U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

Fertility of American Women: 2008

Population Characteristics

Issued November 2010

P20-563

This report describes the fertility patterns of American women. It is the second 

report in this series, which incorporates 

fertility data collected in the June Supplement to the Current Population Survey 

(CPS)1 and the American Community 

Survey (ACS). The large sample size of the 

ACS (3 million households) makes it possible to analyze fertility characteristics on 

a state-by-state basis.2

A historical perspective showing the 

cumulative fertility experience of women 

to date is first presented based on data 

collected in the June 2008 Supplement to 

the CPS. CPS fertility data are collected 

every 2 years from two survey questions asked of women 15 to 44 years old: 

(1) “How many children have you ever 

had?” and (2) “What is the date of birth 

of your last child?” Annual fertility rates 

derived from the CPS refer to the number 

of women who had a birth between July 

2007 and June 2008 per 1,000 women.

The current fertility experiences of women 

with a birth in the last year are shown 

at the national and state levels based on 

data collected from the 2008 ACS. The 

ACS fertility data are from a single survey 

question asked of women 15 to 50 years 

1 The data in this report are from the Fertility 

Supplement to the June 2008 Current Population 

Survey (CPS) and the American Community Survey 

(ACS) 2008. The population represented by the CPS 

(the population universe) is the civilian noninstitutionalized population living in the United States. The CPS 

sections of the report focus on the female population between the ages of 15 and 44. The population 

represented by the ACS is the household and group 

quarters population living in the United States or 

Puerto Rico. The ACS sections of the report focus on 

the female population 15 to 50 years old. 2 For more details on the ACS including its sample 

size and questions, see <www.census.gov/acs

/www/>.

old: “Has this person given birth to any 

children in the past 12 months?” 

This report provides estimates of cumulative fertility, completed fertility, and 

current fertility by citizenship and 

employment status, as well as geographic 

differences in fertility. This report also 

examines new topics such as delayed 

fertility patterns for women with higher 

education and fertility rates of Hispanic 

women by nativity status. The CPS also 

collected data on cohabitation with a 

new question in 2008, which allows us to 

show fertility patterns by women in both 

marital and cohabitational living

arrangements.

Some highlights of the report are:

There were 425,000 mothers with a birth 

last year living in cohabitational relationships. They made up 28 percent of births 

to women who were not married, who 

were separated, or married but with an 

absent spouse.

The proportion of mothers with a 

recent birth who were in the labor force 

increased from 57 percent in 2006 to

61 percent in 2008.

One-in-four mothers with a recent birth 

were in poverty in 2008. However, only

6 percent of new mothers received public 

assistance.

One quarter of all births to noncitizens 

were to women who lived in California 

(164,000). 

Montana, West Virginia, and the southern 

tier of the states from Arizona to South 

Carolina all had higher than average 

Current

Population

Reports

By

Jane Lawler Dye
2 U.S. Census Bureau

percentages of women living in 

poverty that had a birth in the last 

year.

Among states with higher than 

average levels of new mothers 

who were unemployed, the highest 

proportions were in Alabama (10 

percent) and Michigan (9 percent), 

along with several states in the 

southeast United States. 

New Hampshire (48 percent), 

Massachusetts and Connecticut 

(42 percent), and New Jersey and 

Maryland (39 percent) had higher 

than average proportions of mothers with a birth in the last year who 

had a bachelor’s degree. 

Cumulative Fertility

The first section of this report discusses data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) that illustrates 

the childbearing patterns of women 

over time and their cumulative fertility up to the time of the survey.

Table 1 shows that in June 2008 

there were 61.7 million women in 

the principal childbearing ages of 

15 to 44, and 46 percent of them 

were childless.3 Levels of childlessness ranged from 94 percent 

for teenagers 15 to 19 years old 

to 18 percent among women 40 

to 44 years old. Childlessness has 

been increasing steadily since 1976 

when 35 percent of women in the 

childbearing ages were childless.4

Additionally in June 2008, 17 

3 The estimates in this report (which 

may be shown in text, figures, and tables) 

are based on responses from a sample of 

the population and may differ from actual 

values because of sampling variability or 

other factors. As a result, apparent differences between the estimates for two or more 

groups may not be statistically significant. 

All comparative statements have undergone 

statistical testing and are significant at the 

90 percent confidence level unless otherwise 

noted. 4 See Supplemental Table 1 at 

<www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo

/fertility.html#hist>. Data for 1976 were only 

collected for women 18 to 44 years old.

percent of women aged 15 to 44 

had one child, 21 percent had two, 

11 percent had three, 4 percent 

had four, and 2 percent had five or 

more children. Hispanic mothers 

were more likely to have had one 

or more children (62 percent) compared with Black alone (59 percent), 

or White alone, non-Hispanic (52 

percent), and Asian alone women 

(54 percent).5

Women near the end of their childbearing years, 40 to 44 years old 

as of June 2008, had an average of 

1.9 children. In 1976, the average 

for women in the same age group 

was 3.1 children.6 This shift in the 

average number of children ever 

born reflects the decline in the 

number of women having higher 

order births (three or more children) over the past 3 decades from 

5 The proportion of White alone, nonHispanic mothers with one or more children 

was not statistically different than Asian alone 

mothers. 

Federal surveys now give respondents 

the option of reporting more than one race. 

Therefore, two basic ways of defining a 

race group are possible. A group such as 

Asian may be defined as those who reported 

Asian and no other race (the race-alone 

or single-race concept) or as those who 

reported Asian regardless of whether they 

also reported another race (the race-aloneor-in-combination concept). The body of this 

report (text, figures, and tables) shows data 

using the first approach (race alone). Use of 

the single-race population does not imply 

that it is the preferred method of presenting 

or analyzing data. The Census Bureau uses 

a variety of approaches. All comparative 

statements regarding race in the text are 

based on the race-alone concept and, unless 

noted to the contrary, are also true in terms 

of statistical significance for the race aloneor-in-combination concept. In this report, the 

term “non-Hispanic White” refers to people 

who are not Hispanic and who reported White 

and no other race. The Census Bureau uses 

non-Hispanic Whites as the comparison group 

for other race groups and Hispanics. Because 

Hispanics may be any race, data in this report 

for Hispanics overlap with data for racial 

groups. Based on the June 2008 CPS, being 

Hispanic was reported by 19.5 percent of 

White women 15 to 44 who reported only one 

race, 4.1 percent of Black women, 0.5 percent 

of Asian women, and 20.4 percent of women 

15 to 44 of another race who reported only 

one race. 6 See Supplemental Table 2 at 

<www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo

/fertility.html#hist>.

59 percent in 1976 to 28 percent in 

2008 and also the increase in the 

proportion of women not having 

any births (from 10 percent in 1976 

to 18 percent in 2008).

Table 2 shows that in June 2008, 

Hispanic women and Black women 

aged 40 to 44 had replacement 

level fertility (2.1 births per 

woman), while non-Hispanic White 

and Asian women 40 to 44 years 

old had fertility levels below the 

replacement level (1.8 births per 

woman).7

The CPS asks respondents how 

many children they have ever 

had, which allows us to study 

the completed fertility of women 

near the end of their childbearing years. Table 2 shows data on 

lifetime fertility of women aged 40 

to 44 by selected characteristics. 

