing) if not possible (alternative procedures)

and advise.

23.3 A contact approach is an approach procedure

that may be used by a pilot (with prior authorization

from ATC) in lieu of conducting a standard or special

instrument approach procedure (IAP) to an airport. It

is not intended for use by a pilot on an IFR flight

clearance to operate to an airport not having a

published and functioning IAP. Nor is it intended for

an aircraft to conduct an instrument approach to one

airport and then, when “in the clear,” discontinue that

approach and proceed to another airport. In the

execution of a contact approach, the pilot assumes the

responsibility for obstruction clearance. If radar

service is being received, it will automatically

terminate when the pilot is instructed to change to

advisory frequency.

24. Visual Approach

24.1 A visual approach is conducted on an IFR flight

plan and authorizes a pilot to proceed visually and

clear of clouds to the airport. The pilot must have

either the airport or the preceding identified aircraft

in sight. This approach must be authorized and

controlled by the appropriate air traffic control

facility. Reported weather at the airport must have a

ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or

greater. ATC may authorize this type approach when

it will be operationally beneficial. Visual approaches

are an IFR procedure conducted under Instrument

Flight Rules in visual meteorological conditions.

Cloud clearance requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.155 are not applicable, unless required by

operation specifications.

24.2 Operating to an Airport Without Weather

Reporting Service. ATC will advise the pilot when

weather is not available at the destination airport.

ATC may initiate a visual approach provided there is

a reasonable assurance that weather at the airport is a

ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or

greater (e.g. area weather reports, PIREPs, etc.).

24.3 Operating to an Airport with an Operating

Control Tower. Aircraft may be authorized to

conduct a visual approach to one runway while other

aircraft are conducting IFR or VFR approaches to

another parallel, intersecting, or converging runway.

When operating to airports with parallel runways

separated by less than 2,500 feet, the succeeding

aircraft must report sighting the preceding aircraft

unless standard separation is being provided by ATC.

When operating to parallel runways separated by at

least 2,500 feet but less than 4,300 feet, controllers

will clear/vector aircraft to the final at an angle not

greater than 30 degrees unless radar, vertical, or

visual separation is provided during the turn−on. The

purpose of the 30 degree intercept angle is to reduce

the potential for overshoots of the final and to
ENR 1.5−54 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

preclude side−by−side operations with one or both

aircraft in a belly−up configuration during the

turn−on. Once the aircraft are established within 30

degrees of final, or on the final, these operations may

be conducted simultaneously. When the parallel

runways are separated by 4,300 feet or more, or

intersecting/converging runways are in use, ATC

may authorize a visual approach after advising all

aircraft involved that other aircraft are conducting

operations to the other runway. This may be

accomplished through use of the ATIS.

24.4 Separation Responsibilities. If the pilot has

the airport in sight but cannot see the preceding

aircraft, ATC may clear the aircraft for a visual

approach; however, ATC retains both separation and

wake vortex separation responsibility. When visually

following a preceding aircraft, acceptance of the

visual approach clearance constitutes acceptance of

pilot responsibility for maintaining a safe approach

interval and adequate wake turbulence separation.

24.5 A visual approach is not an IAP and therefore

has no missed approach segment. If a go around is

necessary for any reason, aircraft operating at

controlled airports will be issued an appropriate

advisory/clearance/instruction by the tower. At

uncontrolled airports, aircraft are expected to remain

clear of clouds and complete a landing as soon as

possible. If a landing cannot be accomplished, the

aircraft is expected to remain clear of clouds and

contact ATC as soon as possible for further clearance.

Separation from other IFR aircraft will be maintained

under these circumstances.

24.6 Visual approaches reduce pilot/controller

workload and expedite traffic by shortening flight

paths to the airport. It is the pilot’s responsibility to

advise ATC as soon as possible if a visual approach

is not desired.

24.7 Authorization to conduct a visual approach is

an IFR authorization and does not alter IFR flight plan

cancellation responsibility. See ENR 1.10, paragraph 11.2, Canceling IFR Flight Plan.

24.8 Radar service is automatically terminated,

without advising the pilot, when the aircraft is

instructed to change to advisory frequency.

25. Charted Visual Flight Procedures

(CVFPs)

25.1 CVFPs are charted visual approaches established for environmental/noise considerations, and/

or when necessary for the safety and efficiency of air

traffic operations. The approach charts depict

prominent landmarks, courses, and recommended

altitudes to specific runways. CVFPs are designed to

be used primarily for turbojet aircraft.

25.2 These procedures will be used only at airports

with an operating control tower.

25.3 Most approach charts will depict some

NAVAID information which is for supplemental

navigational guidance only.

25.4 Unless indicating a Class B airspace floor, all

depicted altitudes are for noise abatement purposes

and are recommended only. Pilots are not prohibited

from flying other than recommended altitudes if

operational requirements dictate.

25.5 When landmarks used for navigation are not

visible at night, the approach will be annotated

“PROCEDURE NOT AUTHORIZED AT NIGHT.”

25.6 CVFPs usually begin within 20 flying miles

from the airport.

25.7 Published weather minimums for CVFPs are

based on minimum vectoring altitudes rather than the

recommended altitudes depicted on charts.

25.8 CVFPs are not instrument approaches and do

not have missed approach segments.

25.9 ATC will not issue clearances for CVFPs when

the weather is less than the published minimum.

25.10 ATC will clear aircraft for a CVFP after the

pilot reports siting a charted landmark or a preceding

aircraft. If instructed to follow a preceding aircraft,

pilots are responsible for maintaining a safe approach

interval and wake turbulence separation.

25.11 Pilots should advise ATC if at any point they

are unable to continue an approach or lose sight of a

preceding aircraft. Missed approaches will be

handled as a go−around.
AIP ENR 1.5−55

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

26. Missed Approach

26.1 When a landing cannot be accomplished, advise

ATC and, upon reaching the missed approach point

defined on the approach procedure chart, the pilot

must comply with the missed approach instructions

for the procedure being used or with an alternate

missed approach procedure specified by ATC.

26.2 Protected obstacle clearance areas for missed

approach are predicated on the assumption that the

missed approach is initiated at the decision

height (DH) or at the missed approach point and not

lower than minimum descent altitude (MDA). A

climb of at least 200 feet per nautical mile is required,

(except for Copter approaches, where a climb of at

least 400 feet per nautical mile is required), unless a

higher climb gradient is published on the approach

chart. Reasonable buffers are provided for normal

maneuvers. However, no consideration is given to an

abnormally early turn. Therefore, when an early

missed approach is executed, pilots should, unless

otherwise cleared by ATC, fly the IAP as specified on

the approach plate to the missed approach point at or

above the MDA or DH before executing a turning

maneuver.

26.3 If visual reference is lost while circling to land

from an instrument approach, the missed approach

specified for that particular procedure must be

followed (unless an alternate missed approach

procedure is specified by ATC). To become

established on the prescribed missed approach

course, the pilot should make an initial climbing turn

toward the landing runway and continue the turn until

established on the missed approach course. Inasmuch

as the circling maneuver may be accomplished in

more than one direction, different patterns will be

required to become established on the prescribed

missed approach course depending on the aircraft

position at the time visual reference is lost.

Adherence to the procedure will assure that an

aircraft will remain within the circling and missed

approach obstruction clearance areas. 

(See FIG ENR 1.5−31 and FIG ENR 1.5−32.)

FIG ENR 1.5−31

Circling and Missed Approach Obstruction Clearance Areas

X

X

CLIMBING TURN

CLIMBING TURN

DECISION TO MISS

HERE

DECISION

TO MISS HERE

VOR

VOR

CIRCLING

MANEUVER

(WHEN

CLEARED IN

RIGHT HAND

TRAFFIC

PATTERN)
ENR 1.5−56 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.5−32

Missed Approach

x

CHANUTE

109.2 CNU

090°

1450 1265

1581

1180

1172

Portion of a Published Procedure

Remain within

10 NM

VOR

MISSED APPROACH

Climbing right turn to

2600 2600 direct to VOR

236°

056°

2500

5.7 NM

R236

056°

011°

191°

FIG ENR 1.5−33

Overhead Maneuver

3 - 5 NM

X X

INITIAL POINT INITIAL POINT

INITIAL APPROACH INITIAL APPROACH

X

ROLL OUT ROLL OUT

BREAK POINT BREAK POINT

180° TURN

180° TURN
AIP ENR 1.5−57

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

26.4 At locations where ATC radar service is

provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors

when provided by ATC in lieu of the published

missed approach procedure.

26.5 When the approach has been missed, request a

clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative

airport, another approach, etc.

26.6 Pilots must ensure that they have climbed to a

safe altitude prior to proceeding off the published

missed approach, especially in nonradar environments. Abandoning the missed approach prior to

reaching the published altitude may not provide

adequate terrain clearance. Additional climb may be

required after reaching the holding pattern before

proceeding back to the IAF or to an alternate.

26.7 Missed approach obstacle clearance is predicated on beginning the missed approach procedure at

the Missed Approach Point (MAP) from MDA or DA

and then climbing 200 feet/NM or greater. Initiating

a go−around after passing the published MAP may

result in total loss of obstacle clearance. To

compensate for the possibility of reduced obstacle

clearance during a go−around, a pilot should apply

procedures used in takeoff planning. Pilots should

refer to airport obstacle and departure data prior to

initiating an instrument approach procedure. Such

information may be found in the “TAKE−OFF

MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE

PROCEDURES” section of the U.S. TERMINAL

PROCEDURES publication.

27. Overhead Approach Maneuver

27.1 Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR

flight plan in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) may request ATC authorization for an

overhead maneuver. An overhead maneuver is not an

instrument approach procedure. Overhead maneuver

patterns are developed at airports where aircraft have

an operational need to conduct the maneuver. An

aircraft conducting an overhead maneuver is

considered to be VFR and the IFR flight plan is

cancelled when the aircraft reaches the initial point on

the initial approach portion of the maneuver. (See

FIG ENR 1.5−33.) The existence of a standard

overhead maneuver pattern does not eliminate the

possible requirement for an aircraft to conform to

conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead

maneuver cannot be approved. Aircraft operating to

an airport without a functioning control tower must

initiate cancellation of an IFR flight plan prior to

executing the overhead maneuver. Cancellation of

the IFR flight plan must be accomplished after

crossing the landing threshold on the initial portion of

the maneuver or after landing. Controllers may

authorize an overhead maneuver and issue the

following to arriving aircraft:

27.1.1 Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This

information may be omitted if either is standard.

PHRASEOLOGY−

PATTERN ALTITUDE (altitude). RIGHT TURNS.

27.1.2 Request for a report on initial approach.

PHRASEOLOGY−

REPORT INITIAL.

27.1.3 “Break” information and a request for the

pilot to report. The “Break Point” will be specified if

nonstandard. Pilots may be requested to report

“break” if required for traffic or other reasons.

PHRASEOLOGY−

BREAK AT (specified point).

REPORT BREAK.

28. Departure Procedures

28.1 Pre−Taxi Clearance Procedures

28.1.1 Locations where these procedures are in

effect are indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory.

28.1.2 Certain airports have established programs

whereby pilots of departing IFR aircraft may elect to

receive their IFR clearances before they start taxiing

for takeoff. The following provisions are included in

such procedures:

28.1.2.1 Pilot participation is not mandatory.

28.1.2.2 Participating pilots call clearance delivery/

ground control not more than 10 minutes before

proposed taxi time.

28.1.2.3 IFR clearance (or delay information, if

clearance cannot be obtained) is issued at the time of

this initial call−up.

28.1.2.4 When the IFR clearance is received on

clearance delivery frequency, pilots call ground

control when ready to taxi.

28.1.2.5 Normally, pilots need not inform ground

control that they have received IFR clearance on

clearance delivery frequency. Certain locations may,

however, require that the pilot inform ground control
ENR 1.5−58 AIP

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

of a portion of the routing or that the IFR clearance

has been received.

28.1.2.6 If a pilot cannot establish contact on

clearance delivery frequency or has not received an

IFR clearance before ready to taxi, the pilot should

contact ground control and inform the controller

accordingly.

29. Pre−departure Clearance Procedures

29.1 Many airports in the National Airspace System

are equipped with the Tower Data Link System

(TDLS) that includes the Pre−departure Clearance

(PDC) function. The PDC function automates the

Clearance Delivery operations in the ATCT for

participating users. The PDC function displays IFR

clearances from the ARTCC to the ATCT. The

Clearance Delivery controller in the ATCT can

append local departure information and transmit the

clearance via data link to participating airline/service

provider computers. The airline/service provider will

then deliver the clearance via the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System

(ACARS) or a similar data link system or, for nondata

link equipped aircraft, via a printer located at the

departure gate. PDC reduces frequency congestion,

controller workload and is intended to mitigate

delivery/readback errors. Also, information from

participating users indicates a reduction in pilot

workload.

29.2 PDC is available only to participating aircraft

that have subscribed to the service through an

approved service provider.

29.3 Due to technical reasons, the following

limitations currently exist in the PDC program:

29.3.1 Aircraft filing multiple flight plans are

limited to one PDC clearance per departure airport

within a 24−hour period. Additional clearances will

be delivered verbally.

29.3.2 If the clearance is revised or modified prior to

delivery, it will be rejected from PDC and the

clearance will need to be delivered verbally.

29.4 No acknowledgment of receipt or readback is

required for a PDC.

29.5 In all situations, the pilot is encouraged to

contact clearance delivery if a question or concern

exists regarding an automated clearance.

30. Taxi Clearance

30.1 Pilots on IFR flight plans should communicate

with the control tower on the appropriate ground

control/clearance delivery frequency prior to starting

engines to receive engine start time, taxi, and/or

clearance information.

31. Departure Restrictions, Clearance Void

Times, Hold for Release, and Release Times

31.1ATC may assign departure restrictions, clearance

void times, hold for release, and release times, when

necessary, to separate departures from other traffic or

to restrict or regulate the departure flow.

31.1.1 Clearance Void Times. A pilot may receive

a clearance, when operating from an airport without

a control tower, which contains a provision for the

clearance to be void if not airborne by a specific time.

A pilot who does not depart prior to the clearance void

time must advise ATC as soon as possible of his or her

intentions. ATC will normally advise the pilot of the

time allotted to notify ATC that the aircraft did not depart prior to the clearance void time. This time cannot

exceed 30 minutes. Failure of an aircraft to contact

ATC within 30 minutes after the clearance void time

will result in the aircraft being considered overdue

and search and rescue procedures initiated.

NOTE−

1. Other IFR traffic for the airport where the clearance is

issued is suspended until the aircraft has contacted ATC or

until 30 minutes after the clearance void time or 30 minutes

after the clearance release time if no clearance void time

is issued.

2. Pilots who depart at or after their clearance void time

are not afforded IFR separation and may be in violation of

14 CFR Section 91.173 which requires that pilots receive

an appropriate ATC clearance before operating IFR in

Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace.

EXAMPLE−

Clearance void if not off by (clearance void time) and, if

required, if not off by (clearance void time) advise (facility)

not later than (time) of intentions.

31.1.2 Hold for Release. ATC may issue “hold for

release” instructions in a clearance to delay an aircrafts departure for traffic management reasons (i.e.,

weather, traffic volume, etc.). When ATC states in the

clearance, “hold for release,” the pilot may not depart

utilizing that IFR clearance until a release time or

additional instructions are issued by ATC. This does

not preclude the pilot from cancelling the IFR clear-
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ance with ATC and departing under VFR; but an IFR

clearance may not be available after departure. In

addition, ATC will include departure delay information in conjunction with “hold for release” instructions.

EXAMPLE−

(Aircraft identification) cleared to (destination) airport as

filed, maintain (altitude), and, if required (additional

instructions or information), hold for release, expect (time

in hours and/or minutes) departure delay.

31.1.3 Release Times. A “release time” is a departure restriction issued to a pilot by ATC, specifying

the earliest time an aircraft may depart. ATC will use

“release times” in conjunction with traffic management procedures and/or to separate a departing aircraft from other traffic.

EXAMPLE−

(Aircraft identification) released for departure at (time in

hours and/or minutes).

31.1.4 Expect Departure Clearance Time

(EDCT). The EDCT is the runway release time assigned to an aircraft included in traffic management

programs. Aircraft are expected to depart no earlier

than 5 minutes before, and no later than 5 minutes after the EDCT.

31.2 If practical, pilots departing uncontrolled airports should obtain IFR clearances prior to becoming

airborne when two−way communication with the

controlling ATC facility is available.

32. Departure Control

32.1 Departure Control is an approach control function responsible for ensuring separation between departures. So as to expedite the handling of departures,

Departure Control may suggest a takeoff direction

other than that which may normally have been used

under VFR handling. Many times it is preferred to offer the pilot a runway that will require the fewest turns

after takeoff to place the pilot on course or selected

departure route as quickly as possible. At many locations particular attention is paid to the use of preferential runways for local noise abatement programs, and

route departures away from congested areas.

32.2 Departure Control utilizing radar will normally

clear aircraft out of the terminal area using instrument departure procedures (DPs) via radio navigation aids. When a departure is to be vectored immediately following takeoff, the pilot will be advised prior

to takeoff of the initial heading to be flown but may

not be advised of the purpose of the heading. Pilots

operating in a radar environment are expected to

associate departure headings with vectors to their

planned route of flight. When given a vector taking

the aircraft off a previously assigned nonradar route,

the pilot will be advised briefly what the vector is to

achieve. Thereafter, radar service will be provided

until the aircraft has been reestablished “on−course”

using an appropriate navigation aid and the pilot has

been advised of the aircraft’s position; or, a handoff

is made to another radar controller with further surveillance capabilities.

32.3 Controllers will inform pilots of the departure

control frequencies and, if appropriate, the transponder code before takeoff. Pilots should not operate

their transponder until ready to start the takeoff roll,

except at ASDE−X facilities where transponders

should be transmitting “on” with altitude reporting

continuously while operating on the airport surface if

so equipped. Pilots should not change to the departure

control frequency until requested. Controllers may

omit the departure control frequency if a DP has or

will be assigned and the departure control frequency

is published on the DP.

33. Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance

(Cleared . . . as Filed) Procedures

33.1 ATC facilities will issue an abbreviated IFR departure clearance based on the ROUTE of flight filed

in the IFR flight plan, provided the filed route can be

approved with little or no revision. These abbreviated

clearance procedures are based on the following

conditions:

32.1.1 The aircraft is on the ground or it has departed

VFR and the pilot is requesting IFR clearance while

airborne.

32.1.2 That a pilot will not accept an abbreviated

clearance if the route or destination of a flight plan

filed with ATC has been changed by him/her or the

company or the operations officer before departure.

32.1.3 That it is the responsibility of the company or

operations office to inform the pilot when they make

a change to the filed flight plan.

32.1.4 That it is the responsibility of the pilot to inform ATC in the initial call−up (for clearance) when

the filed flight plan has been either:

33.1.4.1 Amended.

33.1.4.2 Canceled and replaced with a new filed

flight plan.

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NOTE−

The facility issuing a clearance may not have received the

revised route or the revised flight plan by the time a pilot

requests clearance.

33.2 Controllers will issue a detailed clearance when

they know that the original filed flight plan has been

changed or when the pilot requests a full route clearance.

33.3 The clearance as issued will include the destination airport filed in the flight plan.

33.4 ATC procedures now require the controller to

state the DP name, the current number and the DP

Transition name after the phrase “Cleared to (destination) airport,” and prior to the phrase, “then as filed,”

for ALL departure clearances when the DP or DP

Transition is to be flown. The procedure applies

whether or not the DP is filed in the flight plan.

33.5 Standard Terminal Arrivals (STARs), when

filed in a flight plan, are considered a part of the filed

route of flight and will not normally be stated in an

initial departure clearance. If the ARTCC’s jurisdictional airspace includes both the departure airport and

the fix where a STAR or STAR Transition begins, the

STAR name, the current number, and the STAR Transition name MAY be stated in the initial clearance.

33.6 “Cleared to (destination) airport as filed” does

NOT include the en route altitude filed in a flight plan.

An en route altitude will be stated in the clearance or

the pilot will be advised to expect an assigned/filed altitude within a given time frame or at a certain point

after departure. This may be done verbally in the departure instructions or stated in the DP.

33.7 In a radar and a nonradar environment, the controller will state “Cleared to (destination) airport as

filed” or:

33.7.1 If a DP or DP Transition is to be flown,

specify the DP name, the current DP number, the DP

Transition name, the assigned altitude/flight level,

and any additional instructions (departure control

frequency, beacon code assignment, etc.) necessary

to clear a departing aircraft via the DP/DP Transition

and the route filed.

EXAMPLE−

National Seven Twenty cleared to Miami Airport

Intercontinental one departure, Lake Charles transition

then as filed, maintain Flight Level two seven zero.

33.7.2 When there is no DP or when the pilot cannot

accept a DP, specify the assigned altitude/flight level,

and any additional instructions necessary to clear a

departing aircraft via an appropriate departure

routing and the route filed.

NOTE−

A detailed departure route description or a radar vector

may be used to achieve the desired departure routing.

33.7.3 If necessary to make a minor revision to the

filed route, specify the assigned DP/DP Transition (or

departure routing), the revision to the filed route, the

assigned altitude/flight level, and any additional

instructions necessary to clear a departing aircraft.

EXAMPLE−

Jet Star One Four Two Four cleared to Atlanta Airport,

South Boston two departure then as filed except change

route to read South Boston Victor 20 Greensboro, maintain

one seven thousand.

33.7.4 Additionally, in a nonradar environment,

specify one or more fixes as necessary to identify the

initial route of flight.

EXAMPLE−

Cessna Three One Six Zero Foxtrot cleared to Charlotte

Airport as filed via Brooke, maintain seven thousand.

33.8 To ensure success of the program, pilots should:

33.8.1 Avoid making changes to a filed flight plan

just prior to departure.

33.8.2 State the following information in the initial

call−up to the facility when no change has been made

to the filed flight plan: Aircraft call sign, location,

type operation (IFR), and the name of the airport (or

fix) to which you expect clearance.

EXAMPLE−

“Washington clearance delivery (or ground control if

appropriate) American Seventy Six at gate one, IFR Los

Angeles.”

33.8.3 If the flight plan has been changed, state the

change and request a full route clearance.

EXAMPLE−

“Washington clearance delivery, American Seventy Six at

gate one. IFR San Francisco. My flight plan route has been

amended (or destination changed). Request full route

clearance.”

33.8.4 Request verification or clarification from

ATC if ANY portion of the clearance is not clearly

understood.

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33.8.5 When requesting clearance for the IFR

portion of a VFR−IFR flight, request such clearance

prior to the fix where IFR operation is proposed to

commence in sufficient time to avoid delay. Use the

following phraseology:

EXAMPLE−

“Los Angeles center, Apache Six One Papa, VFR

estimating Paso Robles VOR at three two, one thousand

five hundred, request IFR to Bakersfield.”

34. Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) −

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and

Standard Instrument Departures (SID)

34.1 Instrument departure procedures are preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) procedures

which provide obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. There

are two types of DPs, Obstacle Departure Procedures

(ODPs), printed either textually or graphically, and

Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs), always

printed graphically. All DPs, either textual or graphic

may be designed using either conventional or RNAV

criteria. RNAV procedures will have RNAV printed

in the title, e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE

(RNAV). ODPs provide obstruction clearance via the

least onerous route from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. ODPs are recommended

for obstruction clearance and may be flown without

ATC clearance unless an alternate departure procedure (SID or radar vector) has been specifically assigned by ATC. Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE) printed in the procedure title, e.g., GEYSR

THREE DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), or, CROWN

ONE DEPARTURE (RNAV)(OBSTACLE). Standard Instrument Departures are air traffic control

(ATC) procedures printed for pilot/controller use in

graphic form to provide obstruction clearance and a

transition from the terminal area to the appropriate

en route structure. SIDs are primarily designed for

system enhancement and to reduce pilot/controller

workload. ATC clearance must be received prior to

flying a SID. All DPs provide the pilot with a way to

depart the airport and transition to the en route structure safely. Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are

strongly encouraged to file and fly a DP at night, during marginal Visual Meteorological Conditions

(VMC) and Instrument Meteorological Conditions

(IMC), when one is available. The following paragraphs will provide an overview of the DP program,

why DPs are developed, what criteria are used, where

to find them, how they are to be flown, and finally pilot and ATC responsibilities.

34.2 Why are DPs necessary? The primary reason is

to provide obstacle clearance protection information

to pilots. A secondary reason, at busier airports, is to

increase efficiency and reduce communications and

departure delays through the use of SIDs. When an instrument approach is initially developed for an airport, the need for DPs is assessed. The procedure designer conducts an obstacle analysis to support

departure operations. If an aircraft may turn in any direction from a runway, and remain clear of obstacles,

that runway passes what is called a diverse departure

assessment and no ODP will be published. A SID

may be published if needed for air traffic control purposes. However, if an obstacle penetrates what is

called the 40:1 obstacle identification surface, then

the procedure designer chooses whether to:

34.2.1 Establish a steeper than normal climb

gradient; or

34.2.2 Establish a steeper than normal climb

gradient with an alternative that increases takeoff

minima to allow the pilot to visually remain clear of

the obstacle(s); or

34.2.3 Design and publish a specific departure route;

or

34.2.4 A combination or all of the above.

34.3 What criteria is used to provide obstruction

clearance during departure?

34.3.1 Unless specified otherwise, required obstacle

clearance for all departures, including diverse, is

based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the

runway at least 35 feet above the departure end of

runway elevation, climbing to 400 feet above the

departure end of runway elevation before making the

initial turn, and maintaining a minimum climb

gradient of 200 feet per nautical mile (FPNM), unless

required to level off by a crossing restriction, until the

minimum IFR altitude. A greater climb gradient may

be specified in the DP to clear obstacles or to achieve

an ATC crossing restriction. If an initial turn higher

than 400 feet above the departure end of runway

elevation is specified in the DP, the turn should be

commenced at the higher altitude. If a turn is

specified at a fix, the turn must be made at that fix.

Fixes may have minimum and/or maximum crossing

altitudes that must be adhered to prior to passing the

fix. In rare instances, obstacles that exist on the
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extended runway centerline may make an “early

turn” more desirable than proceeding straight ahead.

In these cases, the published departure instructions

will include the language “turn left(right) as soon as

practicable.” These departures will also include a

ceiling and visibility minimum of at least 300 and 1.

Pilots encountering one of these DPs should preplan

the climb out to gain altitude and begin the turn as

quickly as possible within the bounds of safe

operating practices and operating limitations. This

type of departure procedure is being phased out.

NOTE−

“Practical” or “feasible” may exist in some existing

departure text instead of “practicable.”

34.3.2 The 40:1 obstacle identification surface

begins at the departure end of the runway and slopes

upward at 152 FPNM until reaching the minimum

IFR altitude or entering the en route structure.

34.3.3 Climb gradients greater than 200 FPNM are

specified when required for obstacle clearance and/or

ATC required crossing restrictions.

EXAMPLE−

“Cross ALPHA intersection at or below 4000; maintain

6000.” The pilot climbs at least 200 FPNM to 6000. If 4000

is reached before ALPHA, the pilot levels off at 4000 until

passing ALPHA; then immediately resumes at least

200 FPNM climb.

34.3.4 Climb gradients may be specified only to an

altitude/fix, above which the normal gradient applies.

EXAMPLE−

“Minimum climb 340 FPNM to ALPHA.” The pilot climbs

at least 340 FPNM to ALPHA, then at least 200 FPNM to

MIA.

34.3.5 Some DPs established solely for obstacle

avoidance require a climb in visual conditions to

cross the airport or an on−airport NAVAID in a

specified direction, at or above a specified altitude.

These procedures are called Visual Climb Over the

Airport (VCOA).

EXAMPLE−

“Climb in visual conditions so as to cross the McElory

Airport southbound, at or above 6000, then climb via

Keemmling radial zero three three to Keemmling

VORTAC.”

34.4 Who is responsible for obstacle clearance? DPs

are designed so that adherence to the procedure by the

pilot will ensure obstacle protection. Additionally:

34.4.1 Obstacle clearance responsibility also rests

with the pilot when he/she chooses to climb in visual

conditions in lieu of flying a DP and/or depart under

increased takeoff minima rather than fly the climb

gradient. Standard takeoff minima are one statute

mile for aircraft having two engines or less and

one−half statute mile for aircraft having more than

two engines. Specified ceiling and visibility minima

(VCOA or increased takeoff minima) will allow

visual avoidance of obstacles until the pilot enters the

standard obstacle protection area. Obstacle avoidance is not guaranteed if the pilot maneuvers farther

from the airport than the specified visibility minimum

prior to reaching the specified altitude. DPs may also

contain what are called Low Close in Obstacles.

These obstacles are less than 200 feet above the

departure end of runway elevation and within

one NM of the runway end, and do not require

increased takeoff minimums. These obstacles are

identified on the SID chart or in the Take−off

Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures

section of the U. S. Terminal Procedure booklet.

These obstacles are especially critical to aircraft that

do not lift off until close to the departure end of the

runway or which climb at the minimum rate. Pilots

should also consider drift following lift−off to ensure

sufficient clearance from these obstacles. That

segment of the procedure that requires the pilot to see

and avoid obstacles ends when the aircraft crosses the

specified point at the required altitude. In all cases

continued obstacle clearance is based on having

climbed a minimum of 200 feet per nautical mile to

the specified point and then continuing to climb at

least 200 foot per nautical mile during the departure

until reaching the minimum enroute altitude, unless

specified otherwise.

34.4.2 ATC may assume responsibility for obstacle

clearance by vectoring the aircraft prior to reaching

the minimum vectoring altitude by using a Diverse

Vector Area (DVA). The DVA has been assessed for

departures which do not follow a specific ground

track. ATC may also vector an aircraft off a

previously assigned DP. In all cases, the 200 FPNM

climb gradient is assumed and obstacle clearance is

not provided by ATC until the controller begins to

provide navigational guidance in the form of radar

vectors.
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NOTE−

When used by the controller during departure, the term

“radar contact” should not be interpreted as relieving

pilots of their responsibility to maintain appropriate

terrain and obstruction clearance which may include

flying the obstacle DP.

34.4.3 When missed approach or departure procedure climb gradients exceed 200 ft/NM, pilots must

preplan that the aircraft can meet the ft/NM climb

gradient requirement prescribed by the procedure.

34.5 Where are DPs located? DPs will be listed by

airport in the IFR Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle)

Departure Procedures Section, Section C, of the Terminal Procedures Publications (TPPs). If the DP is

textual, it will be described in TPP Section C. SIDs

and complex ODPs will be published graphically and

named. The name will be listed by airport name and

runway in Section C. Graphic ODPs will also have

the term “(OBSTACLE)” printed in the charted procedure title, differentiating them from SIDs.

34.5.1 An ODP that has been developed solely for

obstacle avoidance will be indicated with the symbol

“T” on appropriate Instrument Approach Procedure

(IAP) charts and DP charts for that airport. The “T”

symbol will continue to refer users to TPP Section C.

In the case of a graphic ODP, the TPP Section C will

only contain the name of the ODP. Since there may be

both a textual and a graphic DP, Section C should still

be checked for additional information. The nonstandard minimums and minimum climb gradients found

in TPP Section C also apply to charted DPs and radar

vector departures unless different minimums are

specified on the charted DP. Takeoff minimums and

departure procedures apply to all runways unless

otherwise specified. New graphic DPs will have all

the information printed on the graphic depiction. As

a general rule, ATC will only assign an ODP from a

nontowered airport when compliance with the ODP

is necessary for aircraft to aircraft separation. Pilots

may use the ODP to help ensure separation from

terrain and obstacles.

34.6 Responsibilities.

34.6.1 Each pilot, prior to departing an airport on an

IFR flight should consider the type of terrain and

other obstacles on or in the vicinity of the departure

airport; and:

34.6.2 Determine whether an ODP is available; and

34.6.3 Determine if obstacle avoidance can be

maintained visually or if the ODP should be flown;

and

34.6.4 Consider the effect of degraded climb

performance and the actions to take in the event of an

engine loss during the departure.

34.6.5 After an aircraft is established on an

ODP/SID and subsequently vectored or cleared off of

the ODP or SID transition, pilots shall consider the

ODP/SID canceled, unless the controller adds

“expect to resume ODP/SID.”

34.6.6 Aircraft instructed to resume a procedure

which contains restrictions, such as a DP, shall be

issued/reissued all applicable restrictions or shall be

advised to comply with those restrictions.

34.6.7 If an altitude to “maintain” is restated,

whether prior to departure or while airborne,

previously issued altitude restrictions are canceled,

including any DP altitude restrictions if any.

34.6.8 Pilots of civil aircraft operating from

locations where SIDs are established may expect

ATC clearances containing a SID. Use of a DP

requires pilot possession of the textual description or

graphic depiction of the approved current DP, as

appropriate. RNAV SIDs must be retrievable by the

procedure name from the aircraft database and

conform to charted procedure. ATC must be

immediately advised if the pilot does not possess the

assigned SID, or the aircraft is not capable of flying

the SID. Notification may be accomplished by filing

“NO SID” in the remarks section of the filed flight

plan or by the less desirable method of verbally

advising ATC. Adherence to all restrictions on the DP

is required unless clearance to deviate is received.

34.6.9 Controllers may omit the departure control

frequency if a SID clearance is issued and the

departure control frequency is published on the SID.

34.7 RNAV Departure Procedures.

34.7.1 There are two types of public RNAV SIDs and

graphic ODPs:

34.7.1.1 Type A. These procedures generally start

with a heading or vector from the departure runway

end and have an initial RNAV fix approximately

10 nautical miles (NM) from the departure airport. In

addition, these procedures require system performance currently met by GPS, DME/DME, or

DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the

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criteria discussed in AC 90−100, U.S. Terminal and

En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.

Type A terminal procedures require the aircraft’s

track keeping accuracy remain bounded by 2 NM

for 95% of the total flight time.

NOTE−

If not equipped with GPS (or for multi−sensor systems with

GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be

capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME

or DME/DME/IRU for Type A procedures.

34.7.1.2 Type B. These procedures generally start

with an initial RNAV leg near the departure runway

end. In addition, these procedures require system

performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/

IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed

in AC 90−100. Type B procedures often require the

aircraft’s track keeping accuracy remain bounded by

1 NM for 95% of the total flight time.

NOTE−

If not equipped with GPS (or for multi−sensor systems with

GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be

capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME/

IRU for Type B procedures.

34.7.2 For procedures requiring GPS, if the

navigation system does not automatically alert the

flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must

develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation.

34.7.3 AC 90−100 may be used as operational and

airworthiness guidance for RNAV ODPs.

34.7.4 RNAV Engagement Altitudes. For Type A

procedures, the pilot must be able to engage RNAV

equipment no later than 2,000 feet above airport

elevation. For Type B procedures, the pilot must be

able to engage RNAV equipment no later than

500 feet above airport elevation.
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ENR 1.6 [RESERVED]

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ENR 1.7 Altimeter Setting Procedures

1. General

1.1 The accuracy of aircraft altimeters is subject to

the following factors:

1.1.1 Nonstandard temperature of the atmosphere.

1.1.2 Nonstandard atmospheric pressure.

1.1.3 Aircraft static pressure systems (position

error).

1.1.4 Instrument error.

1.2 EXTREME CAUTION SHOULD BE EXERCISED WHEN FLYING IN PROXIMITY TO

OBSTRUCTIONS OR TERRAIN IN LOW TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES. This is especially

true in extremely cold temperatures that cause a large

differential between the Standard Day temperature

and actual temperature. This circumstance can cause

serious errors that result in the aircraft being

significantly lower than the indicated altitude.

NOTE−

Standard temperature at sea level is 15 degrees Celsius

(59 degrees Fahrenheit). The temperature gradient from

sea level is minus 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees

Fahrenheit) per 1,000 feet. Pilots should apply

corrections for static pressure systems and/or instruments,

if appreciable errors exist.

1.3 The adoption of a standard altimeter setting at the

higher altitudes eliminates station barometer errors,

some altimeter instrument errors, and errors caused

by altimeter settings derived from different geographical sources.

2. Procedures

2.1 The cruising altitude or flight level of aircraft

shall be maintained by reference to an altimeter

which shall be set, when operating:

2.1.1 Below 18,000 feet MSL.

2.1.1.1 When the barometric pressure is

31.00 inches Hg. or less: to the current reported

altimeter setting of a station along the route and

within 100 NM of the aircraft, or if there is no station

within this area, the current reported altimeter setting

of an appropriate available station. When an aircraft

is en route on an instrument flight plan, air traffic

controllers will furnish this information to the pilot at

least once while the aircraft is in the controller’s area

of jurisdiction. In the case of an aircraft not equipped

with a radio, set to the elevation of the departure

airport or use an appropriate altimeter setting

available prior to departure.

2.1.1.2 When the barometric pressure exceeds

31.00 inches Hg.: the following procedures will be

placed in effect by NOTAM defining the geographic

area affected:

a) For all aircraft. Set 31.00 inches for en route

operations below 18,000 feet MSL. Maintain this

setting until beyond the affected area or until reaching

final approach segment. At the beginning of the final

approach segment, the current altimeter setting will

be set, if possible. If not possible, 31.00 inches will

remain set throughout the approach. Aircraft on

departure or missed approach will set 31.00 inches

prior to reaching any mandatory/crossing altitude or

1,500 feet AGL, whichever is lower. (Air traffic

control will issue actual altimeter settings and advise

pilots to set 31.00 inches in their altimeters for en

route operations below 18,000 feet MSL in affected

areas.)

b) During preflight, barometric altimeters shall be

checked for normal operation to the extent possible.

c) For aircraft with the capability of setting the

current altimeter setting and operating into airports

with the capability of measuring the current altimeter

setting, no additional restrictions apply.

d) For aircraft operating VFR, there are no

additional restrictions; however, extra diligence in

flight planning and in operating in these conditions is

essential.

e) Airports unable to accurately measure barometric pressures above 31.00 inches of Hg. will report the

barometric pressure as “missing” or “in excess of

31.00 inches of Hg.” Flight operations to and from

those airports are restricted to VFR weather

conditions.

f) For aircraft operating IFR and unable to set the

current altimeter setting, the following restrictions

apply:

1) To determine the suitability of departure

alternate airports, destination airports, and destination alternate airports, increase ceiling requirements

by 100 feet and visibility requirements by 1/4 statute
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mile for each 1/10 of an inch of Hg., or any portion

thereof, over 31.00 inches. These adjusted values are

then applied in accordance with the requirements of

the applicable operating regulations and operations

specifications.

EXAMPLE−

Destination altimeter is 31.28 inches, ILS DH 250 feet

(200−1/2). When flight planning, add 300−3/4 to the

weather requirements which would become 500−1 1/4.

2) On approach, 31.00 inches will remain set.

Decision height or minimum descent altitude shall be

deemed to have been reached when the published

altitude is displayed on the altimeter.

NOTE−

Although visibility is normally the limiting factor on an

approach, pilots should be aware that when reaching DH

the aircraft will be higher than indicated. Using the

example above the aircraft would be approximately

300 feet higher.

3) These restrictions do not apply to authorized

Category II and III ILS operations nor do they apply

to certificate holders using approved QFE altimetry

systems.

2.1.1.3 The FAA Regional Flight Standards Division Manager of the affected area is authorized to

approve temporary waivers to permit emergency

resupply or emergency medical service operation.

2.1.2 At or above 18,000 feet MSL: to 29.92 Hg

(standard setting). The lowest usable flight level is

determined by the atmospheric pressure in the area of

operation, as shown in TBL ENR 1.7−1.

TBL ENR 1.7−1

Lowest Usable Flight Level

Altimeter Setting

(Current Reported)

Lowest Usable

Flight Level

29.92 or higher 180

29.91 to 29.42 185

29.41 to 28.92 190

28.91 to 28.42 195

28.41 to 27.92 200

2.1.3 Where the minimum altitude, as prescribed in

14 CFR Sections 91.159 and 91.119, is above

18,000 feet MSL the lowest usable flight level shall

be the flight level equivalent of the minimum altitude

plus the number of feet specified in TBL ENR 1.7−2.

TBL ENR 1.7−2

Lowest Flight Level Correction Factor

Altimeter Setting Correction Factor

29.92 or higher none

29.91 to 29.42 500 feet

29.41 to 28.92 1000 feet

28.91 to 28.42 1500 feet

28.41 to 27.92 2000 feet

27.91 to 27.42 2500 feet

EXAMPLE−

The minimum safe altitude of a route is 19,000 feet MSL

and the altimeter setting is reported between 29.92 and

29.42 inches of mercury. The lowest usable flight level will

be 195, which is the flight level equivalent of 19,500 feet

MSL (minimum altitude plus 500 feet).

2.1.4 Aircraft operating in an offshore CONTROL

AREA should use altimeter setting procedures as

described above, unless directed otherwise by ATC.

NOTE−

Aircraft exiting the oceanic CTA/FIR destined for the U.S.

or transitioning through U.S. offshore control areas

should use the current reported altimeter of a station

nearest to the route being flown. When entering an

oceanic CTA/FIR from U.S. offshore control areas, pilots

should change to the standard altimeter setting 29.92.

3. Altimeter Errors

3.1 Most pressure altimeters are subject to mechanical, elastic, temperature, and installation errors.

(Detailed information regarding the use of pressure

altimeters is found in the Instrument Flying

Handbook, Chapter IV.) Although manufacturing

and installation specification, as well as the periodic

test and inspections required by regulations (14 CFR

Part 43, Appendix E), act to reduce these errors−−any

scale error may be observed in the following manner:

3.1.1 Set the current reported altimeter setting on the

altimeter setting scale.

3.1.2 Altimeter should now read field elevation if

you are located on the same reference level used to

establish the altimeter setting.

3.1.3 Note the variation between the known field

elevation and the altimeter indication. If this

variation is in the order of plus or minus 75 feet, the

accuracy of the altimeter is questionable and the
AIP ENR 1.7−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

problem should be referred to an appropriately rated

repair station for evaluation and possible correction.

3.2 Once in flight, it is very important to obtain

frequently current altimeter settings en route. If you

do not reset your altimeter when flying from an area

of high pressure into an area of low pressure, your

aircraft will be closer to the surface than your

altimeter indicates. An inch error in the altimeter

setting equals 1,000 feet of altitude. To quote an old

saying: “GOING FROM A HIGH TO A LOW,

LOOK OUT BELOW.”

3.3 Temperature also has an effect on the accuracy of

altimeters and your altitude. The crucial values to

consider are standard temperature versus the ambient

(at altitude) temperature. It is this “difference” that

causes the error in indicated altitude. When the air is

warmer than standard, you are higher than your

altimeter indicates. Subsequently, when the air is

colder than standard you are lower than indicated. It

is the magnitude of this “difference” that determines

the magnitude of the error. When flying into a cooler

air mass while maintaining a constant indicated

altitude, you are losing true altitude. However, flying

into a cooler air mass does not necessarily mean you

will be lower than indicated if the difference is still on

the plus side. For example, while flying at 10,000 feet

(where STANDARD temperature is −5 degrees

Celsius (C)), the outside air temperature cools from

+5 degrees C to 0 degrees C, the temperature error

will nevertheless cause the aircraft to be HIGHER

than indicated. It is the extreme “cold” difference that

normally would be of concern to the pilot. Also, when

flying in cold conditions over mountainous country,

the pilot should exercise caution in flight planning

both in regard to route and altitude to ensure adequate

en route and terminal area terrain clearance.

3.4 TBL ENR 1.7−3, derived from ICAO formulas,

indicates how much error can exist when the

temperature is extremely cold. To use the table, find

the reported temperature in the left column, then read

across the top row to locate the height above the

airport/reporting station (i.e., subtract the airport/reporting elevation from the intended flight altitude).

The intersection of the column and row is how much

lower the aircraft may actually be as a result of the

possible cold temperature induced error.

3.5 The possible result of the above example should

be obvious, particularly if operating at the minimum

altitude or when conducting an instrument approach.

When operating in extreme cold temperatures, pilots

may wish to compensate for the reduction in terrain

clearance by adding a cold temperature correction.

TBL ENR 1.7−3

ICAO COLD TEMPERATURE ERROR TABLE

Height Above Airport in Feet

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000

+10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 40 60 80 90

C

 0 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 230 280

mp C

−10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490

d Te

m

−20 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 280 420 570 710

orted

−30 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950

Repor

−40 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1210

R

−50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 1190 1500

EXAMPLE−Temperature−10 degrees Celsius, and the aircraft altitude is 1,000 feet above the airport elevation. The chart

shows that the reported current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as much as 100 feet below the altitude indicated

by the altimeter.
ENR 1.7−4 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4. High Barometric Pressure

4.1 Cold, dry air masses may produce barometric

pressures in excess of 31.00 inches of Mercury, and

many altimeters do not have an accurate means of

being adjusted for settings of these levels. As noted

in paragraph 3.2, when the altimeter cannot be set to

the higher pressure setting, the aircraft actual altitude

will be higher than the altimeter indicates.

4.2 When the barometric pressure exceeds

31.00 inches, air traffic controllers will issue the

actual altimeter setting, and:

4.2.1 En Route/Arrivals. Advise pilots to remain

set on 31.00 inches until reaching the final approach

segment.

4.2.2 Departures. Advise pilots to set 31.00 inches

prior to reaching any mandatory/crossing altitude or

1,500 feet, whichever is lower.

4.3 The altimeter error caused by the high pressure

will be in the opposite direction to the error caused by

the cold temperature.

5. Low Barometric Pressure

5.1 When abnormally low barometric pressure

conditions occur (below 28.00), flight operations by

aircraft unable to set the actual altimeter setting are

not recommended.

NOTE−

The true altitude of the aircraft is lower than the indicated

altitude if the pilot is unable to set the actual altimeter

setting.
AIP ENR 1.8−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.8 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 1.9−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.9 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 1.10−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.10 Flight Planning

(Restriction, Limitation or Advisory Information)

1. Preflight Preparation

1.1 Every pilot is urged to receive a preflight briefing

and to file a flight plan. This briefing should consist

of the latest or most current weather, airport, and en

route NAVAID information. Briefing service may be

obtained from a flight service station (FSS) either by

telephone or interphone, by radio when airborne, or

by a personal visit to the station. In the 48 contiguous

States, pilots with a current FAA medical certificate

may access toll−free the Direct User Access Terminal

System (DUATS) through a personal computer.

DUATS will provide alpha−numeric preflight

weather data and allow pilots to file domestic VFR

and IFR flight plans.

REFERENCE−

GEN 3.5, paragraph 3.5.3.3 lists DUATS vendors.

NOTE−

Pilots filing flight plans via “fast file” who desire to have

their briefing recorded, should include a statement at the

end of the recording as to the source of their weather

briefing.

1.2 The information required by the FAA to process

flight plans is contained on FAA Form 7233−1, Flight

Plan. The forms are available at all flight service

stations.

REFERENCE−

AIP, ENR 1.10, paragraph 4, Flight Plan Requirements.

1.3 Consult an FSS or Weather Service Office

(WSO) for a preflight weather briefing. Supplemental Weather Service Locations (SWSLs) do not

provide weather briefings.

1.4 FSSs are required to advise of pertinent

NOTAMs if a standard briefing is requested, but if

they are overlooked, don’t hesitate to remind the

specialist that you have not received NOTAM

information. Additionally, NOTAMs which are

known in sufficient time for publication and are of

7 days duration or longer are normally incorporated

into the Notices to Airmen publication and carried

there until cancellation time. FDC NOTAMs, which

apply to instrument flight procedures, are also

included in Notices to Airmen publication up to and

including the number indicated in the FDC NOTAM

legend. These NOTAMs are not provided during a

briefing unless specifically requested by the pilot

since the FSS specialist has no way of knowing

whether the pilot has already checked Notices to

Airmen publication prior to calling. Remember to ask

for NOTAMs contained in the Notices to Airmen

publication as they are not normally furnished during

your briefing.

1.5 Pilots are urged to use only the latest issue of

aeronautical charts in planning and conducting flight

operations. Aeronautical charts are revised and

reissued on a periodic basis to ensure that depicted

data are current and reliable. In the conterminous

U.S., sectional charts are updated each 6 months, IFR

en route charts each 56 days, and amendments to civil

IFR approach charts are accomplished on a 56−day

cycle with a change notice volume issued on the

28−day mid−cycle. Charts that have been superseded

by those of a more recent date may contain obsolete

or incomplete flight information.

REFERENCE−

AIP, GEN 3.2, contains a description of aeronautical charts.

1.6 When requesting a preflight briefing, identify

yourself as a pilot and provide the following:

1.6.1 Type of flight planned; e.g., VFR or IFR.

1.6.2 Aircraft number or pilot’s name.

1.6.3 Aircraft type.

1.6.4 Departure airport.

1.6.5 Route of flight.

1.6.6 Destination.

1.6.7 Flight altitude(s).

1.6.8 ETD and ETE.

1.7 Prior to conducting a briefing, briefers are

required to have the background information listed

above so that they may tailor the briefing to the needs

of the proposed flight. The objective is to communicate a “picture” of meteorological and aeronautical

information necessary for the conduct of a safe and

efficient flight. Briefers use all available weather and

aeronautical information to summarize data applicable to the proposed flight. They do not read weather

reports and forecasts verbatim unless specifically

requested by the pilot. FSS briefers do not provide

FDC NOTAM information for special instrument
ENR 1.10−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

approach procedures unless specifically asked. Pilots

authorized by the FAA to use special instrument

approach procedures must specifically request FDC

NOTAM information for these procedures. Pilots

who receive the information electronically will

receive NOTAMs for special IAPs automatically.

REFERENCE−

See AIP, GEN 3.5 for meteorological services.

1.8 The Federal Aviation Administration has

designated High Density Traffic Airports (HDTA)

and has prescribed air traffic rules and requirements

for operating aircraft (excluding helicopter operations) to and from these airports.

REFERENCE−

AIP, GEN 3.3, paragraph 9.7, Airport Reservations Operations and

Procedures.

1.9 In addition to the filing of a flight plan, if the

flight will traverse or land in one or more foreign

countries, it is particularly important that pilots leave

a complete itinerary with someone directly concerned

and keep that person advised of the flight’s progress.

If serious doubt arises as to the safety of the flight, that

person should first contact the FSS.

1.10 Pilots operating aircraft under the provisions of

14 CFR Part 135 and not having an FAA assigned

3−letter designator, are urged to prefix the normal

aircraft registration (N) number with the letter “T” on

flight plan filing.

EXAMPLE−

TN 1234B.

2. Follow IFR Procedures Even When

Operating VFR

2.1 To maintain IFR proficiency, pilots are urged to

practice IFR procedures whenever possible, even

when operating VFR. Some suggested practices

include:

2.1.1 Obtain a complete preflight and weather

briefing. Check the NOTAMs.

2.1.2 File a flight plan. This is an excellent low−cost

insurance policy. The cost is the time it takes to fill it

out. The insurance includes the knowledge that

someone will be looking for you if you become

overdue at your destination.

2.1.3 Use current charts.

2.1.4 Use the navigation aids. Practice maintaining

a good course by keeping the needle centered.

2.1.5 Maintain a constant altitude appropriate for

direction of flight.

2.1.6 Estimate en route position times.

2.1.7 Make accurate and frequent position reports to

the FSSs along your route of flight.

2.2 Simulated IFR flight is recommended (under the

hood); however, pilots are cautioned to review and

adhere to the requirements specified in 14 CFR

Section 91.109 before and during such flight.

2.3 When flying VFR at night, in addition to the

altitude appropriate for the direction of flight, pilots

should maintain an altitude which is at or above the

minimum en route altitude as shown on charts. This

is especially true in mountainous terrain, where there

is usually very little ground reference. Do not depend

on your eyes alone to avoid rising unlighted terrain,

or even lighted obstructions such as TV towers.

3. Domestic Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)

System

3.1 Time−critical aeronautical information which is

of either a temporary nature or is not sufficiently

known in advance to permit publication on

aeronautical charts or in other operational publications, receives immediate dissemination via the U.S.

Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System.

NOTE− NOTAM information is that aeronautical

information that could affect a pilot’s decision to make a

flight. It includes such information as airport or primary

runway closures, changes in the status of navigational

aids, ILS, radar service availability, and other information

essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing

operations.

3.2 NOTAM information is classified into three

categories. These are NOTAM (D) or distant,

NOTAM (L) or local, and Flight Data Center (FDC)

NOTAMs.

3.2.1 NOTAM (D)

3.2.1.1 NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for

all navigational facilities that are part of the National

Airspace System (NAS), all public use airports,

seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the

Airport/Facility Directory (AFD). The complete file

of all NOTAM (D) information is maintained in a

computer database at the Weather Message Switching Center (WMSC), located in Atlanta, Georgia.

This category of information is distributed automatically via Service A telecommunications system. Air
AIP ENR 1.10−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

traffic facilities, primarily FSSs, have access to the

entire WMSC database of NOTAMs. These

NOTAMs remain available via Service A for the

duration of their validity or until published. Once

published, the NOTAM data is deleted from the

system.

3.2.2 NOTAM (L)

3.2.2.1 NOTAM (L) information includes such data

as taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near or

crossing runways, and airport lighting aids that do not

affect instrument approach criteria, such as VASI.

3.2.2.2 NOTAM (L) information is distributed

locally only and is not attached to the hourly weather

reports. A separate file of local NOTAMs is

maintained at each FSS for facilities in their areas

only. NOTAM (L) information for other FSS areas

must be specifically requested directly from the FSS

that has responsibility for the airport concerned.

NOTE−

DUATS vendors are not required to provide NOTAM (L)

information.

3.2.3 FDC NOTAMs

3.2.3.1 On those occasions when it becomes

necessary to disseminate information which is

regulatory in nature, the National Flight Data Center

(NFDC) in Washington, D.C., will issue an FDC

NOTAM. FDC NOTAMs contain such things as

amendments to published instrument approach

procedures (IAPs) and other current aeronautical

charts. They are also used to advertise temporary

flight restrictions caused by such things as natural

disasters or large scale public events that may

generate a congestion of air traffic over a site.

3.2.3.2 FDC NOTAMs are transmitted via Service A

only once and are kept on file at the FSS until

published or canceled. FSSs are responsible for

maintaining a file of current, unpublished FDC

NOTAMs concerning conditions within 400 miles of

their facilities. FDC information concerning conditions that are more than 400 miles from the FSS, or

that is already published, is given only on request.

NOTE−

1. DUATS vendors will provide FDC NOTAMs only upon

site−specific requests using a location identifier.

2. NOTAM data may not always be current due to the

changeable nature of the national airspace system

components, delays inherent in processing the information,

and occasional temporary outages of the United States

NOTAM System. While en route, pilots should contact FSSs

and obtain updated information for their route of flight and

destination.

3.3 An integral part of the NOTAM System is the

Notice to Airmen publication, published every

28 days. Data is included in this publication to reduce

congestion on the telecommunications circuits and,

therefore, is not available via Service A. Once

published, this information is not provided during

pilot weather briefings unless specifically requested

by the pilot. The Notice to Airmen publication

contains four parts:

3.3.1 Part 1 contains three sections.

3.3.1.1 Notices which meet the criteria for

NOTAM (D) which are expected to remain in effect

for an extended period and FDC NOTAMs current at

the time of publication. Occasionally, some

NOTAM (L) and other unique information is

included in this section when it will contribute to

flight safety.

3.3.1.2 Airports, Facilities, and Procedural

NOTAMs.

3.3.1.3 General FDC NOTAMs.

3.3.2 Part 2 contains Revisions to Minimum En

Route IFR Altitudes and Changeover Points

Amendments.

3.3.3 Part 3 contains International Notices to

Airmen.

3.3.4 Part 4 contains Graphic Notices. It includes

special notices and notices containing graphics

pertaining to almost every aspect of aviation; such as,

military training areas, large scale sporting events

that may attract media attention or draw large crowds

of aircraft, chart corrections and additions, and air

show information.

3.3.5 The number of the last FDC NOTAM included

in the Notices to Airmen publication is noted on the

first page to aid the user in updating the listing with

any FDC NOTAMs which may have been issued

between the cut−off date and the date the publication

is received. All information contained will be carried

until the information expires, is canceled, or in the

case of permanent conditions, is published in other

publications, such as the Airport/Facility Directory.

3.3.6 All new notices entered, excluding FDC

NOTAMs, will be published only if the information

is expected to remain in effect for at least 30 days after

the effective date of the publication.
ENR 1.10−4 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4. Flight Plan Requirements

4.1 The types of flight plans in U.S. airspace are:

4.1.1 Visual Flight Rules (VFR).

4.1.2 Defense Visual Flight Rules (DVFR).

4.1.3 Instrument Flight rules (IFR).

4.1.4 Composite Flight Plan Visual−Instrument

Flight Rules (VFR−IFR).

4.1.5 IFR flight plans requesting VFR operations.

NOTE−

ICAO flight plans are required whenever the flight intends

to cross an international boundary or an oceanic CTA/FIR

boundary. For flights departing U.S. airports and

operating over U.S. domestic airspace and/or offshore

control areas, but do not penetrate the oceanic CTA/FIR

boundary or borders, a U.S. domestic flight plan is

preferred.

4.2 Flight Plan−VFR Flights

4.2.1 Except for operations in or penetrating a

Coastal or Domestic ADIZ or DEWIZ (see

ENR 1.12, paragraph 1.2), a flight plan is not

required for VFR flight; however, it is strongly

recommended that one be filed.

4.2.2 To obtain maximum benefits of the flight plan

program, flight plans should be filed directly with the

nearest flight service station. For your convenience,

FSSs provide aeronautical and meteorological

briefings while accepting flight plans. Radio may be

used to file if no other means are available. Also,

some States operate aeronautical communications

facilities which will accept and forward flight plans

to the FSS for further handling.

4.2.3 When a “stopover” flight is anticipated to

cover an extended period of time, it is recommended

that a separate flight plan be filed for each “leg” when

the stop is expected to be more than 1−hour duration.

4.2.4 Pilots are encouraged to give their departure

times directly to the FSS serving the departure airport

or as otherwise indicated by the FSS when the flight

plan is filed. This will ensure more efficient flight

plan service and permit the FSS to advise you of

significant changes in aeronautical facilities or

meteorological conditions. When a VFR flight plan

is filed, it will be held by the FSS until 1 hour after the

proposed departure time and then canceled unless:

4.2.4.1 The actual departure time is received.

4.2.4.2 A revised proposed departure time is

received.

4.2.4.3 At a time of filing, the FSS is informed that

the proposed departure time will be met, but actual

time cannot be given because of inadequate

communications (assumed departures).

4.2.5 On pilot’s request, at a location having an

active tower, the aircraft identification will be

forwarded by the tower to the FSS for reporting the

actual departure time. This procedure should be

avoided at busy airports.

4.2.6 Although position reports are not required for

VFR flight plans, periodic reports to FAA flight

service stations along the route are good practice.

Such contacts permit significant information to be

passed to the transiting aircraft and also serve to

check the progress of the flight should it be necessary

for any reason to locate the aircraft.

EXAMPLE−

1. Bonanza 314K, over Kingfisher at (time), VFR flight

plan, Tulsa to Amarillo.

2. Cherokee 5133J, over Oklahoma City at (time),

Shreveport to Denver, no flight plan.

4.2.7 Pilots not operating on an IFR flight plan, and

when in level cruising flight, are cautioned to

conform with VFR cruising altitudes appropriate to

direction of flight.

4.2.8 When filing VFR flight plans, indicate aircraft

equipment capabilities by appending the appropriate

suffix to aircraft type in the same manner as that

prescribed for IFR flight. Under some circumstances,

ATC computer tapes can be useful in constructing the

radar history of a downed or crashed aircraft. In each

case, knowledge of the aircraft’s transponder

equipment is necessary in determining whether or not

such computer tapes might prove effective.

REFERENCE−

AIP, ENR 1.10, paragraph 5.1 and TBL ENR 1.10−1, Aircraft

Equipment Suffixes.

4.2.9 Explanation of VFR Flight Plan Items.

4.2.9.1 Block 1. Check the type flight plan. Check

both the VFR and IFR blocks if composite VFR/IFR.

4.2.9.2 Block 2. Enter your complete aircraft

identification including the prefix “N” if applicable.

4.2.9.3 Block 3. Enter the designator for the

aircraft, or if unknown, consult an FSS briefer.

4.2.9.4 Block 4. Enter your true airspeed (TAS).
AIP ENR 1.10−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4.2.9.5 Block 5. Enter the departure airport identifier code, or if unknown, the name of the airport.

4.2.9.6 Block 6. Enter the proposed departure time

in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). If airborne,

specify the actual or proposed departure time, as

appropriate.

4.2.9.7 Block 7. Enter the appropriate VFR altitude

(to assist the briefer in providing weather and wind

information).

4.2.9.8 Block 8. Define the route of flight by using

NAVAID identifier codes and airways.

4.2.9.9 Block 9. Enter the destination airport

identifier code, or if unknown, the airport name.

NOTE−

Include the city name (or even the state name) if needed for

clarity.

4.2.9.10 Block 10. Enter your estimated time en

route, in hours and minutes.

4.2.9.11 Block 11. Enter only those remarks

pertinent to ATC or to the clarification of other flight

plan information such as the appropriate radiotelephony (call sign) associated with the designator filed

in Block 2. Items of a personal nature are not

accepted.

4.2.9.12 Specify the fuel on board, in hours and

minutes.

4.2.9.13 Specify an alternate airport if desired.

4.2.9.14 Enter your complete name, address, and

telephone number. Enter sufficient information to

identify home base, airport, or operator.

NOTE−

This information is essential in the event of search and

rescue operations.

4.2.9.15 Block 15. Enter total number of persons on

board including crew (POB).

4.2.9.16 Block 16. Enter the predominant colors.

4.2.9.17 Block 17. (Optional) Record a destination

telephone number to assist Search and Rescue should

you fail to report or cancel your flight plan within

1/2 hour after your estimated time of arrival (ETA).

CAUTION−

A control tower at destination point does not

automatically close VFR flight plans; it remains the

responsibility of a pilot to close his/her own flight plan.

4.2.9.18 Record the FSS name for closing the flight

plan. If the flight plan is closed with a different FSS

or facility, state the recorded FSS name that would

normally have closed your flight plan.

