The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

Fiscal Year 2002

OFCM

The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

Fiscal Year 2002

OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL

COORDINATOR

FOR METEOROLOGY

OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL

COORDINATOR

FOR METEOROLOGY

FCM P1-2001 FCM P1-2001

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

First Hurricane observed by satellite

1961 Hurricane Esther from TIROS III

Composite imagery of GOES and TRMM data

Hurricane Erin, 13 September 2001
THE FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (FCMSSR)

MR. SCOTT B. GUDES, Chairman (Acting)

Department of Commerce

DR. ROSINA BIERBAUM

Office of Science and Technology Policy

DR. RAYMOND MOTHA

Department of Agriculture

MR. JOHN J. KELLY, JR.

Department of Commerce

CAPT FRANK GARCIA, USN

Department of Defense

DR. ARISTIDES PATRINOS

Department of Energy

DR. ROBERT M. HIRSCH

Department of the Interior

MR. RALPH BRAIBANTI

Department of State

MR. RANDOLPH LYON

Office of Management and Budget

MR. MONTE BELGER

Department of Transportation

MR. ROBERT F. SHEA

Federal Emergency Management Agency

DR. GHASSEM R. ASRAR

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

DR. MARGARET S. LEINEN

National Science Foundation

MR. PAUL MISENCIK

National Transportation Safety Board

MR. ROY P. ZIMMERMAN

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

MR. HENRY L. LONGEST

Environmental Protection Agency

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON

Federal Coordinator 

MR. JAMES B. HARRISON, Executive Secretary

Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

THE INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (ICMSSR)

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON, Chairman

Federal Coordinator

DR. RAYMOND MOTHA

Department of Agriculture

MR. JOHN E. JONES, JR.

Department of Commerce

CAPT FRANK GARCIA, USN

Department of Defense

MR. RICKEY PETTY

Department of Energy

MR. LEWIS T. MOORE

Department of the Interior

MR. JEFFREY MACLURE

Department of State

MR. DAVID WHATLEY

Federal Aviation Administration

Department of Transportation

DR. JONATHAN M. BERKSON

United States Coast Guard

Department of Transportation

DR. JOEL SCHERAGA (Acting)

Environmental Protection Agency

MR. JOHN GAMBEL

Federal Emergency Management Agency

DR. RAMESH KAKAR

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

DR. JARVIS MOYERS

National Science Foundation

MR. DONALD E. EICK

National Transportation Safety Board

MS. LETA A. BROWN

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

MS. JENNIFER BAFFI

Office of Management and Budget

MR. JAMES B. HARRISON, Executive Secretary

Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

Pictures displayed on the cover.

Left Panel: First TIROS imagery of Hurricane Esther; Source--NESDIS

Right Panel: GOES-8 and TRMM Composite imagery; Source--United States Navy Research Laboratory, Monterey

Marine Division, Tropical Cyclone Page
The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

FISCAL YEAR 2002

FEDERAL COORDINATOR

FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1500

Silver Spring, MD 20910

FCM-P1-2001

JUNE 2001

WASHINGTON, D.C.

Editor: Blaine Tsugawa

Assistant Editor: Kenneth Barnett

PREFACE iii

PREFACE

Since 1965, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting

Research (OFCM) has developed a federal plan that articulates the provision of meteorological services

and supporting research by agencies of the federal government. OFCMs Federal Plan provides Congress

and the Executive Branch with a comprehensive publication that documents proposed programs for Fiscal

Year (FY) 2002 and reviews agency programs in FY 2001. Narratives, timelines, and schedules are current as of June 2001.

The Federal Plan consists of an Executive Summary, three sections, and Appendices. The Executive

Summary provides a high-level view of the federal resources dedicated to meteorological programs and

contains information which enables it to serve as a concise, stand-alone report. The feature article

(Section 1) is titled Research to Operations: Bridging the Valley of Death. The article examines examples of meteorological technology and research that have been successfully transitioned into the mission

operations of several federal agencies. Section 2 summarizes the resources requested in the President's

FY 2002 Budget and includes a comparison of the resources that Congress appropriated for FY 2001.

Section 3 contains departmental and agency narratives on meteorological services and supporting

research programs. This section also includes information on programs funded by the National Science

Foundation. Appendices A through E describe the OFCM's coordination, program, and planning activities (Appendix A); summarizes the World Weather Program (Appendix B); draws attention to the National

Space Weather Program and the inherent capabilities of the Federal Governments Space Weather

Forecasting services (Appendix C); lists previous feature articles (Appendix D); and defines acronyms

and abbreviations (Appendix E). The inside front cover lists the current members of the Federal and

Interdepartmental Committees for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. The inside back

cover displays a schematic of OFCMs coordinating infrastructure.

This edition of the Federal Plan is issued in memory of Aerographers Mate First Class Edward

Thomas Earhart and Aerographers Mate Second Class Matthew Michael Flocco who perished at the

Pentagon on September 11, 2001, while on duty with the United States Navy.

Samuel P. Williamson

Federal Coordinator for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research

v

THE FEDERAL PLAN FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH, FISCAL YEAR 2002

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

Section 1. RESEARCH TO OPERATIONS: BRIDGING THE VALLEY OF DEATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Section 2. RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Agency Obligations for Meteorological Operations

and Supporting Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Department of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Department of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

National Aeronautics and Space Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Nuclear Regulatory Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Agency Funding by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Agency Funding by Service Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Interagency Fund Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Section 3. AGENCY METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING 

RESEARCH PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Department of Commerce Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

National Weather Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

National Ocean Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Office of NOAA Corps Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Department of Defense Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

United States Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

United States Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

Department of Transportation Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Federal Aviation Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Federal Highway Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

Federal Railroad Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123

Federal Transit Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
United States Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

Department of Agriculture Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

Department of Energy Operational and Research Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133

Department of the Interior Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

Department of State Climate and Atmospheric Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

Environmental Protection Agency Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

Federal Emergency Management Agency Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181

APPENDICES

A. FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

B. WORLD WEATHER PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191

C. NATIONAL SPACE WEATHER PROGRAM (FOLDOUT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197

D. LISTING OF PREVIOUS FEATURE ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199

E. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

LIST OF TABLES 

ES-1 Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations and Supporting

Research, FY 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

2.1 Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

Costs, by Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

2.2 Agency Operational Costs, by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

2.3 Agency Supporting Research Costs, by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

2.4 Agency Operational Costs, by Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

2.5 Agency Supporting Research Costs, by Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

2.6 Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

2.7 Interagency Fund Transfers for Meteorological 

Operations and Supporting Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

2.8 Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

3.1 Projected Satellite Launch Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

A.1 Current OFCM Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

vi
For Fiscal Year (FY) 2002, the

President's budget requests $2.7 billion for meteorological services and

supporting research. Of the total

requested, $2.31 billion is designated for operations and $389 million

for supporting research. Table ES-1

lists a breakout of the FY 2002

budget proposal.

As in previous years, 92.8 percent

of the total requested funds will go

to the Departments of Commerce

(DOC), Defense (DOD), and

Transportation (DOT). The distribution among these three departments is DOC 59.1 percent, DOD

16.6 percent, and DOT 17.1 percent. The other federal agencies

will share the remaining 7.2 percent.

In comparison to the $2.64 billion

appropriated in FY 2001, the FY 2002

request represents an increase of

2.1 percent. Within the three major

departments, DOC requests an

increase of 10.1 percent while DOD

and DOT requests decreases of

11.7 percent and 4.4 percent, respectively. The DOC increase is attributable to requests for increase by NWS,

NESDIS, NOS, and OAR. The DOD

decreases are attributable to DMSP

(32 percent in DMSP operations and

51.2 percent in supporting research)

and Army (TRADOC and AMC systems and acquisition funding). DOT's

decrease is associated with FAA operations.

The budget requests for the other

departments are as follows:

Department of Agriculture (USDA) an

increase of 0.4 percent, Department of

the Interior (DOI) no change,

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) an increase of 17.2 percent;

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) a decrease of

6.5 percent; and Nuclear Regulatory

Commission (NRC) a decrease of

57.3 percent.

Figure ES-1 depicts each agency's

proportion of the requested FY 2002

federal budget for meteorological

operations and supporting research.

Each agency's portion of the requested

funding for meteorological operations

is shown in Figure ES-2. Of the

$2.31 billion requested for meteorological operations, DOC, DOD, and

DOT account for slightly over 99 perEXEC SUM vii

THE FEDERAL PLAN FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

FISCAL YEAR 2002

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Table ES-1. Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations and Supporting

Research, FY 2002 (in thousands of dollars)

% of Supporting % of % of

Agency Operations TOTAL Research TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL

Agriculture $12,700 0.6 $15,500 4.0 $28,200 1.0

Commerce 1,485,104 64.4 107,832 27.7 1,592,936 59.1

Defense 376,109 16.3 71,479 18.4 447,588 16.6

Interior 1,100 0.0 0 0.0 1,100 0.0

Transportation 429,244 18.6 31,583 8.1 460,826 17.1

EPA 0 0.0 7,500 1.9 7,500 0.3

NASA 2,845 0.1 155,400 39.9 158,245 5.9

NRC 50 0.0 0 0.0 50 0.0

TOTAL 2,307,152 100.0 389,294 100.0 2,696,445 100.0
viii EXEC SUM

Figure ES-1. Agency Percent of Total Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations

and Supporting Research, FY 2002.

Figure ES-2. Agency Percent of Federal Budget

for Meteorological Operations, FY 2002.

Figure ES-3. Agency Percent of Federal Budget

for Supporting Research, FY 2002.

Total = $2.7 Billion

Total = $2.31 Billion Total = $389 Million

16.6%

1.0%

17.1%

0.3%

5.9%

59.1%

64.4%

DOC DOD

DOT

NASA

0.1%

0.6%

18.6%

16.3% 39.9%

4.0% 18.4%

27.7%

1.9%

8.1% DOC

NASA DOT

DOD USDA EPA

NASA

DOD

DOT

DOC

USDA

EPA

USDA
EXEC SUM ix

cent of the funds. Overall, operational

costs increased by 3.7 percent.

Figure ES-3 depicts each agency's portion of the proposed federal supporting

research budget. Unlike operations,

DOC, DOD, and NASA account for

the major share (86 percent) of the supporting research budget. Requests for

increases in supporting research funds

are: DOC 5.0 percent, DOT 13.4 percent, and EPA 17.2 percent. The DOD

and NASA requests for supporting

research funds decreases by 26.9 and

6.2 percent, respectively.

All agencies project a personnel total

of 14,410 full-time equivalent (FTE) to

be employed in federal meteorological

operations in FY 2002. This figure

represents an increase of 0.6 percent

from the 14,320 FTE employed in

FY 2001.

MAJOR PROGRAMS--DOC, DOD,

and DOT

Next Generation Weather Radar

(NEXRAD). The NEXRAD Program

which began in FY 1981 was responsible for procurement, installation, and

operation of the Weather Surveillance

Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D). The

first limited production WSR-88D system was installed at Oklahoma City,

Oklahoma in May 1990 and commissioned 4 years later in February 1994.

The original program plan called for a

total of 161 radars. In response to a

National Research Council report, three

additional radars were added and raised

the total to 164 radar sites. The last system in the basic procurement schedule

was installed in June 1996.

By agency, as of June 2001, the

DOC/National Weather Service had

commissioned 123 sites, the DOD

(USAF and Army) had commissioned

32 sites (within the states and overseas),

and the DOT/FAA had commissioned

12 sites. DOD has three systems at

Keesler AFB, Mississippi, for training;

DOC/NWS has one each at the National

Reconditioning Center, and NWS

Training Center in Kansas City,

Missouri and at the Operational Support

Facility, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Automated Surface Observing

System (ASOS). The ASOS program,

began in 1983, as a joint development

effort between the DOC, DOD, and

DOT/FAA. Installation of ASOS units

started in 1991. As of June 2001, a

total of 994 units have been purchased.

The NWS has purchased, accepted,

and commissioned 314 sites. The FAA

has purchased 569 units, accepted 567

units, and commissioned 564 sites.

The Navy has purchased, accepted,

and commissioned 77 sites. The Air

Force has purchased, accepted, and

commissioned 34 sites. Collectively, a

total of 989 ASOS sites have been

commissioned. The remaining 5 FAA

sites are scheduled to be commissioned

by October 2001.

Automated Weather Information

Systems (AWIS). The DOC, DOD,

and DOT require AWISs to facilitate

the collection, processing, and interpretation of meteorological data.

AWISs are being procured to provide

an automated, high-speed, user-friendly man/machine interface to access and

process large volumes of sophisticated

meteorological data. AWIS supports

the timely production of accurate and

geographically precise warnings, forecasts, and special tailored products.

They also provide the communications

capability for expeditious product dissemination.

Major agency systems classified as

AWISs are: NOAA's Advanced Weather

Interactive Processing System (AWIPS),

FAA's Weather and Radar Processor

(WARP); Air Force's New-Tactical

Forecasts System (N-TFS) and

Operational Weather Squadron

Production System, Phase 2 (OPS-II);

and Navy's Naval Integrated Tactical

Environmental Subsystem (NITES).

In February 1997, the Secretary of

Commerce approved the limited

deployment of AWIPS. This decision

authorized NOAA to procure and

deploy 21 systems. The group of

21 limited deployment systems were

installed in November 1997 through

March 1998. A second group of

19 limited deployment systems were

installed in June through August 1998.

On April 9, 1998, the Secretary authorized full scale production and deployment of AWIPS, through Build 4.2, for

the remaining 95 systems. Installation

of these 95 systems began in

September 1998 and was completed in

June 1999. An Operational Test and

Evaluation of the commissioning software (Build 4.2) was successfully conducted from mid-May through June

1999. AWIPS commissioning began in

January 2000 and, as of June 2001,

NWS had commissioned 141 AWIPS

systems located at 121 Weather

Forecast Offices (WFOs), 13 River

Forecast Centers (RFCs), and 7 national centers.

The FAA's Weather and Radar

Processor (WARP) will greatly

enhance the dissemination of aviation

weather information throughout the

National Airspace System (NAS).

WARP will automatically create

unique regional, WSR-88D-based,

mosaic products and send these products, along with other time-critical

weather information, to controllers

through the Advanced Automation

System (AAS) as well as to pilots via

the aeronautical data link.

The Air Force is modernizing and

improving strategic, operational, and

combat level systems. Modernization

programs include the Observing

System 21st Century (OS-21), N-TFS,

OPS-II, Tactical Weather Radar, and

Small Tactical Terminal which provides a single system for both garrison

and deployed operations. These systems will replace the Automated

Weather Distribution System (AWDS)

and serve as an in-garrison system as

well as a deployable "first-in" combat

weather forecast capability. OS-21

will provide a much needed state-ofthe-art life-cycle replacement for Air

Force observing equipment. OS-21
x EXEC SUM

includes five different configurations:

fixed, deployable, remote, manual, and

upper air. The manual section is

intended for tactical operations and

will continue upgrades begun under

the Manual Observing System and

Tactical Meteorological Observing

System modification programs. The

Air Force purchased commercial offthe-shelf remote miniature weather

sensors to provide accurate real-time

weather information from forward

unmanned locations to support Kosovo

operations. OS-21 will continue to

expand this capability.

The Navy is presently undergoing

migration towards a modular, interoperable suite of systems to ingest,

process, fuse, display, and disseminate

METOC data. The program consists

of five seamless versions known as the

Naval Integrated Tactical Environmental Subsystem (NITES) versions IV. NITES systems will be fielded in

FY 2000 through FY 2004.

OTHER AGENCY PROGRAMS

For FY 2002, the Department of

Agriculture (USDA) requested

$28.2 million for meteorological operations ($12.7 million) and supporting

research ($15.5 million). Operationally, the USDA supports specialized

weather observation networks and also

conducts an active supporting research

program to ensure an abundance of

high-quality agricultural commodities

while minimizing the adverse effects

of agriculture on the environment.

Under supporting research, USDA

focuses on the interactions of weather

and climate with plant and animal production and water resources management.

The Department of the Interior's

(DOI) FY 2002 request is $1.1 million

primarily to support the Bureau of

Land Management's remote automatic

weather station (RAWS) program.

The budget request for the

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) remains level at $7.5 million to

provide user-appropriate and scientifically credible air-quality meteorological programs to support regulatory

applications.

Nearly all of NASA's funding in

meteorology is for supporting

research. The requested funding for

supporting research in FY 2002 is

$155 million, which is 6.2 percent

lower than the FY 2001 funding level.

These funding levels are composed of

the estimated meteorology share of the

supporting research and analysis programs as well as Earth Observing

System (EOS) and Earth Probe instruments, EOS science, and the EOS Data

Information System elements of the

NASA Office of Earth Science budget.

Included in NASA's request is

$35.25 million for special programs

under the category of aviation weather

supporting research.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC) request for $50,000 is

mainly for operations. The NRC will

dedicate these funds to obtain and analyze meteorological data and information related to the safe operation of

nuclear facilities, and the protection of

the environment, public health, and

safety.

FEDERAL COORDINATION

55th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference (IHC) (March 5-9, 2001).

OFCM annually hosts the

Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference to provide a forum for the responsible federal agencies, together with

representatives of the user communities such as emergency management,

to review the nation's hurricane forecast and warning program and to make

recommendations on how to improve

the program in the future. The

55th IHC was held in Orlando, Florida.

The theme for the conference was

Landfalling Hurricanes-A Major

Challenge for Operations and

Research in the 21st Century. The conference was attended by over

210 people -- a new record, representing twelve federal agencies, the academic community, local emergency

management, and the weather media.

Special sessions were conducted on

transitioning research to operations

and the Hurricane Landfall component

of the United States Weather Research

Program (USWRP). The major outcome of the IHC was identification of

the need for a sustainable, formalized

approach to transition successful

research results into the operational

environment, which the OFCM will

pursue through its Committee for

Cooperative Research. In May, OFCM

published the 39th edition of the

National Hurricane Operations Plan,

which details responsibilities of federal agencies; operations and procedures;

products; aircraft, satellite, radar, and

buoy data collection; and marine

weather broadcasts.

National Hurricane Conference

(April 9-13, 2001). OFCM sponsored a

three-hour session attended by more

than 200 individuals at the 2001

National Hurricane Conference with the

theme Toward a Safer America: Making

the Nation More Resilient to

Hurricanes. The session included two

distinguished panels which addressed

managing the public's vulnerabilities

and consequences through risk assessment and management, and improving

hurricane preparedness and response

through new communications technology and enhancing public outreach and

education.

Post-Storm Data Acquisition. The

OFCM-sponsored Working Group for

Natural Disaster Reduction/Post-Storm

Data Acquisition coordinated efforts to

examine the devastation that resulted

from the tornado outbreak in the

Tallahassee Florida area (northern

Florida and southern Georgia) in midMarch 2001, and to examine flooding,

ice jams, and levies in the area of the

Red River near Grand Forks, North

Dakota, in early April 2001. Aerial photographic support was provided by the

Air Force's Civil Air Patrol (CAP). The
EXEC SUM xi

CAP support, negotiated by the working

group and documented in a memorandum of understanding, has proven to be

both timely and very cost effective. 

Severe Local Storms Operations. In

May 2001, the OFCM-sponsored Joint

Action Group for Severe Local Storms

Operations published the National

Severe Local Storms Operations Plan.

The plan outlines the responsibilities of

the various United States federal agencies that provide meteorological services in observing, forecasting, and warning of severe local storms. It also

defines meteorological terms used by

the agencies preparing severe local

storms forecasts and warnings; identifies differing operational warning criteria and procedures; and discusses communications, observations, and some

public release aspects of severe storms

warnings.

Transition Issues. The Federal

Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research

(FCMSSR) met on November 14, 2000,

in the Herbert C. Hoover Building,

Washington, District of Columbia, to

focus on issues that were relevant to

the transition team for the next administration. The meeting was very successful and was attended by thirteen of

the FCMSSR agencies. A white paper

identifying and describing transition

issues was prepared subsequent to the

meeting and provided to the agencies

for use in interactions with the transition team. Areas and issues identified

were: (1) The Next Step Beyond

Modernization (fully implement observational program; continue evolution

of National Weather Service (NWS)

systems); (2) Climate Services (implement global climate ocean observing

systems; upgrade national computational capabilities); (3) Comprehensive

Strategy for Emergency Management

(support FEMA's Project Impact; support the Global Disaster Information

Network; communicate rainfall and

flooding information better);

(4) Landfalling Hurricanes (improve

hurricane track and intensity forecasts;

follow and report on hurricanes after

landfall); (5) Transportation (enhance

weather information dissemination for

aviation; improve accuracy of convective forecasts for aviation; improve

road weather information); and

(6) Strategy for Atmospheric

Information (develop a strategy for

atmospheric information; improve

communication of weather and climate

information).

Annual Federal Plan. OFCM prepared The Federal Plan for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research -- Fiscal Year

2002. The Federal Plan is

Congressionally mandated and is a

one-of-a-kind document which articulates the meteorological services provided and supporting research conducted by agencies of the federal government. The Federal Plan helps to

reduce duplication among the agencies. It is a comprehensive publication

that documents proposed programs for

Fiscal Year 2002 and reviews agency

programs in Fiscal Year 2001. The

Plan demonstrates to the Congress and

to the Executive Branch how the agencies work together to accomplish their

missions in an effective and efficient

manner.

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation. OFCM has continued

its extensive involvement in the area of

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation (WIST). The OFCM

and United States Department of

Transportation - Federal Highway

Administration (USDOT-FHWA) cosponsored Symposium on Weather

Information for Surface

Transportation, Preparing for the

Future: Improved Weather Information

for Decision-Makers was held

December 4-6, 2000, in Rockville,

Maryland. The symposium was

attended by more than 100 individuals

who were a cross-section of the transportation and weather communities

(federal, state, and city governments,

urban and rural transportation agencies, professional and trade organizations, and government and commercial

weather service providers). Eight

overarching areas of concern were

identified and five specific action

items were highlighted as needing priority for continued progress. The bottom line is that improvements in surface transportation weather support

will result in safer and more efficient

operations by all users.

OFCM also made substantial

progress in preparation of a document

addressing meteorological requirements for the six core modes of surface

transportation: roadway, railway, transit, waterway, pipeline, and airport

ground operations. This activity has

included formation of a joint action

group to address meteorological

requirements for surface transportation; questionnaires; surveys; WIST

symposia conducted jointly with the

Federal Highway Administration;

meetings with railroad, pipeline, and

emergency managers; and participation on panels concerning public-private partnerships in transportation and

Intelligent Transportation Systems.

The requirements document will be a

culmination of intensive OFCM efforts

in this area and is expected to be published in November 2001.

Aviation Weather. OFCM completed its analysis of agency and industry

programs/projects identified as meeting the needs and concerns contained

in the January 1999 National Aviation

Weather Initiatives document. A significant enabler in the process was the

OFCM-sponsored July 2000 Aviation

Weather User Forum. The forum provided an opportunity for open dialog

between program managers as well as

the users and providers of aviation

weather information. The forum also

played a significant role in completing

the National Aviation Weather

Initiatives Tier 3 (Service Design)/Tier 4

(Budgets and Schedules) Baseline

Report which was issued in April
xii EXEC SUM

2001, a first-ever achievement for all

government. The report was a major

contribution toward establishing a

baseline for ongoing and planned

research and development for each initiative (requirements and products).

The report will serve as a vehicle for

transitioning research results into operations. Of the 86 initiatives, only ten

have no agency identified as satisfying

a particular need or concern. The next

step will focus on key issues and

actions identified during the Aviation

Weather User Forum. One such issue

is the need for improved aviation

weather training and, in that regard,

OFCM will take a leadership role in

coordinating the establishment of a

National Training Program. Another

issue deals with establishing, validating, and prioritizing requirements.

Now that we have established a baseline, the Joint Action Group for

Aviation Weather will revisit the initiatives to determine if they continue to

represent the priorities for aviation

safety and efficiency. Consideration

will also be given as to how best to

meet the requirements for the ten initiatives identified that are not now

being addressed by agencies or industry. OFCM is also continuing efforts

concerning volcanic ash and expects to

publish A National Framework for

Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation during FY 2002.

Wind Chill Temperature Index.

Under the leadership of OFCM's federal coordinating infrastructure, United

States federal agencies, Canadian participants, and the academic research

community have taken an important

step towards improving the Wind Chill

Temperature (WCT) Index. The new

WCT Index will provide the citizens of

the United States and Canada better

protection of life and property. The

current wind chill index attempts to

measure the rate of heat loss by the

human body as wind blows across it at

different temperatures and speeds. The

index was developed in the 1940s during an Antarctic expedition, and is now

known to overestimate the effect of

wind by at least ten degrees. This

overestimate gives a false sense of

security and people are sometimes not

aware or prepared for the danger of

severe winter weather. OFCM led the

improvement effort by creating a Joint

Action Group for Temperature Indices

within its federal coordinating infrastructure, and this Joint Action Group

pulled together the various United

States, Canadian, and academic entities to develop the new WCT Index

based on 21st Century science.

Funding for the development of the

new WCT Index was provided by

OFCM, the United States Army's Cold

Region Research and Engineering

Laboratory, and the Defence Research

and Development Canada. NOAA's

NWS, the United States Air Force, and

the Meteorological Service of Canada

will implement the new WCT Index

during the winter season of 2001-2002.

This new WCT Index will be a substantial improvement over the current

practice and will be based on a human

face model, use wind speed calculated

at the average height of an adult's face,

incorporate modern heat transfer theory, lower the walking speed threshold

used in calm wind situations, and use a

consistent standard for skin tissue

resistance. Later refinements will

include adjustments for solar radiation

for a variety of conditions.

Space Weather. Space weather

refers to conditions on the Sun and in

the solar wind, magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere that can

influence the performance and reliability of space-borne and ground-based

technological systems, and can endanger human life or health. Space weather storms can cause disruption of satellites, communications, navigation, and

electric power distribution grids. The

overarching goal of the National Space

Weather Program (NSWP), which is

managed by an OFCM program council, is to achieve an active, synergistic,

interagency system to provide timely,

accurate, and reliable space weather

warnings, observations, specifications,

and forecasts within the next ten years.