Childbearing levels were higher for 

foreign-born women than for native 

women (2.1 births and 1.8 births, 

respectively). In June 2008, women 

with a graduate or professional 

degree were ending their childbearing years with an average of 1.6 

births, almost one child fewer than 

women who were not high school 

graduates (2.4 births). In addition, 

22 percent of post-college graduates who were 40 to 44 years old 

were childless, compared with 15 

percent of women that age who did 

not graduate high school.

In addition to providing a picture

of completed fertility levels,

Table 2 shows demographic, social, 

and economic factors related to 

whether women aged 40 to 44 had 

never married. In June 2008, 1-in-7 

women in this age group were 

never married. Some groups with 

7 The fertility levels of non-Hispanic White 

40 to 44 year old women were not statistically different than the fertility levels of Asian 

women in this age group. Further, Hispanic 

and Black fertility levels for this age group 

were not statistically different.
U.S. Census Bureau 3

Table 1. 

Children Ever Born Per 1,000 Women 15 to 44 Years Old by Age, Race, and Hispanic 

Origin: June 2008

(Numbers in thousands. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/apsd

/techdoc/cps/cpsjun08.pdf)

Characteristic

 Number of 

women 

 Children 

ever 

born 

per 

1,000 

women 

 Margin 

of error1

 First 

birth 

in the 

last 12 

months 

per 

1,000 

women 

Percent distribution of women by number of children ever born

 Total None 

 One 

child 

 Two 

children 

 Three 

children 

 Four 

children 

 Five or 

more 

children 

AGE

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,692 1,164 12 25.3 100.0 45.7 17.0 21.1 10.6 3.9 1.8 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,405 90 5 23.1 100.0 93.7 4.4 1.4 0.4 0.1 – 

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,156 460 14 46.8 100.0 70.6 17.4 8.5 2.5 0.7 0.2 

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,362 1,027 25 42.7 100.0 46.2 22.2 19.5 8.3 2.9 0.9 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,618 1,601 38 27.6 100.0 26.8 21.4 28.5 15.4 5.6 2.3 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,403 1,898 42 9.5 100.0 19.4 18.4 32.2 18.7 7.7 3.6 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,748 1,901 42 3.5 100.0 17.8 18.4 36.2 17.8 6.1 3.7 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN

 White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,616 1,138 13 24.8 100.0 46.4 16.3 21.8 10.4 3.7 1.4 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,924 84 5 18.7 100.0 94.4 3.6 1.5 0.4 0.1 – 

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,840 421 14 45.5 100.0 72.6 16.2 8.4 2.2 0.5 0.1 

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,977 975 27 43.6 100.0 48.0 21.8 19.2 7.7 2.9 0.5 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,362 1,569 43 30.4 100.0 27.0 21.2 29.6 15.1 5.3 1.8 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,050 1,876 48 9.3 100.0 19.5 17.5 33.9 18.5 7.6 3.0 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,462 1,867 46 3.7 100.0 18.0 17.8 37.5 17.9 5.8 3.0 

 White alone, non-Hispanic . 37,846 1,065 14 24.4 100.0 48.5 16.0 21.9 9.4 3.1 1.1 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,206 66 5 15.6 100.0 95.5 2.8 1.3 0.2 0.1 –

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,266 337 14 42.1 100.0 77.3 14.1 6.8 1.4 0.5 –

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,251 857 28 45.6 100.0 52.8 21.0 17.1 6.6 2.0 0.5 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,655 1,459 46 33.4 100.0 29.6 21.8 29.4 13.3 4.5 1.3 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,438 1,786 51 10.1 100.0 21.1 18.1 34.9 16.9 6.6 2.4 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,029 1,806 49 3.6 100.0 17.9 18.5 39.6 16.9 4.8 2.3 

 Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,940 1,341 34 28.9 100.0 41.4 19.9 17.6 12.5 5.0 3.7 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,663 122 14 46.4 100.0 90.2 8.2 1.0 0.4 0.2 –

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,529 714 49 65.2 100.0 56.5 25.9 10.8 3.7 2.3 0.7 

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,511 1,398 85 30.4 100.0 32.6 25.1 23.0 13.1 3.2 2.9 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,350 1,886 117 12.6 100.0 23.9 19.4 25.2 18.5 7.9 5.1 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,426 2,093 125 10.0 100.0 17.7 20.9 22.3 22.7 9.8 6.6 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,461 2,088 123 2.8 100.0 18.0 21.3 26.5 19.3 7.5 7.4 

 Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,276 1,054 45 24.5 100.0 46.1 19.4 23.2 7.1 3.1 1.0 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 66 20 9.4 100.0 95.7 2.0 2.3 – – –

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 230 40 21.6 100.0 86.6 7.3 2.5 3.6 – –

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 579 69 60.3 100.0 63.3 19.5 14.4 1.6 1.1 0.1 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 1,315 125 38.3 100.0 28.4 31.1 26.7 8.9 4.0 0.8 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 1,658 151 13.1 100.0 20.3 24.3 36.8 11.5 4.4 2.8 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 1,849 172 2.0 100.0 12.6 22.9 42.4 13.2 7.2 1.7 

 Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . 10,586 1,422 33 26.1 100.0 38.1 17.5 21.4 14.2 6.0 2.8 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,864 161 16 29.8 100.0 89.5 6.7 2.5 1.1 0.2 0.1 

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,728 742 47 58.1 100.0 54.4 24.7 14.8 5.0 0.5 0.6 

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,866 1,383 76 36.1 100.0 30.9 25.2 25.7 11.9 5.7 0.7 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,841 1,956 103 19.6 100.0 18.4 19.1 29.3 21.0 8.5 3.7 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,739 2,246 120 6.8 100.0 12.9 15.7 29.3 25.3 11.3 5.5 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,549 2,188 124 3.7 100.0 18.9 13.7 27.9 22.1 10.4 7.1 

– Represents or rounds to zero.

1

 This number, when added to or subtracted from the estimate, represents the 90 percent confidence interval around the estimate.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, June 2008.
4 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 2.

Completed Fertility for Women 40 to 44 Years Old by Selected Characteristics: June 2008

(Numbers in thousands. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/apsd

/techdoc/cps/cpsjun08.pdf)

Characteristic Total 

Percent

never married 

Percent

childless 

Children ever born

per 1,000 women 

 Total women 40 to 44 . . . . . . . 10,748 13.5 17.8 1,901 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,462 10.8 18.0 1,867 

 White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . 7,029 10.1 17.9 1,806 

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,461 28.9 18.0 2,088 

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 8.1 12.6 1,849 

Other race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 28.1 21.2 2,118 

Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,549 15.4 18.9 2,188 

NATIVITY AND CITIZENSHIP

Native . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,767 14.0 18.6 1,849 

Foreign born . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,981 11.0 13.9 2,131 

Naturalized citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 9.7 13.6 2,119 

Not a citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,045 12.1 14.2 2,142 

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

 Not a high school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . 1,095 21.2 15.0 2,452 

 High school, 4 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,132 14.0 14.7 1,970 

 College, 1 or more years . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,521 11.9 19.7 1,776 