NOTE−

The information transmitted to the destination FSS will

consist only of flight plans blocks 2, 3, 9, and 10. Estimated

time en route (ETE) will be converted to the correct

estimated time of arrival (ETA).
ENR 1.10−6 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.10−1

FAA Flight Plan

Form 7233−1 (8−82)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA USE ONLY) (FAA USE ONLY) PILOT BRIEFING PILOT BRIEFING VNR

STOPOVER STOPOVER

TIME STARTED TIME STARTED SPECIALIST

INITIALS

SPECIALIST

INITIALS

1. TYPE 1. TYPE

VFR

IFR

DVFR

3. AIRCRAFT TYPE/

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

3. AIRCRAFT TYPE/

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

5. DEPARTURE POINT 5. DEPARTURE POINT 6. DEPARTURE TIME 6. DEPARTURE TIME

PROPOSED (Z) PROPOSED (Z) ACTUAL (Z) ACTUAL (Z)

7. CRUISING

ALTITUDE

7. CRUISING

ALTITUDE

8. ROUTE OF FLIGHT 8. ROUTE OF FLIGHT

KTS

9. DESTINATION (Name of airport

and city)

9. DESTINATION (Name of airport

and city)

10. EST. TIME ENROUTE 10. EST. TIME ENROUTE

HOURS

HOURS

MINUTES MINUTES

MINUTES MINUTES

11. REMARKS 11. REMARKS

12. FUEL ON BOARD 12. FUEL ON BOARD 13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S) 13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S) 14. PILOT'S NAME, ADDRESS & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE 14. PILOT'S NAME, ADDRESS & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE 15. NUMBER

ABOARD

15. NUMBER

ABOARD

17. DESTINATION CONTACT/TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL) 17. DESTINATION CONTACT/TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL)

16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT 16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT

FAA Form 7233-1 FAA Form 7233-1 (8-82) CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH _________________ FSS ON ARRIVAL CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH _________________ FSS ON ARRIVAL

FLIGHT PLAN FLIGHT PLAN

CIVIL AIRCRAFT PILOTS, FAR 91 requires you file an IFR flight plan to operate under instrument flight rules in

controlled airspace. Failure to file could result in a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 for each violation (Section 901 of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as amended). Filing of a VFR flight plan is recommended as a good operating practice. See also

Part 99 for requirements concerning DVFR flight plans.

2. AIRCRAFT

IDENTIFICATION

2. AIRCRAFT

IDENTIFICATION

4. TRUE

AIRSPEED

4. TRUE

AIRSPEED
AIP ENR 1.10−7

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL ENR 1.10−1

Aircraft Suffixes

Effective September 1, 2005

Until September 1, 2005, use Aircraft Suffixes from the previous AIM or those found at

http://www.faa.gov/avr/afs/afs410/

Suffix Equipment Capability

NO DME

/X No transponder

/T Transponder with no Mode C

/U Transponder with Mode C

DME

/D No transponder

/B Transponder with no Mode C

/A Transponder with Mode C

TACAN ONLY

/M No transponder

/N Transponder with no Mode C

/P Transponder with Mode C

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)

/Y LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS with no transponder

/C LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, transponder with no Mode C

/I LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, transponder with Mode C

ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND MODE C (If an aircraft is unable to operate with a

transponder and/or Mode C, it will revert to the appropriate code listed above under Area Navigation.)

/E Flight Management System (FMS) with DME/DME and IRU position updating

/F FMS with DME/DME position updating

/G Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), including GPS or Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), with

en route and terminal capability.

/R Required Navigational Performance (RNP). The aircraft meets the RNP type prescribed for the route segment(s),

route(s) and/or area concerned.

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM). Prior to conducting RVSM operations within the U.S., the

operator must obtain authorization from the FAA or from the responsible authority, as appropriate.

/J /E with RVSM

/K /F with RVSM

/L /G with RVSM

/Q /R with RVSM

/W RVSM
ENR 1.10−8 AIP

4 AUG 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.3 Operational Information System (OIS)

4.3.1 The FAA’s Air Traffic Control System

Command Center (ATCSCC) maintains a web site

with near real−time National Airspace System (NAS)

status information. NAS operators are encouraged to

access the web site at www.fly.faa.gov prior to filing

their flight plan.

4.3.2 The web site consolidates information from

advisories. An advisory is a message that is

disseminated electronically by the ATCSCC that

contains information pertinent to the NAS.

4.3.2.1 Advisories are normally issued for the

following items:

a) Ground Stops.

b) Ground Delay Programs.

c) Route Information.

d) Plan of Operations.

e) Facility Outages and Scheduled Facility

Outages.

f) Volcanic Ash Activity Bulletins.

g) Special Traffic Management Programs.

4.3.2.2 This list is not all−inclusive. Any time there

is information that may be beneficial to a large

number of people, an advisory may be sent.

Additionally, there may be times when an advisory is

not sent due to workload or the short length of time of

the activity.

4.3.2.3 Route information is available on the web

site and in specific advisories. Some route

information, subject to the 56−day publishing cycle,

is located on the “OIS” under “Products,” Route

Management Tool (RMT), and “What’s New”

Playbook. The RMT and Playbook contain routings

for use by Air Traffic and NAS operators when they

are coordinated “real−time” and are then published in

an ATCSCC advisory.

4.3.2.4 Route advisories are identified by the word

“Route” in the header; the associated action is

required (RQD), recommended (RMD), planned

(PLN), or for your information (FYI). Operators are

expected to file flight plans consistent with the Route

RQD advisories.

4.4 Flight Plan−Defense VFR (DVFR) Flights

4.4.1 VFR flights into a Coastal or Domestic

ADIZ/DEWIZ are required to file DVFR flight plans

for security purposes. Detailed ADIZ procedures are

found in ENR 1.12, paragraph 1.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Part 99.

5. Flight Plan−IFR Flights

5.1 General

5.1.1 Prior to departure from within, or prior to

entering Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace, a pilot must

submit a complete flight plan and receive an air traffic

clearance if weather conditions are below VFR

minimums. Instrument flight plans may be submitted

to the nearest flight service station or the airport

traffic control tower either in person or by telephone

(or by radio if no other means are available). Pilots

should file IFR flight plans at least 30 minutes prior

to estimated time of departure to preclude possible

delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC.

To minimize your delay in entering a Class B, C, D,

or E surface area at destination when IFR weather

conditions exist or are forecast at the airport, an IFR

flight plan should be filed before departure.

Otherwise, a 30−minute delay is not unusual in

receiving an ATC clearance because of time spent in

processing flight plan data. Traffic saturation

frequently prevents control personnel from accepting

flight plans by radio. In such cases the pilot is advised

to contact the nearest flight service station for the

purpose of filing the flight plan.

NOTE−

There are several methods of obtaining IFR clearance at

nontower, non−Flight Service Stations and outlying

airports. The procedure may vary due to geographical

features, weather conditions, and the complexity of the

ATC system. To determine the most effective means of

receiving an IFR clearance, pilots should ask the nearest

Flight Service Station for the most appropriate means of

obtaining the IFR clearance.

5.1.2 When filing an IFR flight plan, include as a

prefix to the aircraft type, the number of aircraft when

more than one and/or heavy aircraft indicator “H/” if

appropriate.

EXAMPLE−

H/DC10/A

2/F15/A
AIP ENR 1.10−9

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5.1.3 When filing an IFR flight plan, identify the

equipment capability by adding a suffix, preceded by

a slant, to the AIRCRAFT TYPE, as shown in

TBL ENR 1.10−1, Aircraft Suffixes.

NOTE−

1. ATC issues clearances based on filed suffixes. Pilots

should determine the appropriate suffix based upon

desired services and/or routing. For example, if a desired

route/procedure requires GPS, a pilot should file /G even

if the aircraft also qualifies for other suffixes.

2. For procedures requiring GPS, if the navigation system

does not automatically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS,

the operator must develop procedures to verify correct GPS

operation.

3. The suffix is not to be added to the aircraft identification

or be transmitted by radio as part of the aircraft

identification.

5.1.4 It is recommended that pilots file the maximum

transponder or navigation capability of their aircraft

in the equipment suffix. This will provide ATC with

the necessary information to utilize all facets of

navigational equipment and transponder capabilities

available.

5.2 Airways/Jet Routes Depiction on Flight Plan

5.2.1 It is vitally important that the route of flight be

accurately and completely described in the flight

plan. To simplify definition of the proposed route,

and to facilitate air traffic control, pilots are requested

to file via airways or jet routes established for use at

the altitude or flight level planned.

5.2.2 If flight is to be conducted via designated

airways or jet routes, describe the route by indicating

the type and number designators of the airway(s) or

jet route(s) requested. If more than one airway or jet

route is to be used, clearly indicate points of

transition. If the transition is made at an unnamed

intersection, show the next succeeding NAVAID or

named intersection on the intended route and the

complete route from that point. Reporting points

should be identified by using authorized name/code

as depicted on appropriate aeronautical charts. The

following two examples illustrate the need to specify

the transition point when two routes share more than

one transition fix.

EXAMPLE−

1. ALB J37 BUMPY J14 BHM

Spelled out: from Albany, New York, via Jet Route 37

transitioning to Jet Route 14 at BUMPY intersection,

thence via Jet Route 14 to Birmingham, Alabama.

2. ALB J37 ENO J14 BHM

Spelled out: from Albany, New York, via Jet Route 37

transitioning to Jet Route 14 at Smyrna VORTAC (ENO)

thence via Jet Route 14 to Birmingham, Alabama.

5.2.3 The route of flight may also be described by

naming the reporting points or NAVAIDs over which

the flight will pass, provided the points named are

established for use at the altitude or flight level

planned.

EXAMPLE−

BWI V44 SWANN V433 DQO

Spelled out: from Baltimore-Washington International, via

Victor 44 to Swann intersection, transitioning to Victor 433

at Swann, thence via Victor 433 to Dupont.

5.2.4 When the route of flight is defined by named

reporting points, whether alone or in combination

with airways or jet routes, and the navigational aids

(VOR, VORTAC, TACAN, LF, RBN) to be used for

the flight are a combination of different types of aids,

enough information should be included to clearly

indicate the route requested.

EXAMPLE−

LAX J5 LKV J3 GEG YXC FL 330 J500 VLR J515 YWG

Spelled out: from Los Angeles International via Jet Route 5

Lakeview, Jet Route 3 Spokane, direct Cranbrook, British

Columbia VOR/DME, Flight Level 330 Jet Route 500 to

Langruth, Manitoba VORTAC, Jet Route 515 to Winnepeg,

Manitoba.

5.2.5 When filing IFR, it is to the pilot’s advantage

to file a “preferred route.”

NOTE−

Preferred IFR routes are described and tabulated in the

Airport/Facility Directory.

5.2.6 ATC may issue an instrument departure

procedure (DP) or a standard terminal arrival (STAR)

as appropriate (See ENR 1.5, paragraph 3).

NOTE−

Pilots not desiring a DP/STAR should so indicate in the

remark section of the flight plan as “NO DP” or “NO

STAR.”
ENR 1.10−10 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5.3 Direct Flights

5.3.1 All or any portions of the route which will not

be flown on the radials or courses of established

airways or routes, such as direct route flights, must be

defined by indicating the radio fixes over which the

flight will pass. Fixes selected to define the route shall

be those over which the position of the aircraft can be

accurately determined. Such fixes automatically

become compulsory reporting points for the flight,

unless advised otherwise by ATC. Only those

navigational aids established for use in a particular

structure; i.e., in the low or high structures, may be

used to define the en route phase of a direct flight

within that structure.

5.3.2 The azimuth feature of VOR aids and the

azimuth and distance (DME) features of VORTAC

and TACAN aids are assigned certain frequency

protected areas of airspace which are intended for

application to established airway and route use, and

to provide guidance for planning flights outside of

established airways or routes. These areas of airspace

are expressed in terms of cylindrical service volumes

of specified dimensions called “class limits” or

“categories.”

5.3.3 An operational service volume has been

established for each class in which adequate signal

coverage and frequency protection can be assured. To

facilitate use of VOR, VORTAC, or TACAN aids,

consistent with their operational service volume

limits, pilot use of such aids for defining a direct route

of flight in Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace should not

exceed the following:

5.3.3.1 Operations above Flight Level 450. Use aids

not more than 200 nautical miles apart. These aids are

depicted on En Route High Altitude Charts.

5.3.3.2 Operation off established routes from

18,000 feet MSL to Flight Level 450. Use aids not

more than 260 nautical miles apart. These aids are

depicted on En Route High Altitude Charts.

5.3.3.3 Operation off established airways below

18,000 feet MSL. Use aids not more than 80 nautical

miles apart. These aids are depicted on En Route Low

Altitude Charts.

5.3.3.4 Operation off established airways between

14,500 feet MSL and 17,999 feet MSL in the

conterminous United States. (H) facilities not more

than 200 NM apart may be used.

5.3.4 Increasing use of self−contained airborne

navigational systems which do not rely on the

VOR/VORTAC/TACAN system has resulted in pilot

requests for direct routes which exceed NAVAID

service volume limits. These direct route requests

will be approved only in a radar environment, with

approval based on pilot responsibility for navigation

on the authorized direct route. “Radar flight

following” will be provided by ATC for air traffic

control purposes.

5.3.5 At times, ATC will initiate a direct route in a

radar environment which exceeds NAVAID service

volume limits. In such cases ATC will provide radar

monitoring and navigational assistance as necessary.

5.3.6 Airway or jet route numbers, appropriate to the

stratum in which operation will be conducted, may

also be included to describe portions of the route to be

flown.

EXAMPLE−

MDW V262 BDF V10 BRL STJ SLN GCK

Spelled out: from Chicago Midway Airport via Victor 262

to Bradford, Victor 10 to Burlington, Iowa, direct St.

Joseph, Missouri, direct Salina, Kansas, direct Garden

City, Kansas.

NOTE−

When route of flight is described by radio fixes, the pilot

will be expected to fly a direct course between the points

named.

5.3.7 Pilots are reminded that they are responsible

for adhering to obstruction clearance requirements on

those segments of direct routes that are outside of

Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace. The MEAs and other

altitudes shown on Low Altitude IFR En Route

Charts pertain to those route segments within

Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace, and those altitudes

may not meet obstruction clearance criteria when

operating off those routes.

5.4 Area Navigation (RNAV)

5.4.1 Random RNAV routes can only be approved in

a radar environment. Factors that will be considered

by ATC in approving random RNAV routes include

the capability to provide radar monitoring and

compatibility with traffic volume and flow. ATC will

radar monitor each flight; however, navigation on the

random RNAV route is the responsibility of the pilot.

5.4.2 Pilots of aircraft equipped with approved area

navigation equipment may file for RNAV routes

throughout the National Airspace System and may be

filed for in accordance with the following procedures.
AIP ENR 1.10−11

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5.4.2.1 File airport to airport flight plans.

5.4.2.2 File the appropriate RNAV capability

certification suffix in the flight plan.

5.4.2.3 Plan the random route portion of the flight

plan to begin and end over appropriate arrival and

departure transition fixes or appropriate navigation

aids for the altitude stratum within which the flight

will be conducted. The use of normal preferred

departure and arrival routes (DP/STAR), where

established, is recommended.

5.4.2.4 File route structure transitions to and from

the random route portion of the flight.

5.4.2.5 Define random routes by waypoints. File

route description waypoints by using degree−distance fixes based on navigational aids which are

appropriate for the altitude stratum.

5.4.2.6 File a minimum of one route description

waypoint for each ARTCC through whose area the

random route will be flown. These waypoints must be

located within 200 NM of the preceding center’s

boundary.

5.4.2.7 File an additional route description waypoint

for each turnpoint in the route.

5.4.2.8 Plan additional route description waypoints

as required to ensure accurate navigation via the filed

route of flight. Navigation is the pilot’s responsibility

unless ATC assistance is requested.

5.4.2.9 Plan the route of flight so as to avoid

Prohibited and Restricted Airspace by 3 NM unless

permission has been obtained to operate in that

airspace and the appropriate ATC facilities are

advised.

NOTE−

To be approved for use in the National Airspace System,

RNAV equipment must meet the appropriate system

availability, accuracy, and airworthiness standards. For

additional guidance on equipment requirements see

AC 20−130, Airworthiness Approval of Vertical

Navigation (VNAV) Systems for use in the U.S. NAS and

Alaska, or AC 20−138, Airworthiness Approval of Global

Positioning System (GPS) Navigation Equipment for Use

as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation System. For

airborne navigation database, see AC 90−94, Guidelines

for Using GPS Equipment for IFR En Route and Terminal

Operations and for Nonprecision Instrument Approaches

in the U.S. National Airspace System, Section 2.

5.4.3 Pilots of aircraft equipped with latitude/longitude coordinate navigation capability independent of

VOR/TACAN references may file for random RNAV

routes at and above FL 390 within the conterminous

U.S. using the following procedures:

5.4.3.1 File airport−to−airport flight plans prior to

departure.

5.4.3.2 File the appropriate RNAV capability

certification suffix in the flight plan.

5.4.3.3 Plan the random route portion of the flight to

begin and end over published departure/arrival

transition fixes or appropriate navigation aids for

airports without published transition procedures. The

use of preferred departure and arrival routes, such as

DP and STAR where established, is recommended.

5.4.3.4 Plan the route of fight so as to avoid

prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 NM unless

permission has been obtained to operate in that

airspace and the appropriate ATC facility is advised.

5.4.3.5 Define the route of flight after the departure

fix, including each intermediate fix (turnpoint) and

the arrival fix for the destination airport in terms of

latitude/longitude coordinates plotted to the nearest

minute or in terms of Navigation Reference System

(NRS) waypoints. For latitude/longitude filing the

arrival fix must be identified by both the

latitude/longitude coordinates and a fix identifier.

EXAMPLE−

MIA1 SRQ2 3407/106153 3407/11546 TNP4 LAX5

1 Departure Airport

2 Departure Fix

3 Intermediate Fix (Turning Point)

4 Arrival Fix

5 Destination Airport

 or

ORD1 IOW2 KP49G3 KD34U4 KL16O5 OAL6 MOD27

SFO8

1 Departure airport.

2 Transition fix (pitch point).

3 Minneapolis ARTCC waypoint.

4 Denver ARTCC Waypoint.

5 Los Angeles ARTCC waypoint (catch point).

6 Transition fix.

7 Arrival. 

8 Destination airport.
ENR 1.10−12 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5.4.3.6 Record latitude/longitude coordinates by

four figures describing latitude in degrees and

minutes followed by a solidus and five figures

describing longitude in degrees and minutes.

5.4.3.7 File at FL 390 or above for the random

RNAV portion of the flight.

5.4.3.8 Fly all routes/route segments on Great Circle

tracks.

5.4.3.9 Make any in−flight requests for random

RNAV clearances or route amendments to an en route

ATC facility.

5.5 Flight Plan Form See FIG ENR 1.10−1.

5.5.1 Explanation of IFR Flight Plan Items.

5.5.1.1 Block 1. Check the type flight plan. Check

both the VFR and IFR blocks if composite VFR/IFR.

5.5.1.2 Block 2. Enter your complete aircraft

identification including the prefix “N” if applicable.

5.5.1.3 Block 3. Enter the designator for the

aircraft, followed by a slant (/) and the transponder or

DME equipment code letter; e.g., C−182/U. Heavy

aircraft, add prefix “H” to aircraft type; example,

H/DC10/R. Consult an FSS briefer for any unknown

elements.

5.5.1.4 Block 4. Enter your computed true airspeed

(TAS).

NOTE−

If the average TAS changes plus or minus 5 percent or

10 knots, whichever is greater, advise ATC.

5.5.1.5 Block 5. Enter the departure airport

identifier code (or the name if identifier is unknown).

NOTE−

Use of identifier codes will expedite the processing of your

flight plan.

5.5.1.6 Block 6. Enter the proposed departure time

in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) (Z). If

airborne, specify the actual or proposed departure

time as appropriate.

5.5.1.7 Block 7. Enter the requested en route

altitude or flight level.

NOTE−

Enter only the initial requested altitude in this block. When

more than one IFR altitude or flight level is desired along

the route of flight, it is best to make a subsequent request

direct to the controller.

5.5.1.8 Block 8. Define the route of flight by using

NAVAID identifier codes (or names if the code is

unknown), airways, jet routes, and waypoints (for

RNAV).

NOTE−

Use NAVAIDs or waypoints to define direct routes and

radials/bearing to define other unpublished routes.

5.5.1.9 Block 9. Enter the destination airport

identifier code (or name if identifier is unknown).

5.5.1.10 Block 10. Enter your estimated time en

route based on latest forecast winds.

5.5.1.11 Block 11. Enter only those remarks

pertinent to ATC or to the clarification of other flight

plan information such as the appropriate radiotelephony (call sign) associated with the designator filed

in Block 2. Items of a personal nature are not

accepted. Do not assume that remarks will be

automatically transmitted to every controller. Specific ATC or en route requests should be made directly

to the appropriate controller.

NOTE−

“DVRSN” should be placed in Block 11 only if the

pilot/company is requesting priority handling to their

original destination from ATC as a result of a diversion as

defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary.

5.5.1.12 Block 12. Specify the fuel on board,

computed from the departure point.

5.5.1.13 Block 13. Specify an alternate airport if

desired or required, but do not include routing to the

alternate airport.

5.5.1.14 Block 14. Enter the complete name,

address, and telephone number of pilot−in−command

or, in the case of a formation flight, the formation

commander. Enter sufficient information to identify

home base, airport, or operator.

NOTE−

This information would be essential in the event of a search

and rescue operation.

5.5.1.15 Block 15. Enter the total number of

persons on board including crew.

5.5.1.16 Block 16. Enter the predominant colors.

NOTE−

Close IFR flight plans with tower, approach control,

ARTCCs, or if unable, with FSS. When landing at an

airport with a functioning control tower, IFR flight plans

are automatically canceled.
AIP ENR 1.10−13

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

5.5.2 The information transmitted to the ARTCC for

IFR Flight Plans will consist of only flight plan

blocks 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11.

5.5.3 A description of the International Flight Plan

Form is contained in the International Flight

Information Manual (IFIM).

6. IFR Operations to High Altitude

Destinations

6.1 Pilots planning IFR flights to airports located in

mountainous terrain are cautioned to consider the

necessity for an alternate airport even when the

forecast weather conditions would technically relieve

them from the requirement to file one.

6.2 The FAA has identified three possible situations

where the failure to plan for an alternate airport when

flying IFR to such destination airport could result in

a critical situation if the weather is less than forecast

and sufficient fuel is not available to proceed to a

suitable airport.

6.2.1 An IFR flight to an airport where the Minimum

Descent Altitudes (MDAs) or landing visibility

minimums for all instrument approaches are higher

than the forecast weather minimums specified in

14 CFR Section 91.167(b). For example, there are

3 high altitude airports in the U.S. with approved

instrument approach procedures where all of the

MDAs are greater than 2,000 feet and/or the landing

visibility minimums are greater than 3 miles (Bishop,

California; South Lake Tahoe, California; and

Aspen−Pitkin Co/Sardy Field, Colorado). In the case

of these airports, it is possible for a pilot to elect, on

the basis of forecasts, not to carry sufficient fuel to get

to an alternate when the ceiling and/or visibility is

actually lower than that necessary to complete the

approach.

6.2.2 A small number of other airports in mountainous terrain have MDAs which are slightly (100 to

300 feet) below 2,000 feet AGL. In situations where

there is an option as to whether to plan for an

alternate, pilots should bear in mind that just a slight

worsening of the weather conditions from those

forecast could place the airport below the published

IFR landing minimums.

6.2.3 An IFR flight to an airport which requires

special equipment; i.e., DME, glide slope, etc., in

order to make the available approaches to the lowest

minimums. Pilots should be aware that all other

minimums on the approach charts may require

weather conditions better than those specified in

14 CFR Section 91.167(b). An inflight equipment

malfunction could result in the inability to comply

with the published approach procedures or, again, in

the position of having the airport below the published

IFR landing minimums for all remaining instrument

approach alternatives.

7. Composite Flight Plan (VFR/IFR Flights)

7.1 Flight plans which specify VFR operation for

one portion of a flight, and IFR for another portion,

will be accepted by the FSS at the point of departure.

If VFR flight is conducted for the first portion of the

flight, the pilot should report his/her departure time to

the FSS with which he/she filed his/her VFR/IFR

flight plan; and, subsequently, close the VFR portion

and request ATC clearance from the FSS nearest the

point at which change from VFR to IFR is proposed.

Regardless of the type facility you are communicating with (FSS, center, or tower), it is the pilot’s

responsibility to request that facility to “CLOSE VFR

FLIGHT PLAN.” The pilot must remain in VFR

weather conditions until operating in accordance with

the IFR clearance.

7.2 When a flight plan indicates IFR for the first

portion of flight and VFR for the latter portion, the

pilot will normally be cleared to the point at which the

change is proposed. Once the pilot has reported over

the clearance limit and does not desire further IFR

clearance, he/she should advise air traffic control to

cancel the IFR portion of his/her flight plan. Then,

he/she should contact the nearest FSS to activate the

VFR portion of his/her flight plan. If the pilot desires

to continue his/her IFR flight plan beyond the

clearance limit, he/she should contact air traffic

control at least five minutes prior to the clearance

limit and request further IFR clearance. If the

requested clearance is not received prior to reaching

the clearance limit fix, the pilot will be expected to

establish himself/herself in a standard holding pattern

on the radial/course to the fix unless a holding pattern

for the clearance limit fix is depicted on a U.S.

Government or commercially produced (meeting

FAA requirements) Low/High Altitude En Route,

Area, or STAR chart. In this case the pilot will hold

according to the depicted pattern.
ENR 1.10−14 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

8. Initiating a Change to Flight Plans on File

8.1 Changes to proposed flight plans should be

initiated through the FSS with which the flight plan

was originally filed. If this is not possible, initiate

changes through the nearest FSS or ATC facility. All

changes should be initiated at least 30 minutes prior

to departure to insure that the change can be effected

prior to the ATC clearance delivery.

9. Change in Proposed Departure Time

9.1 To prevent computer saturation in the en route

environment, parameters have been established to

delete proposed departure flight plans which have not

been activated. Most centers have this parameter set

so as to delete these flight plans a minimum of 1 hour

after the proposed departure time. To ensure that a

flight plan remains active, pilots whose actual

departure time will be delayed 1 hour or more beyond

their filed departure time, are requested to notify ATC

of their departure time.

9.2 Due to traffic saturation, control personnel

frequently will be unable to accept these revisions via

radio. It is recommended that you forward these

revisions to the nearest FSS.

10. Other Changes

10.1 In addition to altitude/flight level, destination,

and/or route changes, increasing or decreasing the

speed of an aircraft constitutes a change in a flight

plan. Therefore, at any time the average true airspeed

at cruising altitude between reporting points varies or

is expected to vary from that given in the flight plan

by plus or minus 5 percent, or 10 knots, whichever is

greater, air traffic control should be advised.

11. Canceling Flight Plans

11.1 Closing VFR and DVFR Flight Plans

11.1.1 A pilot is responsible for ensuring that his/her

VFR or DVFR flight plan is canceled. You should

close your flight plan with the nearest FSS, or if one

is not available, you may request any ATC facility to

relay your cancellation to the FSS. Control towers do

not automatically close VFR or DVFR flight plans as

they may not be aware that a particular VFR aircraft

is on a flight plan. If you fail to report or cancel your

flight plan within 1/2 hour after your ETA, search and

rescue procedures are started.

11.2 Canceling IFR Flight Plan

11.2.1 14 CFR Section 91.153 includes the statement

“When a flight plan has been activated, the pilot in

command, upon canceling or completing the flight

under the flight plan, shall notify an FAA Flight

Service Station or ATC facility.”

11.2.2 An IFR flight plan may be canceled at any

time the flight is operating in VFR conditions outside

Class A airspace by the pilot stating “CANCEL MY

IFR FLIGHT PLAN” to the controller or air/ground

station with which he/she is communicating.

Immediately after canceling an IFR flight plan, a pilot

should take necessary action to change to the

appropriate air/ground frequency, VFR radar beacon

code, and VFR altitude or flight level.

11.2.3 ATC separation and information services will

be discontinued, including radar services (where

applicable). Consequently, if the canceling flight

desires VFR radar advisory service, the pilot must

specifically request it.

NOTE−

Pilots must be aware that other procedures may be

applicable to a flight that cancels an IFR flight plan within

an area where a special program, such as a designated

terminal radar service area, Class C airspace or Class B

airspace, has been established.

11.2.4 If a DVFR flight plan requirement exists, the

pilot is responsible for filing this flight plan to replace

the canceled IFR flight plan. If a subsequent IFR

operation becomes necessary, a new IFR flight plan

must be filed and an ATC clearance obtained before

operating in IFR conditions.

11.2.5 If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport

with a functioning control tower, the flight plan is

automatically closed upon landing.

11.2.6 If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport

where there is no functioning control tower, the pilot

must initiate cancellation of the IFR flight plan. This

can be done after landing if there is a functioning FSS

or other means of direct communications with ATC.

In the event there is no FSS and air/ground

communications with ATC is not possible below a

certain altitude, the pilot would, weather conditions

permitting, cancel his/her IFR flight plan while still

airborne and able to communicate with ATC by radio.

This will not only save the time and expense of

canceling the flight plan by telephone but will quickly

release the airspace for use by other aircraft.
AIP ENR 1.10−15

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

11.3 RNAV and RNP Operations

11.3.1 During the pre−flight planning phase the

availability of the navigation infrastructure required

for the intended operation, including any non−RNAV

contingencies, must be confirmed for the period of

intended operation. Availability of the onboard

navigation equipment necessary for the route to be

flown must be confirmed.

11.3.2 If a pilot determines a specified RNP level

cannot be achieved, revise the route or delay the

operation until appropriate RNP level can be ensured.

11.3.3 The onboard navigation database must be

appropriate for the region of intended operation and

must include the navigation aids, waypoints, and

coded terminal airspace procedures for the departure,

arrival and alternate airfields.

11.3.4 During system initialization, pilots of aircraft

equipped with a Flight Management System or other

RNAV−certified system, must confirm that the

navigation database is current, and verify that the

aircraft position has been entered correctly. Flight

crews should crosscheck the cleared flight plan

against charts or other applicable resources, as well as

the navigation system textual display and the aircraft

map display. This process includes confirmation of

the waypoints sequence, reasonableness of track

angles and distances, any altitude or speed

constraints, and identification of fly−by or fly−over

waypoints. A procedure shall not be used if validity

of the navigation database is in doubt.

11.3.5 Prior to commencing takeoff, the flight crew

must verify that the RNAV system is operating

correctly and the correct airport and runway data have

been loaded.

AIP ENR 1.11−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.11 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 1.12−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.12 Interception of Civil Aircraft,

National Security, and Interception Procedures

1. National Security

1.1 National security in the control of air traffic is

governed by 14 CFR Part 99.

1.2 All aircraft entering domestic U.S. airspace from

points outside, must provide for identification prior to

entry. To facilitate early aircraft identification of all

aircraft in the vicinity of U.S. and international

airspace boundaries, Air Defense Identification

Zones (ADIZ) have been established. (See

FIG ENR 1.12−1).

1.3 Operational requirements for aircraft operations

associated with an ADIZ are as follows:

1.3.1 Flight Plan. Except as specified in subparagraphs 1.5 and 1.6 below, an IFR or DVFR flight plan

must be filed with an appropriate aeronautical facility

as follows:

1.3.1.1 Generally, for all operations that enter an

ADIZ.

1.3.1.2 For operations that will enter or exit the U.S.

and which will operate into, within or across the

contiguous U.S. ADIZ regardless of true airspeed.

1.3.1.3 The flight plan must be filed before departure

except for operations associated with the Alaskan

ADIZ when the airport of departure has no facility for

filing a flight plan, in which case the flight plan may

be filed immediately after takeoff or when within

range of the aeronautical facility.

1.3.2 Two−way Radio. For the majority of operations associated with an ADIZ, an operating two−way

radio is required. See 14 CFR Section 99.1 for

exceptions.

1.3.3 Transponder Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft conducting

operations into, within, or across the contiguous U.S.

ADIZ must be equipped with an operable radar

beacon transponder having altitude reporting capability (Mode C), and that transponder must be turned

on and set to reply on the appropriate code or as

assigned by ATC.

1.3.4 Position Reporting

1.3.4.1 For IFR flight. Normal IFR position

reporting.

1.3.4.2 For DVFR flights. The estimated time of

ADIZ penetration must be filed with the aeronautical

facility at least 15 minutes prior to penetration except

for flight in the Alaskan ADIZ, in which case report

prior to penetration.

1.3.4.3 For inbound aircraft of foreign registry.

The pilot must report to the aeronautical facility at

least 1 hour prior to ADIZ penetration.

1.3.5 Aircraft Position Tolerances

1.3.5.1 Over land, the tolerance is within plus or

minus 5 minutes from the estimated time over a

reporting point or point of penetration and within

10 NM from the centerline of an intended track over

an estimated reporting point or penetration point.

1.3.5.2 Over water, the tolerance is plus or minus

5 minutes from the estimated time over a reporting

point or point of penetration and within 20 NM from

the centerline of the intended track over an estimated

reporting point or point of penetration (to include the

Aleutian Islands).

1.3.6 Land−Based ADIZ. Land−Based ADIZ are

activated and deactivated over U.S. metropolitan

areas as needed, with dimensions, activation dates

and other relevant information disseminated via

NOTAM.

1.3.6.1 In addition to requirements outlined in

subparagaphs 1.3.1 through 1.3.3, pilots operating

within a Land−Based ADIZ must report landing or

leaving the Land−Based ADIZ if flying too low for

radar coverage.

1.3.6.2 Pilots unable to comply with all requirements

shall remain clear of Land−Based ADIZ. Pilots

entering a Land−Based ADIZ without authorization

or who fail to follow all requirements risk

interception by military fighter aircraft.
ENR 1.12−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.12−1

Air Defense Identification Zone Boundaries

Designated Mountainous Areas

  

 

   

 

  

 

   

 

   

 

  

 

 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































 











































































































































          

  

 

   

 

  

 

   

 

   

 

  

 

   

 

   

 

 











































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

  

 

   

 

  





























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































 





















 













   













  


AIP ENR 1.12−3

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

1.4 Except when applicable under 14 CFR

Sections 99.7 and 99.12, Part 99 does not apply to

aircraft operations:

1.4.1 Within the 48 contiguous states and the District

of Columbia, or within the State of Alaska, and

remains within 10 miles of the point of departure.

1.4.2 Over any island, or within 3 nautical miles of

the coastline of any island, in the Hawaii ADIZ.

1.4.3 Associated with any ADIZ other than the

contiguous U.S. ADIZ, when the aircraft true

airspeed is less than 180 knots.

1.5 Authorizations to deviate from the requirements

of Part 99 may also be granted by the ARTCC, on a

local basis, for some operations associated with an

ADIZ.

1.6 An air−filed VFR Flight Plan makes an aircraft

subject to interception for positive identification

when entering an ADIZ. Pilots are therefore urged to

file the required DVFR flight plan either in person or

by telephone prior to departure.

1.7 Special Security Instructions

1.7.1 During defense emergency or air defense

emergency conditions, additional special security

instructions may be issued in accordance with the

Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation

Aids (SCATANA) Plan.

1.7.2 Under the provisions of the SCATANA Plan,

the military will direct the action to be taken in regard

to landing, grounding, diversion or dispersal of

aircraft, and the control of air navigation aids in the

defense of the U.S. during emergency conditions.

1.7.3 At the time a portion or all of SCATANA is

implemented, ATC facilities will broadcast appropriate instructions received from the military over

available ATC frequencies. Depending on instructions received from the military, VFR flights may be

directed to land at the nearest available airport, and

IFR flights will be expected to proceed as directed by

ATC.

1.7.4 Pilots on the ground may be required to file a

flight plan and obtain an approval (through FAA)

prior to conducting flight operation.

1.7.5 In view of the above, all pilots should guard an

ATC or FSS frequency at all times while conducting

flight operations.

2. Interception Procedures

2.1 General

2.1.1 Identification intercepts during peacetime

operations are vastly different than those conducted

under increased states of readiness. Unless otherwise

directed by the control agency, intercepted aircraft

will be identified by type only. When specific

information is required (i.e., markings, serial

numbers, etc.), the interceptor aircrew will respond

only if the request can be conducted in a safe manner.

During hours of darkness or instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), identification of unknown

aircraft will be by type only. The interception pattern

described below is the typical peacetime method used

by air interceptor aircrews. In all situations, the

interceptor aircrew will use caution to avoid startling

the intercepted aircrew and/or passengers.

2.1.2 All aircraft operating in the U.S. national

airspace, if capable, will maintain a listening watch

on VHF guard 121.5 or UHF 243.0. It is incumbent

on all aviators to know and understand their

responsibilities if intercepted. Additionally, if the

U.S. military intercepts an aircraft and flares are

dispensed in the area of that aircraft, aviators will pay

strict attention, contact air traffic control immediately

on the local frequency or on VHF guard 121.5 or

UHF 243.0 and follow the intercept’s visual ICAO

signals. Be advised that noncompliance may result in

the use of force.

2.2 Intercept Phases (See FIG ENR 1.12−2)

2.2.1 Phase One − Approach Phase

2.2.1.1 During peacetime, intercepted aircraft will

be approached from the stern. Generally two

interceptor aircraft will be employed to accomplish

the identification. The flight leader and wingman will

coordinate their individual positions in conjunction

with the ground controlling agency. Their relationship will resemble a line abreast formation. At night

or in IMC, a comfortable radar trail tactic will be

used. Safe vertical separation between interceptor

aircraft and unknown aircraft will be maintained at all

times.
ENR 1.12−4 AIP

4 AUG 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 1.12−2

Interception Procedures

INTERCEPTION PATTERNS

FOR IDENTIFICATION OF

INTERCEPTED AIRCRAFT

(TYPICAL)

INTERCEPTION PATTERNS

FOR IDENTIFICATION OF

INTERCEPTED AIRCRAFT

(TYPICAL)

APPROACH IDENTIFICATION PHASE IDENTIFICATION PHASE

PHASE (DAY)

APPROACH

PHASE (DAY)

POST INTERCEPT PHASE POST INTERCEPT PHASE

INTERCEPTORS INTERCEPTORS

TRANSPORT TRANSPORT

WINGMAN WINGMAN

FLIGHT LEAD FLIGHT LEAD

Note: During Night/IMC,

approach will be from

below flight path.

Note: During Night/IMC,

approach will be from

below flight path.

2.2.2 Phase Two − Identification Phase

2.2.2.1 The intercepted aircraft should expect to

visually acquire the lead interceptor and possibly the

wingman during this phase in visual meteorological

conditions (VMC). The wingman will assume a

surveillance position while the flight leader approaches the unknown aircraft. Intercepted aircraft

personnel may observe the use of different drag

devices to allow for speed and position stabilization

during this phase. The flight leader will then initiate

a gentle closure toward the intercepted aircraft,

stopping at a distance no closer than absolutely

necessary to obtain the information needed. The

interceptor aircraft will use every possible precaution

to avoid startling intercepted aircrew or passengers.

Additionally, the interceptor aircrews will constantly

keep in mind that maneuvers considered normal to a

fighter aircraft may be considered hazardous to

passengers and crews of nonfighter aircraft. When

interceptor aircrews know or believe that an unsafe

condition exists, the identification phase will be

terminated. As previously stated, during darkness or

IMC, identification of unknown aircraft will be type

only. Positive vertical separation will be maintained

by interceptor aircraft throughout this phase.
AIP ENR 1.12−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.2.3 Phase Three − Post Intercept Phase

2.2.3.1 Upon identification phase completion, the

flight leader will turn away from the intercepted

aircraft. The wingman will remain well clear and

accomplish a rejoin with his/her leader.

2.3 Communication interface between interceptor

aircrews and the ground controlling agency is

essential to ensure successful intercepted completion.

Flight safety is paramount. An aircraft which is

intercepted by another aircraft shall immediately:

2.3.1 Follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft, interpreting and responding to the visual

signals.

2.3.2 Notify, if possible, the appropriate air traffic

services unit.

2.3.3 Attempt to establish radio communication with

the intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate

intercept control unit, by making a general call on the

emergency frequency 243.0 MHz and repeating this

call on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, if

practicable, giving the identity and position of the

aircraft and the nature of the flight.

2.3.4 If equipped with SSR transponder, select

Mode 3/A Code 7700, unless otherwise instructed by

the appropriate air traffic services unit. If any

instructions received by radio from any sources

conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft

by visual or radio signal, the intercepted aircraft shall

request immediate clarification while continuing to

comply with the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft.

2.4 Interception Signals (See TBL ENR 1.12−1

and TBL ENR 1.12−2)

3. Law Enforcement Operations by Civil and

Military Organizations

3.1 Special law enforcement operations

3.1.1 Special law enforcement operations include

in−flight identification, surveillance, interdiction,

and pursuit activities performed in accordance with

official civil and/or military mission responsibilities.

3.1.2 To facilitate accomplishment of these special

missions, exemptions from specified sections of the

Federal Aviation Regulations have been granted to

designated departments and agencies. However, it is

each organization’s responsibility to apprise air

traffic control (ATC) of their intent to operate under

an authorized exemption before initiating actual

operations.

3.1.3 Additionally, some departments and agencies

that perform special missions have been assigned

coded identifiers to permit them to apprise ATC of

ongoing mission activities and solicit special air

traffic assistance.
ENR 1.12−6 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL ENR 1.12−1

Intercepting Signals

INTERCEPTING SIGNALS

Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft

(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1)

Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning

1 DAY−Rocking wings from a position

slightly above and ahead of, and normally

to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and,

after acknowledgement, a slow level turn,

normally to the left, on to the desired

heading.

NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals.

NOTE 1−Meteorological conditions or

terrain may require the intercepting

aircraft to take up a position slightly above

and ahead of, and to the right of, the

intercepted aircraft and to make the

subsequent turn to the right.

NOTE 2−If the intercepted aircraft is not

able to keep pace with the intercepting

aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series

of race−track patterns and to rock its wings

each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.

You have

been

intercepted.

Follow me.

AEROPLANES:

DAY−Rocking wings and following.

NIGHT−Same and, in addition, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals.

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT−Rocking aircraft, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals and

following.

Understood,

will comply.

2 DAY or NIGHT−An abrupt break−away

maneuver from the intercepted aircraft

consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees

or more without crossing the line of flight

of the intercepted aircraft.

You may

proceed.

AEROPLANES:

DAY or NIGHT-Rocking wings.

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT−Rocking aircraft.

Understood,

will comply.

3 DAY−Circling aerodrome, lowering

landing gear and overflying runway in

direction of landing or, if the intercepted

aircraft is a helicopter, overflying the

helicopter landing area.

NIGHT−Same and, in addition, showing

steady landing lights.

Land at this

aerodrome.

AEROPLANES:

DAY−Lowering landing gear, following

the intercepting aircraft and, if after

overflying the runway landing is considered safe, proceeding to land.

NIGHT−Same and, in addition, showing

steady landing lights (if carried).

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting

aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a

steady landing light (if carried).

Understood,

will comply.
AIP ENR 1.12−7

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL ENR 1.12−2

Intercepting Signals

INTERCEPTING SIGNALS

Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept

Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft

(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2)

Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning

4 AEROPLANES:

DAY−Raising landing gear while passing

over landing runway at a height exceeding

300m (1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m

(2,000 ft) above the aerodrome level, and

continuing to circle the

aerodrome.

NIGHT−Flashing landing lights while

passing over landing runway at a height

exceeding 300m (1,000 ft) but not

exceeding 600m (2,000 ft) above the

aerodrome level, and continuing to circle

the aerodrome. If unable to flash landing

lights, flash any other lights available.

Aerodrome

you have

designated is

inadequate.

DAY or NIGHT−If it is desired that the

intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting

aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the

intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear

and uses the Series 1 signals prescribed for

intercepting aircraft.

If it is decided to release the intercepted

aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the

Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting

aircraft.

Understood,

follow me.

Understood,

you may

proceed.

5 AEROPLANES:

DAY or NIGHT−Regular switching on and

off of all available lights but in such a

manner as to be distinct from flashing

lights.

Cannot

comply.

DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals

prescribed for intercepting aircraft.

Understood.

6 AEROPLANES:

DAY or NIGHT−Irregular flashing of all

available lights.

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT−Irregular flashing of all

available lights.

In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals

prescribed for intercepting aircraft.

Understood.

AIP ENR 1.13−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.13 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 1.14−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.14 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 1.15−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.15 Medical Facts for Pilots

1. Fitness for Flight

1.1 Medical Certification

1.1.1 All pilots except those flying gliders and free

air balloons must possess valid medical certificates in

order to exercise the privileges of their airman

certificates. The periodic medical examinations

required for medical certification are conducted by

designated Aviation Medical Examiners, who are

physicians with a special interest in aviation safety

and training in aviation medicine.

1.1.2 The standards for medical certification are

contained the Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR

Part 67). Pilots who have a history of certain medical

conditions described in these standards are mandatorily disqualified from flying. These medical

conditions include a personality disorder manifested

by overt acts, a psychosis, alcoholism, drug

dependence, epilepsy, an unexplained disturbance of

consciousness, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, and diabetes requiring medication for its control.

Other medical conditions may be temporarily

disqualifying, such as acute infections, anemia, and

peptic ulcer. Pilots who do not meet medical

standards may still be qualified under special

issuance provisions or the exemption process. This

may require that either additional medical information be provided or practical flight tests be conducted.

1.1.3 Student pilots should visit an aviation medical

examiner as soon as possible in their flight training in

order to avoid unnecessary training expenses should

they not meet the medical standards. For the same

reason, the student pilot who plans to enter

commercial aviation should apply for the highest

class of medical certificate that might be necessary in

the pilot’s career.

CAUTION−

The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit a pilot who

possesses a current medical certificate from performing

crewmember duties while the pilot has a known medical

condition or increase of a known medical condition that

would make the pilot unable to meet the standards for the

medical certificate.

1.2 Illness

1.2.1 Even a minor illness suffered in day−to−day

living can seriously degrade performance of many

piloting tasks vital to safe fight. Illness can produce

fever and distracting symptoms that can impair

judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to make

calculations. Although symptoms from an illness

may be under adequate control with a medication, the

medication itself may decrease pilot performance.

1.2.2 The safest rule is not to fly while suffering from

any illness. If this rule is considered too stringent for

a particular illness, the pilot should contact an

aviation medical examiner for advice.

1.3 Medication

1.3.1 Pilot performance can be seriously degraded

by both prescribed and over−the−counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which

they are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough−suppressant preparations, have primary effects that may

impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination,

vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others,

such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle

relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion

sickness, have side effects that may impair the same

critical functions. Any medication that depresses the

nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or

antihistamine, can make a pilot much susceptible to

hypoxia (see below).

1.3.2 The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit

pilots from performing crewmember duties while

using any medication that affects the faculties in any

way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to fly as

a crewmember while taking any medication, unless

approved to do so by the FAA.

1.4 Alcohol

1.4.1 Extensive research has provided a number of

facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and

flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of

beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills,

with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being

detectable in the breath and blood at least three hours.

Even after the body completely destroys a moderate

amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely

impaired for many hours by hangover. There is
ENR 1.15−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

simply no way of increasing the destruction of

alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also

renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia (see below).

1.4.2 A consistently high alcohol−related, fatal

aircraft accident rate serves to emphasize that alcohol

and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The

Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit pilots from

performing crewmember duties within eight hours

after drinking any alcoholic beverage or while under

the influence of alcohol. However, due to the slow

destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under the

influence eight hours after drinking a moderate

amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent rule is to

allow at least 12 to 24 hours between “bottle and

throttle” depending on the amount of alcoholic

beverage consumed.

1.5 Fatigue

1.5.1 Fatigue continues to be one of the most

treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be

apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.

Fatigue is best described as either acute (short−term)

or chronic (long−term).

1.5.2 A normal occurrence of everyday living, acute

fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of

physical and mental strain, including strenuous

muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload,

strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of

sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so

vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute

fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as

well as regular exercise and proper nutrition.

1.5.3 Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not

enough time for full recovery between episodes of

acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and

judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted

risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue

requires a prolonged period of rest.

1.6 Stress

1.6.1 Stress from the pressures of everyday living

can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle

ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy

thought processes enough to markedly decrease

alertness. Distraction can so interfere with judgment

that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into

deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule.

Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely

hazardous combination.

1.6.2 Most pilots do leave stress “on the ground.”

Therefore when more than usual difficulties are being

experienced, a pilot should consider delaying flight

until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved.

1.7 Emotion

1.7.1 Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a family member,

separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial

catastrophe, can render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft

safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and

anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness

but also may lead to taking risks that border on

self−destruction. Any pilot who experiences an

emotionally upsetting event should not fly until

satisfactorily recovered from it.

1.8 Personal Checklist

1.8.1 Aircraft accident statistics show that pilots

should be conducting preflight checklists on

themselves as well as their aircraft, for pilot

impairment contributes to many more accidents than

failure of aircraft systems. A personal checklist that

can be easily committed to memory, which includes

all of the categories of pilot impairment discussed in

this section, is distributed by the FAA in form of a

wallet−sized card.

1.9 PERSONAL CHECKLIST. I’m physically

and mentally safe to fly; not being impaired by:

Illness

Medication

Stress

Alcohol

Fatigue

Emotion
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2. Effects of Altitude

2.1 Hypoxia

2.1.1 Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the

body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and

other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is

due only to the reduced barometric pressures

encountered at altitude, for the concentration of

oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent

from the ground out to space.

2.1.2 Although a deterioration in night vision occurs

at a cabin pressure altitude as low as 5,000 feet, other

significant effects of altitude hypoxia usually do not

occur in the normal healthy pilot below 12,000 feet.

From 12,000 to 15,000 feet of altitude, judgment,

memory, alertness, coordination and ability to make

calculations are impaired. Headache, drowsiness,

dizziness and either a sense of well−being (euphoria)

or belligerence occur. The effects appear following

increasingly shorter periods of exposure to increasing

altitude. In fact, pilot performance can seriously

deteriorate within 15 minutes at 15,000 feet.

2.1.3 At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet,

the periphery of the visual field grays out to a point

where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A

blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips

develops. The ability to take corrective and protective

action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and 5

to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon thereafter

by unconsciousness.

2.1.4 The altitude at which significant effects of

hypoxia occur can be lowered by a number of factors.

Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from

exhaust fumes (see below), lowered hemoglobin

(anemia), and certain medications can reduce the

oxygen−carrying capacity of the blood to the degree

that the amount of oxygen provided to body tissues

will already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to

the tissues when exposed to cabin pressure altitude of

several thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and

low doses of certain drugs, such as antihistamines,

tranquilizers, sedatives, and analgesics can, through

their depressant actions, render the brain much more

susceptible to hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever,

and anxiety increase the body’s demand for oxygen,

and hence its susceptibility to hypoxia.

2.1.5 The effects of hypoxia are usually quite

difficult to recognize, especially when they occur

gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in

an individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be

greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the

effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber

“flight.” The FAA provides this opportunity through

aviation physiology training, which is conducted at

the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many

military facilities across the U.S. To attend the

Physiological Training Program at the Civil

Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical

Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone

(405) 954−6212, or by writing Aerospace Medical

Education Division, AAM−400, CAMI, Mike

Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082,

Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

NOTE−

To attend the physiological training program at one of the

military installations having the training capability, an

application form and a fee must be submitted. Full

particulars about location, fees, scheduling procedures,

course content, individual requirements, etc., are

contained in the physiological training application, Form

Number AC−3150−7, which is obtained by contacting the

Accident Prevention Specialist or the Office Forms

Manager in the nearest FAA office.

2.1.6 Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that

reduce tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired

air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system

and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin

pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots are

encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above

10,000 feet during the day, and above 5,000 feet at

night. The Federal Aviation Regulations require that

the minimum flight crew be provided with and use

supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes of exposure to

cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and

14,000 feet, and immediately on exposure to cabin

pressure altitudes above 14,000. Every occupant of

the aircraft must be provided with supplemental

oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet.

2.2 Ear Block

2.2.1 As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases during

ascent, the expanding air in the middle ear pushes the

eustachian tube open and, by escaping down it to the

nasal passages, equalizes in pressure with the cabin

pressure. But during descent, the pilot must

periodically open the eustachian tube to equalize

pressure. This can be accomplished by swallowing,

yawning, tensing muscles in the throat or, if these do

not work, by the combination of closing the mouth,
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pinching the nose closed and attempting to blow

through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver).

2.2.2 Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a

cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can

produce enough congestion around the eustachian

tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the

difference in pressure between the middle ear and

aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the

eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult

if not impossible. This problem is commonly referred

to as an “ear block.”

2.2.3 An ear block produces severe ear pain and loss

of hearing that can last from several hours to several

days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or

after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear

and become infected.

2.2.4 An ear block is prevented by not flying with an

upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not provided by

decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion

around the eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants have

side effects that can significantly impair pilot

performance.

2.2.5 If an ear block does not clear shortly after

landing, a physician should be consulted.

2.3 Sinus Block

2.3.1 During ascent and descent, air pressure in the

sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure

through small openings that connect the sinuses to the

nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection,

such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition

can produce enough congestion around an opening to

slow equalization and, as the difference in pressure

between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug

the opening. This “sinus block” occurs most

frequently during descent.

2.3.2 A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses,

located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary

sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually

produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A

maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth

ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal

passages.

2.3.3 A sinus block is prevented by not flying with an

upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic

condition. Adequate protection is usually not

provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce

congestion around the sinus openings. Oral

decongestants have side effects that can impair pilot

performance.

2.3.4 If a sinus block does not clear shortly after

landing, a physician should be consulted.

2.4 Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving

2.4.1 A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after

SCUBA diving should allow the body sufficient time

to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving.

If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can

occur during exposure to low altitude and create a

serious inflight emergency.

2.4.2 The recommended waiting time before going

to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least

12 hours after diving which has not required

controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving),

and at least 24 hours after diving which has required

controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The

waiting time before going to flight altitudes above

8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any

SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are

actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL)

and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into

consideration the risk of decompression of the

aircraft during flight.

3. Hyperventilation in Flight

3.1 Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the

volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can

occur subconsciously when a stressed situation is

encountered in flight. As hyperventilation “blows

off” excessive carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot

can experience symptoms of lightheadedness,

suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities,

and coolness − and react to them with even greater

hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result

from incoordination, disorientation, and painful

muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur.

3.2 The symptoms of hyperventilation subside

within a few minutes after the rate and depth of

breathing are consciously brought back under

control. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the body

can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of

a paper bag held over the nose and mouth.
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3.3 Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and

hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a

pilot is using an oxygen system when symptoms are

experienced, the oxygen regulator should immediately be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the

system checked to assure that it has been functioning

effectively before giving attention to rate and depth

of breathing.

4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight

4.1 Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and

tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. When

breathed even in minute quantities over a period of

time, it can significantly reduce the ability of the

blood to carry oxygen. Consequently, effects of

hypoxia occur (see subparagraph 2.1).

4.2 Most heaters in light aircraft work by air flowing

over the manifold. Use of these heaters while exhaust

fumes are escaping through manifold cracks and seals

is responsible every year for several nonfatal and fatal

aircraft accidents from carbon monoxide poisoning.

4.3 A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or

experiences symptoms of headache, drowsiness, or

dizziness while using the heater should suspect

carbon monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut

off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms are

severe, or continue after landing, medical treatment

should be sought.

5. Illusions in Flight

5.1 Introduction. Many different illusions can be

experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial

disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors.

Illusions rank among the most common factors cited

as contributing to fatal aircraft accidents.

5.2 Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation

5.2.1 Various complex motions and forces and

certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create

illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorientation from these illusions can be prevented only by

visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the

ground or to flight instruments.

5.2.2 The Leans. An abrupt correction of a banked

attitude, which has been entered too slowly to

stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear,

can create the illusion of banking in the opposite

direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft

back into its original dangerous attitude or, if level

flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the

perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.

5.2.3 Coriolis Illusion. An abrupt head movement

in a prolonged constant−rate turn that has ceased

stimulating the motion sensing system can create the

illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely

different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver

the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to

stop rotation. This most overwhelming of all

illusions in flight may be prevented by not making

sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while

making prolonged constant−rate turns under IFR

conditions.

5.2.4 Graveyard Spin. A proper recovery from a

spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing

system can create the illusion of spinning in the

opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will return

the aircraft to its original spin.

5.2.5 Graveyard Spiral. An observed loss of

altitude during a coordinated constant−rate turn that

has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can

create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings

level. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the

controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss

of altitude.

5.2.6 Somatogravic Illusion. A rapid acceleration

during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a

nose−up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the

aircraft into a nose−low, or dive attitude. A rapid

deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can

have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot

pulling the aircraft into a nose−up, or stall attitude.

5.2.7 Inversion Illusion. An abrupt change from

climb to straight and level flight can create the

illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot

will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose−low

attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion.

5.2.8 Elevator Illusion. An abrupt upward vertical

acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create the

illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot will

push the aircraft into a nose−low attitude. An abrupt

downward vertical acceleration, usually by a

downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the

disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose−up

attitude.
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5.2.9 False Horizon. Sloping cloud formations, an

obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground

lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of

ground lights can create illusions of not being aligned

correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented

pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude.

5.2.10 Autokinesis. In the dark, a static light will

appear to move about when stared at for many

seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the

aircraft in attempting to align it with the light.

5.3 Illusions Leading to Landing Errors

5.3.1 Various surface features and atmospheric

conditions encountered in landing can create

illusions of incorrect height above and distance from

the runway threshold. Landing errors from these

illusions can be prevented by anticipating them

during approaches, aerial visual inspection of

unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic

glide slope or VASI systems when available, and

maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures.

5.3.2 Runway Width Illusion. A narrower−than−

usual runway can create the illusion that the aircraft

is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who

does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower

approach, with the risk of striking objects along the

approach path or landing short. A wider−than−usual

runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of

leveling out high and landing hard or overshooting

the runway.

5.3.3 Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion. An

upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can

create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher

altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not

recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A

downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain,

or both, can have the opposite effect.

5.3.4 Featureless Terrain Illusion. An absence of

ground features, as when landing over water,

darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow,

can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher

altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not

recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach.

5.3.5 Atmospheric Illusions. Rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater height, and

atmospheric haze can create the illusion of being at

greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does

not recognize these illusions will fly a lower

approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of

pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this

illusion will steepen the approach, often quite

abruptly.

5.3.6 Ground Lighting Illusions. Lights along a

straight path, such as a road, and even lights on

moving trains can be mistaken for runway and

approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting

systems, especially where few lights illuminate the

surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less

distance to the runway. The pilot who does not

recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach.

Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has

few lights to provide height cues may make lower

than normal approach.

6. Vision in Flight

6.1 Introduction. Of the body senses, vision is the

most important for safe flight. Major factors that

determine how effectively vision can be used are the

level of illumination and the technique of scanning

the sky for other aircraft.

6.2 Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination

6.2.1 Under conditions of dim illumination, small

print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft

instruments become unreadable unless adequate

cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another

aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its

navigation lights are on.

6.2.2 In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to

light, a process called dark adaptation. Although

exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is

required for complete dark adaptation, the pilot can

achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within

20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red

light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronautical charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing

the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is

advisable only where optimum outside night vision

capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit

lighting must be available when needed for map and

instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions.

Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin

pressure altitude above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide

inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes,

deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged

exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark

adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a
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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

bright light, the pilot should close one eye when using

a light to preserve some degree of night vision.

6.2.3 Excessive illumination, especially from light

reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft,

clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce

glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the

eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for

protection from glare should absorb at least

85 percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance)

and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with

negligible image distortion from refractive and

prismatic errors.

6.3 Scanning for Other Aircraft

6.3.1 Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key

factor in collision avoidance. It should be used

continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat

passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from

the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific

visual acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye

chart does not ensure that one will be able to

efficiently spot other aircraft. Pilots must develop an

effective scanning technique which maximizes one’s

visual capabilities. The probability of spotting a

potential collision threat obviously increases with the

time spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one

must use timesharing techniques to efficiently scan

the surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments as well.

6.3.2 While the eyes can observe an approximate

200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a

very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of

the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused

messages to the brain. All other visual information

that is not processed directly through the fovea will

be of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles

which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center

of vision would have to be as close as 7/10 of a mile

in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal

vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this

narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye

movements that bring successive areas of the sky into

the central visual field. Each movement should not

exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed

for at least one second to enable detection. Although

horizontal back−and−forth eye movements seem

preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a

scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then

adhere to it to assure optimum scanning.

6.3.3 Studies show that the time a pilot spends on

visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more

than 1/4 to 1/3 of the scan time outside, or no more than

4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every

16 seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained

to process sight information that is presented from

left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning

over the left shoulder and proceed across the

windshield to the right.

6.3.4 Pilots should realize that their eyes may require

several seconds to refocus when switching views

between items in the cockpit and distant objects. The

eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to adjust

to distances immediately after close−up focus, as

required for scanning the instrument panel. Eye

fatigue can be reduced by looking from the

instrument panel to the left wing past the wing tip to

the center of the first scan quadrant when beginning

the exterior scan. After having scanned from left to

right, allow the eyes to return to the cabin along the

right wing from its tip inward. Once back inside, one

should automatically commence the panel scan.

6.3.5 Effective scanning also helps avoid “empty−

field myopia.” This condition usually occurs when

flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that

provides nothing specific to focus on outside the

aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a

comfortable focal distance which may range from 10

to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking without

seeing, which is dangerous.

7. Judgment Aspects of Collision

Avoidance

7.1 Introduction. The most important aspects of

vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are

described in paragraph 6 above. Pilots should also be

familiar with the following information to reduce the

possibility of mid−air collisions.