The NSWP Strategic Plan and

Implementation Plans provide, respectively, broad guidance and a detailed

roadmap for the Program. The

Committee for Space Weather (CSW)

recently established the Community

Coordinated Modeling Center

(CCMC), with a mission to prepare the

next generation of space weather models for transition to operations through

the operational centers' rapid prototyping centers. During FY 2001, the

fledgling CCMC transferred its first

model to the Department of

Commerce's Space Environment

Center (SEC). The magnetohydrodynamic version of the Magnetospheric

Specification Model will significantly

improve the SEC's ability to predict the

future state of the magnetosphere

based on solar wind inputs. Nearing

completion is work on coupling this

model with a radiation belt model.

During 2002, the CCMC will focus on

ionospheric and heliospheric models

and coupling ionospheric and magnetospheric models. In addition, the

highly successful competition for

space weather research grants, sponsored and administered by the National

Science Foundation (NSF), will continue in 2002 with a modest increase in

funding.

Strategy for Providing Atmospheric

Information. OFCM is planning a

forum to respond to the agency priorities and to address Leadership and

Management Recommendation 1 of

the National Research

Council/National Academy of

Sciences Board on Atmospheric

Sciences and Climate (BASC) report

The Atmospheric Sciences Entering the

Twenty-First Century, which states:

The Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research should lead a

thorough examination of the issues
EXEC SUM xiii

that arise as the national system for

providing atmospheric information

becomes more distributed. Key federal organizations, the private sector,

academe, and professional organizations should all be represented in such

a study and should help develop a

strategic plan. The Federal

Coordinator began this effort by drafting a concept development paper

which was provided to thirty agencies

and individuals for feedback. The

objective was defined to "Plan and promote the effective and efficient availability and distribution of atmospheric

information that meets the requirements of all agencies (operational and

research)." Major issues were identified to include: roles and responsibilities of the public and private sectors;

availability of data (data receipt and

distribution) and archival capabilities;

health of the meteorological infrastructure; international commitments for

free and open data exchange; and role

of academic research, both basic and

applied. The methodology would

examine major issues in climate, natural hazards, technological hazards,

urban meteorology and air quality,

ecosystem management and agriculture, and aviation and surface transportation. The forum will be conducted in early December 2001.

United States Weather Research

Program. The USWRP mission is to

accelerate forecast improvements of

high-impact weather and facilitate full

use of advanced weather information.

The USWRP's vision is to mitigate the

effects of weather-induced disasters;

reduce the costs associated with routinely disruptive weather; create

opportunities for increased productivity through better weather information;

and assist the military in the accomplishment of its mission. The current

USWRP team includes NOAA as the

lead agency, NSF, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration,

and the United States Navy. The

Federal Coordinator has taken steps to

contact additional agencies to broaden

federal participation in the USWRP in

accordance with an action from the

Interdepartmental Committee for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research, direction from

the Chairman of the Federal

Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research, and

also recommendation from the

National Academy of Sciences/

National Research Council Board on

Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

(BASC). OFCM hosted meetings on

expanded agency participation in the

USWRP on May 11 and

August 24, 2001. The additional agencies included Federal Aviation

Administration, FHWA, USAF, DOE,

USDA, and FEMA. These meetings

have led to more interaction directly

between the leadership of the USWRP

and interested agencies to discuss, in

more detail, agency specific needs

which may be benefited by the program. It is expected that several additional federal participants will join the

USWRP and that the USWRP priorities will be expanded to address their

needs.

Committee on Environment and

Natural Resources. OFCM and the

Committee on Environment and

Natural Resources (CENR)

Subcommittee on Natural Disaster

Reduction (SNDR) cosponsored the

Forum on Risk Management and

Assessments of Natural Hazards

February 5-6, 2001. The forum theme

was Toward a Safer America: Building

Natural Hazard Resistant

Communities through Risk

Management and Assessments. It was

attended by an unprecedented crosssection of more than 120 weather, natural disaster and risk management professionals, and academia. Consensus

was reached to proceed with a national

natural hazard assessment and to

develop an action plan which would

deal with the assessment in manageable pieces. It was also agreed to integrate efforts with the Congressional

Natural Hazards Caucus; develop

improved partnerships between users

and developers; standardize terminology, methodology, and approach within

risk assessment and management;

compile available risk assessment tools

and models; and improve public outreach, education, and training.

American Meteorological Society.

During FY 2001, OFCM joined nine

leading environmental science and

service corporations in supporting

undergraduate scholarships in the

atmospheric and related oceanic and

hydrologic sciences. The scholarships,

awarded for the junior and senior

years, are designed to encourage outstanding undergraduates to pursue

careers in the fields covered by the

awards. OFCM plans to continue this

support in FY 2002. OFCM also supports American Meteorological

Society endeavors by participating in

AMS conferences and workshops and

other environmental science education

and outreach programs.

Publications and OFCM's Website.

The following plans and publications

were prepared in hardcopy form and

also placed on OFCM's website

(www.ofcm.gov):

 The Federal Plan for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research -- Fiscal

Year 2001

National Hurricane Operations

Plan

 55th Interdepartmental

Hurricane Conference

(Minutes)

 Proceedings for the Symposium

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation, Preparing for

the Future: Improved Weather

Information for Decision-Makers

 Proceedings of the Forum on

Risk Management and

Assessments of Natural Hazards

National Severe Local Storms

Operations Plan
xiv EXEC SUM

National Aviation Weather

Initiatives Tier 3 (Service

Design)/Tier 4 (Budgets and

Schedules) Baseline Report

The following documents are

planned for publication during

FY 2002:

 The Federal Plan for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research -- Fiscal Year

2002

 National Hurricane Operations

Plan

 56th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference (Minutes)

 Weather Information for

Surface Transportation (WIST)

Requirements

 Proceedings for Workshop on

BASC 21st Century Report

Recommendation -- A Strategy for

Atmospheric Information

 National Plan for Post-Storm

Data Acquisition

 A National Framework for

Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation

During FY 2001, OFCM continued

to make substantial progress on its use

of the Internet. In addition to information about the office, OFCM has

placed its current publications on its

website, and keeps the website current

with information regarding workshops

and symposia being conducted by the

office. OFCM will continue to make

information available on the Internet

during FY 2002.
SECTION 1

The National Research Councils

Crossing the Valley of Death report highlighted the fact that as we move into the

twenty-first century, the weather sensitive sectors of society continue to

expand. They include energy generation,

agriculture, forestry, fisheries, construction, tourism, transportation and navigation, public utilities, retail trade, finance,

insurance and re-insurance, recreation,

and real estate. The utility of timely and

accurate weather information is diverse-

-it impacts military operations; commercial airline scheduling, operations, and

flight planning; space launch scheduling;

agriculture crop selection, planting, cultivation, and harvest timing; water

resource management; and a wide range

of commercial industries that schedule

outdoor activities like construction and

transportation. Information about

extreme weather, especially that which

puts life and property at risk, is essential

for all sectors, but particularly for the

emergency management and disaster

relief communities. Both the public and

private sectors have a growing demand

for accurate information about and prediction of extreme weather, ocean, and

climate events.

To meet this demand, the federal government organizes the nation's weather,

ocean, and climate prediction responsibilities into two related areas. First,

operations provide the basis for the production and dissemination of official

forecasts and warnings. Additionally,

operational services are divided between

public sector predictions, both civilian

and military, and private sector, valueadded dissemination and prediction services. Second, research, systems development, and technology development and

implementation are supported to

improve the skill of weather forecasts.

These activities are in some cases tightly

coupled to operational efforts, while others have a weaker connection. Research

is carried out in both federal laboratories

and universities; however, in either case,

it is largely supported by funding from

the federal government.

As a result of significant improvements in forecast capability achieved

during the past decade, the demand for

other specialized forecast applications-

-and the potential for new, substantial

public benefits--has grown rapidly in

recent years. The public has become

accustomed to ever improving forecast

products that are incorporated more

frequently into daily decision-making.

Weeklong forecasts, not viewed as

credible two decades ago, are now an

indispensable part of our planning

processes. Other new products have

also shown their worth. For example,

solar ultraviolet radiation forecasts,

developed by the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) and the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration's (NOAA) National

Weather Service (NWS), alert beach

goers to the need for sun screen and

other precautions against harmful

exposure to the sun.

It will soon be possible to deliver

several new forecast products that will,

at first, be unfamiliar to the public, but

will become as indispensable as our

present weeklong weather forecasts.

They include:

8 Hurricane forecasts. Threats to

life and property and the costly and

disruptive nature of evacuations

have resulted in demands for

improved hurricane forecasts of

storm track, intensity, and precipitation. Hurricane Floyd in September

1999 had an economic impact of

approximately $2 billion, while

causing the largest peacetime evacuation in United States history.

Improved forecasts of hurricane

track and intensity will reduce the

necessity and attendant cost of overwarning.

8 Lightning forecasts. While

lightning poses one of the greatest

threats to life and property in the

United States, at the present time,

only general forecasts of lightning

likelihood are produced (e.g.,

RESEARCH TO OPERATIONS: BRIDGING THE 

VALLEY OF DEATH

SECTION 1 1

Article prepared by Mr. Robert Dumont, Senior Meteorologist, OFCM Staff.

PURPOSE

In the National Research Council's

Report, From Research to Operations

in Weather Satellites and Numerical

Weather Prediction--Crossing the

Valley of Death, it was stated that the

term "Crossing the Valley of Death" is

sometimes used in industry to

describe the fundamental challenge of

transitioning research and development (R&D) programs to operations.

Operational implementation is frequently difficult, and, if done improperly, these transitions often result in

"skeletons in Death Valley." The purpose of this article is to characterize

the challenges ahead for the federal

meteorological community with

regard to the user demand for

improved products and services and

to propose an initial framework for

transitioning successful research

results to operations to meet that

demand. The goal is to begin "building the bridge across the valley of

death."

INTRODUCTION

New Demands on the

Forecasting Community
2 SECTION 1

60 percent chance of thunderstorms). With the increasing accuracy of small-scale weather system

forecasting and better understanding

of the physics of lightning, it will

soon be possible to provide specific

forecasts of lightning occurrences

(i.e., the probability of lightning

strikes at specific times and places).

8 Temperature forecasts.

Increasing concern over the consequences of energy production will

result in demand for improved planning and operations in power production. Improved temperature

forecasts will result in significant

fuel-cost savings and a more efficient electric industry.

8 Seasonal outlooks. The energy

industries will also benefit from the

improvements in seasonal to interannual forecasting, increasing the

demand for products and services on

that time scale. It has been estimated that the accurate seasonal outlook

prior to the 1997-98 El Niño event

allowed utilities to realize savings of

about $500 million.

8 Air quality forecasts. The strong

link between air temperature and air

quality and the associated negative

impact of poor air quality on all

aspects of human respiratory health

are creating demands for a whole

new suite of air quality forecasts.

8 Operational space forecasts.

Space weather hazards are becoming increasingly important to the

performance and reliability of

space-borne and ground-based communications and observation systems. With the development of

increasingly sophisticated technologies and the expansion of human

activities into near-earth space, there

will be an increasing need to forecast the changing fluxes of energetic

particles, geomagnetic fluctuations,

short wavelength solar radiation,

and other upper atmosphere/near

space conditions. Fortunately, an

unprecedented armada of spacecraft

is providing the required data, and

there has been tremendous progress

in research modeling of space

weather phenomena. The OFCMsponsored National Space Weather

Program now seeks to implement

operational space weather forecasting based on these advances.

8 Water-related forecasts. Clean,

safe water is essential to human

well-being. Recent research has

uncovered some remarkable results

that have significant implications for

forecasting products. For instance,

cholera outbreaks have been shown

to be related to oceanic physical

conditions and the resulting algal

types and concentrations. Thus, we

are now in a position to forecast the

conditions leading to cholera outbreaks around the world. Other

water-related forecasts dealing with

water availability and quality will

also be possible and will complement current drought and flood forecasts.

8 Climate predictions. The potential links between climate variability

and ecosystem impacts (food, forage, timber, fiber, water) were enumerated in the first United States

National Assessment of Climate

Change Impacts. The linkage is

expected to result in a growing

demand for improved projections of

future climate conditions.

The demand for new and diverse

forecasting products will continue to

grow and, with implementation, these

expanded products will promote

increased human safety and stimulate

economic benefits in the United States

and elsewhere. However, until current

and future research advances are effectively incorporated into operational

forecasts, the nation will not realize the

attendant benefits of its research

investment. It is important to understand the transition process and to

ensure its efficient operation.

Otherwise, impediments that may now

exist will become more problematic in

the future as a consequence of the

anticipated, expanded demands on the

nation's weather, ocean, and climate

forecasting capability.

The challenge facing the federal

meteorological community is to reduce

the impediments that limit the efficient

transfer of weather, ocean, and climate

research findings into improved forecast capabilities. The operational forecast system is responsible for collecting and assembling data, and for using

that data, in conjunction with models,

to produce forecast products in a timely fashion. Consequently, the system

encompasses many elements, from

instruments on land, on and under the

ocean surface, in the atmosphere, and

in space, to the computational

resources required to create, display,

and disseminate the products. All elements of the system can be improved,

and both the private sector and the academic research and development communities can contribute to that

improvement.

To improve the transition process,

strong interaction between the research

and operational communities must

exist. If the research community produces new science, one would expect

opportunities to improve operations to

result. Without effective transitions or

a dialogue between research and operations about system performance,

however, improvements to the skill of

the operational system will be slow.

Based on current research understanding, state-of-the-art sensors, and computers, the potential forecast skill is

expected to be higher than that of the

current operational system.

Verification of forecast skill and ongoing dialogue about performance should

guide operational practices toward

improvement. Key issues for an operational system are to ensure that transitions do indeed result in improvements

and that the effort required for transiImproving the Research to

Operations Transition Process
SECTION 1 3

tion is not overly disruptive.

Feasibility must be demonstrated for

the entire operational process, and the

production of additional weather,

ocean, and climate information must

be accompanied by considerations of

its dissemination, use, and impact.

If new research results have sufficient value, then a transition to operational status is desirable. The major

challenges in accomplishing such a

transition are institutional.

Observations, modeling and prediction, and information dissemination to

users should be tightly linked, and

financial support of the operational

system and transitioning new technologies and capabilities into operations

requires long-term commitment. Also

needed is the commitment for continued interaction with the research community to promote the opportunities to

advance the state-of-the-art. The continued dialogue between the research

and the operational communities is

needed to guarantee that the latest

techniques and current knowledge are

available to transition for operational

use. Through this dialogue, the operational services will be able to keep

abreast of the latest research; assess

ongoing development in observing,

data assimilation, and modeling systems and determine how the information can be improved; and interface

with the user community in the design

of new useful products.

The National Research Council's

Board on Atmospheric Sciences and

Climate (BASC) selected the following criteria as key to the effective transition of research to operations for the

field of weather and climate prediction:

 A strong research program, including understanding the role of the

operational user community in the

broader context of the weather prediction system.

 A healthy infrastructure for transition. The forecasting system needs

an observation, technology, and

modeling capability that serves as a

foundation for research and permits

the demonstration of the potential for

useful new products without drawing

resources away from the operational

forecast system. There is a need for

a long-term commitment of adequate

resources to maintain both research

and operational programs.

Mechanisms should be developed to

enable continuous development and

maintenance of state-of-the-art capabilities.

 Strong interface with the user community.

 International observation and data

access partnerships.

 Continuous evaluation processes

of each of the components of the

weather prediction system as well as

its subcomponents.

THE DOD MODEL

Within the DOD, there is a methodology (Figure 1-1) to provide a continuum of funding from basic research

(6.1) to applied research (6.2) to

advanced technology development

(6.3) to demonstration and validation

(6.4) to operational implementation

(6.4/Operations and Maintenance

(O&M)), and finally to operations

(6.4/O&M).

Fundamental or basic research

involves both broad exploration and

user-needs driven research and normally results in a peer-reviewed publication, journal article, or technical

report. As a result, a new operational

capability could result from either a

"research push" or an "operations pull"

scenario. Applied research then takes

promising basic research results from

initial development through proof of

concept. At that point, advanced technology development funds are used to

complete the development effort which

includes the scientific validation of the

proof of concept. This effort should

result in a decision/recommendation

on whether or not to proceed with the

transition process.

With the decision to transition, the

demonstration and validation

(DEM/VAL) phase begins. User

needs/requirements are further

refined, and initial budget, risk, and

cost-benefit analyses are completed.

The objective is to complete a thorough technical validation and demonstration of the capability, to include

simulated implementation.

Deliverables, as specified, may

include source code, model transition

plan, validation test report, and preliminary standard documentation.

Based on the results of the

DEM/VAL, the decision is made on

whether or not to proceed with operational implementation. With the decision to proceed, the capability is integrated into the operational system, and

a comprehensive evaluation is conducted under operational conditions.

The evaluation includes an initial

operations check followed by a thorough test which is conducted in accordance with the operational test plan.

The deliverables include the operational test report and the final and

complete standard documentation.

Guidelines for the Transition

Process

Figure 1-1. Department of Defense Transition Model.
4 SECTION 1

The final point in the transition

process is the decision to proceed with

full implementation, which is made by

the appropriate authority. At this point,

the capability is fully integrated into

the operational system. Validation,

verification, upgrades, and fixes

become ongoing operations and maintenance activities, which are part of the

life-cycle support that is required until

the capability is phased out. These

activities are normally managed by the

operational activity with the assistance

of the developer.

The participants in the process

include the researcher/developer, a

technical validation panel to conduct

the DEM/VAL in conjunction with the

developer, the implementation panel to

oversee the operational implementation and testing, and the operational

activity which is the final user.

As an illustration, based on a requirement for tropical cyclone reconnaissance observations from the DOD's

Joint Typhoon Warning Center

(JTWC), the Marine Meteorology

Division, Naval Research Laboratory,

Monterey, California (NRL-MRY),

developed the capability to provide

reconnaissance information through

the use of passive microwave (PMW)

digital imagery. To date, NRL-MRY

has completed the transition through

demonstration and validation using 6.2

and 6.4 funding, and the capability is

currently undergoing operational

implementation at the Navy's Fleet

Numerical Meteorology and

Oceanography Center (FNMOC),

which is collocated with NRL-MRY.

Full implementation into operations is

scheduled for October 2001, assuming

the operational testing and evaluation

are successful.

NRL-MRY has provided the capability for near-real-time PMW

imagery from both the Defense

Meteorological Satellite Program's

(DMSP) Special Sensor

Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) and

NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring

Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager

(TMI) to be available within 1-3 hours

for tropical cyclones worldwide via

the NRL-MRY tropical cyclone (TC)

Internet Web page. The TC web page

has significantly improved the availability and quality of PMW

imagery/products for TC monitoring

Figure 1-2. NRL-MRY web page for Satellite Products for Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance.
SECTION 1 5

around the globe. PMW data are basically a "poor-man's" radar since one

can map the rainbands and TC organization not always seen in visible and

infrared (IR) imagery (Figure 1-2).

Distribution to a large audience of

researchers, operational centers, and

the general public has increased the

awareness of how PMW data can be

applied to increase the confidence in

TC positioning and intensity estimates. The Internet has enabled NRL

to carry out rapid prototyping with a

superb feedback mechanism while

users make suggestions for improved

products and displays. While the reliability of the Internet was an early

concern, the point has now been

reached where JTWC and the NWS

National Centers for Environmental

Prediction's (NCEP) Tropical Prediction Center/National Hurricane Center

(TPC/NHC) routinely access the

NRL-MRY site (kauai.nrlmry

.navy.mil/sat-bin/tc_home) in their

search to assemble key storm characteristics. Once fully operational,

FNMOC will maintain the Web site 24

hours-a-day and provide enhanced

continuity. Figure 1-2 also illustrates

the NRL-MRY TC web page to

include the variety of products and

capabilities that are made available to

support the tropical cyclone forecast

and warning effort.

The NRL-MRY demonstration via

the Web has provided the operational

user with a new tool to monitor TCs

via PMW imagery. The learning

process continues as the dataset

expands, and new and improved sensors come online, which will nicely

augment the existing dataset both temporally and with enhanced capabilities. Thus, the continued close working relationship between researchers

and operators will provide future

opportunities for TC applications,

using passive microwave data in concert with collocated data that will

increase the accuracy of TC location

and intensity.

THE FAA MODEL

The FAA model is an "operations

pull" approach; the goal is to accelerate

the transfer of research and development into operations. The process

begins with an analysis of user needs.

Based on those needs and an initial

concept of use (decision point 1), user

advocacy or sponsorship is established. The user sponsor within the

FAA (normally Air Traffic Services or

Aviation Flight Standards Service) will

assess the scientific and economic feasibility of producing the capability to

meet specified performance metrics;

i.e., the estimated risks of producing

the capability or product, and then

refine the concept of use/operations.

The concept of use/operations

includes, but is not limited to, the following: users' decisions requiring

information, users' needs, performance

metrics/thresholds, architecture, usage,

training, accessibility, reliability, disclaimers, security, and a cost/benefit

analysis.

With the decision to proceed (decision point 2), the research and development (R&D) project(s) needed to

support the requirements are selected

and funded. The deliverable is

research-developed product or capability that is evaluated at decision point 3.

At decision point 3, the initial concept of use/operations and requirements are approved, risks are quantified, the initial scientific and technical

review is conducted, the operations

and maintenance budget is requested,

the regulation and certification

approval or approval plans is/are in

place, and the acquisition process, if

needed, is begun. Based on these

inputs and the approval of the Aviation

Weather Technology Transfer (AWTT)

Board, the product/capability is

released for experimental application

and testing under an FAA test plan.

Once testing is successfully completed, the product/capability is released

for operational use by the experts

(meteorologists) (decision point 4), or

it is released directly to the end user for

operational use (decision point 5). At

decision point 4, point 5, or both, the

final concept of use/operations is

approved, the scientific/technical

review is completed and approved, the

final regulation and certification

approvals are in place, the budget is in

place, and the acquisition process, if

needed, is completed. The decision to

release the product to the experts or

directly to the end users or, as an

optional path, through the experts to the

end users rests with the AWTT Board.

The National Convective Weather

Forecast (NCWF) was developed to

satisfy both an operational meteorological and end-user requirement.

Operational meteorologists will use the

NCWF to prepare more concise convective hazard forecasts, and the endusers--pilots, airline dispatchers, and

air traffic managers--will use the product to avoid flying into hazardous areas

and to proactively help minimize

schedule and flight disruptions.

Figure 1-3. The Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) Model.
6 SECTION 1

Current research efforts have delivered the Stage I product, which is

intended to complement current convective SIGnificant METeorological

information (SIGMET) produced by

the NWS NCEP's Aviation Weather

Center (AWC). The NCWF is a 1-hour

extrapolated forecast of the convection

hazard detection field based on radar

and lightning data (Figure 1-4). The

convective SIGMETS are human-generated, 0-2 hour forecasts, issued every

60 minutes as simple polygon areas. In

contrast, the Stage I NCWF is an automated, 1-hour forecast, issued every 5

minutes as a complex polygon area.

The rather large areal extent of the convective SIGMET produces its trend to

over-warn. The more compact and

definitive NCWF, on the other hand,

tends to under-warn new and growing

storms, and over-warn dying storms.

Stage I, however, is only the first step,

and research is ongoing to extend the

range of the forecast beyond 60 minutes and to improve the accuracy, especially during the growth and decay

phases of convective storms.

To date, the implementation team has

navigated the path from experimental

application to operations. The final

concept of use is approved, and the

technical and regulatory reviews have

been completed. The AWTT Board

has approved the Stage I NCWF for

implementation, and the NCWF will

be implemented on the AWC production system in September 2001. In

October 2001, Air Transportation

Operations Inspector's Handbook

8400.10 will be updated to authorize

the operational use of the NCWF, and

the air carriers will be notified. In

January 2002, general aviation pilots

will be formally notified through an

update to the Airman's Information

Manual.

THE COMPOSITE MODEL

If we take a systems approach to transitioning research to operations, we must

begin with the definition phase--the userneeds analysis. The user could be an

operational civilian or military meteorologist or oceanographer, or an end user

like an emergency manager, aircraft

pilot, or bus dispatcher. The user-needs

analysis must identify what products or

capabilities are needed to improve decision making and how good they must be

to support the decision-making process;

i.e., the performance metrics.

Similar to the FAA model, the userneeds analysis should generate an initial concept of operations, which

includes at least the following: users'

decisions requiring information, users'

needs, performance metrics/thresholds, architecture, usage, training,

security, and an initial cost/benefit and

risk analysis. If research is needed to

satisfy the user need for a new product

or capability, then the scientific and

economic feasibility of developing the

product or capability should be

assessed. Then, if development is feasible, a research plan should be developed.

We generally put research into two

categories: basic or fundamental and

applied. We also label the research

infusion process as either "research

push" or "operations pull." In the foreseeable future, we envision that both

basic and applied research will be predominately user-needs driven--operations pull. We should, however, continue to encourage and fund broad

exploration and scientific curiosity;

i.e., basic research, because a research

breakthrough could drive a significantly improved change in existing products and services--the classic research

push.

The funded research effort, which

should include close collaboration

between the researchers and operations

personnel, should evolve from basic

research, if necessary, to applied

research, then on to advanced technology development. The deliverable

should be a research-grade product or

capability which provides an initial

proof-of-concept to meet the user

need/requirement.

A technical oversight panel should

conduct a scientific review of the technology and validate the initial concept

of operations and proof-of-concept.

The risks and benefits associated with

implementing the new product or capability should be quantified, and the

needed funding to proceed with the

transition must be obtained. Plans

should also include the operations and

Figure 1-4. Example screenshot of the National Convective Weather Forecast.
SECTION 1 7

maintenance budget request to support

operational implementation and lifecycle support once full operational

capability is achieved. Based on the

recommendation of the panel, demonstration and validation will proceed.