 Some college, no degree . . . . . . . . . . 1,924 13.3 16.7 1,870 

 Associate’s degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,183 9.4 17.0 1,921 

 Bachelor’s degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,308 13.1 22.8 1,704 

 Graduate or professional degree . . . . 1,105 9.8 21.5 1,606 

LABOR FORCE STATUS

In labor force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,314 13.5 18.5 1,843 

 Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,986 13.3 18.6 1,831 

 Unemployed....................... 328 17.7 16.6 2,130 

Not in labor force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,434 13.5 15.2 2,099 

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME1

Under $20,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,008 28.8 16.9 2,207 

$20,000 to $29,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,143 20.7 19.9 2,008 

$30,000 to $49,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,134 15.8 20.8 1,798 

$50,000 to $74,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,843 12.7 18.5 1,830 

$75,000 to $99,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,413 6.5 16.9 1,920 

$100,000 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,326 4.7 14.8 1,836 

Not ascertained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,882 16.4 18.8 1,869 

REGION OF RESIDENCE2

Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,096 14.1 17.9 1,799 

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,179 12.9 17.3 1,973 

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,945 13.1 17.1 1,900 

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,528 14.1 19.1 1,926 

1 Family income is asked of all respondents regardless of living arrangements. For people living alone, the income data are for these individuals. For other 

people living in nonfamily households (i.e., households with no members who are related to the householder), it is presumed that the respondent listed only his or 

her own income.

2

 Region is defined as the four groupings of states (Northeast, South, Midwest, and West) established by the Census Bureau in 1942 for the presentation of 

census data. Northeast Region: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. South 

Region: Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, 

Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. Midwest Region: North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, 

Indiana, and Ohio. West Region: Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Alaska, and Hawaii.

 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, June 2008.
U.S. Census Bureau 5

above average proportions never 

being married were Black women 

(29 percent), women who had less 

than a high school education (21 

percent), women who had a family 

income of less than $20,000 (29 

percent), and women who had 

an income between $20,000 and 

$29,999 (21 percent). Even though 

these populations all have an above 

average proportion who were never 

married, they all have above average rates of children ever born. 

Groups that had 10 percent or 

lower proportions of women 40 

to 44 years old and never married 

included: Asian women, women 

with a graduate or professional 

degree or an associate’s degree, 

women with annual family incomes 

of $75,000 or more, and those foreign born women who had become 

naturalized citizens.

NATIONAL LEVEL 

ESTIMATES

Current Fertility

Current fertility rates are based on 

the number of women reporting 

a birth in the previous 12 months 

per 1,000 women in the specified 

group and provide a picture of 

recent childbearing experiences 

among different populations. 

According to the American 

Community Survey (ACS), in 2008 

there were 4.4 million women 

between the ages of 15 and 50 

who had a birth in the past 12 

months (Table 3).8 The fertility 

levels measured by the ACS from 

2000 to 2008 ranged from an 

overall high of 59 births per 1,000 

women aged 15 to 50 in 2000 to 

8 The preliminary number of births in 

calendar year 2008 from the National Center 

for Health Statistics is 4.3 million. Hamilton, 

B.E., J.A. Martin, S.J. Ventura, Births: Preliminary data for 2008, National Vital Statistics 

Reports, Vol. 58, No. 16, National Center for 

Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 2010.

the lowest level of 54 births per 

1,000 in 2003.9 The fertility rate 

in 2008 was 58 births per 1,000 

women aged 15 to 50. 

Standardizing for differences in the 

number of women in different age 

groups, the total fertility rate for 

women in 2008 was 2,182 births 

per 1,000 women aged 15 to 50. 

This number indicates the projected number of births per 1,000 

women at the end of their childbearing years if they were to have 

children throughout their lifetime at 

the rates prevailing in 2008.10

The teen fertility rate for 2008 

was 29 births per 1,000 women 

aged 15 to 19, significantly lower 

than the fertility rate in 2000 of 

41 births per 1,000 women but up 

from 26 per 1,000 in 2006.11, 12 In 

2008, the peak childbearing age 

for women was 25 to 29 years old 

with a rate of 122 births per 1,000 

women. 

The first birth is an important indicator of when and under what circumstances women tend to begin 

childbearing. The average age of 

first birth has increased 3.6 years 

between 1970 and 2006.13 In many 

9 U.S. Census Bureau, American 

Community Survey, American FactFinder 

2002–2008 Data Profiles, and Census 2000 

Supplementary Survey (C2SS) Detailed Tables. 10 This rate is computed from Table 3 by 

summing the births in the last year per 1,000 

women in age groups 15 to 19 through 45 

to 50 and multiplying that summation by 5 

representing the number of years in each age 

group, with the exception of the final age 

group which contains 6 years. 11 Ibid.

12 A recent report from the National Center 

for Health Statistics also shows an increase 

in the teen birth rate between 2006 and 

2007. Hamilton, B.E., J.A. Martin, S.J. Ventura, 

Births: Preliminary data for 2007, National 

Vital Statistics Reports, Web release, Vol. 58, 

No. 16, National Center for Health Statistics, 

Hyattsville, MD, released March 18, 2009. 13 Mathews, T.J. and B.E. Hamilton, 

“Delayed Childbearing: More Women Are 

Having Their First Child Later in Life,” NCHS 

Data Brief, No. 21, National Center for Health 

Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, August 2009.

cases, women delay childbearing 

because they want to finish their 

education or develop their career.14

For this measure, the CPS data 

for 2008 can be used to measure 

differences in first birth rates (the 

ACS does not collect information 

on birth order). In June 2008, the 

highest levels of first birth rates 

(shown in Table 1) were for women 

in the 20 to 24 year age group (47 

first births per 1,000 women), followed closely by the 25 to 29 year 

age group (43 first births per 1,000 

women). Neither the 20- to 24-yearolds nor the 25- to 29-year-olds 

recorded levels of fertility different 

from those in 2000. First births 

among 30 to 34 and 35 to 39 year 

old women in 2008 were also not 

different from their 2000 levels of 

28 births per 1,000 and 10 births 

per 1,000, respectively. Only for 

teenagers did the first birth rate 

decline from 39 births per 1,000 

women in 2000 to 23 births per 

1,000 women in June 2008.15

Marital Status and 

Cohabitation

The birth rate for unmarried 

women continued to climb through 

the last decade.16 One contributing factor is that many people are 

choosing to live together either 

as a trial marriage or as a precursor for marriage—even after the 

birth of a child—and postpone 

marriage until they are more 

14 Mathews, T.J. and B.E. Hamilton, “Mean 

Age of Mother, 1970–2000,” National Vital 

Statistics Reports, Vol. 51, No. 1, National 

Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 

2002. 15 Bachu, A. and M. O’Connell, “Fertility 

of American Women: June 2000,” Current 

Population Reports, P20-543RV, U.S. Census 

Bureau, Washington, DC, 2001. 16 Ventura, S.J., “Changing Patterns of 

Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States,” 

NCHS Data Brief, No. 18, National Center for 

Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, May 2009.
6 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 3.