7.2 Determining Relative Altitude. Use the horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is above

the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path. If

the aircraft appears to be below the horizon, it is

probably flying at a lower altitude.
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7.3 Taking Appropriate Action. Pilots should be

familiar with right−of−way rules so immediate

evasive action can be taken if an aircraft is on an

obvious collision course. Preferably, such actions

will be in compliance with applicable Federal

Aviation Regulations.

7.4 Consider Multiple Threats. The decision to

climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal

judgment, but one should anticipate that the other

pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch

the other aircraft during the maneuver and

immediately begin your scanning again since there

may be other aircraft in the area.

7.5 Target Acquisition. Anticipate the target in the

location and ranges you are searching. Locate a

sizable, distant object (e.g., a cloud formation,

mountain peak, prominent landmark, building or

pier) that is within range of the anticipated target, and

focus your eyes on it as you begin each scan pattern.

7.6 Collision Course Targets. Any aircraft that

appears to have no relative motion and stays in one

scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.

Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion,

but increases in size,TAKE EVASIVE ACTION.

7.7 Recognize High Hazard Areas

7.7.1 Airways, and especially VORs, and Class B,

C, D, and E surface areas are places where aircraft

tend to cluster.

7.7.2 Remember, most collisions occur during days

when the weather is good. Being in a “radar

environment” still requires vigilance to avoid

collisions.

7.8 Cockpit Management. Studying maps, checklists, and manuals before flight, with various other

proper preflight planning (e.g., noting necessary

radio frequencies), and organizing cockpit materials

can reduce the amount of time required to look at

these items during flight permitting more scan time.

7.9 Windshield Conditions. Dirty or bug−

smeared windshields can greatly reduce the ability of

pilots to see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield.

7.10 Visibility Conditions. Smoke, haze, dust,

rain, and flying towards the sun can also greatly

reduce the ability to detect targets.

7.11 Visual Obstruction in the Cockpit

7.11.1 Pilots need to move their heads to see around

blind spots caused by fixed aircraft structures, such as

door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at times to

maneuver the aircraft (e.g., lift a wing) to facilitate

seeing around this structure.

7.11.2 Pilots must insure that curtains and other

cockpit objects (e.g., maps on glare shield) are

removed and stowed during flight.

7.12 Lights On

7.12.1 Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly

increase the conspicuity of any aircraft.

7.12.2 Keep interior lights low at night.

7.13 ATC Support. ATC facilities often provide

radar traffic advisories on a workload−permitting

basis. Flight through Class C Airspace requires

communication with ATC. Use this support

whenever possible or when required.
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ENR 1.16 Safety, Hazard, and Accident Reports

1. Aviation Safety Reporting Program

1.1 The FAA has established a voluntary program

designed to stimulate the free and unrestricted flow

of information concerning deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation system. This is a positive

program intended to ensure the safest possible system

by identifying and correcting unsafe conditions

before they lead to accidents. The primary objective

of the program is to obtain information to evaluate

and enhance the safety and efficiency of the present

system.

1.2 This cooperative safety reporting program

invites pilots, controllers, flight attendants, maintenance personnel and other users of the airspace

system, or any other person, to file written reports of

actual or potential discrepancies and deficiencies

involving the safety of aviation operations. The

operations covered by the program include departure,

en route, approach, and landing operations and

procedures, air traffic control procedures and

equipment, crew and air traffic control communications, aircraft cabin operations, aircraft movement on

the airport, near midair collisions, aircraft maintenance and record keeping, and airport conditions or

services. 

1.3 The report should give the date, time, location,

persons and aircraft involved (if applicable), nature of

the event, and all pertinent details.

1.4 To ensure receipt of this information, the

program provides for the waiver of certain

disciplinary actions against persons, including pilots

and air traffic controllers, who file timely written

reports concerning potentially unsafe incidents. To

be considered timely, reports must be delivered or

postmarked within 10 days of the incident unless that

period is extended for good cause. Reports should be

submitted on National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) ARC Forms 277, which are

available free of charge, postage prepaid, at FAA

Flight Standards District Offices and Flight Service

Stations, and from NASA, ASRS, P.O. Box 189,

Moffet Field, CA 94035.

1.5 The FAA utilizes NASA to act as an independent

third party to receive and analyze reports submitted

under the program. This program is described in

Advisory Circular 00−46.

2. Aircraft Accident and Incident Reporting

2.1 Occurrences Requiring Notification

2.1.1 The operator of an aircraft shall immediately,

and by the most expeditious means available, notify

the nearest National Transportation Safety Board

(NTSB) Field Office when:

2.1.1.1 An aircraft accident or any of the following

listed incidents occur:

a) Flight control system malfunction or failure.

b) Inability of any required flight crewmember to

perform normal flight duties as a result of injury or

illness.

c) Failure of structural components of a turbine

engine excluding compressor and turbine blades and

vanes.

d) Inflight fire.

e) Aircraft collide in flight.

f) Damage to property, other than the aircraft,

estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair (including

materials and labor) or fair market value in the event

of total loss, whichever is less.

g) For large multi−engine aircraft (more than

12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff

weight):

1) Inflight failure of electrical systems which

requires the sustained use of an emergency bus

powered by a back−up source such as a battery,

auxiliary power unit, or air−driven generator to retain

flight control or essential instruments.

2) Inflight failure of hydraulic systems that

results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining

hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of

flight control surfaces.

3) Sustained loss of the power or thrust

produced by two or more engines.

4) An evacuation of aircraft in which an

emergency egress system is utilized.

2.1.1.2 An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have

been involved in an accident.
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2.2 Manner of Notification

2.2.1 The most expeditious method of notification to

the NTSB by the operator will be determined by the

circumstances existing at the time. The NTSB has

advised that any of the following would be

considered examples of the type of notification that

would be acceptable:

2.2.1.1 Direct telephone notification.

2.2.1.2 Telegraphic notification.

2.2.1.3 Notification to the FAA who would in turn

notify the NTSB by direct communication; i.e.,

dispatch or telephone.

2.3 Items to be Reported

2.3.1 The notification required above shall contain

the following information, if available:

2.3.1.1 Type, nationality, and registration marks of

the aircraft.

2.3.1.2 Name of owner and operator of the aircraft.

2.3.1.3 Name of the pilot−in−command.

2.3.1.4 Date and time of the accident.

2.3.1.5 Last point of departure and point of intended

landing of the aircraft.

2.3.1.6 Position of the aircraft with reference to

some easily defined geographical point.

2.3.1.7 Number of persons aboard, number killed,

and number seriously injured.

2.3.1.8 Nature of the accident or incident, the

weather, and the extent of damage to the aircraft, so

far as is known.

2.3.1.9 A description of any explosives, radioactive

materials, or other dangerous articles carried.

2.4 Follow−up Reports

2.4.1 The operator shall file a report on NTSB

Form 6120.1 or 6120.2, available from the NTSB

Field Offices, or the NTSB, Washington, D.C.

20594:

2.4.1.1 Within ten days after an accident.

2.4.1.2 When, after seven days, an overdue aircraft

is still missing.

2.4.1.3 A report on an incident for which notification

is required as described in paragraph 2.1 shall be filed

only as requested by an authorized representative of

the NTSB.

2.4.2 Each crewmember, if physically able at the

time the report is submitted, shall attach a statement

setting forth the facts, conditions and circumstances

relating to the accident or occurrence as they

appeared. If the crewmember is incapacitated, the

statement shall be submitted as soon as physically

possible.

2.5 Where to File the Reports

2.5.1 The operator of an aircraft shall file with the

field office of the NTSB nearest the accident or

incident any report required by this section.

2.5.2 The NTSB field offices are listed under U.S.

Government in the telephone directories in the

following cities: Anchorage, Alaska; Atlanta,

Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; Denver, Colorado; Fort

Worth, Texas; Los Angeles, California; Miami,

Florida; Parsippany, New Jersey; and Seattle,

Washington.

3. Near Midair Collision Reporting

3.1 Purpose and Data Uses. The primary purpose

of the Near Midair Collision (NMAC) Reporting

Program is to provide information for use in

enhancing the safety and efficiency of the National

Airspace System. Data obtained from NMAC reports

are used by the FAA to improve the quality of FAA

services to users and to develop programs, policies,

and procedures aimed at the reduction of NMAC

occurrences. All NMAC reports are thoroughly

investigated by Flight Standards Facilities in

coordination with Air Traffic Facilities. Data from

these investigations are transmitted to FAA

Headquarters in Washington, D.C., where they are

compiled and analyzed, and where safety programs

and recommendations are developed.

3.2 Definition. A near midair collision is defined as

an incident associated with the operation of an

aircraft in which a possibility of collision occurs as a

result of proximity of less than 500 feet to another

aircraft, or a report is received from a pilot or a flight

crewmember stating that a collision hazard existed

between two or more aircraft.

3.3 Reporting Responsibility. It is the responsibility of the pilot and/or flight crew to determine

whether a near midair collision did actually occur

and, if so, to initiate a NMAC report. Be specific, as

ATC will not interpret a casual remark to mean that
AIP ENR 1.16−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

a NMAC is being reported. The pilot should state “I

wish to report a near midair collision.”

3.4 Where to File Reports. Pilots and/or flight

crewmembers involved in NMAC occurrences are

urged to report each incident immediately:

3.4.1 By radio or telephone to the nearest FAA ATC

facility or FSS.

3.4.2 In writing, in lieu of the above, to the nearest

Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

3.5 Items to be Reported

3.5.1 Date and time (UTC) of incident.

3.5.2 Location of incident and altitude.

3.5.3 Identification and type of reporting aircraft,

aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot.

3.5.4 Identification and type of other aircraft,

aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot.

3.5.5 Type of flight plans; station altimeter setting

used.

3.5.6 Detailed weather conditions at altitude or

flight level.

3.5.7 Approximate courses of both aircraft: indicate

if one or both aircraft were climbing or descending.

3.5.8 Reported separation in distance at first

sighting, proximity at closest point horizontally and

vertically, length of time in sight prior to evasive

action.

3.5.9 Degree of evasive action taken, if any (from

both aircraft, if possible).

3.5.10 Injuries, if any.

3.6 Investigation. The FSDO in whose area the

incident occurred is responsible for the investigation

and reporting of NMACs.

3.7 Existing radar, communication, and weather

data will be examined in the conduct of the

investigation. When possible, all cockpit crew

members will be interviewed regarding factors

involving the NMAC incident. Air traffic controllers

will be interviewed in cases where one or more of the

involved aircraft was provided ATC service. Both

flight and ATC procedures will be evaluated. When

the investigation reveals a violation of an FAA

regulation, enforcement action will be pursued.

AIP ENR 1.17−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.17 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT)

TIMEKEEPING PROCEDURES

1. Prior to entry into NAT minimum navigation

performance specifications (MNPS) airspace, the

time reference system(s) to be used during the flight

for calculation of waypoint estimated times of arrival

(ETAs) and waypoint actual times of arrival (ATAs)

shall be synchronized to universal coordinated time

(UTC). All ETAs and ATAs passed to air traffic

control shall be based on a time reference that has

been synchronized to UTC or equivalent. Acceptable

sources of UTC include:

1.1 WWV − National Institute of Standards and

Technology (Fort Collins, Colorado). WWV

operates 24 hours a day on 2500, 5000, 10000, 15000,

20000 kHz (AM/single sideband (SSB)) and

provides UTC voice every minute.

1.2 GPS (corrected to UTC) − Available 24 hours a

day to those pilots who can access the time signal

over their shipboard GPS equipment.

1.3 CHU − National Research Council (NRC) −

Available 24 hours a day on 3330, 7335, and 14670

kHz (SSB). In the final 10−second period of each

minute, a bilingual station identification and time

announcement is made. Since April 1990, the

announced time is UTC.

1.4 BBC − British Broadcasting Corporation

(United Kingdom). The BBC transmits on a number

of domestic and world−wide frequencies and

transmits the Greenwich time signal (referenced to

UTC) once every hour on most frequencies, although

there are some exceptions.

1.5 Any other source shown to the State of Registry

or State of Operator (as appropriate) to be an

equivalent source of UTC.

AIP ENR 1.18−1

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 1.18 Area Navigation (RNAV) and 

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

1. Area Navigation (RNAV)

1.1 General. RNAV is a method of navigation that

permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path

within the coverage of station−referenced navigation

aids or within the limits of the capability of

self−contained aids, or a combination of these. In the

future, there will be an increased dependence on the

use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by

ground−based navigation aids.

1.2 RNAV routes and terminal procedures, including departure procedures (DPs) and standard terminal

arrivals (STARs), are designed with RNAV systems

in mind. There are several potential advantages of

RNAV routes and procedures:

1.2.1 Time and fuel savings,

1.2.2 Reduced dependence on radar vectoring,

altitude, and speed assignments allowing a reduction

in required ATC radio transmissions, and

1.2.3 More efficient use of airspace.

1.3 In addition to information found in this manual,

guidance for domestic RNAV DPs, STARs, and

routes may also be found in Advisory Circular 90−100, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area

Navigation (RNAV) Operations.

1.4 RNAV Operations. RNAV procedures, such as

DPs and STARs, demand strict pilot awareness and

maintenance of the procedure centerline. Pilots

should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft

navigation system to ensure RNAV procedures are

flown in an appropriate manner. In addition, pilots

should have an understanding of the various

waypoint and leg types used in RNAV procedures;

these are discussed in more detail below. 

1.4.1 Waypoints. A waypoint is a predetermined

geographical position that is defined in terms of

latitude/longitude coordinates. Waypoints may be a

simple named point in space or associated with

existing navaids, intersections, or fixes. A waypoint

is most often used to indicate a change in direction,

speed, or altitude along the desired path. RNAV

procedures make use of both fly−over and fly−by

waypoints.

1.4.1.1 Fly−by waypoints. Fly−by waypoints are

used when an aircraft should begin a turn to the next

course prior to reaching the waypoint separating the

two route segments. This is known as turn

anticipation.

1.4.1.2 Fly−over waypoints. Fly−over waypoints

are used when the aircraft must fly over the point prior

to starting a turn.

NOTE−

FIG ENR 1.18−1 illustrates several differences between

a fly−by and a fly−over waypoint.

FIG ENR 1.18−1

Fly−by and Fly−over Waypoints

1.4.2 RNAV Leg Types. A leg type describes the

desired path proceeding, following, or between

waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types are

identified by a two−letter code that describes the path

(e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination

point (e.g., the path terminates at an altitude,

distance, fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure

design are included in the aircraft navigation

database, but not normally provided on the procedure

chart. The narrative depiction of the RNAV chart

describes how a procedure is flown. The “path and

terminator concept” defines that every leg of a

procedure has a termination point and some kind of

path into that termination point. Some of the

available leg types are described below.
ENR 1.18−2 AIP

4 AUG 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

1.4.2.1 Track to Fix. A Track to Fix (TF) leg is

intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the

following waypoint. Track to a Fix legs are

sometimes called point−to−point legs for this reason.

Narrative: “via 087  track to CHEZZ WP.”

See FIG ENR 1.18−2.

1.4.2.2 Direct to Fix. A Direct to Fix (DF) leg is a

path described by an aircraft’s track from an initial

area direct to the next waypoint. Narrative: “left

turn direct BARGN WP.” See FIG ENR 1.18−3.

NOTE−

FIG ENR 1.18−2, FIG ENR 1.18−3 and

FIG ENR 1.18−4 illustrate TF, DF, CF and RF leg

types.

FIG ENR 1.18−2

Track to Fix Leg Type

FIG ENR 1.18−3

Direct to Fix Leg Type
AIP ENR 1.18−3

United States of America 4 AUG 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

1.4.2.3 Course to Fix. A Course to Fix (CF) leg is

a path that terminates at a fix with a specified course

at that fix. Narrative: “via 078 course to PRIMY

WP.” See FIG ENR 1.18−4.

FIG ENR 1.18−4

Course to Fix Leg Type

1.4.2.4 Radius to Fix. A Radius to Fix (RF) leg is

defined as a constant radius circular path around a

defined turn center that terminates at a fix. 

See FIG ENR 1.18−5.

FIG ENR 1.18−5

Radius to Fix Leg Type

1.4.2.5 Heading. A Heading leg may be defined as,

but not limited to, a Heading to Altitude (VA),

Heading to DME range (VD), and Heading to Manual

Termination, i.e., Vector (VM). Narrative: “climb

runway heading to 1500”, “heading 265, at 9 DME

west of PXR VORTAC, right turn heading 360”,

“fly heading 090, expect radar vectors to DRYHT

INT.”

1.4.3 Navigation Issues. Pilots should be aware of

their navigation system inputs, alerts, and annunciations in order to make better−informed decisions. In

addition, the availability and suitability of particular

sensors/systems should be considered.

1.4.3.1 GPS. Operators using TSO−C129 systems

should ensure departure and arrival airports are

entered to ensure proper RAIM availability and CDI

sensitivity.

1.4.3.2 DME/DME. Operators should be aware

that DME/DME position updating is dependent on

FMS logic and DME facility proximity, availability,

geometry, and signal masking.

1.4.3.3 VOR/DME. Unique VOR characteristics

may result in less accurate values from VOR/DME

position updating than from GPS or DME/DME

position updating.

1.4.3.4 Inertial Navigation. Inertial reference

units and inertial navigation systems are often

coupled with other types of navigation inputs, e.g.,

DME/DME or GPS, to improve overall navigation

system performance.

NOTE−

Specific inertial position updating requirements may

apply.

1.4.4 Flight Management System (FMS). An

FMS is an integrated suite of sensors, receivers, and

computers, coupled with a navigation database.

These systems generally provide performance and

RNAV guidance to displays and automatic flight

control systems.

1.4.4.1 Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources

such as GPS, DME, VOR, LOC and IRU. These

inputs may be applied to a navigation solution one at

a time or in combination. Some FMSs provide for the

detection and isolation of faulty navigation information.

1.4.4.2 When appropriate navigation signals are

available, FMSs will normally rely on GPS and/or

DME/DME (that is, the use of distance information

from two or more DME stations) for position

updates. Other inputs may also be incorporated based

on FMS system architecture and navigation source

geometry.
ENR 1.18−4 AIP

4 AUG 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

NOTE−

DME/DME inputs coupled with one or more IRU(s) are

often abbreviated as DME/DME/IRU or D/D/I.

2. Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

2.1 General. RNP is intended to provide a single

performance standard for aircraft manufacturers,

airspace designers, pilots, controllers, and international aviation authorities. Some RNP procedures

will take advantage of improved navigation

capabilities and will result in increased flight path

predictability and repeatability.

Typically, various sensor inputs are processed by an

RNAV system to arrive at a position estimate having

a high−statistical degree of accuracy and confidence.

When RNP is specified, a combination of systems

may be used, provided the aircraft can achieve the

required navigation performance.

While it has been a goal for RNP to be

sensor−generic, this goal is unachievable as long as

the aircraft capability is in any way dependent on

external signals. The aircraft navigation system

always consists of specific sensors or sensor

combinations and the navigation infrastructure

consists of specific systems.

The RNP capability of an aircraft will vary depending

upon the aircraft equipment and the navigation

infrastructure. For example, an aircraft may be

equipped and certified for RNP 1.0, but may not be

capable of RNP 1.0 operations due to limited navaid

coverage.

2.2 RNP Operations

2.2.1 RNP Levels. An RNP “level” or “type” is

applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure.

ICAO has defined RNP values for the four typical

navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route,

terminal, and approach. As defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary, the RNP Level or Type is a value

typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles

from the intended centerline of a procedure, route, or

path. RNP applications also account for potential

errors at some multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the

RNP level).

2.2.1.1 Standard RNP Levels. U.S. standard

values supporting typical RNP airspace are as

specified in TBL ENR 1.12−1 below. Other RNP

levels as identified by ICAO, other states and the

FAA may also be used.

TBL ENR 1.12−1

U.S. Standard RNP Levels

RNP Level Typical Application Primary Route Width (NM) −

Centerline to Boundary

0.3 Approach 0.3

1 Terminal 1.0

2 Terminal and

En Route

2.0

NOTE−

1. The “performance” of the navigation equipment in

RNP refers not only to the level of accuracy of a particular

sensor or aircraft navigation system, but also to the degree

of precision with which the aircraft will be flown.

2. Specific required flight procedures may vary for

different RNP levels.
AIP ENR 1.18−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.2.1.2 Application of Standard RNP Levels. 

U.S. standard levels of RNP typically used for

various routes and procedures supporting RNAV

operations may be based on use of a specific

navigational system or sensor such as GPS, or on

multi−sensor RNAV systems having suitable performance.

2.2.1.3 Depiction of Standard RNP Levels. The

applicable RNP level will be depicted on affected

charts and procedures. For example, an RNAV

departure procedure may contain a notation referring

to eligible aircraft by equipment suffix and a phrase

“or RNP−1.0.” A typical RNAV approach procedure

may include a notation referring to eligible aircraft by

specific navigation sensor(s), equipment suffix, and

a phrase “or RNP−0.3.” Specific guidelines for the

depiction of RNP levels will be provided through

chart bulletins and accompany affected charting

changes.

2.3 Other RNP Applications Outside the U.S.

The FAA and ICAO member states have led

initiatives in implementing the RNP concept to

oceanic operations. For example, RNP−10 routes

have been established in the northern Pacific

(NOPAC) which has increased capacity and

efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks to

50 NM. Additionally, the FAA has assisted those

U.S. air carriers operating in Europe where the routes

have been designated as RNP−5. TBL ENR 1.12−2

below, shows examples of current and future RNP

levels of airspace.

2.4 Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility

for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria

will have an appropriate entry including special

conditions and limitations in its Aircraft Flight

Manual (AFM), or supplement. RNAV installations

with AFM−RNP certification based on GPS or

systems integrating GPS are considered to meet U.S.

standard RNP levels for all phases of flight. Aircraft

with AFM−RNP certification without GPS may be

limited to certain RNP levels, or phases of flight. For

example, RNP based on DME/DME without other

augmentation may not be appropriate for phases of

flight outside the certified DME service volume.

Operators of aircraft not having specific AFM−RNP

certification may be issued operational approval

including special conditions and limitations for

specific RNP levels. Aircraft navigation systems

eligible for RNP airspace will be indicated on charts

or announced through other FAA media such as

NOTAMs and chart bulletins.

NOTE−

Some airborne systems use Estimated Position

Uncertainty (EPU) as a measure of the current estimated

navigational performance. EPU may also be referred to

as Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) or Estimated

Position Error (EPE).

TBL ENR 1.12−2

RNP Levels Supported for International Operations

RNP Level Typical Application

1 European Precision RNAV (P−RNAV)

4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas where 30 NM horizontal separation is applied

5 European Basic RNAV (B−RNAV)

10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM lateral separation is applied

NOTE−

Specific operational and equipment performance requirements apply for P−RNAV and B−RNAV.

AIP ENR 2−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 2. Air Traffic Services Airspace

See GEN 3.3 and ENR 1.4.

AIP ENR 3.1−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 3. ATS ROUTES

ENR 3.1 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 3.2−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 3.2 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 3.3−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 3.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes

1. RNAV Routes

1.1 Published RNAV routes, including Q−Routes,

can be flight planned for use by aircraft with RNAV

capability, subject to any limitations or requirements

noted on en route charts or by NOTAM.

1.2 Unpublished RNAV routes are direct routes,

based on area navigation capability, between

waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude

coordinates, degree−distance fixes, or offsets from

established routes/airways at a specified distance and

direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all

unpublished RNAV routes.

AIP ENR 3.4−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 3.4 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 3.5−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 3.5 Other Routes

1. Airways and Route Systems

1.1 Two fixed route systems are established for air

navigation purposes. They are the VOR and L/MF

system and the jet route system. To the extent

possible, these route systems are aligned in an

overlying manner to facilitate transition between

each.

2. VOR and L/MF System

2.1 The VOR and L/MF (nondirectional radio

beacons) Airway System consists of airways

designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in

some instances higher) up to but not including

18,000 feet MSL. These airways are depicted on En

Route Low Altitude Charts.

NOTE−

The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be

exceeded except to effect transition within or between

route structures.

2.2 Except in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, the

VOR airways are predicated solely on VOR or

VORTAC navigation aids. They are depicted in blue

on aeronautical charts and are identified by a “V”

(Victor) followed by the airway number; e.g., V12.

NOTE−

Segments of VOR airways in Alaska and North Carolina

(V56, V290) are based on L/MF navigation aids and

charted in brown instead of blue on en route charts.

2.3 A segment of an airway which is common to two

or more routes carries the numbers of all the airways

which coincide for that segment. When such is the

case, pilots filing a flight plan need to indicate only

that airway number for the route filed.

NOTE−

A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR

facilities, will simply specify the appropriate “victor”

airway(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to

be made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using

omniranges only, the route may be indicated as

“departing from Chicago−Midway, cruising 8,000 feet

via Victor 9 to Moisant International.” If flight is to be

conducted in part by means of L/MF navigation aids and

in part on omniranges, specifications of the appropriate

airways in the flight plan will indicate which types of

facilities will be used along the described routes, and, for

IFR flight, permit ATC to issue a traffic clearance

accordingly. A route may also be described by specifying

the station over which the flight will pass but in this case

since many VORs and L/MF aids have the same name, the

pilot must be careful to indicate which aid will be used at

a particular location. This will be indicated in the route

of flight portion of the flight plan by specifying the type of

facility to be used after the location name in the following

manner: Newark L/MF, Allentown VOR.

2.4 With respect to position reporting, reporting

points are designed for VOR Airway Systems.

Flights using Victor airways will report over these

points unless advised otherwise by ATC.

2.5 The L/MF airways (colored airways) are

predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are

depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are

identified by color name and number; e.g., Amber

One. Green and Red airways are plotted east and

west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and

south.

NOTE−

Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway

system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such

airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S.

have been rescinded.

CAUTION−

Use of adjacently located LF/VHF airways and routes −

many locations just outside the contiguous 48 states have

two separate airway structures. One structure is made up

from VORs and the other from L/MF NAVAIDs

(nondirectional radio beacons). In some instances, the

different routes appear to overlie each other. The

NAVAIDs are sometimes depicted so close to each other

that they will have the appearance of being collocated,

or nearly so. Substituting a VOR radial for a

nondirectional radio beacon bearing could, in many

circumstances, cause an excessive “off course”

navigational error. Strict adherence to the color coding

of the route structure and NAVAID in use should be

maintained. Chart procedures provide an excellent

means of route differentiation through the use of color

which is defined and explained in the legend.

2.6 The use of TSO−C145a or TSO−C146a

GPS/WAAS navigation systems is allowed in Alaska

as the only means of navigation on published air

traffic routes including those Victor and colored

airway segments designated with a second minimum

en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and

followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The

altitudes so depicted are below the minimum
ENR 3.5−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

reception altitude (MRA) of the land−based

navigation facility defining the route segment, and

guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and

two−way communications. Air carrier operators

requiring operations specifications are authorized to

conduct operations on those routes in accordance

with FAA operations specifications.

3. Jet Route System

3.1 The jet route system consists of jet routes

established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450

inclusive.

3.2 These routes are depicted on En Route High

Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black on

aeronautical charts and are identified by a “J” (Jet)

followed by the airway number; e.g., J12. Jet routes,

as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or

VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).

NOTE−

Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF

navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of

black on en route charts.

3.3 With respect to position reporting, reporting

points are designated for Jet Route Systems. Flights

using jet routes will report over these points unless

otherwise advised by ATC.

4. Radar Vectors

4.1 Controllers may vector aircraft within CONTROLLED AIRSPACE for separation purposes,

noise abatement considerations, when an operational

advantage will be realize by the pilot or the controller,

or when requested by the pilot. Vectors outside of

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE will be provided only

on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the

vector is to achieve when the vector is controller

initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously

assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible,

aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to

remain on their own navigation.

5. Changeover Points (COPs)

5.1 COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet

routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes

for which an minimum en route altitude (MEA) is

designated under 14 CFR Part 95. The COP is a point

along the route or airway segment between two

adjacent navigation facilities or waypoints where

changeover navigation guidance should occur. At

this point, the pilot should change navigation receiver

frequency from the station behind the aircraft to the

station ahead.

5.2 The COP is normally located midway between

the navigation facilities for straight route segments,

or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a

dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When

the COP is NOT located at the midway point,

aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and

give the mileage to the radio aids.

5.3 COPs are established for the purpose of

preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent

frequency interference from other facilities, and to

prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft

in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe

COPs to the fullest extent.

6. Airway or Route Course Changes

6.1 Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to

airways/routes being flown. Special attention must

be given to this requirement during course changes.

Each course change consists of variables that make

the technique applicable in each case a matter only the

pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be

considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed,

degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early

turn, as illustrated in FIG ENR 3.5−1, is one method

of adhering to airways/routes. The use of any

available cockpit instrumentation, such as distance

measuring equipment, may be used by the pilot to

lead the turn when making course changes. This is

consistent with the intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181

which requires pilots to operate along the centerline

of an airway and along the direct course between

navigational aids or fixes.

6.2 Turns which begin at or after fix passage may

exceed airway/route boundaries. FIG ENR 3.5−1

contains an example flight track depicting this,

together with an example of an early turn.
AIP ENR 3.5−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 3.5−1

Adhering to Airways or Routes

6.3 Without such actions, as leading a turn, aircraft

operating in excess of 290 knots true airspeed (TAS)

can exceed the normal airway/route boundaries

depending on the amount of course change required,

wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn

fix, (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection),

and the pilot’s technique in making a course change.

For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL

with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a

course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed

the width of the airway/route; i.e., 4 nautical miles

each side of centerline. However, in the airspace

below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of

290 knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of

additional IFR separation in all course change

situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in

excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable

waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the

preponderance of traffic which operates at low

speeds. Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead

turns and take other actions they consider necessary

during the course changes to adhere as closely as

possible to the airways or route being flown.

AIP ENR 4.1−1

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 4. NAVIGATION AIDS/SYSTEMS

ENR 4.1 Navigation Aids − En Route

1. VHF Direction Finder

1.1 The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) is one of

the common systems that helps pilots without their

being aware of its operation. It is a ground−based

radio receiver used by the operator of the ground

station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service

are identified in the Airport/Facility Directory

(A/FD).

1.2 The equipment consists of a directional antenna

system and a VHF radio receiver.

1.3 The VHF/DF receiver display indicates the

magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground

station each time the aircraft transmits.

1.4 DF equipment is of particular value in locating

lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on

radar.

2. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)

2.1 A low or medium frequency radio beacon

transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of

an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings

and “home” on the station. These facilities normally

operate in a frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz

(kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency

range for NDBs is between 190 and 1750 kHz, and

transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or

1020 hertz (Hz) modulation. All radio beacons

except the compass locators transmit a continuous

three−letter identification in code except during voice

transmissions.

2.2 When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with

the Instrument Landing System markers, it is called

a Compass Locator.

2.3 Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons

unless the letter “W” (without voice) is included in

the class designator (HW).

2.4 Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that

may result in erroneous bearing information. Such

disturbances result from such factors as lightning,

precipitation, static, etc. At night radio beacons are

vulnerable to interference from distant stations.

Nearly all disturbances which affect the aircraft’s

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) bearing also

affect the facility’s identification. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic;

voice, music, or erroneous identification will usually

be heard when a steady false bearing is being

displayed. Since ADF receivers do not have a

“FLAG” to warn the pilot when erroneous bearing

information is being displayed, the pilot should

continuously monitor the NDB’s identification.

3. VHF Omni−directional Range (VOR)

3.1 VORs operate within the 108.0 − 117.95 MHz

frequency band and have a power output necessary to

provide coverage within their assigned operational

service volume. They are subject to line−of−sight

restrictions, and range varies proportionally to the

altitude of the receiving equipment.

NOTE−

Normal service ranges for the various classes of

VORs are given in GEN 3.4, TBL GEN 3.4−1,

VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes.

3.2 Most VORs are equipped for voice transmission

on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice

capability are indicated by the letter “W” (without

voice) included in the class designator (VORW).

3.3 The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon

proper use and adjustment of both ground and

airborne equipment.

3.3.1 Accuracy. The accuracy of course alignment

of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or

minus 1 degree.

3.3.2 Roughness. On some VORs, minor course

roughness may be observed, evidenced by course

needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are

more subject to these irregularities than others). At a

few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the pilot

may occasionally observe a brief course needle

oscillation, similar to the indication of “approaching

station.” Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are

cautioned to be on the alert of these vagaries, and, in

particular, to use the “to−from” indicator to determine

positive station passage.
ENR 4.1−2 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.3.2.1 Certain propeller RPM settings or helicopter

rotor speeds can cause the VOR Course Deviation

Indicator (CDI) to fluctuate as much as plus or minus

six degrees. Slight changes to the RPM setting will

normally smooth out this roughness. Pilots are urged

to check for this modulation phenomenon prior to

reporting a VOR station or aircraft equipment for

unsatisfactory operation.

3.4 The only positive method of identifying a VOR

is by its Morse Code identification or by the recorded

automatic voice identification which is always

indicated by use of the word “VOR” following the

range’s name. Reliance on determining the identification of an omnirange should never be placed on

listening to voice transmissions by the FSS (or

approach control facility) involved. Many FSS

remotely operate several omniranges which have

different names from each other and, in some cases,

none have the name of the “parent” FSS. (During

periods of maintenance the facility may radiate a

T−E−S−T code (− −) or the code may be

removed.)

3.5 Voice identification has been added to numerous

VORs. The transmission consists of a voice

announcement; i.e., “AIRVILLE VOR,” alternating

with the usual Morse Code identification.

4. VOR Receiver Check

4.1 Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most

important. If a receiver’s Automatic Gain Control or

modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to

display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into

the VOR or VOT and display out−of−tolerance

readings when located at greater distances where

weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this

deterioration varies between receivers, and is

generally considered a function of time. The best

assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic

calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at

which time an authorized repair facility should

recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturer’s

specifications.

4.2 14 CFR Section 91.171 provides for certain VOR

equipment accuracy checks prior to flight under IFR.

To comply with this requirement and to ensure

satisfactory operation of the airborne system, the

FAA has provided pilots with the following means of

checking VOR receiver accuracy:

4.2.1 FAA VOR test facility (VOT) or a radiated test

signal from an appropriately rated radio repair

station.

4.2.2 Certified airborne check points.

4.2.3 Certified check points on the airport surface.

4.3 The FAA VOT transmits a test signal which

provides a convenient means to determine the

operational status and accuracy of a VOR receiver

while on the ground where a VOT is located. The

airborne use of VOT is permitted; however, its use is

strictly limited to those areas/altitudes specifically

authorized in the Airport/Facility Directory or appropriate supplement. To use the VOT service, tune

in the VOT frequency on your VOR receiver. With

the CDI centered, the omni−bearing selector should

read 0 with the to/from indicator showing “from,” or

the omni−bearing selector should read 180 with the

to/from indicator showing “to.” Should the VOR

receiver operate a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI),

it will indicate 180 on any OBS setting. Two means

of identification are used. One is a series of dots, and

the other is a continuous tone. Information concerning an individual test signal can be obtained from the

local FSS.

4.4 A radiated VOR test signal from an appropriately

rated radio repair station serves the same purpose as

an FAA VOR signal and the check is made in much

the same manner as a VOT with the following

differences:

4.4.1 The frequency normally approved by the FCC

is 108.0 MHz.

4.4.2 Repair stations are not permitted to radiate the

VOR test signal continuously, consequently the

owner/operator must make arrangements with the

repair station to have the test signal transmitted. This

service is not provided by all radio repair stations.

The aircraft owner or operator must determine which

repair station in the local area provides this service.

A representative of the repair station must make an

entry into the aircraft logbook or other permanent

record certifying to the radial accuracy and the date

of transmission. The owner/operator or representative of the repair station may accomplish the

necessary checks in the aircraft and make a logbook

entry stating the results. It is necessary to verify

which test radial is being transmitted and whether you

should get a “to” or “from” indication.
AIP ENR 4.1−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

4.5 Airborne and ground check points consist of

certified radials that should be received at specific

points on the airport surface, or over specific

landmarks while airborne in the immediate vicinity of

the airport.

4.5.1 Should an error in excess of plus or minus

4 degrees be indicated through use of a ground check,

or plus or minus 6 degrees using the airborne check,

IFR flight shall not be attempted without first

correcting the source of the error.

CAUTION−

No correction other than the “correction card” figures

supplied by the manufacturer should be applied in

making these VOR receiver checks.

4.5.2 Locations of airborne check points, ground

check points, and VOTs are published in the A/FD

and are depicted on the A/G voice communication

panels on the FAA IFR area chart and IFR en route

low altitude chart.

4.5.3 If a dual system VOR (units independent of

each other except for the antenna) is installed in the

aircraft, one system may be checked against the other.

Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility

and note the indicated bearing to that station. The

maximum permissible variations between the two

indicated bearings is 4 degrees.

5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

5.1 In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a

specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is

the interrogation) and are received at the ground

station. The ground station (transponder) then

transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same

pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time

required for the round trip of this signal exchange is

measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated

into distance (nautical miles (NM)) from the aircraft

to the ground station.

5.2 Operating on the line−of−sight principle, DME

furnishes distance information with a very high

degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received

at distances up to 199 NM at line−of−sight altitude

with an accuracy of better than 1/2 mile or 3% of the

distance, whichever is greater. Distance information

received from DME equipment is SLANT RANGE

distance and not actual horizontal distance.

5.3 Operating frequency range of a DME according

to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz.

Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will

receive distance information from a VORTAC

automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR

must have a separate DME airborne unit.

5.4 VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and

LOC/DME navigation facilities established by the

FAA provide course and distance information from

collocated components under a frequency pairing

plan. Aircraft receiving equipment which provides

for automatic DME selection assures reception of

azimuth and distance information from a common

source whenever designated VOR/DME, VORTAC,

ILS/DME, and LOC/DME are selected.

5.5 Due to the limited number of available

frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is

required for certain military noncollocated VOR and

TACAN facilities which serve the same area but

which may be separated by distances up to a few

miles.

5.6 VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/

DME facilities are identified by synchronized

identifications which are transmitted on a time share

basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is

identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or

by a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or

DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at

1350 Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification

is transmitted one time for each three or four times

that the VOR or localizer coded identification is

transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is

inoperative, it is important to recognize which

identifier is retained for the operative facility. A

signal coded identification with a repetition interval

of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME

is operative.

5.7 Aircraft equipment which provides for

automatic DME selection assures reception of

azimuth and distance information from a common

source whenever designated VOR/DME, VORTAC,

and ILS/DME navigation facilities are selected.

Pilots are cautioned to disregard any distance

displays from automatically selected DME

equipment when VOR or ILS facilities, which do not

have the DME feature installed, are being used for

position determination.
ENR 4.1−4 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

6. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)

6.1 For reasons peculiar to military or naval operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching and

rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil VOR/DME

system of air navigation was considered unsuitable

for military or naval use. A new navigational system,

Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN), was therefore

developed by the military and naval forces to more

readily lend itself to military and naval requirements.

As a result, the FAA has integrated TACAN facilities

with the civil VOR/DME program. Although the

theoretical, or technical principles of operation of

TACAN equipment are quite different from those of

VOR/DME facilities, the end result, as far as the

navigating pilot is concerned, is the same. These

integrated facilities are called VORTACs.

6.2 TACAN ground equipment consists of either a

fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit in

conjunction with the ground unit reduces the

transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both

azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse

system and operates in the UHF band of frequencies.

Its use requires TACAN airborne equipment and does

not operate through conventional VOR equipment.

6.3 A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two

components, VOR and TACAN, which provides

three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN

azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at one site.

Although consisting of more than one component,

incorporating more than one operating frequency,

and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC

is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both

components of a VORTAC are envisioned as

operating simultaneously and providing the three

services at all times.

6.4 Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are

each identified by three−letter code transmission and

are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth and

TACAN distance can be assured that both signals

being received are definitely from the same ground

station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the

TACAN at each VORTAC facility are “paired” in

accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne

operation.

7. Instrument Landing System (ILS)

7.1 General

7.1.1 The ILS is designed to provide an approach

path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on

final approach to a runway.

7.1.2 The ground equipment consists of two highly

directional transmitting systems and, along the

approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The

directional transmitters are known as the localizer

and glide slope transmitters.

7.1.3 The system may be divided functionally into

three parts:

7.1.3.1 Guidance information: localizer, glide

slope.

7.1.3.2 Range information: marker beacon, DME.

7.1.3.3 Visual information: approach lights,

touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights.

7.1.4 Precision radar, or compass locators located at

the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM),

may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when

specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the

OM.

7.1.5 Where a complete ILS system is installed on

each end of a runway (i.e., the approach end of

runway 4 and the approach end of runway 22), the ILS

systems are not in service simultaneously.

7.2 Localizer

7.2.1 The localizer transmitter, operates on one of

40 ILS channels within the frequency range of

108.10 MHz to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the

pilot with course guidance to the runway centerline.

7.2.2 The approach course of the localizer is called

the front course and is used with other functional

parts; e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The

localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the

runway. It is adjusted for a course width (full scale

fly−left to a full scale fly−right) of 700 feet at the

runway threshold.

7.2.3 The course line along the extended centerline

of a runway, in the opposite direction to the front

course, is called the back course.

CAUTION−

Unless your aircraft’s ILS equipment includes reverse

sensing capability, when flying inbound on the back

course it is necessary to steer the aircraft in the direction
AIP ENR 4.1−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

opposite of the needle deflection on the airborne

equipment when making corrections from off−course to

on−course. This “flying away from the needle” is also

required when flying outbound on the front course of the

localizer. Do not use back course signals for approach

unless a back course approach procedure is published for

that particular runway and the approach is authorized by

ATC.

7.2.4 Identification is in Morse Code and consists of

a three−letter identifier preceded by the letter I ()

transmitted on the localizer frequency.

EXAMPLE−

I−DIA

7.2.5 The localizer provides course guidance

throughout the descent path to the runway threshold

from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna between

an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest terrain

along the course line and 4,500 feet above the

elevation of the antenna site. Proper off−course

indications are provided throughout the following

angular areas of the operational service volume:

7.2.5.1 To 10 either side of the course along a radius

of 18 NM from the antenna.

7.2.5.2 From 10 to 35either side of the course

along a radius of 10 NM. (See FIG ENR 4.1−1.)

7.2.6 Unreliable signals may be received outside

these areas.

FIG ENR 4.1−1

Limits of Localizer Coverage

7.3 Localizer−Type Directional Aid

7.3.1 The localizer−type directional aid (LDA) is of

comparable use and accuracy to a localizer but is not

part of a complete ILS. The LDA course usually

provides a more precise approach course than the

similar Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) installation, which may have a course width of 6 degrees or

12 degrees.

7.3.2 The LDA is not aligned with the runway.

Straight−in minimums may be published where

alignment does not exceed 30 degrees between the

course and runway. Circling minimums only are

published where this alignment exceeds 30 degrees.

7.3.3 A very limited number of LDA approaches

also incorporate a glideslope. These are annotated in

the plan view of the instrument approach chart with

a note, “LDA/Glideslope.” These procedures fall

under a newly defined category of approaches called

Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV) described in

Section ENR 1.5, paragraph 11, Instrument Approach Procedure Charts, subparagraph 11.1.7.2,

Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV). LDA

minima for with and without glideslope is provided

and annotated on the minima lines of the approach

chart as S−LDA/GS and S−LDA. Because the final

approach course is not aligned with the runway

centerline, additional maneuvering will be required

compared to an ILS approach.

7.4 Glide Slope/Glide Path

7.4.1 The UHF glide slope transmitter, operating on

one of the 40 ILS channels within the frequency range

329.15 MHz, to 335.00 MHz radiates its signals in the

direction of the localizer front course.

CAUTION−

False glide slope signals may exist in the area of the

localizer back course approach which can cause the glide

slope flag alarm to disappear and present unreliable glide

slope information. Disregard all glide slope signal

indications when making a localizer back course

approach unless a glide slope is specified on the approach

and landing chart.

7.4.2 The glide slope transmitter is located between

750 and 1,250 feet from the approach end of the

runway (down the runway) and offset 250−600 feet

from the runway centerline. It transmits a glide path

beam 1.4 degrees wide (vertically).

NOTE−

The term “glide path” means that portion of the glide slope

that intersects the localizer.

7.4.3 The glide path projection angle is normally

adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it

intersects the middle marker at about 200 feet and the

outer marker at about 1,400 feet above the runway

elevation. The glide slope is normally usable to the

distance of 10 NM. However, at some locations, the
ENR 4.1−6 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

glide slope has been certified for an extended service

volume which exceeds 10 NM.

7.4.4 Pilots must be alert when approaching

glidepath interception. False courses and reverse

sensing will occur at angles considerably greater than

the published path.

7.4.5 Make every effort to remain on the indicated

glide path. Exercise caution: avoid flying below the

glide path to assure obstacle/terrain clearance is

maintained.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Section 91.129(e).

7.4.6 A glide slope facility provides descent

information for navigation down to the lowest

authorized decision height (DH) specified in the

approved ILS approach procedure. The glidepath

may not be suitable for navigation below the lowest

authorized DH and any reference to glidepath

indications below that height must be supplemented

by visual reference to the runway environment. Glide

slopes with no published DH are usable to runway

threshold.

7.4.7 The published glide slope threshold crossing

height (TCH) DOES NOT represent the height of the

actual glide slope on course indication above the

runway threshold. It is used as a reference for

planning purposes which represents the height above

the runway threshold that an aircraft’s glide slope

antenna should be, if that aircraft remains on a

trajectory formed by the four−mile−to−middle

marker glidepath segment.

7.4.8 Pilots must be aware of the vertical height

between the aircraft’s glide slope antenna and the

main gear in the landing configuration and, at the DH,

plan to adjust the descent angle accordingly if the

published TCH indicates the wheel crossing height

over the runway threshold may be satisfactory. Tests

indicate a comfortable wheel crossing height is

approximately 20 to 30 feet, depending on the type of

aircraft.

NOTE−

The TCH for a runway is established based on several

factors including the largest aircraft category that

normally uses the runway, how airport layout effects the

glide slope antenna placement, and terrain. A higher than

optimum TCH, with the same glide path angle, may cause

the aircraft to touch down further from the threshold if the

trajectory of the approach is maintained until the flare.

Pilots should consider the effect of a high TCH on the

runway available for stopping the aircraft.

7.5 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

7.5.1 When installed with an ILS and specified in the

approach procedure, DME may be used:

7.5.1.1 In lieu of the outer marker.

7.5.1.2 As a back course final approach fix.

7.5.1.3 To establish other fixes on the localizer

course.

7.5.2 In some cases, DME from a separate facility

may be used within Terminal Instrument Procedures

(TERPS) limitations:

7.5.2.1 To provide ARC initial approach segments.

7.5.2.2 As a final approach fix for back course

approaches.

7.5.2.3 As a substitute for the outer marker.

7.6 Marker Beacon

7.6.1 ILS marker beacons have a rated power output

of 3 watts or less and an antenna array designed to

produce an elliptical pattern with dimensions, at

1,000 feet above the antenna, of approximately

2,400 feet in width and 4,200 feet in length. Airborne

marker beacon receivers with a selective sensitivity

feature should always be operated in the “low”

sensitivity position for proper reception of ILS

marker beacons.

7.6.2 Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons

associated with an ILS, the outer marker (OM) and

the middle marker (MM). Locations with a Category

II or III ILS also have an inner marker (IM). When an

aircraft passes over a marker, the pilot will receive the

following indications:

7.6.3 The OM normally indicates a position at which

an aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the localizer

course will intercept the ILS glide path.

7.6.4 The MM indicates a position approximately

3,500 feet from the landing threshold. This will also

be the position where an aircraft on the glide path will

be at an altitude of approximately 200 feet above the

elevation of the touchdown zone.

7.6.5 The IM indicates a point at which an aircraft is

at a designated decision height (DH) on the glide path

between the middle marker and landing threshold.

7.6.6 A back course marker, normally indicates the

ILS back course final approach fix where approach

descent is commenced.
AIP ENR 4.1−7

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL ENR 4.1−1

Marker Passage Indications

Marker Code Light

OM BLUE

MM   AMBER

IM     WHITE

BC     WHITE

8. Compass Locator

8.1 Compass locator transmitters are often situated

at the middle and outer marker sites. The transmitters

have a power of less than 25 watts, a range of at least

15 miles, and operate between 190 and 535 kHz. At

some locations, higher−powered radio beacons, up to

400 watts, are used as outer marker compass locators.

These generally carry Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) information.

8.2 Compass locators transmit two−letter identification groups. The outer locator transmits the first two

letters of the localizer identification group, and the

middle locator transmits the last two letters of the

localizer identification group.

9. ILS Frequency

9.1 The frequency pairs in TBL ENR 4.1−2 are

allocated for ILS.

TBL ENR 4.1−2

Frequency Pairs Allocated for ILS

Localizer MHz Glide Slope

108.10 334.70

108.15 334.55

108.3 334.10

108.35 333.95

108.5 329.90

108.55 329.75

108.7 330.50

108.75 330.35

108.9 329.30

108.95 329.15

109.1 331.40

109.15 331.25

109.3 332.00

109.35 331.85

109.50 332.60

109.55 332.45

109.70 333.20

109.75 333.05

109.90 333.80

109.95 333.65

110.1 334.40

110.15 334.25

110.3 335.00

110.35 334.85

110.5 329.60

110.55 329.45

110.70 330.20

110.75 330.05

110.90 330.80

110.95 330.65

111.10 331.70

111.15 331.55

111.30 332.30

111.35 332.15

111.50 332.9

111.55 332.75

111.70 333.5

111.75 333.35

111.90 331.1

111.95 330.95
ENR 4.1−8 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

10. ILS Minimums

10.1 The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with all

required ground and airborne systems components

operative, are:

10.1.1 Category I. Decision Height (DH) 200 feet

and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet (with

touchdown zone and centerline lighting, RVR

1,800 feet).

10.1.2 Category II. DH 100 feet and RVR

1,200 feet.

10.1.3 Category IIIa. No DH or DH below 100 feet

and RVR not less than 700 feet.

10.1.4 Category IIIb. No DH or DH below 50 feet

and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than 150 feet.

10.1.5 Category IIIc. No DH or no RVR limitation.

NOTE−

Special authorization and equipment are required for

Category II and III.

11. Inoperative ILS Components

11.1 Inoperative Localizer. When the localizer

fails, an ILS approach is not authorized.

11.2 Inoperative Glide Slope. When the glide

slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision localizer

approach.

REFERENCE−

See the Inoperative Component Table in the U.S. Government Terminal

Procedures Publication (TPP) for adjustments to minimums due to

inoperative airborne or ground system equipment.

12. ILS Course Distortion

12.1 All pilots should be aware that disturbance to

ILS localizer/glide slope courses may occur when

surface vehicles/aircraft are operated near the

localizer/glide slope antennas. Most ILS installations

are subject to signal interference by either surface

vehicles, aircraft, or both. ILS “CRITICAL AREAS”

are established near each localizer and glide slope

antenna.

12.2 Air traffic control issues control instructions to

avoid interfering operations within ILS critical areas

at controlled airports during the hours the airport

traffic control tower is in operation as follows:

12.2.1 Weather Conditions. At or above 800 feet

and/or visibility 2 miles.

12.2.1.1 No critical area protection action is

provided.

12.2.1.2 If an aircraft advises the TOWER that an

“AUTOLAND”/“COUPLED” approach will be

conducted, an advisory will be promptly issued if a

vehicle/aircraft will be in or over a critical area when

the arriving aircraft is inside the ILS middle marker.

EXAMPLE−

Glide slope signal not protected.

12.2.2 Weather Conditions. Less than ceiling 800

feet and/or visibility 2 miles.

12.2.2.1 Glide Slope Critical Area. Vehicles/aircraft are not authorized in the area when an arriving

aircraft is between the ILS final approach fix and the

airport unless the aircraft has reported the airport in

sight and is circling or side stepping to land on other

than the ILS runway.

12.2.2.2 Localizer Critical Area. Except for aircraft that land, exit a runway, depart or miss approach,

vehicles and aircraft are not authorized in or over the

critical area when an arriving aircraft is between the

ILS final approach fix and the airport. Additionally,

when the ceiling is less than 200 feet and/or the

visibility is RVR 2,000 or less, vehicle/aircraft

operations in or over the area are not authorized when

an arriving aircraft is inside the ILS middle marker.

12.3 Aircraft holding below 5000 feet between the

outer marker and the airport may cause localizer

signal variations for aircraft conducting the ILS

approach. Accordingly, such holding is not authorized when weather or visibility conditions are less

than ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.

12.4 Pilots are cautioned that vehicular traffic not

subject to control by ATC may cause momentary

deviation to ILS course/glide slope signals. Also,

“critical areas” are not protected at uncontrolled

airports or at airports with an operating control tower

when weather/visibility conditions are above those

requiring protective measures. Aircraft conducting

“coupled” or “autoland” operations should be

especially alert in monitoring automatic flight control

systems. (See FIG ENR 4.1−2.)

NOTE−

Unless otherwise coordinated through flight standards,

ILS signals to Category 1 runways are not flight inspected

below 100 feet AGL. Guidance signal anomalies may be

encountered below this altitude.
AIP ENR 4.1−9

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 4.1−2

FAA Instrument Landing Systems
ENR 4.1−10 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

13. Continuous Power Facilities

13.1 In order to ensure that a basic ATC system

remains in operation despite an area wide or

catastrophic commercial power failure, key equipment and certain airports have been designated to

provide a network of facilities whose operational

capability can be utilized independent of any

commercial power supply.

13.2 In addition to those facilities comprising the

basic ATC system, the following approach and

lighting aids have been included in this program for

a selected runway:

13.2.1 ILS (Localizer, Glide Slope, Compass

Locator, Inner, Middle and Outer Markers).

13.2.2 Wind Measuring Capability.

13.2.3 Approach Light System (ALS) or Short ALS

(SALS).

13.2.4 Ceiling Measuring Capability.

13.2.5 Touchdown Zone Lighting (TDZL).

13.2.6 Centerline Lighting (CL).

13.2.7 Runway Visual Range (RVR).

13.2.8 High Intensity Runway Lighting (HIRL).

13.2.9 Taxiway Lighting.

13.2.10 Apron Light (Perimeter Only).

TBL ENR 4.1−3

Continuous Power Airports

Airport/Ident Runway No.

Albuquerque (ABQ) 08

Andrews AFB (ADW) 1L

Atlanta (ATL) 9R

Baltimore (BWI) 10

Bismarck (BIS) 31

Boise (BOI) 10R

Boston (BOS) 4R

Charlotte (CLT) 36L

Chicago (ORD) 14R

Cincinnati (CVG) 36

Cleveland (CLE) 5R

Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW) 17L

Denver (DEN) 35R

Des Moines (DSM) 30R

Detroit (DTW) 3L

Continuous Power Airports

Airport/Ident Runway No.

El Paso (ELP) 22

Great Falls (GTF) 03

Houston (IAH) 08

Indianapolis (IND) 4L

Jacksonville (JAX) 07

Kansas City (MCI) 19

Los Angeles (LAX) 24R

Memphis (MEM) 36L

Miami (MIA) 9L

Milwaukee (MKE) 01

Minneapolis (MSP) 29L

Nashville (BNA) 2L

Newark (EWR) 4R

New Orleans (MSY) 10

New York (JFK) 4R

New York (LGA) 22

Oklahoma City (OKC) 35R

Omaha (OMA) 14

Ontario, California (ONT) 26R

Philadelphia (PHL) 9R

Phoenix (PHX) 08R

Pittsburgh (PIT) 10L

Reno (RNO) 16

Salt Lake City (SLC) 34L

San Antonio (SAT) 12R

San Diego (SAN) 09

San Francisco (SFO) 28R

Seattle (SEA) 16R

St. Louis (STL) 24

Tampa (TPA) 36L

Tulsa (TUL) 35R

Washington (DCA) 36

Washington (IAD) 1R

Wichita (ICT) 01

13.3 The above have been designated “Continuous

Power Airports,” and have independent back up

capability for the equipment installed.

NOTE−

The existing CPA runway is listed. Pending and future

changes at some locations will require a revised runway

designation.
AIP ENR 4.1−11

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

14. Simplified Directional Facility (SDF)

14.1 The SDF provides a final approach course

similar to that of the ILS localizer. It does not provide

glide slope information. A clear understanding of the

ILS localizer and the additional factors listed below

completely describe the operational characteristics

and use of the SDF.

14.2 The SDF transmits signals within the range of

108.10 to 111.95 MHz.

14.3 The approach techniques and procedures used

in an SDF instrument approach are essentially the

same as those employed in executing a standard

no−glide−slope localizer approach except the SDF

course may not be aligned with the runway and the

course may be wider, resulting in less precision.

14.4 Usable off−course indications are limited to

35 degrees either side of the course centerline.

Instrument indications received beyond 35 degrees

should be disregarded.

14.5 The SDF antenna may be offset from the

runway centerline. Because of this, the angle of

convergence between the final approach course and

the runway bearing should be determined by

reference to the instrument approach procedure chart.

This angle is generally not more than 3 degrees.

However, it should be noted that inasmuch as the

approach course originates at the antenna site, an

approach which is continued beyond the runway

threshold will lead the aircraft to the SDF offset

position rather than along the runway centerline.

14.6 The SDF signal is fixed at either 6 degrees or

12 degrees as necessary to provide maximum “fly

ability” and optimum course quality.

14.7 Identification consists of a three−letter identifier transmitted in Morse Code on the SDF frequency.

The appropriate instrument approach chart will

indicate the identifier used at a particular airport.

15. Microwave Landing System (MLS)

15.1 General

15.1.1 The MLS provides precision navigation

guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft

on approach to a runway. It provides azimuth,

elevation, and distance information. The elevation

transmitter is located to the side of the runway near

the approach threshold. The precision DME, which

provides range information, is normally collocated

with the azimuth transmitter.

15.1.2 Both lateral and vertical guidance may be

displayed on conventional course deviation indicators or incorporated into multipurpose cockpit

displays. Range information can be displayed by

conventional DME indicators and also incorporated

into multipurpose displays.

15.1.3 The MLS supplements the ILS as the standard

landing system in the U.S. for civil, military, and

international civil aviation. At international airports,

ILS service is protected to 2010.

15.1.4 The system may be divided into five

functions:

15.1.4.1 Approach azimuth.

15.1.4.2 Back azimuth.

15.1.4.3 Approach elevation.

15.1.4.4 Range.

15.1.4.5 Data communications.

15.1.5 The standard configuration of MLS ground

equipment includes:

15.1.5.1 An azimuth station to perform functions

15.1.4.1 and 15.1.4.5 above. In addition to providing

azimuth navigation guidance, the azimuth station

also transmits basic data which consists of

information associated directly with the operation of

the landing system, as well as advisory data on the

performance of the ground equipment.

15.1.5.2 An elevation station to perform function

15.1.4.3.

15.1.5.3 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) to

perform function 15.1.4.4. The DME provides range

guidance, both standard (DME/N) and precision

DME (DME/P).

15.1.6 MLS Expansion Capabilities. The standard configuration can be expanded by adding one or

more of the following functions or characteristics.

15.1.6.1 Back Azimuth. Provides lateral guidance

for missed approach and departure navigation.

15.1.6.2 Auxiliary Data Transmissions. Provides

additional data, including refined airborne positioning, meteorological information, runway status, and

other supplementary information.

15.1.6.3 Expanded Service Volume (ESV). Provides proportional guidance to 60 degrees.
ENR 4.1−12 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

15.1.7 MLS identification is a four−letter designation starting with the letter M. It is transmitted in

Morse Code at least six times per minute by the

approach azimuth (and back azimuth) ground

equipment.

15.2 Approach Azimuth Guidance

15.2.1 The azimuth station transmits MLS angle and

data on one of the 200 channels within the frequency

range of 5031 to 5091 MHz.

15.2.2 The equipment is normally located about

1,000 feet beyond the stop end of the runway, but

there is considerable flexibility in selecting sites. For

example, for heliport operations the azimuth

transmitter can be collocated with the elevation

transmitter.

15.2.3 The azimuth coverage extends: 

(See FIG ENR 4.1−3.)

FIG ENR 4.1−3

Coverage Volume

Azimuth

APPROACH

AZIMUTH

AZIMUTH

-40°

+40°

20 NM

ESV

ESV

14 NM

+60° MAXIMUM LIMIT

14 NM

-60°

15.2.3.1 Laterally, at least 40 degrees on either side

of the runway centerline in a standard configuration.

15.2.3.2 In elevation, up to an angle of 15 degrees −

and to at least 20,000 feet.

15.2.3.3 In range, to at least 20 NM.

15.3 Elevation Guidance

15.3.1 The elevation station transmits signals on the

same frequency as the azimuth station. A single

frequency is time−shared between all angle and data

functions.

15.3.2 The elevation transmitter is normally located

about 400 feet from the side of the runway between

runway threshold and the touchdown zone.

15.3.3 Elevation coverage is provided in the same

airspace as the azimuth guidance signals:

15.3.3.1 In elevation, to at least +15 degrees.

15.3.3.2 Laterally, to fill the azimuth lateral

coverage.

15.3.3.3 In range, to at least 20 NM. (See

FIG ENR 4.1−4.)

FIG ENR 4.1−4

Coverage Volumes

Elevation

ELEVATION ELEVATION

NORMAL

GLIDE PATH

NORMAL

GLIDE PATH

MAXIMUM LIMIT MAXIMUM LIMIT 20,000’

20 NM

30

3

15

o

o

o

o

15.4 Range Guidance

15.4.1 The MLS Precision Distance Measuring

Equipment (DME/P) functions the same as the

navigation DME, but with some technical differences. The beacon transponder operates in the

frequency band 962 to 1105 MHz and responds to an

aircraft interrogator. The MLS DME/P accuracy is

improved to be consistent with the accuracy provided

by the MLS azimuth and elevation stations.

15.4.2 A DME/P channel is paired with the azimuth

and elevation channel. A complete listing of the 200

paired channels of the DME/P with the angle

functions is contained in FAA Standard 022 (MLS

Interoperability and Performance Requirements).
AIP ENR 4.1−13

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

15.4.3 The DME/N or DME/P is an integral part of

the MLS and is installed at all MLS facilities unless

a waiver is obtained. This occurs infrequently and

only at outlying, low density airports where marker

beacons or compass locators are already in place.