A technical validation panel of users,

developers, and product managers

should work together to validate and

demonstrate the technical goodness of

the product/capability, to include simulated implementation. The evaluation

should include performance-testing

and operational metrics initially documented in the concept of operations

and refined by the panel. The deliverables should be a product or capability

ready for operational implementation,

together with preliminary standard

documentation, anticipated training

needs, and the validation test report.

NOAA and the United States Weather

Research Program (USWRP) have

proposed a national testbed configuration (shown in Figure 1-6) which

would significantly enhance the federal meteorological community's ability

to conduct both demonstration and validation, and operational implementation, and the community should actively support its development.

With the decision of the technical

oversight panel to proceed, experimental application or operational implementation is begun. The product or

capability is integrated into the operational system or an optional testbed

which could run in parallel with the

operational system, and a comprehensive evaluation is conducted under

operational conditions. The evaluation

should include an initial operations

check followed by a thorough test

which is conducted in accordance with

an operational test plan. The deliverables include the operational test report

and complete standard documentation

and training package to support the

product/capability.

Based on the results of the operational test and the decision of the

appropriate authority, the product or

capability would be released for use by

operational meteorologists or oceanographers or directly to the end-user or,

as an optional path, through the operational users to the end users. At this

point, the final concept of operations

and scientific/technical review have

been reviewed and approved, user

requirements have been validated, and

the operations and maintenance budget

should be in place. Future upgrades

and fixes, and ongoing verification and

validation will be part of the life-cycle

support to the new operational product

or capability.

In the "Crossing the Valley of Death"

report, it was concluded that successful

research-to-operations transitions

require four things:

 An understanding of the importance (and risks) of the transition.

 Development and maintenance of

appropriate transition plans.

 Adequate resource provision.

 Continuous feedback (in both

directions) between the research and

operational activities.

We would add to those conditions a

clear understanding of user needs/

requirements and administrative and

technical oversight by the transition

decision-makers throughout the

process. Also, the testbed concept proposed by NOAA and the USWRP has

tremendous potential to improve and

facilitate the transition process and

should be aggressively pursued.

The next step is to begin testing the

framework, which should start with the

development of a needs analysis for

each user group within or served by the

federal meteorological community.

Figure 1-5. A Composite Model for Transitioning Research to Operations.

SUMMARY
8 SECTION 1

The FAA has a head start with the aviation community, but that's only the tip

of the iceberg. The demands on our

community for improved products and

services are only going to increase, and

we need to have a process in place,

plus the commitment of sufficient

funding and resources, to meet those

legitimate demands.

Figure 1-6. Proposed National Testbed Configuration.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

Portions of the article were excerpted from the National Research Councils report, From Research to Operations in Weather Satellites

and Numerical Weather Prediction--Crossing the Valley of Death, 2000. Other references include Hawkins, J.D., T.F. Lee, J. Turk, C.

Sampson, J. Kent, and K. Richardson, 2001: Real-Time Internet Distribution of Satellite Products for Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance.

Bull. Amer. Metero. Soc., 82, 567-578, and presentations given by the Navys Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command, the

Federal Aviation Administrations Air Traffic System Requirements Service, and Air Traffic Systems Development, and the United States

Weather Research Program.
SECTION 2

Table 2.1 contains fiscal information,

by agency, for meteorological operations and supporting research. The

table shows the funding level for Fiscal

Year (FY) 2001 based on

Congressional appropriations, the

budget request for FY 2002, the percent change, and the individual agencies' percent of the total federal funding for FY 2001 and FY 2002.

DEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE

(USDA)

The USDA budget request for

FY 2002 is $28.2 million for operations and supporting research and representing a minor increase from

FY 2001. One additional staff meteorologist was added to USDAs World

Agricultural Outlook Board. The

USDA assists the Department of

Commerce in determining farmers'

needs for weather information and in

disseminating the information to them.

Major USDA activities related to

weather observations include incremental modernization of the snow

telemetry (SNOTEL) system operated

by the Natural Resources Conservation

Service (NRCS) and the replacement

of manual fire rating stations with

remote automated weather stations

(RAWS) by the Forest Service. The

SNOTEL and RAWS networks provide cooperative data for NOAA's

river forecast activities, the irrigation

water supply estimates, and Bureau of

Land Management operations.

For supporting research, USDA

requested $15.5 million to focus on

the interactions of weather and climate

with plant and animal production and

water resources management. The

goal of supporting research is to

develop and disseminate information

and techniques to ensure an abundance

of high-quality agricultural commodities and products while minimizing

the adverse effects of agriculture on

the environment. The research budget

does not include the coordinated effort

with EPA on ultraviolet radiation. The

Forest Service supports a research

program, initiated in 1988, for a longterm monitoring network to assess

potential effects of global climate

change and variability on forest health

and productivity. Work also continues

in forestry ecological systems modeling.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(DOC)

All reported DOC meteorological

activities are within the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The NOAA FY 2002

total congressional request of $1.59

billion for meteorological programs

represents an increase of 10.1 percent

over the FY 2001 appropriated funds.

NOAA's FY 2002 operations and

supporting research requests for

major line office activities are

described below:

Weather Services

Mission: The National Weather

Service (NWS) provides weather,

water, and climate forecasts and warnings for the United States, its territories,

adjacent waters, and ocean areas for the

protection of life and property and the

enhancement of the national economy.

NWS data and products form a national information database and infrastructure which can be used by other governmental agencies, the private sector,

the public, and the global community.

America's vulnerability to weather

related hazards is rising as more of the

population moves into weather threatened regions, and national and global

economies become more complex.

Approximately 40 percent of all

Americans, some 100 million people,

currently reside in areas of high risk to

natural disasters, with the number

climbing yearly. Today, 90 percent of

all presidentially declared disasters are

weather and flood related. Moreover,

water resources are the lifeblood of the

economy and our standard of living.

During the next century, weather will

continue to impact our lives and significantly impact the U.S. economy. In

fact, the NWS was recognized last year

as one of thirty-two high impact federal agencies. By working with our partners, especially the private sector and

emergency management community,

NWS is striving to ensure our products

and services are responsive to the needs

of the American public.

RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES

The tables in this section summarize budgetary information of the federal government for Fiscal Years 2001 and 2002.

The funds shown are those used to provide meteorological services and associated supporting research that has as its

immediate objective the improvement of these services. Fiscal data are current as of the end of June 2001 and are subject to later changes. The data for FY 2002 do not have legislative approval and do not constitute a commitment by the

United States Government. The budget data are prepared in compliance with Section 304 of Public Law 87-843, in

which Congress directed that an annual horizontal budget be prepared for meteorological programs conducted by the

federal agencies.

AGENCY OBLIGATIONS FOR METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS 

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

SECTION 2 9
10 SECTION 2
SECTION 2 11

The FY 2002 President's Budget

Request supports the funding and program requirements to enable the NWS

to better use science to serve our citizens and fulfill its vision of becoming

America's "no surprise" weather service. This vision states that the NWS

will produce and deliver forecasts you

can trust when you need them most,

use cutting-edge technologies, provide

services in a cost-effective manner,

strive to eliminate weather related

fatalities, and improve the economic

value of weather information. In

FY 2002, the NWS will continue its

mission of providing weather and

flood warnings and forecasts to the

public and improve the overall warning lead times for tornadoes, severe

thunderstorms, and flash floods, as

well as improve the accuracy of hurricane landfall predictions.

The NWS contributes to three of

NOAA's Strategic Plan goals:

Advance Short-Term Warning and

Forecast Services, Implement Seasonal

to Interannual Climate Forecasts, and

Predict and Assess Decadal to

Centennial Change. The NWS request

also supports investments in the

Natural Disaster Reduction Initiative

(NDRI) as well as the NOAA Climate

Observations and Services Initiative. 

Overall, NOAA requests a total of

$727.6 million for the National

Weather Service operations, a net

increase of $34.8 million above the FY

2001 enacted. This includes a total of

$658.5 million for Operations,

Research, and Facilities (ORF) and

$69.1 million for Procurement and

Acquisition and Construction (PAC).

In FY 2002, the budget priorities for

NWS include sustaining current services, replacing obsolete technology,

enhancing services to the public and its

private partners, and infusing new

technology.

Operations, Research, and Facilities

The FY 2002 President's Budget

includes a request of $658.5 million

which represents an increase of

$29.0 million over the FY 2001 enacted. The increase allows NWS to maintain current services, begin modernization of the Cooperative Observer

Network, and sustain operations at the

National Centers for Environmental

Prediction (NCEP). Specifically, the

net increase of $29.0 million includes

$24.3 million for Mandatory Pay

Raises and Inflationary Costs,

$1.2 million to restore the FY 2001

rescission, $1.9 million to sustain the

Cooperative Observer Network,

$1.7 million to sustain operational

forecast models at NCEP's

Environmental Modeling Center,

$3.0 million to increase the NWS

investment in data assimilation development efforts at NCEP including the

NOAA/NASA Joint Center for

Satellite Data Assimilation, and

$0.3 million for Weather Forecast

Office (WFO) Maintenance. In addition, the NWS request includes a

reduction of $3.3 million to reflect

completion of one-time activities or

programs. The specific details on each

of these requests are outlined below:

 Mandatory Pay and Inflationary

Costs (+$24.3 million). NOAA

requests an increase of $24.3 million to fund Adjustments-to-Base

(ATBs) for NWS base operations

and system accounts. The increase

will fund the FY 2002 federal pay

raise of 3.7 percent and annualize

the FY 2001 pay raise of 3.7 percent. The increase will also provide

mandatory inflationary increases

for non-labor activities, including

service contracts, field office lease

payments, and rent charges from

the General Services

Administration (GSA).

 Restoration of FY 2001 Rescission

(+$1.2 million). NOAA requests

an increase of $1.2 million to

restore the FY 2001 rescission.

Restoration of these funds in

FY 2002 is required to sustain

NWS warning and forecast services

to the Public. In FY 2002, NWS

will restore funding to provide critical training for weather office

staff, repair and maintenance of the

NOAA Weather Radio network,

and replacement of remote river

and flood gage communication

devices.

 Terminations (-$3.3 million). The

NWS requests a decrease of

$3.3 million to reflect the completion of the following one-time

activities or programs: the

Cooperative Institute for Regional

Prediction in support of the 2002

Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City,

Utah ($0.6 million); acquisition and

installation of NOAA Weather

Radio Transmitters at specified

locations during FY 2001

($1.9 million); Mt. Washington

Observatory ($0.5 million); and the

North Dakota Agricultural Weather

Network ($0.3 million).

 Sustain Cooperative Observer

Network (+$1.9 million). NOAA

requests a total of $2.3 million to

sustain the nation's cooperative

observer network. The request represents a $1.9 million increase over

the FY 2001 appropriation. The

cooperative observer network is a

nationwide network of over 11,000

volunteer operated weather observing sites used by NOAA to maintain the nation's climate record and

to provide data to local NWS field

offices. In a recent report, the

National Research Council (NRC)

recommended that NOAA take

immediate steps to sustain and

modernize this critical network.

The instruments used to detect

daily minimum and maximum temperatures as well as rain gage

recording devices for measuring

precipitation are obsolete and

increasing costly to maintain. In

many instances, spare parts are no

longer commercially available for

these measuring devices.

In FY 2002, NWS plans to

replace 900 rain gauges and
12 SECTION 2

200 temperature sensors. This rescue effort will proceed over 3 years

with the replacement of 2,700 rain

gages and 5,000 temperature sensors.

 Weather Forecast Office (WFO)

Maintenance & Repair (+$0.3 million). NWS requests a total of

$4.6 million for WFO

Maintenance, an increase of

$0.3 million over the FY 2001

enacted level. The FY 2002 request

will allow NWS to fund recurring

maintenance contracts and address

a backlog of over $7.0 million in

deferred maintenance repair

actions. WFOs provide forecasters

with modernized facilities, supporting the advanced technology systems and the provision of weather

service to the public. As the WFOs

continue to age, the facilities

require a significant investment in

recurring and cyclic maintenance,

including replacement of major

facility support systems such as

power backup and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).

The request will allow NWS to protect the $250 million capital investment in modernized facilities in

accordance with GSA and private

industry standards.

 NCEP Environmental Modeling

Center - Sustain Current

Operations (+$1.7 million).

NOAA requests an increase of

$1.7 million to sustain operations at

NCEP's Environmental Modeling

Center (EMC). The EMC develops

the computer models and other

numerical forecast products which

provide the basic guidance that

forecasters use in making weather

and climate forecasts. Today, the

EMC is overly dependent on external sources of funding for its operations, degrading its ability to

transfer proven weather forecasting

science into NWS operations. The

NRC report From Research to

Operations in Weather Satellites

and Numerical Weather Prediction:

Crossing the Valley of Death, states

"Almost all of the nation's operational weather and climate guidance products come from EMC,

which does not presently possess

the necessary resources to transfer

many of the United States advances

in observations and modeling to

operations." In FY 2002, NWS

plans to provide direct base support

for its suite of operational forecast

models, including the aviation,

regional, and global models.

 NCEP Data Assimilation and

Modeling (+$3.0 million). NOAA

requests $3.0 million to improve to

data assimilation and modeling at

NCEP. Data assimilation is the

collection and processing of weather observations (satellite, aircraft,

radar, data buoys, upper air balloons) for use in operational numerical weather prediction models.

These models are the foundation

for all general weather forecasts

(2 days and beyond) including aviation, marine, hurricane, rainfall,

and severe weather. The objective

of this critical funding request is to

improve forecasts through the use

of enhanced satellite data and other

data sets in the NCEP prediction

models, leveraging the nation's

large capital investment in global

observing systems. These activities

will be implemented through the

NOAA/NASA Joint Center for

Satellite Data Assimilation which is

funded in part through this initiative. Today, only 1/7th of the

nation's satellite data are utilized in

operational weather forecast models and too few resources are available for new data assimilation. The

NRC report From Research to

Operations in Weather Satellites

and Numerical Weather Prediction:

Crossing the Valley of Death, states

"In most cases, when new sensors

are developed, insufficient budget

is provided to develop algorithms

necessary to introduce those sensors into the operational system.

There is limited capability to

address the special needs associated

with assimilation of large volume

of new satellite observations." The

report also stated the slow pace of

improving weather prediction models could place United States industry at a competitive disadvantage

and potentially impact National

Security. In FY 2002, NWS plans

to provide critical funding support

to the NOAA/NASA Joint Center,

enhance efforts to develop a community weather prediction model,

and improve assimilation of new

satellite data sets into NCEP operational prediction models.

 Advanced Hydrologic Prediction

Service (AHPS). In FY 2002,

NOAA will also continue implementation of AHPS in the

Mississippi and Ohio River Basin,

focusing on high priority flood

prone areas. The OR&F request

includes a total of $1.0 million for

this critical service improvement

program. AHPS is already improving both the lead time and accuracy

of flood forecasts as well as water

resource management by extending

river flood stage forecasts from

days to months in the future. The

AHPS is also providing new probability forecasts for rivers, providing critical information which can

be used by water resource and

emergency managers for risk based

decision making. The Service has

been successfully tested on major

river basins in North Dakota, Iowa,

Georgia, West Virginia, and

Pennsylvania. Once deployed,

AHPS will save lives and provide

over $600 million in annual savings

to the United States economy.

 Systems Operations. NOAA

requests a total of $84.1 million in

Systems Operations, an increase of

$2.7 million from the FY 2001

enacted level. The Systems
SECTION 2 13

Operations total includes

$40.0 million for NEXRAD

Operations and Maintenance

(O&M), $7.6 million for ASOS

O&M, and $36.5 million for

AWIPS O&M. The FY 2002

increase is required to fund

$2.5 million in Adjustments-toBase (ATBs) related to the federal

pay raise and inflationary costs as

well as restore $0.2 million for the

FY 2001 rescission.

Procurement, Acquisition and

Construction (PAC)

As indicated above, NOAA requests

$69.1M for NWS PAC, an increase of

$5.7 million over the FY 2001 enacted.

The specific requests are listed below:

 Automated Surface Observing

System (ASOS) (+$1.3 Million).

NOAA requests a total of $5.1 million for the ASOS PAC account, an

increase of $1.3 million over the

FY 2001 enacted. These funds are

required in FY 2002 to ensure

planned completion of the new

ASOS dewpoint sensor acquisition

(the highest failure rate sensor in

the ASOS suite), and ASOS processor unit acquisition (current processor over capacity), and begin acquisition of the all-weather precipitation gage necessary for climate

record continuity and aviation safety. Specifically, in FY 2002, the

NWS will complete acquisition of

346 dewpoint sensors, and 346

processors; deploy 314 processors;

and acquire 115 all-weather precipitation gages.

 NWS Telecommunications

Gateway Backup - Critical

Infrastructure Protection

(+$7.4 Million). NOAA requests a

total of $7.4 million to provide critical infrastructure protection for the

NWS Telecommunications Gateway (NWSTG). The NWSTG is

the nation's critical telecommunications hub for collecting, processing,

and distributing weather data and

information. The data processed by

the NWSTG are used by hundreds

of customers world-wide, affecting

a wide-range of economic and

emergency management decisions.

These users include: the NWS

WFOs and NCEP, the private meteorological industry, broadcast

media, foreign countries, and the

United States military. The current

NWSTG facility, located in NWS

headquarters in Silver Spring,

Maryland, has no operational backup and is therefore a single point of

failure vulnerable to natural disasters, human error, computer viruses, hacker attacks, and terrorism.

The requested funding increase will

enable the NWS to acquire the

equipment and facility infrastructure necessary to ensure continuity

of operations at the NWSTG.

Today, if the NWSTG were to fail,

90 percent of weather observations

required for weather prediction

models would be lost; no national

radar or prediction models would

be sent to the field; no weather

observations or products would be

sent to commercial users/vendors;

no access or exchange of observations and products with other federal agencies or nations would be

possible; and all NWS centrally

provided Internet services would be

halted. This investment will mitigate these risks and will enable the

NWS to comply with Presidential

Directives on critical infrastructure

protection and continuity of government operations.

 NWS Weather Forecast Office

(WFO) Construction (+$2.5 million).

NOAA requests a total of $12 million to continue critical facility

modernization efforts in the

National Weather Service. The

request represents an increase of

$2.5 million over the FY 2001

appropriation. In FY 2002, NWS

plans to finalize construction of the

new Weather Forecast Office in

Caribou, Maine and complete the

new Alaska Tsunami Warning

Center in Palmer, Alaska. NWS

also plan to complete modernization of the weather offices in Hilo,

Hawaii, and Kotzebue, Alaska.

 NEXRAD. NOAA requests a total

of $8.3 million for the NEXRAD

PAC account. The request will

allow NWS to continue NEXRAD

Product Improvement (NPI) activities by infusing new technology

into the current radar network. The

current system processor utilizes

obsolete technology developed in

the late 1980s. As a result, a number of new forecast and detection

techniques, that are tested and

ready for operational use, cannot

run on the current system.

Combined with AWIPS build 5.0

technology, NEXRAD NPI will

allow NWS forecasters to improve

the lead times for tornado warnings

and the accuracy of severe thunderstorms forecasts. In FY 2002,

NWS will complete critical hardware retrofits on a total of

126 NWS NEXRAD sites.

 AWIPS. NOAA requests a total of

$16.3 million for the AWIPS PAC

Account. In FY 2002, NWS will

complete a three year effort to

develop and deploy AWIPS build 5

software. NWS plans to deploy

AWIPS build 5 in three major

builds (5.0,5.1,5.2) over a 3 year

period, beginning in October of

FY 2000 and ending in October of

FY 2003. In FY 2002, NWS will

complete the distribution of build

5.1 and 5.2 after a rigorous test and

evaluation process. AWIPS build 5

technology will provide NWS field

forecasters with critical warning

decision support systems to monitor and prioritize severe weather

systems, automated product generation to improve efficiency, and

improved radar and satellite display

imagery. Combined with NPI,

AWIPS build 5 will allow NWS

forecasters to significantly improve
14 SECTION 2

tornado warning lead times and

improve the accuracy of severe

thunderstorms forecasts.

 Central Computer Facility -

NWS Weather and Climate

Supercomputing. NOAA requests

a total of $15.1 million to operate

and maintain the NWS (Class VIII)

Weather and Climate

Supercomputer located in the

Census Facility in Bowie,

Maryland. The NWS supercomputer is the foundation for all NWS

weather and climate forecasts. In

FY 2002, NWS plans to improve

weather forecasts by improving the

resolution of the regional weather

model (Eta) from 22 to 12 kilometers and the global weather model

from 75 kilometers to 55 kilometers. The NWS also plans to

improve and expand operational

climate forecasts and implement a

new regional climate model. NWS

will continue to issue the Drought

Monitor, Climate Threats

Assessment, and the Extreme Heat

Index. NWS will also utilize the

supercomputer to improve forecasts for El Niño and La Nina

events, and other climate oscillations.

 Radiosonde Replacement Network.

NOAA will continue the replacement and modernization of the

upper air radiosonde network . The

PAC request includes a total of

$5.0 million for this activity in

FY 2002. The radiosonde network

provides critical upper air observations for NWS weather forecasters

and serves as the principal data

source for all weather forecast

models. The current network is

obsolete and nearing collapse, risking widespread loss of data within

the next two to three years. In

FY 2002, NWS plans to complete

the third year of a five year modernization effort by replacing 35

(out of 102) ground tracking systems. NWS also plans to replace

the remaining obsolete IBM XT

microcomputers that are used to

track and process data.

 Evansville Doppler Radar

(-$5.5 million). This decrease

reflects the completion of one-time

costs associated with the planned

acquisition, deployment, and installation of a Doppler weather radar

for the Evansville, Indiana, area

during FY 2001.

Environmental Satellite, Data, and

Information Services

Proposed funding for FY 2002

includes an increase in the PolarOrbiting Satellite Program of

$93.0 million and an increase in the

Geostationary Satellite Program of

$3.1 million. These changes allow for

continuation of procurements to provide the spacecraft and instruments,

launch services, and ground systems

necessary to assure continuity of environmental satellite coverage. The

FY 2002 budget request will maintain

a system of polar-orbiting satellites

that obtains global data and a system of

geostationary satellites that provides

near-continuous observations of the

Earth's western hemisphere. Funding

is included for NOAA's share of the

converged NOAA and Department of

Defense (DOD) polar-orbiting system

that will replace the current NOAA

series and the DOD Defense

Meteorological Satellite Program

(DMSP).

A total of $4.0 million is requested to

continue the Ocean Remote Sensing

Program, which began in FY 1995.

During the next several years, NOAA

will acquire data from foreign and

other non-NOAA satellites that will

provide measurement of ocean currents, surface winds and waves, subsurface temperature and salinity profiles, ice thickness and flows, and other

marine factors.

An increase of $16.3 million is

included to maintain basic mission

services including maintenance and

operation of satellite ground facilities;

provision of satellite-derived products,

including hazards support; and conduct

of research to improve the use of satellite data. An increase of $0.75 million

is requested to accelerate the assimilation and use of satellite-based data in

numerical weather prediction models

and an offsetting decrease is included

as the result of reducing funds for the

Global Winds Demonstration Program

(-$1.993 million).

Budgetary changes netting to a

decrease of $9.5 million are included

in the NOAA Data Centers and

Information Services subactivity. The

changes include an increase in base

operating funding (+$4.3 million).

Decreases include elimination of funding for Regional Climatic Centers

(-$2.9 million), reductions in Coastal

Data Development (-$1.4 million), and

reductions in funding for Data

Preservation (-$9.5 million).

Ocean Service

Funding provided through the

FY 2002 budget should allow the initial steps of the second generation of

the NOS CO-OPS advanced data quality control program, the Continuous

Operational Real-time Monitoring

System (CORMS II), as well as the

implementation of its development

program of the Ocean Systems Test

and Evaluation Program (OSTEP).

NOS considers the size of the problem

for these projects to be $5.0 million per

year.

Under the budget initiative Promote

Safe Navigation Implementation Plan

FY 2002-2006 (when approved in

present form), adequate funding would

be available by FY 2006 and beyond to

satisfy user requirements, and provide

the necessary up-to-date high resolution predictions of all navigationally

significant weather and oceanographic

conditions for a national PORTS

network.

Office of Atmospheric Research

Requested funding for FY 2002 for

Weather Research and Solar-Terrestrial

Services and Research is $51.8 mil-
SECTION 2 15

lion--a net increase of $3.7 million.

Increases included a base adjustment

of $1.7 million to partially cover inflationary cost increases as well as a very

small base restoration of $0.1 million.

There also were programmatic increases of $2.2 million for the United States

Weather Research Program, directed

principally toward improving hurricane track predictions. A program

decrease was also requested to terminate the $0.3 million "STORM"

Program at the University of Northern

Iowa. Finally, the space-based wind

profile lidar technology add-on for

incorporating wind profile data into

forecast models was incorporated into

the Weather Research base program.

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

(DOD)

The DOD total budget request for

FY 2002 is $447.6 million which represents a funding decrease of 11.6 percent from FY 2001. Specific highlights for each of the military departments are described below:

United States Air Force

United States Air Force (USAF)

resources for meteorological support

fall into several categories: general

operations, investment and research,

DMSP operations, and DMSP and

National Polar-orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite System

(NPOESS) supporting research. The

Air Force request (including DMSP

and NPOESS) for FY 2002 is

$249.9 million.

General Operations: The operations

portion of the FY 2002 budget request

is $184.5 million and provides the dayto-day environmental support to the

DOD. These funds will pay for support to the USAF (both active duty and

reserve components), the United States

Army, nine unified commands, and

other agencies as directed by the Chief

of Staff of the Air Force. Over 4,900

people conduct these activities at over

200 worldwide locations. These people include active duty military, Air

Force reservists, Air National Guard

weather flight personnel, weather communications and computer specialists,

and civilians.

General Supporting Research: The

FY 2002 budget request for Air Force

supporting research is $28.5 million.

The Air Force continues development

of the Space Weather Analysis and

Forecast System (SWAFS). This project and other research efforts will

investigate the electrodynamics of the

Sun and Earth's magnetosphere, ionospheric dynamics, mesoscale meteorology, visible and infrared properties of

the environment, and cloud parameterization and prediction.