Women Who Had a Birth in the Last 12 Months Per 1,000 Women 15 to 50 Years Old by 

Selected Characteristics: 2008

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data

_documentation/Accuracy/accuracy2008.pdf)

Characteristic

 Number of women 

Women who had a birth in the last 12 months

Total Percent distribution Births per 1,000 

women

 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,960,920 33,035 4,436,577 37,287 100.0 – 58.4 0.5 

AGE 

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,671,352 32,331 304,265 9,439 6.9 0.2 28.5 0.9 

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,199,416 27,600 972,851 17,302 21.9 0.3 95.4 1.7 

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,213,106 17,973 1,243,596 18,936 28.0 0.3 121.8 1.9 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,574,861 15,734 1,028,208 16,657 23.2 0.3 107.4 1.7 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,452,497 40,243 602,342 12,221 13.6 0.3 57.6 1.1 

40 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,865,786 41,209 194,107 7,092 4.4 0.2 17.9 0.7 

45 to 50 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,983,902 25,715 91,208 4,193 2.1 0.1 6.5 0.3 

MARITAL STATUS

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,260,808 102,123 2,812,377 28,727 63.4 0.4 82.1 0.8 

Widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674,977 14,629 14,615 1,986 0.3 – 21.7 2.9 

Divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,187,460 47,950 187,968 8,519 4.2 0.2 26.2 1.2 

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,164,981 31,299 103,106 5,363 2.3 0.1 47.6 2.5 

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,672,694 80,013 1,318,511 22,474 29.7 0.4 41.6 0.7 

NATIVITY AND CITIZENSHIP

Native . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64,247,198 52,990 3,541,265 32,647 79.8 0.3 55.1 0.5 

Foreign born . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,713,722 48,519 895,312 16,165 20.2 0.3 76.4 1.4 

Naturalized citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,392,936 35,371 240,921 9,036 5.4 0.2 54.8 2.0 

Not a citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,320,786 43,387 654,391 14,325 14.7 0.3 89.4 1.9 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55,129,675 41,378 3,068,096 32,622 69.2 0.4 55.7 0.6 

White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . 47,641,962 25,754 2,484,227 28,788 56.0 0.4 52.1 0.6 

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,515,312 25,223 645,389 13,428 14.5 0.3 61.4 1.3 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662,866 11,536 48,330 3,326 1.1 0.1 72.9 5.0 

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,875,103 13,199 242,703 8,029 5.5 0.2 62.6 2.1 

Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander

alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126,619 4,417 8,303 1,512 0.2 – 65.6 11.9 

Some other race alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,078,509 33,112 326,593 9,901 7.4 0.2 80.1 2.3 

Two or more races . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,572,836 24,224 97,163 4,983 2.2 0.1 61.8 3.0 

Hispanic (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,172,896 13,563 953,713 15,725 21.5 0.3 78.3 1.3 

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Not a high school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,207,085 61,452 789,023 16,414 17.8 0.4 55.5 1.1 

High school, 4 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,621,227 77,897 1,065,040 18,602 24.0 0.4 60.4 1.1 

Some college or associate’s degree . . . . . 25,101,898 74,602 1,372,449 19,962 30.9 0.3 54.7 0.8 

Bachelor’s degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,262,168 58,271 803,443 16,820 18.1 0.3 60.6 1.2 

Graduate or professional degree . . . . . . . . 5,768,542 39,034 406,622 9,307 9.2 0.2 70.5 1.5 

LABOR FORCE2

In labor force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54,041,337 64,973 2,723,547 29,278 61.6 0.4 50.4 0.5 

Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,254,468 68,312 2,447,573 27,340 55.3 0.4 48.7 0.5 

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,786,869 31,622 275,974 9,928 6.2 0.2 72.9 2.6 

Not in labor force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,875,290 63,170 1,701,261 21,999 38.4 0.4 85.6 1.1 

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. Census Bureau 7

finanially secure.17 To estimate this 

population, the June 2008 CPS has 

available a direct question about 

cohabitation that was first added to 

the CPS in January 2007.18 Of the 4 

million women 15 to 44 years old 

who had a birth in the last year, 

1.5 million (38 percent) were to 

17 Cherlin, A., “The Deinstitutionalization 

of American Marriage,” Journal of Marriage 

and the Family, Vol. 66 (Nov. 2004), pp. 

848–861. Edin, K., M.J. Kefala, and J.M. Reed, 

“A Peek Inside the Black Box: What Marriage 

Means for Poor Unmarried Parents,” Journal of 

Marriage and the Family, Vol. 66 (Nov. 2004), 

pp. 1007–1014. 18 See “NOTE: Improvements to data collection about families in CPS 2007”; 

<www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo

/hh-fam/improvements-07.pdf>.

women who were not married, who 

were separated, or married but 

with an absent spouse. Of those 

1.5 million mothers, 425,000 (28 

percent) were living with a cohabiting partner.19

Research has found a relationship 

between educational attainment 

and the likelihood of marriage, 

which can influence the living 

arrangements of mothers at the 

19 These estimates are based on the 

author’s tabulations and will not be found in 

the tables provided. Of the 425,000 women 

living with an unmarried partner, 78,000 were 

included because of the additional question 

in the survey.

time of their child’s birth.20 Figure 

1 uses CPS data and shows the 

living arrangements of women 

with a birth in the last year by their 

age and educational attainment. 

For the age group under 30 years 

old, the proportion of mothers 

who are married, spouse present, 

increases with increasing educational attainment. For example, the 

proportion of mothers under age 

30 who are married is 30 percent 

for women with less than a high 

20 Joshi, P., J.M. Quane, and A.J. Cherlin, 

“Contemporary Work and Family Issues 

Affecting Marriage and Cohabitation Among 

Low-Income Single Mothers,” Family

Relations, Vol. 58 (Dec. 2009), pp. 647–661.

Table 3.

Women Who Had a Birth in the Last 12 Months Per 1,000 Women 15 to 50 Years Old by 

Selected Characteristics: 2008

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data

_documentation/Accuracy/accuracy2008.pdf)

Characteristic

 Number of women 

Women who had a birth in the last 12 months

Total Percent distribution Births per 1,000 

women

 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1 Estimate 

 Margin of 

error1

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

Less than $10,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,778,007 76,399 531,142 13,290 12.0 0.3 33.7 0.8 

$10,000 to $14,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,048,325 27,077 212,572 8,195 4.8 0.2 103.8 4.0 

$15,000 to $24,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,954,654 52,183 425,949 11,110 9.6 0.2 86.0 2.2 

$25,000 to $34,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,337,782 52,752 428,369 11,989 9.7 0.3 80.3 2.3 

$35,000 to $49,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,010,161 54,696 579,511 14,047 13.1 0.3 72.3 1.7 

$50,000 to $74,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,500,603 65,578 805,523 16,358 18.2 0.3 64.4 1.3 

$75,000 to $99,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,661,210 62,645 554,113 13,150 12.5 0.3 57.4 1.3 

$100,000 to $149,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,435,342 62,196 541,047 11,671 12.2 0.3 51.8 1.1 

$150,000 to $199,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,783,696 38,695 186,434 7,417 4.2 0.2 49.3 1.8 

$200,000 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,451,140 36,305 171,917 6,684 3.9 0.1 49.8 1.9 

POVERTY STATUS3

Below 100 percent of poverty in the past 

12 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,402,493 82,679 1,097,557 18,554 24.8 0.4 96.3 1.6 

100 percent to 199 percent of poverty in 

the past 12 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,967,273 76,189 943,576 18,267 21.4 0.3 72.2 1.4 

200 percent or more above poverty in the 

past 12 months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,999,638 108,004 2,377,579 23,928 53.8 0.4 47.7 0.5 

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE

Receiving public assistance . . . . . . . . . . . 1,675,556 23,611 268,770 7,615 6.1 0.2 160.4 4.3 

Not receiving public assistance . . . . . . . . . 74,285,364 40,395 4,167,807 36,285 93.9 0.2 56.1 0.5 

– Represents or rounds to zero.