15.5 Data Communications

15.5.1 The data transmission can include both the

basic and auxiliary data words. All MLS facilities

transmit basic data. Where needed, auxiliary data can

be transmitted.

15.5.2 Coverage Limits. MLS data are transmitted

throughout the azimuth (and back azimuth when

provided) coverage sectors.

15.5.3 Basic Data Content. Representative data

include:

15.5.3.1 Station identification.

15.5.3.2 Exact locations of azimuth, elevation and

DME/P stations (for MLS receiver processing

functions).

15.5.3.3 Ground equipment performance level.

15.5.3.4 DME/P channel and status.

15.5.4 Auxiliary Data Content. Representative

data include:

15.5.4.1 3−D locations of MLS equipment.

15.5.4.2 Waypoint coordinates.

15.5.4.3 Runway conditions.

15.5.4.4 Weather (e.g., RVR, ceiling, altimeter

setting, wind, wake vortex, wind shear).

15.6 Operational Flexibility. The MLS has the

capability to fulfill a variety of needs in the approach,

landing, missed approach, and departure phases of

flight. For example:

15.6.1 Curved and segmented approaches.

15.6.2 Selectable glide path angles.

15.6.3 Accurate 3−D positioning of the aircraft in

space.

15.6.4 The establishment of boundaries to ensure

clearance from obstructions in the terminal area.

15.7 While many of these capabilities are available

to any MLS−equipped aircraft, the more sophisticated capabilities (such as curved and segmented

approaches) are dependent upon the particular

capabilities of the airborne equipment.

15.8 Summary

15.8.1 Accuracy. The MLS provides precision,

three−dimensional navigation guidance accurate

enough for all approach and landing maneuvers.

15.8.2 Coverage. Accuracy is consistent throughout the coverage volumes shown in FIG ENR 4.1−5.

FIG ENR 4.1−5

Coverage Volumes

3−D Representation

15.8.3 Environment. The system has low susceptibility to interference from weather conditions and

airport ground traffic.

15.8.4 Channels. MLS has 200 channels − enough

for any foreseeable need.

15.8.5 Data. The MLS transmits ground−air data

messages associated with system operation.

15.8.6 Range Information. Continuous range information is provided with an accuracy of about

100 feet.
ENR 4.1−14 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

16. LORAN

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 The LOng RAnge Navigation−C (LORAN)

system is a hyperbolic, terrestrial−based navigation

system operating in the 90−110 kHz frequency band.

LORAN, operated by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG),

has been in service for over 50 years and is used for

navigation by the various transportation modes, as

well as, for precise time and frequency applications.

The system is configured to provide reliable, all

weather navigation for marine users along the U.S.

coasts and in the Great Lakes.

16.1.2 In the 1980’s, responding to aviation user and

industry requests, the USCG and FAA expanded

LORAN coverage to include the entire continental

U.S. This work was completed in late 1990, but the

LORAN system failed to gain significant user

acceptance and primarily due to transmitter and user

equipment performance limitations, attempts to

obtain FAA certification of nonprecision approach

capable receivers were unsuccessful. More recently,

concern regarding the vulnerability of Global

Positioning System (GPS) and the consequences of

losing GPS on the critical U.S. infrastructure (e.g.,

NAS) has renewed and refocused attention on

LORAN.

16.1.3 LORAN is also supported in the Canadian

airspace system. Currently, LORAN receivers are

only certified for en route navigation.

16.1.4 Additional information can be found in the

“LORAN−C User Handbook,” COMDT PUBP

16562.6, or the website www.navcen.uscg.gov.

16.2 LORAN Chain

16.2.1 The locations of the U.S. and Canadian

LORAN transmitters and monitor sites are illustrated

in FIG ENR 4.1−6. Station operations are organized

into subgroups of four to six stations called “chains.”

One station in the chain is designated the “Master”

and the others are “secondary” stations. The resulting

chain based coverage is seen in FIG ENR 4.1−7.

FIG ENR 4.1−6

U.S. and Canadian LORAN System Architecture
AIP ENR 4.1−15

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 4.1−7

LORAN Chain Based Coverage

16.2.2 The LORAN navigation signal is a carefully

structured sequence of brief radio frequency pulses

centered at 100 kHz. The sequence of signal

transmissions consists of a pulse group from the

Master (M) station followed at precise time intervals

by groups from the secondary stations, which are

designated by the U.S. Coast Guard with the letters V,

W, X, Y and Z. All secondary stations radiate pulses

in groups of eight, but for identification the Master

signal has an additional ninth pulse. (See

FIG ENR 4.1−8.) The timing of the LORAN system

is tightly controlled and synchronized to Coordinated

Universal Time (UTC). Like the GPS, this is a

Stratum 1 timing standard.

16.2.3 The time interval between the reoccurrence of

the Master pulse group is called the Group Repetition

Interval (GRI). The GRI is the same for all stations in

a chain and each LORAN chain has a unique GRI.

Since all stations in a particular chain operate on the

same radio frequency, the GRI is the key by which a

LORAN receiver can identify and isolate signal

groups from a specific chain.

EXAMPLE−

Transmitters in the Northeast U.S. chain (FIG ENR 4.1−9)

operate with a GRI of 99,600 microseconds which is

shortened to 9960 for convenience. The master station (M)

at Seneca, New York, controls secondary stations (W) at

Caribou, Maine; (X) at Nantucket, Massachusetts; (Y) at

Carolina Beach, North Carolina, and (Z) at Dana, Indiana.

In order to keep chain operations precise, monitor

receivers are located at Cape Elizabeth, ME; Sandy Hook,

NJ; Dunbar Forest, MI, and Plumbrook, OH. Monitor

receivers continuously measure various aspects of the

quality (e.g., pulse shape) and accuracy (e.g., timing) of

LORAN signals and report system status to a control

station.

16.2.4 The line between the Master and each

secondary station is the “baseline” for a pair of

stations. Typical baselines are from 600 to

1000 nautical miles in length. The continuation of the

baseline in either direction is a “baseline extension.”

16.2.5 At the LORAN transmitter stations there are

cesium oscillators, transmitter time and control

equipment, a transmitter, primary power (e.g., commercial or generator) and auxiliary power equipment

(e.g., uninterruptible power supplies and generators),

and a transmitting antenna (configurations may either

have 1 or 4 towers) with the tower heights ranging

from 700 to 1350 feet tall. Depending on the coverage

area requirements a LORAN station transmits from

400 to 1,600 kilowatts of peak signal power.

16.2.6 The USCG operates the LORAN transmitter

stations under a reduced staffing structure that is

made possible by the remote control and monitoring

of the critical station and signal parameters. The

actual control of the transmitting station is
ENR 4.1−16 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

accomplished remotely at Coast Guard Navigation

Center (NAVCEN) located in Alexandria, Virginia.

East Coast and Midwest stations are controlled by the

NAVCEN. Stations on the West Coast and in Alaska

are controlled by the NAVCEN Detachment (Det),

located in Petaluma, California. In the event of a

problem at one of these two 24 hour−a−day staffed

sites, monitoring and control of the entire LORAN

system can be done at either location. If both NACEN

and NAVCEN Det are down or if there is an

equipment problem at a specific station, local station

personnel are available to operate and perform repairs

at each LORAN station.

16.2.7 The transmitted signal is also monitored in the

service areas (i.e., area of published LORAN

coverage) and its status provided to NAVCEN and

NAVCEN Det. The System Area Monitor (SAM) is

a single site used to observe the transmitted signal

(signal strength, time difference, and pulse shape). If

an out−of−tolerance situation that could affect

navigation accuracy is detected, an alert signal called

“Blink” is activated. Blink is a distinctive change in

the group of eight pulses that can be recognized

automatically by a receiver so the user is notified

instantly that the LORAN system should not be used

for navigation. Out−of−tolerance situations which

only the local station can detect are also monitored.

These situations when detected cause signal

transmissions from a station to be halted.

16.2.8 Each individual LORAN chain provides

navigation-quality signal coverage over an identified

area as shown in FIG ENR 4.1−10 for the West Coast

chain, GRI 9940. The chain Master station is at

Fallon, Nevada, and secondary stations are at George,

Washington; Middletown, California, and Searchlight, Nevada. In a signal coverage area the signal

strength relative to the normal ambient radio noise

must be adequate to assure successful reception.

Similar coverage area charts are available for all

chains.
AIP ENR 4.1−17

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 4.1−8

The LORAN Pulse and Pulse Group
ENR 4.1−18 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 4.1−9

Northeast U.S. LORAN Chain
AIP ENR 4.1−19

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 4.1−10

West Coast U.S. LORAN Chain
ENR 4.1−20 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

16.3 The LORAN Receiver

16.3.1 For a currently certified LORAN aviation

receiver to provide navigation information for a pilot,

it must successfully receive, or “acquire,” signals

from three or more stations in a chain. Acquisition

involves the time synchronization of the receiver with

the chain GRI, identification of the Master station

signals from among those checked, identification of

secondary station signals, and the proper selection of

the tracking point on each signal at which

measurements are made. However, a new generation

of receivers has been developed that use pulses from

all stations that can be received at the pilot’s location.

Use of “all−in−view” stations by a receiver is made

possible due to the synchronization of LORAN

stations signals to UTC. This new generation of

receivers, along with improvements at the transmitting stations and changes in system policy and

operations doctrine may allow for LORAN’s use in

nonprecision approaches. At this time these receivers

are available for purchase, but none have been

certified for aviation use.

16.3.2 The basic measurements made by certified

LORAN receivers are the differences in time−of−arrival between the Master signal and the signals from

each of the secondary stations of a chain. Each “time

difference” (TD) value is measured to a precision of

about 0.1 microseconds. As a rule of thumb,

0.1 microsecond is equal to about 100 feet.

16.3.3 An aircraft’s LORAN receiver must recognize three signal conditions:

16.3.3.1 Usable signals;

16.3.3.2 Absence of signals, and

16.3.3.3 Signal blink.

16.3.4 The most critical phase of flight is during the

approach to landing at an airport. During the

approach phase the receiver must detect a lost signal,

or a signal Blink, within 10 seconds of the occurrence

and warn the pilot of the event. At this time there are

no receivers that are certified for nonprecision

approaches.

16.3.5 Most certified receivers have various internal

tests for estimating the probable accuracy of the

current TD values and consequent navigation

solutions. Tests may include verification of the timing

alignment of the receiver clock with the LORAN

pulse, or a continuous measurement of the signal−

to−noise ratio (SNR). SNR is the relative strength of

the LORAN signals compared to the local ambient

noise level. If any of the tests fail, or if the quantities

measured are out of the limits set for reliable

navigation, then an alarm will be activated to alert the

pilot.

16.3.6 LORAN signals operate in the low frequency

band (90−110 kHz) that has been reserved for marine

navigation signals. Adjacent to the band, however,

are numerous low frequency communications

transmitters. Nearby signals can distort the LORAN

signals and must be eliminated by the receiver to

assure proper operation. To eliminate interfering

signals, LORAN receivers have selective internal

filters. These filters, commonly known as “notch

filters,” reduce the effect of interfering signals.

16.3.7 Careful installation of antennas, good metal−

to−metal electrical bonding, and provisions for

precipitation noise discharge on the aircraft are

essential for the successful operation of LORAN

receivers. A LORAN antenna should be installed on

an aircraft in accordance with the manufacturer’s

instructions. Corroded bonding straps should be

replaced, and static discharge devices installed at

points indicated by the aircraft manufacturer.

16.4 LORAN Navigation

16.4.1 An airborne LORAN receiver has four major

parts:

16.4.1.1 Signal processor;

16.4.1.2 Navigation computer;

16.4.1.3 Control/display, and

16.4.1.4 Antenna.

16.4.2 The signal processor acquires LORAN

signals and measures the difference between the

time−of−arrival of each secondary station pulse

group and the Master station pulse group. The

measured TDs depend on the location of the receiver

in relation to the three or more transmitters.
AIP ENR 4.1−21

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 4.1−11

First Line−of−Position

16.4.2.1 The first TD will locate an aircraft

somewhere on a line−of−position (LOP) on which the

receiver will measure the same TD value.

16.4.2.2 A second LOP is defined by a TD

measurement between the Master station signal and

the signal form another secondary station.

FIG ENR 4.1−12

Second Line−of−Position

16.4.2.3 The intersection of the measured LOPs is

the position of the aircraft.

FIG ENR 4.1−13

Intersection of Lines−of−Position

16.4.3 The navigation computer converts TD values

to corresponding latitude and longitude. Once the

time and position of the aircraft are established at

two points, distance to destination, cross track error,

ground speed, estimated time of arrival, etc., can be

determined. Cross track error can be displayed as the

vertical needle of a course deviation indicator, or

digitally, as decimal parts of a mile left or right of

course.

16.5 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued for

LORAN chain or station outages. Domestic

NOTAM (D)s are issued under the identifier “LRN.”

International NOTAMs are issued under the KNMH

series. Pilots may obtain these NOTAMs from FSS

briefers upon request.

16.6 LORAN Status Information. To find out

more information on the LORAN system and its

operational status you can visit http://www.navcen.

uscg.gov/loran/default.htm or contact NAVCEN’s

Navigation Information Service (NIS) watchstander,

phone (703) 313−5900, fax (703) 313−5920.

16.7 LORAN’s future. The U.S. will continue to

operate the LORAN system in the short term. During

this time, the FAA LORAN evaluation program,

being conducted with the support of a team
ENR 4.1−22 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

comprising government, academia, and industry, will

identify and assess LORAN’s potential contributions

to required navigation services for the National

Airspace System (NAS), and support decisions

regarding continued operation of the system. If the

government concludes LORAN should not be kept as

part of the mix of federally provided radio navigation

systems, it will give the users of LORAN reasonable

notice so that they will have the opportunity to

transition to alternative navigation aids.

17. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), Inertial

Navigation System (INS), and Attitude

Heading Reference System (AHRS)

17.1 IRUs are self−contained systems comprised of

gyros and accelerometers that provide aircraft

attitude (pitch, roll, and heading), position, and

velocity information in response to signals resulting

from inertial effects on system components. Once

aligned with a known position, IRUs continuously

calculate position and velocity. IRU position

accuracy decays with time. This degradation is

known as “drift.”

17.2 INSs combine the components of an IRU with

an internal navigation computer. By programming a

series of waypoints, these systems will navigate along

a predetermined track.

17.3 AHRSs are electronic devices that provide

attitude information to aircraft systems such as

weather radar and autopilot, but do not directly

compute position information.

18. Global Positioning System (GPS)

18.1 System Overview

18.1.1 System Description. The Global Positioning

System is a satellite−based radio navigation system,

which broadcasts a signal that is used by receivers to

determine precise position anywhere in the world.

The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines

a pseudorange measurement that is then used to

determine the user location. A minimum of four

satellites is necessary to establish an accurate

three−dimensional position. The Department of

Defense (DOD) is responsible for operating the GPS

satellite constellation and monitors the GPS satellites

to ensure proper operation. Every satellite’s orbital

parameters (ephemeris data) are sent to each satellite

for broadcast as part of the data message embedded

in the GPS signal. The GPS coordinate system is the

Cartesian earth−centered earth−fixed coordinates as

specified in the World Geodetic System 1984

(WGS−84).

18.1.2 System Availability and Reliability

18.1.2.1 The status of GPS satellites is broadcast as

part of the data message transmitted by the GPS

satellites. GPS status information is also available by

means of the U.S. Coast Guard navigation

information service: (703) 313−5907, Internet:

http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/. Additionally, satellite status is available through the Notice to Airmen

(NOTAM) system.

18.1.2.2 The operational status of GNSS operations

depends upon the type of equipment being used. For

GPS−only equipment TSO−C129a, the operational

status of nonprecision approach capability for flight

planning purposes is provided through a prediction

program that is embedded in the receiver or provided

separately.

18.1.3 Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

(RAIM). When GNSS equipment is not using

integrity information from WAAS or LAAS, the GPS

navigation receiver using RAIM provides GPS signal

integrity monitoring. RAIM is necessary since delays

of up to two hours can occur before an erroneous

satellite transmission can be detected and corrected

by the satellite control segment. The RAIM function

is also referred to as fault detection. Another

capability, fault exclusion, refers to the ability of the

receiver to exclude a failed satellite from the position

solution and is provided by some GPS receivers and

by WAAS receivers.

18.1.4 The GPS receiver verifies the integrity

(usability) of the signals received from the GPS

constellation through receiver autonomous integrity

monitoring (RAIM) to determine if a satellite is

providing corrupted information. At least one

satellite, in addition to those required for navigation,

must be in view for the receiver to perform the RAIM

function; thus, RAIM needs a minimum of 5 satellites

in view, or 4 satellites and a barometric altimeter

(baro−aiding) to detect an integrity anomaly. For

receivers capable of doing so, RAIM needs

6 satellites in view (or 5 satellites with baro−aiding)

to isolate the corrupt satellite signal and remove it

from the navigation solution. Baro−aiding is a

method of augmenting the GPS integrity solution by

using a nonsatellite input source. GPS derived

altitude should not be relied upon to determine
AIP ENR 4.1−23

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

aircraft altitude since the vertical error can be quite

large and no integrity is provided. To ensure that

baro−aiding is available, the current altimeter setting

must be entered into the receiver as described in the

operating manual.

18.1.5 RAIM messages vary somewhat between

receivers; however, generally there are two types.

One type indicates that there are not enough satellites

available to provide RAIM integrity monitoring and

another type indicates that the RAIM integrity

monitor has detected a potential error that exceeds the

limit for the current phase of flight. Without RAIM

capability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy

of the GPS position.

18.1.6 Selective Availability. Selective Availability

(SA) is a method by which the accuracy of GPS is

intentionally degraded. This feature is designed to

deny hostile use of precise GPS positioning data. SA

was discontinued on May 1, 2000, but many GPS

receivers are designed to assume that SA is still

active. New receivers may take advantage of the

discontinuance of SA based on the performance

values in ICAO Annex 10, and do not need to be

designed to operate outside of that performance.

18.1.7 The GPS constellation of 24 satellites is

designed so that a minimum of five is always

observable by a user anywhere on earth. The receiver

uses data from a minimum of four satellites above the

mask angle (the lowest angle above the horizon at

which it can use a satellite).

18.1.8 The DOD declared initial operational capability (IOC) of the U.S. GPS on December 8, 1993.

The FAA has granted approval for U.S. civil

operators to use properly certified GPS equipment as

a primary means of navigation in oceanic airspace

and certain remote areas. Properly certified GPS

equipment may be used as a supplemental means of

IFR navigation for domestic en route, terminal

operations, and certain instrument approach procedures (IAPs). This approval permits the use of GPS

in a manner that is consistent with current navigation

requirements as well as approved air carrier

operations specifications.

18.2 VFR Use of GPS

18.2.1 GPS navigation has become a great asset to

VFR pilots, providing increased navigation capability and enhanced situational awareness, while

reducing operating costs due to greater ease in flying

direct routes. While GPS has many benefits to the

VFR pilot, care must be exercised to ensure that

system capabilities are not exceeded.

18.2.2 Types of receivers used for GPS navigation

under VFR are varied, from a full IFR installation

being used to support a VFR flight, to a VFR only

installation (in either a VFR or IFR capable aircraft)

to a hand−held receiver. The limitations of each type

of receiver installation or use must be understood by

the pilot to avoid misusing navigation information.

(See TBL ENR 4.1−5.) In all cases, VFR pilots

should never rely solely on one system of navigation.

GPS navigation must be integrated with other forms

of electronic navigation (when possible), as well as

pilotage and dead reckoning. Only through the

integration of these techniques can the VFR pilot

ensure accuracy in navigation.

18.2.3 Some critical concerns in VFR use of GPS

include RAIM capability, database currency, and

antenna location.

18.2.3.1 RAIM Capability. Many VFR GPS receivers and all hand−held units have no RAIM

alerting capability. Loss of the required number of

satellites in view, or the detection of a position error,

cannot be displayed to the pilot by such receivers. In

receivers with no RAIM capability, no alert would be

provided to the pilot that the navigation solution had

deteriorated, and an undetected navigation error

could occur. A systematic cross−check with other

navigation techniques would identify this failure, and

prevent a serious deviation. See subparagraphs 18.1.6

and 18.1.7 for more information on RAIM.

18.2.3.2 Database Currency

a) In many receivers, an updateable database is

used for navigation fixes, airports, and instrument

procedures. These databases must be maintained to

the current update for IFR operation, but no such

requirement exists for VFR use.

b) However, in many cases, the database drives a

moving map display which indicates Special Use

Airspace and the various classes of airspace, in

addition to other operational information. Without a

current database the moving map display may be

outdated and offer erroneous information to VFR

pilots wishing to fly around critical airspace areas,

such as a Restricted Area or a Class B airspace

segment. Numerous pilots have ventured into

airspace they were trying to avoid by using an

outdated database. If you don’t have a current
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database in the receiver, disregard the moving map

display for critical navigation decisions.

c) In addition, waypoints are added, removed,

relocated, or renamed as required to meet operational

needs. When using GPS to navigate relative to a

named fix, a current database must be used to

properly locate a named waypoint. Without the

update, it is the pilot’s responsibility to verify the

waypoint location referencing to an official current

source, such as the Airport/Facility Directory,

Sectional Chart, or En Route Chart.

18.2.3.3 Antenna Location

a) In many VFR installations of GPS receivers,

antenna location is more a matter of convenience than

performance. In IFR installations, care is exercised to

ensure that an adequate clear view is provided for the

antenna to see satellites. If an alternate location is

used, some portion of the aircraft may block the view

of the antenna, causing a greater opportunity to lose

navigation signal.

b) This is especially true in the case of hand−helds.

The use of hand−held receivers for VFR operations is

a growing trend, especially among rental pilots.

Typically, suction cups are used to place the GPS

antennas on the inside of cockpit windows. While

this method has great utility, the antenna location is

limited to the cockpit or cabin only and is rarely

optimized to provide a clear view of available

satellites. Consequently, signal losses may occur in

certain situations of aircraft−satellite geometry,

causing a loss of navigation signal. These losses,

coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could

present erroneous position and navigation information with no warning to the pilot.

c) While the use of a hand−held GPS for VFR

operations is not limited by regulation, modification

of the aircraft, such as installing a panel− or

yoke−mounted holder, is governed by 14 CFR

Part 43. Consult with your mechanic to ensure

compliance with the regulation, and a safe

installation.

18.2.4 As a result of these and other concerns, here

are some tips for using GPS for VFR operations:

18.2.4.1 Always check to see if your unit has RAIM

capability. If no RAIM capability exists, be

suspicious of your GPS position when any

disagreement exists with the position derived from

other radio navigation systems, pilotage, or dead

reckoning.

18.2.4.2 Check the currency of the database, if any.

If expired, update the database using the current

revision. If an update of an expired database is not

possible, disregard any moving map display of

airspace for critical navigation decisions. Be aware

that named waypoints may no longer exist or may

have been relocated since the database expired. At a

minimum, the waypoints planned to be used should

be checked against a current official source, such as

the Airport/Facility Directory, or a Sectional

Aeronautical Chart.

18.2.4.3 While hand−helds can provide excellent

navigation capability to VFR pilots, be prepared for

intermittent loss of navigation signal, possibly with

no RAIM warning to the pilot. If mounting the

receiver in the aircraft, be sure to comply with

14 CFR Part 43.

18.2.4.4 Plan flights carefully before taking off. If

you wish to navigate to user−defined waypoints,

enter them before flight, not on−the−fly. Verify your

planned flight against a current source, such as a

current sectional chart. There have been cases in

which one pilot used waypoints created by another

pilot that were not where the pilot flying was

expecting. This generally resulted in a navigation

error. Minimize head−down time in the aircraft and

keep a sharp lookout for traffic, terrain, and obstacles.

Just a few minutes of preparation and planning on the

ground will make a great difference in the air.

18.2.4.5 Another way to minimize head−down time

is to become very familiar with your receiver’s

operation. Most receivers are not intuitive. The pilot

must take the time to learn the various keystrokes,

knob functions, and displays that are used in the

operation of the receiver. Some manufacturers

provide computer−based tutorials or simulations of

their receivers. Take the time to learn about your

particular unit before you try to use it in flight.

18.2.5 In summary, be careful not to rely on GPS to

solve all your VFR navigational problems. Unless an

IFR receiver is installed in accordance with IFR

requirements, no standard of accuracy or integrity has

been assured. While the practicality of GPS is

compelling, the fact remains that only the pilot can

navigate the aircraft, and GPS is just one of the pilot’s

tools to do the job.
AIP ENR 4.1−25

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18.3 VFR Waypoints

18.3.1 VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots with a

supplementary tool to assist with position awareness

while navigating visually in aircraft equipped with

area navigation receivers. VFR waypoints should be

used as a tool to supplement current navigation

procedures. The uses of VFR waypoints include

providing navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with

an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting

points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B

and Class C airspace, and enhanced navigation

around Special Use Airspace. VFR pilots should rely

on appropriate and current aeronautical charts

published specifically for visual navigation. If

operating in a terminal area, pilots should take

advantage of the Terminal Area Chart available for

that area, if published. The use of VFR waypoints

does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility to

comply with the operational requirements of 14 CFR

Part 91.

18.3.2 VFR waypoint names (for computer−entry

and flight plans) consist of five letters beginning with

the letters “VP” and are retrievable from navigation

databases. The VFR waypoint names are not intended

to be pronounceable, and they are not for use in ATC

communications. On VFR charts, stand−alone VFR

waypoints will be portrayed using the same

four−point star symbol used for IFR waypoints. VFR

waypoints collocated with visual check points on the

chart will be identified by small magenta flag

symbols. VFR waypoints collocated with visual

check points will be pronounceable based on the

name of the visual check point and may be used for

ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name

will appear in parentheses adjacent to the geographic

location on the chart. Latitude/longitude data for all

established VFR waypoints may be found in the

appropriate regional Airport/Facility Directory

(A/FD).

18.3.3 VFR waypoints shall not be used to plan

flights under IFR. VFR waypoints will not be

recognized by the IFR system and will be rejected for

IFR routing purposes.

18.3.4 When filing VFR flight plans, pilots may use

the five letter identifier as a waypoint in the route of

flight section if there is an intended course change at

that point or if used to describe the planned route of

flight. This VFR filing would be similar to how a

VOR would be used in a route of flight. Pilots must

use the VFR waypoints only when operating under

VFR conditions.

18.3.5 Any VFR waypoints intended for use during

a flight should be loaded into the receiver while on the

ground and prior to departure. Once airborne, pilots

should avoid programming routes or VFR waypoint

chains into their receivers.

18.3.6 Pilots should be especially vigilant for other

traffic while operating near VFR waypoints. The

same effort to see and avoid other aircraft near VFR

waypoints will be necessary, as was the case with

VORs and NDBs in the past. In fact, the increased

accuracy of navigation through the use of GPS will

demand even greater vigilance, as off−course

deviations among different pilots and receivers will

be less. When operating near a VFR waypoint, use

whatever ATC services are available, even if outside

a class of airspace where communications are

required. Regardless of the class of airspace, monitor

the available ATC frequency closely for information

on other aircraft operating in the vicinity. It is also a

good idea to turn on your landing light(s) when

operating near a VFR waypoint to make your aircraft

more conspicuous to other pilots, especially when

visibility is reduced. See paragraph 2, VFR in

Congested Areas, in ENR 5.7, for more information.

18.4 General Requirements

18.4.1 Authorization to conduct any GPS operation

under IFR requires that:

18.4.1.1 GPS navigation equipment used must be

approved in accordance with the requirements

specified in TSO−C−129, or equivalent, and the

installation must be done in accordance with

Notice 8110.47 or 8110.48, or equivalent. Equipment

approved in accordance with TSO−C−115a does not

meet the requirements of TSO−C−129. VFR and

hand−held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR

navigation, instrument approaches, or as a principal

instrument flight reference. During IFR operations

they may be considered only an aid to situational

awareness.

18.4.1.2 Aircraft using GPS navigation equipment

under IFR must be equipped with an approved and

operational alternate means of navigation appropriate

to the flight. Active monitoring of alternative

navigation equipment is not required if the GPS

receiver uses RAIM for integrity monitoring. Active

monitoring of an alternate means of navigation is
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required when the RAIM capability of the GPS

equipment is lost.

18.4.1.3 Procedures must be established for use in

the event that the loss of RAIM capability is predicted

to occur. In situations where this is encountered, the

flight must rely on other approved equipment, delay

departure, or cancel the flight.

18.4.1.4 The GPS operation must be conducted in

accordance with the FAA−approved aircraft flight

manual (AFM) or flight manual supplement. Flight

crew members must be thoroughly familiar with the

particular GPS equipment installed in the aircraft, the

receiver operation manual, and the AFM or flight

manual supplement. Unlike ILS and VOR, the basic

operation, receiver presentation to the pilot, and some

capabilities of the equipment can vary greatly. Due to

these differences, operation of different brands, or

even models of the same brand, of GPS receiver

under IFR should not be attempted without thorough

study of the operation of that particular receiver and

installation. Most receivers have a built−in simulator

mode which will allow the pilot to become familiar

with operation prior to attempting operation in the

aircraft. Using the equipment in flight under VFR

conditions prior to attempting IFR operation will

allow further familiarization.

18.4.1.5 Aircraft navigating by IFR approved GPS

are considered to be RNAV aircraft and have special

equipment suffixes. File the appropriate equipment

suffix in accordance with TBL ENR 4.1−4, on the

ATC flight plan. If GPS avionics become inoperative,

the pilot should advise ATC and amend the

equipment suffix.

18.4.1.6 Prior to any GPS IFR operation, the pilot

must review appropriate NOTAMs and aeronautical

information. (See GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Information.)

18.4.1.7 Air carrier and commercial operators must

meet the appropriate provisions of their approved

operations specifications.

18.5 Use of GPS for IFR Oceanic, Domestic En

Route, and Terminal Area Operations

18.5.1 GPS IFR operations in oceanic areas can be

conducted as soon as the proper avionics systems are

installed, provided all general requirements are met.

A GPS installation with TSO−C−129 authorization in

class A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, or C2 may be used to

replace one of the other approved means of

long−range navigation, such as dual INS. (See

TBL ENR 4.1−4 and TBL ENR 4.1−5.) A single

GPS installation with these classes of equipment

which provide RAIM for integrity monitoring may

also be used on short oceanic routes which have only

required one means of long−range navigation.

18.5.2 GPS domestic en route and terminal IFR

operations can be conducted as soon as proper

avionics systems are installed, provided all general

requirements are met. The avionics necessary to

receive all of the ground−based facilities appropriate

for the route to the destination airport and any

required alternate airport must be installed and

operational. Ground−based facilities necessary for

these routes must also be operational.

18.5.2.1 GPS en route IFR RNAV operations may be

conducted in Alaska outside the operational service

volume of ground−based navigation aids when a

TSO−C145a or TSO−C146a GPS/WAAS system is

installed and operating. Ground−based navigation

equipment is not required to be installed and

operating for en route IFR RNAV operations when

using GPS WAAS navigation systems. All operators

should ensure that an alternate means of navigation is

available in the unlikely event the GPS WAAS

navigation system becomes inoperative.
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TBL ENR 4.1−4

GPS IFR Equipment Classes/Categories

TSO−C129

Equipment

Class RAIM

Int. Nav Sys.

to Prov.

RAIM Equiv.

Oceanic En Route Terminal

Nonprecision

Approach

Capable

Class A − GPS sensor and navigation capability.

A1 yes yes yes yes yes

A2 yes yes yes yes no

Class B − GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (i.e. FMS, multi−sensor navigation system, etc.).

B1 yes yes yes yes yes

B2 yes yes yes yes no

B3 yes yes yes yes yes

B4 yes yes yes yes no

Class C − GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (as in Class B) which provides enhanced guidance to an

autopilot, or flight director, to reduce flight tech. errors. Limited to 14 CFR Part 121 or equivalent criteria.

C1 yes yes yes yes yes

C2 yes yes yes yes no

C3 yes yes yes yes yes

C4 yes yes yes yes no

TBL ENR 4.1−5

GPS Approval Required/Authorized Use

Equipment

Type1

Installation

Approval

Required

Operational

Approval

Required

IFR 

En Route2

IFR

Terminal2

IFR 

Approach3

Oceanic

Remote

In Lieu of

ADF and/or

DME3

Hand held4 X5

VFR Panel

Mount4 X

IFR En Route

and Terminal

X X X X X

IFR Oceanic/

Remote

X X X X X X

IFR En Route,

Terminal, and

Approach

X X X X X X

NOTE− 1To determine equipment approvals and limitations, refer to the AFM, AFM supplements, or pilot guides.

2Requires verification of data for correctness if database is expired.

3Requires current database.

4VFR and hand−held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a primary instrument

flight reference. During IFR operations they may be considered only an aid to situational awareness.

5Hand−held receivers require no approval. However, any aircraft modification to support the hand−held receiver; i.e.,

installation of an external antenna or a permanent mounting bracket, does require approval.
ENR 4.1−28 AIP

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18.5.3 The GPS Approach Overlay Program is an

authorization for pilots to use GPS avionics under

IFR for flying designated nonprecision instrument

approach procedures, except LOC, LDA, and

simplified directional facility (SDF) procedures.

These procedures are now identified by the name of

the procedure and “or GPS” (e.g., VOR/DME or GPS

RWY 15). Other previous types of overlays have

either been converted to this format or replaced with

stand−alone procedures. Only approaches contained

in the current onboard navigation database are

authorized. The navigation database may contain

information about nonoverlay approach procedures

that is intended to be used to enhance position

orientation, generally by providing a map, while

flying these approaches using conventional NAVAIDs. This approach information should not be

confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the

receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM Supplement for details on how to identify these approaches

in the navigation database).

NOTE−

Overlay approaches are predicated upon the design

criteria of the ground−based NAVAID used as the basis of

the approach. As such, they do not adhere to the design

criteria described in Section ENR 1.5, paragraph 12.10,

Area Navigation (RNAV) Instrument Approach Charts, for

stand−alone GPS approaches.

18.5.4 GPS IFR approach operations can be

conducted as soon as proper avionics systems are

installed and the following requirements are met:

18.5.4.1 The authorization to use GPS to fly

instrument approaches is limited to U.S. airspace.

18.5.4.2 The use of GPS in any other airspace must

be expressly authorized by the FAA Administrator.

18.5.4.3 GPS instrument approach operations outside the U.S. must be authorized by the appropriate

sovereign authority.

18.6 Use of GPS in lieu of ADF and DME

18.6.1 Subject to the restrictions in subpara 18.6.2,

operators in the U.S. NAS are authorized to use GPS

equipment certified for IFR operations in place of

ADF and/or DME equipment for en route and

terminal operations. For some operations there is no

requirement for the aircraft to be equipped with an

ADF or DME receiver, see subparagraphs 18.6.2,

18.6.2.7 and 18.6.2.8 below. The ground based NDB

or DME facility may be temporarily out of service

during these operations. Charting will not change to

support these operations.

18.6.1.1 Operations allowed:

a) Determining the aircraft position over a DME

fix. GPS satisfies the 14 CFR Section 91.205(e)

requirement for DME at and above 24,000 feet MSL

(FL 240).

b) Flying a DME arc.

c) Navigating to/from an NDB/compass locator.

d) Determining the aircraft position over an

NDB/compass locator.

e) Determining the aircraft position over a fix

defined by an NDB/compass locator bearing crossing

a VOR/LOC course.

f) Holding over an NDB/compass locator.

NOTE−

This approval does not alter the conditions and

requirements for use of GPS to fly existing nonprecision

instrument approach procedures as defined in the GPS

approach overlay program.

18.6.2 Restrictions

18.6.2.1 GPS avionics approved for terminal IFR

operations may be used in lieu of ADF and/or DME.

Included in this approval are both stand−alone and

multi−sensor systems actively employing GPS as a

sensor. This equipment must be installed in

accordance with appropriate airworthiness installation requirements and the provisions of the applicable

FAA approved Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), AFM

supplement, or pilot’s guide must be met. The

required integrity for these operations must be

provided by at least en route Receiver Autonomous

Integrity Monitoring (RAIM), or an equivalent

method; i.e., Wide Area Augmentation System

(WAAS).

18.6.2.2 For air carriers and operators for compensation or hire, POI and operations specification

approval is required for any use of GPS.

18.6.2.3 Waypoints, fixes, intersections, and facility

locations to be used for these operations must be

retrieved from the GPS airborne database. The

database must be current. If the required positions

cannot be retrieved from the airborne database, the

substitution of GPS for ADF and/or DME is not

authorized.

18.6.2.4 The aircraft GPS system must be operated

within the guidelines contained in the AFM, AFM

supplement, or pilot’s guide.
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18.6.2.5 The Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) must

be set to terminal sensitivity (normally 1 or 1 1/4 NM)

when tracking GPS course guidance in the terminal

area. This is to ensure that small deviations from

course are displayed to the pilot in order to keep the

aircraft within the smaller terminal protected areas.

18.6.2.6 Charted requirements for ADF and/or DME

can be met using the GPS system, except for use as the

principal instrument approach navigation source.

18.6.2.7 Procedures must be established for use in

the event that GPS integrity outages are predicted or

occur (RAIM annunciation). In these situations, the

flight must rely on other approved equipment; this

may require the aircraft to be equipped with

operational NDB and/or DME receivers. Otherwise,

the flight must be rerouted, delayed, canceled or

conducted VFR.

18.6.2.8 For TSO C−129/129A users, any required

alternate airport must still have an approved

instrument approach procedure other than GPS that is

anticipated to be operational and available at the

estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is

equipped to fly. If the non−GPS approaches on which

the pilot must rely require DME or ADF, the aircraft

must be equipped with DME or ADF avionics as

appropriate.

NOTE−

Coincident with WAAS commissioning, the FAA will begin

removing the NA (Alternate Minimums Not

Authorized) symbol from select RNAV (GPS) and GPS

approach procedures so they may be used by approach

approved WAAS receivers at alternate airports. This does

not change the above alternate airport requirements for

users of GPS TSO−C129/129A, Airborne Supplemental

Navigation Equipment Using the Global Positioning

System (GPS), receivers.

18.6.3 Guidance. The following provides general

guidance which is not specific to any particular

aircraft GPS system. For specific system guidance

refer to the AFM, AFM supplement, pilot’s guide, or

contact the manufacturer of your system.

18.6.3.1 To determine the aircraft position over a

DME fix:

a) Verify aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring

is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory

integrity.

b) If the fix is identified by a five letter name

which is contained in the GPS airborne database, you

may select either the named fix as the active GPS

waypoint (WP) or the facility establishing the DME

fix as the active GPS WP.

NOTE−

When using a facility as the active WP, the only acceptable

facility is the DME facility which is charted as the one used

to establish the DME fix. If this facility is not in your

airborne database, you are not authorized to use a facility

WP for this operation.

c) If the fix is identified by a five letter name which

is not contained in the GPS airborne database, or if the

fix is not named, you must select the facility

establishing the DME fix or another named DME fix

as the active GPS WP.

NOTE−

An alternative, until all DME sources are in the database,

is using a named DME fix as the active waypoint to identify

unnamed DME fixes on the same course and from the same

DME source as the active waypoint.

CAUTION−

Pilots should be extremely careful to ensure that correct

distance measurements are used when utilizing this

interim method. It is strongly recommended that pilots

review distances for DME fixing during preflight

preparation.

d) If you select the named fix as your active GPS

WP, you are over the fix when the GPS system

indicates you are at the active WP.

e) If you select the DME providing facility as the

active GPS WP, you are over the fix when the GPS

distance from the active WP equals the charted DME

value and you are on the appropriate bearing or

course.

18.6.3.2 To fly a DME arc:

a) Verify aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring

is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory

integrity.

b) You must select, from the airborne database, the

facility providing the DME arc as the active GPS WP.

NOTE−

The only acceptable facility is the DME facility on which

the arc is based. If this facility is not in your airborne

database, you are not authorized to perform this operation.

c) Maintain position on the arc by reference to the

GPS distance in lieu of a DME readout.
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18.6.3.3 To navigate to or from an NDB/compass

locator:

NOTE−

If the chart depicts the compass locator collocated with a

fix of the same name, use of that fix as the active WP in

place of the compass locator facility is authorized.

a) Verify aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring

is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory

integrity.

b) Select terminal CDI sensitivity in accordance

with the AFM, AFM supplement, or pilot’s guide if

in the terminal area.

c) Select the NDB/compass locator facility from

the airborne database as the active WP.

d) Select and navigate on the appropriate course to

or from the active WP.

18.6.3.4 To determine the aircraft position over

an NDB/compass locator:

a) Verify aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring

is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory

integrity.

b) Select the NDB/compass locator facility from

the airborne database as the active WP.

NOTE−

When using an NDB/compass locator, that facility must be

charted and be in the airborne database. If this facility is

not in your airborne database, you are not authorized to

use a facility WP for this operation.

c) You are over the NDB/compass locator when

the GPS system indicates you are at the active WP.

18.6.3.5 To determine the aircraft position over a

fix made up of an NDB/compass locator bearing

crossing a VOR/LOC course:

a) Verify aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring

is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory

integrity.

b) A fix made up by a crossing NDB/compass

locator bearing will be identified by a five letter fix

name. You may select either the named fix or the

NDB/compass locator facility providing the crossing

bearing to establish the fix as the active GPS WP.

NOTE−

When using an NDB/compass locator, that facility must be

charted and be in the airborne database. If this facility is

not in your airborne database, you are not authorized to

use a facility WP for this operation.

c) If you select the named fix as your active GPS

WP, you are over the fix when the GPS system

indicates you are at the WP as you fly the prescribed

track from the non−GPS navigation source.

d) If you select the NDB/compass locator facility

as the active GPS WP, you are over the fix when the

GPS bearing to the active WP is the same as the

charted NDB/compass locator bearing for the fix as

you fly the prescribed track from the non−GPS

navigation source.

18.6.3.6 To hold over an NDB/compass locator:

a) Verify aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring

is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory

integrity.

b) Select terminal CDI sensitivity in accordance

with the AFM, AFM supplement, or pilot’s guide if

in the terminal area.

c) Select the NDB/compass locator facility from

the airborne database as the active WP.

NOTE−

When using a facility as the active WP, the only acceptable

facility is the NDB/compass locator facility which is

charted. If this facility is not in your airborne database, you

are not authorized to use a facility WP for this operation.

d) Select nonsequencing (e.g. “HOLD” or

“OBS”) mode and the appropriate course in

accordance with the AFM, AFM supplement, or

pilot’s guide.

e) Hold using the GPS system in accordance with

the AFM, AFM supplement, or pilot’s guide.

18.6.4 Planning. Good advance planning and

intimate knowledge of your navigational systems are

vital to safe and successful use of GPS in lieu of ADF

and/or DME.

18.6.4.1 You should plan ahead before using GPS

systems as a substitute for ADF and/or DME. You

will have several alternatives in selecting waypoints

and system configuration. After you are cleared for

the approach is not the time to begin programming

your GPS. In the flight planning process you should

determine whether you will use the equipment in the

automatic sequencing mode or in the nonsequencing

mode and select the waypoints you will use.
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18.6.4.2 When you are using your aircraft GPS

system to supplement other navigation systems, you

may need to bring your GPS control panel into your

navigation scan to see the GPS information. Some

GPS aircraft installations will present localizer

information on the CDI whenever a localizer

frequency is tuned, removing the GPS information

from the CDI display. Good advance planning and

intimate knowledge of your navigation systems are

vital to safe and successful use of GPS.

18.6.4.3 The following are some factors to consider

when preparing to install a GPS receiver in an

aircraft. Installation of the equipment can determine

how easy or how difficult it will be to use the system.

a) Consideration should be given to installing the

receiver within the primary instrument scan to

facilitate using the GPS in lieu of ADF and/or DME.

This will preclude breaking the primary instrument

scan while flying the aircraft and tuning, and

identifying waypoints. This becomes increasingly

important on approaches, and missed approaches.

b) Many GPS receivers can drive an ADF type

bearing pointer. Such an installation will provide the

pilot with an enhanced level of situational awareness

by providing GPS navigation information while the

CDI is set to VOR or ILS.

c) The GPS receiver may be installed so that when

an ILS frequency is tuned, the navigation display

defaults to the VOR/ILS mode, preempting the GPS

mode. However, if the receiver installation requires a

manual selection from GPS to ILS, it allows the ILS

to be tuned and identified while navigating on the

GPS. Additionally, this prevents the navigation

display from automatically switching back to GPS

when a VOR frequency is selected. If the navigation

display automatically switches to GPS mode when a

VOR is selected, the change may go unnoticed and

could result in erroneous navigation and departing

obstruction protected airspace.

d) GPS is a supplemental navigation system in

part due to signal availability. There will be times

when your system will not receive enough satellites

with proper geometry to provide accurate positioning

or sufficient integrity. Procedures should be

established by the pilot in the event that GPS outages

occur. In these situations, the pilot should rely on

other approved equipment, delay departure, reroute,

or discontinue IFR operations.

18.7 Equipment and Database Requirements

18.7.1 Authorization to fly approaches under IFR

using GPS avionics systems requires that:

18.7.1.1 A pilot use GPS avionics with TSO−C−129,

or equivalent, authorization in class A1, B1, B3, C1,

or C3.

18.7.1.2 All approach procedures to be flown must

be retrievable from the current airborne navigation

database supplied by the TSO−C−129 equipment

manufacturer or other FAA approved source.

18.7.1.3 Prior to using a procedure or waypoint

retrieved from the airborne navigation database, the

pilot should verify the validity of the database. This

verification should include the following preflight

and in−flight steps:

a) Preflight:

1) Determine the date of database issuance, and

verify that the date/time of proposed use is before the

expiration date/time.

2) Verify that the database provider has not

published a notice limiting the use of the specific

waypoint or procedure.

b) Inflight:

1) Determine that the waypoints and transition

names coincide with names found on the procedure

chart. Do not use waypoints, which do not exactly

match the spelling shown on published procedure

charts.

2) Determine that the waypoints are generally

logical in location, in the correct order, and that their

orientation to each other is as found on the procedure

chart, both laterally and vertically.

NOTE−

There is no specific requirement to check each waypoint

latitude and longitude, type of waypoint and/or altitude

constraint, only the general relationship of waypoints in

the procedure, or the logic of an individual waypoint’s

location.

3) If the cursory check of procedure logic or

individual waypoint location, specified in 2) above,

indicates a potential error, do not use the retrieved

procedure or waypoint until a verification of latitude

and longitude, waypoint type, and altitude constraints

indicate full conformity with the published data.
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18.8 GPS Approach Procedures

18.8.1 As the production of stand−alone GPS

approaches has progressed, many of the original

overlay approaches have been replaced with

stand−alone procedures specifically designed for use

by GPS systems. The title of the remaining GPS

overlay procedures has been revised on the approach

chart to “or GPS” (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 24).

Therefore, all the approaches that can be used by GPS

now contain “GPS” in the title (e.g., “VOR or GPS

RWY 24,” “GPS RWY 24,” or “RNAV (GPS)

RWY 24”). During these GPS approaches, underlying ground−based NAVAIDs are not required to be

operational and associated aircraft avionics need not

be installed, operational, turned on or monitored

(monitoring of the underlying approach is suggested

when equipment is available and functional).

Existing overlay approaches may be requested using

the GPS title, such as “GPS RWY 24” for the VOR or

GPS RWY 24.

NOTE−

Any required alternate airport must have an approved

instrument approach procedure other than GPS that is

anticipated to be operational and available at the

estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is

equipped to fly.

18.9 GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Information

18.9.1 GPS satellite outages are issued as GPS

NOTAMs both domestically and internationally.

However, the effect of an outage on the intended

operation cannot be determined unless the pilot has a

RAIM availability prediction program which allows

excluding a satellite which is predicted to be out of

service based on the NOTAM information.

18.9.2 The term UNRELIABLE is used in conjunction with GPS NOTAMs. The term UNRELIABLE

is an advisory to pilots indicating the expected level

of service may not be available. GPS operation may

be NOTAMed UNRELIABLE due to testing or

anomalies. Air Traffic Control will advise pilots

requesting a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach of GPS

UNRELIABLE for:

18.9.2.1 NOTAMs not contained in the ATIS

broadcast.

18.9.2.2 Pilot reports of GPS anomalies received

within the preceding 15 minutes.

18.9.3 Civilian pilots may obtain GPS RAIM

availability information for nonprecision approach

procedures by specifically requesting GPS aeronautical information from an Automated Flight Service

Station during preflight briefings. GPS RAIM

aeronautical information can be obtained for a period

of 3 hours (ETA hour and 1 hour before to 1 hour after

the ETA hour) or a 24−hour time frame at a particular

airport. FAA briefers will provide RAIM information

for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA,

unless a specific time frame is requested by the pilot.

If flying a published GPS departure, a RAIM

prediction should also be requested for the departure

airport.

18.9.4 The military provides airfield specific GPS

RAIM NOTAMs for nonprecision approach procedures at military airfields. The RAIM outages are

issued as M−series NOTAMs and may be obtained for

up to 24 hours from the time of request.

18.9.5 Receiver manufacturers and/or database

suppliers may supply “NOTAM” type information

concerning database errors. Pilots should check these

sources, when available, to ensure that they have the

most current information concerning their electronic

database.

18.10 Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

18.10.1 RAIM outages may occur due to an

insufficient number of satellites or due to unsuitable

satellite geometry which causes the error in the

position solution to become too large. Loss of satellite

reception and RAIM warnings may occur due to

aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle).

Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position

relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may affect

reception of one or more satellites. Since the relative

positions of the satellites are constantly changing,

prior experience with the airport does not guarantee

reception at all times, and RAIM availability should

always be checked.

18.10.2 If RAIM is not available, another type of

navigation and approach system must be used,

another destination selected, or the trip delayed until

RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. On

longer flights, pilots should consider rechecking the

RAIM prediction for the destination during the flight.

This may provide early indications that an

unscheduled satellite outage has occurred since

takeoff.
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18.10.3 If a RAIM failure/status annunciation

occurs prior to the final approach waypoint

(FAWP), the approach should not be completed

since GPS may no longer provide the required

accuracy. The receiver performs a RAIM prediction

by 2 NM prior to the FAWP to ensure that RAIM is

available at the FAWP as a condition for entering the

approach mode. The pilot should ensure that the

receiver has sequenced from “Armed” to “Approach” prior to the FAWP (normally occurs 2 NM

prior). Failure to sequence may be an indication of the

detection of a satellite anomaly, failure to arm the

receiver (if required), or other problems which

preclude completing the approach.

18.10.4 If the receiver does not sequence into the

approach mode or a RAIM failure/status annunciation occurs prior to the FAWP, the pilot should not

descend to MDA, but should proceed to the missed

approach waypoint (MAWP) via the FAWP, perform

a missed approach, and contact ATC as soon as

practical. Refer to the receiver operating manual for

specific indications and instructions associated with

loss of RAIM prior to the FAF.

18.10.5 If a RAIM failure occurs after the FAWP, the

receiver is allowed to continue operating without an

annunciation for up to 5 minutes to allow completion

of the approach (see receiver operating manual). If

the RAIM flag/status annunciation appears after

the FAWP, the missed approach should be

executed immediately.

18.11 Waypoints

18.11.1 GPS approaches make use of both fly−over

and fly−by waypoints. Fly−by waypoints are used

when an aircraft should begin a turn to the next course

prior to reaching the waypoint separating the two

route segments. This is known as turn anticipation

and is compensated for in the airspace and terrain

clearances. Approach waypoints, except for the

MAWP and the missed approach holding waypoint

(MAHWP), are normally fly−by waypoints. Fly−

over waypoints are used when the aircraft must fly

over the point prior to starting a turn. New approach

charts depict fly−over waypoints as a circled

waypoint symbol. Overlay approach charts and some

early stand alone GPS approach charts may not

reflect this convention.

18.11.2 Since GPS receivers are basically “To−To”

navigators, they must always be navigating to a

defined point. On overlay approaches, if no

pronounceable five−character name is published for

an approach waypoint or fix, it was given a database

identifier consisting of letters and numbers. These

points will appear in the list of waypoints in the

approach procedure database, but may not appear on

the approach chart. A point used for the purpose of

defining the navigation track for an airborne

computer system (i.e., GPS or FMS) is called a

Computer Navigation Fix (CNF). CNFs include

unnamed DME fixes, beginning and ending points of

DME arcs, and sensor final approach fixes (FAFs) on

some GPS overlay approaches. To aid in the approach

chart/database correlation process, the FAA has

begun a program to assign five−letter names to CNFs

and to chart CNFs on various FAA aeronautical

products. These CNFs are not to be used for any air

traffic control (ATC) application, such as holding for

which the fix has not already been assessed. CNFs

will be charted to distinguish them from conventional

reporting points, fixes, intersections, and waypoints.

The CNF name will be enclosed in parenthesis; e.g.,

(MABEE), and the name will be placed next to the

CNF it defines. If the CNF is not at an existing point

defined by means such as crossing radials or

radial/DME, the point will be indicated by an “X.”

The CNF name will not be used in filing a flight plan

or in aircraft/ATC communications. Use current

phraseology; e.g., facility name, radial, distance, to

describe these fixes.

18.11.3 Unnamed waypoints in the database will be

uniquely identified for each airport but may be

repeated for another airport (e.g., RW36 will be used

at each airport with a runway 36 but will be at the

same location for all approaches at a given airport).

18.11.4 The runway threshold waypoint, which is

normally the MAWP, may have a five letter identifier

(e.g., SNEEZ) or be coded as RW## (e.g., RW36,

RW36L). Those thresholds which are coded as five

letter identifiers are being changed to the RW##

designation. This may cause the approach chart and

database to differ until all changes are complete. The

runway threshold waypoint is also used as the center

of the MSA on most GPS approaches. MAWPs not

located at the threshold will have a five letter

identifier.
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18.12 Position Orientation

18.12.1 As with most RNAV systems, pilots should

pay particular attention to position orientation while

using GPS. Distance and track information are

provided to the next active waypoint, not to a fixed

navigation aid. Receivers may sequence when the

pilot is not flying along an active route, such as when

being vectored or deviating for weather, due to the

proximity to another waypoint in the route. This can

be prevented by placing the receiver in the

nonsequencing mode. When the receiver is in the

nonsequencing mode, bearing and distance are

provided to the selected waypoint, and the receiver

will not sequence to the next waypoint in the route

until placed back in the auto sequence mode or the

pilot selects a different waypoint. On overlay

approaches, the pilot may have to compute the along

track distance to stepdown fixes and other points due

to the receiver showing along track distance to the

next waypoint rather than DME to the VOR or ILS

ground station. 

18.13 Conventional Versus GPS Navigation Data

18.13.1 There may be slight differences between the

course information portrayed on navigational charts

and a GPS navigation display when flying authorized

GPS instrument procedures or along an airway. All

magnetic tracks defined by any conventional

navigation aids are determined by the application of

the station magnetic variation. In contrast, GPS

RNAV systems may use an algorithm, which applies

the local magnetic variation and may produce small

differences in the displayed course. However, both

methods of navigation should produce the same

desired ground track when using approved, IFR

navigation system. Should significant differences

between the approach chart and the GPS avionics’

application of the navigation database arise, the

published approach chart, supplemented by

NOTAMs, holds precedence.

18.13.2 Due to the GPS avionics’ computation of

great circle courses, and the variations in magnetic

variation, the bearing to the next waypoint and the

course from the last waypoint (if available) may not

be exactly 180  apart when long distances are

involved. Variations in distances will occur since

GPS distance−to−waypoint values are along−track

distances (ATD) computed to the next waypoint and

the DME values published on underlying procedures

are slant−range distances measured to the station.

This difference increases with aircraft altitude and

proximity to the NAVAID

18.14 Departures and Instrument Departure

Procedures (DPs)

18.14.1 The GPS receiver must be set to terminal

(±1 NM) course deviation indicator (CDI)

sensitivity and the navigation routes contained in the

database in order to fly published IFR charted

departures and DPs. Terminal RAIM should be

automatically provided by the receiver. (Terminal

RAIM for departure may not be available unless the

waypoints are part of the active flight plan rather than

proceeding direct to the first destination.) Certain

segments of a DP may require some manual

intervention by the pilot, especially when radar

vectored to a course or required to intercept a specific

course to a waypoint. The database may not contain

all of the transitions or departures from all runways

and some GPS receivers do not contain DPs in the

database. It is necessary that helicopter procedures be

flown at 70 knots or less since helicopter departure

procedures and missed approaches use a 20:1

obstacle clearance surface (OCS), which is double the

fixed−wing OCS, and turning areas are based on this

speed as well.

18.15 Flying GPS Approaches

18.15.1 Determining which area of the TAA the

aircraft will enter when flying a “T” with a TAA must

be accomplished using the bearing and distance to the

IF(IAF). This is most critical when entering the TAA

in the vicinity of the extended runway centerline and

determining whether you will be entering the right or

left base area. Once inside the TAA, all sectors and

stepdowns are based on the bearing and distance to

the IAF for that area, which the aircraft should be

proceeding direct to at that time, unless on vectors.

(See FIG ENR 1.5−14 and FIG ENR 1.5−15.)

18.15.2 Pilots should fly the full approach from an

Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP) or feeder fix

unless specifically cleared otherwise. Randomly

joining an approach at an intermediate fix does not

assure terrain clearance.

18.15.3 When an approach has been loaded in the

flight plan, GPS receivers will give an “arm”

annunciation 30 NM straight line distance from the

airport/heliport reference point. Pilots should arm the

approach mode at this time, if it has not already been

armed (some receivers arm automatically). Without

arming, the receiver will not change from en route
AIP ENR 4.1−35

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CDI and RAIM sensitivity of ±5 NM either side of

centerline to ±1 NM terminal sensitivity. Where the

IAWP is inside this 30 mile point, a CDI sensitivity

change will occur once the approach mode is armed

and the aircraft is inside 30 NM. Where the IAWP is

beyond 30 NM from the airport/heliport reference

point, CDI sensitivity will not change until the

aircraft is within 30 miles of the airport/heliport

reference point even if the approach is armed earlier.

Feeder route obstacle clearance is predicated on the

receiver being in terminal (±1 NM) CDI sensitivity

and RAIM within 30 NM of the airport/heliport

reference point, therefore, the receiver should always

be armed (if required) not later than the 30 NM

annunciation.

18.15.4 The pilot must be aware of what bank

angle/turn rate the particular receiver uses to compute

turn anticipation, and whether wind and airspeed are

included in the receiver’s calculations. This information should be in the receiver operating manual. Over

or under banking the turn onto the final approach

course may significantly delay getting on course and

may result in high descent rates to achieve the next

segment altitude.

18.15.5 When within 2 NM of the FAWP with the

approach mode armed, the approach mode will

switch to active, which results in RAIM changing to

approach sensitivity and a change in CDI sensitivity.

Beginning 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the full scale CDI

sensitivity will smoothly change from ±1 NM, to

±0.3 NM at the FAWP. As sensitivity changes from

±1 NM to ±0.3 NM approaching the FAWP, with the

CDI not centered, the corresponding increase in CDI

displacement may give the impression that the

aircraft is moving further away from the intended

course even though it is on an acceptable intercept

heading. Referencing the digital track displacement

information (cross track error), if it is available in the

approach mode, may help the pilot remain position

oriented in this situation. Being established on the

final approach course prior to the beginning of the

sensitivity change at 2 NM will help prevent

problems in interpreting the CDI display during ramp

down. Therefore, requesting or accepting vectors

which will cause the aircraft to intercept the final

approach course within 2 NM of the FAWP is not

recommended.

18.15.6 When receiving vectors to final, most

receiver operating manuals suggest placing the

receiver in the nonsequencing mode on the FAWP

and manually setting the course. This provides an

extended final approach course in cases where the

aircraft is vectored onto the final approach course

outside of any existing segment which is aligned with

the runway. Assigned altitudes must be maintained

until established on a published segment of the

approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside the

FAWP or stepdown fixes must be considered.

Calculating the distance to the FAWP may be

required in order to descend at the proper location.

18.15.7 Overriding an automatically selected sensitivity during an approach will cancel the approach

mode annunciation. If the approach mode is not

armed by 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the approach

mode will not become active at 2 NM prior to the

FAWP, and the equipment will flag. In these

conditions, the RAIM and CDI sensitivity will not

ramp down, and the pilot should not descend to MDA,

but fly to the MAWP and execute a missed approach.

The approach active annunciator and/or the receiver

should be checked to ensure the approach mode is

active prior to the FAWP.

18.15.8 Do not attempt to fly an approach unless the

procedure is contained in the current, on−board

navigation database and identified as “GPS” on the

approach chart. The navigation database may contain

information about nonoverlay approach procedures

that is intended to be used to enhance position

orientation, generally by providing a map, while

flying these approaches using conventional

NAVAIDs. This approach information should not be

confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the

receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM

Supplement for details on how to identify these

procedures in the navigation database). Flying point

to point on the approach does not assure compliance

with the published approach procedure. The proper

RAIM sensitivity will not be available and the CDI

sensitivity will not automatically change to

±0.3 NM. Manually setting CDI sensitivity does not

automatically change the RAIM sensitivity on some

receivers. Some existing nonprecision approach

procedures cannot be coded for use with GPS and will

not be available as overlays.

18.15.9 Pilots should pay particular attention to the

exact operation of their GPS receivers for performing

holding patterns, and, in the case of overlay

approaches, operations such as procedure turns.

These procedures may require manual intervention
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by the pilot to stop the sequencing of waypoints by the

receiver and to resume automatic GPS navigation

sequencing once the maneuver is complete. The same

waypoint may appear in the route of flight more than

once consecutively (e.g., IAWP, FAWP, MAHWP on

a procedure turn). Care must be exercised to ensure

that the receiver is sequenced to the appropriate

waypoint for the segment of the procedure being

flown, especially if one or more fly−overs are skipped

(e.g., FAWP rather than IAWP if the procedure turn

is not flown). The pilot may have to sequence past one

or more fly−overs of the same waypoint in order to

start GPS automatic sequencing at the proper place in

the sequence of waypoints.