DMSP Operations: Though funding

for DMSP comes from the Air Force,

this system is the major source of

space-borne meteorological data for

the military services and other highpriority DOD programs. Environmental data from DMSP sensors is also

distributed to the National Weather

Service (NWS), National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information

Service (NESDIS), the Navy's Fleet

Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC) and the

Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO), and AFWA according to the

Shared Processing Program agreement.

The operations portion of the

FY 2002 budget request is $24.9 million. The major portion of this funding

is for on-orbit operations, tactical terminal maintenance, and long-haul

communications. These funds also pay

operations costs for one dedicated

command and control facility. DMSP

funds for 66 military and civilian personnel associated with the operation

of, and to a much smaller extent, the

procurement of the DMSP system.

DMSP and NPOESS Supporting

Research: The FY 2002 budget for

DMSP R&D is $12.3 million. The

funds will be used for launch vehicle

integration; system integration and

testing; and mission sensor calibration,

validation, and algorithm development

efforts. The FY 2002 DOD R&D

budget for NPOESS is $157.4 million.

FY 2002 funds will be used for the

development of system architecture,

technology development efforts, and

critical sensor and algorithm development. NPOESS is scheduled to be

available in 2008 as a backup to the

final launch of the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites and DMSP satellites.

This system will exploit advanced

hardware and software technologies to

produce a more reliable, longer-lived

spacecraft with greater mission capability.

United States Navy

The United States Navy FY 2002

budget request for meteorological programs is $141.3 million. The request

includes $123.4 million for operational

programs and $17.9 million for supporting research.

The Navy Meteorology and

Oceanography (METOC) program is

truly unique. Focusing support in the

environmentally complex coastal/littoral regions around the globe, Navy

METOC is required to provide an

assessment of the impact of weather

and ocean phenomena on weapon systems. Additionally, and just as important, Navy METOC provides for safe

flight and navigation in support of

Naval, joint, and combined forces

operating throughout the world's

oceans. This support is done with a

cadre of highly-trained military and

civilian personnel, schooled in both the

sciences and warfighting applications.

By teaming with and leveraging the

efforts of other agencies and activities,

Navy METOC meets these challenges

in a most cost-effective manner, providing a full spectrum of products and

services with only about 5 percent of

the federal weather budget.

The Navy METOC program is

required to provide comprehensive and

integrated weather and ocean support

worldwide. The Oceanographer of the

Navy sponsors programs in four closely related disciplines - meteorology,
16 SECTION 2

oceanography, geospatial information

and services, and precise time and

astrometry. All are used to protect

ships, aircraft, fighting forces, and

shore establishments from adverse

ocean and weather conditions, and to

provide a decisive tactical or strategic

edge by exploiting the physical environment to optimize the performance

and efficiency of platforms, sensors,

and weapons.

Owing to the crucial interrelationship

of the oceans and the atmosphere, the

Navy requires various oceanographic

products to provide the requisite meteorological services. In addition to aviation and marine METOC support, the

Navy provides a variety of unique

services on demand, such as electrooptical, electro-magnetic and acoustic

propagation models and products,

METOC-sensitive tactical decision

aids, and global sea ice analyses and

forecasts.

Support to Navy operations is provided under the direction of the

Commander Naval Meteorology and

Oceanography Command located in

Stennis Space Center, Mississippi.

Naval METOC support starts with

sensing the battlespace physical environment and culminates with weapons

arriving on target and personnel operating in the battlespace without being

adversely affected by physical environmental phenomena. Operational

support for the Navy and Marine Corps

includes the day-to-day provision of

meteorological and oceanographic

(METOC) products and services. As

Naval operations in the littoral

increase, Navy METOC support is

directed towards providing on-scene

capabilities to personnel that directly

furnish environmental data for sensor

and weapon system planning and

employment. These on-scene capabilities are key elements for enabling the

warfighters to take advantage of the

natural environment as part of battlespace management.

Navy METOC systems acquisition is

accomplished through the Space and

Naval Warfare Systems Command,

San Diego, California. Several major

METOC operations support systems

are being procured or undergoing

upgrades.

Navy METOC Research and

Development (R&D) is cooperatively

sponsored by the Oceanographer of the

Navy and the Chief of Naval Research.

This area is not generally system-specific; instead, Navy R&D efforts typically have applications to meteorological, oceanographic, and/or tactical systems. Navy's tabulation of budget data

includes R&D funding for basic

research, applied research, demonstration and validation, and engineering

and manufacturing development.

Initiatives of the Navy and Marine

Corps, under sponsorship of the

Oceanographer of the Navy, transition

projects from exploratory development

to operational Naval systems. Such

efforts include advances in the Navy's

METOC forecasting capability,

enhancements to communications and

data compression techniques, further

development and improvement of

models to better predict METOC

parameters in littoral regions, and an

improved understanding of the impact

these parameters have on sensors,

weapon systems, and platform performance.

United States Army

The United States Army has programmed $43.5 million for operational

support and $12.9 million in research

and development in FY 2002.

Operational support is projected to

decrease approximately $14.9 million

over the FY 2001 expenditures,

research is estimated to decreases about

$4.3 million from the previous year, and

real staffing should increase slightly.

Systems upgrades and acquisition at

TRADOC and AMC funded in FY 2001

but not in FY 2002 account for the bulk

of the projected decrease in funding for

the Army in this year's report.

The Eighth United States Army has

programmed $1.28 million to fund

weather operations during FY 2002.

This includes $710,000 for Army

ARTYMET operations, $5,000 for the

upgrade and maintenance of new

FALOP systems, $40,000 for the purchase of new automated COTS observing systems for the DMZ area and

other locations in the ROK, and

$520,000 for USAF weather support.

United States Army Europe has programmed $2.38 million to fund weather operations during FY 2002.

$2.09 million is targeted for operational support, such as Artillery

Meteorology, exercise support, and

supplies, infrastructure, and automation related to meteorological support.

USAREUR estimates costs of

$295,000 for special programs related

to training and operations and maintenance.

The United States Army Special

Operations Command (USASOC) provides Army funding to the 10th Combat

Weather Squadron (10 CWS) for operations and maintenance of equipment

used by Special Operations Weather

Teams (SOWTs) providing weather

support to USASOC Major

Subordinate Commands. USASOC

has programmed $45,000 for these

expenses in FY 2002.

USARPAC has programmed

$220,000 for FY 2002, an increase

over the $185,000 for FY 2001. This

delta is due to IMETS operations and

maintenance costs of the two units at

172nd SIB and 25th ID. These costs are

estimated at approximately $16,000

each per year. In addition, a one-time

requirement of $3,000 will be used to

install a lightning detection system at

the recently activated 17th Operational

Weather Squadron. This will enhance

resource protection of Oahu Army

installations with a real-time lightning

detection meteorological watch.

Forces Command has programmed

approximately $7.18 million in

FY 2002 for Operations Support. Of

this amount, $560,000 will be targeted
SECTION 2 17

for facilities, supplies, and travel for

FORSCOM weather teams, and

$6.62 million for support of

FORSCOM ARTYMET operations.

DEPARTMENT OFTHE INTERIOR

(DOI)

The DOI/BLM funding request for

FY 2002 is $1,100,000. This figure is

for meteorological operations and support of the Bureau of Land

Management (BLM) remote sensing

requirements for Remote Automatic

Weather Station (RAWS) and

Lightning Detection Programs.

Normal operations and maintenance of

the restructured Fire RAWS program is

approximately $800,000 beginning

this year. (This includes personnel,

vehicles per diem, normal procurement

and facilities). 

The BLM optimization effort in

RAWS will continue in 2002. Major

efforts are underway among the

Wildland Fire Agencies to consolidate

our efforts in Fire Weather and

National Fire Danger Rating Support.

Continued optimization will take place

over the next few years. Subsequent

cost savings in operations costs will be

used to replace aging equipment and

upgrade sensors packages. Proposed

changes in Lightning Detection operations will further reduce the out-year

expenditures in this program.

Coordination between DOI agencies

and the USDA Forest Service regarding combined meteorological requirements for the National Wildland Fire

support functions is ongoing. During

the coming geographic area review

efforts, interagency RAWS replacement coordination will continue to

maximize National Fire Danger Rating

System (NFDRS) sampling points and

minimize the total number of systems

required in the West.

DEPARTMENTOFTRANSPORTATION

(DOT)

The DOT total budget request for

FY 2002 is $460.8 million which represents a funding decrease of 4.4 percent from FY 2001. The meteorological programs for the Federal Aviation

Administration, Federal Highway

Administration, and the United States

Coast Guard for FY 2002 are described

below:

Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA)

The FAA request for aviation weather in FY 2002 is $451.9 million for

both operations and supporting

research; the FY 2001 funding was

$473.1 million. The changes in the

budget are decreases (5.5 percent) for

operations (acquisition and operational

support) from $448 million to

423.2 million while supporting

research has increased (14.2 percent)

from $25.1 million to $28.7 million.

In FY 2002, the requested funding

for system acquisitions decreases by

22.5 per cent to $96.2 million. This

change reflects major progress as a

number of systems are being commissioned in the field and leave the acquisition process. Individual programs

with changes greater than $2 million

are listed below:

Programs Changes

($ Millions)

Systems Acquisition:

Operational and Supportability Implementation

System (OASIS) 2.1

Terminal Doppler Weather

Radar (TDWR) -2.1

New Generation Runway

Visual Range (NGRVR) -5.0

Integrated Terminal Weather

System -8.2

Automated Surface Observing

System 3.2

Weather System Processor -18.6

Stand Alone Weather Sensor -3.2

NEXRAD Enhancements 2.9

Operations Support:

Contract Weather Observations (CWO) -5.0

Flight Service Stations 4.6

Research

Aviation Weather 3.6

The request for funding in FY 2002

increases by $2.4 million to

$319.1 million. The change reflects a

large decrease in costs for CWOs

which is countered by large increases

in personnel salaries. Other changes

are smaller and reflect normal adjustment to support costs both up and

down.

The Aviation Weather Research

Program (AWRP) has requested an

increase in funding for FY 2002 of

14.2 percent for a total program of

$28.7 million. The AWRP will continue work on the operational impacts of

weather phenomena which threaten

safety and efficiency.

Federal Highway Administration

(FHWA)

The total FHWA request for surface

transportation weather programs in

FY 2002 is $2.9 million all of which

will be used for supporting research

and special programs.

In 1999, the FHWA began documentation of road weather requirements,

which will serve as the basis for the

majority of future work in this area.

This work includes addressing the

technical aspects of the road transportation system (including weather

data collection, processing and dissemination) as well as the institutional

challenges surrounding system implementation. These institutional challenges encompassed coordination

within state and local Departments of

Transportation as well as across the

transportation and meteorological

communities. With regard to technical

areas of interest, data collection efforts

will include increased coverage of

road condition observations and incorporate road weather data (e.g., pavement and subsurface observations)

into broader meteorological observation networks. Better processing

includes the application of higher resolution weather models and the development of road condition prediction

models (e.g. heat balance models) that

are needed to develop the appropriate
18 SECTION 2

transportation weather information. In

addition, surface transportation decision-makers require weather information disseminated in formats that are

easily understood and in which human

factors issues have already been incorporated. This need will be achieved

through the development of improved

road weather decision support systems. A multi-year effort has been

undertaken by the FHWA in cooperation with six national labs to prototype

and field test advanced decision support components for winter maintenance. This effort will lead to an operational test of the MDSS, as well as

produce decision support components

that private vendors can incorporate

into their products. The FHWA will

continue to develop outreach and

training course material for program

delivery, training, and promotion.

FHWA is also taking an active role in

promoting more efficient transportation operations during hurricane evacuations. The FHWA is currently supporting an Evacuation Traffic

Information System (ETIS), which is a

web-based program that facilitates the

sharing of evacuation and traffic information among states. In addition, the

FHWA is investigating other

Intelligent Transportation System

technologies that can be used to support emergency and transportation

managers during evacuations. Finally,

the FHWA is researching how transportation operation centers around the

country integrate weather information

into their traffic management operations. The FHWA is interested in the

types of information received

(whether generic or tailored) and how

that information impacts traffic management decisions. The FHWA is also

investigating several other aspects of

traffic management with respect to

weather, including the modification of

traffic signal timing, traffic modeling,

and freeway operations in response to

adverse weather.

United States Coast Guard (USCG)

All of USCG's funding for meteorological programs is for operations support. For FY 2002, the requested funding level is $6 million. (The Coast

Guard does not have a specific program

and budget for meteorology--all meteorological activities are accomplished

as part of general operations.) The

Coast Guard's activities include the collection and dissemination of meteorological and iceberg warning information for the benefit of the marine community. The Coast Guard also collects

coastal and marine observations from

its shore stations and cutters, and transmits these observations daily to the

Navy's Fleet Numerical Meteorology

and Oceanography Center and NOAA's

National Weather Service. These

observations are used by both the Navy

and NOAA in generating weather forecasts. The Coast Guard also disseminates a variety of weather forecast

products and warnings to the marine

community via radio transmissions.

Coast Guard shore stations often serve

as sites for NWS automated coastal

weather stations, and the National Data

Buoy Center provides logistics support

in deploying and maintaining NOAA

offshore weather buoys. The

International Ice Patrol conducts iceberg surveillance operations and provides warnings to mariners on the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic

shipping lanes.

ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION

AGENCY (EPA)

All of the EPA's funding of meteorological programs is for supporting

research. The anticipated funding

level in FY 2002 for directed meteorological research is $7.5 million which

is $900,000 more than the FY 2001

funding level. This level was incremented in FY 2001 due to increased

attention being paid to the effects of

airborne toxics and particulate matter

on human health.

In addition, to promote excellence in

environmental science and engineering, the EPA established a national fellowship program and substantially

increased its support for investigatorinitiated research grants. The increase

in funding for grants (with reliance on

quality science and peer review) and

for graduate fellowships (to support

the education and careers of future scientists) will provide for a more balanced, long-term capital investment in

improved environmental research and

development.

The funding for the grants program

will remain about $100 million in

FY 2002. This augmented program

will fund research in areas including

ecological assessment, air quality,

environmental fate and treatment of

toxics and hazardous wastes, and

exploratory research. The portion of

these grants that will be awarded for

meteorological research during

FY 2002 cannot be foreseen, but it is

probable that the grant awards will

increase the base amount of $7.5 million listed above for directed meteorological research.

The EPA is continuing its development and validation of air quality dispersion models for air pollutants on

all temporal and spatial scales as mandated by the Clean Air Act, as amended. Research will focus on indoor,

urban, mesoscale, regional, and multimedia models which will be used to

develop air pollution control strategies, and human and ecosystem exposure assessments. There will be

increased emphasis placed on meteorological research into regional and

urban formation and transport of

ozone and particulate pollution in

support of the revisions to the

National Ambient Air Quality

Standards. Increased efficiency of

computation and interpretation of

results are being made possible by

means of supercomputing and scientific visualization techniques.
SECTION 2 19

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND

SPACE ADMINISTRATION

(NASA)

Nearly all of NASA's funding in

meteorology is for supporting

research. The requested funding for

supporting research in FY 2002 is

$155 million, which is nearly 6 percent

lower than the FY 2001 funding level.

These funding levels are composed of

the estimated meteorology share of the

supporting research and analysis programs as well as Earth Observing

System (EOS) and Earth Probe instruments, EOS science, and the EOS Data

Information System elements of the

NASA Office of Earth Science budget.

In parallel with deploying EOS, NASA

Earth Science Enterprise is looking

ahead to determine what will be the

important Earth science questions in

the next decade, and which require

NASA's leadership to be answered.

Drawing on existing reports of the

National Academy of Sciences and the

state of progress in current scientific

endeavors, ESE has developed a

Research Strategy for 2000-2010. This

strategy articulates a hierarchy of one

overarching question, five broad subordinate questions and twenty- three

detailed questions that can and should

be tackled over this decade. For each,

the Research Strategy defines the

observational requirements, which in

turn provide the basis for definition of

candidate missions to be pursued. An

early, high priority in this time frame is

the National Polar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite

System (NPOESS) Preparatory

Program (NPP), which will serve to

provide continuity with the Terra and

Aqua missions as well as a demonstration of instruments for the converged

weather satellite program. NASA and

the Integrated Program Office (IPO)

jointly fund the NPP mission. The IPO

consists of representation from the

three agencies participating in

NPOESS: NASA, the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, and the Air Force.

NASA plans to meet its immediate

commitments and ensure the success

of the EOS Terra, AQUA, AURA and

IceSAT missions. In addition, NASA

is committed to deliver a functioning

data and information system to support

the processing, archival, and distribution of data products from these missions. NASA also funds a $35.25 million program of weather-related

research for aviation safety.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY

COMMISSION (NRC)

The NRC requested funding is for

meteorological operations. The

request of $50,000 for FY 2002 is to

continue assistance with the analysis

of atmospheric dispersion for various

potential release scenarios.

The meteorological support program in the NRC is focused primarily on obtaining and analyzing meteorological data to be used in atmospheric transport and dispersion

models. These models serve to

characterize plume pathways and

project doses, and to estimate concentrations related to the safe operation of nuclear facilities. The intent

is to protect the public health and

safety, and the environment.

Obtaining current, accurate, and relevant meteorological information on

a real-time basis for use during

emergencies is the primary consideration. In addition, the data may be

used as input to the assessment of

the radiological impacts of routine

airborne releases from facilities, and

of the potential radiological impacts

of engineering changes in plant

design or operation proposed by

licensees, should unplanned releases

occur. The NRC also maintains an

interest in the transport and dispersion of airborne, hazardous, nonradioactive materials and their

potential effects on the safe operation of nuclear facilities.

AGENCY FUNDING BY BUDGET CATEGORY

Table 2.2 depicts how the agencies

plan to obligate their funds for meteorological operations broken down

by "budget category." The two major

categories are "Operations Support"

and "Systems Acquisition." To a

large degree, these categories correspond to non-hardware costs

(Operations Support) and hardware

costs (Systems Acquisition). For

agency convenience in identifying

small components that do not fit into

these two major categories, a third

category is added called "Special

Programs." Programs that provide

support to several government agencies such as the Air Force's DMSP

are listed on a separate line.

Table 2.3 describes how the agencies plan to obligate their funds for

meteorological supporting research

according to budget categories. The

agencies' supporting research budgets are subdivided along similar

lines--Research and Development

(non-hardware), Systems Development (hardware), and Special

Programs (for those items that do not

easily fit into the two major categories).
20 SECTION 2
SECTION 2 21
22 SECTION 2
SECTION 2 23
PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

Table 2.6 depicts agency staff

resources in meteorological operations. The total agency staff resourcesrequested for FY 2002 is 14,410. This

total represents an increase of 0.6 percent from FY 2001.

24 SECTION 2

Table 2.4 summarizes how the agencies plan to obligate operational funds

for basic and specialized meteorological services; Table 2.5 is a similar

breakout for supporting research

funds. Table 2.4 reveals the distribution of operational funds: basic meteorology services receiving 62.2 percent; aviation 30.6 percent; marine

3.2 percent; agriculture/ forestry 0.6

percent; general military services

2.9 percent; and other specialized services accounting for 0.5 percent. Table

2.5 shows the distribution of supporting research funds among the services

with basic meteorology receiving 24.7

percent, aviation 15.1 percent, marine

8.7 percent, agriculture and forestry

4.0 percent, general military 4.9 percent, and the remaining 42.6 percent

dedicated to other meteorological services.

The definitions of specialized and

basic services are described below:

Basic Services

Basic services provide products that

meet the common needs of all users

and include the products needed by

the general public in their everyday

activities and for the protection of

lives and property. "Basic" services

include the programs and activities

that do not fall under one of the specialized services.

Specialized Meteorological Services

Aviation Services. Those services

and facilities established to meet the

requirements of general, commercial,

and military aviation. 

Marine Services. Those services

and facilities established to meet the

requirements of the DOC, DOD, and

DOT on the high seas, on coastal and

inland waters, and for boating activities in coastal and inland waters. The

civil programs which are directly

related to services solely for marine

uses and military programs supporting fleet, amphibious, and sea-borne

units (including carrier-based aviation

and fleet missile systems) are included.

Agriculture and Forestry Services.

Those services and facilities established to meet the requirements of the

agricultural industries and federal,

state, and local agencies charged with

the protection and maintenance of the

nation's forests.

General Military Services. Those

services and facilities established to

meet the requirements of military user

commands and their component elements. Programs and services which

are part of basic, aviation, marine, or

other specialized services are not

included.

Other Specialized Services. Those

services and facilities established to

meet meteorological requirements

that cannot be classified under one of

the preceding categories; such as,

space operations, urban air pollution,

global climate change, and water

management.

AGENCY FUNDING BY SERVICE CATEGORY
SECTION 2 25

TABLE 2.6 PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

(Units are Full Time Equivalent Staff Years)*

% of FY 2002

AGENCY FY 2001 FY 2002 % CHANGE TOTAL

Agriculture 104 105 1.0 0.7

Commerce/NOAA (Subtotal) 5,742 5,767 0.4 40.0

NWS 4,659 4,681 0.5 32.5

NESDIS 883 883 0.0 6.1

OAR 32 32 0.0 0.2

NOS 114 114 0.0 0.8

NOAA Corps 54 57 5.3 0.4

Defense 4,944 4,979 0.7 34.6

Air Force (Subtotal) 3,266 3,266 0.0 22.7

Air Force Weather 3,201 3,201 0.0 22.2

DMSP 65 65 0.0 0.5

Navy 1,423 1,412 -0.8 9.8

Army 255 301 15.3 2.1

Interior (Subtotal) 12 12 0.0 0.1

BLM 8 8 0.0 0.1

Reimbursed** 4 4 0.0 0.0

Transportation (Subtotal) 3,517 3,546 0.8 24.6

FAA 3,431 3,459 0.8 24.0

FHWA 1 2 50.0 0.0

USCG 85 85 0.0 0.6

EPA 0 0 0.0 0.0

NASA 0 0 0.0 0.0

NRC 1 1 0.0 0.0

TOTAL 14,320 14,410 0.6 100.0

* Numbers of personnel are rounded to nearest whole number.

** "Reimbursed" are personnel funded by other agencies.
26 SECTION 2

Table 2.7 summarizes the reimbursement of funds from one agency to

another during FY 2002. Agencies

routinely enter into reimbursable

agreements when they determine that

one agency can provide the service

more efficiently and effectively than

the other. While specific amounts may

vary from year-to-year, the pattern

shown is essentially stable and reflects

a significant level of interagency cooperation.

Department of Commerce. NWS

will reimburse DOT $2,500 for Alaska

housing utilities. NASA will receive

$60,000 for stratospheric studies.

NESDIS will transfer a total of

$365.4 million to NASA for procurement and launches of polar-orbiting

($114.1 million) and geostationary

($251.3 million) satellites.

Department of Defense. The Air

Force will reimburse DOC a total of

$4.3 million for operations [OFCM

support ($140,000), Lightning Data

($551,000), NCEP operations

($12,000), and Shared Processing

Network ($193,000)] and supporting

research [OAR laboratories

($170,000), Environmental Scenario

Generator ($613,000), and NEXRAD

($2.62 million)]. In addition, DOE

will receive $484,000 for Argonne

Laboratories supporting research; NSF

will receive $190,000 for COMET participation and $323,000 for NCAR

supporting research. The Navy will

reimburse DOC $214,000 for basic climatological analysis and forecasting,

and interagency coordination. The

Army reimbursements to DOC/NOAA

include $770,000 to NWS for maintaining precipitation reporting stations

and $290,000 to NOAA laboratories

for precipitation modeling and

basic/applied research. The Army will

also reimburse the AF Air Combat

Command $56,000 for operations and

maintenance of weather systems and

$110,000 for purchase of Tactical

VSAT equipment. Finally, the United

States Geological Survey will be reimbursed $379,000 for operations and

maintenance of hydrologic and precipitation reporting stations.

Department of Transportation. The

FAA will reimburse NOAA almost

$32.8 million in FY 2002. Included in

those funds are development of

enhancements and operational support

associated with the WSR-88D, ASOS

maintenance, the Center Weather

Service Units at all Air Route Traffic

Control Centers, the World Area

Forecast System, for meteorology

instructors at the FAA, and for studies

and OFCM support.

The FAA will reimburse the Army a

total of $195,000, the Navy $683,000,

and Air Force $2.572 million for supporting research. The NOAA will

receive $7.9 million for various supporting research associated with aeronautical hazards mitigation. The

NASA will receive $550,000 for supporting research.

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA). The Air

Force will be reimbursed a total of

$2.841 million--$2.091 million for

observations, forecasts, and operations/maintenance of weather infrastructure and replacement of upper air

systems at Trans-Atlantic Abort

Landing Sites and $750 million for

technology transition at Applied

Meteorology Unit, Eastern Range.

NOAAs NWS will receive $16,000

for upper air analysis and research;

National Data Buoy Center will

receive reimbursements of $92,000 for

the operation of two data buoys.

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA). NOAA's Air Resources

Laboratory (ARL) will receive $6 million for development, evaluation, and

application of air quality dispersion

models; and for provision of meteorological expertise and guidance for EPA

policy development activities.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC). The NRC will reimburse DOE

$87,000 for technical assistance.

INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS

FACILITIES/LOCATIONS FOR TAKING METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

Table 2.8 indicates the number of

facilities/locations or platforms at

which the federal agencies carry out

(or supervise) the taking of various

types of meteorological observations.
SECTION 2 27

TABLE 2.7 INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS FOR METEOROLOGICAL

OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

FY 2001 Funds ($K)

Estimated or Planned

Agency Funds Agency Funds Supporting

Transferred from: Transferred to: Operations Research

Commerce/NOAA DOT/USCG 2.5

NASA Studies 60

NASA 365,416

Defense/Air Force DOC/NOAA/OFCM 140

DOC/NOAA/LDS 551

DOC/NOAA/NCEP 12

DOC/NOAA/SPN 193

DOC/NOAA/OAR 170

DOC/NOAA/ESG 613

DOC/NOAA/NWS 2619

DOE/Argonne 484

NSF/NCAR 323

NSF/COMET 190

Defense/Navy DOC/NOAA/NCDC 49

DOC/NOAA/OFCM 165

Defense/Army DOC/NOAA/NWS 770

DOC/NOAA/ETL 65

DOC/NOAA/ATDD 75

DOC/NOAA 150

DOI/USGS 379

DOD/USAF/ACC 166

Transportation/FAA DOC/NOAA 24,839 7,942

DOD/USA 195

DOD/USAF 2,572

DOD/USN 683

NASA 550

NASA DOD/USAF 2,091 750

DOC/NOAA/NDBC 92

DOC/NOAA/NWS 16

EPA DOC/NOAA/ARL 6,000

NRC DOE/PNNL 87
28 SECTION 2

No. of Locations

TYPE OF OBSERVATION/AGENCY (FY 2001)

Surface, land

Commerce (all types) 841

Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 130

Navy (U.S. & Overseas) 34

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 34

Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 13

Transportation (Flight Service Stn) 8

Transportation (Lim Aviation Wx Rptg Stn) 114

Transportation (Contract Wx Obsg Stn) 189

Transportation (Auto Wx Obsg Stn) 198

Transportation (Auto Sfc Obsg Sys, fielded) 569

Transportation (USCG Coastal) 100

Interior 470

Agriculture 1080

NASA 3

Surface, marine

Commerce (SEAS-equipped ships) 140

Commerce (Coastal-Marine Autom Network) 65

Commerce (NOAA/NOS/PORTS) 6

Commerce (Buoys--moored) 64

Commerce (Buoys--drifting) 21

Commerce (Buoys--large navigation) 10

Commerce (Water-level gauges) 189

Navy (Ships with met personnel) 29

Navy (Ships without met personnel 287

Transportation (USCG Cutters) 225

NASA 2

Upper air, balloon

Commerce (U.S.) 86

Commerce (Foreign, Cooperative) 22

Air Force, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 12

Air Force, Mobile 15

Army, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 10

Army, Mobile 97

Navy, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 11

Navy, Mobile 47

Navy, Ships 29

Marine Corps, Mobile 14

NASA (U.S.) 2

Atmospheric Profilers

Army 7

No. of Locations

TYPE OF OBSERVATION/AGENCY (FY 2001)

Upper air, rocket

NASA 1

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 1

Doppler weather radar (WSR-88D) sites

Commerce (NWS) 123

Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 29

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 3

Transportation 12

Doppler weather radar (Not WSR-88D) sites

Air Force (Transportable) 4

Navy (Fixed) 9

Marine Corps (Mobile) 14

Off-site WSR-88D Processors (PUPs)

Commerce (NWS) 63

Air Force 140

Navy 23

Army 10

Marine Corps 9

Transportation 25

NASA 2

Airport terminal Doppler weather radars

Transportation (Commissioned) 45

Army (not airfield--Test Range/USAREUR) 2

Conventional radar (non-Doppler) sites

Commerce (NWS) 31

Commerce (at FAA sites) 27

Air Force, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 7

Air Force, Remote Displays 2

Air Force, Mobile Units 3

Marine Corps, Mobile units 15

Weather reconnaissance (No. of aircraft)

Commerce (NOAA) 3

Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) 10

Geostationary meteorological satellites (No. operating)

Commerce (planned config of 2) 2

Polar meteorological satellites (No. operating)

Commerce (planned config of 2) 2

Air Force 4

Navy (1 in orbit, status TBD)

TABLE 2.8 FACILITIES/LOCATIONS FOR TAKING METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
SECTION 3

The National Weather Service

(NWS) has the principal responsibility

for the plans and operations of the

basic weather, hydrologic, and climate

services and certain specific applied

services. The NWS mission is to provide weather, water, and climate warnings and forecasts for the United

States, its territories, adjacent waters,

and ocean areas to help protect life and

property and enhance the national

economy. NWS data and products

form a national information data base

and infrastructure which can be used

by other governmental agencies, the

private sector, the public, and the global community. In support of this mission, NWS:

 Issues warnings and forecasts of

weather, flood, and ocean conditions.

 Observes and reports the weather

and the river and ocean conditions of

the United States and its possessions.

 Develops and operates national

meteorological, hydrological, climate, and oceanic service systems.

 Performs applied meteorological,

hydrological, and climate research.

 Assists in developing community

awareness and educational materials

and programs concerning weatherrelated natural disasters.

 Participates in international

hydrometeorological activities,

including the exchange, coding and

monitoring of data and forecasts,

and also including the installation

and repair of hydrometeorological

equipment and systems overseas

under the Voluntary Cooperation

Program.

The basic enabling legislation and

authority for weather services are summarized as follows:

 Organic Act of 1890 created the

United States Weather Bureau in the

Department of Agriculture.

 Enabling Act of 1919 allowed the

United States Weather Bureau to enter

into cooperative agreements for providing agriculture weather services.

 Flood Control Act of 1938 authorized the establishment, operation,

and maintenance of the

Hydroclimatic Network by the

Weather Bureau for Flood Control;

on July 1, 1940, the Weather Bureau

was transferred from the Department

of Agriculture to the Department of

Commerce.

 Federal Aviation Act of 1958 outlined

duties of the Secretary of Commerce

for provision of weather observations

and services to aviation.

 Reorganization Plan 2 of 1965 placed

the "National Weather Service" in the

newly created Environmental Science

Services Administration (ESSA).

 Reorganization Plan 4 of 1970 made

the NWS a part of the newly created

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA).

SERVICES

NWS provides around-the-clock

weather and flood warning and forecast services. The NWS provides services through a national network of

121 Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs)

and 13 River Forecast Centers (RFCs)

(Figure 3-DOC-1) that collect data,

prepare state and local warnings and

forecasts, and disseminate information

to the population both directly and

indirectly through the mass media. In

preparing local warnings and forecasts,

WFOs use value-added forecast guidance prepared by the nine National

Centers for Environmental Prediction

(NCEP) (Figure 3-DOC-2). The core

mission of the NWS also depends on

the study, development, and testing of

new methods for improving basic

warning and forecast capabilities

through research.

Weather Warnings and Forecasts.

NWS forecasters at WFOs issue local

warnings for severe weather such as tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, floods,

and extreme winter weather. WFOs

prepare forecasts for zones which are

comprised of several counties that experience similar weather. Each WFO has

forecast responsibility for several zones.

WFOs also provide the main field forecast support for the marine and aviation

programs as well as guidance for the

fire weather program supporting federal

lands management and wildfire control.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER PROGRAMS

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is the principal meteorological agency

of the federal government. By law, NOAA is responsible for reporting the weather of the United States,

providing weather and flood warnings and forecasts to the general public, developing and furnishing

applied weather services, and recording the climate of the United States. This mission is carried out

within NOAA by the National Weather Service (NWS); the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and

Information Service (NESDIS); the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR); the National

Ocean Service (NOS); and the Office of NOAA Corps Operations (NC).

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE

SECTION 3 DOC 29
30 DOC SECTION 3 

Aviation Weather Services. The

NWS provides a broad range of services

in support of the aviation community.

The WFOs prepare terminal airport

forecasts four times a day, with amendments as needed, for over 500 publicuse airports in the United States and in

the Caribbean. These offices also produce about 300 individual route-oriented forecasts three times a day for the

48 contiguous states.

NCEP's Aviation Weather Center

(AWC) and the Alaska Region's

Aviation Weather Unit prepare area

forecasts three times daily describing

general aviation weather conditions

over the lower 48 states and Alaska,

respectively. These two specialized

aviation weather centers, along with

WFOs in Hawaii and Guam, issue inflight advisories of hazardous weather

conditions associated with thunderstorms, icing, turbulence, and strong,

low-level winds.

NWS Center Weather Service Units

located in each of the 21 Federal

Aviation Administration Air Route

Traffic Control Centers provide direct

meteorological support to en route centers, Terminal Radar Approach

Controls, and airport towers.

The NWS provides a service to international aviation as one of the

International Civil Aviation

Organization's two World Area

Forecast Centers. NCEP's

Environmental Modeling Center supplies global gridded model data of temperature, winds, and humidity twice a

day for flight levels from 5,000 to

45,000 feet. The AWC prepares forecasts of significant weather for approximately two-thirds of the globe four

times a day for thunderstorms, tropical

cyclones, severe squall lines, moderate

or severe turbulence, moderate or

severe icing, and cumulonimbus cloud

associated with the above, from 25,000

to 63,000 feet. The forecast charts also

include information on jet streams and

tropopause heights. This information

is transmitted over the International

Satellite Communications System with

coverage in the Americas, Caribbean,

western portions of Europe, the

Pacific, and eastern Asia.

Within the framework of the international airways volcano watch, the

NWS, through NCEP, shares management responsibility with NOAA's

National Environmental Satellite, Data,

and Information Service (NESDIS) for

Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers in

Alaska and Washington.

Marine Weather Services. Using

NCEP weather analysis and forecast

guidance, marine weather forecasters

at coastal and Great Lakes WFOs issue

wind, wave, weather, and ice warnings,

forecasts, and other information for

populations living along the coastal

waters and the Great Lakes. Principal

products include small craft and heavy

surf advisories, coastal flood warnings,

coastal waters forecasts, sea and swell

forecasts, and special weather forecasts to aid in the containment and

clean up of oil spills and other hazardous substances in the marine environment.

Fire Weather Services. NWS offices

provide routine pre-suppression and

wildfire weather support to federal and

state land management agencies.

Upon request, NWS provides site-specific forecasts for prescribed burns on

federal lands. The NWS deploys a

national cadre of specially-trained

Incident Meteorologists (IMETs) to

large wildfires and coordination centers for on-site weather support.

IMETs use weather instrumentation,

telecommunications, and display

equipment to aid in on-site forecast

preparation and briefings. NCEP's

Storm Prediction Center provides daily

fire weather guidance that highlights

areas with high fire potential based on

the state of the fuels (trees, brush,

grasses), and critical weather parameters, such as low relative humidity,

strong winds, and dry lightning activity.

Tsunami Warnings. Tsunami watches

and warnings for Pacific Ocean areas

and Alaska are prepared and issued by

the Tsunami Warning Center at Ewa

Beach, Hawaii, and the regional center

at Palmer, Alaska. NWS collects and

analyzes observational data from an

international network of seismological

observatories and sea-level observing

stations which operate on a cooperative

basis. The centers use the data to prepare watches and warnings covering all

United States territories and states bordering on the Pacific Ocean and disseminate this information to WFOs, federal

and state disaster agencies, military

organizations, private broadcast media,

and other facilities that warn the public. Figure 3-DOC-1. Locations of NWS Weather Forecast Offices. 
SECTION 3 DOC 31

National Centers for Environmental

Prediction.

Over the last several decades, NWS

has made major improvements in forecasting synoptic-scale (large-scale,

slowly evolving) weather. Further

improvements will be realized in the

severe weather and flood warnings

program as a result of improvements in

higher resolution, centrally prepared

weather guidance products out to

Day 5, implementation of NWS systems upgrades, advanced observations

from the planned geostationary and

polar-orbiting satellites, and the development of mesoscale predictive techniques for NWS field operations.

While the NWS field structure focuses

more on warnings and short-range

forecasts, NCEP serves a broader,

national mission where national centers provide products based on output

from numerical models, statistical

adjustments to model fields, and valueadded products prepared by national

center forecasters. This NCEP product

suite is transmitted to the WFOs in digital form, where forecasters use the

products to prepare local forecasts.

NCEP is organized into seven science-based, service-oriented centers

that generate environmental prediction

products and two central support centers that develop and operate numerical

models -- the basis for NWS predictions. NCEP provides an integrated

suite of forecast guidance and specific

forecast products from the short-term

through seasonal and interannual time

frames. Each service center depends

on the observational infrastructure, the

data assimilation systems, the numeric

modeling function, and the application

of model output statistics to produce

value-added forecast guidance products for NWS field offices and other

users.

Storm Prediction Center. The Storm

Prediction Center (SPC) focuses on

hazardous weather events, such as

severe thunderstorms, tornadoes,

extreme winter weather, and fire

weather with emphasis on the first few

hours of the forecast period. Other

products issued from the SPC give the

WFOs specific guidance on the probability and intensity of severe weather

occurrences for regional and local geographic scales. The SPC also issues

national outlooks for severe weather

out to two days.

Hydrometeorological Prediction

Center. The Hydrometeorological

Prediction Center (HPC) prepares

quantitative precipitation forecasts

(QPF) used by WFOs to develop local

rainfall, snow, and ice forecasts and by

the RFCs to develop local river and

flood forecasts. The HPC provides

special QPFs and coordinates with

other federal agencies, such as the

Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA), during major flood

events. The HPC also provides an

array of analyses and forecasts out to

seven days of frontal systems, pressure

patterns, temperature, and precipitation

for use by WFOs and the private

weather community (Figure 3-DOC-3).

Marine Prediction Center. The

Marine Prediction Center (MPC) handles United States international meteorological obligations to marine interests under the International

Convention for Safety of Life at Sea

(SOLAS). This center provides onestop-shopping for marine interests

operating outside the domain of coastal

WFOs. The MPC provides weather

and sea state warnings and forecasts

for the high seas of the Northern

Hemisphere north of 30 degrees for

planning and operational purposes.

MPC warnings and products go directly to ships and are vital for the protection of life and property at sea.

The MPC also coordinates forecasts

with WFOs with coastal responsibilities. Coastal WFOs have responsibility

for local forecasts and warnings that go

out to approximately 60 nautical miles;

for the high seas beyond, the MPC has

responsibility.

Tropical Prediction Center/National

Hurricane Center. The NCEP experts

in the area of tropical meteorology are

concentrated in the Tropical Prediction

Center (TPC)/National Hurricane

Center (NHC). TPC/NHC services

include advisories, watches, and warnings for tropical cyclones in the North

Atlantic and eastern North Pacific

Oceans, the Caribbean Sea, and the

Gulf of Mexico, including the portions

of the coastline threatened by such

storms.

In addition, TPC forecasters provide

marine analyses and forecast products

for the same areas of responsibility.

The TPC/NHC provides guidance,

Figure 3-DOC-2. Locations of NCEP centers.
32 DOC SECTION 3 

coordination, and tropical weather

expertise to WFO forecasters, the

media, and private industry.

Aviation Weather Center. The

Aviation Weather Center (AWC) provides weather forecasts to the aviation

community under an international

agreement through the International

Civil Aviation Organization. The

AWC provides wind, temperature, and

flight hazards (e.g., icing, turbulence)

forecasts for flight planning and en

route aircraft operations for the United

States, the Atlantic and Pacific routes

in the Northern Hemisphere, and some

routes in the Southern Hemisphere.

The AWC also produces guidance

products used by WFOs to support airport terminal forecasts. Thus, the

AWC produces large-scale, global aviation functions centrally, while the

WFOs customize local aviation products based on centralized guidance

provided by the AWC and local observations.

Climate Prediction Center. The

Climate Prediction Center (CPC) produces services consisting of operational prediction of climate variability,

monitoring of the climate system and

development of data bases for determining current climate anomalies and

trends, and analysis and assessment of

their origins and linkages to the rest of

the climate system. These services

cover time scales ranging from weeks

to seasons, and cover land, ocean, and

atmosphere extending into the stratosphere. WFOs, as well as the public,

private industry, and the international

research community use CPC climate

services.

Space Environment Center. The

Space Environment Center (SEC) provides national and international forecasts, alerts, and warnings of extraordinary conditions in the space environment, solar radio noise, solar energetic

particles, solar X-ray radiation, geomagnetic activity, and conditions of

stratospheric warming. The SEC

observes, assesses, and predicts activity in the space environment to promote

public safety and to mitigate economic

loss that could result from disruption

of satellite operations, communications and navigation systems, and electric power distribution grids. The SEC

issues specific predictions of the space

weather activity level for the next three

days and more general predictions up

to several weeks in advance, as well as

weekly summaries of observed solarterrestrial conditions.

Environmental Modeling Center. The

Environmental Modeling Center

(EMC) improves NCEP's numerical

weather, water, and climatic predictions

through data assimilation and computer

modeling. In support of the NCEP

operational missions to provide ocean

prediction, mesoscale prediction (thunderstorms, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc.),

and global prediction, EMC develops,

adapts, improves, and monitors data

assimilation systems and models of the

atmosphere, ocean, and

atmosphere/ocean system. The EMC

uses advanced modeling methods

developed internally and cooperatively

with universities, the international scientific community, NESDIS, NOAA

laboratories, and other government

agencies. The EMC integrates research

and technology through collaborative

model development projects. These

interactions serve as an efficient and

effective interface between NCEP and

the scientific community that develops

ideas, models, and techniques to

improve NCEP products. The EMC

also conducts applied research and technology transfers and publishes research

results in various media for dissemination to the world meteorological,

oceanographic, and climate community.

NCEP Central Operations. The

NCEP Central Operations (NCO) is

responsible for all aspects of NCEP

operations, including access to realtime data, and its quality control and

use in numerical weather prediction

systems, as well as the workstations

used by NCEP forecasters to access

model output and other data necessary

for producing guidance products. The

NCO provides management, procurement, development, installation, maintenance, and operation of all computing and communications-related services

that link individual NCEP activities

together. The NCO is the focal point

for establishing and executing policies,

standards, procedures, and documentation for computing and communications within the entire NCEP organization. The NCO houses and runs the

supercomputer facility that generates

all NCEP model products. The NCO

provides the technical transition

between the research and development

of numerical weather and climate prediction models and their operational

use. In addition, NCO provides

24-hour information services and operational support for NCEP computing

systems, including the network which

ties together internal NCEP communications, NWS mainframe and supercomputer systems, forecaster workstations, and personal computers.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

The NWS conducts applied research,

building upon the more basic research

conducted by NOAA laboratories and

the academic community. Applied

meteorological and hydrological

research is integral to providing more

timely and accurate weather and flood

warning and forecast services to the

public.

Meteorological Research. The NWS

conducts meteorological research to

develop, test, evaluate, and improve

numerical models and analysis/forecast techniques for weather and climate prediction including:
SECTION 3 DOC 33

 Techniques for predicting

mesoscale phenomena (e.g., heavy

precipitation, tornadoes, and severe

thunderstorms).

 Models to improve hurricane tracking, hurricane probability estimates, and tropical analyses.

 Storm surge models to assist in

developing hurricane evacuation

plans for additional coastal basins.

Hydrologic Research. The NWS

develops, implements, and operationally supports improved hydrologic,

hydraulic, and hydrometeorological

models and manages hydrologic data

and enhanced quality control procedures to support national flood and

water resources forecasting. Research

encompasses the following areas:

 Improvements to the Ensemble

Streamflow Prediction (ESP)

system and its complimentary

models in the NWS River

Forecasting System. Research,

development, and implementation of improved ESP procedures

are a large component of the

NWS' Advanced Hydrologic

Prediction Services (AHPS) initiative.

 Specialized flood and flash flood

forecasting procedures using

linked hydrologic, hydraulic, and

meteorological models. Major

research areas include developing distributed hydrologic models that use high resolution precipitation data from the NWS

radar network. Highly specialized hydraulic models for routing flows in main stem rivers

will also provide information for

generating maps of inundated

areas.

 Development of improved multisensor precipitation estimates for

input estimates for input into

operational hydrologic and

atmospheric models. Radar, rain

gauge, and satellite rainfall estimates are merged to produce

optimum rainfall analyses.

MODERNIZATION AND BEYOND

The NWS completed a modernization program in August 2000 that has

ushered in a new era for severe weather and flood warning and forecast services. Important advances in the atmospheric sciences, coupled with major

new technological capabilities for

observing and analyzing the atmosphere, have provided unprecedented

improvements in weather services.

The NWS is operating and will continue to improve in the future, the most

advanced hydrometeorological warning and forecast system in the world.

Through the WFOs, RFCs and

NCEP, the NWS provides a uniform

level of warning and forecast services

nationwide. All of the new technologies have been deployed and are fully

operational and include 314 Automated Surface Observing Systems,

123 Next Generation Weather Radars

with Doppler capability, 154 Advanced

Weather Interactive Processing

Systems, geostationary and polarorbiting satellites and a new supercomputer.

Statistics verify the substantial

improvements in warning and forecast

accuracy and timeliness. Advance

warning for tornadoes has doubled and

now averages 12 minutes. Advance

warning for flash floods has nearly

doubled. Accuracy of severe thunderstorm warnings has increased to

84 percent. The effectiveness of NWS

modernization has been demonstrated

during a number of major weather

events during the past decade including: the March 1993 east coast blizzard, the January 1996 winter storm in

the northeast, the January 1998 ice

storm in New England, flooding events

in the west in 1995 and 1997, tornado

outbreaks in the southeast in 1998, El

Niño-related storms, floods and tornadoes during the winter of 1997-1998,

and weather support during forest fires

in the West throughout the summer of

2000.

With the completion of its decadelong modernization, NWS has a

unique opportunity to capitalize on the

extensive investments in science and

technology to continue improving its

Figure 3-DOC-3. Online Internet graphics of 24-hour forecast depicting

weather fronts, pressure systems, and weather issued by the NWS

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center.
34 DOC SECTION 3 

services to the Nation. Emerging scientific and technological capabilities in

weather, water, and climate prediction

are matched by increasing national

needs for improved warnings and forecasts and a more integrated NWS focus

in these three scientific disciplines.

The NWS is now postured to blend

forecasts in these areas into a seamless

suite of products and services  accurate and timely products with high resolution and in a format that will provide users the flexibility to tailor the

information to their specific needs.

The characterization of a seamless

suite of products and services means

that by 2005 the NWS will provide

weather, water, and climate forecasts

for a specific geographic area from

time scales of minutes to seasons or

years. Climate services will be provided months in advance to allow communities and businesses to prepare for

extreme weather and water conditions.

These will be further supported by

forecasts that assess the threat of particular hazardous conditions (e.g.,

heavy precipitation or flooding) for

specific areas of the country up to two

weeks in advance. Finally, very precise forecasts of individual events

(e.g., flash floods) will be provided

hours and minutes in advance. In contrast, many of today's products and

services are prepared independently of

other products and services for the

same geographic area. This results in

potential inconsistencies and in less

effective use of data and computational power. By 2005, NWS forecasts

will be continuous, cumulative, consistent, relevant, and make the most

effective use of data and computing

power of the agency.

To achieve the above scenario of

services by 2005, NWS has prepared a

strategic plan for weather, water, and

climate services. The plan, published

in August 1999, presents five goals: 

 Deliver a credible, timely, and relevant suite of seamless weather,

water, and climate products and

services which exploit technology

to the fullest to meet customer and

partner needs;

 Aggressively and continually

infuse science and technological

advances to improve products and

delivery of services that best meet

and anticipate customer needs;

 Strengthen United States leadership

on emerging application of weather,

water, and climate information to

meet environmental and economic

challenges;

 Work with employees to create an

organizational culture which

embraces change; values service;

promotes teamwork with customers, partners, and each other;

and fosters innovation in mission

and vision accomplishment; and

 Create a responsive support system,

adaptable to changing needs and

opportunities which maximize the

return on investment to America.

The NWS focus through 2005 will be

to harness an explosion of information

technology, to strengthen linkages

among the disciplines of weather,

water, and climate prediction, to work

more effectively with partners to

improve and expand services, and to

become a more responsive and efficient government agency.
SECTION 3 DOC 35

The National Environmental

Satellite, Data, and Information

Service (NESDIS) manages United

States civil operational environmental

satellite systems, as well as global

databases for meteorology, oceanography, solid-earth geophysics, and solarterrestrial sciences. From these

sources, NESDIS develops and distributes environmental data and information products and services critical to

the protection of life and property, the

national economy, energy development and distribution, global food supplies, and development and management of environmental resources

(Figure 3-DOC-4).

NESDIS was established as a NOAA

line office on December 1, 1982. The

merger of the former National

Environmental Satellite Service

(NESS) and Environmental Data and

Information Service (EDIS) formed

NESDIS.

NESDIS operates two primary polarorbiting satellites in sun-synchronous

orbits with equatorial crossing times in

the early morning (circa 7:30 a.m.

LST) and early afternoon (circa

1:40 p.m. LST). The orbits are circular, with an altitude between 830 km

(morning orbit) and 870 km (afternoon

orbit). These satellites orbit the Earth

14 times per day, collecting global data

for atmospheric and surface measurements in support of short-term weather

forecasting and longer-term global climate change research.

An agreement finalized with the

European Organization for the

Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

(EUMETSAT) gives EUMETSAT

responsibility for the morning segment

of the polar environmental mission (circa

9:30 a.m. LST), with United States-provided payload instruments and sensors,

beginning in 2005. Thus, upon inception

of this operational arrangement, NOAA

will operate the afternoon mission while

EUMETSAT will support the morning

mission.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE, DATA, AND INFORMATION SERVICE

Figure 3-DOC-4. NESDIS Programs range from satellite launch to operational monitoring to data communications and

archiving.
36 DOC SECTION 3 

On October 3, 1994, NOAA, the

Department of Defense (DOD), and

the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) created an

Integrated Program Office (IPO) to

develop, manage, acquire, and operate

the national polar-orbiting meteorological satellite system, subsequently designated the National Polar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite

System (NPOESS). The IPO is organizationally located within NOAA and

is headed by a System Program

Director responsible to the NPOESS

Executive Committee. This committee, which includes senior representatives from the three agencies, serves as

a board of directors to ensure that overall program plans also meet the individual needs of the three participating

agencies.

The IPO concept provides each of

the participating agencies with lead

responsibility for one of three primary

functional areas. NOAA has overall

responsibility for the converged system and is responsible to the IPO for

satellite operations. NOAA is also the

primary interface with the international and civil user communities. DOD is

responsible to support the IPO for

major systems acquisitions including

launch support. NASA has a primary

responsibility for facilitating the development and incorporation of new costeffective technologies into the converged system. Although each agency

provides certain key personnel in their

lead role, each functional division is

staffed by tri-agency work teams to

maintain the integrated approach. The

first converged satellite is expected to

be available late in this decade depending on when the current NOAA and

Defense Meteorological Satellite

Program (DMSP) programmed satellite assets are exhausted.