1

 This number, when added to or subtracted from the estimate, represents the 90 percent confidence interval around the estimate.

2

 Labor force data is only shown for the population 16 years old and over for which labor force status is determined. Excluded are the 11,769 women 15 years 

of age.

3

 Data is only shown for women for whom poverty status is determined.

Note: Births per 1,000 shows the likelihood that a given group of women will have a birth.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 (Table S1301 and special tabulations).

—Con.
8 U.S. Census Bureau

school education compared with 82 

percent for women with at least a 

bachelor’s degree. 

The data also indicate that for high 

school graduates and those with 

some college, cohabiting with an 

unmarried partner is more likely 

to occur among younger mothers. 

These data present a static portrait 

of mothers with newborns, and as 

such, one may expect future transitions to different living arrangements as these women age and 

potentially further their education 

and get married. 

Nativity, Citizenship Status, 

Race and Hispanic Origin 

Population growth in the United 

States is accomplished through 

immigration and fertility. The 

Hispanic population continues to 

be the fastest-growing population 

in the United States, through immigration and fertility.21 Furthermore, 

citizenship status is an important 

characteristic to incorporate in any 

analysis of foreign-born mothers 

as it may act as a hindrance to 

receiving public assistance.22 In 

this section, fertility indicators are 

presented in terms of nativity, citizenship status, race, and Hispanic 

origin. 

Based on ACS data in 2008, among 

all women 15 to 50 years old 

living in the United States with 

a birth in the last year, approximately 895,000 (20 percent) were 

born in another country (Table 3). 

Three-fourths of foreign-born mothers were not citizens of the United 

States (15 percent of all women 

with a birth in the last 12 months). 

21 U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 National 

Population Projections, Washington DC,

Internet release August 14, 2008, see

<www.census.gov/population/www

/projections/2008projections.html>. 22 Francisco, V., “Mothers without Citizenship: Asian Immigrant Families and the 

Consequences of Welfare Reform,” Critical 

Sociology (Sage Publications, Ltd.), 35(6), 

(2009), 899–902. Retrieved from Academic 

Search Complete database.

Overall, foreign-born women had 

birth rates of 76 births per 1,000 

women, 21 births per 1,000 higher 

than that of native women (55 

births per 1,000 women).23

Fertility levels of women also differ 

by racial and ethnic backgrounds 

23 More than 20 years ago in the June 

1986 Current Population Survey (CPS), fertility 

information was collected for women 18 to 

44 years old by nativity status. Birth rates 

were also higher for foreign-born women 

in 1986 (99 births per 1,000) than native 

women (68 per 1,000) while the number 

of births in 1986 to foreign-born women 

comprised 12 percent of all births. Bachu, A., 

Fertility of American Women: June 1986,

Current Population Reports, P20-421,

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington DC, 1987,

Table H.

(Table 3). The lowest fertility rate 

was for non-Hispanic White women 

in 2008 (52 births per 1,000 

women aged 15 to 50). The rate for 

American Indian and Alaska Native 

women was among the highest 

(73 births per 1,000 women), 

followed by Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islanders (66 births 

per 1,000 women), Black women 

(61 births per 1,000 women), and 

Asian women (63 births per 1,000 

women).24

24 Fertility rates for Black, Asian, and 

Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders 

are not significantly different. 

Bachelor's

degree

or more

Some

college

High

school

graduate

Less

than

high

school

Bachelor's

degree

or more

Some

college

High

school

graduate

Less

than

high

school

56.9

13.1

12.1

30.0

39.9

52.4

39.0

14.4

33.2

21.0 79.1

6.1

81.8

6.9

66.1

27.0

20.3

7.0

5.7

92.9

74.0

13.8 2.2

4.9

Married 

spouse present

Cohabiting Not living with a 

spouse or partner

Figure 1.

Proportion of Mothers 15 to 44 Years Old With a Birth 

in the Last Year in Different Living Arrangements 

by Educational Attainment and Age: June 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, June 2008. See detailed Table 8 

at <www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html>.

15 to 29 Years Old 30 to 44 Years Old
U.S. Census Bureau 9

Figure 2 shows more age-specific 

detail for Hispanic women by their 

nativity status. Hispanic women 

who were foreign born and were 

not citizens had higher fertility 

rates than their native or naturalized counterparts at every age 

except 45 to 50 years. Hispanic 

women who became naturalized 

citizens may have postponed their 

childbearing until they were 30 to 

34 years old, accounting for their 

relatively low levels of fertility at 

ages 20 to 24 and ages 25 to 29, 

compared with Hispanics who were 

not citizens. When shown by age 

groups, Hispanic women who were 

native to the United States had 

fertility levels that were not statistically different from that of naturalized Hispanic women, except for 

the 25 to 29 year age group.25

Educational Attainment 

As economic opportunity cost 

models suggest, women’s fertility 

decisions and educational attainment are interrelated. Furthermore, educational attainment is a 

25 Detailed Table 9, see <www.census

.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility

.html>. Click on Detailed Tables.

good indicator of future economic 

success.26 Based on the ACS, 18 

percent of women with a birth in 

the last year had not completed 

their high school education (Table 

3). Twenty-four percent had a high 

school diploma, and 58 percent 

had one or more years of college. 

In a previous section, we showed 

that the average number of children ever born by women aged 40 

to 44 was higher for women with a 

high school education than women 

with at least a bachelor’s degree 

(Table 2). However, annual fertility 

rates often are affected by temporal 

delays in childbearing at younger 

ages and are higher at older ages, 

especially if the delays are due to 

postponement in childbearing due 

to enrollment in college. Figure 3 

shows that among the youngest 

group of women 15 to 24 years 

old, birth rates are about 4 times 

greater for high school graduates 

(102 per 1,000 women) compared 

with those who have continued 

their schooling beyond high school 

and have at least a bachelor’s 

degree (27 per 1,000 women). 

For the next oldest age group, 

25 to 34 years old, birth rates for 

high school graduates were lower 

than the birth rates for those with 

a bachelor’s degree (109 births 

per 1,000 women and 117 births 

per 1,000 women, respectively). 

However, for the oldest age group, 

35 to 50 years old, women who 

had at least a bachelor’s degree 

had fertility rates twice as high (37 

births per 1,000 women) as those 

with a high school education (17 

per 1,000 women). This suggests 

that lower fertility at younger ages 

for women who have continued 

their education into their twenties 

may be reflected in higher rates at 

26 Crissey, S., Educational Attainment in 

the United States: 2007, Current Population 

Reports, P20-560, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington DC, 2009.

Figure 2.