18.15.10 Incorrect inputs into the GPS receiver are

especially critical during approaches. In some cases,

an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to leave the

approach mode.

18.15.11 A fix on an overlay approach identified by

a DME fix will not be in the waypoint sequence on the

GPS receiver unless there is a published name

assigned to it. When a name is assigned, the along

track to the waypoint may be zero rather than the

DME stated on the approach chart. The pilot should

be alert for this on any overlay procedure where the

original approach used DME.

18.15.12 If a visual descent point (VDP) is

published, it will not be included in the sequence of

waypoints. Pilots are expected to use normal piloting

techniques for beginning the visual descent, such as

ATD.

18.15.13 Unnamed stepdown fixes in the final

approach segment will not be coded in the waypoint

sequence of the aircraft’s navigation database and

must be identified using ATD. Stepdown fixes in the

final approach segment of RNAV (GPS) approaches

are being named, in addition to being identified by

ATD. However, since most GPS avionics do not

accommodate waypoints between the FAF and MAP,

even when the waypoint is named, the waypoints for

these stepdown fixes may not appear in the sequence

of waypoints in the navigation database. Pilots must

continue to identify these stepdown fixes using ATD.

18.16 Missed Approach

18.16.1 A GPS missed approach requires pilot

action to sequence the receiver past the MAWP to the

missed approach portion of the procedure. The pilot

must be thoroughly familiar with the activation

procedure for the particular GPS receiver installed in

the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action

after the MAWP. Activating the missed approach

prior to the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to

immediately change to terminal (±1 NM) sensitivity

and the receiver will continue to navigate to the

MAWP. The receiver will not sequence past the

MAWP. Turns should not begin prior to the MAWP.

If the missed approach is not activated, the GPS

receiver will display an extension of the inbound final

approach course and the ATD will increase from the

MAWP until it is manually sequenced after crossing

the MAWP.

18.16.2 Missed approach routings in which the first

track is via a course rather than direct to the next

waypoint require additional action by the pilot to

set the course. Being familiar with all of the inputs

required is especially critical during this phase of

flight.

18.17 GPS Familiarization

18.17.1 Pilots should practice GPS approaches

under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) until

thoroughly proficient with all aspects of their

equipment (receiver and installation) prior to

attempting flight by IFR in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Some of the areas which the

pilot should practice are:

18.17.1.1 Utilizing the receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) prediction function.

18.17.1.2 Inserting a DP into the flight plan,

including setting terminal CDI sensitivity, if required,

and the conditions under which terminal RAIM is

available for departure. (Some receivers are not DP or

STAR capable.)

18.17.1.3 Programming the destination airport.

18.17.1.4 Programming and flying the overlay

approaches (especially procedure turns and arcs).

18.17.1.5 Changing to another approach after

selecting an approach.

18.17.1.6 Programming and flying “direct” missed

approaches.

18.17.1.7 Programming and flying “routed” missed

approaches.

18.17.1.8 Entering, flying, and exiting holding

patterns, particularly on overlay approaches with a

second waypoint in the holding pattern.
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18.17.1.9 Programming and flying a “route” from a

holding pattern.

18.17.1.10 Programming and flying an approach

with radar vectors to the intermediate segment.

18.17.1.11 Indication of the actions required for

RAIM failure both before and after the FAWP.

18.17.1.12 Programming a radial and distance from

a VOR (often used in departure instructions).

19. Wide Area Augmentation System

(WAAS)

19.1 General

19.1.1 The FAA developed the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) to improve the accuracy,

integrity and availability of GPS signals. WAAS will

allow GPS to be used, as the aviation navigation

system, from takeoff through Category I precision

approach when it is complete. WAAS is a critical

component of the FAA’s strategic objective for a

seamless satellite navigation system for civil

aviation, improving capacity and safety.

19.1.2 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has defined Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) for satellite−based

augmentation systems (SBAS) such as WAAS. Japan

and Europe are building similar systems that are

planned to be interoperable with WAAS: EGNOS,

the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay

System, and MSAS, the Japan Multifunctional

Transport Satellite (MTSAT) Satellite−based Augmentation System. The merging of these systems will

create a worldwide seamless navigation capability

similar to GPS but with greater accuracy, availability

and integrity.

19.1.3 Unlike traditional ground−based navigation

aids, WAAS will cover a more extensive service area.

Precisely surveyed wide−area ground reference

stations (WRS) are linked to form the U.S. WAAS

network. Signals from the GPS satellites are

monitored by these WRSs to determine satellite clock

and ephemeris corrections and to model the

propagation effects of the ionosphere. Each station in

the network relays the data to a wide−area master

station (WMS) where the correction information is

computed. A correction message is prepared and

uplinked to a geostationary satellite (GEO) via a

ground uplink station (GUS). The message is then

broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1,

1575.42 MHz) to WAAS receivers within the

broadcast coverage area of the WAAS GEO.

19.1.4 In addition to providing the correction signal,

the WAAS GEO provides an additional pseudorange

measurement to the aircraft receiver, improving the

availability of GPS by providing, in effect, an

additional GPS satellite in view. The integrity of GPS

is improved through real−time monitoring, and the

accuracy is improved by providing differential

corrections to reduce errors. The performance

improvement is sufficient to enable approach

procedures with GPS/WAAS glide paths (vertical

guidance).

19.1.5 The FAA has completed installation of

25 WRSs, 2 WMSs, 4 GUSs, and the required

terrestrial communications to support the WAAS

network. Prior to the commissioning of the WAAS for

public use, the FAA has been conducting a series of

test and validation activities. Enhancements to the

initial phase of WAAS will include additional master

and reference stations, communication satellites, and

transmission frequencies as needed.

19.1.6 GNSS navigation, including GPS and

WAAS, is referenced to the WGS−84 coordinate

system. It should only be used where the Aeronautical

Information Publications (including electronic data

and aeronautical charts) conform to WGS−84 or

equivalent. Other countries civil aviation authorities

may impose additional limitations on the use of their

SBAS systems.

19.2 Instrument Approach Capabilities

19.2.1 A new class of approach procedures which

provide vertical guidance, but which do not meet the

ICAO Annex 10 requirements for precision approaches has been developed to support satellite

navigation use for aviation applications worldwide.

These new procedures called Approach with Vertical

Guidance (APV), are defined in ICAO Annex 6, and

include approaches such as the LNAV/VNAV

procedures presently being flown with barometric

vertical navigation (Baro−VNAV). These approaches

provide vertical guidance, but do not meet the more

stringent standards of a precision approach. Properly

certified WAAS receivers will be able to fly these

LNAV/VNAV procedures using a WAAS electronic

glide path, which eliminates the errors that can be

introduced by using Barometric altimetery.

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19.2.2 A new type of APV approach procedure, in

addition to LNAV/VNAV, is being implemented to

take advantage of the lateral precision provided by

WAAS. This angular lateral precision, combined

with an electronic glidepath allows the use of TERPS

approach criteria very similar to that used for present

precision approaches, with adjustments for the larger

vertical containment limit. The resulting approach

procedure minima, titled LPV (localizer performance

with vertical guidance), may have decision altitudes

as low as 200 feet height above touchdown with

visibility minimums as low as 1/2 mile, when the

terrain and airport infrastructure support the lowest

minima. LPV minima are published on the RNAV

(GPS) approach charts (see ENR 1.5, paragraph, 12,

Instrument Approach Procedure Charts).

19.2.3 WAAS initial operating capability provides a

level of service that supports all phases of flight

including LNAV, LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches. In the long term, WAAS will provide

Category I precision approach services in conjunction with modernized GPS.

19.3 General Requirements

19.3.1 WAAS avionics must be certified in accordance with Technical Standard Order (TSO)

C−145A, Airborne Navigation Sensors Using the

(GPS) Augmented by the Wide Area Augmentation

System (WAAS); or TSO−146A, Stand−Alone

Airborne Navigation Equipment Using the Global

Positioning System (GPS) Augmented by the Wide

Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and installed in

accordance with Advisory Circular (AC) 20−130A,

Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight

Management Systems Integrating Multiple Navigation Sensors, or AC 20−138A, Airworthiness

Approval of Global Positioning System (GPS)

Navigation Equipment for Use as a VFR and IFR

Navigation System.

19.3.2 GPS/WAAS operation must be conducted in

accordance with the FAA−approved aircraft flight

manual (AFM) and flight manual supplements. Flight

manual supplements will state the level of approach

procedure that the receiver supports. IFR approved

WAAS receivers support all GPS only operations as

long as lateral capability at the appropriate level is

functional. WAAS monitors both GPS and WAAS

satellites and provides integrity.

19.3.3 GPS/WAAS equipment is inherently capable

of supporting oceanic and remote operations if the

operator obtains a fault detection and exclusion

(FDE) prediction program.

19.3.4 Air carrier and commercial operators must

meet the appropriate provisions of their approved

operations specifications.

19.3.5 Prior to GPS/WAAS IFR operation, the pilot

must review appropriate Notices to Airmen

(NOTAMs) and aeronautical information. This

information is available on request from an

Automated Flight Service Station. The FAA will

provide NOTAMs to advise pilots of the status of the

WAAS and level of service available.

19.3.5.1 The term UNRELIABLE is used in

conjunction with GPS and WAAS NOTAMs. The

term UNRELIABLE is an advisory to pilots

indicating the expected level of WAAS service

(LNAV/VNAV, LPV) may not be available;

e.g., !BOS BOS WAAS LPV AND LNAV/VNAV

MNM UNREL WEF 0305231700 − 0305231815.

WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs are predictive in

nature and published for flight planning purposes.

Upon commencing an approach at locations

NOTAMed WAAS UNRELIABLE, if the WAAS

avionics indicate LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is

available, then vertical guidance may be used to

complete the approach using the displayed level of

service. Should an outage occur during the approach,

reversion to LNAV minima may be required.

a) Area−wide WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs

indicate loss or malfunction of the WAAS system. In

flight, Air Traffic Control will advise pilots

requesting a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach of

WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs if not contained

in the ATIS broadcast.

b) Site−specific WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs indicate an expected level of service, e.g.,

LNAV/VNAV or LPV may not be available. Pilots

must request site−specific WAAS NOTAMs during

flight planning. In flight, Air Traffic Control will not

advise pilots of WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs.

c) When the approach chart is annotated with the

 symbol, site−specific WAAS UNRELIABLE

NOTAMs or Air Traffic advisories are not provided

for outages in WAAS LNAV/VNAV and LPV vertical

service.

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NOTE−

Area−wide WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs apply to all

airports in the WAAS UNAVAILABLE area designated in

the NOTAM, including approaches at airports where an

approach chart is annotated with the symbol.

19.3.6 GPS/WAAS was developed to be used within

SBAS GEO coverage (WAAS or other interoperable

system) without the need for other radio navigation

equipment appropriate to the route of flight to be

flown. Outside the SBAS coverage or in the event of

a WAAS failure, GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to

GPS−only operation and satisfies the requirements

for basic GPS equipment.

19.3.7 Unlike TSO−C129 avionics, which were

certified as a supplement to other means of

navigation, WAAS avionics are evaluated without

reliance on other navigation systems. As such,

installation of WAAS avionics does not require the

aircraft to have other equipment appropriate to the

route to be flown.

19.3.7.1 Due to initial system limitation, there are

certain restrictions on WAAS operations. Pilots may

plan to use any instrument approach authorized for

use with WAAS avionics at a required alternate.

However, when using WAAS at an alternate airport,

flight planning must be based on flying the RNAV

(GPS) LNAV minima line, or minima on a GPS

approach procedure, or conventional approach

procedure with “or GPS” in the title. Code of Federal

Regulation (CFR) Part 91 nonprecision weather

requirements must be used for planning. Upon arrival

at an alternate, when the WAAS navigation system

indicates that LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is

available, then vertical guidance may be used to

complete the approach using the displayed level of

service. The FAA has begun removing the NA

(Alternate Minimums Not Authorized) symbol from

select RNAV (GPS) and GPS approach procedures so

they may be used by approach approved WAAS

receivers at alternate airports. Some approach

procedures will still require the NA for other

reasons, such as no weather reporting, so it cannot be

removed from all procedures. Since every procedure

must be individually evaluated, removal of the

NA from RNAV (GPS) and GPS procedures will

take some time.

19.4 Flying procedures with WAAS

19.4.1 WAAS receivers support all basic GPS

approach functions and will provide additional

capabilities. One of the major improvements is the

ability to generate an electronic glide path,

independent of ground equipment or barometric

aiding. This eliminates several problems such as cold

temperature effects, incorrect altimeter setting or lack

of a local altimeter source and allows approach

procedures to be built without the cost of installing

ground stations at each airport. Some approach

certified receivers will only support a glide path with

performance similar to Baro−VNAV, and are

authorized to fly the LNAV/VNAV line of minima on

the RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Receivers with

additional capability which support the performance

requirements for precision approaches (including

update rates and integrity limits) will be authorized to

fly the LPV line of minima. The lateral integrity

changes dramatically from the 0.3 NM (556 meter)

limit for GPS, LNAV and LNAV/VNAV approach

mode, to 40 meters for LPV. It also adds vertical

integrity monitoring, which for LNAV/VNAV and

LPV approaches bounds the vertical error to 50

meters.

19.4.2 When an approach procedure is selected and

active, the receiver will notify the pilot of the most

accurate level of service supported by the combination of the WAAS signal, the receiver, and the

selected approach, using the naming conventions on

the minima lines of the selected approach procedure.

For example, if an approach is published with LPV

minima and the receiver is only certified for

LNAV/VNAV, the equipment would indicate “LPV

not available − Use LNAV/VNAV minima,” even

though the WAAS signal would support LPV. If

flying an existing LNAV/VNAV procedure, the

receiver will notify the pilot “LNAV/VNAV

available” even if the receiver is certified for LPV and

the WAAS signal supports LPV. If the WAAS signal

does not support published minima lines which the

receiver is certified to fly, the receiver will notify the

pilot with a message such as “LPV not available − use

LNAV/VNAV minima” or “LPV not available − use

LNAV minima.” Once this notification has been

given, the receiver will operate in this mode for the

duration of that approach procedure. The receiver

cannot change back to a more accurate level of

service until the next time an approach is activated.
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19.4.3 Another additional feature of WAAS receivers is the ability to exclude a bad GPS signal and

continue operating normally. This is normally

accomplished by the WAAS correction information.

Outside WAAS coverage or when WAAS is not

available, it is accomplished through a receiver

algorithm called FDE. In most cases this operation

will be invisible to the pilot since the receiver will

continue to operate with other available satellites

after excluding the “bad” signal. This capability

increases the reliability of navigation.

19.4.4 Both lateral and vertical scaling for the

LNAV/VNAV and LPV approach procedures are

different than the linear scaling of basic GPS. When

the complete published procedure is flown, +/−1 NM

linear scaling is provided until two (2) NM prior to the

FAF, where the sensitivity increases to be similar to

the angular scaling of an ILS. There are two

differences in the WAAS scaling and ILS: 1) on long

final approach segments, the initial scaling will be

+/−0.3 NM to achieve equivalent performance to

GPS (and better than ILS, which is less sensitive far

from the runway); 2) close to the runway threshold,

the scaling changes to linear instead of continuing to

become more sensitive. The width of the final

approach course is tailored so that the total width is

usually 700 feet at the runway threshold. Since the

origin point of the lateral splay for the angular portion

of the final is not fixed due to antenna placement like

localizer, the splay angle can remain fixed, making a

consistent width of final for aircraft being vectored

onto the final approach course on different length

runways. When the complete published procedure is

not flown, and instead the aircraft needs to capture the

extended final approach course similar to ILS, the

vector to final (VTF) mode is used. Under VTF the

scaling is linear at +/−1 NM until the point where the

ILS angular splay reaches a width of +/−1 NM

regardless of the distance from the FAWP.

19.4.5 The WAAS scaling is also different than GPS

TSO−C129 in the initial portion of the missed

approach. Two differences occur here. First, the

scaling abruptly changes from the approach scaling to

the missed approach scaling, at approximately the

departure end of the runway or when the pilot

requests missed approach guidance rather than

ramping as GPS does. Second, when the first leg of

the missed approach is a Track to Fix (TF) leg aligned

within 3 degrees of the inbound course, the receiver

will change to 0.3 NM linear sensitivity until the turn

initiation point for the first waypoint in the missed

approach procedure, at which time it will abruptly

change to terminal (+/−1 NM) sensitivity. This allows

the elimination of close in obstacles in the early part

of the missed approach that may cause the DA to be

raised.

19.4.6 A new method has been added for selecting

the final approach segment of an instrument

approach. Along with the current method used by

most receivers using menus where the pilot selects the

airport, the runway, the specific approach procedure

and finally the IAF, there is also a channel number

selection method. The pilot enters a unique 5−digit

number provided on the approach chart, and the

receiver recalls the matching final approach segment

from the aircraft database. A list of information

including the available IAFs is displayed and the pilot

selects the appropriate IAF. The pilot should confirm

that the correct final approach segment was loaded by

cross checking the Approach ID, which is also

provided on the approach chart.

19.4.7 The Along−Track Distance (ATD) during the

final approach segment of an LNAV procedure (with

a minimum descent altitude) will be to the MAWP. On

LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches to a decision

altitude, there is no missed approach waypoint so the

along−track distance is displayed to a point normally

located at the runway threshold. In most cases the

MAWP for the LNAV approach is located on the

runway threshold at the centerline, so these distances

will be the same. This distance will always vary

slightly from any ILS DME that may be present, since

the ILS DME is located further down the runway.

Initiation of the missed approach on the LNAV/

VNAV and LPV approaches is still based on reaching

the decision altitude without any of the items listed in

14 CFR Section 91.175 being visible, and must not be

delayed until the ATD reaches zero. The WAAS

receiver, unlike a GPS receiver, will automatically

sequence past the MAWP if the missed approach

procedure has been designed for RNAV. The pilot

may also select missed approach prior to the MAWP,

however, navigation will continue to the MAWP prior

to waypoint sequencing taking place.
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20. GNSS Landing System (GLS)

20.1 General

20.1.1 The GLS provides precision navigation

guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft

on approach to a runway. It provides differential

augmentation to the Global Navigation Satellite

System (GNSS).

20.1.2 The U.S. plans to provide augmentation

services to the GPS for the first phase of GNSS. This

section will be revised and updated to reflect

international standards and GLS services as they are

provided.

21. Precision Approach Systems Other

Than ILS, GLS, and MLS

21.1 General

Approval and use of precision approach systems

other than ILS, GLS, and MLS require the issuance

of special instrument approach procedures.

21.2 Special Instrument Approach Procedure

21.2.1 Special instrument approach procedures must

be issued to the aircraft operator if pilot training,

aircraft equipment, and/or aircraft performance is

different than published procedures. Special instrument approach procedures are not distributed for

general public use. These procedures are issued to an

aircraft operator when the conditions for operations

approval are satisfied.

21.2.2 General aviation operators requesting approval for special procedures should contact the local

Flight Standards District Office to obtain a letter of

authorization. Air carrier operators requesting

approval for use of special procedures should contact

their Certificate Holding District Office for authorization through their Operations Specification.

21.3 Transponder Landing System (TLS)

21.3.1 The TLS is designed to provide approach

guidance utilizing existing airborne ILS localizer,

glide slope, and transponder equipment.

21.3.2 Ground equipment consists of a transponder

interrogator, sensor arrays to detect lateral and

vertical position, and ILS frequency transmitters. The

TLS detects the aircraft’s position by interrogating its

transponder. It then broadcasts ILS frequency signals

to guide the aircraft along the desired approach path.

21.3.3 TLS instrument approach procedures are

designated Special Instrument Approach Procedures.

Special aircrew training is required. TLS ground

equipment provides approach guidance for only one

aircraft at a time. Even though the TLS signal is

received using the ILS receiver, no fixed course or

glidepath is generated. The concept of operation is

very similar to an air traffic controller providing radar

vectors, and just as with radar vectors, the guidance

is valid only for the intended aircraft. The TLS

ground equipment tracks one aircraft, based on its

transponder code, and provides correction signals to

course and glidepath based on the position of the

tracked aircraft. Flying the TLS corrections computed for another aircraft will not provide guidance

relative to the approach; therefore, aircrews must not

use the TLS signal for navigation unless they have

received approach clearance and completed the

required coordination with the TLS ground equipment operator. Navigation fixes based on conventional NAVAIDs or GPS are provided in the special

instrument approach procedure to allow aircrews to

verify the TLS guidance.

21.4 Special Category I Differential GPS

(SCAT−I DGPS)

21.4.1 The SCAT−I DGPS is designed to provide

approach guidance by broadcasting differential

correction to GPS.

21.4.2 SCAT−I DGPS procedures require aircraft

equipment and pilot training.

21.4.3 Ground equipment consists of GPS receivers

and a VHF digital radio transmitter. The SCAT−I

DGPS detects the position of GPS satellites relative

to GPS receiver equipment and broadcasts differential corrections over the VHF digital radio.

21.4.4 Category I Ground Based Augmentation

System (GBAS) will displace SCAT−I DGPS as the

public−use service.

22. Area Navigation

22.1 General

22.1.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) provides enhanced

navigational capability to the pilot. RNAV equipment

can compute the airplane position, actual track and

ground speed and then provide meaningful information relative to a route of flight selected by the pilot.

Typical equipment will provide the pilot with

distance, time, bearing and crosstrack error relative to

the selected “TO” or “active” waypoint and the
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selected route. Several navigational systems with

different navigational performance characteristics

are capable of providing area navigational functions.

Present day RNAV includes INS, LORAN, VOR/

DME, and GPS systems. Modern multi−sensor

systems can integrate one or more of the above

systems to provide a more accurate and reliable

navigational system. Due to the different levels of

performance, area navigational capabilities can

satisfy different levels of required navigation

performance (RNP).

22.2 RNAV Operations Incorporating RNP

22.2.1 During the past four decades, domestic and

international air navigation have been conducted

using a system of airways and instrument procedures

based upon ground−based navigational systems such

as NDB, VOR, and ILS. Reliance on ground−based

navigational systems has served the aviation

community well, but often results in less than optimal

routes or instrument procedures and an inefficient use

of airspace. With the widespread deployment of

RNAV systems and the advent of GPS−based

navigation, greater flexibility in defining routes,

procedures, and airspace design is now possible with

an associated increase in flight safety. To capitalize

on the potential of RNAV systems, both the FAA and

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) are

affecting a shift toward a new standard of navigation

and airspace management called RNP.

22.2.2 Navigational systems are typically described

as being sensor specific, such as a VOR or ILS

system. By specifying airspace requirements as RNP,

various navigation systems or combination of

systems may be used as long as the aircraft can

achieve the RNP. RNP is intended to provide a single

performance standard that can be used and applied by

aircraft and aircraft equipment manufacturers,

airspace planners, aircraft certification and operations, pilots and controllers, and international

aviation authorities. RNP can be applied to obstacle

clearance or aircraft separation requirements to

ensure a consistent application level.

22.2.3 ICAO has defined RNP values for the four

typical navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route,

terminal, and approach. The RNP applicable to a

selected airspace, route, or procedure is designated by

it’s RNP Level or Type. As defined in the

Pilot/Controller Glossary, the RNP Level or Type is

a value typically expressed as a distance, in nautical

miles, from the procedure, route or path within which

an aircraft would typically operate. RNP applications

also provide performance to protect against larger

errors at some multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the

RNP level).

22.3 Standard RNP Levels

22.3.1 U.S. standard values supporting typical RNP

airspace are as specified in TBL ENR 4.1−6 below.

Other RNP levels as identified by ICAO, other states

and the FAA may also be used.

TBL ENR 4.1−6

U.S. Standard RNP Levels

RNP Level Typical Application

.3 Approach

1 Departure, Terminal

2 En Route

22.3.1.1 Application of Standard RNP Levels.

U.S. standard levels of RNP typically used for

various routes and procedures supporting RNAV

operations may be based on use of a specific

navigational system or sensor such as GPS, or on

multi−sensor RNAV systems having suitable performance. New RNAV routes and procedures will be

FAA’s first public use procedures to include a

specified RNP level. These procedures are being

developed based on earth referenced navigation and

do not rely on conventional ground−based navigational aids. Unless otherwise noted on affected charts

or procedures, depiction of a specified RNP level will

not preclude the use of other airborne RNAV

navigational systems.

22.3.1.2 Depiction of Standard RNP Levels. The

applicable RNP level will be depicted on affected

charts and procedures. For example, an RNAV

departure procedure may contain a notation referring

to eligible aircraft by equipment suffix and a phrase

“or RNP−1.0.” A typical RNAV approach procedure

may include a notation referring to eligible aircraft by

specific navigation sensor(s), equipment suffix, and

a phrase “or RNP−0.3.” Specific guidelines for the

depiction of RNP levels will be provided through

chart bulletins and accompany affected charting

changes.

22.4 Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP

criteria will have an appropriate entry including

special conditions and limitations, if any, in its
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Aircraft/Rotorcraft Flight Manual (AFM), or supplement. RNAV installations with AFM−RNP certification based on GPS or systems integrating GPS are

considered to meet U.S. standard RNP levels for all

phases of flight. Aircraft with AFM−RNP certification without GPS may be limited to certain RNP

levels, or phases of flight. For example, RNP based

on DME/DME without other augmentation may not

be appropriate for phases of flight outside the

certified DME service volume. Operators of aircraft

not having specific AFM−RNP certification may be

issued operational approval including special conditions and limitations, if any, for specific RNP levels.

Aircraft navigation systems eligible for RNP airspace

will be indicated on charts, or announced through

other FAA media such as NOTAMs and chart

bulletins.

22.5 Understanding RNP Operations. Pilots

should have a clear understanding of the aircraft

requirements for operation in a given RNP

environment, and advise ATC if an equipment failure

or other malfunction causes the aircraft to lose its

ability to continue operating in the designated RNP

airspace. When a pilot determines a specified RNP

level cannot be achieved, he/she should be prepared

to revise the route, or delay the operation until an

appropriate RNP level can be ensured. Some airborne

systems use terms other than RNP to indicate the

current level of performance. Depending on the

airborne system implementation, this may be

displayed, and referred to, as actual navigation

performance (ANP), estimate of position error

(EPE), or other.

22.6 Other RNP Applications Outside the

U.S. The FAA, in cooperation with ICAO member

states has led initiatives in implementing the RNP

concept to oceanic operations. For example, RNP−10

routes have been established in the northern Pacific

(NOPAC) which has increased capacity and

efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks to

50 NM. Additionally, the FAA has assisted those U.S.

air carriers operating in Europe where the routes have

been designated as RNP−5. TBL ENR 4.1−7 below,

shows examples of current and future RNP levels of

airspace.

TBL ENR 4.1−7

RNP Levels Supported for International Operations

RNP Level Typical Application

4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas

where 30 NM horizontal separation is

applied

5 European Basic RNAV (B−RNAV)

10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM

horizontal separation is applied

22.7 RNAV and RNP Operations

22.7.1 Pilot

22.7.1.1 If unable to comply with the requirements

of an RNAV or RNP procedure, pilots shall advise air

traffic control as soon as possible. For example,

“ . . . N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNAV,

request amended clearance.”

22.7.1.2 Pilots are not authorized to fly a published

RNAV or RNP procedure unless it is retrievable by

the procedure name from the aircraft navigation

database and conforms to the charted procedure.

22.7.1.3 Pilots shall not change any database

waypoint type from a fly−by to fly−over, or vice

versa. No other modification of database waypoints

or the creation of user−defined waypoints on

published RNAV or RNP procedures is permitted,

except to:

a) Change altitude and/or airspeed waypoint

constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/instruction.

b) Insert a waypoint along the published route to

assist in complying with ATC instruction, example,

“Descend via the WILMS arrival except cross

30 north of BRUCE at/or below FL 210.” This is

limited only to systems that allow along track

waypoint construction.

22.7.1.4 Pilots of aircraft utilizing DME/DME for

primary radio updating shall ensure any published

required DME stations are in service as determined

by NOTAM, ATIS, or ATC advisory. No pilot

monitoring of FMS navigation source(s) is required.

22.7.1.5 Pilots of FMS−equipped aircraft, who are

assigned an RNAV DP or STAR procedure and

subsequently receive a change of runway, transition

or procedure, shall verify that the appropriate

changes are loaded and available for navigation.
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16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

22.7.1.6 While operating on RNAV segments, pilots

are encouraged to use flight director, in lateral

navigation mode.

22.7.1.7 For Type B RNAV DPs and STARs, pilots

must use a CDI/flight director and/or autopilot, in

lateral navigation mode. For Type A RNAV DPs and

STARs, these procedures are recommended. Other

methods providing an equivalent level of performance may also be acceptable.

22.7.1.8 For Type B RNAV DPs and STARs, pilots

of aircraft without GPS, using DME/DME/IRU, must

ensure the aircraft navigation system position is

confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of

take−off roll. The use of an automatic or manual

runway update is an acceptable means of compliance

with this requirement. Other methods providing an

equivalent level of performance may also be

acceptable.

22.7.1.9 RNAV terminal procedures may be

amended by ATC issuing radar vectors and/or

clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should avoid

premature manual deletion of waypoints from their

active “legs” page to allow for rejoining procedures.

22.7.1.10 While operating on RNAV segments,

pilots operating /R aircraft shall adhere to any flight

manual limitation or operating procedure required to

maintain the RNP value specified for the procedure.

23. NAVAID Identifier Removal During

Maintenance

23.1 During periods of routine or emergency

maintenance, coded identification (or code and voice,

where applicable) is removed from certain FAA

NAVAIDs. Removal of the identification serves as

warning to pilots that the facility is officially off the

air for tune−up or repair and may be unreliable even

though intermittent or constant signals are received.

NOTE−

During periods of maintenance, VHF ranges may radiate

a T−E−S−T code (− −).

NOTE−

DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out

of service even if the identification is present. In certain

cases, the identification may be transmitted for short

periods as part of the testing.

24. User Reports on NAVAID Performance

24.1 Users of the National Airspace System can

render valuable assistance in the early correction of

NAVAID malfunctions by reporting their observation

of undesirable performance. Although NAVAIDs are

monitored by electronic detectors adverse effects of

electronic interference, new obstructions or changes

in terrain near the NAVAID can exist without

detection by the ground monitors. Some of the

characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating

performance which should be reported are: erratic

course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full,

flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper

coded identification; poor quality communications

reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an

audible hum or tone accompanying radio communications or navaid identification.

24.2 Reporters should identify the NAVAID, location of the aircraft, time of the observation, type of

aircraft and describe the condition observed; the type

of receivers in use will also be useful information.

Reports can be made in any of the following ways:

24.2.1 Immediately, by radio communication to the

controlling Air Route Traffic Control Center, Control

Tower, or Flight Service Station. This provides the

quickest result.

24.2.2 By telephone to the nearest FAA facility.

24.2.3 By FAA Form 8000−7, Safety Improvement

Report, a postage−paid card designed for this

purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA Flight

Service Stations, Flight Standards District Offices,

and General Aviation Fixed Base Operations.

24.3 In aircraft that have more than one receiver,

there are many combinations of possible interference

between units. This can cause either erroneous

navigation indications or, complete or partial

blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be

familiar enough with the radio installation of

particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of

interference.

25. Radio Communications and Navigation

Facilities

25.1 A complete listing of air traffic radio

communications facilities and frequencies and radio

navigation facilities and frequencies are contained in

the Airport/Facility Directory. Similar information

for the Pacific and Alaskan areas is contained in the

Pacific and Alaskan Supplements.
AIP ENR 4.2−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 4.2 Special Navigation Systems

1. Doppler Radar

1.1 Doppler Radar is a semiautomatic self−contained dead reckoning navigation system (radar

sensor plus computer) which is not continuously

dependent on information derived from ground based

or external aids. The system employs radar signals to

detect and measure ground speed and drift angle,

using the aircraft compass system as its directional

reference. Doppler is less accurate than INS,

however, and the use of an external reference is

required for periodic updates if acceptable position

accuracy is to be achieved on long range flights.

AIP ENR 5.1−1

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 5. NAVIGATION WARNINGS

ENR 5.1 Prohibited, Restricted, and Other Areas

1. Special Use Airspace

1.1 General

1.1.1 Special use airspace consists of that airspace

wherein activities must be confined because of their

nature, or wherein limitations are imposed upon

aircraft operations that are not a part of those

activities, or both. Except for controlled firing areas,

special use airspace areas are depicted on aeronautical charts.

1.1.2 Prohibited and restricted areas are regulatory

special use airspace and are established in 14 CFR

Part 73 through the rulemaking process.

1.1.3 Warning areas, military operations areas

(MOAs), alert areas, and controlled firing areas

(CFAs) are nonregulatory special use airspace. See

Section ENR 5.2 for information on MOAs, alert

areas, and CFAs.

1.1.4 Special use airspace descriptions (except

CFAs) are contained in FAA Order 7400.8, Special

Use Airspace.

1.1.5 Special use airspace (except CFAs) are charted

on IFR and visual charts and include the hours of

operation, altitudes, and the controlling agency.

1.2 Prohibited Areas

1.2.1 Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined

dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the

earth within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.

Such areas are established for security or other

reasons associated with the national welfare. These

areas are published in the Federal Register and are

depicted on aeronautical charts.

1.3 Restricted Areas

1.3.1 Restricted areas contain airspace identified by

an area on the surface of the earth within which the

flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is

subject to restrictions. Activities within these areas

must be confined because of their nature or

limitations imposed upon aircraft operations that are

not a part of those activities or both. Restricted areas

denote the existence of unusual, often invisible,

hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial

gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of restricted

areas without authorization from the using or

controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to

the aircraft and its occupants. Restricted areas are

published in the Federal Register and constitute

14 CFR Part 73.

1.3.2 ATC facilities apply the following procedures

when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance

(including those cleared by ATC to maintain

VFR−on−top) via a route which lies within joint−use

restricted airspace.

1.3.2.1 If the restricted area is not active and has been

released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC

facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the

restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance

for it to do so.

1.3.2.2 If the restricted area is active and has not been

released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC

facility will issue a clearance which will ensure the

aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it is on an

approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained

its own permission to operate in the airspace and so

informs the controlling facility.

NOTE−

The above apply only to joint−use restricted airspace and

not to prohibited and nonjoint−use airspace. For the latter

categories, the ATC facility will issue a clearance so the

aircraft will avoid the restricted airspace unless it is on an

approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its

own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs

the controlling facility.

1.3.3 Restricted airspace is depicted on the en route

chart appropriate for use at the altitude or flight level

being flown. For joint−use restricted areas, the name

of the controlling agency is shown on these charts.

For all prohibited areas and nonjoint−use restricted

areas, unless otherwise requested by the using

agency, the phrase “NO A/G” is shown.
ENR 5.1−2 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

1.4 Warning Areas

1.4.1 A warning area is airspace of defined

dimensions, extending from three nautical miles

outward from the coast of the U.S., that contains

activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipating

aircraft. The purpose of such warning areas is to warn

nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger. A

warning area may be located over domestic or

international waters or both.

2. Other Airspace Areas

2.1 National Security Area (NSA)

2.1.1 National Security Areas consist of airspace of

defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at

locations where there is a requirement for increased

security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are

requested to voluntarily avoid flying through the

depicted NSA. When it is necessary to provide a

greater level of security and safety, flight in NSAs

may be temporarily prohibited by regulation under

the provisions of 14 CFR Section 99.7. Regulatory

prohibitions will be issued by System Operations,

System Operations Airspace and AIM Office,

Airspace and Rules, and disseminated via NOTAM.

Inquiries about NSAs should be directed to Airspace

and Rules.

2.2 Temporary Flight Restrictions

2.2.1 General. This paragraph describes the types

of conditions under which the FAA may impose

temporary flight restrictions. It also explains which

FAA elements have been delegated authority to issue

a temporary flight restrictions NOTAM and lists the

types of responsible agencies/offices from which the

FAA will accept requests to establish temporary

flight restrictions. The 14 CFR is explicit as to what

operations are prohibited, restricted, or allowed in a

temporary flight restrictions area. Pilots are responsible to comply with 14 CFR Sections 91.137, 91.138,

91.141, and 91.143 when conducting flight in an area

where a temporary flight restrictions area is in effect,

and should check appropriate NOTAMs during flight

planning.

2.2.2 The purpose for establishing a temporary

flight restrictions area is to:

2.2.2.1 Protect persons and property in the air or on

the surface from an existing or imminent hazard

associated with an incident on the surface when the

presence of low−flying aircraft would magnify, alter,

spread, or compound that hazard (14 CFR

Section 91.137(a)(1)).

2.2.2.2 Provide a safe environment for the operation

of disaster relief aircraft (14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2)).

2.2.2.3 Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing

aircraft above an incident or event which may

generate a high degree of public interest (14 CFR

Section 91.137(a)(3)).

2.2.2.4 Protect declared national disasters for

humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii (14 CFR

Section 91.138). 

2.2.2.5 Protect the President, Vice President, or other

public figures (14 CFR Section 91.141). 

2.2.2.6 Provide a safe environment for space agency

operations (14 CFR Section 91.143).

2.2.3 Except for hijacking situations, when the

provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) or (a)(2)

are necessary, a temporary flight restrictions area will

only be established by or through the area manager at

the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)

having jurisdiction over the area concerned. A

temporary flight restrictions NOTAM involving the

conditions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) will be

issued at the direction of the service area office

director having oversight of the airspace concerned.

When hijacking situations are involved, a temporary

flight restrictions area will be implemented through

the TSA Aviation Command Center. The appropriate

FAA air traffic element, upon receipt of such a

request, will establish a temporary flight restrictions

area under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1).

2.2.4 The FAA accepts recommendations for the

establishment of a temporary flight restrictions area

under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) from military

major command headquarters, regional directors of

the Office of Emergency Planning, Civil Defense

State Directors, State Governors, or other similar

authority. For the situations involving 14 CFR

Section 91.137(a)(2), the FAA accepts recommendations from military commanders serving as regional,

subregional, or Search and Rescue (SAR) coordinators; by military commanders directing or coordinating air operations associated with disaster relief; or by

civil authorities directing or coordinating organized

relief air operations (includes representatives of the

Office of Emergency Planning, U.S. Forest Service,

and State aeronautical agencies). Appropriate
AIP ENR 5.1−3

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

authorities for a temporary flight restrictions

establishment under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3)

are any of those listed above or by State, county, or

city government entities.

2.2.5 The type of restrictions issued will be kept to a

minimum by the FAA consistent with achievement of

the necessary objective. Situations which warrant the

extreme restrictions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1)

include, but are not limited to: toxic gas leaks or

spills, flammable agents, or fumes which if fanned by

rotor or propeller wash could endanger persons or

property on the surface, or if entered by an aircraft

could endanger persons or property in the air;

imminent volcano eruptions which could endanger

airborne aircraft and occupants; nuclear accident or

incident; and hijackings. Situations which warrant

the restrictions associated with 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2) include: forest fires which are

being fought by releasing fire retardants from aircraft; and aircraft relief activities following a disaster

(earthquake, tidal wave, flood, etc.). 14 CFR Section 91.137 (a)(3) restrictions are established for

events and incidents that would attract an unsafe

congestion of sightseeing aircraft.

2.2.6 The amount of airspace needed to protect

persons and property or provide a safe environment

for rescue/relief aircraft operations is normally

limited to within 2,000 feet above the surface and

within a 3−nautical−mile radius. Incidents occurring

within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace will

normally be handled through existing procedures and

should not require the issuance of a temporary flight

restrictions NOTAM. Temporary flight restrictions

affecting airspace outside of the U.S. and its

territories and possessions are issued with verbiage

excluding that airspace outside of the 12−mile coastal

limits.

2.2.7 The FSS nearest the incident site is normally

the “coordination facility.” When FAA communications assistance is required, the designated FSS will

function as the primary communications facility for

coordination between emergency control authorities

and affected aircraft. The ARTCC may act as liaison

for the emergency control authorities if adequate

communications cannot be established between the

designated FSS and the relief organization. For

example, the coordination facility may relay

authorizations from the on-scene emergency response official in cases where news media aircraft

operations are approved at the altitudes used by relief

aircraft.

2.2.8 ATC may authorize operations in a temporary

flight restrictions area under its own authority only

when flight restrictions are established under 14 CFR

Section 91.137(a)(2) and (a)(3). The appropriate

ARTCC/airport traffic control tower manager will,

however, ensure that such authorized flights do not

hamper activities or interfere with the event for which

restrictions were implemented. However, ATC will

not authorize local IFR flights into the temporary

flight restrictions area.

2.2.9 To preclude misunderstanding, the implementing NOTAM will contain specific and formatted

information. The facility establishing a temporary

flight restrictions area will format a NOTAM

beginning with the phrase “FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS” followed by: the location of the temporary

flight restrictions area; the effective period; the area

defined in statute miles; the altitudes affected; the

FAA coordination facility and commercial telephone

number; the reason for the temporary flight

restrictions; the agency directing any relief activities

and its commercial telephone number; and other

information considered appropriate by the issuing

authority.

EXAMPLE−

1. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1):

The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft operations

except those specified in the NOTAM.

FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS MATTHEWS, VIRGINIA, EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL 9610211200. PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91.137(A)(1) TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT.

RESCUE OPERATIONS IN PROGRESS. ONLY RELIEF

AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS UNDER THE DIRECTION

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ARE AUTHORIZED IN THE AIRSPACE AT AND BELOW 5,000 FEET

MSL WITHIN A 2−NAUTICAL−MILE RADIUS OF

LASER AFB, MATTHEWS, VIRGINIA. COMMANDER,

LASER AFB, IN CHARGE (897) 946−5543 (122.4).

STEENSON FSS (792) 555−6141 (123.1) IS THE FAA

COORDINATION FACILITY .

2. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2):

The following NOTAM permits flight operations in

accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2). The

on-site emergency response official to authorize media
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16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

aircraft operations below the altitudes used by the relief

aircraft.

FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS 25 MILES EAST OF BRANSOME, IDAHO, EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL

9601202359 UTC. PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91.137(A)(2) TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT WITHIN A 4−NAUTICAL−MILE

RADIUS OF THE INTERSECTION OF COUNTY ROADS

564 AND 315 AT AND BELOW 3,500 FEET MSL TO

PROVIDE A SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR FIRE FIGHTING AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS. DAVIS COUNTY SHERIFF’S DEPARTMENT (792) 555−8122 (122.9) IS IN

CHARGE OF ON-SCENE EMERGENCY RESPONSE

ACTIVITIES. GLIVINGS FSS (792) 555−1618 (122.2) IS

THE FAA COORDINATION FACILITY.

3. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3):

The following NOTAM prohibits sightseeing aircraft

operations.

FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS BROWN, TENNESSEE, DUE

TO OLYMPIC ACTIVITY. EFFECTIVE 9606181100 UTC

UNTIL 9607190200 UTC. PURSUANT TO 14 CFR

SECTION 91.137(A)(3) TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT WITHIN A 3−NAUTICAL−MILE RADIUS OF N355783/W835242 AND

VOLUNTEER VORTAC 019 DEGREE RADIAL 3.7 DME

FIX AT AND BELOW 2,500 FEET MSL. NORTON FSS

(423) 555−6742 (126.6) IS THE FAA COORDINATION

FACILITY.

4. 14 CFR Section 91.138:

The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft except those

operating under the authorization of the official in charge

of associated emergency or disaster relief response

activities, aircraft carrying law enforcement officials,

aircraft carrying personnel involved in an emergency or

legitimate scientific purposes, carrying properly accredited news media, and aircraft operating in accordance with

an ATC clearance or instruction.

FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS KAPALUA, HAWAII, EFFECTIVE 9605101200 UTC UNTIL 9605151500 UTC.

PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91.138 TEMPORARY

FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT WITHIN A

3−NAUTICAL−MILE RADIUS OF N205778/W1564038

AND MAUI /OGG/ VORTAC 275 DEGREE RADIAL AT

14.1 NAUTICAL MILES. JOHN DOE 808−757−4469 OR

122.4 IS IN CHARGE OF THE OPERATION. HONOLULU /HNL/ 808− 757−4470 (123.6) AFSS IS THE FAA

COORDINATION FACILITY.

5. 14 CFR Section 91.141:

The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft.

FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS STILLWATER, OKLAHOMA,

JUNE 21, 1996. PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION

91.141 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT OPERATIONS ARE PROHIBITED WITHIN A 3−NAUTICAL−MILE RADIUS,

BELOW 2000 FEET AGL OF N360962/ W970515 AND

THE STILLWATER /SWO/ VOR/DME 176 DEGREE

RADIAL 3.8−NAUTICAL−MILE FIX FROM 1400 LOCAL

TIME TO 1700 LOCAL TIME JUNE 21, 1996 UNLESS

OTHERWISE AUTHORIZED BY ATC.

6. 14 CFR Section 91.143:

The following NOTAM prohibits any aircraft of U.S.

registry, or pilot of any aircraft under the authority of an

airman certificate issued by the FAA.

KENNEDY SPACE CENTER SPACE OPERATIONS

AREA EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL 9610152100

UTC. PURSUANT TO SECTION 91.143, FLIGHT OPERATIONS CONDUCTED BY FAA CERTIFICATED

PILOTS OR CONDUCTED IN AIRCRAFT OF U.S.

REGISTRY ARE PROHIBITED AT ANY ALTITUDE

FROM SURFACE TO UNLIMITED, WITHIN THE

FOLLOWING AREA 30−NAUTICAL−MILE RADIUS OF

THE MELBOURNE /MLB/ VORTAC 010 DEGREE

RADIAL 21−NAUTICAL−MILE FIX. ST. PETERSBURG,

FLORIDA, /PIE/ AFSS 813−545−1645 (122.2) IS THE

FAA COORDINATION FACILITY AND SHOULD BE

CONTACTED FOR THE CURRENT STATUS OF ANY

AIRSPACE ASSOCIATED WITH THE SPACE SHUTTLE

OPERATIONS. THIS AIRSPACE ENCOMPASSES R2933,

R2932, R2931, R2934, R2935, W497A AND W158A.

ADDITIONAL WARNING AND RESTRICTED AREAS

WILL BE ACTIVE IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE

OPERATIONS. PILOTS SHALL CONSULT ALL NOTAMS REGARDING THIS OPERATION. 

2.3 Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations

2.3.1 Procedures relating to parachute jump areas

are contained in 14 CFR Part 105. Tabulations of

parachute jump areas in the U.S. are contained in the

Airport/Facility Directory.

2.3.2 Pilots of aircraft engaged in parachute jump

operations are reminded that all reported altitudes

must be with reference to mean sea level, or flight

level, as appropriate, to enable ATC to provide

meaningful traffic information.
AIP ENR 5.1−5

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.3.3 Parachute Operations in the Vicinity of an

Airport Without an Operating Control Tower.

There is no substitute for alertness while in the

vicinity of an airport. It is essential that pilots

conducting parachute operations be alert, look for

other traffic, and exchange traffic information as

recommended in GEN 3.3, paragraph 9.2, Traffic

Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating

Control Towers. In addition, pilots should avoid

releasing parachutes while in an airport traffic pattern

when there are other aircraft in that pattern. Pilots

should make appropriate broadcasts on the designated Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF),

and monitor that CTAF until all parachute activity has

terminated or the aircraft has left the area. Prior to

commencing a jump operation, the pilot should

broadcast the aircraft’s altitude and position in

relation to the airport, the approximate relative time

when the jump will commence and terminate, and

listen to the position reports of other aircraft in the

area.

AIP ENR 5.2−1

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 5.2 Military Exercise 

and Training Areas

1. Military Operations Area (MOA)

1.1 MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and

lateral limits established for the purpose of separating

certain military training activities from IFR traffic.

Whenever a MOA is being used, nonparticipating

IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA if IFR

separation can be provided by ATC. Otherwise, ATC

will reroute or restrict nonparticipating IFR traffic.

1.2 Examples of activities conducted in MOAs

include, but are not limited to: air combat tactics, air

intercepts, aerobatics, formation training, and

low−altitude tactics. Military pilots flying in an active

MOA are exempted from the provisions of 14 CFR

Section 91.303(c) and (d) which prohibits aerobatic

flight within Class D and Class E surface areas, and

within Federal airways. Additionally, the Department

of Defense has been issued an authorization to

operate aircraft at indicated airspeeds in excess of

250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL within active

MOAs.

1.3 Pilots operating under VFR should exercise

extreme caution while flying within a MOA when

military activity is being conducted. The activity

status (active/inactive) of MOAs may change

frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS

within 100 miles of the area to obtain accurate

real−time information concerning the MOA hours of

operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots

should contact the controlling agency for traffic

advisories.

1.4 MOAs are depicted on Sectional, VFR Terminal

Area, and En Route Low Altitude Charts.

2. Alert Areas

2.1 Alert Areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to

inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may

contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual

type of aerial activity. Pilots should be particularly

alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an

Alert Area shall be conducted in accordance with

FAA regulations, without waiver, and pilots of

participating aircraft as well as pilots transiting the

area shall be equally responsible for collision

avoidance.

3. Controlled Firing Area (CFA)

3.1 CFAs contain activities which, if not conducted

in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to

nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature

of the CFA, as compared to other special use airspace,

is that its activities are suspended immediately when

spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions

indicate an aircraft might be approaching the area.

There is no need to chart CFAs since they do not cause

a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.

4. Military Training Route (MTR)

4.1 National security depends largely on the

deterrent effect of our airborne military forces. To be

proficient, the military services must train in a wide

range of airborne tactics. One phase of this training

involves “low level” combat tactics. The required

maneuvers and high speeds are such that they may

occasionally make the see−and−avoid aspect of VFR

flight more difficult without increased vigilance in

areas containing such operations. In an effort to

ensure the greatest practical level of safety for all

flight operations, the MTR program was conceived.

4.2 The MTR program is a joint venture by the FAA

and the DOD. MTRs are mutually developed for use

by the military for the purpose of conducting

low−altitude, high−speed training. The routes above

1,500 feet above ground level (AGL) are developed

to be flown, to the maximum extent possible, under

IFR. The routes at 1,500 feet AGL and below are

generally developed to be flown under VFR.

4.3 Generally, MTRs are established below

10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of

250 knots. However, route segments may be defined

at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity.

For example, route segments may be defined for

descent, climbout, and mountainous terrain. There

are IFR and VFR routes as follows:

4.3.1 IFR Military Training Routes−IR. Operations on these routes are conducted in accordance

with IFR regardless of weather conditions.
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16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4.3.2 VFR Military Training Routes−VR. Operations on these routes are conducted in accordance

with VFR except flight visibility shall be 5 miles or

more; and flights shall not be conducted below a

ceiling of less than 3,000 feet AGL.

4.4 MTRs will be identified and charted as follows:

4.4.1 Route Identification

4.4.1.1 MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet

AGL shall be identified by four number characters;

e.g., IR1206, VR1207.

4.4.1.2 MTRs that include one or more segments

above 1,500 feet AGL shall be identified by three

number characters; e.g., IR206, VR207.

4.4.1.3 Alternate IR/VR routes or route segments are

identified by using the basic/principal route designation followed by a letter suffix, e.g., IR008A,

VR1007B, etc.

4.4.2 Route Charting

4.4.2.1 IFR Low Altitude En Route Chart. This

chart will depict all IR routes and all VR routes that

accommodate operations above 1,500 feet AGL.

4.4.2.2 VFR Sectional Charts. These charts will

depict military training activities such as IR, VR,

MOA, restricted area, warning area, and alert area

information.

4.4.2.3 Area Planning (AP/1B) Chart (DOD

Flight Information Publication−FLIP). This chart

is published by the DOD primarily for military users

and contains detailed information on both IR and VR

routes.

4.5 The FLIP contains charts and narrative

descriptions of these routes. This publication is

available to the general public by single copy or

annual subscription from:

National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)

Distribution Division

Federal Aviation Administration

6501 Lafayette Avenue

Riverdale, MD 20737−1199

Toll free phone: 1−800−638−8972

Commercial: 301−436−8301

4.5.4 This DOD FLIP is available for pilot briefings

at FSSs and many airports.

4.6 Nonparticipating aircraft are not prohibited from

flying within an MTR; however, extreme vigilance

should be exercised when conducting flight through

or near these routes. Pilots should contact FSSs

within 100 NM of a particular MTR to obtain current

information or route usage in their vicinity.

Information available includes times of scheduled

activity, altitudes in use on each route segment, and

actual route width. Route width varies for each MTR

and can extend several miles on either side of the

charted MTR centerline. Route width information for

IR and VR MTRs is also available in the FLIP AP/1B

along with additional MTR (SR/AR) information.

When requesting MTR information, pilots should

give the FSS their position, route of flight, and

destination in order to reduce frequency congestion

and permit the FSS specialist to identify the MTR

which could be a factor.
AIP ENR 5.3−1

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ENR 5.3 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 5.4−1

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Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 5.4 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 5.5−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

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ENR 5.5 [RESERVED]

AIP ENR 5.6−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 5.6 Bird Migration and Areas

 With Sensitive Fauna

1. Migratory Bird Activity

1.1 Bird strike risk increases because of bird

migration during the months of March through April

and August through November.

1.2 The altitudes of migrating birds vary with winds

aloft, weather fronts, terrain elevations, cloud

conditions, and other environmental variables. While

over 90 percent of the reported bird strikes occur at or

below 3,000 feet AGL, strikes at higher altitudes are

common during migration. Ducks and geese are

frequently observed up to 7,000 feet AGL and pilots

are cautioned to minimize en route flying at lower

altitudes during migration.

1.3 Considered the greatest potential hazard to

aircraft because of their size, abundance, or habit of

flying in dense flocks are gulls, waterfowl, vultures,

hawks, owls, egrets, blackbirds, and starlings. Four

major migratory flyways exist in the U.S. The

Atlantic Flyway parallels the Atlantic coast, the

Mississippi Flyway stretches from Canada through

the Great Lakes and follows the Mississippi River.

The Central Flyway represents a broad area east of the

Rockies, stretching from Canada through Central

America. The Pacific Flyway follows the west coast

and overflies major parts of Washington, Oregon, and

California. There are also numerous smaller flyways

which cross these major north−south migratory

routes.

2. Reducing Bird Strike Risks

2.1 The most serious strikes are those involving

ingestion into an engine (turboprop and turbine jet

engines) or windshield strikes. These strikes can

result in emergency situations requiring prompt

action by the pilot.

2.2 Engine ingestions may result in sudden loss of

power or engine failure. Review engine out

procedures, especially when operating from airports

with known bird hazards or when operating near high

bird concentrations.

2.3 Windshield strikes have resulted in pilots

experiencing confusion, disorientation, loss of

communications, and aircraft control problems.

Pilots are encouraged to review their emergency

procedures before flying in these areas.

2.4 When encountering birds en route, climb to

avoid collision because birds in flocks generally

distribute themselves downward, with lead birds

being at the highest altitude.

2.5 Avoid overflight of known areas of bird

concentration and flying low altitudes during bird

migration. Charted wildlife refuges and other natural

areas contain unusually high local concentration of

birds which may create a hazard to aircraft.

3. Reporting Bird Strikes

3.1 Pilots are urged to report any bird or other

wildlife strike using FAA Form 5200−7, Bird/Other

Wildlife Strike Report (FIG ENR 5.6−1). Forms are

available at any FSS or any FAA Regional Office.

Wildlife strikes can also be reported electronically at:

http://www.faa.gov/arp/birdstrike. The data derived from these reports are used to develop standards

to cope with this potential hazard to aircraft and for

documentation of necessary habitat control on

airports.

4. Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife

Activities

4.1 If you observe birds or other animals on or near

the runway, request airport management to disperse

the wildlife before taking off. Also contact the nearest

FAA ARTCC, FSS, or tower (including non−Federal

towers) regarding large flocks of birds and report the:

4.1.1 Geographic location.

4.1.2 Bird type (geese, ducks, gulls, etc.).

4.1.3 Approximate numbers.

4.1.4 Altitude.

4.1.5 Direction of bird flight path.

5. Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other

Wildlife Hazards

5.1 Many airports advise pilots of other wildlife

hazards caused by large animals on the runway

through the Airport/Facility Directory and the

NOTAM system. Collisions between landing and

departing aircraft with animals on the runway are
ENR 5.6−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

increasing and are not limited to rural airports. These

accidents have also occurred at several major

airports. Pilots should exercise extreme caution when

warned of the presence of wildlife on and in the

vicinity of airports. If in close proximity to

movement areas you observe deer or other large

animals, advise the FSS, tower, or airport management.

6. Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas

6.1 The landing of aircraft is prohibited on lands or

waters administered by the National Park Service,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or U.S. Forest

Service without authorization from the respective

agency. Exceptions include (1) when forced to land

due to an emergency beyond the control of the

operator, (2) at officially designated landing sites, or

(3) an approved official business of the Federal

Government.

6.2 All pilots are requested to maintain a minimum

altitude of 2,000 feet above the terrain of the

following: National Parks, Monuments, Seashores,

Lakeshores, Recreation Areas and Scenic Riverways

administered by the National Park Service, National

Wildlife Refuges, Big Game Refuges, Game Ranges,

and Wildlife Ranges administered by the U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, and Wilderness and Primitive

Areas administered by the U.S. Forest Service.

NOTE−

FAA Advisory Circular 91−36, Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

Flight Near Noise−sensitive Areas, defines the surface of

a national park area (including parks, forests, primitive

areas, wilderness areas, recreational areas, national

seashores, national monuments, national lakeshores, and

national wildlife refuge and range areas) as: “The highest

terrain within 2,000 feet laterally of the route of flight, or

the upper−most rim of a canyon or valley.”

6.3 Federal statutes prohibit certain types of flight

activity and/or provide altitude restrictions over

designated U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest

Service Areas. These designated areas are charted on

Sectional Charts, for example: Boundary Waters

Canoe Wilderness Areas, Minnesota; Haleakala

National Park, Hawaii; Yosemite National Park,

California; and Grand Canyon National Park,

Arizona,

6.4 Federal regulations also prohibit airdrops by

parachute or other means of persons, cargo, or objects

from aircraft on lands administered by the three

agencies without authorization from the respective

agency. Exceptions include: (1) emergencies involving the safety of human life or (2) threat of serious

property loss.
AIP ENR 5.6−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG ENR 5.6−1

Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report

AIP ENR 5.7−1

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 5.7 Potential Flight Hazards

1. Accident Causal Factors

1.1 The ten most frequent cause factors for General

Aviation Accidents in 1992 that involve the pilot in

command are:

1.1.1 Inadequate preflight preparation and/or planning.

1.1.2 Failure to obtain/maintain flying speed.

1.1.3 Failure to obtain/maintain flying speed.

1.1.4 Failure to maintain direction control.

1.1.5 Improper level off.

1.1.6 Failure to see and avoid objects or obstructions.

1.1.7 Mismanagement of fuel.

1.1.8 Improper in−flight decisions or planning.

1.1.9 Misjudgment of distance and speed.

1.1.10 Selection of unsuitable terrain.

1.1.11 Improper operation of flight controls.

1.2 The above factors have continued to plague

General Aviation pilots over the years. This list

remains relatively stable and points out the need for

continued refresher training to establish a higher level

of flight proficiency for all pilots. A part of the FAA’s

continuing effort to promote increased aviation safety

is the Aviation Safety Program. For information on

the FAA’s Aviation Safety Program, readers can

contact their nearest Flight Standards District Office’s Safety Program Manager.

1.3 Be alert at all times, especially when the weather

is good. Most pilots pay attention to business when

they are operating in full IFR weather conditions, but

strangely, air collisions almost invariably have

occurred under ideal weather conditions. Unlimited

visibility appears to encourage a sense of security

which is not at all justified. Considerable information

of value may be obtained by listening to advisories

being issued in the terminal area, even though

controller workload may prevent a pilot from

obtaining individual service.

1.4 If you think another aircraft is too close to you,

give way instead of waiting for the other pilot to

respect the right−of−way to which you may be

entitled. It is a lot safer to pursue the right−of−way

angle after you have completed your flight.

2. VFR In Congested Area

2.1 A high percentage of near midair collisions occur

below 8,000 feet AGL and within 30 miles of an

airport. When operating VFR in highly congested

areas, whether you intend to land at an airport within

the area or are just flying through, it is recommended

that extra vigilance be maintained and that you

monitor an appropriate control frequency. Normally

the appropriate frequency is an approach control

frequency. By such monitoring action you can “get

the picture” of the traffic in your area. When the

approach controller has radar, traffic advisories may

be given to VFR pilots who request them, subject to

the provisions included in ENR 1.1, paragraph 37.10.4, Radar Traffic Information Service

(RTIS).

3. Obstructions to Flight

3.1 General

3.1.1 Many structures exist that could significantly

affect the safety of your flight when operating below

500 feet above ground level (AGL), and particularly

below 200 feet AGL. While 14 CFR Section 91.119

allows flight below 500 AGL when over sparsely

populated areas or open water, such operations are

very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are

numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are

not marked and lighted as obstructions and therefore

may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices

to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued on those lighted

structures experiencing temporary light outages.

However, some time may pass before the FAA is

notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued,

thus pilot vigilance is imperative.

3.2 Antenna Towers

3.2.1 Extreme caution should be exercised when

flying less that 2,000 feet above ground level (AGL)

because of numerous skeletal structures, such as

radio and television antenna towers, that exceed

1,000 feet AGL with some extending higher than

2,000 feet AGL. Most skeletal structures are

supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see

in good weather and can be invisible at dusk or during

periods of reduced visibility. These wires can extend
ENR 5.7−2 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

about 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure;

therefore, all skeletal structures should be avoided

horizontally by at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new

towers may not be on your current chart because the

information was not received prior to the printing of

the chart.

3.3 Overhead Wires

3.3.1 Overhead transmission and utility lines often

span approaches to runways, natural flyways such as

lakes, rivers, gorges, and canyons, and cross other

landmarks pilots frequently follow such as highways,

railroad tracks, etc. As with antenna towers, these

high voltage/power lines or the supporting structures

of these lines may not always be readily visible and

the wires may be virtually impossible to see under

certain conditions. In some locations, the supporting

structures of overhead transmission lines are

equipped with unique sequence flashing white strobe

light systems to indicate that there are wires between

the structures. However, many power lines do not

require notice to the FAA and, therefore, are not

marked and/or lighted. Many of those that do require

notice do not exceed 200 feet AGL or meet the

Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Part 77 and,

therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. All pilots are

cautioned to remain extremely vigilant for these

power lines or their supporting structures when

following natural flyways or during the approach and

landing phase. This is particularly important for

seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft when landing

on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes or rivers.