NPOESS will provide standard

meteorological data, oceanographic,

environmental, climatic, space environmental remote sensing information,

as well as continuing to provide surface data collection and search and rescue capability. The IPO, in consultation with the NOAA and DMSP program offices, is also studying additional potential cost effective approaches

to maximize user satisfaction during

the transition to NPOESS while guaranteeing continued non-interrupted

data services.

NESDIS is also responsible for operating two Geostationary Operational

Environmental Satellites (GOES).

GOES-East stationed at 75°W monitors the Atlantic Ocean, the East and

Gulf Coasts, and the Midwest; GOESWest at 135°W monitors the Pacific

Ocean and West Coast. Due to an

impending failure of the attitude and

orbit control systems on GOES-9, it

was replaced by GOES-10 in

July 1998. GOES-11, the next in the

series of GOES, was launched on

May 3, 2000. It was placed in on-orbit

standby at 104°W. It will replace

either GOES-8 or GOES-10, when

either satellite fails.

ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE

SERVICES

Office of Satellite Operations

The Office of Satellite Operations

(OSO) directs the operation of

NOAA's environmental satellites and

the acquisition of remotely sensed

environmental data. It manages the

Satellite Operations Control Center

(SOCC) and Command and Data

Acquisition (CDA) stations, which

command and control, track, and

acquire data from these environmental

satellites.

OSO took over the command, control, and communications function of

the DOD's DMSP constellation in

1998. The mission of DMSP is to provide meteorological and special sensor

data to users in support of worldwide

DOD missions. DMSP is now operated from the SOCC at Suitland,

Maryland. SOCC is the primary center

for normal operations, mission planning, engineering, launch and early

orbit support, and anomaly resolution.

A new ground system was developed

for DMSP called Integrated Polar

Acquisition and Control Subsystem.

Office of Satellite Data Processing and

Distribution

The Office of Satellite Data

Processing and Distribution (OSDPD)

directs the operations of NESDIS central ground data processing facilities.

It processes and distributes current

weather satellite data and derived

products to the NWS and other domestic and foreign users, and provides

coordination and customer services for

satellite direct readout and direct

broadcast users and GOES scheduling.

Satellite sources include the

European, Japanese, and Indian operational geostationary satellites

(METEOSAT, GMS, and INSAT

respectively) and other research or

experimental sources, such as the

NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring

Mission (TRMM) and Japan's

ADEOS. OSDPD processes and distributes these NOAA and non-NOAA

environmental satellite products to the

NWS National Centers and Weather

Forecast Offices (WFOs), and other

federal, state, and private sector organizations through dedicated satellite

server configurations, or through the

NOAAPORT satellite point-to-point

broadcast facility.

Data for NOAAPORT are remapped

digital data satellite products and

derived products, such as lifted index,

high density wind direction and intensities at various atmospheric levels,

quantitative precipitation estimates,

and volcanic ash advisory messages.

NOAAPORT delivers GOES and soon

to be added POES products in virtual

real-time to the Advanced Weather

Interactive Processing System

(AWIPS). AWIPS is the NWS's new

display and analysis workstation used

in their national centers and field sites

to integrate and display satellite data,

model data, observations, radar and

wind profiles for hydrometeorological
SECTION 3 DOC 37

analyses. As the AWIPS satellite capabilities improve, NESDIS will shift

focus from support of the RAMM

Branch Advanced Meteorological

Satellite Demonstration and

Interpretation System (RAMSDIS).

RAMSDIS currently supplies digital

GOES and POES images to a group of

NWS sites via the Internet for demonstration, evaluation, and familiarization purposes. RAMSDIS enables

forecasters to perform operations, such

as looping, enhancement curve

changes, and local image recombination.

NESDIS continued it's support of the

COSPAS-SARSAT Program through

provision of satellites, ground stations,

and alert data distribution services.

The COSPAS-SARSAT program consists of Russia, the United States,

France, and Canada providing the

space segment and 29 other countries

providing ground systems to relay distress alerts or participate in the management of the program. NESDIS

operates and maintains the United

States SARSAT Mission Control

Center and fourteen ground stations.

The ground stations receive signals

directly from the satellites and process

the information to provide the location

of distress transmissions

(Figure 3-DOC-5). In 2000,

COSPAS-SARSAT decided to terminate satellite processing of 121.5/243

MHz signals beginning February 1,

2009. This decision was made in

response to guidance from the

International Civil Aviation

Organization and the International

Maritime Organization. These two

specialized agencies of the United

Nations are responsible for aviation

and maritime search and rescue. The

use of new emergency beacons that

can use the Global Positioning System

(GPS) to provide an accurate position

continues to increase. Seven of the

last fourteen 406 MHz beacon models

approved are able to use GPS to transmit their position.

National Ice Center

The United States National Ice

Center (NIC), under sponsorship of the

United States Navy, NOAA, and the

United States Coast Guard (USCG), is

tasked with providing the highest quality operational global, regional, and

tactical scale sea ice analyses and forecasts, tailored to meet the requirements

of United States National interests.

NIC ice products are produced in a

digital workstation environment using

data from polar orbiting satellites,

ship/shore station reports, drifting

buoys, meteorological guidance products, ice model predictions, and government partners including foreign ice

services. The primary remotely sensed

data sources used for global and

regional-scale ice mapping are visible

and infrared imagery from the

TIROS-N Advanced Very High

Resolution Radiometer (1.1km spatial

resolution) and the DMSP Operational

Linescan System (0.55km spatial resolution). In areas of extensive cloud

cover, the NIC utilizes Special Sensor

Microwave Imager (SSM/I) sensor

data (19 and 37 GHz channels)

processed using the CAL/VAL and

NASA Team ice concentration algorithms. These algorithms produce

25km gridded mosaic ice maps that are

instrumental in the production of NIC

weekly composite Arctic/Antarctic ice

maps. Higher resolution ice analysis

products, used to ensure the safety of

navigation and protect life and property at sea, are dependent upon the availability and use of Synthetic Aperture

Radar (SAR) data from the Canadian

RADARSAT. RADARSAT's

ScanSAR wide mode produces a

500km wide swath with 100m spatial

resolution. Images are processed at

four different ground stations and

transferred to the NIC via dedicated

communication lines or via the Internet

within six hours of acquisition. The

NIC Science team, which assists in the

transition of pertinent scientific

research to operations, is presently

working on the transition of real-time

SSMI sea ice products to the NIC

Figure 3-DOC-5. United States Coast Guard rescue helicopter locates crew of

capsized trimaran with information provided by SARSAT.
38 DOC SECTION 3 

operations floor, conducting an evaluation of current SSM/I-derived sea ice

algorithms, and the use of SSM/I data

for initializing and evaluating the Polar

Ice Prediction System (PIPS).

Routine NIC ice guidance products

include regional-scale ice maps, annotated satellite imagery; short and longterm ice forecasts, and legacy ice information and ice climatology.

Specialized support services include

specific regional support, ship route

recommendations, pre-sail ship briefings, aerial ice reconnaissance, and

ship rider support. Specific sea ice features analyzed include ice edge position, ice concentration, ice thickness,

form or floe size, ice motion, areas of

compression and heavy surface deformation, and the location/orientation of

open water or thin ice-covered leads.

Ice products are disseminated via the

Internet (www.natice.noaa.gov) as

simple electronic charts in Joint

Photographic Experts Group (JPEG

format), GIS-compatible coverages

(ESRI ARC/INFO .e00 export format),

and in the World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) digital standard

for Sea Ice in GRIDded (SIGRID,

SIGRID-2) format. Date and time of

data acquisition as well as the percentage of each data type used in all ice

analyses are documented in a metadata

narrative.

Another of the NIC's responsibilities

is oversight of the United States

Interagency Arctic Buoy Program

(USIABP). The USIABP was established in 1992 to provide the management structure and coordination necessary to maintain a baseline network of

drifting buoys. Buoys within the array

provide sufficient spatial resolution to

define surface synoptic scale atmospheric pressure, air temperature, and

sea-ice drift fields (Figure 3-DOC-6).

Data are used in real-time for operational weather and ice forecasting and

for research in the Global Climate

Change Program. The USIABP is a

collaborative program that draws operating funds and services from the collective contributions of seven governFigure 3-DOC-6. Locations of buoys in the International Arctic Buoy program.
SECTION 3 DOC 39

ment agencies and/or programs. These

organizations include: the Naval

Oceanographic Office, Office of Naval

Research (ONR), NASA, National

Science Foundation (NSF), and

NOAA's NESDIS, OAR, and Office of

Global Programs (OGP).

Office of Research and Applications

The Office of Research and

Applications (ORA) provides guidance and direction for NESDIS

research and applications

activities. It coordinates

the efforts of the Climate

Research and

Applications Division,

Atmospheric Research

and Applications

Division, and Oceanic

Research and

Applications Division.

These divisions conduct

studies on the use of satellite data to monitor environmental characteristics

and change and develop

algorithms to produce

satellite products for

applications to operational weather and ocean

analyses and prediction. Further, ORA

participates in the development of new

spacecraft and sensors for future systems. It also carries out a vigorous

program to calibrate and validate satellite data to ensure its quality for longterm studies. Additionally, ORA

through division participation, actively

educates others on technology transfer

programs through scientific presentations, technical reports, Internet-based

tutorials, and training workshops at

domestic and international sites.

Polar-Orbiting Systems

The primary mission of the Polarorbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite (POES) System is to provide

daily global observations of weather

patterns and environmental measurements of the Earth's atmosphere, its

surface and cloud cover, and the proton

and electron flux at satellite altitude.

Since the beginning of the POES program, environmental data and products

acquired by its satellites have been

provided to users around the globe.

These satellites increase the accuracy

of weather forecasting by providing

quantitative data required for improved

numerical weather forecast models.

Currently, the two primary operational

spacecraft are NOAA-15 and

NOAA-16.

NOAA polar satellites carry instruments to provide atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles. They also

provide multi-channel images and

carry a data collection and platform

location system, and a Search and

Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking

(SARSAT) subsystem. The SARSAT

subsystem is used to detect and locate

distress alerts from maritime, aviation,

and land-based users. In addition to

taking thermal images of the earth's

surface and atmosphere, the NOAA

polar-orbiting satellites carry sounder

instruments to provide vertical profiles

of atmospheric temperature and moisture.

POES satellites carry four primary

instrument systems: the Advanced

Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR); the Television Infrared

Observation System (TIROS)

Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS);

the Space Environment Monitor

(SEM); and the Solar Backscatter

Ultra-Violet Instrument (SBUV/2).

The AVHRR provides data for realtime transmission to both Automatic

Picture Transmission (APT) and High

Resolution Picture Transmission

(HRPT) users and for storage on the

spacecraft tape recorders for later playback. The AVHRR provides stored

and direct-readout

radiometer data for day

and night cloud cover,

sea surface temperatures,

vegetation indices, and

snow and ice mapping.

The HIRS/3 is a discrete-stepping, linescan

instrument designed to

measure scene radiance

in 20 spectral bands to

permit the calculation of

the vertical temperature

profile from Earth's surface to about 40km.

Multi-spectral data from

one visible channel

(0.69μm), seven shortwave channels (3.7 to

4.6μm), and twelve long wave channels (6.5 to 15μm) are obtained from a

single telescope and rotating filter

wheel containing twenty individual filters. An elliptical scan mirror provides

cross-track scanning of 56 increments

of 1.8μm. The mirror steps rapidly

(<35 msec), then holds at each position

while the 20 filter segments are sampled. This action takes place each 100

msec. The instantaneous field of

vision (FOV) for each channel is

approximately 1.4μm in the visible and

shortwave IR, and 1.3μm in the long

wave IR band that, from an altitude of

833km, encompasses an area of

20.3km and 18.9km in diameter,

respectively, at nadir on the Earth.

Each AMSU-A instrument is composed of two separate units:

(a) AMSU-A2 with two channels at

23.8 and 31.4GHz and (b) AMSU-A1
40 DOC SECTION 3 

with twelve channels in the range of

50.3 to 57.3GHz and one channel at

89.0GHz. The AMSU-B has five

channels with frequencies centered on

89, 150, 183±1, 183±3, and 183±7Ghz,

respectively. AMSU-B, provided by

the United Kingdom Meteorological

Office, produces soundings of humidity from the surface to 200 millibars

(mb). AMSU-A has a nominal FOV of

3.3° (48km on surface at nadir) and

AMSU-B a field of view of 1.1° (16km

on surface at nadir). AMSU-A

(AMSU-B) samples 30° (90°) Earth

views, covering ±48.95° from the subsatellite point. In addition, the specialized 89GHz channel, with the capability to "see" through high and mid-level

clouds to low level moisture clouds, is

utilized to determine the position and

structure of tropical cyclones on a

global scale. The AMSU-A1 uses two

antenna systems, providing observations in the twelve oxygen band channels (3-14) for retrieving the atmospheric temperature profile from the

Earth's surface to about 42km, or from

1000 to 2 mb. The remaining three

channels (1 and 2 from A2 and 15 from

A1) aid the retrieval of temperature

soundings by correction of surface

emissivity, atmospheric liquid water,

and total precipitable water. These

window channels also provide information on precipitation, sea ice, and

snow coverage.

The SEM measures solar proton

flux, alpha particle and electron flux

density, and energy spectrum and total

particulate energy distribution at

spacecraft altitude. The two sensors

included within this instrument are the

Total Energy Detector (TED) and the

Medium Energy Proton and Electron

Detector (MEPED), in addition to a

common data processing unit. This

instrument augments the measurements made by NOAA's geostationary

satellites.

In addition to the three instrument

systems previously described, the

NOAA-16 POES carry the SBUV/2.

SBUV/2 is a non-scanning (fixed nadir

viewing) spectrometer designed to

measure scene radiance and solar spectral irradiance from 160 nanometers to

400 nanometers. Data obtained from

the instrument are used to compute the

amount and vertical distribution of

ozone in the Earth's atmosphere on the

sunlit side of the Earth. The ground

system required to receive large volumes of digital data from NOAA satellites consists of two major subsystems:

the Polar Acquisition and Control

Subsystem (PACS) and the Central

Environmental Satellite Computer

System (CEMSCS). The PACS

includes the Wallops, Virginia, and

Fairbanks, Alaska, CDA stations and

the SOCC at Suitland, Maryland. All

the CEMSCS components are in the

NOAA facility at Suitland. PACS is

used to command and control the

spacecraft, monitor its health via

housekeeping telemetry, and retrieve

and transmit the spacecraft environmental data to the CEMSCS processing and data handling facility. The

delivery of NOAA system data from

the CDA's to Suitland is accomplished

by using the General Electric

American Communications, Inc. commercial satellite communications network. This system, which includes

Earth stations at Suitland, Wallops, and

Fairbanks, delivers the data to SOCC.

These data are immediately passed to

the CEMSCS for processing. The

CEMSCS ingests the raw satellite data

and pre-processes and stores them

along with appended auxiliary information, such as Earth location, calibration, and quality control parameters.

The data processed by the CEMSCS

are used for environmental products

and operational weather predictions

that are disseminated to users throughout the world.

The POES Data Collection (and

location) System (DCS) is provided

through an international cooperative

agreement with the Centre Nationale

d'Etudes Spatiales of France and is

called the ARGOS DCS. The system

provides a means to locate and collect

environmental data from fixed and

moving platforms; i.e., polar ice flows,

ocean buoys, oil pipelines, birds, mammals, etc. The ARGOS DCS supports

environmental applications, e.g. meteorology, oceanography, and protection

of the environment, with the majority

of users being government/non-profit

agencies and researchers. An instrument upgrade to incorporate a downlink message capability is planned for

the NOAA-N' satellite.

Geostationary Satellite Program

Two operational geostationary satellites, GOES-8 (75°W) and GOES-10

(135°W), provide coverage of virtually

the entire western hemisphere for operational meteorological services

(Figure 3-DOC-7). The projected

launch schedule and associated instruments for geostationary satellites are

shown in Table 3.1.

The GOES satellites host an imager

capable of detecting atmospheric, sea

surface, and land properties in five

spectral bands including the 3.9μm and

12.0μm wavelengths. However,

beginning with GOES-M, the 12.0μm

channel will be replaced with a

13.0μm channel, with the goal of

achieving more accurate cloud height

assignments for mid- and upper-level

atmospheric wind-velocity estimates.

Also, the resolution of the water vapor

channel will improve to 4km from

8km.

GOES satellites transmit all five

spectral bands simultaneously, providing the user community with continuous views of atmospheric measurements in various wavelengths, each

with its own meteorological and

hydrological application. GOES

spacecraft were designed for flexible

scanning of the Earth; a variety of

scans or sector coverage can be scheduled. For example, the full-earth disk

is normally scanned once every

3 hours and requires about 30 minutes

to complete the entire scan.
SECTION 3 DOC 41

TABLE 3.1 PROJECTED SATELLITE LAUNCH SCHEDULE

POLAR-ORBITING SYSTEM GEOSTATIONARY SYSTEM

Satellite Designator Planned Launch Date* Satellite Designator Planned Launch Date*

NOAA M CY 2001 GOES M CY 2001

METOP-1 CY 2005 GOES N CY 2002

NOAA-N CY 2004 GOES O CY 2005

NOAA-N CY 2008 GOES P CY 2007

METOP-2 CY 2010 GOES Q CY 2010

METOP-3 CY 2012 GOES R CY 2012

NPOESS-3 CY 2014

NPOESS-4 CY 2016

NPOESS-5 CY 2018

*Launch date depends on performance of prior spacecraft and is subject to change.

NOAA Instruments for NOAA Polar-Orbiter and METOP Series

AVHRR - Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

SEM - Space Environment Monitor

SBUV - Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument (NOAA PM mission only)

HIRS - High Resolution Infrared Sounder

DCS ARGOS - Data Collection System

AMSU-A - Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-A

AMSU-B - Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-B

SARP - Search and Rescue Processor

SARR - Search and Rescue Repeater

MHS - Microwave Humidity Sounder (NOAA-N/N' and METOP) 

Instruments for NPOESS Series

VIIRS - Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite

CMIS - Conical Microwave Imager/Sounder

CrIS - Cross-track Infrared Sounder

ATMS - Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder

OMPS - Ozone Mapper/Profiler Suite

SES - Space Environment Suite

DCS - Data Collection System

SARSAT - Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking System

ERBS - Earth Radiation Budget Sensor

TSIS - Total Solar Irradiance Sensor

ALT - Altimeter (Dual Frequency radar altimeter)

Instruments for GOES-Next Series

Imager 

Sounder

SEM - Space Environment Monitor

SXI - Solar X-Ray Imager (GOES M and N)

EUMETSAT Unique Instruments for METOP Series Satellites

ASCAT - Advanced Scatterometer

GOME - Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment

GRAS - GPS Receiver for Atmospheric Sounding

IASI - Infra-red Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer
42 DOC SECTION 3 

Depending on requirements to monitor

environmental hazards on the Earth's

surface or in the atmosphere,

30-minute periods in between the fulldisk scans may be scheduled as a mixture of 15-minute intervals (routine

operations) or 71⁄2-minute interval

(severe operations) scans over the contiguous United States. To further support mesoscale and microscale analyses, 1000 km x 1000 km areas can also

be scanned at 1-minute intervals, to

capture rapidly developing and dynamic environmental phenomena. The five

channels and respective resolutions are

as follows:

 Channel 1 (Visible, .55μm to

.75μm) - 1 km

 Channel 2 (Infrared, 3.8μm to

4.0μm) - 4 km

 Channel 3 (Water Vapor, 6.5μm to

7.0μm) - 8 km (4 km starting with

GOES-M)

 Channel 4 (Infrared, 10.2μm to

11.2μm) - 4 km

 Channel 5 (Infrared, 11.5μm to

12.5μm) - 4 km

The GOES-8 and GOES-10 sounder

instruments, consisting of 19 spectral

channels, are used for measurements

of atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles, surface and cloud top

temperatures, and ozone distribution.

Products derived from the sounder

include precipitable water and lifted

index - a measurement of atmospheric

stability. Comparable to the imager,

the sounder is capable of providing

various scan coverages, such as fullEarth imagery, sectorized imagery, and

local imagery. In routine operations,

GOES-8 and GOES-10 provide hourly

sounding coverage.

The GOES Space Environment

Monitor (SEM) collects data for warnings of solar activity. This block of

instruments is more extensive than on

POES. The GOES SEM instruments

include X-ray monitors that detect

solar flares, energetic particle sensors,

and three-component vector magnetometers to measure changes in the

ambient magnetic field. Real-time

SEM data are used to support operational NOAA and DOD space environment forecasts and alerts. Data from

GOES SEM sensors are archived by

the National Geophysical Data Center

and provided to retrospective users online via Internet and on a variety of

computer media.

GOES also carries a Data Collection

System (DCS), which is used to collect

and relay environmental data observed

by a variety of remotely located platforms, such as river and tide gauges,

seismometers, buoys, ships, and automatic weather stations. In support of

NOAA missions, GOES DCS data are

used in weather forecasts and warnings, reservoir control, and flood monitoring. While the GOES DCS is a

critical element for national and international meteorological and hydrological programs, the NWS NEXRAD program relies on the DCS data as a vital

input for calibration and validation.

Tsunami watches and warnings for the

Pacific Ocean are prepared using the

Data Collection Platform data transmitted via GOES DCS. The GOES

DCS program touches all aspects of

our lives in supporting water quality,

air pollution, and global environmental

monitoring.

The GOES Search and Rescue

Satellite Aided Tracking (SARSAT)

System is capable of providing an

immediate distress alert, unlike the

POES satellite SARSAT transponders

which must come within line of site of

either of a Local User Terminal, in

order to relay the distress beacon back

to the United States SARSAT Mission

Control Center (USMCC). Newer

state-of-the art COSPAS-SARSAT distress beacons, utilizing the Global

Positioning System (GPS), now have

the capability to provide location information in the distress message relayed

by GOES to the USMCC.

NESDIS continues to improve user

access to its operational satellite products and services using new communiFigure 3-DOC-7. Smog (indicated by the white arrows) is visible in this

GOES-8 image stretching from the East Coast over the Atlantic Ocean.
SECTION 3 DOC 43

cations technologies including the

Internet. One important on-line access

system, managed and operated by

OSDPD and NOAA's National

Climatic Data Center (NCDC), is the

NOAA Operational Satellite Active

Archive (SAA). The SAA

(www.saa.noaa.gov) provides satellite

data access, display, and electronic

transfer. Available data types include

AVHRR, ATOVS, DMSP (special sensor), and RADARSAT (authorized

subscription users). While developed

as an independent system, the SAA

serves as NOAA's initial interoperable

interface to NASA's Earth Observing

System Data and Information System

(EOSDIS). After the phase-out of the

GOES-TAP system in 1998, many

users now rely on GOES sectorized

images, mapped to standard AWIPS

grids, available in near-real-time at

www.goes.noaa.gov. Near-real-time

images and interpretive analyses of

tropical storms and hurricanes worldwide, ash from volcanic eruptions

within the western hemisphere, heavy

precipitation in the United States

which cause flash flooding or blizzards, wildland fires and smoke within

the United States, and northern hemisphere snow boundaries are located

at www.ssd.noaa.gov. Specially

enhanced and annotated imagery and

image loops of environmental events,

such as flooding, hurricanes and other

severe storms, volcanic eruptions,

fires, and dust storms are available from www.osei.noaa.gov

(Figure 3-DOC-7). This web site was

set up for use by the news media, general public and to provide once or

twice per day satellite views of an

environmental event for federal, state,

and international governments and

agencies. Also supporting the media,

scientific organizations, and federal

and state agencies is a specially

designed web site featuring visualizations of satellite data, found at

www.nnvl.noaa.gov/.

INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT

FOR HAZARD MITIGATION

The Committee on Earth

Observation Satellites (CEOS) was

formed in 1984, in response to recommendations from the Economic

Summit of Industrialized Nations

Working Group on Growth,

Technology, and Employment's Panel

of Experts on Satellite Remote

Sensing. This group recognized the

multi-disciplinary nature of satellitebased Earth Observation (EO) data and

the value of coordination across all

proposed missions. In CEOS,

providers and users of EO satellite data

work together to promote the effective

use of data from such satellites.

Recognizing the benefits that could be

gained from better application of EO

satellite data to natural and technological hazards, CEOS initiated an activity

on disaster management support. The

Director of NESDIS/OSDPD chairs

the group. The Disaster Management

Support Group focuses on developing

and refining recommendations for the

application of satellite data to selected

hazard areas. Particular emphasis is

placed on working closely with space

agencies, international and regional

organizations, and commercial organizations on the implementation of these

recommendations.

The Disaster Management Support

Group began as a project in 1997 with

an objective to support natural and

technological disaster management on

a worldwide basis by fostering

improved utilization of existing and

planned Earth observation satellite

data. Meetings are held two to three

times per year. Hazards addressed

include drought, earthquake, fire,

flooding, landslides, oil spill, sea ice,

and volcanic hazards. Teams were

charged with compiling user requirements; identifying shortcomings and

gaps in the provision of required satellite data; and developing recommendations for alleviating them. Hazard

team reports are included in the

Group's annual progress reports. The

latest annual progress report is available in hardcopy or via the group's web

site (www.disaster.ceos.org).

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

PROGRAMS

Recent advances in numerical

weather prediction (NWP) models,

both at NOAA's NCEP/EMC and other

major International NWP Centers,

require higher quality satellite derived

winds, particularly over the traditionally data void oceanic regions of the

globe. The NESDIS GOES winds processing suite is totally automated and

uses a series of geostationary satellite

images to derive wind estimates. The

automated winds algorithm uses an

objective pattern matching technique

to estimate velocity, and satellite water

vapor and infrared brightness temperature data to assign heights to these

derived wind estimates. The automated quality control of image registration

is also an important component of the

NESDIS GOES winds processing

suite. Approximately 20,000 clouddrift and water vapor motion wind vectors are derived from both satellites for

each cycle and distributed to EMC and

to the Global Telecommunications

System (GTS). EMC uses these operational NESDIS wind products in their

global and regional data assimilation/numerical forecast systems. NESDIS recently completed the effort to

reformat the winds in WMO-sanctioned BUFR format. Current work

involves the investigation of a slow

bias seen in water vapor winds.