Births in the Last 12 Months Per 1,000 Hispanic 

Women by Age and Citizenship Status: 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008. See detailed Table 9 at 

<www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html>.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–50

Years

Birth rate

Native born

Foreign 

born—naturalized

Not a citizen
10 U.S. Census Bureau

older ages once their educational 

curriculum has been completed.

Economic Profile of Recent 

Mothers 

The current recession started 

in December 2007 according to 

the National Bureau of Economic 

Research.27 In 2008, more than half 

(61 percent) of women with a birth 

in the past year were in the labor 

force (Table 3), up from 57 percent 

in 2006.28 Fertility rates for women 

27 See <www.nber.org>. 28 Dye, J.L., Fertility of American Women: 

2006, Current Population Reports, P20-558, 

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington DC, 2008. 

not in the labor force (86 births 

per 1,000 women) were considerably higher than those of employed 

women (49 births per 1,000), which 

is to be expected as the majority of 

women were still out of the labor 

force by the third month after the 

birth of their child.29 Aside from 

women with family incomes of 

less than $10,000 in the past year, 

lower fertility rates were generally 

found among women with higher 

levels of family income. Women 

29 Johnson, T., Maternity Leave and 

Employment Patterns of First-Time Mothers: 

1961–2003, Current Population Reports, 

P70-113, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington DC, 

2008, Table 8.

with a family income of $10,000 to 

$14,999 in the past year had a fertility rate of 104 births per 1,000, 

twice as high as women with family 

incomes of $100,000 or more who 

had a fertility rate of around 50 

births per 1,000.30

Twenty-five percent of women with 

a birth in the last year were living 

in poverty. The fertility rate for 

women with a family income at or 

below poverty level was 96 births 

per 1,000—higher than the fertility rate of those with incomes at 

100 to 199 percent above poverty 

(72 births per 1,000) and twice as 

high as those with incomes at 200 

percent above poverty (48 births 

per 1,000). About 6 percent of 

women with a birth in the last year 

were receiving public assistance. 

Women receiving assistance were 

also more likely to have had a birth 

(160 births per 1,000) compared 

with women not receiving public 

assistance (56 births per 1,000).

STATE LEVEL ESTIMATES

Geographic Comparisons 

Because of its large sample size, 

the American Community Survey 

(ACS) offers the opportunity to 

examine how diverse fertility patterns are at the state level. This 

provides an important profile of 

mothers who had a child in the last 

year, which can assist state agencies in providing maternal care services to mother and child.31

30 Women with low incomes may include 

women who are in college or are very young 

who would generally have lower fertility. 31 Detailed Tables 11 and 12 accompanying this report on the Internet present all of 

the state level fertility measures cited in this 

section and in the maps, see <www.census

.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility

.html>.

Figure 3.

Births in the Last Year Per 1,000 Women 15 to 50 

Years Old by Educational Attainment and Age: 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008. See detailed Table 10 at

<www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html>. 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

35–50 years old

25–34 years old

15–24 years old

Less than 

high school

High school 

graduate

Some college or 

associate’s degree

Bachelor’s degree 

or more

Births per 1,000 women
U.S. Census Bureau 11

Citizenship

Federal law restricts access to 

some public benefits for noncitizens.32 Overall, 20 percent of all 

births to mothers in 2008 were 

to foreign-born women.33 Fifteen 

percent (654,000 births) were to 

women who were not citizens, 

and 5 percent were to naturalized 

32 U.S. Government Accountability Office, 

Sponsored Noncitizens and Public Benefits, 

GAO-09-375, Washington DC, Government 

Printing Office, May 2009, see <www.gao

.gov/new.items/d09375.pdf>. 33 U.S. Census Bureau, American 

Community Survey, American FactFinder 

2008 Fertility Subject Table (Table S1301).

citizens.34 Figure 4 shows a map 

of the United States, highlighting 

states where women with a birth in 

the last year were not U.S. citizens. 

The states where more than 1-in-5 

mothers with a recent birth were 

noncitizens were California (29 percent), Nevada (26 percent), Arizona 

(23 percent), and New Jersey and 

Texas (21 percent). One quarter 

of all births to noncitizens were 

to women who lived in California 

(164,000). In 13 states, less than 

34 Calculations based on Table 3.

5 percent of mothers with a recent 

birth were not citizens.

Poverty and Unemployment

It is well established that family poverty is associated with 

myriad problems for children’s 

development and well-being.35

The likelihood of being in poverty 

35 Duncan, G.J., W.J. Yeung, J. BrooksGunn, J.R. Smith, “How Much Does Childhood 

Poverty Affect the Life Chances of Children?” 

American Sociological Review, Vol. 63, No. 3 

(June 1998), pp. 406–423. R.L. Wagmiller, Jr., 

M.C. Lennon, L. Kuang, P.M. Alberti, J.L. Aber, 

“The Dynamics of Economic Disadvantage 

and Children’s Life Chances,” American

Sociological Review, Vol. 71, No. 5

(Oct. 2006), pp. 847–866.

TX

CA

AK

MT

AZ

ID

NV

NM

CO

IL

OR

UT

KS

WY

IA NE

SD

MN

FL

ND

OK

WI

MO

AL

WA

GA

LA

AR

MI

IN

NY

NC

PA

MS

TN

KY

VA

OH

SC

ME

WV

VT

NH

MD

NJ

MA

CT

HI

DE

RI

Figure 4. 

Percentage of Women Who Had a Birth in the Last 12 Months 

Who Were Not U.S. Citizens: 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008.

Statistically lower than the U.S.: 1.0–11.2 percent

Not statistically different from the U.S. average

Statistically higher than the U.S.: 16.8–29.1 percent

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error,

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov) 

U.S. average: 14.8 percent
12 U.S. Census Bureau

is higher for families with young 

children,36 putting these children 

at risk of adverse effects. Figure 

5 maps the percentage of women 

with a birth in the last year who 

had a family income below the 

poverty threshold. Montana, West 

Virginia, and the southern tier of 

the states from Arizona to South 

Carolina all had higher than average percentages of women with 

a birth in the last year living in 

poverty compared with the national 

36 DeNavas-Walt, C., B.D. Proctor, J.C. 

Smith, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance 

Coverage in the United States: 2008, Current 

Population Reports, P60-236(RV), U.S. Census 

Bureau, Washington DC, 2009. Detailed table 

POV02, see <www.census.gov/hhes/www

/cpstables/032009/pov/new02_100_01

.htm>.

level of 25 percent. In contrast, 

in New Hampshire, 12 percent of 

women with a birth in the last year 

were in poverty. In Maryland and 

Utah, about 15 percent of women 

with a recent birth were in poverty. 

Another measure of family economic stress is the level of unemployment for those mothers with 

newborns. In 2008, 6 percent of 

mothers with a recent birth were 

looking for a job. Figure 6 shows 

that among states with above

average levels of new mothers

who were unemployed, the

highest proportions were found

in Alabama (10 percent) and Michigan (9 percent), along with several 

states in the southeast United 

States. Places with levels lower 

than the U.S. average included 

Hawaii (1 percent), Vermont, Utah, 

and Idaho (3 percent).