3.4 Other Objects/Structures

3.4.1 There are other objects or structures that could

adversely affect your flight such as construction

cranes near an airport, newly constructed buildings,

new towers, etc. Many of these structures do not meet

charting requirements or may not yet be charted

because of the charting cycle. Some structures do not

require obstruction marking and/or lighting and some

may not be marked and lighted even though the FAA

recommended it.

4. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned

Balloons

4.1 The majority of unmanned free balloons

currently being operated have, extended below them,

either a suspension device to which the payload or

instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire

antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon

subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until his/her

aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a

potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good

judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft

should remain well clear of all unmanned free

balloons and flight below then should be avoided at

all times.

4.2 Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free

balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility

with which communication is established. Such

information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify

and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating

in the airspace.

5. Unmanned Aircraft

5.1 Unmanned aircraft (UA), commonly referred to

as “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles” (UAVs), are having

an increasing operational presence in the national

airspace system (NAS). Once the exclusive domain

of the military, UAs are now being operated by

various entities. Although these aircraft are “unmanned,” UAs are controlled by a ground−based

pilot and crew. Physical and performance characteristics of UAs vary greatly, and unlike model aircraft

that typically operate lower than 400 feet above

ground level, UAs may be found operating at

virtually any altitude and any speed. Sizes of UAs can

be as small as several pounds to as large as a

commercial transport aircraft. UAs come in various

categories including airplane, rotorcraft, powered−

lift (tilt−rotor), and lighter−than−air. Propulsion

systems of UAs include piston−powered propeller as

well as turbojet.

5.2 To ensure segregation of UA operations from

manned aircraft, the military typically conducts UA

operations within restricted or other special use

airspace. However, UA operations are now being

approved in the NAS outside of special use airspace

through the use of FAA−issued Certificates of Waiver

or Authorization (COA) or through the issuance of an

experimental airworthiness certificate. COA and

experimental airworthiness approvals authorize UA

flight operations to be contained within specific

geographic boundaries, usually require coordination

with an air traffic control (ATC) facility, and typically

require issuance of a notice to airmen (NOTAM)

describing the operation to be conducted. UA

approvals also require observers to provide “see−

and−avoid” capability to the UA crew and to provide

necessary guidance to maneuver the UA away from

any detected manned aircraft. For UA operations
AIP ENR 5.7−3

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

approved above flight level 180, UAs are operated

under instrument flight rules, are in communication

with ATC, and are equipped with a transponder.

5.3 There are several things a pilot should consider

regarding UA activity in an effort to reduce potential

flight hazards. Pilots are urged to exercise increased

vigilance when operating in the vicinity of restricted

or other special use airspace, military operations

areas, and any military installation. Since the size of

a UA can be very small, they may be difficult to see

and track. If a UA is encountered during flight, don’t

assume that the pilot or crew of the UA can see you,

maintain increased vigilance with the UA. Always

check NOTAMs for potential UA activity along the

intended route of flight and exercise increased

vigilance in areas specified in the NOTAM.

6. Mountain Flying

6.1 Your first experience of flying over mountainous

terrain (particularly if most of your flight time has

been over the flatlands of the midwest) could be a

never-to-be-forgotten nightmare if proper planning is

not done and if you are not aware of the potential

hazards awaiting. Those familiar section lines are not

present in the mountains; those flat, level fields for

forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt

changes in wind direction and velocity occur; severe

updrafts and downdrafts are common, particularly

near or above abrupt changes of terrain such as cliffs

or rugged areas; even the clouds look different and

can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying

need not be hazardous if you follow the recommendations below:

6.1.1 File a Flight Plan. Plan your route to avoid

topography which would prevent a safe forced

landing. The route should be over populated areas and

well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude

should be maintained to permit gliding to a safe

landing in the event of engine failure.

6.1.2 Don’t fly a light aircraft when the winds aloft,

at your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour.

Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over

mountain passes than reported a few miles from

them. Approach mountain passes with as much

altitude as possible. Downdrafts of from 1,500 to

2,000 feet per minute are not uncommon on the

leeward side.

6.1.3 Don’t fly near or above abrupt changes in

terrain. Severe turbulence can be expected, especially

in high wind conditions.

6.1.4 Understand Mountain Obscuration. The

term Mountain Obscuration (MTOS) is used to

describe a visibility condition that is distinguished

from IFR because ceilings, by definition, are

described as “above ground level” (AGL). In

mountainous terrain clouds can form at altitudes

significantly higher than the weather reporting

station and at the same time nearby mountaintops

may be obscured by low visibility. In these areas the

ground level can also vary greatly over a small area.

Beware if operating VFR−on−top. You could be

operating closer to the terrain than you think because

the tops of mountains are hidden in a cloud deck

below. MTOS areas are identified daily on The

Aviation Weather Center located at www.awc−

kc.noaa.gov under Official Forecast Products,

AIRMETs (WA), IFR/Mountain Obscuration.

6.2 Some canyons run into a dead end. Don’t fly so

far up a canyon that you get trapped. ALWAYS BE

ABLE TO MAKE A 180 DEGREE TURN.

6.3 VFR flight operations may be conducted at night

in mountainous terrain with the application of sound

judgment and common sense. Proper pre−flight

planning, giving ample consideration to winds and

weather, knowledge of the terrain and pilot

experience in mountain flying are prerequisites for

safety of flight. Continuous visual contact with the

surface and obstructions is a major concern and flight

operations under an overcast or in the vicinity of

clouds should be approached with extreme caution.

6.4 When landing at a high altitude field, the same

indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation

fields. Remember: that due to the less dense air at

altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results

in a higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and

more important, a longer landing distance. During

gusty wind conditions which often prevail at high

altitude fields, a power approach and power landing

is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster

groundspeed, your takeoff distance will increase

considerably over that required at low altitudes.

6.5 Effects of Density Altitude. Performance

figures in the aircraft owner’s handbook for length of

takeoff run, horsepower, rate of climb, etc., are

generally based on standard atmosphere conditions

(59°F, pressure 29.92 inches of mercury) at sea level.
ENR 5.7−4 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

However, inexperienced pilots as well as experienced

pilots may run into trouble when they encounter an

altogether different set of conditions. This is

particularly true in hot weather and at higher

elevations. Aircraft operations at altitudes above sea

level and at higher than standard temperatures are

commonplace in mountainous area. Such operations

quite often result in a drastic reduction of aircraft

performance capabilities because of the changing air

density. Density altitude is a measure of air density.

It is not to be confused with pressure altitude − true

altitude or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a

height reference, but as a determining criteria in the

performance capability of an aircraft. Air density

decreases with altitude. As air density decreases,

density altitude increases. The further effects of high

temperature and high humidity are cumulative,

resulting in an increasing high density altitude

condition. High density altitude reduces all aircraft

performance parameters. To the pilot, this means that

the normal horsepower output is reduced, propeller

efficiency is reduced and a higher true airspeed is

required to sustain the aircraft throughout its

operating parameters. It means an increase in runway

length requirements for takeoff and landings, and a

decreased rate of climb. An average small airplane,

for example, requiring 1,000 feet for takeoff at sea

level under standard atmospheric conditions will

require a takeoff run of approximately 2,000 at an

operational altitude of 5,000 feet.

NOTE−

A turbo−charged aircraft engine provides some slight

advantage in that it provides sea level horsepower up to a

specified altitude above sea level.

6.6 Density Altitude Advisories. At airports with

elevations of 2,000 feet and higher, control towers

and FSSs will broadcast the advisory “Check Density

Altitude” when the temperature reaches a predetermined level. These advisories will be broadcast on

appropriate tower frequencies or, where available,

ATIS. FSSs will broadcast these advisories as a part

of Airport Advisory Service, and on TWEB.

6.6.1 These advisories are provided by air traffic

facilities, as a reminder to pilots that high

temperatures and high field elevations will cause

significant changes in aircraft characteristics. The

pilot retains the responsibility to compute density

altitude, when appropriate, as a part of preflight

duties.

NOTE−

All FSSs will compute the current density altitude upon

request.

7. Mountain Wave

7.1 Many pilots go all their lives without understanding what a mountain wave is. Quite a few have lost

their lives because of this lack of understanding. One

need not be a licensed meteorologist to understand

the mountain wave phenomenon.

7.2 Mountain waves occur when air is being blown

over a mountain range or even the ridge of a sharp

bluff area. As the air hits the upwind side of the range,

it starts to climb, thus creating what is generally a

smooth updraft which turns into a turbulent

downdraft as the air passes the crest of the ridge. From

this point, for many miles downwind, there will be a

series of downdrafts and updrafts. Satellite photos of

the Rockies have shown mountain waves extending

as far as 700 miles downwind of the range. Along the

east coast area, such photos of the Appalachian chain

have picked up the mountain wave phenomenon over

a hundred miles eastward. All it takes to form a

mountain wave is wind blowing across the range at 15

knots or better at an intersection angle of not less than

30 degrees.

7.3 Pilots from flatland areas should understand a

few things about mountain waves in order to stay out

of trouble. Approaching a mountain range from the

upwind side (generally the west), there will usually be

a smooth updraft; therefore, it is not quite as

dangerous an area as the lee of the range. From the

leeward side, it is always a good idea to add an extra

thousand feet or so of altitude because downdrafts

can exceed the climb capability of the aircraft. Never

expect an updraft when approaching a mountain

chain from the leeward. Always be prepared to cope

with a downdraft and turbulence.

7.4 When approaching a mountain ridge from the

downwind side, it is recommended that the ridge be

approached at approximately a 45°angle to the

horizontal direction of the ridge. This permits a safer

retreat from the ridge with less stress on the aircraft

should severe turbulence and downdraft be experienced. If severe turbulence is encountered, simultaneously reduce power and adjust pitch until aircraft

approaches maneuvering speed, then adjust power

and trim to maintain maneuvering speed and fly away

from the turbulent area.
AIP ENR 5.7−5

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

8. Seaplane Safety

8.1 Acquiring a seaplane class rating affords access

to many areas not available to landplane pilots.

Adding a seaplane class rating to your pilot certificate

can be relatively uncomplicated and inexpensive.

However, more effort is required to become a safe,

efficient, competent “bush” pilot. The natural hazards

of the backwoods have given way to modern

man−made hazards. Except for the far north, the

available bodies of water are no longer the exclusive

domain of the airman. Seaplane pilots must be

vigilant for hazards such as electric power lines,

power, sail and rowboats, rafts, mooring lines, water

skiers, swimmers, etc.

8.2 Seaplane pilots must have a thorough understanding of the right−of−way rules as they apply to

aircraft versus other vessels. Seaplane pilots are

expected to know and adhere to both the United

States Coast Guard’s (USCG) Navigation Rules,

International−Inland, and Title 14 Code of Federal

Regulations (CFR) Section 91.115, Right of Way

Rules; Water Operations. The navigation rules of the

road are a set of collision avoidance rules as they

apply to aircraft on the water. A seaplane is

considered a vessel when on the water for the

purposes of these collision avoidance rules. In

general, a seaplane on the water shall keep well clear

of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation.

The CFR requires, in part, that aircraft operating on

the water “. . . shall, insofar as possible, keep clear of

all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation and

shall give way to any vessel or other aircraft that is

given the right of way . . . .” This means that a

seaplane should avoid boats and commercial

shipping when on the water. If on a collision course,

the seaplane should slow, stop, or maneuver to the

right, away from the bow of the oncoming vessel.

Also, while on the surface with an engine running, an

aircraft must give way to all nonpowered vessels.

Since a seaplane in the water may not be as

maneuverable as one in the air, the aircraft on the

water has right−of−way over one in the air, and one

taking off has right−of−way over one landing. A

seaplane is exempt from the USCG safety equipment

requirements, including the requirements for Personal Floatation Devices (PFD). Requiring seaplanes on

the water to comply with USCG equipment

requirements in addition to the FAA equipment

requirements would be an unnecessary burden on

seaplane owners and operators.

8.3 Unless they are under Federal jurisdiction,

navigable bodies of water are under the jurisdiction

of the state, or in a few cases, privately owned. Unless

they are specifically restricted, aircraft have as much

right to operate on these bodies of water as other

vessels. To avoid problems, check with Federal or

local officials in advance of operating on unfamiliar

waters. In addition to the agencies listed in

TBL ENR 5.7−1, the nearest Flight Standards

District Office can usually offer some practical

suggestions as well as regulatory information. If you

land on a restricted body of water because of an

inflight emergency, or in ignorance of the restrictions

you have violated, report as quickly as practical to the

nearest local official having jurisdiction and explain

your situation.

TBL ENR 5.7−1

Jurisdictions Controlling Navigable 

Bodies of Water

AUTHORITY TO CONSULT FOR USE OF A BODY

OF WATER

Location Authority Contact

Wilderness Area U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest

Service

Local forest

ranger

National Forest USDA Forest

Service

Local forest

ranger

National Park U.S. Department of

the Interior,

National Park

Service

Local park ranger

Indian

Reservation

USDI, Bureau of

Indian Affairs

Local Bureau

office

State Park State government or

state forestry or

park service

Local state

aviation office for

further

information

Canadian

National and

Provincial Parks

Supervised and

restricted on an

individual basis

from province to

province and by

different

departments of the

Canadian

government; consult

Canadian Flight

Information Manual

and/or Water

Aerodrome

Supplement

Park

Superintendent in

an emergency
ENR 5.7−6 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

8.4 When operating a seaplane over or into remote

areas, appropriate attention should be given to

survival gear. Minimum kits are recommended for

summer and winter, and are required by law for flight

into sparsely settled areas of Canada and Alaska.

Alaska State Department of Transportation and

Canadian Ministry of Transport officials can provide

specific information on survival gear requirements.

The kit should be assembled in one container and be

easily reachable and preferably floatable.

8.5 The FAA recommends that each seaplane owner

or operator provide flotation gear for occupants any

time a seaplane operates on or near water. 14 CFR

Section 91.205(b)(12) requires approved flotation

gear for aircraft operated for hire over water and

beyond power−off gliding distance from shore.

FAA−approved gear differs from that required for

navigable waterways under USCG rules. FAA−approved life vests are inflatable designs as compared

to the USCG’s noninflatable PFDs that may consist of

solid, bulky material. Such USCG PFDs are

impractical for seaplanes and other aircraft because

they may block passage through the relatively narrow

exits available to pilots and passengers. Life vests

approved under Technical Standard Order (TSO)

C−13E contain fully inflatable compartments. The

wearer inflates the compartments (AFTER exiting

the aircraft) primarily by independent CO2 cartridges, with an oral inflation tube as a backup. The

flotation gear also contains a water−activated,

self−illuminating signal light. The fact that pilots and

passengers can easily don and wear inflatable life

vests (when not inflated) provides maximum

effectiveness and allows for unrestricted movement.

It is imperative that passengers are briefed on the

location and proper use of available PFDs prior to

leaving the dock.

8.6 The FAA recommends that seaplane owners and

operators obtain Advisory Circular (AC) 91−69,

Seaplane Safety for 14 CFR Part 91 Operations, free

from:

U.S. Department of Transportation

Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC−121.23

Ardmore East Business Center

3341 Q 75th Avenue

Landover, MD 20785

FAX: (301) 386−5394

The USCG Navigation Rules International−Inland

(COMDTINST M16672.2B) is available for a fee

from the Government Printing Office by facsimile

request to (202) 512−2250. It can be ordered using

Mastercard or Visa.

9. Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash

9.1 Severe volcanic eruptions which send ash into

the upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the

world several times each year. Flying into a volcanic

ash cloud can be exceedingly dangerous. A

B747−200 lost all four engines after such an

encounter, and a B747−400 had the same nearly

catastrophic experience. Piston−powered aircraft are

less likely to lose power but severe damage is almost

certain to ensue after an encounter with a volcanic ash

cloud which is only a few hours old.

9.2 Most important is to avoid any encounter with

volcanic ash. The ash plume may not be visible,

especially in instrument conditions or at night; and

even if visible, it is difficult to distinguish visually

between an ash cloud and an ordinary weather cloud.

Volcanic ash clouds are not displayed on airborne or

ATC radar. The pilot must rely on reports from air

traffic controllers and other pilots to determine the

location of the ash cloud and use that information to

remain well clear of the area. Every attempt should be

made to remain on the upwind side of the volcano.

9.3 It is recommended that pilots encountering an

ash cloud should immediately reduce thrust to idle

(altitude permitting), and reverse course in order to

escape from the cloud. Ash clouds may extend for

hundreds of miles, and pilots should not attempt to fly

through or climb out of the cloud. In addition, the

following procedures are recommended:

9.3.1 Disengage the autothrottle if engaged. This

will prevent the autothrottle from increasing engine

thrust.

9.3.2 Turn on continuous ignition.

9.3.3 Turn on all accessory airbleeds including all air

conditioning packs, nacelles, and wing anti−ice. This

will provide an additional engine stall margin by

reducing engine pressure.
AIP ENR 5.7−7

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9.4 The following has been reported by flight crews

who have experienced encounters with volcanic dust

clouds.

9.4.1 Smoke or dust appearing in the cockpit.

9.4.2 An acrid odor similar to electrical smoke.

9.4.3 Multiple engine malfunctions, such as compressor stalls, increasing EGT, torching from tailpipe,

and flameouts.

9.4.4 At night, St. Elmo’s fire or other static

discharges accompanied by a bright orange glow in

the engine inlets.

9.4.5 A fire warning in the forward cargo area.

9.5 It may become necessary to shut down and then

restart engines to prevent exceeding EGT limits.

Volcanic ash may block the pitot system and result in

unreliable airspeed indications.

9.6 If you see a volcanic eruption and have not been

previously notified of it, you may have been the first

person to observe it. In this case, immediately contact

ATC and alert them to the existence of the eruption.

If possible, use the Volcanic Activity Reporting Form

(VAR) depicted at the end of GEN 3.5. Items 1

through 8 of the VAR should be transmitted

immediately. The information requested in items 9

through 16 should be passed after landing. If a VAR

form is not immediately available, relay enough

information to identify the position and nature of the

volcanic activity. Do not become unnecessarily

alarmed if there is merely steam or very low−level

eruptions of ash.

9.7 When landing at airports where volcanic ash has

been deposited on the runway, be aware that even a

thin layer of dry ash can be detrimental to braking

action. Wet ash on the runway may also reduce

effectiveness of braking. It is recommended that

reverse thrust be limited to a minimum practical to

reduce the possibility of reduced visibility and engine

ingestion of airborne ash.

9.8 When departing from airports where volcanic

ash has been deposited it is recommended that pilots

avoid operating in visible airborne ash. Allow ash to

settle before initiating takeoff roll. It is also

recommended that flap extension be delayed until

initiating the takeoff checklist and that a rolling

takeoff be executed to avoid blowing ash back into

the air.

10. Emergency Airborne Inspection of

Other Aircraft

10.1 Providing airborne assistance to another

aircraft may involve flying in very close proximity to

that aircraft. Most pilots receive little, if any, formal

training or instruction in this type of flying activity.

Close proximity flying without sufficient time to plan

(i.e., in an emergency situation), coupled with the

stress involved in a perceived emergency can be

hazardous.

10.2 The pilot in the best position to assess the

situation should take the responsibility of coordinating the airborne intercept and inspection, taking into

account the unique flight characteristics and

differences of the category(s) of aircraft involved.

10.3 Some of the safety considerations are:

10.3.1 Area, direction, and speed of the intercept.

10.3.2 Aerodynamic effects (i.e., rotorcraft downwash) which may also affect.

10.3.3 Minimum safe separation distances.

10.3.4 Communications requirements, lost communications procedures, coordination with ATC.

10.3.5 Suitability of diverting the distressed aircraft

to the nearest safe airport.

10.3.6 Emergency actions to terminate the intercept.

10.4 Close proximity, inflight inspection of another

aircraft is uniquely hazardous. The pilot in command

of the aircraft experiencing the problem/emergency

must not relinquish his/her control of the situation

and jeopardize the safety of his/her aircraft. The

maneuver must be accomplished with minimum risk

to both aircraft.

11. Precipitation Static

11.1 Precipitation static is caused by aircraft in flight

coming in contact with uncharged particles. These

particles can be rain, snow, fog, sleet, hail, volcanic

ash, dust, any solid or liquid particles. When the

aircraft strikes these neutral particles, the positive

element of the particle is reflected away from the

aircraft and the negative particle adheres to the skin

of the aircraft. In a very short period of time a

substantial negative charge will develop on the skin

of the aircraft. If the aircraft is not equipped with

static dischargers, or has an ineffective static

discharger system, when a sufficient negative voltage

level is reached, the aircraft may go into

3 AUG 06
ENR 5.7−8 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

“CORONA.” That is, it will discharge the static

electricity from the extremities of the aircraft, such as

the wing tips, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer,

antenna, propeller tips, etc. This discharge of static

electricity is what you will hear in your headphones

and is what we call P−static.

11.2 A review of pilot reports often shows different

symptoms with each problem that is encountered.

The following list of problems is a summary of many

pilot reports from many different aircraft. Each

problem was caused by P−static:

11.2.1 Complete loss of VHF communications.

11.2.2 Erroneous magnetic compass readings (30%

in error).

11.2.3 High pitched squeal on audio.

11.2.4 Motor boat sound on audio.

11.2.5 Loss of all avionics in clouds.

11.2.6 VLF navigation system inoperative most of

the time.

11.2.7 Erratic instrument readouts.

11.2.8 Weak transmissions and poor receptivity of

radios.

11.2.9 “St. Elmo’s Fire” on windshield.

11.3 Each of these symptoms is caused by one

general problem on the airframe. This problem is the

inability of the accumulated charge to flow easily to

the wing tips and tail of the airframe, and properly

discharge to the airstream.

11.4 Static dischargers work on the principle of

creating a relatively easy path for discharging

negative charges that develop on the aircraft by using

a discharger with fine metal points, carbon coated

rods, or carbon wicks rather than wait until a large

charge is developed and discharged off the trailing

edges of the aircraft that will interfere with avionics

equipment. This process offers approximately

50 decibels (dB) static noise reduction which is

adequate in most cases to be below the threshold of

noise that would cause interference in avionics

equipment.

11.5 It is important to remember that precipitation

static problems can only be corrected with the proper

number of quality static dischargers, properly

installed on a properly bonded aircraft. P−static is

indeed a problem in the all weather operation of the

aircraft, but there are effective ways to combat it. All

possible methods of reducing the effects of P−static

should be considered so as to provide the best

possible performance in the flight environment.

11.6 A wide variety of discharger designs is

available on the commercial market. The inclusion of

well−designed dischargers may be expected to

improve airframe noise in P−static conditions by as

much as 50 dB. Essentially, the discharger provides

a path by which accumulated charge may leave the

airframe quietly. This is generally accomplished by

providing a group of tiny corona points to permit

onset of corona−current flow at a low aircraft

potential. Additionally, aerodynamic design of

dischargers to permit corona to occur at the lowest

possible atmospheric pressure also lowers the corona

threshold. In addition to permitting a low potential

discharge, the discharger will minimize the radiation

of radio frequency (RF) energy which accompanies

the corona discharge, in order to minimize effects of

RF components at communications and navigation

frequencies on avionics performance. These effects

are reduced through resistive attachment of the

corona point(s) to the airframe, preserving direct

current connection but attenuating the higher

frequency components of the discharge.

11.7 Each manufacturer of static dischargers offers

information concerning appropriate discharger location on specific airframes. Such locations emphasize

the trailing outboard surfaces of wings and horizontal

tail surfaces, plus the tip of the vertical stabilizer,

where charge tends to accumulate on the airframe.

Sufficient dischargers must be provided to allow for

current carrying capacity which will maintain

airframe potential below the corona threshold of the

trailing edges.

11.8 In order to achieve full performance of avionic

equipment, the static discharge system will require

periodic maintenance. A pilot’s knowledge of

P−static causes and effects is an important element in

assuring optimum performance by early recognition

of these types of problems.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 5.7−9

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

12. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) Operations and

Reporting Illumination of Aircraft

12.1 Lasers have many applications. Of concern to

users of the National Airspace System are those laser

events that may affect pilots; e.g., outdoor laser light

shows or demonstrations for entertainment and

advertisement at special events and theme parks.

Generally, the beams from these events appear as

bright blue−green in color; however, they may be red,

yellow, or white. Some laser systems produce light

which is invisible to the human eye.

12.2 FAA regulations prohibit the disruption of

aviation activity by any person on the ground or in the

air. The FAA and the Food and Drug Administration

(the Federal agency that has the responsibility to

enforce compliance with Federal requirements for

laser systems and laser light show products) are

working together to ensure that operators of these

devices do not pose a hazard to aircraft operators.

12.3 Pilots should be aware that illuminations from

these laser operations is able to create temporary

vision impairment miles from the actual location. In

addition, these operations can produce permanent eye

damage. Pilots should make themselves aware of

where laser activities are being conducted and avoid

the areas if possible.

12.4 Recent and increasing incidents of unauthorized illumination of aircraft by lasers, as well as the

proliferation and increasing sophistication of laser

devices available to the general public, dictates that

the FAA, in coordination with other government

agencies, take action to safeguard flights from these

unauthorized illuminations.

12.5 Pilots should report laser illumination activity

to the controlling Air Traffic Control facilities,

Federal Contract Towers or Flight Service Stations as

soon as possible after the event. The following

information should be included:

12.5.1 UTC Date and Time of Event.

12.5.2 Call Sign or Aircraft Registration Number.

12.5.3 Type Aircraft.

12.5.4 Nearest Major City.

12.5.5 Altitude.

12.5.6 Location of Event (Latitude/Longitude and/

or Fixed Radial Distance (FRD)).

12.5.7 Brief Description of the Event and any other

Pertinent Information.

12.6 Pilots are also encouraged to complete the

Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire (See

FIG 5−7−1), and fax it to the Washington Operations

Center Complex (WOCC) as soon as possible after

landing.

12.7 When a laser event is reported to an air traffic

facility, a general caution warning will be broadcasted on all appropriate frequencies every five minutes for 20 minutes and broadcasted on the ATIS for

one hour following the report.

PHRASEOLOGY−

UNAUTHORIZED LASER ILLUMINATION EVENT,

(UTC time), (location), (altitude), (color), (direction).

EXAMPLE−

“Unauthorized laser illumination event, at 0100z, 8 mile

final runway 18R at 3,000 feet, green laser from the

southwest.”

12.8 When laser activities become known to the

FAA, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) are issued to

inform the aviation community of the events. Pilots

should consult NOTAMs or the Special Notices

Section of the Airport/Facility Directory for

information regarding laser activities.

13. Flying in Flat Light and White Out

Conditions

13.1 Flat Light. Flat light is an optical illusion, also

known as “sector or partial white out.” It is not as

severe as “white out” but the condition causes pilots

to lose their depth−of−field and contrast in vision.

Flat light conditions are usually accompanied by

overcast skies inhibiting any visual clues. Such

conditions can occur anywhere in the world,

primarily in snow covered areas but can occur in dust,

sand, mud flats, or on glassy water. Flat light can

completely obscure features of the terrain, creating an

inability to distinguish distances and closure rates.

As a result of this reflected light, it can give pilots the

illusion that they are ascending or descending when

they may actually be flying level. However, with

good judgment and proper training and planning, it is

possible to safely operate an aircraft in flat light

conditions.

3 AUG 06
ENR 5.7−10 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

13.2 White Out. As defined in meteorological

terms, white out occurs when a person becomes

engulfed in a uniformly white glow. The glow is a

result of being surrounded by blowing snow, dust,

sand, mud or water. There are no shadows, no horizon

or clouds and all depth−of−field and orientation are

lost. A white out situation is severe in that there are

no visual references. Flying is not recommended in

any white out situation. Flat light conditions can lead

to a white out environment quite rapidly, and both

atmospheric conditions are insidious; they sneak up

on you as your visual references slowly begin to

disappear. White out has been the cause of several

aviation accidents.

13.3 Self Induced White Out. This effect typically

occurs when a helicopter takes off or lands on a

snow−covered area. The rotor down wash picks up

particles and re−circulates them through the rotor

down wash. The effect can vary in intensity

depending upon the amount of light on the surface.

This can happen on the sunniest, brightest day with

good contrast everywhere. However, when it

happens, there can be a complete loss of visual clues.

If the pilot has not prepared for this immediate loss of

visibility, the results can be disastrous. Good

planning does not prevent one from encountering flat

light or white out conditions.

13.4 Never take off in a white out situation.

13.4.1 Realize that in flat light conditions it may be

possible to depart but not to return to that site. During

takeoff, make sure you have a reference point. Do not

lose sight of it until you have a departure reference

point in view. Be prepared to return to the takeoff

reference if the departure reference does not come

into view.

13.4.2 Flat light is common to snow skiers. One way

to compensate for the lack of visual contrast and

depth−of−field loss is by wearing amber tinted lenses

(also known as blue blockers). Special note of

caution: Eyewear is not ideal for every pilot. Take

into consideration personal factors − age, light

sensitivity, and ambient lighting conditions.

13.4.3 So what should a pilot do when all visual

references are lost?

13.4.3.1 Trust the cockpit instruments.

13.4.3.2 Execute a 180 degree turnaround and start

looking for outside references.

13.4.3.3 Above all − fly the aircraft.

13.4.4 Landing in Low Light Conditions. When

landing in a low light condition − use extreme

caution. Look for intermediate reference points, in

addition to checkpoints along each leg of the route for

course confirmation and timing. The lower the

ambient light becomes, the more reference points a

pilot should use.

13.4.5 Airport Landings.

13.4.5.1 Look for features around the airport or

approach path that can be used in determining depth

perception. Buildings, towers, vehicles or other

aircraft serve well for this measurement. Use

something that will provide you with a sense of height

above the ground, in addition to orienting you to the

runway.

13.4.5.2 Be cautious of snowdrifts and snow banks

− anything that can distinguish the edge of the

runway. Look for subtle changes in snow texture or

shading to identify ridges or changes in snow depth.

13.4.6 Off−Airport Landings.

13.4.6.1 In the event of an off−airport landing, pilots

have used a number of different visual cues to gain

reference. Use whatever you must to create the

contrast you need. Natural references seem to work

best (trees, rocks, snow ribs, etc.)

a) Over flight.

b) Use of markers.

c) Weighted flags.

d) Smoke bombs.

e) Any colored rags.

f) Dye markers.

g) Kool−aid.

h) Trees or tree branches.

13.4.6.2 It is difficult to determine the depth of snow

in areas that are level. Dropping items from the

aircraft to use as reference points should be used as a

visual aid only and not as a primary landing reference.

Unless your marker is biodegradable, be sure to

retrieve it after landing. Never put yourself in a

position where no visual references exist.

13.4.6.3 Abort landing if blowing snow obscures

your reference. Make your decisions early. Don’t

assume you can pick up a lost reference point when

you get closer.

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AIP ENR 5.7−11

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

13.4.6.4 Exercise extreme caution when flying from

sunlight into shade. Physical awareness may tell you

that you are flying straight but you may actually be in

a spiral dive with centrifugal force pressing against

you. Having no visual references enhances this

illusion. Just because you have a good visual

reference does not mean that it’s safe to continue.

There may be snow−covered terrain not visible in the

direction that you are traveling. Getting caught in a no

visual reference situation can be fatal.

13.4.7 Flying Around a Lake.

13.4.7.1 When flying along lakeshores, use them as

a reference point. Even if you can see the other side,

realize that your depth perception may be poor. It is

easy to fly into the surface. If you must cross the lake,

check the altimeter frequently and maintain a safe

altitude while you still have a good reference. Don’t

descend below that altitude.

13.4.7.2 The same rules apply to seemingly flat areas

of snow. If you don’t have good references, avoid

going there.

13.4.8 Other Traffic. Be on the look out for other

traffic in the area. Other aircraft may be using your

same reference point. Chances are greater of

colliding with someone traveling in the same

direction as you, than someone flying in the opposite

direction.

13.4.9 Ceilings. Low ceilings have caught many

pilots off guard. Clouds do not always form parallel

to the surface, or at the same altitude. Pilots may try

to compensate for this by flying with a slight bank and

thus creating a descending turn.

13.4.10 Glaciers. Be conscious of your altitude

when flying over glaciers. The glaciers may be rising

faster than you are climbing.

14. Operations in Ground Icing Conditions

14.1 The presence of aircraft airframe icing during

takeoff, typically caused by improper or no deicing of

the aircraft being accomplished prior to flight has

contributed to many recent accidents in turbine

aircraft. The General Aviation Joint Steering

Committee (GAJSC) is the primary vehicle for

government−industry cooperation, communication,

and coordination on GA accident mitigation. The

Turbine Aircraft Operations Subgroup (TAOS)

works to mitigate accidents in turbine accident

aviation. While there is sufficient information and

guidance currently available regarding the effects of

icing on aircraft and methods for deicing, the TAOS

has developed a list of recommended actions to

further assist pilots and operators in this area.

14.1.1 While the efforts of the TAOS specifically

focus on turbine aircraft, it is recognized that their

recommendations are applicable to and can be

adapted for the pilot of a small, piston powered

aircraft too.

14.2 The following recommendations are offered:

14.2.1 Ensure that your aircraft’s lift−generating

surfaces are COMPLETELY free of contamination

before flight through a tactile (hands on) check of the

critical surfaces when feasible. Even when otherwise

permitted, operators should avoid smooth or polished

frost on lift−generating surfaces as an acceptable

preflight condition.

14.2.2 Review and refresh your cold weather

standard operating procedures.

14.2.3 Review and be familiar with the Airplane

Flight Manual (AFM) limitations and procedures

necessary to deal with icing conditions prior to flight,

as well as in flight.

14.2.4 Protect your aircraft while on the ground, if

possible, from sleet and freezing rain by taking

advantage of aircraft hangars.

14.2.5 Take full advantage of the opportunities

available at airports for deicing. Do not refuse deicing

services simply because of cost.

14.2.6 Always consider canceling or delaying a

flight if weather conditions do not support a safe

operation.

14.3 If you haven’t already developed a set of

Standard Operating Procedures for cold weather

operations, they should include:

14.3.1 Procedures based on information that is

applicable to the aircraft operated, such as AFM

limitations and procedures;

14.3.2 Concise and easy to understand guidance that

outlines best operational practices;

14.3.3 A systematic procedure for recognizing,

evaluating and addressing the associated icing risk,

and offer clear guidance to mitigate this risk;

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ENR 5.7−12 AIP

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Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

14.3.4 An aid (such as a checklist or reference cards)

that is readily available during normal day−to−day

aircraft operations.

14.4 There are several sources for guidance relating

to airframe icing, including:

14.4.1 http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/index.

html

14.4.2 http://www.ibac.org/is−bao/isbao.htm

14.4.3 http://www.natasafety1st.org/bus_deice.

htm

14.4.4 Advisory Circular (AC) 91−74, Pilot Guide,

Flight in Icing Conditions.

14.4.5 AC 135−17, Pilot Guide Small Aircraft

Ground Deicing.

14.4.6 AC 135−9, FAR Part 135 Icing Limitations.

14.4.7 AC 120−60, Ground Deicing and Anti−icing

Program.

14.4.8 AC 135−16, Ground Deicing and Anti−icing

Training and Checking.

14.5 The FAA Approved Deicing Program Updates

is published annually as a Flight Standards

Information Bulletin for Air Transportation and

contains detailed information on deicing and

anti−icing procedures and holdover times. It may be

accessed at the following web site by selecting the

current year’s information bulletins:

http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/examiners_

inspectors/8400/fsat

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 5.7−13

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG 5−7−1

3 AUG 06

AIP ENR 6.1−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 6. Helicopter Operations

ENR 6.1 Helicopter IFR Operations

1. Helicopter Flight Control Systems

1.1 The certification requirements for helicopters to

operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are

contained in 14 CFR Part 27, Airworthiness

Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, and 14 CFR

Part 29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft. To meet these requirements, helicopter

manufacturers usually utilize a set of stabilization

and/or Automatic Flight Control Systems (AFCSs).

1.2 Typically, these systems fall into the following

categories:

1.2.1 Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some

stability or control capability not found in the basic

VFR configuration.

1.2.2 Trim systems, which provide a cyclic centering

effect. These systems typically involve a magnetic

brake/spring device, and may also be controlled by a

four−way switch on the cyclic. This is a system that

supports “hands on” flying of the helicopter by the

pilot.

1.2.3 Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs),

which provide short−term rate damping control

inputs to increase helicopter stability. Like trim

systems, SAS supports “hands on” flying.

1.2.4 Attitude Retention Systems (ATTs), which

return the helicopter to a selected attitude after a

disturbance. Changes in desired attitude can be

accomplished usually through a four−way “beep”

switch, or by actuating a “force trim” switch on the

cyclic, setting the attitude manually, and releasing.

Attitude retention may be a SAS function, or may be

the basic “hands off” autopilot function.

1.2.5 Autopilot Systems (APs), which provide for

“hands off” flight along specified lateral and vertical

paths, including heading, altitude, vertical speed,

navigation tracking, and approach. These systems

typically have a control panel for mode selection, and

system for indication of mode status. Autopilots may

or may not be installed with an associated Flight

Director System (FD). Autopilots typically control

the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic

control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control)

and collective control servos. 

1.2.6 FDs, which provide visual guidance to the pilot

to fly specific selected lateral and vertical modes of

operation. The visual guidance is typically provided

as either a “dual cue” (commonly known as a

“cross−pointer”) or “single cue” (commonly known

as a “vee−bar”) presentation superimposed over the

attitude indicator. Some FDs also include a collective

cue. The pilot manipulates the helicopter’s controls to

satisfy these commands, yielding the desired flight

path, or may couple the flight director to the autopilot

to perform automatic flight along the desired flight

path. Typically, flight director mode control and

indication is shared with the autopilot.

1.3 In order to be certificated for IFR operation, a

specific helicopter may require the use of one or more

of these systems, in any combination.

1.4 In many cases, helicopters are certificated for

IFR operations with either one or two pilots. Certain

equipment is required to be installed and functional

for two pilot operations, and typically, additional

equipment is required for single pilot operation.

These requirements are usually described in the

limitations section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual

(RFM).

1.5 In addition, the RFM also typically defines

systems and functions that are required to be in

operation or engaged for IFR flight in either the single

or two pilot configuration. Often, particularly in two

pilot operation, this level of augmentation is less than

the full capability of the installed systems. Likewise,

single pilot operation may require a higher level of

augmentation.

1.6 The RFM also identifies other specific limitations associated with IFR flight. Typically, these

limitations include, but are not limited to:

1.6.1 Minimum equipment required for IFR flight

(in some cases, for both single pilot and two pilot

operations).

1.6.2 VMINI (minimum speed − IFR).
ENR 6.1−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

NOTE−

VMINI − Instrument flight mimum speed, utilized in complying

with minimum limit speed requirements for instrument flight

NOTE−

The manufacturer may also recommend a minimum IFR

airspeed during instrument approach.

1.6.3 VNEI (never exceed speed − IFR).

NOTE−

VNEI − Instrument flight never exceed speed, utilized instead of

VNE for compliance with maximum limit speed requirements for

instrument flight

VNE − Never exceed speed

1.6.4 Maximum approach angle.

1.6.5 Weight and center of gravity limits.

1.6.6 Aircraft configuration limitations (such as

aircraft door positions and external loads).

1.6.7 Aircraft system limitations (generators, inverters, etc.).

1.6.8 System testing requirements (many avionics

and AFCS/AP/FD systems incorporate a self−test

feature).

1.6.9 Pilot action requirements (such as the pilot

must have his/her hands and feet on the controls

during certain operations, such as during instrument

approach below certain altitudes).

1.7 It is very important that pilots be familiar with the

IFR requirements for their particular helicopter.

Within the same make, model and series of helicopter,

variations in the installed avionics may change the

required equipment or the level of augmentation for

a particular operation. 

1.8 During flight operations, pilots must be aware of

the mode of operation of the augmentation systems,

and the control logic and functions employed. For

example, during an ILS approach using a particular

system in the three−cue mode (lateral, vertical and

collective cues), the flight director collective cue

responds to glideslope deviation, while the horizontal

bar of the “cross−pointer” responds to airspeed

deviations. The same system, while flying an ILS in

the two−cue mode, provides for the horizontal bar to

respond to glideslope deviations. This concern is

particularly significant when operating using two

pilots. Pilots should have an established set of

procedures and responsibilities for the control of

flight director/autopilot modes for the various phases

of flight. Not only does a full understanding of the

system modes provide for a higher degree of accuracy

in control of the helicopter, it is the basis for crew

identification of a faulty system.

1.9 Relief from the prohibition to takeoff with any

inoperative instruments or equipment may be

provided through a Minimum Equipment List (see

14 CFR Section 91.213 and 14 CFR Section 135.179,

Inoperative Instruments and Equipment). In many

cases, a helicopter configured for single pilot IFR

may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative,

provided a crew of two pilots is used. Pilots are

cautioned to ensure the pilot−in−command and

second−in−command meet the requirements of

14 CFR Section 61.58, Pilot−in−Command Proficiency Check: Operation of Aircraft Requiring More

Than One Pilot Flight Crewmember, and 14 CFR

Section 61.55, Second−in−Command Qualifications,

or 14 CFR Part 135, Operating Requirements:

Commuter and On−Demand Operations, Subpart E,

Flight Crewmember Requirements, and Subpart G,

Crewmember Testing Requirements, as appropriate.

1.10 Experience has shown that modern AFCS/AP/

FD equipment installed in IFR helicopters can, in

some cases, be very complex. This complexity

requires the pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high

level of knowledge of system operation, limitations,

failure indications and reversionary modes. In some

cases, this may only be reliably accomplished

through formal training.

2. Helicopter Instrument Approaches

2.1 Helicopters are capable of flying any published

14 CFR Part 97, Standard Instrument Approach

Procedures (SIAPs), for which they are properly

equipped, subject to the following limitations and

conditions:

2.1.1 Helicopters flying conventional (non−Copter)

SIAPs may reduce the visibility minima to not less

than one half the published Category A landing

visibility minima, or 1/4 statue mile visibility/1200 RVR, whichever is greater. No reduction in

MDA/DA is permitted. The reference for this is

14 CFR Section 97.3, Symbols and Terms used in

Procedures, (d−1). The helicopter may initiate the

final approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit

of the highest approach category authorized by the

procedure, but must be slowed to no more than

90 KIAS at the missed approach point (MAP) in

order to apply the visibility reduction. Pilots are
AIP ENR 6.1−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

cautioned that such a decelerating approach may

make early identification of wind shear on the

approach path difficult or impossible. If required, use

the Inoperative Components and Visual Aids Table

provided in the front cover of the U.S. Terminal

Procedures Volume to derive the Category A minima

before applying the 14 CFR Section 97.3(d−1) rule.

2.1.2 Helicopters flying Copter SIAPs may use the

published minima, with no reductions allowed. The

maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the

approach or missed approach.

2.1.3 Helicopters flying GPS Copter SIAPs must

limit airspeed to 90 KIAS or less when flying any

segment of the procedure, except speeds must be

limited to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and

missed approach segments. Military GPS Copter

SIAPs are limited to no more than 90 KIAS

throughout the procedure. If annotated, holding may

also be limited to no more than 70 KIAS. Use the

published minima, no reductions allowed.

NOTE−

Obstruction clearance surfaces are based on the aircraft

speed and have been designed on these approaches for

70 knots. If the helicopter is flown at higher speeds, it may

fly outside of protected airspace. Some helicopters have a

VMINI greater than 70 knots; therefore, they can not meet

the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of procedure.

Some helicopter autopilots, when used in the “go−around”

mode, are programmed with a VYI greater than 70 knots,

therefore when using the autopilot “go−around” mode,

they can not meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type

of approach. It may be possible to use the autopilot for the

missed approach in the other than the “go−around” mode

and meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of

approach. When operating at speeds other than VYI or VY,

performance data may not be available in the RFM to

predict compliance with climb gradient requirements.

Pilots may use observed performance in similar

weight/altitude/temperature/speed conditions to evaluate

the suitability of performance. Pilots are cautioned to

monitor climb performance to ensure compliance with

procedure requirements.

NOTE−

VMINI − Instrument flight mimum speed, utilized in complying

with minimum limit speed requirements for instrument flight

VYI − Instrument climb speed, utilized instead of VY for

compliance with the climb requirements for instrument flight

VY −Speed for best rate of climb

2.1.4 TBL ENR 6.1−1 summarizes these requirements.
ENR 6.1−4 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL ENR 6.1−1

Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures

Procedure Helicopter Visibility

Minima

Helicopter MDA/DA Maximum Speed Limitations

Conventional

(non−Copter)

The greater of: one half the

Category A visibility

minima, 1/4 statute mile

visibility, or 1200 RVR

As published for

Category A

The helicopter may initiate the

final approach segment at speeds

up to the upper limit of the

highest Approach Category

authorized by the procedure, but

must be slowed to no more than

90 KIAS at the MAP in order to

apply the visibility reduction.

Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published

route/track.

GPS Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published

route or track, EXCEPT 70

KIAS when on the final

approach or missed approach

segment and, if annotated, in

holding. Military procedures are

limited to 90 KIAS for all

segments.

NOTE−

Several factors effect the ability of the pilot to acquire and

maintain the visual references specified in 14 CFR

Section 91.175(c), even in cases where the flight visibility

may be at the minimum derived by TBL ENR 6.1−1. These

factors include, but are not limited to:

1. Cockpit cutoff angle (the angle at which the cockpit

or other airframe structure limits downward visibility

below the horizon).

2. Combinations of high MDA/DH and low visibility

minimum, such as a conventional nonprecision approach

with a reduced helicopter visibility minima (per 14 CFR

Section 97.3).

3. Type, configuration, and intensity of approach and

runway lighting systems.

4. Type of obscuring phenomenon and/or windshield

contamination.
AIP ENR 6.1−5

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.1.5 Even with weather conditions reported at or

above landing minima, some combinations of

reduced cockpit cutoff angle, minimal approach/runway lighting, and high MDA/DH coupled with a low

visibility minima, the pilot may not be able to identify

the required visual reference(s) during the approach,

or those references may only be visible in a very small

portion of the pilot’s available field of view. Even if

identified by the pilot, these visual references may not

support normal maneuvering and normal rates of

descent to landing. The effect of such a combination

may be exacerbated by other conditions such as rain

on the windshield, or incomplete windshield

defogging coverage.

2.1.6 Pilots are cautioned to be prepared to execute

a missed approach even though weather conditions

may be reported at or above landing minima.

NOTE−

See Section ENR 1.5, paragraph 26, Missed Approach, for

additional information on missed approach procedures.

3. Helicopter Point−in−Space (PinS)

Approach Procedures

3.1 PinS nonprecision approaches are normally

developed for heliports that do not meet the design

standards for an IFR heliport. A helicopter PinS

approach can be developed from conventional

NAVAIDs or area navigation systems (including

GPS). These procedures involve a visual segment

between the MAP and the landing area. There are two

types of notes associated with a PinS approach:

3.1.1 To a location 10,500 feet or less from the MAP:

“PROCEED VISUALLY FROM (NAMED MAP)

OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED

APPROACH.”

3.1.1.1 This phrase requires the pilot to acquire and

maintain visual contact with the landing site at or

prior to the MAP, or execute a missed approach. The

visibility minimum is based on the distance from the

MAP to the landing site, among other factors.

3.1.1.2 The pilot is required to maintain the

published minimum visibility throughout the visual

segment.

3.1.1.3 IFR obstruction clearance areas are not

applied to the visual segment of the approach and

missed approach segment protection is not provided

between the MAP and the landing site.

3.1.1.4 Obstacle or terrain avoidance from the MAP

to the landing site is the responsibility of the pilot.

3.1.1.5 Upon reaching the MAP defined on the

approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after

reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether

proceeding visually and canceling IFR or complying

with the missed approach instructions. See

paragraph 11.2, Canceling IFR Flight Plan, in

Section ENR 1.10.

3.1.2 In those cases where proceed visually cannot

be approved, the procedure will be annotated

“PROCEED VFR FROM (NAMED MAP) OR

CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.”

3.1.2.1 This phrase requires the pilot, at or prior to

the MAP, to determine if the published minimum

visibility, or the weather minimums required by the

operating rule, or operations specifications (whichever is higher) is available to safely transition from

IFR to VFR flight. If not, the pilot must execute a

missed approach.

3.1.2.2 Visual contact with the landing site is not

required; however, the pilot must maintain the higher

of the VFR weather minimums throughout the visual

segment (as required by the class of airspace,

operating rule and/or operations specifications),

provided the visibility is limited to no lower than that

published in the procedure, until canceling IFR.

3.1.2.3 IFR obstruction clearance areas are not

applied to the VFR segment between the MAP and

the landing site. Obstacle or terrain avoidance from

the MAP to the landing site is the responsibility of the

pilot.

3.1.2.4 Upon reaching the MAP defined on the

approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after

reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether

proceeding VFR and canceling IFR, or complying

with the missed approach instructions. See

paragraph 11.2, Canceling IFR Flight Plan, in

Section ENR 1.10.

3.1.2.5 If the visual segment penetrates Class B, C,

or D airspace, pilots are responsible for obtaining a

Special VFR clearance, when required.

NOTE−

In both cases, a substantial visual segment may exist. Pilots

are cautioned to reduce ground speed during the approach

so as to arrive at the MAP at a ground speed, which will

promote a safe transition from IFR to VFR flight.

3 AUG 06
ENR 6.1−6 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

4. The Gulf of Mexico Grid System

4.1 On October 8, 1998, the Southwest Region of the

FAA, with assistance from the Helicopter Safety

Advisory Conference (HSAC), implemented the

world’s first Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Grid

System in the Gulf of Mexico. This navigational route

structure is completely independent of ground−based

navigation aids (NAVAIDs) and was designed to

facilitate helicopter IFR operations to offshore

destinations. The Grid System is defined by over

300 offshore waypoints located 20 minutes apart

(latitude and longitude). Flight plan routes are

routinely defined by just 4 segments; departure point

(lat/long), first en route grid waypoint, last en route

grid waypoint prior to approach procedure, and

destination point (lat/long). There are over

4,000 possible offshore landing sites. Upon reaching

the waypoint prior to the destination, the pilot may

execute an Offshore Standard Approach Procedure

(OSAP), a Helicopter En Route Descent Areas

(HEDA) approach, or an Airborne Radar Approach

(ARA). For more information on these helicopter

instrument procedures, refer to FAA AC 90−80B,

Approval of Offshore Standard Approach Procedure

(OSAP), Airborne Radar Approaches (ARA), and

Helicopter En Route Areas (HEDA) Criteria, on the

Flight Standards web site http://av−info.faa.gov/

terps. The return flight plan is just the reverse with

the requested stand−alone GPS approach contained in

the remarks section.

4.2 The large number (over 300) of waypoints in the

grid system makes it difficult to assign phonetically

pronounceable names to the waypoints that would be

meaningful to pilots and controllers. A unique

naming system was adopted that enables pilots and

controllers to derive the fix position from the name.

The five−letter names are derived as follows:

4.2.1 The waypoints are divided into sets of 3

columns each. A three−letter identifier, identifying a

geographical area or a NAVAID to the north,

represents each set.

4.2.2 Each column in a set is named after its position,

i.e., left (L), center (C), and right (R).

4.2.3 The rows of the grid are named alphabetically

from north to south, starting with A for the northern

most row.

EXAMPLE−

LCHRC would be pronounced “Lake Charles Romeo

Charlie.” The waypoint is in the right−hand column of the

Lake Charles VOR set, in row C (third south from the

northern most row).

4.3 Since the grid system’s implementation, IFR

delays (frequently over 1 hour in length) for

operations in this environment have been effectively

eliminated. The comfort level of the pilots, knowing

that they will be given a clearance quickly, plus the

mileage savings in this near free−flight environment,

is allowing the operators to carry less fuel. Less fuel

means they can transport additional passengers,

which is a substantial fiscal and operational benefit,

considering the limited seating on board helicopters.

4.4 There are 3 requirements for operators to meet

before filing IFR flight plans utilizing the grid:

4.4.1 The helicopter must be IFR certified and

equipped with IFR certified TSO−C−129 GPS

navigational units.

4.4.2 The operator must obtain prior written

approval from the appropriate Flight Standards

District Office through a Certificate of Authorization

or revision to their Operations Specifications, as

appropriate.

4.4.3 The operator must be a signatory to the

Houston ARTCC Letter of Agreement.

4.5 FAA/NACO publishes the grid system waypoints on the IFR Gulf of Mexico Vertical Flight

Reference Chart. A commercial equivalent is also

available. The chart is updated annually and is

available from a FAA chart agent or FAA directly,

website address: http://naco.faa.gov.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 6.2−1

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

ENR 6.2 Special Operations

1. Offshore Helicopter Operations

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 The offshore environment offers unique

applications and challenges for helicopter pilots. The

mission demands, the nature of oil and gas

exploration and production facilities, and the flight

environment (weather, terrain, obstacles, traffic),

demand special practices, techniques and procedures

not found in other flight operations. Several industry

organizations have risen to the task of reducing risks

in offshore operations, including the Helicopter

Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC) (www.hsac.

org), and the Offshore Committee of the Helicopter

Association International (HAI) (www.rotor.com).

The following recommended practices for offshore

helicopter operations are based on guidance

developed by HSAC for use in the Gulf of Mexico,

and provided here with their permission. While not

regulatory, these recommended practices provide

aviation and oil and gas industry operators with

useful information in developing procedures to avoid

certain hazards of offshore helicopter operations.

NOTE−

Like all aviation practices, these recommended practices

are under constant review. Any questions or feedback

concerning these recommended procedures may be

directed to the HSAC through the feedback feature of the

HSAC web site (www.hsac.org).

1.2 Passenger Management on and about Heliport Facilities

1.2.1 Background. Several incidents involving

offshore helicopter passengers have highlighted the

potential for incidents and accidents on and about the

heliport area. The following practices will minimize

risks to passengers and others involved in heliport

operations.

1.2.2 Recommended Practices

1.2.2.1 Heliport facilities should have a designated

and posted passenger waiting area which is clear of

the heliport, heliport access points, and stairways.

1.2.2.2 Arriving passengers and cargo should be

unloaded and cleared from the heliport and access

route prior to loading departing passengers and cargo.

1.2.2.3 Where a flight crew consists of more than

one pilot, one crewmember should supervise the

unloading/loading process from outside the aircraft.

1.2.2.4 Where practical, a designated facility

employee should assist with loading/unloading, etc.

1.3 Crane−Helicopter Operational Procedures

1.3.1 Background. Historical experience has

shown that catastrophic consequences can occur

when industry safe practices for crane/helicopter

operations are not observed. The following recommended practices are designed to minimize risks

during crane and helicopter operations.

1.3.2 Recommended Practices

1.3.2.1 Personnel awareness

a) Crane operators and pilots should develop a

mutual understanding and respect of the others’

operational limitations and cooperate in the spirit of

safety;

b) Pilots need to be aware that crane operators

sometimes cannot release the load to cradle the crane

boom, such as when attached to wire line lubricators

or supporting diving bells; and

c) Crane operators need to be aware that

helicopters require warm up before takeoff, a

two−minute cool down before shutdown, and cannot

circle for extended lengths of time because of fuel

consumption.

1.3.2.2 It is recommended that when helicopters are

approaching, maneuvering, taking off, or running on

the heliport, cranes be shutdown and the operator

leave the cab. Cranes not in use shall have their

booms cradled, if feasible. If in use, the crane’s

boom(s) are to be pointed away from the heliport and

the crane shutdown for helicopter operations.

1.3.2.3 Pilots will not approach, land on, takeoff, or

have rotor blades turning on heliports of structures

not complying with the above practice.
ENR 6.2−2 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

1.3.2.4 It is recommended that cranes on offshore

platforms, rigs, vessels, or any other facility, which

could interfere with helicopter operations (including

approach/departure paths):

a) Be equipped with a red rotating beacon or red

high intensity strobe light connected to the system

powering the crane, indicating the crane is under

power;

b) Be designed to allow the operator a maximum

view of the helideck area and should be equipped

with wide−angle mirrors to eliminate blind spots; and

c) Have their boom tips, headache balls, and hooks

painted with high visibility international orange.

1.4 Helicopter/Tanker Operations

1.4.1 Background. The interface of helicopters

and tankers during shipboard helicopter operations is

complex and may be hazardous unless appropriate

procedures are coordinated among all parties. The

following recommended practices are designed to

minimize risks during helicopter/tanker operations.

1.4.2 Recommended Practices

1.4.2.1 Management, flight operations personnel,

and pilots should be familiar with and apply the

operating safety standards set forth in “Guide to

Helicopter/Ship Operations”, International Chamber

of Shipping, Third Edition, 5−89 (as amended),

establishing operational guidelines/standards and

safe practices sufficient to safeguard helicopter/tanker operations.

1.4.2.2 Appropriate plans, approvals, and communications must be accomplished prior to reaching the

vessel, allowing tanker crews sufficient time to

perform required safety preparations and position

crew members to receive or dispatch a helicopter

safely.

1.4.2.3 Appropriate approvals and direct communications with the bridge of the tanker must be

maintained throughout all helicopter/tanker operations.

1.4.2.4 Helicopter/tanker operations, including

landings/departures, shall not be conducted until the

helicopter pilot−in−command has received and

acknowledged permission from the bridge of the

tanker.

1.4.2.5 Helicopter/tanker operations shall not be

conducted during product/cargo transfer.

1.4.2.6 Generally, permission will not be granted to

land on tankers during mooring operations or while

maneuvering alongside another tanker.

1.5 Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard

Warning(s) Procedures

1.5.1 Background

1.5.1.1 A number of operational hazards can

develop on or near offshore helidecks or onshore

heliports that can be minimized through procedures

for proper notification or visual warning to pilots.

Examples of hazards include but are not limited to:

a) Perforating operations: subparagraph 1.6.

b) H2S gas presence: subparagraph 1.7.

c) Gas venting: subparagraph 1.8; or,

d) Closed helidecks or heliports: subparagraph 1.9 (unspecified cause).

1.5.1.2 These and other operational hazards are

currently minimized through timely dissemination of

a written Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) for pilots by

helicopter companies and operators. A NOTAM

provides a written description of the hazard, time and

duration of occurrence, and other pertinent information. ANY POTENTIAL HAZARD should be

communicated to helicopter operators or company

aviation departments as early as possible to allow the

NOTAM to be activated.

1.5.1.3 To supplement the existing NOTAM procedure and further assist in reducing these hazards, a

standardized visual signal(s) on the helideck/heliport

will provide a positive indication to an approaching

helicopter of the status of the landing area.

Recommended Practice(s) have been developed to

reinforce the NOTAM procedures and standardize

visual signals.
AIP ENR 6.2−3

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

1.6 Drilling Rig Perforating Operations: Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedure(s)

1.6.1 Background. A critical step in the oil well

completion process is perforation, which involves the

use of explosive charges in the drill pipe to open the

pipe to oil or gas deposits. Explosive charges used in

conjunction with perforation operations offshore can

potentially be prematurely detonated by radio

transmissions, including those from helicopters. The

following practices are recommended.

1.6.2 Recommended Practices

1.6.2.1 Personnel Conducting Perforating

Operations. Whenever perforating operations are

scheduled and operators are concerned that radio

transmissions from helicopters in the vicinity may

jeopardize the operation, personnel conducting

perforating operations should take the following

precautionary measures:

a) Notify company aviation departments, helicopter operators or bases, and nearby manned platforms

of the pending perforation operation so the Notice to

Airmen (NOTAM) system can be activated for the

perforation operation and the temporary helideck

closure.

b) Close the deck and make the radio warning

clearly visible to passing pilots, install a temporary

marking (described in subparagraph 1.9.1.2 with the

words “NO RADIO” stenciled in red on the legs of

the diagonals. The letters should be 24 inches high

and 12 inches wide. (See FIG ENR 6.2−1.)

c) The marker should be installed during the time

that charges may be affected by radio transmissions.

1.6.2.2 Pilots

a) Pilots when operating within 1,000 feet of a

known perforation operation or observing the white

X with red “NO RADIO” warning indicating

perforation operations are underway will avoid radio

transmissions from or near the helideck (within

1,000 feet) and will not land on the deck if the X is

present. In addition to communications radios, radio

transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar,

transponders, radar altimeters, and DME equipment,

and ELTs.

b) Whenever possible, make radio calls to the

platform being approached or to the Flight Following

Communications Center at least one mile out on

approach. Ensure all communications are complete

outside the 1,000 foot hazard distance. If no response

is received, or if the platform is not radio equipped,

further radio transmissions should not be made until

visual contact with the deck indicates it is open for

operation (no white “X”).

FIG ENR 6.2−1

Closed Helideck Marking − No Radio
ENR 6.2−4 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

1.7 Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Helideck/Heliport

Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures

1.7.1 Background. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas:

Hydrogen sulfide gas in higher concentrations

(300−500 ppm) can cause loss of consciousness

within a few seconds and presents a hazard to pilots

on/near offshore helidecks. When operating in

offshore areas that have been identified to have

concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas, the following

practices are recommended.

1.7.2 Recommended Practices

1.7.2.1 Pilots

a) Ensure approved protective air packs are

available for emergency use by the crew on the

helicopter.

b) If shutdown on a helideck, request the

supervisor in charge provide a briefing on location of

protective equipment and safety procedures.

c) If while flying near a helideck and the visual red

beacon alarm is observed or an unusually strong odor

of “rotten eggs” is detected, immediately don the

protective air pack, exit to an area upwind, and notify

the suspected source field of the hazard.