The newest satellite wind products

include the low-level high density visible satellite winds. During the daylight hours, visible channel data can be

used to track cloud motions. The

GOES visible imagery offers high horizontal resolution (1 km) and frequent

image sampling (15-30 minutes nominally; higher in special rapid scan

modes). The visible channel can

depict lower-tropospheric cumuliform
44 DOC SECTION 3 

tracers in areas not covered by opaque

cirrus. In terms of tropical cyclones,

visible winds can depict the low level

flow in the outer storm vortex region,

which is an important area in assessing

storm motion. The GOES satellites

have an atmospheric sounder that

includes two water vapor channels

centered at 7.0μm and 7.3μm. These

sounder channels can be employed as

surrogate imagers to track water vapor

features radiating from the lower layers of the troposphere. The weighting

function of the 7.0μm channel peaks

around 450mb and the weighting function of the 7.3μm channel peaks

around 550mb. Water vapor winds

generated from these two channels will

compliment the imager-based clouddrift and water vapor winds, resulting

in an improved three-dimensional

depiction of the wind field. The implementation of these new algorithms and

the visible wind products into the operational environment at NESDIS began

in 1999. These wind products can be

viewed at orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.gov/

goes and cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/tropic/

real-time. Digital sounding and winds

files are available through a GOES

computer server within OSDPD.

Atmospheric Moisture and Stability

Products

Research continues to improve the

atmospheric moisture and stability

products from the GOES-8 and

GOES-10 sounder instruments.

Precipitable water for three layers of

the atmosphere: surface to 900 hPa;

900-700 hPa; and 700-300 hPa are

computed from the soundings. Total

precipitable water (TPW) for the entire

atmospheric column, from the earth's

surface to the "top" of the atmosphere,

is also computed. These precipitable

water products are particularly valuable for the short-term forecasting of

precipitation, locating those environments favorable for heavy precipitation and flash floods, thunderstorms,

and fog. Hourly updates of this information provide useful information for

the EMC regional data assimilation

systems and for weather forecasters in

the field. EMC currently uses the

GOES precipitable water retrievals as

input to ETA Data Assimilation

System (EDAS), which provides the

initialization for the ETA, forecast

model. NESDIS is currently aiding

EMC with running global and regional

model impact analyses to improve and

optimize the use of the GOES derived

products in numerical weather prediction schemes. At present, a blended

GOES, SSM/I, and model-derived

product is being evaluated. In addition, a precipitable water product has

been developed from the NOAA-15

AMSU sensor, and is presently undergoing evaluation. In the near future,

the blended product will include the

AMSU-derived precipitable water. In

addition to the moisture products,

numerous atmospheric stability indices

can be computed from measurements

made by the GOES sounder instrument. Two stability indices, the lifted

index (LI) and CAPE index, are computed on a routine basis. Since these

indices are produced hourly, sequential

images of these derived quantities

clearly show the diurnal and dynamic

changes associated with weather

events. So, in addition to providing

these data to EMC for use in numerical

weather prediction models, the graphical representation of these products

allows for the looping of the products

in time. This capability aids NWS

forecasters in the field, for example, to

understand the time evolution of

severe storms. It was anticipated that

the GOES sounder moisture and stability products that presently have a horizontal resolution of approximately

50km2

, would be generated at a high

horizontal resolution of 30 km2 by the

summer of 2000. These products can

be viewed at orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.

gov/goes and cimss.ssec.wisc.edu.

Digital versions of these products are

available from POES and GOES computer servers within OSDPD. A similar suite of products is being developed

from NOAA-14 and NOAA-15 for

forecasters.

Tropical Cyclone Monitoring

NESDIS continues to improve upon

satellite-based techniques for estimating tropical cyclone positions and

intensities, and for describing the internal structure of these storms. New sensors such as AMSU, TRMM among

others are being incorporated into the

NESDIS operational tropical program,

which supports the NWS and DOD

hurricane programs. Real-time

imagery and NESDIS tropical text

messages can be viewed at www.ssd.

noaa.gov/SSD/ML/realtime. html.

Precipitation Estimates

The Auto-Estimator produces quarter-hourly estimates of precipitation

based on GOES infrared data. This

technique was designed to eventually

replace the more manual "Interactive

Flash Flood Analyzer" (IFFA), but currently both techniques are used to produce the best quality product for NWS.

The Auto-Estimator has an orographic

adjustment factor and can be manually

adjusted for warm cloud tops. Current

improvements being tested include

using: RADAR and visible data (as a

rain/no-rain detector) and equilibrium

level temperatures from the ETA

model for warm top adjustments.

Other techniques are being tested such

as the GOES Multi-Spectral Rainfall

Algorithm (GMSRA), a combined

GOES and SSM/I rainfall algorithm

(developed at NRL/Monterey), and a

NOAA-15 AMSU based retrieval algorithm. The GMSRA uses all five

GOES imager channels and may be

merged with the Auto-Estimator after

an inter-comparison is completed.

Finally, the POES based microwave

algorithms from the SSM/I and AMSU

sensors are being utilized to produce

automated tropical cyclone rainfall

potential estimates (Figure 3-DOC-8)

and global precipitation estimates are

produced from microwave data for climate monitoring and analysis. These
SECTION 3 DOC 45

products can be viewed at orbitnet.nesdis.noaa.gov/arad/ht/ and at

manati.wwb.noaa.gov/doc/ssmiprecip.html. Digital versions of these

products are also available from POES

and GOES computer servers within

OSDPD.

Microburst Products

Several experimental microburst and

convective wind gust products are

being tested. These products utilize

sounder data from both GOES-East/

West to compute the maximum possible wind gust and the potential for both

wet and dry microbursts over the continental United States. They are produced hourly during the convective

season and can be viewed at orbitnet.nesdis.noaa.gov/arad/fpdt/mb.html

Low Cloud and Aircraft Icing Products

Detection of fog and low clouds, particularly at night, is important to aviation activities. A GOES product utilizing two infrared channels (10.7μm and

3.9μm) can help determine the areal

extent of this cloudiness at night over

the continental United States and

Alaska every 30 minutes. An experimental fog depth image is produced

hourly. An experimental cloud base

height product for the West Coast was

added in 2000 to estimate low ceilings

(<1,000 ft) that are critical to aviation

operations. Fog products can be found

at orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.gov/arad/fpdt/

fog.html. By combining information

from the visible and long wave

infrared (12.0μm) channels to the two

described above, areas of possible aircraft icing can be delineated. The icing

product is available hourly and can be

viewed at orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.gov/

arad/fpdt/icg.html.

Geostationary Sea Surface

Temperatures

GOES-8 and GOES-10 are proving

capable of producing sea surface temperatures (SST) over most of the

Western Hemisphere nearly continuously. The accuracy and spatial resolution achieved with the GOES measurements are close to that achieved

from the polar orbiting platforms, and

GOES has a unique advantage of high

temporal sampling frequency. For the

SST determination, the frequent sampling by GOES makes a more complete map of SST possible after clouds

have moved on. Additionally, a

change in scene temperature over a

short period of time may indicate the

presence of clouds, thereby enhancing

cloud detection. The abundance of

GOES observations helps to maintain a

balance between high-quality, cloudfree observations and good geographical coverage of SST estimates. For the

first time, GOES is enabling quantification of the diurnal variation of a

radiometrically determined SST over

large areas and long time periods. This

quantification may have important

implications in both numerical weather

prediction and climate monitoring.

NESDIS has been producing the

GOES SST hourly in an experimental

configuration since December 1998 for

both GOES-8 and GOES-10. A global

SST product is produced every three

hours; regional SST products are generated every hour. These products

were recently implemented operationally and can be accessed as digital

files from the GOES computer servers

within OSDPD.

Volcanic Ash and Fire Monitoring

Techniques that use primarily the

imager channels on GOES-East/West

are being developed to assist in the

tracking of volcanic ash cloud plumes.

One product that employs three channels (10.7μm, 12.0μm, and 3.9μm) has

been developed and is under evaluation. Ash cloud advisory statements

are provided by NESDIS to the aviation community over southern North

America and northern South America,

through the Volcanic Ash Advisory

Center (VAAC) in Washington,

District of Columbia. Experimental

volcanic ash products are produced

hourly for several active volcanic areas

and are available at orbitnet.nesdis.noaa.gov/arad/fpdt/

volc.html. GOES infrared, visible,

NASA's Total Ozone Mapping

Spectrometer (when applicable), and

operational volcanic ash products for

the Washington VAAC area of responsibility are found at

www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/washington.html. An emphasis is being placed

on development and testing of sounder

and other techniques that do not use

Figure 3-DOC-8. GOES infrared data were used to prepare 24-hour rainfall

potential estimates for Tropical Storm Helene.
46 DOC SECTION 3 

the GOES 12 micron channel since the

next GOES spacecraft, GOES-M, will

not carry this channel.

Fire and smoke monitoring algorithms are being developed to automatically detect fires and to monitor their

growth and the associated smoke coverage. The GOES-8 split window data

(at 4μm and 11μm) have been used to

assess trends in South American burning practices over the past 6 years

(1995-2000); GOES detected the most

fire pixels in the tropical rain forest

ecosystem in 1995. The application to

clear sky human-initiated burning in

South and Central America is now

being adapted to monitor cloudy sky

lightning and clear sky human-initiated

fires in the Canadian provinces and the

continental United States. The continual monitoring from GOES (as often as

every 71⁄2 minutes) can assist firefighters to plan evacuation and extinguishing activities. Studies with Brazil are

underway to predict smoke transport

and air pollution and health alerts for

major cities. An AVHRR fire detection

algorithm is being developed for use in

monitoring fire and smoke outbreaks

around the world. All these new techniques will be used to improve the current operational fire and smoke product, currently posted to the Internet at

www.ssd.noaa.gov/ssdfire.html. This

product supports the NWS Storm

Prediction Center (SPC) fire outlook

product. Real time imagery of GOES

and POES imagery in support of SPC

can be found at www.ssd.noaa.gov/

SAB/SPECIAL/ID/id?fires.html.

A GOES Products and Services

Catalog is available on line at orbitnet.nesdis.noaa.gov/arad/fpdt/goescat/

index.html. An up-to-date list and

description of operational and experimental products with links to the realtime products are available from this

web page. The Polar Products and

Services Catalog is under development.

NPOESS

ORA scientists continue to play an

important role in the evaluation of proposed contractor sensor design and

retrieval methods during the ongoing

selection process for NPOESS. ORA

scientists have created a variety of "test

bed" data sets that are being used in the

algorithm evaluation process. This is

accomplished through participation in

operational algorithm teams with the

long-term goals of assuring capability

to meet the requirements of all

Environmental Data Records. Ozone

evaluation, calibration, and validation

activities took place for the new Solar

Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument

(SBUV/2) with the launch and successful checkout of NOAA-16. A new

ozone profile retrieval algorithm

(Version 7) is under development at

NASA. As soon as it becomes available, NOAA will begin to incorporate

it in its SBUV/2 processing systems.

Monitoring of global ozone will continue with the SBUV/2 instruments on

NOAA-11, NOAA-14, and NOAA-16,

and with the TOVS instruments on

NOAA-14, NOAA-15 and NOAA-16.

Experimental high temporal ozone

products are also being produced from

the GOES-8 sounder channels.

Monitoring is limited to North

America. Preliminary results show the

GOES values are comparable to

amounts from the Total Ozone

Mapping Spectrometer and groundbased measurements.

Land Surface Parameters for Use in

Weather Forecast Models

Satellite-derived fields of land surface characteristics are being prepared

for use in NWP models. These include

radiation products delivered in near

real-time as forcing variables, surface

characteristics, such as fractional green

vegetation and albedo, that specify

model lower boundary conditions and

validation quantities, such as surface

temperature. These products are meant

to help the NWP models maintain better soil moisture fields which in turn

results in better near surface temperature and humidity forecasts, and better

precipitation forecasts. These fields

now include POES-based (SSM/I and

AMSU) estimates of surface emissivity, snow cover, sea-ice extent and concentration, land surface skin temperature, and soil wetness. Development

of snow depth is underway. Forward

models for surface emissivity at various microwave frequencies have been

developed and are being tested in the

forecast models. Algorithms to determine clear sky ice surface temperatures have been developed and delivered to Atmospheric Environment

Service, Canada for evaluation. New

techniques such as automatic edge

detection and incorporation of new

sensors such as AMSU and NASA's

MODIS are in development to improve

operational production of daily snow

and ice extent products. These products are delivered as digital files to

NWP models and to the NWS Climate

Prediction Center and other users.

Graphical imagery of operational

northern hemispheric snow cover can

be found on the Internet at www.ssd.

noaa.gov/SSD/ML/realtime.html#SNOW.

Clouds from AVHRR

Algorithms are being developed,

tested, and validated for determining

cloud optical and microphysical properties from imager data such as the

AVHRR. These algorithms are in

addition to those already developed

which estimate amounts and types for

each observed cloud layer. The four

cloud types are: L - Liquid Water

Clouds; M - Mixed Phase Clouds;

G - Glaciated Clouds (opaque); and

H - High Ice Clouds (semi-transparent). Knowledge of cloud properties is

important for both climate-scale and

short-medium range forecasts.

Accordingly, algorithms and processing systems to estimate cloud properties from imager data are being developed for both applications.

Assimilation of cloud properties into

NWP models is an objective of NCEP

for improving short-medium range

forecasts. Other applications of this
SECTION 3 DOC 47

work include the validation of simulated scenes to be used for the evaluation

of new algorithm and instrument

designs that is supported by the IPO.

In addition, new algorithms are being

developed to produce optimal estimates of cloud properties from both

imager and sounder data, such as the

merge of AVHRR and TOVS data.

Aerosols

An algorithm for the correction of a

thermal radiation leak in the 1.6μm

reflectance channel of the Tropical

Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)

satellite's Visible Infrared Scanner

(VIRS) has been developed. NASA's

Clouds from the Earth's Radiant

Energy System (CERES) instrument

data processing team apply this correction algorithm, to VIRS raw data prior

to application of the NESDIS operational aerosol retrieval algorithm.

Without this correction, the aerosol

optical thickness at 1.6μm would be

overestimated by as much as 200 percent, depending on the temperature of

the Earth's surface. This algorithm is

also applied to NOAA-16 AVHRR

data that has the same two reflectance

channels as VIRS plus an 0.83μm

reflectance channel. This information

on aerosols will be used to correct for

the attenuation of aerosol particles in

the infrared channels of the AVHRR

instrument to remove errors in the

retrieval of sea surface temperature.

The correction algorithm will initially

be derived from the multi-year archive

from the AVHRR Pathfinder

Atmosphere (PATMOS) data set using

a single channel AOT retrieval at

0.63μm. The long-term record of

AVHRR SSTs can be corrected for

aerosol-induced errors, which currently limit the utility of these data for climate change studies. Finally, an algorithm for the estimation of aerosol

optical thickness over dark vegetated

land surfaces will be developed in support of NASA's Global Aerosol

Climatology Project (GACP). It will

also utilize the PATMOS archive of

clear-sky reflectances at 0.63μm collocated with sun-photometer observations of AOT at non-coastal land based

AERONET stations to make empirical

adjustments to the surface reflectance

model used in the NESDIS operational

aerosol retrieval algorithm used over

oceans. This will be the first globally

applicable aerosol retrieval algorithm

for land areas and will be used by

NASA and NOAA to create climatology of aerosol optical thickness over

land for climate change studies.

Long-term Monitoring of NOAA-15

Advanced Microwave Sounding

Unit-A (AMSU-A) Performance

Since the launch of the NOAA-15

satellite, the AMSU-A level 1B data

have been captured from the CEMSCS

and stored on optical disks. These data

are used for off-line characterization of

the instrument radiometric performance on orbit. Over 20 important

radiometric parameters are extracted or

calculated from the AMSU-A 1B data.

NESDIS has already demonstrated that

the noise in the observations in all

channels is lower (better) than that

required by the specifications and, in

some channels, it is lower than estimates based on pre-launch test results.

NOAA will continue compiling longterm trends of all the parameters to

provide a better understanding of the

instrument performance. The PCbased software developed for evaluating these data will be improved for better efficiency in processing the data.

Calibration of the Visible and NearInfrared Channels of the AVHRR

The AVHRR flown on POES is recognized as an invaluable resource for

satellite-based studies of the Earth system. The long-term records of geophysical products such as the

Normalized Difference Vegetation

Index (NDVI), columnar aerosols over

the oceans, cloud morphology, and

short-wave radiation budget play a

central role in climate and global

change studies by providing a means to

study the environment continuously. It

is thus very important to characterize

and document the in-orbit performance

of the AVHRR flown on the polar

orbiters. Toward this end, a very comprehensive program of post-launch calibration and characterization of the

AVHRR has been implemented to

ensure the accuracy, continuity, and

viability of the various AVHRRderived geophysical products, with

particular attention paid to the visible

(Channel 1: 0.58 - 0.68 μm), and nearinfrared (Channel 2: 0.72 - 1.1 μm;

Channel 3A: 1.58 - 1.64 μm) channels

which do not have any onboard calibration devices.

The major program elements are:

(a) development of an optimal vicarious post-launch calibration technique,

utilizing radiometrically stable calibration sites, model simulations of the

radiation measured by the sensors, and

simultaneous radiation measurements

by the AVHRR and by calibrated spectrometers onboard aircraft;

(b) enhancement of available vicarious

calibration techniques to improve

attainable radiometric calibration accuracies beyond ±5 percent; (c) evaluation of the feasibility of using the

International Space Station (ISS) as a

platform to calibrate satellite sensors,

in general, using radiometers on the

ISS traceable to the National Institute

of Standards and Technology (NIST);

(d) establishment of the AVHRR as a

traveling calibration standard to monitor the performance of sensors, such as

the imager on the GOES, the visible

channel of the High-resolution Infrared

Radiation Sounder (HIRS), the

Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS), and various sensors

to be flown on ENVISAT; and (e)

design of optimal onboard and vicarious calibration techniques for the visible and near-infrared sensors planned

under the National Polar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite

System (NPOESS). The relevance and

importance of these activities has been

recognized by the national and interna-
48 DOC SECTION 3 

tional user community, as evidenced

by the appreciation and endorsement

of the Working Group on Calibration

and Validation (WGCV), Committee

on Earth Observation Satellites

(CEOS), and the Global Observing

Systems Space Panel (GOSSP).

To ensure global access to the results

of the above program, and recognizing

the importance of the AVHRR-derived

products to national and international

programs, such as the International

Satellite Cloud Climatology Project

(ISCCP), the International Geosphere

Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the

Global Climate, Ocean, and Terrestrial

Observing Systems, and to benefit

from sensor calibration research elsewhere, active liaison, and collaboration

in some instances, has been established

with researchers in NASA, NIST,

EUMETSAT, China Meteorological

Administration, Beijing, China;

Rutherford Appleton Laboratory,

United Kingdom; National Space

Development Agency, Japan; the

NOAA/NASA Pathfinder Program;

several space agencies and remote

sensing laboratories outside the United

States, and academia both in the

United States and abroad.

Calibration of Geostationary

Operational Environmental Satellite

Instruments

The wavelength configuration of

channels on the GOES-M Imager will

be slightly different from that of its

predecessors. A 13.3μm channel will

replace the current 12μm channel. The

new channel will employ a single

detector with an 8-km field-of-view at

the Earth's surface. The water-vapor

channel at 6.7μm, which on GOES I

through L observe the Earth with a single 8-km detector, will employ two

4-km detectors on GOES-M. To

accommodate these revisions, the calibration processing in the ground system will be modified.

Pathfinder

Climate data sets of cloud amount,

aerosol optical thickness (AOT) over

the oceans, and the Earth's radiation

budget for clear and cloudy skies have

been retrospectively generated from

over 17 years of AVHRR data as part

of the NOAA-NASA Pathfinder program. An improved data set spanning

the period from July 1981 through the

end of 1999 was completed in 2000.

This data set is being utilized to study

the relationship between the variation

in global mean values of the absorbed

solar radiation and variation in aerosol

amount caused by major volcanic

eruptions. The influence of the aerosol

amount on variations in the global surface temperature is also under investigation. The analysis of time series of

anomalies of the cloud radiative forcing has been shown to correlate well

(spatially and temporally) with El Niño

events. A second reprocessing of the

entire data set is being proposed, where

multiple-layered cloud data will be

used. Land surface and ocean products

such as the vegetation index and the

sea surface temperature will be added.

Ocean Surface Winds

Calibration and validation studies

are performed for all new operational

ocean surface wind data streams.

Product refinement and development

activities are currently underway to

improve ocean wind vector retrievals

in the high wind speed regime where

current retrieval algorithms underestimate the wind speeds. There are several satellite-based active and passive

microwave sensors planned for launch

in the near future that NOAA would

have the opportunity to obtain near

real-time data streams from. One of

these sensors will be the first demonstration of the passive polarimetric

technique, which is the technique that

is being depended on for NPOESS to

meet the nation's ocean surface wind

vector requirements.

Storm Signatures and Winds from

Synthetic Aperture Radar

ORA scientists are currently studying ocean surface wind signatures of

atmospheric fronts and storms with

synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

imagery. By sensing variations in

ocean surface roughness on the centimeter scale, SAR sensors can image

storms, atmospheric waves (such as

coastal lee waves), atmospheric fronts,

and coastal wind shadowing.

Techniques for calculating wind speed

(and under certain conditions direction

as well) are also under development.

Before the year 2003, four new wideswath SAR satellites are planned for

launch. If data acquisition and sharing

arrangements can be made to obtain

access to SAR imagery from these new

sources, frequent routine SAR coverage of United States coastal areas will

be possible.

Ocean Color

Several programs at ORA are

involved in satellite ocean color

research. The Marine Optical Buoy

(MOBY) Project develops, deploys,

and maintains the MOBY off of the

coast of Lanai, Hawaii, to measure visible and near-infrared radiation entering and emanating from the ocean.

The resulting measurements support

the initialization and vicarious calibration of international and national ocean

color sensors, such as the Ocean Color

and Temperature Sensor, the SeaViewing Wide-Field-of-View Sensor,

and the recently launched Moderate

Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer. The Marine Optical

Characterization Experiment (MOCE),

MOBY's sister project, involves the

collection of in situ measurements of

these and other parameters relevant to

ocean color in the surrounding region

from ship. Data from both sampling

platforms furnish a time-series of biooptical measurements that is employed

to track sensor drift, define bio-optical

relationships, validate satellite-derived

products, and develop ocean color

algorithms. In addition to MOBY and

MOCE, programs exist at ORA to routinely evaluate the accuracy of NESDIS operational ocean color products

and to develop algorithms in order to
SECTION 3 DOC 49

remotely detect and predict the presence of noxious marine biota, such as

harmful algal blooms.

Coral Reef Watch: NOAA's Early

Warning System for Coral Reef Health

Like the rest of the world, most of

the United States coral reef systems are

threatened due to pollution, over-fishing, and thermal bleaching. This threat

includes almost all of Florida and

Puerto Rico reefs, nearly half of

Hawaii's, and an unknown but significant fraction of United States Pacific

Territories. The widely distributed and

isolated locations of many coral reefs

preclude normal monitoring practices.

In 1998, NESDIS established an experimental capability (Figure 3-DOC-9)

using POES satellites to conduct thermal bleaching surveillance of coral

reefs on a world-wide basis. This

experiment demonstrated remarkably

accurate capabilities for early warning

of El Niño-induced coral reef bleaching conditions over all global tropical

ocean regions resulting in a special

International Workshop on Satellite

Monitoring of Coral Reefs being convened in June 1999. A Coral Reef

Watch Program was proposed to

(1) transition existing experimental

satellite reef health monitoring capabilities into a viable operational capability, (2) formalize the existing United

States leadership in the emerging global "Virtual Coral Reef Ecosystem

Monitoring Laboratory," and (3) provide for a solid scientific basis for

future monitoring and assessment

products/capabilities. In 2001 NESDIS will implement satellite reef

health monitoring into its operation.

CoastWatch

NESDIS has responsibility for

CoastWatch Program Management.

This program managed in conjunction

with other NOAA Line Offices makes

satellite data products and in situ data

from NOAA environmental buoys

available to federal, state, and local

marine scientists and coastal resource

managers.

For coastal areas in the Great Lakes,

East Coast, and Gulf of Mexico, data

from the Advanced Very High

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on

NOAA's polar orbiting spacecraft are

collected at Wallops Island, Virginia,

and at Fairbanks, Alaska. These data

are processed on NOAA computers in

Suitland, Maryland using a set of

NOAA-developed multi-channel

atmospherically corrected algorithms

for determination of sea surface temperature. Data are then mapped

(Mercator Projection) and sectored to

predefined coordinates specified for

each of the CoastWatch regions.

Digital, high-resolution data products

(1 km/4 km in a CoastWatch Binary

Format) are then passed daily to

CoastWatch Regional Nodes in the

eastern United States (i.e., Southeast,

Great Lakes, Northeast, Gulf of

Mexico, and Caribbean). For Regional

Nodes in the Pacific region

CoastWatch local data acquisition and

processing capabilities are in La Jolla,

California; Anchorage, Alaska; and

Honolulu, Hawaii.

The Internet is used as the primary

telecommunications pathway for digital data distribution. Once products

are delivered to the CoastWatch

Regional Nodes they become immediately available for local use

(Figure 3-DOC-10). An ever-growing

number of federal, state, and local

organizations are establishing a formal

relationship with local CoastWatch

Regional Nodes for routine timely

access to CoastWatch image products.