Educational Attainment

Research suggests that a mother’s 

educational attainment has a powerful effect on the life outcomes of 

her children.37 On average, 27 percent of mothers with a recent birth 

37 Teachman, J.D., “Family Background, 

Educational Resources, and Educational 

Attainment,” American Sociological Review, 

Vol. 52, No. 4 (Aug. 1987), pp. 548–557. 

Murnane, R.J., R.A. Maynard, J.C. Ohls, “Home 

Resources and Children’s Achievement,” The 

Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 63, 

No. 3 (Aug. 1981), pp. 369–377. 

TX

CA

AK

MT

AZ

ID

NV

NM

CO

IL

OR

UT

KS

WY

IA NE

SD

MN

FL

ND

OK

WI

MO

AL

WA

GA

LA

AR

MI

IN

NY

NC

PA

MS

TN

KY

VA

OH

SC

ME

WV

VT

NH

MD

NJ

MA

CT

HI

DE

RI

Figure 5. 

Percentage of Women Who Had a Birth in the Last 12 Months 

Who Were In Poverty: 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008.

Statistically lower than the U.S.: 11.6–22.9

Not statistically different from the U.S. average

Statistically higher than the U.S.: 28.3–35.4

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error,

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov) 

U.S. average: 24.8 percent
U.S. Census Bureau 13

had completed a bachelor’s degree 

or more education. New Hampshire 

(48 percent), Massachusetts and 

Connecticut (42 percent), and New 

Jersey and Maryland (39 percent) 

had high proportions of mothers 

with a birth in the last year who 

had a bachelor’s degree. As shown 

in Figure 7, western and southern 

states had below average proportions with a bachelor’s degree. 

Arkansas (16 percent) and Alaska 

and New Mexico (17 percent) were 

among the states with the lowest 

proportion of mothers with this 

level of educational attainment.

Birth Rates and Public 

Assistance 

The 1996 Personal Responsibility 

and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) has made it 

increasingly important to examine 

the participation of mothers in public assistance programs at the state 

level. The PRWORA gave states 

greater flexibility to formulate and 

implement initiatives to reduce 

welfare dependency and encourage employment for members of 

low-income families with children.38 

For the nation, the birth rate for 

38 U.S. Congress, Public Law 104-193.

H.R. 3734, 1996.

women receiving public assistance was 160 births per 1,000 

women, almost three times the rate 

for women not receiving public 

assistance (56 births per 1,000 

women).39 However, no geographical patterns are noted because only 

two states recorded birth rates for 

women on public assistance that 

were statistically different from the 

national average: the birth rates for 

women receiving public assistance 

in Alaska and New Hampshire were 

lower than the national average for 

women receiving public assistance.

39 Detailed Table 12, see <www.census

.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility

.html>.

TX

CA

AK

MT

AZ

ID

NV

NM

CO

IL

OR

UT

KS

WY

IA NE

SD

MN

FL

ND

OK

WI

MO

AL

WA

GA

LA

AR

MI

IN

NY

NC

PA

MS

TN

KY

VA

OH

SC

ME

WV

VT

NH

MD

NJ

MA

CT

HI

DE

RI

Figure 6. 

Percentage of Women Who Had a Birth in the Last 12 Months 

Who Were Unemployed: 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008.

Statistically lower than the U.S.: 1.0–4.9

Not statistically different from the U.S. average

Statistically higher than the U.S.: 7.7–9.7

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error,

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov) 

U.S. average: 6.2 percent
14 U.S. Census Bureau

Summary

Hispanic women 40 to 44 years 

old in 2008 were completing 

their childbearing years with 2.2 

children each, compared with the 

national average of 1.9 births. For 

all women, levels of childlessness 

were at 18 percent in 2008, down 

from 20 percent in 2006, but still 

higher than the level in 1976 (10 

percent). Overall, Hispanic women 

also had higher current fertility 

levels than White non-Hispanic 

women. Among all Hispanic 

women, those who were foreignborn and who were not citizens 

had the highest levels of current 

fertility. 

Women who continued their education into their twenties experienced 

lower current fertility levels at 

younger ages but higher fertility at 

older ages once they have completed their education. The majority 

of women with a recent birth were 

in the labor force, but about 1-in-4 

mothers with a birth last year 

were in families with incomes at or 

below the poverty line. However, 

only 6 percent of women with a 

birth in the last 12 months received 

cash public assistance.

There was significant variation in 

the socioeconomic characteristics of recent mothers among the 

states. Most notably, the southern 

tier of states had above average proportions of mothers with 

newborns who were in poverty 

and below average proportions 

of mothers who had a bachelor’s 

degree or more education.

SOURCE OF THE DATA

Some estimates in this report come 

from data obtained in the June 

2008 Current Population Survey 

(CPS) and from the CPS in earlier 

TX

CA

AK

MT

AZ

ID

NV

NM

CO

IL

OR

UT

KS

WY

IA NE

SD

MN

FL

ND

OK

WI

MO

AL

WA

GA

LA

AR

MI

IN

NY

NC

PA

MS

TN

KY

VA

OH

SC

ME

WV

VT

NH

MD

NJ

MA

CT

HI

DE

RI

Figure 7. 

Percentage of Women Who Had a Birth in the Last 12 Months 

Who Had a Bachelor's Degree or More Education: 2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008.

Statistically lower than the U.S.: 16.3–25.5

Not statistically different from the U.S. average

Statistically higher than the U.S.: 31.1–47.9

(Data based on sample. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error,

nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov) 

U.S. average: 27.3 percent
U.S. Census Bureau 15

years. The U.S. Census Bureau 

conducts this survey every month, 

although this report uses only 

data from the June surveys for its 

estimates. Comparative estimates 

on annual births are made with 

data collected in the Vital Statistics 

Registration system and published 

by the National Center for Health 

Statistics.

The population represented (the 

population universe) in the Fertility 

Supplement to the June 2008 CPS is 

the female, civilian, noninstitutionalized population, 15 to 44 years 

old, living in the United States. The 

institutionalized population, which 

is excluded from the population 

universe, is composed primarily 

of the population in correctional 

institutions and nursing homes (91 

percent of the 4.1 million institutionalized population in Census 

2000).

This report also presents data 

from the 2008 American Community Survey (ACS). The population represented (the population 

universe) in the ACS is limited to 

the population living in households 

and the population living in institutions, college dormitories, and 

other group quarters. According to 

Census 2000, 7.8 million people, or 

2.8 percent of the total population, 

lived in group quarters. Of this 

number, 4.1 million were institutionalized—primarily in correctional 

institutions and nursing homes, 2.1 

million were in college dormitories, 

and 1.7 million were in all other 

types of group quarters.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER 

DATA SOURCES

The American Community Survey 

(ACS) birth rate is slightly different than the National Center for 

Health Statistics (NCHS) birth rate 

for a calendar year because the ACS 

asks whether or not a woman had 

a birth in the past 12 months. In 

addition, birth rates by age will be 

slightly different from age-specific 

birth rates published by NCHS since 

the ACS tabulated the women’s age 

at the time of the survey interview 

date while NCHS tabulates data at 

the time of the birth. See

Tallese Johnson and Jane Lawler 

Dye, “Indicators of Marriage and 

Fertility in the United States From 

the American Community Survey: 

2000 to 2003,” <www.census

.gov/population/www/socdemo

/fertility/mar-fert-slides.html>. 