1.7.2.2 Oil Field Supervisors

a) If presence of hydrogen sulfide is detected, a red

rotating beacon or red high intensity strobe light

adjacent to the primary helideck stairwell or wind

indicator on the structure should be turned on to

provide visual warning of hazard. If the beacon is to

be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana

“Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA

Advisory Circular AC 150/5390−2A, “Heliport

Design Guide,” should be reviewed to ensure proper

clearance on the helideck.

b) Notify nearby helicopter operators and bases of

the hazard and advise when hazard is cleared.

c) Provide a safety briefing to include location of

protective equipment to all arriving personnel.

d) Wind socks or indicator should be clearly

visible to provide upwind indication for the pilot.

1.8 Gas Venting Helideck/Heliport Operational

Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures − Operations

Near Gas Vent Booms

1.8.1 Background. Ignited flare booms can release

a large volume of natural gas and create a hot fire and

intense heat with little time for the pilot to react.

Likewise, unignited gas vents can release reasonably

large volumes of methane gas under certain

conditions. Thus, operations conducted very near

unignited gas vents require precautions to prevent

inadvertent ingestion of combustible gases by the

helicopter engine(s). The following practices are

recommended.

1.8.2 Pilots

1.8.2.1 Gas will drift upwards and downwind of the

vent. Plan the approach and takeoff to observe and

avoid the area downwind of the vent, remaining as far

away as practicable from the open end of the vent

boom.

1.8.2.2 Do not attempt to start or land on an offshore

helideck when the deck is downwind of a gas vent

unless properly trained personnel verify conditions

are safe.

1.8.3 Oil Field Supervisors

1.8.3.1 During venting of large amounts of

unignited raw gas, a red rotating beacon or red high

intensity strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck

stairwell or wind indicator should be turned on to

provide visible warning of hazard. If the beacon is to

be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana

“Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA

Advisory Circular AC 150/ 5390−2A, Heliport

Design Guide, should be reviewed to ensure proper

clearance from the helideck.

1.8.3.2 Notify nearby helicopter operators and bases

of the hazard for planned operations.

1.8.3.3 Wind socks or indicator should be clearly

visible to provide upward indication for the pilot.

1.9 Helideck/Heliport Operational Warning(s)/

Procedure(s) − Closed Helidecks or Heliports

1.9.1 Background. A white “X” marked diagonally from corner to corner across a helideck or heliport

touchdown area is the universally accepted visual

indicator that the landing area is closed for safety of

other reasons and that helicopter operations are not

permitted. The following practices are recommended.
AIP ENR 6.2−5

United States of America 17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

1.9.1.1 Permanent Closing. If a helideck or

heliport is to be permanently closed, X diagonals of

the same size and location as indicated above should

be used, but the markings should be painted on the

landing area.

NOTE−

White Decks: If a helideck is painted white, then

international orange or yellow markings can be used for

the temporary or permanent diagonals.

1.9.1.2 Temporary Closing. A temporary marker

can be used for hazards of an interim nature. This

marker could be made from vinyl or other durable

material in the shape of a diagonal “X.” The marker

should be white with legs at least 20 feet long and

3 feet in width. This marker is designed to be quickly

secured and removed from the deck using grommets

and rope ties. The duration, time, location, and nature

of these temporary closings should be provided to

and coordinated with company aviation departments,

nearby helicopter bases, and helicopter operators

supporting the area. These markers MUST be

removed when the hazard no longer exists. (See

FIG ENR 6.2−2.)

1.10 Offshore (VFR) Operating Altitudes for

Helicopters

1.10.1 Background. Mid−air collisions constitute

a significant percentage of total fatal offshore helicopter accidents. A method of reducing this risk is the

use of coordinated VFR cruising altitudes. To

enhance safety through standardized vertical separation of helicopters when flying in the offshore

environment, it is recommended that helicopter

operators flying in a particular area establish a

cooperatively developed Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for VFR operating altitudes. An example

of such an SOP is contained in this example.

1.10.2 Recommended Practice Example

1.10.2.1 Field Operations. Without compromising minimum safe operating altitudes, helicopters

working within an offshore field “constituting a

cluster” should use altitudes not to exceed 500 feet.

1.10.2.2 En Route Operations

a) Helicopters operating below 750’ AGL should

avoid transitioning through offshore fields.

b) Helicopters en route to and from offshore

locations, below 3,000 feet, weather permitting,

should use en route altitudes as outlined in

TBL ENR 6.2−1.

TBL ENR 6.2−1

Magnetic Heading Altitude

0 to 179 750’

1750’

2750’

180 359 1250’

2250’

c) Area Agreements. See HSAC Area Agreement Maps for operating procedures for onshore high

density traffic locations.

NOTE−

Pilots of helicopters operating VFR above 3,000 feet

above the surface should refer to the current Federal

Aviation Regulations (14 CFR Part 91), and

Section ENR 1.4, Paragraph 1.7, Basic VFR Weather

Minimums, of the AIP.

FIG ENR 6.2−2

Closed Helideck Marking
ENR 6.2−6 AIP

17 FEB 05 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

d) Landing Lights. Aircraft landing lights

should be on to enhance aircraft identification:

1) During takeoff and landings;

2) In congested helicopter or fixed wing traffic

areas;

3) During reduced visibility; or,

4) Anytime safety could be enhanced.

1.11 Offshore Helidecks/Landing Communications

1.11.1 Background. To enhance safety, and provide appropriate time to prepare for helicopter

operations, the following is recommended when

anticipating a landing on an offshore helideck.

1.11.2 Recommended Practices

1.11.2.1 Before landing on an offshore helideck,

pilots are encouraged to establish communications

with the company owning or operating the helideck

if frequencies exist for that purpose.

1.11.2.2 When impracticable, or if frequencies do

not exist, pilots or operations personnel should

attempt to contact the company owning or operating

the helideck by telephone. Contact should be made

before the pilot departs home base/point of departure

to advise of intentions and obtain landing permission

if necessary.

NOTE−

It is recommended that communications be established a

minimum of 10 minutes prior to planned arrival time. This

practice may be a requirement of some offshore

owner/operators.

NOTE−

1. See subparagraph 1.4 for Tanker Operations.

2. Private use Heliport. Offshore heliports are privately

owned/operated facilities and their use is limited to

persons having prior authorization to utilize the facility.

1.12 Two (2) Helicopter Operations on Offshore

Helidecks

1.12.1 Background. Standardized procedures can

enhance the safety of operating a second helicopter on

an offshore helideck, enabling pilots to determine/

maintain minimum operational parameters. Orientation of the parked helicopter on the helideck, wind

and other factors may prohibit multi−helicopter

operations. More conservative Rotor Diameter (RD)

clearances may be required under differing condition,

i.e. temperature, wet deck, wind (velocity/direction/

gusts), obstacles, approach/departure angles, etc.

Operations are at the pilot’s discretion.

1.12.2 Recommended Practice. Helideck size,

structural weight capability, and type of main rotor on

the parked and operating helicopter will aid in

determining accessibility by a second helicopter.

Pilots should determine that multi−helicopter deck

operations are permitted by the helideck owner/operator.

1.12.3 Recommended Criteria

1.12.3.1 Minimum one−third rotor diameter

clearance (1/3 RD). The landing helicopter maintains a minimum 1/3 RD clearance between the tips of

its turning rotor and the closest part of a parked and

secured helicopter (rotors stopped and tied down).

1.12.3.2 Three foot parking distance from deck

edge (3’). Helicopters operating on an offshore

helideck land or park the helicopter with a skid/wheel

assembly no closer than 3 feet from helideck edge.

1.12.3.3 Tiedowns. Main rotors on all helicopters

that are shut down be properly secured (tied down) to

prevent the rotor blades from turning.

1.12.3.4 Medium (transport) and larger helicopters

should not land on any offshore helideck where a

light helicopter is parked unless the light helicopter

is property secured to the helideck and has main rotor

tied down.

1.12.3.5 Helideck owners/operators should ensure

that the helideck has a serviceable anti−skid surface.

1.12.4 Weight and limitations markings on

helideck. The helideck weight limitations should be

displayed by markings visible to the pilot (see State

of Louisiana “Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and

FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/ 5390−2A, Heliport

Design Guide).

NOTE−

Some offshore helideck owners/operators have

restrictions on the number of helicopters allowed on a

helideck. When helideck size permits, multiple (more than

two) helicopter operations are permitted by some

operators.
AIP ENR 6.2−7

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

1.13 Helicopter Rapid Refueling Procedures

(HRR)

1.13.1 Background. Helicopter Rapid Refueling

(HRR), engine(s)/rotors operating, can be conducted

safely when utilizing trained personnel and observing

safe practices. This recommended practice provides

minimum guidance for HRR as outlined in National

Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and industry

practices. For detailed guidance, please refer to

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Document 407, “Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servicing,”

1990 edition, including 1993 HRR Amendment.

NOTE−

Certain operators prohibit HRR, or “hot refueling,” or

may have specific procedures for certain aircraft or

refueling locations. See the General Operations Manual

and/or Operations Specifications to determine the

applicable procedures or limitations.

1.13.2 Recommended Practices

1.13.2.1 Only turbine−engine helicopters fueled

with JET A or JET A−1 with fueling ports located

below any engine exhausts may be fueled while an

onboard engine(s) is (are) operating.

1.13.2.2 Helicopter fueling while an onboard

engine(s) is (are) operating should only be conducted

under the following conditions:

a) A properly certificated and current pilot is at the

controls and a trained refueler attending the fuel

nozzle during the entire fuel servicing process. The

pilot monitors the fuel quantity and signals the

refueler when quantity is reached.

b) No electrical storms (thunderstorms) are

present within 10 nautical miles. Lightning can travel

great distances beyond the actual thunderstorm.

c) Passengers disembark the helicopter and move

to a safe location prior to HRR operations. When the

pilot−in−command deems it necessary for passenger

safety that they remain onboard, passengers should be

briefed on the evacuation route to follow to clear the

area.

d) Passengers not board or disembark during HRR

operations nor should cargo be loaded or unloaded.

e) Only designated personnel, trained in HRR

operations should conduct HRR written authorization to include safe handling of the fuel and

equipment. (See your Company Operations/Safety

Manual for detailed instructions.)

f) All doors, windows, and access points allowing

entry to the interior of the helicopter that are adjacent

to or in the immediate vicinity of the fuel inlet ports

kept closed during HRR operations.

g) Pilots insure that appropriate electrical/electronic equipment is placed in standby−off position, to

preclude the possibility of electrical discharge or

other fire hazard, such as [i.e., weather radar is on

standby and no radio transmissions are made (keying

of the microphone/transmitter)]. Remember, in

addition to communications radios, radio transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar, transponders,

radar altimeters, DME equipment, and ELTs.

h) Smoking be prohibited in and around the

helicopter during all HRR operations.

The HRR procedures are critical and present

associated hazards requiring attention to detail

regarding quality control, weather conditions, static

electricity, bonding, and spill/fires potential.

Any activity associated with rotors turning (i.e.;

refueling embarking/disembarking, loading/unloading baggage/freight; etc.) personnel should only

approach the aircraft when authorized to do so.

Approach should be made via safe approach

path/walkway or “arc”− remain clear of all rotors.

NOTE−

1. Marine vessels, barges etc.: Vessel motion presents

additional potential hazards to helicopter operations

(blade flex, aircraft movement).

2. See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

Document 407, “Standard for Aircraft Fuel

Servicing” for specifics regarding non−HRR (routine

refueling operations).

3 AUG 06
ENR 6.2−8 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

2. Helicopter Night VFR Operations

2.1 Effect of Lighting on Seeing Conditions in

Night VFR Helicopter Operations

NOTE−

This guidance was developed to support safe night VFR

helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS)

operations. The principles of lighting and seeing

conditions are useful in any night VFR operation.

While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety

in night VFR operations, lighting conditions also

have a profound effect on safety. Even in conditions

in which visibility and ceiling are determined to be

visual meteorological conditions, the ability to

discern unlighted or low contrast objects and terrain

at night may be compromised. The ability to discern

these objects and terrain is the seeing condition, and

is related to the amount of natural and man made

lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and

texture of surface terrain and obstruction features. In

order to conduct operations safely, seeing conditions

must be accounted for in the planning and execution

of night VFR operations.

Night VFR seeing conditions can be described by

identifying “high lighting conditions” and “low

lighting conditions.”

2.1.1 High lighting conditions exist when one of

two sets of conditions are present:

2.1.1.1 The sky cover is less than broken (less than

5/8 cloud cover), the time is between the local Moon

rise and Moon set, and the lunar disk is at least

50% illuminated; or

2.1.1.2 The aircraft is operated over surface lighting

which, at least, provides for the lighting of prominent

obstacles, the identification of terrain features

(shorelines, valleys, hills, mountains, slopes) and a

horizontal reference by which the pilot may control

the helicopter. For example, this surface lighting may

be the result of:

a) Extensive cultural lighting (man−made, such as

a built−up area of a city),

b) Significant reflected cultural lighting (such as

the illumination caused by the reflection of a major

metropolitan area’s lighting reflecting off a cloud

ceiling), or

c) Limited cultural lighting combined with a high

level of natural reflectivity of celestial illumination,

such as that provided by a surface covered by snow or

a desert surface.

2.1.2 Low lighting conditions are those that do not

meet the high lighting conditions requirements.

2.1.3 Some areas may be considered a high lighting

environment only in specific circumstances. For

example, some surfaces, such as a forest with limited

cultural lighting, normally have little reflectivity,

requiring dependence on significant moonlight to

achieve a high lighting condition. However, when

that same forest is covered with snow, its reflectivity

may support a high lighting condition based only on

starlight. Similarly, a desolate area, with little cultural

lighting, such as a desert, may have such inherent

natural reflectivity that it may be considered a high

lighting conditions area regardless of season,

provided the cloud cover does not prevent starlight

from being reflected from the surface. Other surfaces,

such as areas of open water, may never have enough

reflectivity or cultural lighting to ever be characterized as a high lighting area.

2.1.4 Through the accumulation of night flying

experience in a particular area, the operator will

develop the ability to determine, prior to departure,

which areas can be considered supporting high or low

lighting conditions. Without that operational experience, low lighting considerations should be applied

by operators for both pre−flight planning and

operations until high lighting conditions are observed

or determined to be regularly available.

2.2 Astronomical Definitions and Background

Information for Night Operations

2.2.1 Definitions

2.2.1.1 Horizon. Wherever one is located on or near

the Earth’s surface, the Earth is perceived as

essentially flat and, therefore, as a plane. If there are

no visual obstructions, the apparent intersection of

the sky with the Earth’s (plane) surface is the horizon,

which appears as a circle centered at the observer. For

rise/set computations, the observer’s eye is considered to be on the surface of the Earth, so that the

horizon is geometrically exactly 90 degrees from the

local vertical direction.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 6.2−9

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.2.1.2 Rise, Set. During the course of a day the

Earth rotates once on its axis causing the phenomena

of rising and setting. All celestial bodies, the Sun,

Moon, stars and planets, seem to appear in the sky at

the horizon to the East of any particular place, then to

cross the sky and again disappear at the horizon to the

West. Because the Sun and Moon appear as circular

disks and not as points of light, a definition of rise or

set must be very specific, because not all of either

body is seen to rise or set at once.

2.2.1.3 Sunrise and sunset refer to the times when the

upper edge of the disk of the Sun is on the horizon,

considered unobstructed relative to the location of

interest. Atmospheric conditions are assumed to be

average, and the location is in a level region on the

Earth’s surface.

2.2.1.4 Moonrise and moonset times are computed

for exactly the same circumstances as for sunrise and

sunset. However, moonrise and moonset may occur

at any time during a 24 hour period and, consequently,

it is often possible for the Moon to be seen during

daylight, and to have moonless nights. It is also

possible that a moonrise or moonset does not occur

relative to a specific place on a given date.

2.2.1.5 Transit. The transit time of a celestial body

refers to the instant that its center crosses an

imaginary line in the sky − the observer’s meridian −

running from north to south.

2.2.1.6 Twilight. Before sunrise and again after

sunset there are intervals of time, known as

“twilight,” during which there is natural light

provided by the upper atmosphere, which does

receive direct sunlight and reflects part of it toward

the Earth’s surface.

2.2.1.7 Civil twilight is defined to begin in the

morning, and to end in the evening when the center of

the Sun is geometrically 6 degrees below the horizon.

This is the limit at which twilight illumination is

sufficient, under good weather conditions, for

terrestrial objects to be clearly distinguished.

2.2.2 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations

applies these concepts and definitions in addressing

the definition of night (Section 1.1), the requirement

for aircraft lighting (Section 91.209) and pilot

recency of night experience (Section 61.67).

2.2.3 Information on Moon Phases and Changes

in the Percentage of the Moon Illuminated

From any location on the Earth, the Moon appears to

be a circular disk which, at any specific time, is

illuminated to some degree by direct sunlight. During

each lunar orbit (a lunar month), we see the Moon’s

appearance change from not visibly illuminated

through partially illuminated to fully illuminated,

then back through partially illuminated to not

illuminated again. There are eight distinct, traditionally recognized stages, called phases. The phases

designate both the degree to which the Moon is

illuminated and the geometric appearance of the

illuminated part. These phases of the Moon, in the

sequence of their occurrence (starting from

New Moon), are listed in FIG ENR 6.2−3.

2.2.3.1 The percent of the Moon’s surface illuminated is a more refined, quantitative description of the

Moon’s appearance than is the phase. Considering the

Moon as a circular disk, at New Moon the percent

illuminated is 0; at First and Last Quarters it is 50%;

and at Full Moon it is 100%. During the crescent

phases the percent illuminated is between 0 and 50%

and during gibbous phases it is between 50% and

100%.

2.2.3.2 For practical purposes, phases of the Moon

and the percent of the Moon illuminated are

independent of the location on the Earth from where

the Moon is observed. That is, all the phases occur at

the same time regardless of the observer’s position.

2.2.3.3 For more detailed information, refer to the

United States Naval Observatory site referenced

below.

3 AUG 06
ENR 6.2−10 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG ENR 6.2−3

Phases of the Moon

New Moon − The Moon’s unilluminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon is not visible

(except during a solar eclipse).

Waxing Crescent − The Moon appears to be partly but less than one−half illuminated by

direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is increasing.

First Quarter − One−half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The

fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is increasing.

Waxing Gibbous − The Moon appears to be more than one−half but not fully illuminated by

direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is increasing.

Full Moon − The Moon’s illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be

completely illuminated by direct sunlight.

Waning Gibbous − The Moon appears to be more than one−half but not fully

illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is

decreasing.

Last Quarter − One−half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The

fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Waning Crescent − The Moon appears to be partly but less than one−half illuminated by

direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 6.2−11

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

2.2.4 Access to Astronomical Data for Determination of Moon Rise, Moon Set, and Percentage

of Lunar Disk Illuminated

2.2.4.1 Astronomical data for the determination of

Moon rise and set and Moon phase may be obtained

from the United States Naval Observatory using an

interactive query available at:

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/

2.2.4.2 Click on “Data Services,” and then on

“Complete Sun and Moon Data for One Day.”

2.2.4.3 You can obtain the times of sunrise, sunset,

moonrise, moonset, transits of the Sun and Moon, and

the beginning and end of civil twilight, along with

information on the Moon’s phase by specifying the

date and location in one of the two forms on this web

page and clicking on the “Get data” button at the end

of the form. Form “A” is used for cities or towns in the

U.S. or its territories. Form “B” for all other locations.

An example of the data available from this site is

shown in TBL ENR 6.2−2.

2.2.4.4 Additionally, a yearly table may be

constructed for a particular location by using the

“Table of Sunrise/Sunset, Moonrise/Moonset, or

Twilight Times for an Entire Year” selection.

3. Landing Zone Safety

3.1 This information is provided for use by

helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS)

pilots, program managers, medical personnel, law

enforcement, fire, and rescue personnel to further

their understanding of the safety issues concerning

Landing Zones (LZs). It is recommended that HEMS

operators establish working relationships with the

ground responder organizations they may come in

contact with in their flight operations and share this

information in order to establish a common frame of

reference for LZ selection, operations, and safety.

TBL ENR 6.2−2

Sample of Astronomical Data Available 

from the Naval Observatory

The following information is provided for

New Orleans, Orleans Parish, Louisiana 

(longitude W90.1, latitude N30.0)

Tuesday

29 May 2007

Central Daylight Time

SUN

Begin civil twilight 5:34 a.m.

Sunrise 6:01 a.m.

Sun transit 12:58 p.m.

Sunset 7:55 p.m.

End civil twilight 8:22 p.m.

MOON

Moonrise 5:10 p.m. on preceding day

Moonset 4:07 a.m.

Moonrise 6:06 p.m.

Moon transit 11:26 p.m.

Moonset 4:41 a.m. on following day

Phase of the Moon on 29 May: waxing gibbous with

95% of the Moon’s visible disk illuminated.

Full Moon on 31 May 2007 at 8:04 p.m. Central

Daylight Time.

3.2 The information provided is largely based on the

booklet, LZ − Preparing the Landing Zone, issued by

National Emergency Medical Services Pilots Association (NEMSPA), and the guidance developed by the

University of Tennessee Medical Center’s LIFESTAR program, and is used with their permission. For

additional information, go to:

http://www.nemspa.org/.

3.3 Information concerning the estimation of wind

velocity is based on the Beaufort Scale. See

http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/beaufort.

html for more information.

3 AUG 06
ENR 6.2−12 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.4 Selecting a Scene LZ

3.4.1 If the situation requires the use of a helicopter,

first check to see if there is an area large enough to

land a helicopter safely.

FIG ENR 6.2−4

Recommended Minimum Landing Zone Dimensions

3.4.2 For the purposes of FIG ENR 6.2−4 the

following are provided as examples of relative

helicopter size:

3.4.2.1 Small Helicopter: Bell 206/407, Eurocopter

AS−350/355, BO−105, BK−117.

3.4.2.2 Medium Helicopter: Bell UH−1 (Huey) and

derivatives (Bell 212/412), Bell 222/230/430 Sikorsky S−76, Eurocopter SA−365.

3.4.2.3 Large Helicopter: Boeing Chinook, Eurocopter Puma, Sikorsky H−60 series (Blackhawk),

SK−92.

3.4.3 The LZ should be level, firm and free of loose

debris that could possibly blow up into the rotor

system.

3.4.4 The LZ should be clear of people, vehicles and

obstructions such as trees, poles and wires.

Remember that wires are difficult to see from the air.

The LZ must also be free of stumps, brush, post and

large rocks. See FIG ENR 6.2−5.

FIG ENR 6.2−5

Landing Zone Hazards

3.4.5 Keep spectators back at least 200 feet. Keep

emergency vehicles 100 feet away and have fire

equipment (if available) standing by. Ground

personnel should wear eye protection, if available,

during landing and takeoff operations. To avoid loose

objects being blown around in the LZ, hats should be

removed; if helmets are worn, chin straps must be

securely fastened.

3.4.6 Fire fighters (if available) should wet down the

LZ if it is extremely dusty.

3.5 Helping the Flightcrew Locate the Scene

3.5.1 If the LZ coordinator has access to a GPS unit,

the exact latitude and longitude of the LZ should be

relayed to the HEMS pilot. If unable to contact the

pilot directly, relay the information to the HEMS

ground communications specialist for relaying to the

pilot, so that they may locate your scene more

efficiently. Recognize that the aircraft may approach

from a direction different than the direct path from the

takeoff point to the scene, as the pilot may have to

detour around terrain, obstructions or weather

en route.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 6.2−13

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.5.2 Especially in daylight hours, mountainous and

densely populated areas can make sighting a scene

from the air difficult. Often, the LZ coordinator on the

ground will be asked if she or he can see or hear the

helicopter.

3.5.3 Flightcrews use a clock reference method for

directing one another’s attention to a certain direction

from the aircraft. The nose of the aircraft is always

12 o’clock, the right side is 3 o’clock, etc. When the

LZ coordinator sees the aircraft, he/she should use

this method to assist the flightcrew by indicating the

scene’s clock reference position from the nose of the

aircraft. For example, “Accident scene is located at

your 2 o’clock position.” See FIG ENR 6.2−6.

FIG ENR 6.2−6

“Clock” System for Identifying Positions

Relative to the Nose of the Aircraft

3.5.4 When the helicopter approaches the scene, it

will normally orbit at least one time as the flight crew

observes the wind direction and obstacles that could

interfere with the landing. This is often referred to as

the “high reconnaissance” maneuver.

3.6 Wind Direction and Touchdown Area

3.6.1 Determine from which direction the wind is

blowing. Helicopters normally land and takeoff into

the wind.

3.6.2 If contact can be established with the pilot,

either directly or indirectly through the HEMS

ground communications specialist, describe the wind

in terms of the direction the wind is from and the

speed.

3.6.3 Common natural sources of wind direction

information are smoke, dust, vegetation movement,

water streaks and waves. Flags, pennants, streamers

can also be used. When describing the direction, use

the compass direction from which the wind is

blowing (example: from the North−West).

3.6.4 Wind speed can be measured by small

hand−held measurement devices, or an observer’s

estimate can be used to provide velocity information.

The wind value should be reported in knots (nautical

miles per hour). If unable to numerically measure

wind speed, use TBL ENR 6.2−3 to estimate

velocity. Also, report if the wind conditions are gusty,

or if the wind direction or velocity is variable or has

changed recently.

3.6.5 If any obstacle(s) exist, insure their description, position and approximate height are communicated to the pilot on the initial radio call.

3.7 Night LZs

3.7.1 There are several ways to light a night LZ:

3.7.1.1 Mark the touchdown area with five lights or

road flares, one in each corner and one indicating the

direction of the wind. See FIG ENR 6.2−7.

FIG ENR 6.2−7

Recommended Lighting for

Landing Zone Operations at Night

NOTE−

Road flares are an intense source of ignition and may be

unsuitable or dangerous in certain conditions. In any case,

they must be closely managed and firefighting equipment

should be present when used. Other light sources are

preferred, if available.

3 AUG 06
ENR 6.2−14 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

TBL ENR 6.2−3

Table of Common References for Estimating Wind Velocity

Wind

(Knots)

Wind

Classification

Appearance of Wind Effects

On the Water On Land

Less than 1 Calm Sea surface smooth and mirror−like Calm, smoke rises vertically

1−3 Light Air Scaly ripples, no foam crests Smoke drift indicates wind direction,

wind vanes are still

4−6 Light Breeze Small wavelets, crests glassy, no

breaking

Wind felt on face, leaves rustle, vanes

begin to move

7−10 Gentle Breeze Large wavelets, crests begin to break,

scattered whitecaps

Leaves and small twigs constantly

moving, light flags extended

11−16 Moderate Breeze Small waves 1−4 ft. becoming longer,

numerous whitecaps

Dust, leaves, and loose paper lifted,

small tree branches move

17−21 Fresh Breeze Moderate waves 4−8 ft taking longer

form, many whitecaps, some spray

Small trees in leaf begin to sway

22−27 Strong Breeze Larger waves 8−13 ft, whitecaps

common, more spray

Larger tree branches moving, whistling

in wires

28−33 Near Gale Sea heaps up, waves 13−20 ft, white

foam streaks off breakers

Whole trees moving, resistance felt

walking against wind

34−40 Gale Moderately high (13−20 ft) waves of

greater length, edges of crests begin to

break into spindrift, foam blown in

streaks

Whole trees in motion, resistance felt

walking against wind

41−47 Strong Gale High waves (20 ft), sea begins to roll,

dense streaks of foam, spray may reduce

visibility

Slight structural damage occurs, slate

blows off roofs

48−55 Storm Very high waves (20−30 ft) with

overhanging crests, sea white with

densely blown foam, heavy rolling,

lowered visibility

Seldom experienced on land, trees

broken or uprooted, “considerable

structural damage”

56−63 Violent Storm Exceptionally high (30−45 ft) waves,

foam patches cover sea, visibility more

reduced

64+ Hurricane Air filled with foam, waves over 45 ft,

sea completely white with driving spray,

visibility greatly reduced

EXAMPLE−

Wind from the South−East, estimated speed 15 knots. Wind shifted from North−East about fifteen minutes ago, and is gusty.

3 AUG 06
AIP ENR 6.2−15

United States of America 16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

3.7.1.2 If chemical light sticks may be used, care

should be taken to assure they are adequately secured

against being dislodged by the helicopter’s rotor

wash.

3.7.1.3 Another method of marking a LZ uses four

emergency vehicles with their low beam headlights

aimed toward the intended landing area.

3.7.1.4 A third method for marking a LZ uses two

vehicles. Have the vehicles direct their headlight

beams into the wind, crossing at the center of the LZ.

(If fire/rescue personnel are available, the reflective

stripes on their bunker gear will assist the pilot

greatly.)

3.7.2 At night, spotlights, flood lights and hand

lights used to define the LZ are not to be pointed at the

helicopter. However, they are helpful when pointed

toward utility poles, trees or other hazards to the

landing aircraft. White lights such as spotlights,

flashbulbs and hi−beam headlights ruin the pilot’s

night vision and temporarily blind him. Red lights,

however, are very helpful in finding accident

locations and do not affect the pilot’s night vision as

significantly.

3.7.3 As in Day LZ operations, ensure radio contact

is accomplished between ground and air, if possible.

3.8 Ground Guide

3.8.1 When the helicopter is in sight, one person

should assist the LZ Coordinator by guiding the

helicopter into a safe landing area. In selecting an LZ

Coordinator, recognize that medical personnel

usually are very busy with the patient at this time. It

is recommended that the LZ Coordinator be someone

other than a medical responder, if possible. Eye

protection should be worn. The ground guide should

stand with his back to the wind and his arms raised

over his head (flashlights in each hand for night

operations.)

3.8.2 The pilot will confirm the LZ sighting by radio.

If possible, once the pilot has identified the LZ, the

ground guide should move out of the LZ.

3.8.3 As the helicopter turns into the wind and begins

a descent, the LZ coordinator should provide

assistance by means of radio contact, or utilize the

“unsafe signal” to wave off the helicopter if the LZ is

not safe (see FIG ENR 6.2−8). The LZ Coordinator

should be far enough from the touchdown area that

he/she can still maintain visual contact with the pilot.

3.9 Assisting the Crew

3.9.1 After the helicopter has landed, do not

approach the helicopter. The crew will approach you.

3.9.2 Be prepared to assist the crew by providing

security for the helicopter. If asked to provide

security, allow no one but the crew to approach the

aircraft.

3.9.3 Once the patient is prepared and ready to load,

allow the crew to open the doors to the helicopter and

guide the loading of the patient.

3.9.4 When approaching or departing the helicopter,

always be aware of the tail rotor and always follow

the directions of the crew. Working around a running

helicopter can be potentially dangerous. The

environment is very noisy and, with exhaust gases

and rotor wash, often windy. In scene operations, the

surface may be uneven, soft, or slippery which can

lead to tripping. Be very careful of your footing in this

environment.

3.9.5 The tail rotor poses a special threat to working

around a running helicopter. The tail rotor turns many

times faster than the main rotor, and is often invisible

even at idle engine power. Avoid walking towards the

tail of a helicopter beyond the end of the cabin, unless

specifically directed by the crew.

NOTE−

Helicopters typically have doors on the sides of the cabin,

but many use aft mounted “clamshell” type doors for

loading and unloading patients on litters or stretchers.

When using these doors, it is important to avoid moving any

further aft than necessary to operate the doors and

load/unload the patient. Again, always comply with the

crew’s instructions.

3.10 General Rules

3.10.1 When working around helicopters, always

approach and depart from the front, never from the

rear. Approaching from the rear can increase your risk

of being struck by the tail rotor, which, when at

operating engine speed, is nearly invisible.

3.10.2 To prevent injury or damage from the main

rotor, never raise anything over your head.

3.10.3 If the helicopter landed on a slope, approach

and depart from the down slope side only.

3 AUG 06
ENR 6.2−16 AIP

16 FEB 06 United States of America

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

3.10.4 When the helicopter is loaded and ready for

take off, keep the departure path free of vehicles and

spectators. In an emergency, this area is needed to

execute a landing.

3.11 Hazardous Chemicals and Gases

3.11.1 Responding to accidents involving hazardous

materials requires special handling by fire/rescue

units on the ground. Equally important are the

preparations and considerations for helicopter

operations in these areas.

3.11.2 Hazardous materials of concern are those

which are toxic, poisonous, flammable, explosive,

irritating, or radioactive in nature. Helicopter

ambulance crews normally don’t carry protective

suits or breathing apparatuses to protect them from

hazardous materials.

3.11.3 The helicopter ambulance crew must be told

of hazardous materials on the scene in order to avoid

the contamination of the crew. Patients/victims

contaminated by hazardous materials may require

special precautions in packaging before loading on

the aircraft for the medical crew’s protection, or may

be transported by other means.

3.11.4 Hazardous chemicals and gases may be fatal

to the unprotected person if inhaled or absorbed

through the skin.

3.11.5 Upon initial radio contact, the helicopter crew

must be made aware of any hazardous gases in the

area. Never assume that the crew has already been

informed. If the aircraft were to fly through the

hazardous gases, the crew could be poisoned and/or

the engines could develop mechanical problems.

3.11.6 Poisonous or irritating gases may cling to a

victim’s clothing and go unnoticed until the patient is

loaded and the doors of the helicopter are closed. To

avoid possible compromise of the crew, all of these

patients must be decontaminated prior to loading.

3.12 Hand Signals

3.12.1 If unable to make radio contact with the

HEMS pilot, use the signals in FIG ENR 6.2−8.

FIG ENR 6.2−8

Recommended Landing Zone Ground Signals

3.13 Emergency Situations

3.13.1 In the event of a helicopter accident in the

vicinity of the LZ, consider the following:

3.13.1.1 Emergency Exits:

a) Doors and emergency exits are typically

prominently marked. If possible, operators should

familiarize ground responders with the door system

on their helicopter in preparation for an emergency

event.

b) In the event of an accident during the LZ

operation, be cautious of hazards such as sharp and

jagged metal, plastic windows, glass, any rotating

components, such as the rotors, and fire sources, such

as the fuel tank(s) and the engine.

3.13.1.2 Fire Suppression:

a) Helicopters used in HEMS operations are

usually powered by turboshaft engines, which use jet

fuel. Civil HEMS aircraft typically carry between 50

and 250 gallons of fuel, depending upon the size of

the helicopter, and planned flight duration, and the

fuel remaining after flying to the scene. Use water to

control heat and use foam over fuel to keep vapors

from ignition sources.

3 AUG 06
AIP

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PART 3

AERODROMES (AD)

AIP

United States of America

AD 0.4−1

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

PART 3 − AERODROMES (AD)

AD 0.

AD 0.1 Preface − Not applicable

AD 0.2 Record of AIP Amendments − See GEN 0.2−1

AD 0.3 Record of AIP Supplements − Not applicable

AD 0.4 Checklist of Pages

PAGE DATE

PART 3 − AERODROMES

(AD)

AD 0

0.4−1 3 AUG 06

0.4−2 3 AUG 06

0.6−1 17 FEB 05

AD 1

1.1−1 17 FEB 05

1.1−2 17 FEB 05

1.1−3 17 FEB 05

1.1−4 17 FEB 05

1.1−5 17 FEB 05

1.1−6 17 FEB 05

1.1−7 17 FEB 05

1.1−8 17 FEB 05

1.1−9 3 AUG 06

1.1−10 3 AUG 06

1.1−11 3 AUG 06

1.1−12 3 AUG 06

1.1−13 3 AUG 06

1.1−14 3 AUG 06

1.1−15 3 AUG 06

1.1−16 3 AUG 06

1.1−17 3 AUG 06

1.1−18 3 AUG 06

1.1−19 3 AUG 06

1.1−20 3 AUG 06

1.1−21 3 AUG 06

1.1−22 3 AUG 06

1.1−23 3 AUG 06

1.1−24 3 AUG 06

1.1−25 3 AUG 06

1.1−26 3 AUG 06

1.1−27 3 AUG 06

1.1−28 3 AUG 06

PAGE DATE

1.1−29 3 AUG 06

1.1−30 3 AUG 06

1.1−31 3 AUG 06

1.1−32 3 AUG 06

1.1−33 3 AUG 06

1.1−34 3 AUG 06

1.1−35 3 AUG 06

1.1−36 3 AUG 06

1.1−37 3 AUG 06

1.1−38 3 AUG 06

1.1−39 3 AUG 06

1.1−40 3 AUG 06

1.1−41 3 AUG 06

1.1−42 3 AUG 06

AD 2

2−1 16 FEB 06

2−2 16 FEB 06

2−3 3 AUG 06

2−4 3 AUG 06

2−5 3 AUG 06

2−6 3 AUG 06

2−7 3 AUG 06

2−8 3 AUG 06

2−9 3 AUG 06

2−10 3 AUG 06

2−11 3 AUG 06

2−12 3 AUG 06

2−13 3 AUG 06

2−14 3 AUG 06

2−15 3 AUG 06

2−16 3 AUG 06

2−17 3 AUG 06

2−18 3 AUG 06

2−19 3 AUG 06

2−20 3 AUG 06

2−21 3 AUG 06

PAGE DATE

2−22 3 AUG 06

2−23 3 AUG 06

2−24 3 AUG 06

2−25 3 AUG 06

2−26 3 AUG 06

2−27 3 AUG 06

2−28 3 AUG 06

2−29 3 AUG 06

2−30 3 AUG 06

2−31 3 AUG 06

2−32 3 AUG 06

2−33 3 AUG 06

2−34 3 AUG 06

2−35 3 AUG 06

2−36 3 AUG 06

2−37 3 AUG 06

2−38 3 AUG 06

2−39 3 AUG 06

2−40 3 AUG 06

2−41 3 AUG 06

2−42 3 AUG 06

2−43 3 AUG 06

2−44 3 AUG 06

2−45 3 AUG 06

2−46 3 AUG 06

2−47 3 AUG 06

2−48 3 AUG 06

2−49 3 AUG 06

2−50 3 AUG 06

2−51 3 AUG 06

2−52 3 AUG 06

2−53 3 AUG 06

2−54 3 AUG 06

2−55 3 AUG 06

2−56 3 AUG 06

2−57 3 AUG 06

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 0.4−2

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

PAGE DATE

2−58 3 AUG 06

2−59 3 AUG 06

2−60 3 AUG 06

2−61 3 AUG 06

2−62 3 AUG 06

2−63 3 AUG 06

2−64 3 AUG 06

2−65 3 AUG 06

2−66 3 AUG 06

2−67 3 AUG 06

2−68 3 AUG 06

2−69 3 AUG 06

2−70 3 AUG 06

2−71 3 AUG 06

2−72 3 AUG 06

2−73 3 AUG 06

2−74 3 AUG 06

2−75 3 AUG 06

2−76 3 AUG 06

2−77 3 AUG 06

2−78 3 AUG 06

2−79 3 AUG 06

2−80 3 AUG 06

2−81 3 AUG 06

2−82 3 AUG 06

2−83 3 AUG 06

INDEX

I−1 3 AUG 06

I−2 3 AUG 06

I−3 3 AUG 06

I−4 3 AUG 06

I−5 3 AUG 06

I−6 3 AUG 06

I−7 3 AUG 06

I−8 3 AUG 06

PAGE DATE PAGE DATE

AD 0.5 List of Hand Amendments to the AIP − Not applicable

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 0.6−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

AD 0.6 Table of Contents to Part 3

Page

AD 1. AERODROMES − INTRODUCTION

AD 1.1 Aerodrome Availability AD 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . −1

AD 2. LISTING OF AERODROMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AD 2−1

AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−1

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

AD 1. AERODROMES − INTRODUCTION

AD 1.1 Aerodrome Availability

1. General Regulations Concerning Airport

Use

1.1 International arrivals with scheduled passenger

service are not permitted to land at any aerodrome not

listed in this AIP except in cases of real emergency or

where special permission has been granted.

1.2 The conditions under which aircraft may land, be

parked, housed or otherwise dealt with at U.S.

aerodromes is under the control of the aerodrome

owner/operator. Conditions and fees pertaining to

landing, parking, or storing are variable from

aerodrome to aerodrome and are not published in the

U.S. AIP.

2. Landings Made Elsewhere Than at

International Aerodromes

2.1 Permission to land at airports other than

“international” and “landing rights” airports may be

obtained in some limited cases; however, advance

arrangements (preferably in writing) must be made

with the U.S. Customs office nearest the airport of

intended arrival (see GEN 1). Advance notice of

arrival is required as usual. Pilots should be aware

that mileage and per diem costs may be accrued in

addition to any overtime charges if applicable.

2.2 If an emergency landing is made elsewhere than

at an international aerodrome or a designated

alternate aerodrome, the pilot in command shall

report the landing as promptly as possible by

telephone or the most convenient means to the nearest

Customs office. He/she should keep all merchandise

or baggage in a segregated place and should not

permit any passenger or crewmember to depart the

place of arrival or mingle with the public without

official permission, unless it is necessary for

preservation of life, health, or property.

3. Traffic of Persons and Vehicles on

Aerodromes

3.1 The grounds of each aerodrome are divided into

two zones:

3.1.1 A public zone comprising the part of the

aerodrome open to the public; and

3.1.2 A restricted zone comprising the rest of the

aerodrome.

3.2 Movement of Persons

3.2.1 Access to the restricted zone is authorized only

under conditions prescribed by the rules governing

the aerodrome as established by the officials

responsible for aerodrome security.

3.2.2 The customs, security, immigration and health

inspection offices and areas, and the premises

assigned to transit traffic are normally accessible only

to passengers, to staff members of the responsible

authorities or airlines, and to authorized persons in

pursuit of their duties.

3.2.3 The movement of persons having access to the

restricted zone of the aerodrome is subject to the

conditions prescribed by applicable air traffic and by

the security regulations laid down by the person

responsible for the management of the aerodrome.

3.3 Movement of Vehicles

3.3.1 The movement of vehicles in the restricted

zone is strictly limited to vehicles driven or used by

persons having official permission.

3.3.2 Drivers of vehicles, of whatever type, driving

within the confines of the aerodrome, must respect

the direction of traffic, the traffic signs, and the posted

speed limits and generally comply with the

provisions of the highway code and with instructions

given by the competent authorities.

4. General Information and Aerodrome

Lighting and Marking

4.1 Aerodrome lighting information is contained in

paragraphs 12 through 16. Information on aerodrome

marking aids and signs is contained in paragraph 17.

4.2 Designated international U.S. aerodromes with

scheduled passenger service in large aircraft and

certain airports designated as alternate service

aerodromes are listed in AD 2, Aerodromes.
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−2

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

5. Aerodrome Administration

5.1 The administration of all airports is the

responsibility of the aerodrome owner.

5.2 Ownership of aerodromes in the U.S. is vested in

three different groups: the Federal Government,

non−Federal governments, and private organizations

or individuals. It is the policy of the U.S. Federal

Government to have its aerodromes comply with

ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices.

Exceptions are noted as differences below and in

GEN 1.7. Aerodromes owned by non−Federal

governments and private organizations or individuals

are encouraged to comply with International

Standards and Recommended Practices in part

through the regulation of aircraft operations into the

aerodromes and in part through agreements under

which Federal aid is made available for aerodrome

development or improvement. Further compliance is

by voluntary action on the part of the aerodrome

owner.

6. Conditions of Availability

6.1 An aerodrome which is open for public use may

be used by a particular aircraft upon consideration of

the meteorological conditions existing at the time and

provided that the aircraft’s performance and load

classification (runway weight−bearing classification) is consistent with the physical characteristics of

the aerodrome.

6.2 Civil Use of Military Fields

6.2.1 Except at joint−use airfields, U.S. Army, Air

Force, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard airfields are available for use by civil aircraft only with

prior permission or in an emergency. An approved

civil aircraft landing permit is required for use at all

except Coast Guard airfields. With minor exceptions,

authority to use military airfields is granted only to

aircraft on official government business.

6.2.2 An application for a permit must be submitted

to the appropriate military department a minimum of

30 days prior to the first intended landing. A permit

application consists of Department of Defense Forms

DD Form 2400, Civil Aircraft Certificate of

Insurance; DD Form 2401, Civil Aircraft Landing

Permit; and DD Form 2402, Hold Harmless

Agreement.

6.2.3 Forms and instructions can be obtained from

the following addresses.

Army: Director, USAASA

ATTN: MOAS−AS

Building 1466

9325 Gunston Road, Suite N319

Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060−5582

Telephone: (703) 806−4864

Air Force: HQ USAF/XOO−CA

1480 Air Force Pentagon,

Room 4D1010

Washington DC 20330−1480

Telephone: (703) 697−5967

Navy/

Marine Corps: Commander

Naval Facilities Engineering

 Command, Code 141JB

200 Stovall Street, Room 10N45

Alexandria, VA 22332−2300

Telephone: (703) 325−0475

At Coast Guard airfields, prior permission must be

requested from the commanding officer of the airfield

to be used.

The forms can also be downloaded from the internet

at: http://web1.whs.osd.mil/icdhome/FORMTAB.HTM.

7. Applicable ICAO Documents

ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices contained in Annex 14 are applied with the exceptions

noted in GEN 1.7, Differences from ICAO Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures.

8. Maintenance of Aerodrome Movement

Areas

8.1 It is the responsibility of the relevant aerodrome

authority to maintain the aerodrome in a satisfactory

condition.

8.2 Clearance of snow and measurement of snow,

ice, standing water, braking action, etc., and the

reporting of such pavement conditions is within the

responsibility of the aerodrome authority.
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−3

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

9. Dissemination of Information on the

Condition of Paved Surface

9.1 Information on surface condition of runways,

taxiways and aprons will be published, when

available and when necessary.

9.2 At aerodromes where an ATS unit is established,

if a runway is affected by standing water, snow, slush

or ice during the approach of an aircraft for landing,

and such conditions are notified by the aerodrome

management to the ATS unit, such conditions will be

made available to the aircraft.

10. Rescue and Fire Fighting Facilities

10.1 Adequate rescue and fire−fighting vehicles,

equipment and personnel are provided at aerodromes

available for international commercial air transport.

10.2 Temporary interruptions to rescue and fire−

fighting service, or non−availability of such services,

are made known by NOTAM.

10.3 Certificated Aerodromes (14 CFR Part 139)

Aerodromes serving certain air carriers under 14 CFR

Part 139 are indicated by a CFR Index which relates

to the availability of crash, fire, and rescue equipment. (See TBL AD 1.1−1.)

11. Bird Concentrations in the Vicinity of

Aerodromes

11.1 Animal and bird notices are not normally

published in aerodrome remarks. Pilots should be

aware that animals and birds are frequently found in

the vicinity of aerodromes and should exercise due

caution. However, selected bird notices may be

published, but only after approval by the appropriate

Regional Bird Hazard Group.

12. Airport Lighting Aids

12.1 Approach Light Systems (ALS)

12.1.1 Approach light systems provide the basic

means for transition from instrument flight to visual

flight for landing. Operational requirements dictate

the sophistication and configuration of the approach

light system for a particular runway.

12.1.2 Approach light systems are a configuration of

signal lights starting at the landing threshold and

extending into the approach area a distance of

2400−3000 feet for precision instrument runways and

1400−1500 feet for nonprecision instrument runways. Some systems include sequenced flashing

lights which appear to the pilot as a ball of light

traveling towards the runway at high speed (twice

each second).

TBL AD 1.1−1

14 CFR PART 139 CERTIFICATED AIRPORTS

Indexes and Fire Fighting and Rescue Equipment Requirements

Airport Index Required Number of

Vehicles Aircraft Length Agent & Water for Foam

A 1  90’ 500# DC or 450# DC + 100 gal H20

B 1 or 2 90’ &  126’ Index A + 1500 gal H20

C 2 or 3 126’ &  159’ Index A + 3000 gal H20

D 3 159’ &  200’ Index A + 4000 gal H20

E 3 200’ Index A + 6000 gal H20

Greater Than;  Less Than; Equal To or Greater Than; H20 Water; DC Dry Chemical

NOTE−

Vehicle and capacity requirements for airports holding limited operating certificates are determined on a case−by−case

basis.
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−4

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−1

Precision & Nonprecision Configurations

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

... ..... ... ... ..... ...

........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

..... .....

.....

NOTE: Civil ALSF-2 may be

operated as SSALR during

favorable weather conditions.

ALSF-2

Omnidirectional

Flashing

Light

ODALS

Flashing

Light

Flashing

Light

Flashing

Light

. Steady

Burning

Light

. Steady

Burning

Light

. Steady

Burning

Light

SSALR

ALSF-1 MALSR

... ... ..... ... ... ... ... ..... ... ...

. Steady

Burning

Light ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........

MALSF

Flashing

Light

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

..... 15° 10° 10° 15°

LANDING

APPROACH

REIL

12.2 Visual Glideslope Indicators

12.2.1 Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

12.2.1.1 The VASI is a system of lights so arranged

to provide visual descent guidance information

during the approach to a runway. These lights are

visible from 3−5 miles during the day and up to

20 miles or more at night. The visual glide path of the

VASI provides safe obstruction clearance within plus

or minus 10 degrees of the extended runway

centerline and to 4 nautical miles from the runway

threshold. Descent, using the VASI, should not be

initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the

runway. Lateral course guidance is provided by the

runway or runway lights.

12.2.1.2 VASI installations may consist of either 2,

4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to

as near, middle, and far bars. Most VASI installations

consist of 2 bars, near and far, and may consist of 2,

4, or 12 light units. Some airports have VASIs

consisting of three bars, near, middle, and far, which

provide an additional visual glide path to accommodate high cockpit aircraft. This installation may

consist of either 6 or 16 light units. VASI installations

consisting of 2, 4, or 6 lights units are located on

one side of the runway, usually the left. Where the

installation consists of 12 or 16 light units, the light

units are located on both sides of the runway.
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−5

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

12.2.1.3 Two−bar VASI installations provide one

visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees.

Three−bar VASI installations provide two visual

glide paths. The lower glide path is provided by the

near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees

while the upper glide path, provided by the middle

and far bars, in normally 1/4 degree higher. This

higher glide path is intended for use only by high

cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold

crossing height. Although normal glide path angles

are three degrees, angles at some locations may be as

high as 4.5 degrees to give proper obstacle clearance.

Pilots of high performance aircraft are cautioned that

use of VASI angles in excess of 3.5 degrees may cause

an increase in runway length required for landing and

rollout.

12.2.1.4 The basic principle of the VASI is that of

color differentiation between red and white. Each

light unit projects a beam of light having a white

segment in the upper part of the beam and red

segment in the lower part of the beam. The light units

are arranged so that the pilot using the VASIs during

an approach will see the combination of lights shown

below.

12.2.1.5 For 2−BAR VASI (4 light units), see

FIG AD 1.1−2.

12.2.1.6 For 3−BAR VASI (6 light units), see

FIG AD 1.1−3.

12.2.1.7 For other VASI configurations, see

FIG AD 1.1−4.

FIG AD 1.1−2

2-Bar VASI

Far Bar

= Red

= White Near Bar

Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path

FIG AD 1.1−3

3-Bar VASI

Far Bar

Middle Bar

Near Bar

Below Both

Glide Paths

On Lower

Glide Path

On Upper

Glide Path

Above Both

Glide Paths
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−6

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−4

VASI Variations

2 Bar

2 Light Units

On Glide Path

2 Bar

12 Light Units

On Glide Path

3 Bar

16 Light Units

on Lower Glide Path

FIG AD 1.1−5

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

Slightly High

(3.2 Degrees)

White

Red

High

(More Than

3,5 Degrees)

On Glide Path

(3 Degrees)

Slightly Low

(2.8 Degrees)

Low

(Less Than

2.5 Degrees)

12.2.2 Precision Approach Path Indicator

(PAPI). The precision approach path indicator

(PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but are

installed in a single row of either 2 or 4 lights units.

These systems have an effective visual range of about

5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night. The

row of light units is normally installed on the left side

of the runway and the glide path indications are as

depicted in FIG AD 1.1−5.

12.2.3 Tri−color Systems. Tri−color visual approach slope indicators normally consist of a single

light unit, projecting a three−color visual approach

path into the final approach area of the runway upon

which the indicator is installed. The below glide path

indication is red, the above glide path indication is

amber, and the on glide path indication is green.

These types of indicators have a useful range of

approximately 1/2 to 1 mile during the day and up to

5 miles at night depending upon the visibility

conditions. (See FIG AD 1.1−6.)
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−7

17 FEB 05

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−6

Tri-Color Visual Approach Slope Indicator

Amber

Above Glide Path

On Glide Path

Below Glide Path

Amber

Green

Red

NOTE−

1. Since the tri-color VASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots

should exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.

2. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see a dark amber color during the transition from green to

red.

FIG AD 1.1−7

Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator

Above Glide Path

On Glide Path

Below Glide Path

Slightly Below Glide Path

Threshold

PULSATING WHITE

PULSATING RED

STEADY WHITE

STEADY RED

NOTE−

Since the PVASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots should

exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.

12.2.4 Pulsating Systems. Pulsating visual approach slope indicators normally consist of a single

light unit projecting a two−color visual approach path

into the final approach area of the runway upon which

the indicator is installed. The on glide path indication

is a steady white light. The slightly below glide path

indication is a steady red light. If the aircraft descends

further below the glide path, the red light starts to

pulsate. The above glide path indication is a pulsating

white light. The pulsating rate increases as the aircraft

gets further above or below the desired glide slope.

The useful range of the system is about four miles

during the day and up to ten miles at night. 

(See FIG AD 1.1−7.)
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−8

17 FEB 05

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−8

Alignment of Elements

Above Glide Path On Glide Path Below Glide Path

12.2.5 Alignment of Elements Systems. Alignment

of elements systems are installed on some small

general aviation airports and are a low cost system

consisting of painted plywood panels, normally black

and white or fluorescent orange. Some of these

systems are lighted for night use. The useful range of

these systems is approximately 3

/4 mile. To use the

system the pilot positions the aircraft so the elements

are in alignment. The glide path indications are

shown in FIG AD 1.1−8.

12.3 Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)

12.3.1 REILs are installed at many airfields to

provide rapid and positive identification of the

approach end of a particular runway. The system

consists of a pair of synchronized flashing lights, one

of which is located laterally on each side of the

runway threshold facing the approach area. They are

effective for:

12.3.1.1 Identification of a runway surrounded by a

preponderance of other lighting.

12.3.1.2 Identification of a runway which lacks

contrast with surrounding terrain.

12.3.1.3 Identification of a runway during reduced

visibility.

12.4 Runway Edge Light Systems

12.4.1 Runway edge lights are used to outline the

edges of runways during periods of darkness or

restricted visibility conditions. These light systems

are classified according to the intensity or brightness

they are capable of producing: they are the High

Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity

Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity

Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL

systems have variable intensity controls; whereas, the

LIRLs normally have one intensity setting.

12.4.2 The runway edge lights are white; except on

instrument runways, yellow replaces white on the last

2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is

less, to form a caution zone for landings.

12.4.3 The lights marking the ends of the runway

emit red light toward the runway to indicate the end

of the runway to a departing aircraft and emit green

outward from the runway end to indicate the

threshold to landing aircraft.

12.5 In−Runway Lighting

12.5.1 Runway Centerline Lighting System

(RCLS). Runway centerline lights are installed on

some precision approach runways to facilitate

landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are

located along the runway centerline and are spaced at

50−foot intervals. When viewed from the landing

threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until

the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The white lights

begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and

for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline

lights are red.

12.5.2 Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL). Touchdown zone lights are installed on some precision

approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone

when landing under adverse visibility conditions.

They consist of two rows of transverse light bars

disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline.

The system consists of steady−burning white lights

which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−9

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or

to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.

12.5.3 Taxiway Centerline Lead−Off Lights.

Taxiway centerline lead−off lights provide visual

guidance to persons exiting the runway. They are

color−coded to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that

they are within the runway environment or

instrument landing system/microwave landing system (ILS/MLS) critical area, whichever is more

restrictive. Alternate green and yellow lights are

installed, beginning with green, from the runway

centerline to one centerline light position beyond the

runway holding position or ILS/MLS critical area

holding position.

12.5.4 Taxiway Centerline Lead−On Lights.

Taxiway centerline lead−on lights provide visual

guidance to persons entering the runway. These

“lead−on” lights are also color−coded with the same

color pattern as lead−off lights to warn pilots and

vehicle drivers that they are within the runway

environment or instrument landing system/microwave landing system (ILS/MLS) critical area,

whichever is more conservative. The fixtures used for

lead−on lights are bidirectional, i.e., one side emits

light for the lead−on function while the other side

emits light for the lead−off function. Any fixture that

emits yellow light for the lead−off function shall also

emit yellow light for the lead−on function.

(See FIG AD 1.1−9.)

12.5.5 Land and Hold Short Lights. Land and hold

short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on

certain runways which are approved for Land and

Hold Short Operations (LAHSO). Land and hold

short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights

installed across the runway at the hold short point.

Where installed, the lights will be on anytime

LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when

LAHSO is not in effect.

REFERENCE−

Section ENR 1.1, Paragraph 22, Pilot Responsibilities When

Conducting Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO).

12.6 Control of Lighting Systems

12.6.1 Operation of approach light systems and

runway lighting is controlled by the control tower

(ATCT). At some locations the FSS may control the

lights where there is no control tower in operation.

12.6.2 Pilots may request that lights be turned on or

off. Runway edge lights, in−pavement lights and

approach lights also have intensity controls which

may be varied to meet the pilot’s request. Sequenced

flashing lights may be turned on and off. Some

sequenced flashing system also have intensity

control.

12.7 Pilot Control of Airport Lighting

12.7.1 Radio control of lighting is available at

selected airports to provide airborne control of lights

by keying the aircraft’s microphone. Control of

lighting system is often available at locations without

specified hours for lighting or where there is no

control tower or FSS, or when the control tower or

FSS is closed (locations with a part−time tower or

FSS). All lighting systems which are radio controlled

at an airport, whether on a single runway or multiple

runways, operate on the same radio frequency. 

(See TBL AD 1.1−2 and TBL AD 1.1−3.)

12.7.2 With FAA approved systems, various combinations of medium intensity approach lights,

runway lights, taxiways lights, VASI and/or REIL

may be activated by radio control. On runways with

both approach lighting and runway lighting (runway

edge lights, taxiway lights, etc.) systems, the

approach lighting system takes precedence for

air−to−ground radio control over the runway lighting

system which is set at a predetermined intensity step,

based on expected visibility conditions. Runways

without approach lighting may provide radio

controlled intensity adjustments of runway edge

lights. Other lighting systems, including VASI, REIL,

and taxiway lights, may be either controlled with the

runway edge lights or controlled independently of the

runway edge lights.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−10

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−9

Taxiway Lead−On Light Configuration

TBL AD 1.1−2

Runways With Approach Lights

Lighting System

Number of

Intensity

Steps

Status During

Nonuse Period

Intensity Step Selected Per Number 

of Mike Clicks

3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks

Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 2 Off Low Low High

Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 3 Off Low Med High

MIRL 3 Off or Low 

HIRL 5 Off or Low 

VASI 2 Off   

NOTES: Predetermined intensity step.

Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.

TBL AD 1.1−3

Runways Without Approach Lights

Lighting System

Number of

Intensity

Steps

Status During

Nonuse Period

Intensity Step Selected Per Number 

of Mike Clicks

3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks

MIRL 3 Off or Low Low Med. High

HIRL 5 Off or Low Step 1 or 2 Step 3 Step 5

LIRL 1 Off On On On

VASI 2 Off 

REIL 1 Off Off On / Off On

REIL 3 Off Low Med. High

NOTES: Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.

The control of VASI and/or REIL may be independent of other lighting systems.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−11

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

12.7.3 The control system consists of a 3−step

control responsive to 7, 5, and/or 3 microphone

clicks. This 3−step control will turn on lighting

facilities capable of either 3−step, 2−step or 1−step

operation. The 3−step and 2−step lighting facilities

can be altered in intensity, while the 1−step cannot.

All lighting is illuminated for a period of 15 minutes

from the most recent time of activation and may not

be extinguished prior to end of the 15−minute period

(except for 1−step and 2−step REILs which may be

turned off when desired by keying the mike 5 or

3 times, respectively).

12.7.4 Suggested use is to always initially key the

mike 7 times; this assures that all controlled lights are

turned on to the maximum available intensity. If

desired, adjustment can then be made, where the

capability is provided, to a lower intensity (or the

REIL turned off) by keying 5 and/or 3 times. Due to

the close proximity of airports using the same

frequency, radio controlled lighting receivers may be

set at a low sensitivity requiring the aircraft to be

relatively close to activate the system. Consequently,

even when lights are on, always key mike as directed

when overflying an airport of intended landing or just

prior to entering the final segment of an approach.

This will assure the aircraft is close enough to activate

the system and a full 15 minutes lighting duration is

available. Approved lighting systems may be

activated by keying the mike (within 5 seconds) as

indicated in TBL AD 1.1−4.

TBL AD 1.1−4

Radio Control System

Key Mike Function

7 times within 

5 seconds

Highest intensity available

5 times within 

5 seconds

Medium or lower intensity

(Lower REIL or REIL-off)

3 times within 

5 seconds

Lowest intensity available

(Lower REIL or REIL-off)

12.7.5 The Airport/Facility Directory contains the

types of lighting, runway, and the frequency that is

used to activate the system for all public use airports

with FAA standard systems. Airports with instrument

approach procedures include data on the approach

chart identifying the light system(s), the runway on

which they are installed, and the frequency that is

used to activate the system(s).

NOTE−

Although the CTAF is used to activate the lights at many

airports, other frequencies may also be used. The

appropriate frequency for activating the lights on the

airport is provided in the Airport/Facility Directory and

the standard instrument approach procedures publications. It is not identified on the sectional charts.

12.7.6 Where the airport is not served by an

instrument approach procedure, it may have either

the standard FAA approach control system or an

independent type system of different specification

installed by the airport sponsor. The Airport/Facility

Directory contains descriptions of pilot−controlled

lighting systems for each airport having other than

FAA approved systems, and explains the type lights,

method of control, and operating frequency in clear

text.

13. Airport/Heliport Beacons

13.1 Airport and heliport beacons have a vertical

light distribution to make them most effective from

one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, they

can be seen well above and below this peak spread.

The beacon may be an omnidirectional capacitor-discharge device, or it may rotate at a constant speed

which produces the visual effect of flashes at regular

intervals. Flashes may be one or two colors

alternately. The total number of flashes are:

13.1.1 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking

airports, landmarks, and points on Federal airways.

13.1.2 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking

heliports.

13.2 The colors and color combinations of beacons

are:

13.2.1 White and Green−Lighted land airport.

13.2.2 *Green alone−Lighted land airport.

13.2.3 White and Yellow−Lighted water airport.

13.2.4 *Yellow alone−Lighted water airport.

13.2.5 Green, Yellow, and White−Lighted heliport.

NOTE−

*Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection

with a white-and-green or white-and-yellow beacon

display, respectively.

13.3 Military airport beacons flash alternately white

and green, but are differentiated from civil beacons

by dual−peaked (two quick) white flashes between

the green flashes.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−12

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

13.4 In Class B, C, D, and E surface areas, operation

of the airport beacon during the hours of daylight

indicates that the ground visibility is less than 3 miles

and/or the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. An ATC

clearance in accordance with 14 CFR Part 91 is

required for landing, takeoff and flight in the traffic

pattern. Pilots should not rely solely on the operation

of the airport beacon to indicate if weather conditions

are IFR or VFR. At locations with control towers,

when controls are in the tower, ATC personnel turn

the beacon on. At many airports, the airport beacon is

turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks and

ATC personnel cannot control it. There is no

regulatory requirement for daylight operation, and it

is the pilot’s responsibility to comply with proper

pre−flight planning in accordance with 14 CFR

Section 91.103.

14. Taxiway Lights

14.1 Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights

are used to outline the edges of taxiways during

periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions.

These fixtures emit blue light.

NOTE−

At most major airports these lights have variable intensity

settings and may be adjusted at pilot request or when

deemed necessary by the controller.

14.2 Taxiway Centerline Lights. Taxiway centerline lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under

low visibility conditions. They are located along the

taxiway centerline in a straight line on straight

portions, on the centerline of curved portions, and

along designated taxiing paths in portions of

runways, ramps, and apron areas. Taxiway centerline

lights are steady burning and emit green light.

14.3 Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights

are installed at holding positions on taxiways in order

to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in

low visibility conditions. They may also be installed

to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway

during periods of darkness. Clearance bars consist of

three in−pavement, steady−burning yellow lights.

14.4 Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights

are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They

are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of

taxiway/runway intersections during low visibility

conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions.

Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of

elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side

of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights

installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway

holding position marking.

NOTE−

Some airports may have a row of three or five in−pavement

yellow lights installed at taxiway/runway intersections.

They should not be confused with clearance bar lights

described in paragraph 14.3 above.

14.5 Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when

installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to

enter or cross the active runway in low visibility

conditions (below 1,200 feet Runway Visual Range).

A stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional,

steady−burning in-pavement lights installed across

the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and

elevated steady−burning red lights on each side. A

controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the

taxiway centerline lead-on lights which extend from

the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC

clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the

lead-on lights are turned on. The stop bar and lead-on

lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup

timer.

CAUTION−

Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even

if an ATC clearance has been given to proceed onto or

across the runway.

NOTE−

If after crossing a stop bar, the taxiway centerline lead−on

lights inadvertently extinguish, pilots should hold their

position and contact ATC for further instructions.

15. Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting

15.1 Aeronautical Light Beacons

15.1.1 An aeronautical light beacon is a visual

NAVAID displaying flashes of white and/or colored

light to indicate the location of an airport, a heliport,

a landmark, a certain point of a Federal airway in

mountainous terrain, or an obstruction. The light used

may be a rotating beacon or one or more flashing

lights. The flashing lights may be supplemented by

steady burning lights of lesser intensity.

15.1.2 The color or color combination display by a

particular beacon and/or its auxiliary lights tell

whether the beacon is indicating a landing place,

landmark, point of the Federal airways, or an

obstruction. Coded flashes of the auxiliary lights, if

employed, further identify the beacon site.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−13

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

15.2 Code Beacons and Course Lights

15.2.1 Code Beacons. The code beacon, which can

be seen from all directions, is used to identify airports

and landmarks. The code beacon flashes the three− or

four−character airport identifier in International

Morse Code six to eight times per minute. Green

flashes are displayed for land airports while yellow

flashes indicate water airports.

15.2.2 Course Lights. The course light, which can

be seen clearly from only one direction, is used only

with rotating beacons of the Federal Airway System;

two course lights, back to back, direct coded flashing

beams of light in either direction along the course of

airway.

NOTE−

Airway beacons are remnants of the “lighted” airways

which antedated the present electronically equipped

federal airways system. Only a few of those beacons exist

today to mark airway segments in remote mountain areas.

Flashes in Morse code identify the beacon site.

15.3 Obstruction Lights

15.3.1 Obstructions are marked/lighted to warn

airmen of their presence during daytime and

nighttime conditions. They may be marked/lighted in

any of the following combinations:

15.3.1.1 Aviation Red Obstruction Lights. Flashing aviation red beacons (20 to 40 flashes per minute)

and steady burning aviation red lights during

nighttime operation. Aviation orange and white paint

is used for daytime marking.

15.3.1.2 Medium Intensity Flashing White

Obstruction Lights. Medium intensity flashing

white obstruction lights may be used during daytime

and twilight with automatically selected reduced

intensity for nighttime operation. When this system

is used on structures 500 feet (153 m) AGL or less in

height, other methods of marking and lighting the

structure may be omitted. Aviation orange and white

paint is always required for daytime marking on

structures exceeding 500 feet (153 m) AGL. This

system is not normally installed on structures less

than 200 feet (61 m) AGL.

15.3.1.3 High Intensity White Obstruction

Lights. Flashing high intensity white lights during

daytime with reduced intensity for twilight and

nighttime operation. When this type system is used,

the marking of structures with red obstruction lights

and aviation orange and white paint may be omitted.

15.3.1.4 Dual Lighting. A combination of flashing

aviation red beacons and steady burning aviation red

lights for nighttime operation and flashing high

intensity white lights for daytime operation. Aviation

orange and white paint may be omitted.

15.3.1.5 Catenary Lighting. Lighted markers are

available for increased night conspicuity of high−

voltage (69KV or higher) transmission line catenary

wires. Lighted markers provide conspicuity both day

and night.

15.3.2 Medium intensity omnidirectional flashing

white lighting system provides conspicuity both day

and night on catenary support structures. The unique

sequential/simultaneous flashing light system alerts

pilots of the associated catenary wires.

15.3.3 High intensity flashing white lights are being

used to identify some supporting structures of

overhead transmission lines located across rivers,

chasms, gorges, etc. These lights flash in a middle,

top, lower light sequence at approximately 60 flashes

per minute. The top light is normally installed near

the top of the supporting structure, while the lower

light indicates the approximate lower portion of the

wire span. The lights are beamed towards the

companion structure and identify the area of the wire

span.

15.3.4 High intensity flashing white lights are also

employed to identify tall structures, such as chimneys

and towers, and obstructions to air navigation. The

lights provide a 360 degree coverage about the

structure at 40 flashes per minute and consist of from

one to seven levels of lights depending upon the

height of the structure. Where more than one level is

used, the vertical banks flash simultaneously.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−14

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

16. Airport Lead−in Lighting System (LDIN)

16.1 The lead−in lighting system consists of a series

of flashing lights installed at or near ground level to

describe the desired course to a runway or final

approach. Each group of lights is positioned and

aimed so as to be conveniently sighted and followed

from the approaching aircraft under conditions at or

above approach minimums under consideration. The

system may be curved, straight, or combination

thereof, as required. The lead−in lighting system may

be terminated at any approved approach lighting

system, or it may be terminated at a distance from the

landing threshold which is compatible with authorized visibility minimums permitting visual reference

to the runway environment.

16.2 The outer portion uses groups of lights to mark

segments of the approach path beginning at a point

within easy visual range of a final approach fix. These

groups are spaced close enough together (approximately one mile) to give continuous lead−in

guidance. A group consists of at least three flashing

lights in a linear or cluster configuration and may be

augmented by steady burning lights where required.

When practicable, groups flash in sequence toward

runways. Each system is designed to suit local

conditions and to provide the visual guidance

intended. The design of all LDIN is compatible with

the requirements of U.S. Standards for Terminal

Instrument Procedures (TERPS) where such procedures are applied for establishing instrument

minimums.

17. Airport Marking Aids and Signs

17.1 General

17.1.1 Airport pavement markings and signs provide

information that is useful to a pilot during takeoff,

landing, and taxiing.

17.1.2 Uniformity in airport markings and signs

from one airport to another enhances safety and

improves efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work

with the operators of the airports they use to achieve

the marking and sign standards described in this

section.

17.1.3 Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or

confusing markings or signs on an airport should

make the operator of the airport aware of the problem.

These situations may also be reported under the

Aviation Safety Reporting Program as described in

ENR 1.16. Pilots may also report these situations to

the FAA Regional Airports Division.

17.1.4 The markings and signs described in this

section reflect the current FAA recommended

standards.

REFERENCE−

 AC 150/5340−1, Standards for Airport Markings.

 AC 150/5340−18, Standards for Airport Sign Systems.

17.2 Airport Pavement Markings

17.2.1 General. For the purpose of this presentation the Airport Pavement Markings have been

grouped into the four areas:

17.2.1.1 Runway Markings.

17.2.1.2 Taxiway Markings.

17.2.1.3 Holding Position Markings.

17.2.1.4 Other Markings.

17.2.2 Marking Colors. Markings for runways are

white. Markings defining the landing area on a

heliport are also white except for hospital heliports

which use a red “H” on a white cross. Markings for

taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft

(closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions

(even if they are on a runway) are yellow.

17.3 Runway Markings

17.3.1 General. There are three types of markings

for runways: visual, non precision instrument, and

precision instrument. TBL AD 1.1−5 identifies the

marking elements for each type of runway, and

TBL AD 1.1−6 identifies runway threshold markings.

17.3.2 Runway Designators. Runway numbers

and letters are determined from the approach

direction. The runway number is the whole number

nearest one−tenth the magnetic azimuth of the

centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from

the magnetic north. The letters differentiate between

left (L), right (R), or center (C), parallel runways, as

applicable:

17.3.2.1 For two parallel runways “L” “R.”

17.3.2.2 For three parallel runways “L” “C” “R.”

17.3.3 Runway Centerline Marking. The runway

centerline identifies the center of the runway and

provides alignment guidance during takeoff and

landing. The centerline consists of a line of uniformly

spaced stripes and gaps.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−15

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

TBL AD 1.1−5

Runway Marking Elements

Marking Element Visual Runway

Nonprecision

Instrument

Runway

Precision

Instrument

Runway

Designation X X X

Centerline X X X

Threshold X1 X X

Aiming Point X2 X X

Touchdown Zone X

Side Stripes X

1On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.

2On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.

TBL AD 1.1−6

Number of Runway Threshold Stripes

Runway Width Number of Stripes

60 feet (18 m) 4

75 feet (23 m) 6

100 feet (30 m) 8

150 feet (45 m) 12

200 feet (60 m) 16

17.3.4 Runway Aiming Point Marking. The

aiming point marking serves as a visual aiming point

for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular

markings consist of a broad white stripe located on

each side of the runway centerline and approximately

1,000 feet from the landing threshold. 

(See FIG AD 1.1−10.)

17.3.5 Runway Touchdown Zone Markers. The

touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown

zone for landing operations and are coded to provide

distance information in 500 feet (150 m) increments.

These markings consist of groups of one, two, and

three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in

pairs about the runway centerline as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−10, Precision Instrument Runway

Markings. For runways having touchdown zone

markings on both ends, those pairs of markings which

extend to within 900 feet (270 m) of the midpoint

between the thresholds are eliminated.

17.3.6 Runway Side Stripe Marking. Runway

side stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They

provide a visual contrast between the runway and the

abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of

continuous white stripes located on each side of the

runway. (See FIG AD 1.1−14.)

17.3.7 Runway Shoulder Markings. Runway

shoulder stripes may be used to supplement runway

side stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to

the runway sides that are not intended for use by

aircraft. Runway shoulder stripes are yellow. 

(See FIG AD 1.1−12.)

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−16

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−10

Precision Instrument Runway Markings

THRESHOLD MARKINGS

CONFIGURATION ’B’

NUMBER OF STRIPES

RELATED TO RUNWAY

WIDTH - SEE TEXT

L

20

AIMING POINT

MARKING

CENTERLINE

TOUCHDOWN ZONE

MARKING

THRESHOLD

THRESHOLD MARKINGS

CONFIGURATION ’A’

DESIGNATION MARKINGS

17.3.8 Runway Threshold Markings. Runway

threshold markings come in two configurations. They

consist of either eight longitudinal stripes of uniform

dimensions disposed symmetrically about the

runway centerline, as shown in FIG AD 1.1−10, or

the number of stripes is related to the runway width

as indicated in TBL AD 1.1−6. A threshold marking

helps identify the beginning of the runway that is

available for landing. In some instances the landing

threshold may be relocated or displaced.

17.3.8.1 Relocation of a Threshold. Sometimes

construction, maintenance, or other activities require

the threshold to be relocated towards the rollout end

of the runway. (See FIG AD 1.1−13.) When a

threshold is relocated, it closes not only a set portion

of the approach end of a runway, but also shortens the

length of the opposite direction runway. In these

cases, a NOTAM should be issued by the airport

operator identifying the portion of the runway that is

closed; e.g., 10/28 W 900 CLSD. Because the

duration of the relocation can vary from a few hours

to several months, methods identifying the new

threshold may vary. One common practice is to use a

ten−foot wide white threshold bar across the width of

the runway. Although the runway lights in the area

between the old threshold and new threshold will not

be illuminated, the runway markings in this area may

or may not be obliterated, removed, or covered.

17.3.8.2 Displaced Threshold. A displaced threshold is a threshold located at a point on the runway

other than the designated beginning of the runway.

Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of

runway available for landings. The portion of runway

behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs

in either direction and landings from the opposite

direction. A ten−foot wide white threshold bar is

located across the width of the runway at the

displaced threshold. White arrows are located along

the centerline in the area between the beginning of the

runway and displaced threshold. White arrowheads

are located across the width of the runway just prior

to the threshold bar, as shown in FIG AD 1.1−14.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−17

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−11

Nonprecision Instrument Runway and Visual Runway Markings 20

20

AIMING POINT

MARKING

THRESHOLD THRESHOLD

MARKINGS

DESIGNATION

MARKING

PAVEMENT EDGE

AIMING POINT

MARKING

PAVEMENT EDGE

DESIGNATION MARKING

THRESHOLD

NONPRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS

VISUAL RUNWAY MARKINGS

NOTE−

Airport operator. When reporting the relocation or

displacement of a threshold, the airport operator should

avoid language which confuses the two.

17.3.9 Demarcation Bar. A demarcation bar delineates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast

pad, stopway, or taxiway that precedes the runway. A

demarcation bar is 3 feet (1 m) wide and yellow, since

it is not located on the runway. (See FIG AD 1.1−15.)

17.3.10 Chevrons. These markings are used to

show pavement areas aligned with the runway that

are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.

Chevrons are yellow. (See FIG AD 1.1−16).

17.3.11 Runway Threshold Bar. A threshold bar

delineates the beginning of the runway that is

available for landing when the threshold has been

relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet

(3 m) in width and extends across the width of the

runway, as shown in FIG AD 1.1−14.

18. Taxiway Markings

18.1 General. All taxiways should have centerline

markings and runway holding position markings

whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge

markings are present whenever there is a need to

separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not

intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the

taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings

and holding position markings for Instrument

Landing System/Microwave Landing System (ILS/

MLS) critical areas, and taxiway/taxiway intersection markings.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−18

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−12

Runway Shoulder Markings

RUNWAY THRESHOLD

MIDPOINT OF

RUNWAY

SHOULDER RUNWAY SHOULDER

45° 45°

45° 45°

18.2 Taxiway Centerline.

18.2.1 Normal Centerline. The taxiway centerline

is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to

12 inches (30 cm) in width. This provides a visual cue

to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally, the

aircraft should be kept centered over this line during

taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway

centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with

other aircraft or other objects.

18.2.2 Enhanced Centerline. At some airports,

mostly the larger commercial service airports, an

enhanced taxiway centerline will be used. The

enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a

parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the

normal taxiway centerline. The taxiway centerlines

are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a

runway holding position marking. The purpose of

this enhancement is to warn the pilot that he/she is

approaching a runway holding position marking and

should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared

onto or across the runway by ATC. (See

FIG AD 1.1−17.)

18.3 Taxiway Edge Markings. Taxiway edge

markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway.

They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does

not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There

are two types of markings depending upon whether

the aircraft is suppose to cross the taxiway edge:

18.3.1 Continuous Markings. These consist of a

continuous double yellow line, with each line being

at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches

(15 cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway

edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved

surface not intended for use by aircraft.

18.3.2 Dashed Markings. These markings are used

when there is an operational need to define the edge

of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface where the

adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended

for use by aircraft; e.g., an apron. Dashed taxiway

edge markings consist of a broken double yellow line,

with each line being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width,

spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge to edge). These

lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25−foot (7.5 m)

gaps. (See FIG AD 1.1−18.)

18.4 Taxi Shoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding

bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved

shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion.

Although shoulders may have the appearance of full

strength pavement, they are not intended for use by

aircraft and may be unable to support an aircraft.

Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this

area. Where conditions exist such as islands or

taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which

side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway

shoulder markings may be used to indicate the

pavement is unusable. Taxiway shoulder markings

are yellow. (See FIG AD 1.1−19.)

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−19

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−13

Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−20

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−14

Displaced Threshold Markings

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−21

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−15

Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−22

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−16

Markings for Blast Pads and Stopways

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−23

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−17

 Enhanced Taxiway Centerline

FIG AD 1.1−18

Dashed Markings

DOUBLE

YELLOW

LINES

TAXIWAY EDGE

MARKINGS

CONTINUOUS

TAXIWAY EDGE

MARKINGS

DASHED

18.5 Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs.

Surface painted taxiway direction signs have a yellow

background with a black inscription. These signs are

provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway

direction signs at intersections or when it is necessary

to supplement such signs. These markings are located

adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating turns

to the left being on the left side of the taxiway

centerline and signs indicating turns to the right being

on the right side of the centerline. 

(See FIG AD 1.1−20.)

FIG AD 1.1−19

Taxi Shoulder Markings

YELLOW STRIPES

PAVEMENT EDGE

TAXIWAY EDGE

MARKINGS

RUNWAY

18.6 Surface Painted Location Signs. Surface

painted location signs have a black background with

a yellow inscription. When necessary, these markings

are used to supplement location signs located along

side the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the

designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is

located. These markings are located on the right side

of the centerline. (See FIG AD 1.1−20.)

18.7 Geographic Position Markings. These markings are located at points along low visibility taxi

routes designated in the airport’s Surface Movement

Guidance Control System (SMGCS) plan. They are

used to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during

low visibility operations. Low visibility operations

are those that occur when the runway visible range

(RVR) is below 1,200 feet (360 m). They are

positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the

direction of taxiing. (See FIG AD 1.1−21.) The

geographic position marking is a circle comprised of

an outer black ring contiguous to a white ring with a

pink circle in the middle. When installed on asphalt

or other dark−colored pavements, the white ring and

the black ring are reversed; i.e., the white ring

becomes the outer ring and the black ring becomes the

inner ring. It is designated with either a number or a

number and letter. The number corresponds to the

consecutive position of the marking on the route.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−24

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−20 

Surface Painted Signs

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−25

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

19. Holding Position Markings

19.1 Runway Holding Position Markings. For

runways, these markings indicate where an aircraft is

supposed to stop. They consist of four yellow lines,

two solid and two dashed, spaced six or twelve inches

apart and extending across the width of the taxiway

or runway. The solid lines are always on the side

where the aircraft is to hold. There are three locations

where runway holding position markings are

encountered.

19.1.1 Runway Holding Position Markings on

Taxiways. These markings identify the locations on

a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when

it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway.

The runway holding position markings are shown in

FIG AD 1.1−22 and FIG AD 1.1−25. When instruc−

ted by ATC “Hold short of (runway “xx”),” the pilot

should stop so no part of his/her aircraft extends

beyond the holding position marking. When

approaching the holding position marking, a pilot

should not cross the marking without ATC clearance

at a controlled airport or without making sure of

adequate separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled airports. An aircraft exiting a runway is not

clear of the runway until all parts of the aircraft have

crossed the applicable holding position marking.

19.1.2 Runway Holding Position Markings on

Runways. These markings are installed on runways

only if the runway is normally used by air traffic

control for “land, hold short” operations or taxiing

operations and have operational significance only for

those two types of operations. A sign with a white

inscription on a red background is installed adjacent

to these holding position markings. (See

FIG AD 1.1−23.) The hold position markings are

placed on runways prior to the intersection with

another runway, or some designated point. Pilots

receiving instructions “cleared to land, runway “xx””

from air traffic control are authorized to use the entire

landing length of the runway and should disregard

any holding position markings located on the runway.

Pilots receiving and accepting instructions “cleared

to land runway “xx,” hold short of runway “yy”” from

air traffic control must either exit runway “xx,” or

stop at the holding position prior to runway “yy.”

19.1.3 Taxiways Located in Runway Approach

Areas. These markings are used at some airports

where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway

located in the approach or departure area of a runway

so that the aircraft does not interfere with the

operations on that runway. This marking is collocated

with the runway approach area holding position sign.

When specifically instructed by ATC “Hold short of

(runway xx approach area)” the pilot should stop so

no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding

position marking. (See paragraph 21.2.2, Runway

Approach Area Holding Position Sign, and

FIG AD 1.1−24, Taxiways Located in Runway

Approach Area.)

19.2 Holding Position Markings for Instrument

Landing System (ILS). Holding position markings

for ILS/MLS critical areas consist of two yellow solid

lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid

lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width

of the taxiway as shown in FIG AD 1.1−25. A sign

with an inscription in white on a red background is

installed adjacent to these hold position markings.

When the ILS critical area is being protected, the pilot

should stop so no part of his/her aircraft extends

beyond the holding position marking. When

approaching the holding position marking, a pilot

should not cross the marking without ATC clearance.

The ILS critical area is not clear until all parts of the

aircraft have crossed the applicable holding position

marking.

REFERENCE−

ENR 4.1, Instrument Landing System (ILS), paragraph 7.

19.3 Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/

Taxiway Intersections. Holding position markings

for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single

dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway

as shown in FIG AD 1.1−26. They are installed on

taxiways where air traffic control normally holds

aircraft short of a taxiway intersection. When

instructed by ATC “hold short of (taxiway)” the pilot

should stop so no part of his/her aircraft extends

beyond the holding position marking. When the

marking is not present, the pilot should stop the

aircraft at a point which provides adequate clearance

from an aircraft on the intersecting taxiway.

19.4 Surface Painted Holding Position Signs.

Surface painted holding position signs have a red

background with a white inscription and supplement

the signs located at the holding position. This type of

marking is normally used where the width of the

holding position on the taxiway is greater than

200 feet (60 m). It is located to the left side of the

taxiway centerline on the holding side and prior to the

holding position marking. (See FIG AD 1.1−20.)

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−26

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−21 

Geographic Position Markings

FIG AD 1.1−22

Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiway

RUNWAY

TAXIWAY

EXAMPLE OF HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS

EXTENDED ACROSS HOLDING BAY

HOLDING

BAY

15

TAXIWAY/RUNWAY

HOLDING POSITION

MARKINGS

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−27

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−23 

Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−28

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−24 

Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−29

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−25 

Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area

20. Other Markings

20.1 Vehicle Roadway Markings. The vehicle

roadway markings are used when necessary to define

a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas

that are also intended for aircraft. These markings

consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of

the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within

the edges of the roadway. In lieu of the solid lines,

zipper markings may be used to delineate the edges

of the vehicle roadway. (See FIG AD 1.1−27.)

Details of the zipper markings are shown in

FIG AD 1.1−28.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−30

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−26 

Holding Position Markings: Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections

TAXIWAY HOLDING

POSITION MARKINGS,

YELLOW, SEE

DETAIL 1

DETAIL 1

FIG AD 1.1−27

Vehicle Roadway Markings

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−31

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−28 

Roadway Edge Stripes, White, Zipper Style

20.2 VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings. The

VOR receiver checkpoint marking allows the pilot to

check aircraft instruments with navigational aid

signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in

the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the

checkpoint azimuth. This marking, and an associated

sign, is located on the airport apron or taxiway at a

point selected for easy access by aircraft but where

other airport traffic is not to be unduly obstructed.

(See FIG AD 1.1−29.)

NOTE−

The associated sign contains the VOR station identification

letter and course selected (published) for the check, the

words “VOR check course,” and DME data (when

applicable). The color of the letters and numerals are black

on a yellow background.

EXAMPLE− VOR SIGN

DCA 176−356

VOR check course

DME XXX

FIG AD 1.1−29

Ground Receiver Checkpoint Markings

1

4

2

3

1. WHITE

2. YELLOW

3. YELLOW ARROW ALIGNED TOWARD THE FACILITY

4. INTERIOR OF CIRCLE BLACK (CONCRETE SURFACE ONLY)

5. CIRCLE MAY BE BORDERED ON INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WITH

6" BLACK BAND IF NECESSARY FOR CONTRAST

5

FIG AD 1.1−30

Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings

BOTH LINES

ARE YELLOW

SOLID LINE ON

NONMOVEMENT

SIDE

DASHED LINE ON

MOVEMENT SIDE

20.3 Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings.

These markings delineate the movement area; i.e.,

area under air traffic control. These markings are

yellow and located on the boundary between the

movement and nonmovement area. The nonmovement area boundary markings consist of two yellow

lines (one solid and one dashed) 6 inches (15cm) in

width. The solid line is located on the nonmovement

area side while the dashed yellow line is located on

the movement area side. The nonmovement boundary marking area is shown in FIG AD 1.1−30.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−32

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

20.4 Marking and Lighting of Permanently

Closed Runways and Taxiways. For runways and

taxiways which are permanently closed, the lighting

circuits will be disconnected. The runway threshold,

runway designation, and touchdown markings are

obliterated and yellow crosses are placed at each end

of the runway and at 1,000 foot intervals. (See

FIG AD 1.1−31.)

FIG AD 1.1−31 

Closed or Temporarily Closed Runway 

and Taxiway Markings

2

X

20.5 Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways.

To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway

is temporarily closed, crosses are placed on the

runway only at each end of the runway. The crosses

are yellow in color. (See FIG AD 1.1−31.)

20.5.1 A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed

on each runway end in lieu of the markings described

in paragraph 20.4 to indicate the runway is closed.

20.5.2 A visual indication may not be present

depending on the reason for the closure, duration of

the closure, airfield configuration, and the existence

and the hours of operation of an airport traffic control

tower. Pilots should check NOTAMs and the

Automated Terminal Information System (ATIS) for

local runway and taxiway closure information.

20.5.3 Temporarily closed taxiways are usually

treated as hazardous areas, in which no part of an

aircraft may enter, and are blocked with barricades.

However, as an alternative, a yellow cross may be

installed at each entrance to the taxiway.

20.6 Helicopter Landing Areas. The markings

illustrated in FIG AD 1.1−32 are used to identify the

landing and takeoff area at a public use heliport and

hospital heliport. The letter “H” in the markings is

oriented to align with the intended direction of

approach. FIG AD 1.1−32 also depicts the markings

for a closed airport.

20.7 Airport Signs. There are six types of signs

installed on airfields: mandatory instruction signs,

location signs, direction signs, destination signs,

information signs, and runway distance remaining

signs. The characteristics and use of these signs are

discussed below.

REFERENCE−

Advisory Circular−150/5340−18, Standards for Airport Sign Systems.

21. Mandatory Instruction Signs

21.1 These signs have a red background with a

white inscription and are used to denote:

21.1.1 An entrance to a runway or critical area.

21.1.2 Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)

holding position signs on runways:

21.1.2.1 Hold short of Intersecting Runway.

21.1.2.2 Hold short of Intersecting Taxiway.

21.1.2.3 Hold short of a Point.

21.1.3 Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from

entering.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−33

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−32 

Helicopter Landing Areas

FIG AD 1.1−33

Runway Holding Position Sign

FIG AD 1.1−34

Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−34

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

21.2 Typical mandatory signs and applications

are:

21.2.1 Runway Holding Position Sign. This sign

is located at the holding position on taxiways that

intersect a runway or on runways that intersect other

runways. The inscription on the sign contains the

designation of the intersecting runway as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−33. The runway numbers on the sign are

arranged to correspond to the respective runway

threshold. For example, “15−33” indicates that the

threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the

threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.

21.2.1.1 On taxiways that intersect the beginning of

the takeoff runway, only the designation of the

takeoff runway may appear on the sign as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−34, while all other signs will have the

designation of both runway directions.

21.2.1.2 If the sign is located on a taxiway that

intersects the intersection of two runways, the

designations for both runways will be shown on the

sign along with arrows showing the approximate

alignment of each runway as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−35. In addition to showing the approximate runway alignment, the arrow indicates the

direction to the threshold of the runway whose

designation is immediately next to the arrow.

21.2.1.3 Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)

include landing and holding short of an intersecting

runway, taxiway, or a designated point on the runway.

LAHSO signs are mandatory signs when Air Traffic

Control is operating under LAHSO. The holding

position markings will be located on the runway

pavement adjacent to the signs. Holding position

markings are described in paragraph 19.

21.2.1.4 A runway holding position sign(s) will be

installed on a runway that is normally used as a

taxiway, adjacent to the holding position markings.

21.2.1.5 A runway holding position sign on a

taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position

markings.

21.2.2 Runway Approach Area Holding Position

Sign. At some airports, it is necessary to hold an

aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or

departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does

not interfere with operations on that runway. In these

situations a sign with the designation of the approach

end of the runway followed by a “dash” (−) and letters

“APCH” will be located at the holding position on the

taxiway. Holding position markings in accordance

with paragraph 20 will be located on the taxiway

pavement. An example of this sign is shown in

FIG AD 1.1−36. In this example, the sign may

protect the approach to Runway 15 and/or the

departure for Runway 33.

21.2.3 ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign.

At some airports, when the instrument landing

system is being used, it is necessary to hold an aircraft

on a taxiway at a location other than the holding

position described in paragraph 19, Holding Position

Markings. In these situations the holding position

sign for these operations will have the inscription

“ILS” and be located adjacent to the holding position

marking on the taxiway described in paragraph 19.

An example of this sign is shown in FIG AD 1.1−37.

FIG AD 1.1−35

Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−35

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−36 

Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area

FIG AD 1.1−37

Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area

FIG AD 1.1−38

Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−36

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

21.2.4 No Entry Sign. This sign, shown in

FIG AD 1.1−38, prohibits an aircraft from entering

an area. Typically, this sign would be located on a

taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or

at the intersection of vehicle roadways with runways,

taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be

mistaken as a taxiway or other aircraft movement

surface.

NOTE−

The holding position sign provides the pilot with a visual

cue as to the location of the holding position marking. The

operational significance of holding position markings are

described in paragraph 19.

22. Location Signs

Location signs are used to identify either a taxiway or

runway on which the aircraft is located. Other

location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to assist

them in determining when they have exited an area.

The various location signs are described below.

22.1 Taxiway Location Sign. This sign has a black

background with a yellow inscription and yellow

border as shown in FIG AD 1.1−39. The inscription

is the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft

is located. These signs are installed along taxiways

either by themselves or in conjunction with direction

signs or runway holding position signs. 

(See FIG AD 1.1−44 and FIG AD 1.1−40.)

FIG AD 1.1−39

Taxiway Location Sign

FIG AD 1.1−40

Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with Runway Holding Position Sign

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−37

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−41 

Runway Location Sign

FIG AD 1.1−42

Runway Boundary Sign

22.2 Runway Location Sign. This sign has a black

background with a yellow inscription and yellow

border as shown in FIG AD 1.1−41. The inscription

is the designation of the runway on which the aircraft

is located. These signs are intended to complement

the information available to pilots through their

magnetic compass and typically are installed where

the proximity of two or more runways to one another

could cause pilots to be confused as to which runway

they are on.

22.3 Runway Boundary Sign. This sign has a

yellow background with a black inscription with a

graphic depicting the pavement holding position

marking as shown in FIG AD 1.1−42. This sign,

which faces the runway and is visible to the pilot

exiting the runway, is located adjacent to the holding

position marking on the pavement. The sign is

intended to provide pilots with another visual cue

which they can use as a guide in deciding when they

are “clear of the runway.”

22.4 ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign. This sign

has a yellow background with a black inscription with

a graphic depicting the ILS pavement holding

position marking as shown in FIG AD 1.1−43. This

sign is located adjacent to the ILS holding position

marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots

leaving the critical area. The sign is intended to

provide pilots with another visual cue which they can

use as a guide in deciding when they are “clear of the

ILS critical area.”

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−38

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−43 

ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign

23. Direction Signs

23.1 Direction signs have a yellow background with

a black inscription. The inscription identifies the

designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading

out of intersection that a pilot would normally be

expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each

designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating

the direction of the turn.

23.2 Except as noted in subparagraph 23.5, each

taxiway designation shown on the sign is accompanied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway

designation is shown on the sign, each designation

and its associated arrow is separated from the other

taxiway designations by either a vertical message

divider or a taxiway location sign as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−44.

23.3 Direction signs are normally located on the left

prior to the intersection. When used on a runway to

indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side

of the runway as the exit. FIG AD 1.1−45 shows a

direction sign used to indicate a runway exit.

23.4 The taxiway designations and their associated

arrows on the sign are arranged clockwise starting

from the first taxiway on the pilot’s left. 

(See FIG AD 1.1−44.)

23.5 If a location sign is located with the direction

signs, it is placed so that the designations for all turns

to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the

designations for continuing straight ahead or for all

turns to the right would be located to the right of the

location sign. (See FIG AD 1.1−44.)

23.6 When the intersection is comprised of only one

crossing taxiway, it is permissible to have two arrows

associated with the crossing taxiway as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−46. In this case, the location sign is

located to the left of the direction sign.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−39

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−44 

Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection

FIG AD 1.1−45

Direction Sign for Runway Exit

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−40

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

FIG AD 1.1−46 

Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection

FIG AD 1.1−47

Destination Sign for Military Area

24. Destination Signs

24.1 Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a

destination on the airport. These signs always have an

arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to

that destination. FIG AD 1.1−47 is an example of a

typical destination sign. When the arrow on the

destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located

prior to the intersection.

24.2 Destinations commonly shown on these types

of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military

areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international

areas, and fixed base operators. An abbreviation may

be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these

destinations.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−41

16 FEB 06

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

FIG AD 1.1−48 

Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways

FIG AD 1.1−49

Destination Sign for Different Taxiing Routes to Two Runways

24.3 When the inscription for two or more

destinations having a common taxiing route are

placed on a sign, the destinations are separated by a

“dot” (	) and one arrow would be used as shown in

FIG AD 1.1−48. When the inscription on a sign

contains two or more destinations having different

taxiing routes, each destination will be accompanied

by an arrow and will be separated from the other

destinations on the sign with a vertical black message

divider as shown in FIG AD 1.1−49.

25. Information Signs

25.1 Information signs have a yellow background

with a black inscription. They are used to provide the

pilot with information on such things as areas that

cannot be seen from the control tower, applicable

radio frequencies, and noise abatement procedures.

The airport operator determines the need, size, and

location for these signs.

3 AUG 06
AIP

United States of America

AD 1.1−42

16 FEB 06

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

26. Runway Distance Remaining Signs

26.1 Runway distance remaining signs have a black

background with a white numeral inscription and

may be installed along one or both side(s) of the

runway. The number on the signs indicates the

distance (in thousands of feet) of landing runway

remaining. The last sign; i.e., the sign with the

numeral “1,” will be located at least 950 feet from the

runway end. FIG AD 1.1−50 shows an example of a

runway distance remaining sign.

FIG AD 1.1−50 

Runway Distance Remaining Sign Indicating 3,000

feet of Runway Remaining

3

27. Aircraft Arresting Devices

27.1 Aircraft arresting systems are devices that use

an energy absorber to decrease the speed and landing

roll−out of an aircraft. These systems are located

primarily at military or joint use airports, but are

installed at some civilian airports. The Airport/Facility Directory and/or current NOTAMs will describe

the system in place and its precise location and status.

27.2 The aircraft arresting systems use cables

stretched and raised across the runway, or cables that

are raised out of slots in the runway to allow the

aircraft to engage the energy absorber either through

a tail hook, or a barrier device that engages the

landing undercarriage of the aircraft. Details are

contained in FAA Advisory Circular 150/5220−9,

Aircraft Arresting Systems for Joint Civil/Military

Airports.

NOTE−

Aircraft operations on the runways are not restricted by

such installations.

3 AUG 06
3 AUG 06

AIP I−1

United States of America

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

INDEX

[References are to page numbers]

A

Abbreviations, GEN 2.2−1 

Accident and Incident Reporting , ENR 1.16−1 

Items To Be Reported, ENR 1.16−2 

Actual Navigation Performance (ANP), 

ENR 4.1−43 

Aeronautical Charts, GEN 3.2−1 

Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network

(AFTN), GEN 3.4−5 

Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)

Publication Schedule, GEN 0.1−2 

Structure, GEN 0.1−1 

Subscription Information, GEN 0.1−2 

Aeronautical Publications, Distribution of, 

GEN 3.1−1 

AFTN. See Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications

Network (AFTN)

AHRS. See Attitude Heading Reference System

Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ), 

ENR 1.12−1 

Air Defense Identification Zone, Land−Based,

ENR 1.12−1 

Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), 

GEN 3.3−2 

ARTCC Communications, GEN 3.3−2 

ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage, GEN 3.3−3 

Air Traffic Clearance, ENR 1.1−60 

See also Clearance

Air Traffic Control, Pilot/Controller Roles and

Responsibilities, ENR 1.1−59 

Aircraft

Lights, Use of, ENR 1.1−22 

Unmanned, ENR 5.7−2 

Aircraft Suffixes, ENR 1.10−7 

Airport

Aircraft Arresting Devices, AD 1.1−42 

Airport Advisory/Information Services, 

ENR 1.4−10 

Fees and Charges, GEN 4.1−1 

Fire Fighting Requirements, AD 1.1−3 

Local Airport Advisory (LAA), GEN 3.3−8 

Operations, ENR 1.1−1 

Exiting the Runway after Landing, ENR 1.1−18 

VFR Flights in Terminal Areas, ENR 1.1−13 

Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection

Systems, ENR 1.1−8 

Signals, Hand, ENR 1.1−18 

Taxiing, ENR 1.1−10 

Traffic Pattern, ENR 1.1−1 , ENR 1.1−2 , 

ENR 1.1−6 

With Operating Control Tower, ENR 1.1−1 

Without Operating Control Tower, GEN 3.3−7 ,

GEN 3.3−16 , ENR 1.1−6 

Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), GEN 3.3−8 ,

ENR 1.4−10 

Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS),

GEN 3.3−8 , ENR 1.4−11 

Reservations Procedures, GEN 3.3−14 

High Density Airports, GEN 3.3−14 

Using Enhanced Computer Voice Reservation

System (e−CVRS), GEN 3.3−14 

Airport Lighting, AD 1.1−3 

Airport Beacons, AD 1.1−11 , AD 1.1−12 

Approach Light Systems, AD 1.1−3 

Obstruction Lighting, AD 1.1−13 

Pilot−controlled Lighting, AD 1.1−9 

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI), 

AD 1.1−6 

Runway Lighting, AD 1.1−8 

Taxiway Lighting, AD 1.1−12 

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI), 

AD 1.1−4 

Airport Markings, AD 1.1−14 

Colors, AD 1.1−14 

Holding Position Markings, AD 1.1−25 

Other Markings, AD 1.1−29 

Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings, 

AD 1.1−31 

Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways, 

AD 1.1−32 

VOR Checkpoint Markings, AD 1.1−31 

Runway Markings, AD 1.1−14 

Taxiway Markings, AD 1.1−17 

Airport Operations

Intersection Takeoffs, ENR 1.1−12 

Land and Hold Short, ENR 1.1−15 

Airport Signs, AD 1.1−32 

Destination Signs, AD 1.1−40 

Direction Signs, AD 1.1−38 
3 AUG 06

AIP

United States of America

I−2

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

[References are to page numbers]

Information Signs, AD 1.1−41 

Location Signs, AD 1.1−36 

ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign, AD 1.1−37 

Runway Boundary Sign, AD 1.1−37 

Runway Location Sign, AD 1.1−37 

Taxiway Location Sign, AD 1.1−36 

Mandatory Instruction Signs, AD 1.1−32 

ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign, 

AD 1.1−34 

No Entry Sign, AD 1.1−36 

Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign,

AD 1.1−34 

Runway Holding Position Sign, AD 1.1−34 

Runway Distance Remaining Signs, AD 1.1−42 

Airport Surface Detection Equipment − Model X

(ASDE−X), ENR 1.1−39 

Airport Use, AD 1.1−1 

See also Airport, Reservations Procedures

Airports, Designated To Serve International

Operations, AD 2−1 

Diagrams of, AD 2−3 

Airspace, ENR 1.4−1 

Classes, ENR 1.4−1 , ENR 1.4−3 , ENR 1.4−4 

Controlled, ENR 1.4−3 

IFR Requirements, ENR 1.4−3 

VFR Requirements, ENR 1.4−3 

Operating Rules and Requirements, 

ENR 1.4−4 , ENR 1.4−6 , ENR 1.4−8 ,

ENR 1.4−9 

Radar Vectors in, ENR 1.1−62 , ENR 3.5−2 

Speed Adjustments in, ENR 1.1−62 

VFR Corridors, ENR 1.4−11 

VFR Transition Routes, ENR 1.4−12 

Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks

and Forest Service Areas, ENR 5.6−2 

National Security Area, ENR 5.1−2 

Obstructions to Flight. See Flight Hazards,

Potential

Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations, ENR 5.1−4 

Special Use, ENR 5.1−1 

Alert Areas, ENR 5.2−1 

Controlled Firing Areas, ENR 5.2−1 

Military Operations Area (MOA), ENR 5.2−1 

Military Training Routes, ENR 5.2−1 

Prohibited Areas, ENR 5.1−1 

Restricted Areas, ENR 5.1−1 

Warning Areas, ENR 5.1−2 

Temporary Flight Restriction, ENR 5.1−2 

Terminal Radar Service Area, ENR 1.1−57 

Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA), 

ENR 1.4−12 

VFR Flyways, ENR 1.4−11 

VFR Routes, Published, ENR 1.4−11 

VFR Weather Minimums, ENR 1.4−2 

Airways and Route Systems. See Navigation

Altimeter Setting Procedures, ENR 1.7−1 

Altitude

Mandatory, ENR 1.5−19 

Maximum, ENR 1.5−19 

Minimum, ENR 1.5−19 

ANP. See Actual Navigation Performance

Approach Control Service for VFR Arriving

Aircraft, GEN 3.3−7 

Approaches, ENR 1.5−7 , ENR 1.5−38 

Approach and Landing Minimums, ENR 1.5−14 

Approach Clearance, ENR 1.5−10 

Contact Approach, ENR 1.1−60 

Differences between ILS and ILS/PRM

Approaches, ENR 1.5−50 

ILS Minimums, ENR 4.1−8 

ILS/MLS Approaches to Parallel Runways, 

ENR 1.5−40 , ENR 1.5−42 , ENR 1.5−43 

Instrument Approach, ENR 1.1−61 

Instrument Approach Procedure Charts, 

ENR 1.5−17 

See also Aeronautical Charts

Minimum Vectoring Altitudes, ENR 1.5−32 

Missed Approach, ENR 1.1−61 , ENR 1.5−55 

Missed Approach, GPS, ENR 4.1−36 

Monitoring of Instrument Approaches, 

ENR 1.5−39 

No−Gyro Approach, ENR 1.5−39 

Overhead Approach Maneuver, ENR 1.5−57 

Practice Instrument Approaches, ENR 1.1−13 

Precision Approach, ENR 1.5−38 

Side−step Maneuver, ENR 1.5−13 

Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS PRM

Approaches, ENR 1.5−45 

Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches,

ENR 1.5−51 

Surveillance Approach, ENR 1.5−38 

Timed Approaches From a Holding Fix, 

ENR 1.5−51 

Vertical Descent Angle (VDA), ENR 1.5−33 

Visual, ENR 1.1−63 

Visual Descent Points, ENR 1.5−32 , 

ENR 1.5−53 

Area Navigation (RNAV), ENR 1.18−1 , 

ENR 4.1−41 , ENR 4.1−43 
3 AUG 06

AIP I−3

United States of America

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

[References are to page numbers]

Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes, ENR 3.3−1 

Area Navigation (RNAV) Standard Terminal Arrival

(STAR), ENR 1.5−7 

ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting)

Emergency Hand Signals, GEN 3.7−1 

ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Radio

Call Sign, GEN 3.7−1 

ARTCC. See Air Route Traffic Control Center

(ARTCC)

Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS), 

ENR 4.1−22 

Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS).

See Meteorological Services

Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS), 

GEN 3.5−22 

Aviation Safety Reporting Program, ENR 1.16−1 

B

Bird Activity, ENR 5.6−1 

Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife Activities,

ENR 5.6−1 

Reporting Bird Strikes, ENR 5.6−1 

C

Call Signs

Aircraft, GEN 3.4−6 

Ground Station, GEN 3.4−8 

CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations

Charts. See Aeronautical Charts

Class C Airspace, Outer Area, ENR 1.4−6 

Clearance

Adherence to, ENR 1.1−27 

Air Traffic Control, ENR 1.1−23 

Amended, ENR 1.1−24 

Clearance Items, ENR 1.1−23 

Pilot Responsibilities, ENR 1.1−26 

Special VFR, ENR 1.1−25 

VFR−On−Top, ENR 1.1−26 

VFR/IFR Flights, ENR 1.1−27 

CNF. See Computer Navigation Fix

Collision Avoidance, ENR 1.15−7 

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF). 

See Radio Communications

Communications. See Radio Communications

Computer Navigation Fix (CNF), ENR 4.1−33 

Controlled Airspace. See Airspace, Controlled

Conversion Tables, GEN 2.6−1 

Cruising Altitudes, ENR 1.4−2 , ENR 1.4−10 

Customs. See U.S. Customs

D

Density Altitude. See Flight Hazards, Potential

Departure Control, ENR 1.5−59 

Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance

Procedures, ENR 1.5−59 

Departure Procedures, ENR 1.5−57 

See also Global Positioning System (GPS)

Clearance Void Times, ENR 1.5−58 

Departure Restrictions, ENR 1.5−58 

Hold for Release, ENR 1.5−58 

Instrument Departure Procedures (DP), 

ENR 1.5−61 

Pre−Taxi Clearance Procedures, ENR 1.5−57 

Release Times, ENR 1.5−59 

Taxi Clearance, ENR 1.5−58 

Departure, Instrument, ENR 1.1−65 

Differences From ICAO Standards, Recommended

Practices and Procedures, GEN 1.7−1 

Discrete Emergency Frequency, GEN 3.7−1 

DUATS. See Meteorological Services

E

ELT. See Emergency Locator Transmitters

Emergency

Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting

Communications, GEN 3.7−1 

Aircraft, Overdue, GEN 3.6−5 

Body Signals, GEN 3.6−6 

Direction Finding Instrument Approach

Procedure, GEN 3.6−14 

Distress and Urgency Communications, 

GEN 3.6−12 

Ditching Procedures, GEN 3.6−15 

Fuel Dumping, GEN 3.6−19 
3 AUG 06

AIP

United States of America

I−4

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

[References are to page numbers]

Obtaining Assistance, GEN 3.6−13 

VFR Search and Rescue Protection, GEN 3.6−5 

Emergency Locator Transmitter, GEN 3.6−2 

Emergency Locator Transmitters, GEN 3.6−2 

EPE. See Estimate of Position Error

Estimate of Position Error (EPE), ENR 4.1−43 

F

Fees and Charges. See Airport

Final Guard, ENR 1.4−10 

Flight Hazards, Potential, ENR 5.7−1 

Density Altitude, ENR 5.7−3 

Laser Operations, ENR 5.7−9 

Mountain Flying, ENR 5.7−3 

Mountain Wave, ENR 5.7−4 

Obstructions, ENR 5.7−1 

VFR in Congested Area, ENR 5.7−1 

Flight Management System (FMS), ENR 1.18−3 

Flight Management System Procedures, ENR 1.5−7 

Flight Plan, ENR 1.10−1 

Aircraft Suffixes, ENR 1.10−7 

Airways/Jet Routes Depiction, ENR 1.10−9 

Area Navigation (RNAV), ENR 1.10−10 

Canceling, ENR 1.10−14 

Change, ENR 1.10−14 

Composite (VFR/IFR Flights), ENR 1.10−13 

Direct Flights, ENR 1.10−10 

Flight Plan Form, ENR 1.10−12 

Flight Plan Requirements, ENR 1.10−4 

Defense VFR, ENR 1.10−8 

IFR, ENR 1.10−8 

VFR, ENR 1.10−4 

Operations Associated with ADIZ, ENR 1.12−1 

Preflight Preparation, ENR 1.10−1 

Flight Service Station (FSS), GEN 3.1−5 

FMSP. See Flight Management System Procedures

Forms, Bird Strike Incident/Ingestion Report, 

ENR 5.6−3 

Frequencies. See Radio Communications

FSS. See Flight Service Station (FSS)

Fuel Advisory, Minimum, ENR 1.1−65 

G

GBAS. See Ground Based Augmentation System

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), 

ENR 4.1−41 

Global Positioning System, GPS Approach

Procedures, ENR 4.1−32 

Global Positioning System (GPS), ENR 4.1−22 

Departures, ENR 4.1−34 

Missed Approach, ENR 4.1−36 

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

(RAIM), ENR 4.1−32 

GLS. See GNSS Landing System

GNSS Landing System (GLS), ENR 4.1−41 

GPS Approach Procedures, ENR 4.1−32 

GPS IFR Equipment Classes/Categories, 

ENR 4.1−27 

GPS NOTAM’s/Aeronautical Information, 

ENR 4.1−32 

Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS), 

ENR 4.1−41 

Gulf of Mexico Grid System, ENR 6.1−6 

H

Hazardous Area Reporting Service, GEN 3.4−13 

Block Island, GEN 3.4−14 

Cape Cod, GEN 3.4−15 

Great Lakes, GEN 3.4−15 

Long Island Sound, GEN 3.4−13 

Helicopter

IFR Operations, ENR 6.1−1 

Special Operations, ENR 6.2−1 

High Altitude Destinations. See IFR Operations to

High Altitude Destinations

Holding Instructions. See Clearance Items

Holding Pattern

Airspeeds, ENR 1.5−1 

ATC Holding Instructions, ENR 1.5−1 

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), 

ENR 1.5−4 

Entry Procedures, ENR 1.5−4 

Nonstandard, ENR 1.5−6 

Timing, ENR 1.5−4 
3 AUG 06

AIP I−5

United States of America

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

[References are to page numbers]

I

ICAO Standards, Recommended Practices and

Procedures. See Differences From ICAO

Standards, Recommended Practices and

Procedures

Icing Terms, GEN 3.5−38 

IFR Operations to High Altitude Destinations, 

ENR 1.10−13 

Inertial Navigation System, ENR 4.1−22 

Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), ENR 4.1−22 

INS. See Internal Navigation System

Instrument Departure. See Departure, Instrument

Instrument Departure Procedures (DP), 

ENR 1.5−61 

Instrument Landing System, Locators, Compass,

ENR 4.1−4 

Instrument Landing System (ILS), ENR 4.1−4 

See also Approaches

Frequency Table, ENR 4.1−7 

Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), 

ENR 1.5−61 

Integrated Terminal Weather System, ENR 1.1−8 

International Airports. See Airports, Designated To

Serve International Operations

Intersection Takeoffs. See Airport Operations

IRU. See Inertial Reference Unit

ITWS. See Integrated Terminal Weater System

J

Jet Route System. See Navigation

L

Land and Hold Short Operations. 

See Airport Operations

Law Enforcement Operations by Civil and Military

Organizations, ENR 1.12−5 

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation (Laser) Operations. 

See Flight Hazards, Potential

Lighting. See Airport Lighting

LLWAS. See Low Level Wind Shear Alert System

Local Airport Advisory (LAA), GEN 3.3−8 , 

ENR 1.4−10 

LORAN, ENR 4.1−14 

LORAN Status Information, ENR 4.1−21 

Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),

ENR 1.1−8 

Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection

Systems, ENR 1.1−8 

M

Medical Facts for Pilots, ENR 1.15−1 

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight, 

ENR 1.15−5 

Certification, ENR 1.15−1 

Decompression Sickness after Scuba Diving, 

ENR 1.15−4 

Effects of Altitude, ENR 1.15−3 

Ear Block, ENR 1.15−3 

Hypoxia, ENR 1.15−3 

Sinus Block, ENR 1.15−4 

Hyperventilation in Flight, ENR 1.15−4 

Illusions, ENR 1.15−5 

Personal Checklist, ENR 1.15−2 

Scanning for Other Aircraft, ENR 1.15−7 

Vision in Flight, ENR 1.15−6 

Meteorological Services, GEN 3.5−1 , GEN 3.5−29 

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS),

GEN 3.3−13 

Categorical Outlook, GEN 3.5−18 

Cloud Heights, Reporting, GEN 3.5−33 

Direct User Access System (DUATS), GEN 3.5−4 

En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), 

GEN 3.5−8 

Hazardous In−flight Weather Advisory Service

(HIWAS), GEN 3.5−19 , GEN 3.5−71 

ICAO Weather Formats, GEN 3.5−59 

In−Flight Weather Broadcasts, GEN 3.5−18 

Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories, GEN 3.5−9 

Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),

GEN 3.5−45 

Meteorological Broadcasts, GEN 3.5−71 

Pilot Weather Report (PIREP), GEN 3.5−34 

Prevailing Visibility, Reporting, GEN 3.5−33 

Runway Visual Range (RVR), GEN 3.5−31 

Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS),

GEN 3.5−18 
3 AUG 06

AIP

United States of America

I−6

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

[References are to page numbers]

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), 

GEN 3.5−46 

Terminal Weather Information for Pilots (TWIP),

GEN 3.5−49 

Weather Briefings

Abbreviated, GEN 3.5−8 

In−flight, GEN 3.5−8 

Outlook, GEN 3.5−8 

Preflight , GEN 3.5−6 

Standard, GEN 3.5−6 

Weather Deviations and Other Contingencies in

Oceanic Controlled Airspace, GEN 3.5−30 

Weather Observation Service Standards, 

GEN 3.5−23 , GEN 3.5−24 

Weather Observing Programs, GEN 3.5−19 , 

GEN 3.5−23 

Automated Surface Observation System

(ASOS), GEN 3.5−22 

Automated Weather Observing System

(AWOS), GEN 3.5−19 

Manual Observations, GEN 3.5−19 

Microwave Landing System (MLS), ENR 4.1−11 

See also Approaches

Military Training Routes. See Airspace, Special Use

Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications

(MNPS) Airspace, ENR 1.17−1 

Minimum Safe Altitudes, ENR 1.5−19 

Mountain Flying. See Flight Hazards, Potential

Mountain Wave. See Flight Hazards, Potential

MSA. See Minimum Safe Altitudes

N

National Security and Interception Procedures, 

ENR 1.12−1 , ENR 1.12−4 

National Security Area. See Airspace

NAVAID Identifier Removal During Maintenance,

ENR 4.1−44 

NAVAID User Reports, ENR 4.1−44 

Navigation

See also Global Positioning System (GPS)

Adhering to Airways or Routes, ENR 3.5−3 

Airway or Route Course Changes, ENR 3.5−2 

Airways and Route Systems, ENR 3.5−1 

Changeover Points, ENR 3.5−2 

LORAN, ENR 4.1−14 

Radio, GEN 3.4−1 

Nondirectional Radio Beacon, GEN 3.4−3 

Navigation Aids, ENR 4.1−1 

Navigation Reference System (NRS), ENR 1.10−11 

Navigational, Inertial Navigation System, 

ENR 4.1−22 

Near Midair Collision Reporting, ENR 1.16−2 

Investigation, ENR 1.16−3 

Notices To Airmen (NOTAM) Service, GEN 3.1−2 ,

ENR 1.10−2 

O

Operational Information System (OIS), 

ENR 1.10−8 

Overhead Approach Maneuver. See Approaches

P

Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations. See Airspace

Phonetic Alphabet. See Radio Communications,

Phonetic Alphabet

Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities, GEN 3.3−2 

PIREP. See Meteorological Services, Pilot Weather

Report

Position Reporting, GEN 3.3−4 

Position Reporting Requirements, GEN 3.3−4 

Pre−departure Clearance Procedures, ENR 1.5−58 

Precipitation Static, ENR 5.7−7 

Precision Approach Systems, ENR 4.1−41 

Procedure Turns, ENR 1.5−10 

R

Radar, ENR 1.1−32 

Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, 

ENR 1.1−33 

Capabilities, ENR 1.1−32 

Precision Approach , ENR 1.1−34 

Surveillance, ENR 1.1−34 

Radar Services Provided by ATC, ENR 1.1−43 

Aircraft Conflict Alert, ENR 1.1−43 

Offshore Controlled Airspace, ENR 1.1−59 
3 AUG 06

AIP I−7

United States of America

Federal Aviation Administration Eighteenth Edition

[References are to page numbers]

Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft, ENR 1.1−45 

Radar Traffic Information Service, ENR 1.1−44 

Terrain/Obstruction Alert, ENR 1.1−43 

Radio Communications, GEN 3.4−6 

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF),

GEN 3.3−7 

Contact Procedures, GEN 3.4−11 

Directions, GEN 3.4−10 

Failure, GEN 3.4−10 , GEN 3.4−21 

For Aircraft on International or Overseas Flights,

GEN 3.4−17 , GEN 3.4−21 

Phonetic Alphabet, GEN 3.4−8 

Phraseology, GEN 3.4−8 

Radio Technique, GEN 3.4−6 

Speed, GEN 3.4−10 

UNICOM/MULTICOM , GEN 3.3−11 , 

GEN 3.3−12 

Radio Navigation Aids

Distance Measuring Equipment, ENR 4.1−3 ,

ENR 4.1−6 

Nondirectional Radio Beacon, ENR 4.1−1 

Tactical Air Navigation, ENR 4.1−4 

VHF Direction Finder, ENR 4.1−1 

VHF Omni−directional Radio Range, 

ENR 4.1−1 

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

(RAIM). See Global Positioning System (GPS)

Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), GEN 3.3−8 ,

ENR 1.4−10 

Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS), 

GEN 3.3−8 , ENR 1.4−11 

Required Navigation Performance (RNP), 

ENR 1.18−1 , ENR 4.1−42 

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

Operations, ENR 1.10−15 , ENR 4.1−43 

Reservations. See Airport, Reservations Procedures

RNAV. See Area Navigation

RNP. See Required Navigation Performance;

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

S

SCAT−I DGPS. See Special Category I Differential

GPS

Seaplane Safety, ENR 5.7−5 

Search and Rescue, GEN 3.6−1 

Separation

IFR, Standards, ENR 1.1−29 

Runway, ENR 1.1−31 

Visual, ENR 1.1−31 , ENR 1.1−64 

Special Category I Differential GPS (SCAT−I

DGPS), ENR 4.1−41 

Special Instrument Approach Procedures, 

ENR 1.5−37 

Standard Terminal Arrival, ENR 1.5−7 

STAR. See Standard Terminal Arrival

T

TDWR. See Terminal Doppler Weather Radar

Temporary Flight Restrictions. See Airspace

Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), ENR 1.5−20 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar, ENR 1.1−8 

Time, Conversion from UTC to Standard Time,

GEN 3.4−10 

Timekeeping Procedures, ENR 1.17−1 

TLS. See Transponder Landing System

Tower En Route Control (TEC), ENR 1.1−59 

Traffic Advisories, ENR 1.1−63 

At Airports Without Operating Control Towers,

GEN 3.3−7 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS

I & II), ENR 1.1−66 

Traffic Pattern. See Airport, Operations

Transponder Landing System (TLS), ENR 4.1−41 

Transponder Operation, ENR 1.1−40 

Automatic Altitude Reporting, ENR 1.1−40 

Code Changes, ENR 1.1−41 

Emergency, ENR 1.1−42 

Ident Feature, ENR 1.1−41 

Mode C Requirements, ENR 1.1−41 

Under Visual Flight Rules, ENR 1.1−42 

TRSA. See Airspace, Terminal Radar Service Area

U

U.S. Customs Requirements

Entry, Transit, and Departure of Aircraft, 

GEN 1.2−1 

Entry, Transit, and Departure of Cargo, 

GEN 1.4−1 
3 AUG 06

AIP

United States of America

I−8

Eighteenth Edition Federal Aviation Administration

[References are to page numbers]

Entry, Transit, and Departure of Passengers and

Crew, GEN 1.3−1 

U.S. Customs Service, Locations, GEN 1.1−2 

U.S. Differences From ICAO Standards. 

See Differences From ICAO Standards,

Recommended Practices and Procedures

Units of Measurement, GEN 2.1−1 

Unmanned Aircraft, ENR 5.7−2 

V

VCOA. See Visual Climb Over the Airport

VFR Flyways. See Airspace

VFR−on−top, ENR 1.1−64 

Visual Approach. See Approaches

Visual Climb Over the Airport (VCOA), 

ENR 1.5−62 

Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC), 

ENR 1.5−61 

Visual Separation, ENR 1.1−64 

Volcanic Ash, Flight Operations in, ENR 5.7−6 

Volcanic Ash, Reporting, GEN 3.5−50 

Form, GEN 3.5−79 

VOR Receiver Check, ENR 4.1−2 

Vortex Avoidance Procedures, GEN 3.5−56 

W

Wake Turbulence, GEN 3.5−52 

Weather Briefings. See Meteorological Services

Weather Conversion Table, GEN 3.5−3 

Weather Hazards

Microbursts, GEN 3.5−41 

Thunderstorm Flying, GEN 3.5−51 

Thunderstorms, GEN 3.5−50 

Weather Minimums. See Airspace, VFR Weather

Minimums

Weather Observing Programs. See Meteorological

Services

Weather System Processor, ENR 1.1−8 

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), 

ENR 4.1−37 

Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas.

See Airspace

WSP, ENR 1.1−8