Due to these differences in data 

collection, the ACS tends to underestimate the number of women 15 

to 19 years old with a birth in the 

last year because about half of the 

19-year-olds will be 20 years old by 

the time of the survey (Appendix 

Table A). Similarly, the ACS tends 

to gain births from women 39 

years old who turn 40 before the 

survey date. This produces more 

births to women 40 to 44 years old 

in the ACS than reported by vital 

statistics. For this reason, and the 

fact that women are having births 

at older ages, the ACS includes 

women aged 45 to 50 in the survey 

questionnaire. 

ACCURACY OF THE 

ESTIMATES

Statistics from surveys are subject to sampling and nonsampling 

error. All comparisons presented 

in this report have taken sampling 

error into account and are significant at the 90 percent confidence 

level. This means the 90 percent 

confidence interval for the difference between the estimates being 

compared does not include zero. 

Nonsampling errors in surveys 

may be attributed to a variety of 

sources, such as how the survey 

was designed, how respondents 

interpret questions, how able and 

willing respondents are to provide correct answers, and how 

accurately the answers are coded 

and classified. The Census Bureau 

employs quality control procedures 

throughout the production process, 

including the overall design of 

surveys, the wording of questions, 

review of the work of interviewers 

and coders, and statistical review 

of reports to minimize these errors.

The Current Population Survey 

(CPS) weighting procedure uses 

ratio estimation whereby sample 

estimates are adjusted to independent estimates of the national 

population by age, race, sex, and 

Hispanic origin. This weighting 

partially corrects for bias due to 

undercoverage, but biases may still 

be present when people who are 

missed by the survey differ from 

those interviewed in ways other 

than age, race, sex, and Hispanic 

origin. How this weighting procedure affects other variables in the 

survey is not precisely known. All 

of these considerations affect comparisons across different surveys or 

data sources. 

For further information on statistical standards and the computation 

and use of standard errors for the 

CPS, go to <www.census.gov/apsd

/techdoc/cps/cpsjun08.pdf> or 

contact the Census Bureau’s

Demographic Statistical Methods 

Division on the Internet at <dsmd

.source.and.accuracy@census.gov>.

The final ACS population estimates 

are adjusted in the weighting procedure for coverage error by controlling specific survey estimates to 

independent population controls by 

sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin. 

The final ACS estimates of housing 

units are controlled to independent 

estimates of total housing. This 

weighting partially corrects for 
16 U.S. Census Bureau

bias due to over or undercoverage, 

but biases may still be present, 

for example, when people missed 

differ from those interviewed in 

ways other than sex, age, race, and 

Hispanic origin. How this weighting 

procedure affects other variables in 

the survey is not precisely known. 

All of these considerations affect 

comparisons across different surveys or data sources. 

For further information on the ACS 

sample, weighting procedures, 

sampling error, nonsampling error, 

and quality measures from the ACS, 

see <www.census.gov/acs/www

/Downloads/data_documentation

/Accuracy/accuracy2008.pdf>. 

MORE INFORMATION

Detailed tables with characteristics 

of women in the childbearing ages 

by fertility indicators are available 

on the Internet at <www.census

.gov>; search by clicking on “F” for 

“Fertility of American Women Data” 

under the “Subjects A to Z” heading 

on the Census Bureau home page.

CONTACTS

For additional information on these 

topics, contact the author of this 

report:

Jane Lawler Dye

jane.l.dye@census.gov

301-763-2416

USER COMMENTS

The Census Bureau welcomes the 

comments and advice of users of 

its data and reports. If you have 

any suggestions or comments, 

please write to:

Chief, HHES Division

U.S. Census Bureau

Washington, DC 20233-8800

Or send an e-mail inquiry to:

HHES@census.gov

SUGGESTED CITATION

Dye, Jane Lawler, Fertility of 

American Women: June 2008, 

Current Population Reports, 

P20-563, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC.
U.S. Census Bureau 17

Appendix Table A.

Comparison of Fertility Indicators for Women Aged 15 to 44 Years From Provisional 2008 

Vital Statistics; the Current Population Survey, June 2008; and the American Community 

Survey, 2008

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

2008 Vital

Statistics

preliminary

June 2008

CPS 

Margin

of error1

2008

ACS 

Margin

of error1

 Total women aged 15 to 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) 61,692 33 61,977 *27 

 Births last year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,238 3,960 142 4,345 *37 

AGE

15 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 371 45 304 *9 

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,053 864 68 973 *17 

25 to 29 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,197 1,138 78 1,244 *19 

30 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 874 69 1,028 *17 

35 to 39 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 550 55 602 12 

40 to 44 years2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 163 30 194 7 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN3

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) 3,034 125 3,007 32 

White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,267 2,276 109 2,433 *29 

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 613 58 631 13 

American Indian or Alaska Native alone . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 (NA) (NA) 48 3 

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 188 32 234 *8 

Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone . . . . . (NA) (NA) (NA) 8 2 

Some other race alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) (NA) (NA) 322 10 

Two or more races . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) (NA) (NA) 96 5 

Hispanic (any race)4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,035 819 66 938 *15 

MARITAL STATUS5

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,892 2,633 117 2,847 29 

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) 103 24 100 5 

Unmarried . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,345 1,326 84 1,498 25

Widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) 19 10 12 2 

Divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) 128 26 175 *9 

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (NA) 1,179 79 1,311 *23 

* Statistically different at the 90 percent confidence level from the CPS estimate.

(NA) Not available.

1

 When the margin of error is added to or subtracted from the point estimate, it produces a 90 percent confidence interval.

2

 Vital Statistics data refer to women 15–54 years old.

3

 Race of mother. Vital Statistics data refer to non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Asian or Pacific Islander. CPS 

data refer to White only; White only, not Hispanic; Black only; and Asian only (these differ and are not necessarily comparable to the ACS race categories of White 

alone; White alone, not Hispanic; Black alone; Asian alone, American Indian or Alaska Native alone, Some other race alone, and Two or more races).

4

 Origin of mother.

5

 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) reported 40.6 percent of births to women of all ages were nonmarital. Number based on prorated percent of all 

nonmarital births to women aged 15 to 44.

Note: The universe for vital statistics is the number of births to women aged 15 to 44 reported to the National Center for Health Statistics via birth certificates. 

The universe for the CPS is women 15 to 44 years old at the time of interview in June 2008. The number of women who had a birth between July 2007 and June 

2008 represents the estimate of births in the last year. The universe for ACS is women 15 to 44 years old when the survey was taken in each month in the calendar 

year 2008. The number of women who reported having had a birth in the 12 months prior (to each interview) represents the estimates of births to those women 

over the course of the interview year.

Sources: Hamilton, B.E., J.A. Martin, and S.J. Ventura, Births: Preliminary data for 2008. National Vital Statistics Reports; Vol. 58, No. 16, Hyattsville, MD, 

National Center for Health Statistics, 2010. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, June 2008. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling 

error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <http://www.census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsjun08.pdf>. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 

(special tabulations). For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, and definitions, see <http://www.census.gov/acs/www/data_documentation

/documentation_main/>.