More information about CoastWatch is

available on the Internet at coastwatch.noaa.gov/COASTWATCH/.

ENVIRONMENTALDATACENTERS

NESDIS is responsible, among other

things, for the collection, archiving, and

dissemination of environmental data

collected by a variety of in situ and

remote sensing observing systems from

throughout NOAA and from a number

of its partners, (e.g., NASA). NESDIS

must have a Comprehensive Large

Figure 3-DOC-9. NESDIS satellites monitor the health of coral reefs.
50 DOC SECTION 3 

Array-data Stewardship System

(CLASS) that provides archive and

access services for these data in place

by December 2002. CLASS will be

able to handle the data flow from current satellite-based (e.g., GOES,

Defense Meteorological Satellite

Program - DMSP) and ground-based

(e.g., Next Generation Weather Radar -

NEXRAD, Automated Surface

Observing System - ASOS) observing

systems, and be structured to handle the

large increases in data that will come

from planned satellite launches, beginning with the first of the Meteorological

Operational satellites (METOP-1), and

followed in ensuing years by additional

satellite launches [e.g., National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite System (NPOESS), NPOESS

Preparatory Project (NPP), and Earth

Observing Satellites (EOS)].The first

EOS satellite (Terra) has been launched

and NOAA and NASA are presently

negotiating a Long Term Archive agreement for the safeguarding of EOS data.

Some of these data may flow to NESDIS before the launch of METOP-1.

The December 2002 date is key to the

initiation of the period during which

NOAA and the European Organization

for the Exploitation of Meteorological

Satellites (EUMETSAT) will begin to

share data from the EUMETSAT

METOP-1 launch in July 2003.

CLASS will be able to ingest, catalog,

quality control, archive, and, via e-commerce, make available to NESDIS' customers and partners (e.g., NASA) the

satellite, radar, and other in situ environmental information and data sets

contained in the system.

NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA

CENTER

The National Climatic Data Center

(NCDC) (www.ncdc.noaa.gov) has the

responsibility for long-term stewardship of and access to the Nation's climatological data. To meet this responsibility:

 NCDC performs data management

and access functions regarding retrospective meteorological data, including data from in situ (ASOS, AWOS,

Rawinsonde, COOP, etc.) and

remote sensing sources (satellites,

radars, etc.). Such functions include:

acquisition (ingest, to include inventories), quality control processing,

archiving, access, indexing, quality

assessment, evaluation, synthesis,

and dissemination of data collected

by global and national meteorologiFigure 3-DOC-10. NOAA CoastWatch Program delivers satellite data products and in situ data to federal, state, and

local marine scientists and coastal resource managers.
SECTION 3 DOC 51

cal observation networks or systems.

Meteorological data that have enduring value to the Nation and are sufficient to describe the climate are

included.

 NCDC serves as the Nation's official Data Center for Climatological

Data, as such part of the Federal

Records Retention System (FRRS).

Follows NARA guidelines and policies for meteorological data records

and information.

 NCDC partners nationally with

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), Department of Defense (DOD), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA), Department of

Energy (DOE), Department of State

(DOS), National Science Foundation

(NSF), United States Geological

Survey (USGS), United States

Global Climate Research Panel

(USGCRP), and others.

 NCDC partners internationally

with: World Meteorological

Organization, International Council

of Scientific Unions (ICSU), World

Data Centers, other nations via bilateral agreements, Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change,

UNESCO.

 NCDC maintains and updates

national and global baseline data sets

for analyses of long-term climate

trends and for monitoring global

change. These data sets include the

Global Historical Climatology

Network (GHCN), the United States

Historical Climatology Network

(USHCN), the Comprehensive

Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set

(COADS), and the Comprehensive

Aerological Reference Data Set

(CARDS).

 NCDC serves as World Data

Center-A (WDC-A) for Meteorology under the auspices of the

International Council of Scientific

Unions. In this capacity, NCDC

archives the data collected by internationally sponsored research programs and actively exchanges climate data with foreign countries.

 NCDC provides facilities, data

processing support, data exchange,

and expertise, as required, to meet

United States commitments to foreign nations, international organizations, and to the World

Meteorological Organization's

(WMO) programs.

 NCDC manages the Regional

Climate Center (RCC) Program consisting of six facilities. These

Centers, located at universities or

state agencies, provide data collection, user services, and applied climate research on a regional basis.

NCDC also coordinates the State

Climatologist (SC) programs. Along

with the NCDC, the RCCs and the

State Climatologists form a vital

component of a national climate

services program.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Global Historical Climatology

Network

The Global Historical Climatology

Network (GHCN) data set on-line at

www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climate/

research/ghcn/ghcn.html is a comprehensive global surface baseline climate

data set designed for monitoring and

detecting climate change. Comprised

of surface station observations of temperature, precipitation, and pressure,

all GHCN data are monthly values.

NCDC is striving to move the continual updating of this data set into an

operational scenario.

Global Blended Temperature Product

A global surface temperature data set

is being operationally produced from

numerous sources including sea surface temperatures (SST), land surface

temperatures (GHCN) and satellite

data using the Special Sensor

Microwave Imager (SSMI) which collects data over land areas that are not

snow covered.

New Climate Atlas of the United States

NCDC completed a new Climate

Atlas of the United States and is distributing it via CD-ROM. The purpose

of this new atlas is to depict the climate

of the United States in terms of the distribution and variation of major climatic elements. The Climate Atlas meets

the needs for climatic information

from research, commercial, industrial,

agricultural, educational institutions,

as well as from the general public.

Information contained in the atlas will

be used for planning, engineering, and

scheduling purposes. The new atlas

contains several hundred updated high

resolution GIS generated maps.

Climate Reference Network Project

The United States Climate Reference

Network (CRN) is a planned network

of 250 climate stations now being

developed as one component of the

NOAA Climate Services Initiative.

The primary goal of this network is to

provide long-term homogeneous

observations of temperature and precipitation that can be coupled to past

long-term observations for the detection and attribution of present and

future climate change. The CRN will

also provide the United States of

America with a reference network that

meets the requirements of the Global

Climate Observing System (GCOS).

The stations will monitor temperature,

precipitation, solar radiation, and wind

speed. Hourly observations of these

variables will be transmitted in real

time. The first two CRN stations (primary and backup) were installed in the

year 2000 and are operating near

Asheville, North Carolina.

Climate Monitoring

The National Climatic Data Center's

(NCDC) Climate Monitoring Branch

produces operational as well as special

event reports on climate and weather

around the globe. These NCDC

reports address the climate in historical

perspective and are available via the

NCDC web site. Highlights include:

synopses of global monthly and annual
52 DOC SECTION 3 

mean temperatures and precipitation

and their departures from the long term

mean; global and United States

extreme events; and United States and

global regional analyses using traditional surface data as well as blended

surface and satellite data products.

The monitoring group responds to high

level NOAA and executive level governmental requests concerning the

state of the national and global climate.

NCDC also is producing for the first

time in 2001 The Climate Assessment

for the Year 2000, which will be published as a special issue of the Bulletin

of the American Meteorological

Society. There are national and international contributors to this effort from

operational and research institutions,

the university community and other

NOAA components.

Observing System Performance

Indicators

This multi-year effort will provide

real-time information on the health and

status of NOAA's observing networks.

The developed system will continually

monitor and assess the state of these

networks with the intent of providing

feedback that could either lead to

improvements in the network or

changes in analysis techniques to

account for problems in the network.

NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC

DATA CENTER

The National Oceanographic Data

Center (NODC) (www.nodc.noaa.gov)

manages the world's largest collection

of publicly available oceanographic

data. NODC holdings include in situ

and remotely-sensed physical, chemical, and biological oceanographic data

from coastal and deep ocean areas.

NODC customers reuse this data to

answer questions about climate, and

ocean and coastal phenomena.

Specifically, NODC data archive and

access responsibilities support climate

research and operational activities as

follows:

International

 NODC provides data management

for major climate-related research

programs including: Tropical Ocean

Global Atmosphere (TOGA), World

Ocean Circulation Experiment

(WOCE), Joint Global Ocean Flux

Study (JGOFS), and Global

Temperature Salinity Profile

Program (GTSPP).

 NODC served as the Upper Ocean

Thermal Data Assembly Center for

WOCE, part of the World Climate

Research Program. WOCE made

unprecedented in situ and satellite

observations of the global ocean

between 1990 and 1998. NODC, in

cooperation with WOCE, published

this international data set on

CD-ROM.

 NODC performs a number of

functions for GTSPP (www.nodc.

noaa.gov/GTSPP/gtspp-home.html),

including incorporation of real-time

and delayed mode data into a continuously managed database. GTSPP

makes global temperature and salinity data quickly and easily accessible

to users.

 NODC produces regular updates

of the World Ocean Data Base

(WOD) (www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/

pr_wodv2.html) and World Ocean

Atlas (WOA) (www.nodc.

noaa.gov/OC5/pr_woa.html). WOD

1998, produced in 2000, includes

over five million profiles of scientifically quality controlled ocean temperature, salinity, oxygen, plankton,

pigment, and nutrient data. WOA

1998 presents statistical summaries

and gridded fields of these parameters on a monthly, seasonal, and

annual basis, from the 1940's

through 1998.

 NODC distributes the Atlas of

Surface Marine Data on CD-ROM.

This atlas includes global surface

marine observations taken from

COADS (Comprehensive OceanAtmosphere Data Set) files, and

objectively gridded fields of surface

marine fluxes of heat, momentum,

and freshwater.

National

 The NOAA Marine Environmental

Buoy Database (www.nodc.noaa.

gov/BUOY/buoy.html) is one of the

largest and most frequently used data

archives maintained by the NODC.

This database holds wind, wave, and

other marine data collected by the

NOAA National Data Buoy Center

(NDBC) from moored buoys and

C-MAN (Coastal-Marine Automated

Network) stations. Parameters reported by both buoys and C-MAN stations

include air temperature and pressure,

wind speed and direction, wind gust,

and sea surface temperature.

 NODC provided archive and storeand-forward data services in support

of a National Ocean Partnership

Program project to conduct tests of a

coastal marine forecast system. The

project was a collaboration between

the National Ocean Service, the

National Weather Service, several universities, and industry groups. NODC

served as the central data exchange

facility.

 NODC provides data products and

services individually to members of

the operational marine community,

e.g., the Navy, Coast Guard, and shipping industry.

 NODC CD-ROM products are

described on its web pages

(www.nodc.noaa.gov/General/NODC

-cdrom.html), and made available

through the NOAA National Data

Centers' (NNDC) Online Store.

NOAA/NODC Library

NODC houses the NOAA Central

Library (www.lib.noaa.gov/) which supports weather and climate research programs by providing a variety of information services, including:

 Access to print and electronic versions of American Meteorological

Society journals.

 Access to Meteorological and

Geoastrophysical Abstracts (desktop

access at the Silver Spring campus).

 Desktop access to Web of Science at

several NOAA sites.
SECTION 3 DOC 53

 Assistance in obtaining site licenses for 169 National Weather Service

field sites for electronic access to

Monthly Weather Review and

Weather and Forecasting.

 Archival of historic collections of

the Weather Bureau.

 Data rescue of hundreds of volumes of meteorological data publications in danger of loss.

NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL DATA

CENTER

The National Geophysical Data

Center (NGDC) (www.ngdc.noaa.gov)

manages geophysical data and information resources for NOAA and the

scientific community within the disciplines of solar-terrestrial physics, paleoclimatology, snow and ice, marine

geology and geophysics, and solid

earth geophysics (Figure 3-DOC-11).

NGDC participates in national and

international programs that collect and

provide data for research in meteorology, climatology, and space weather.

NGDC operates World Data Centers

for Solar-Terrestrial Physics,

Paleoclimatology, Marine Geology

and Geophysics, Solid Earth

Geophysics, and Snow and Ice under

the auspices of the International

Council of Scientific Unions. NGDC

operates the secretariat for the

Scientific Committee for SolarTerrestrial Physics.

NGDC provides data processing,

access, management, archive, analysis,

research and stewardship services for

space weather, paleoclimatological,

cryospheric, and some meteorological

databases collected on satellites and by

ground-based observatories. Space

environment data collected on GOES

and POES satellites and space environmental, meteorological and oceanographic data collected on DMSP satellites are officially archived by the

Solar-Terrestrial Physics Division.

Ground-based measurements of solar

activity, ionospheric structure and geomagnetic variations used in space

weather forecasts, warnings and alerts

are archived at NGDC. The

Paleoclimatology Group operates

NOAA's Paleoclimatology Program,

which manages geophysical data used

to derive paleoclimate data and information. Cryospheric data from both

ground-based and satellite instruments,

are managed by the National Snow and

Ice Data Center, which is affiliated

with NGDC.

New technology presents new

opportunities and challenges for

NNDC and the World Data Center system. NGDC uses WWW-based applications to provide improved, timelier

services including data discovery,

automated inventories, on-line catalogs, interactive data display, data mining, and data delivery. As a result, the

number of users has increased dramatically. Since most of the new users are

less familiar with the data than the

research community, additional burdens are placed on the NNDC's to

assure that quality data are provided in

a display that is easy to understand and

in a format that is easy to use. At the

same time, new applications are under

development, which increase the need

for quality data; they are the mining of

information from the data archives and

the running of data-driven numerical

models from remote locations

(www.ngdc.noaa.gov).

DMSP at NGDC prepares research

quality data recorded by scientific

instruments on DMSP operational

satellites for retrospective analysis and

the official archive. Data sets include

visible, infrared and microwave

imagery, microwave soundings and in

situ measurements of the space environment. The official archive is used

to prepare products, derive geophysical parameters including atmospheric

and ionospheric principal components,

Figure 3-DOC-11. Relief Global Slide sets available from NGDC.
54 DOC SECTION 3 

and provide user services. New user

services are provided through the

Space Physics Interactive Data

Resource (www.ngdc. noaa.gov/dmsp).

NOAA's paleoclimate program to

assemble global information on paleoclimate is operated by NGDC. The

program has acquired many paleoclimate databases derived from geophysical data, namely tree-rings, pollen and

macrofossils, lake and bog sediments,

marine sediments, ice cores, and other

geological and biological sources.

Paleoclimate databases can be displayed, searched, and retrieved using

custom software (www.ngdc.noaa.gov/

paleo).

The Space Weather program at

NGDC prepares research quality data

of the near-Earth space environment

for retrospective analysis and the official archive. GOES, DMSP, and POES

satellites carry instruments that monitor the space environment; for example, the SEM instruments on GOES

and POES and the SSIES, SSJ/4 and

SSM instruments on DMSP. Future

instruments, namely the GOES Solar

X-Ray Imager and two DMSP

Ultraviolet Imagers, will greatly

increase both the use and volume of

space sensor data. Other data sets in

the space weather archives include

measurements of solar activity, solar

flares, magnetic activity, magnetic

storms, ionospheric parameters, and

ionospheric storms collected by

NOAA and other agencies. The STP

program has a long and successful history of cooperating with NASA,

USGS, DOD, academia and other

NOAA components. The STP program at NGDC archives measurements

of total solar and solar spectral irradiance for use in climate studies. The

data sets are recorded on NOAA and

NASA satellites and irradiance values

inferred from ground-based solar

imagery (www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/stp.

html)

National Snow and Ice Data Center

The National Snow and Ice Data

Center (NSIDC) at the University of

Colorado is associated with NGDC

and maintains several cryosphericrelated data sets of interest to meteorology and climatology. These data sets

include a collection of historical photographs of glaciers, temperature, pressure and position data from drifting

buoys placed on the central Arctic pack

ice, and data from the NOAA snow

cover and DOD-NOAA sea ice chart

digitizing projects. NSIDC provides

data management services for a variety

of cryospheric research programs

sponsored by NASA and NSF. In addition, NSIDC has developed gridded

sea ice products (sea ice concentrations

and multi-year ice fraction) based on

passive microwave data collected by

NASA and DMSP satellites. NSIDC is

acquiring snow cover, glacier and sea

ice records from the former Soviet

Union. Online services are available,

at www-nsidc.colorado.edu.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Global Historical Climatology

Network

The Global Historical Climatology

Network (GHCN) data set is a comprehensive global surface baseline climate

data set designed for monitoring and

detecting climate change. Comprised

of surface station observations of temperature, precipitation, and pressure,

all GHCN data are monthly values.

Users of the NCDC web site can now

view the spatial distribution of global

temperature and precipitation trends

and anomalies through a new interactive web page (www.ncdc.noaa.gov/

cgi-bin/res40. pl?page=ghcn.html).

Blended Temperature Project

A global surface temperature data set

was produced from numerous sources

including sea surface temperatures

(SST), land surface temperatures, and

satellite data using the special sensor

MSU which collects data over land

areas that are not snow covered.

Additional coverage over snow-covered areas will soon be provided via

the MSU on board the TIROS weather

satellite.

New Climate Atlas of the United States

The purpose of this new atlas project

is to depict the climate of the United

States in terms of the distribution and

variation of major climatic elements.

The Climate Atlas will meet the needs

for climatic information from research,

commercial, industrial, agricultural,

educational institutions, as well as

from the general public. Information

contained in the atlas will be used for

planning, engineering, and scheduling

purposes. The new atlas when completed should contain several hundred

updated high-resolution GIS generated

maps.

Climate Reference Network Project

The United States Climate Reference

Network (CRN) is a network of climate stations now being developed as

part of a NOAA initiative. The primary goal is to provide future longterm homogeneous observations of

temperature and precipitation that can

be coupled to past long-term observations for the detection and attribution

of present and future climate change.

The CRN will also provide the United

States with a reference network that

meets the requirements of the Global

Climate Observing System (GCOS).

The stations will monitor temperature,

precipitation, solar radiation, and wind

speed. Hourly observations of these

variables will be transmitted in realtime.

Climate Monitoring

The NCDC Climate Monitoring

Group produces operational as well as

special-event reports on climate and

weather around the globe. These

NCDC reports address the climate in

historical perspective and are available

via the NCDC web site. Highlights
SECTION 3 DOC 55

include: synopses of global monthly

and annual mean temperatures and precipitation and their departures from the

long term mean; global and United

States extreme events; and United

States and global regional analyses

using traditional surface data as well as

blended surface and satellite data products. The monitoring group also

responds to high level NOAA and

executive level governmental requests

concerning the state of the national and

global climate. The products and

reports address the climate in historical

perspective and are available at

www.ncdc.noaa.gov.

Paleoclimatology

NOAA's paleoclimate program to

cooperate in research projects to use

the combined global paleoclimate

database for climate model verification

and climate change studies is operated

by NGDC. Objectives of the program

are to cooperate with researchers and

to conduct original research to describe

the global patterns of annual-to-millennial scale climate change, to understand the causes of climate change, to

separate man-induced climate change

from natural variability, and to validate

the models that are used to predict

future climates. Support is received

from the NOAA Climate and Global

Change Program. More information is

available at www.ngdc.noaa.gov/

paleo/paleo.html.

Environmental Remote Sensing

Operational meteorological satellite

imagery provides a unique opportunity

to monitor wildfires and population

dynamics on global and nightly bases.

NOAA's DMSP program at NGDC

uses the nighttime imagery to locate

sources of visible and infrared emissions including city lights, lightning,

fires, flaring gas, and boats. Research

projects use the city lights to infer population density, economic vitality, and

carbon dioxide emissions. More information is available at www.ngdc.noaa.

gov/stp/stp.html.

Wildfires Monitored from Space

Operational meteorological satellite

systems offer a unique opportunity to

monitor wildfires because each satellite records infrared emissions covering the entire globe each day.

Instruments designed to detect clouds

also "see" fires--many of which burn in

very remote areas. NGDC has developed a unique technique to capture

nighttime emissions from both large

and small wildfires. The system has

been used to assist firefighters in

developing countries. More information is available at www.ngdc.noaa.

gov/dmsp/fires/globalfires.html.

Space Weather

The Space Weather program at

NGDC conducts original research in

space physics with an emphasis on

space weather applications. Research

focused on numerical modeling of the

ionosphere and magnetosphere is conducted with resident and visiting scientists from the United States and other

countries. Research projects use the

extensive integrated data bases

archived at NGDC. In addition to

building better models and improving

our understanding of ionospheric and

magnetospheric plasma processes, the

research leads to improved data sets

and new data products. NGDC has

embarked on an environmental scenario generator project to mine information from the archives and to use the

mined information to launch a numerical simulation of the atmospheric and

space environment. More information

is available at www.ngdc.noaa.gov/

stp/stp.html.

Observing System Performance

Indicators

This multi-year effort will provide

real-time information on the health and

status of NOAA's observing networks.

The developed system will continually

monitor and assess the state of these

networks with the intent of providing

feedback that could either lead to

improvements in the network or

changes in analysis techniques to

account for problems in the network.
56 DOC SECTION 3 
SECTION 3 DOC 57

OFFICE OF OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH

OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

RESEARCH LABORATORIES

Programs within the Oceanic and

Atmospheric Research (OAR)

Laboratories support various NOAA

meteorological, oceanographic, and

space science missions. The activities

of OAR laboratories are oriented

toward providing the scientific and

engineering understanding, tools, and

techniques that form the basis of

improved national weather and climate

services.

Special emphasis is placed on

improving severe weather and hurricane warnings and forecasts and on

improving the utilization and dissemination of data and information. Severe

weather events include flash floods,

strong winds, thunderstorms (including tornadoes, lightning, and hail),

heavy snowstorms, extreme cold and

heat, drought, and geomagnetic

storms. The key contributions to

improved hurricane forecasts fall

under the "Hurricanes at Landfall

(HaL)" focus of the United States

Weather Research Program (USWRP).

They include more accurate prediction

of track, intensity, surface winds, rainfall, and human impacts. Improving

flood forecasts fall under the component of USWRP labeled "Improving

Quantitative Precipitation Forecasting."

In pursuit of improved utilization and

dissemination of data, the OAR laboratories conduct both in-house and cooperative research with other NOAA

organizations, government agencies,

joint institutes, universities, and the

private sector.

A significant focus of OAR in the

weather and air quality area is the

development of operational test beds

under the auspices of the USWRP.

These test beds are the mechanism

through which research is transitioned

to operations. It is recognized by the

USWRP that, since NOAA is one of

the forecast mission agencies in the

program and the program goals are

predominantly operational ones, its

most significant role in the USWRP is

to provide the infrastructure and capabilities to efficiently and effectively

test research products in an operational

environment. The test beds being

developed are the Joint Center for

Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA),

the Joint Hurricane Test-bed, and the

Mesoscale Numerical Weather

Prediction Test Bed. These test beds

are operated in partnership with other

USWRP agencies. OAR's role is to

provide the directed research and operational testing, in partnership with the

National Weather Service (NWS). In

addition, the development of the

Weather Research and Forecasting

(WRF) modeling architecture, also

under the auspices of the USWRP, will

provide a common modeling structure

to be shared by most of the test beds

and between the research and operations communities. Several OAR laboratories are involved in the WRF

development in partnership with the

NWS and other USWRP agencies. 

Observing Technology

Two OAR laboratories in Boulder,

Colorado, and one in Norman,

Oklahoma, are heavily involved with

developing new environmental

observing system technologies. The

new activity for FY 2002 will be the

planning and very early establishment, under the direction of the

USWRP, of observational test-beds

which will provide an environment to

evaluate new observing systems and

suites of observing systems in order to

decide on their efficacy for operational use. It also provides observations for testing data assimilation

methodology, much of which will be

under the direction of the North

American Atmospheric Observing

System (NAOS) Council made up of

the United States, Canada, Mexico,

Central America, and the Carribean.

Data assimilation is the link between

observations and modeling.

The Environmental Technology

Laboratory (ETL) in Boulder,

Colorado, develops and evaluates new

remote-sensing concepts and systems.

This development and the associated

environmental research directly supports the nation's forecasting and warning services. A comprehensive view of

the laboratory and its research can be

found on the Web (www.etl.noaa.gov).

The Forecast Systems Laboratory

(FSL) (www.fsl.noaa.gov) takes promising new scientific and engineering

technologies from the research arena,

helps develop them into mature engineering systems, and transfers these

technologies to NOAA operations and

the private sector (Figure 3-DOC-12) .

The National Severe Storms

Laboratory (NSSL) (www.nssl.

noaa.gov) located in Norman,

Oklahoma, both develops new remote

sensing systems and assists in the

transfer of these technologies to the

NWS.

A major example of these activities

is the development of the world's first

major wind profiler network. An outgrowth of early basic research at

NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory and

extensive development at ETL, FSL

now operates a network of 30 unattended wind profiling Doppler radars

that provide profiles of high resolution

winds aloft to National Weather

Service (NWS) forecasters and modelers, universities, government researchers, and the private sector. Radioacoustic sounding systems (RASS)

comprising integrated wind profiler

radars and acoustic sources are now

capable of measuring temperatures as

well as winds. The NOAA Profiler

Network (NPN) has made significant

contributions to improved forecasts

and warnings since its completion in

1992.

In a continued collaboration between

NWS and FSL, three NOAA profilers

were recently installed in Alaska to

support NWS volcanic plume tracking
58 DOC SECTION 3 

and hazard mitigation. All three profilers transmit at the new operational frequency of 449-MHz. The engineering

requirements for the transition of wind

profilers from an experimental frequency allocation of 404.37-MHz

came from collaborative efforts

between FSL, ETL, and the United

States Air Force.

In another example of technology

transfer, FSL is collaborating with several universities, NOAA's National

Geodetic Service, the United States

Coast Guard, and the Federal Highway

Administration to develop and deploy

a network of surface-based water

vapor observing systems for NOAA

that utilize the Department of

Defense's Global Positioning System

(GPS). Some of these systems are

installed at NPN sites. ETL and FSL

will continue investigating the use of

GPS receivers (surface and spacebased) to achieve real-time, continuous

observations of atmospheric water

vapor for weather forecasting, climate

monitoring, and satellite data calibration and validation. NRT GPS-IPG

data with approximately 30-minute

latency is now being provided for testing and evaluation.

FSL is investigating the use of superpressure balloons in the stratosphere as

a platform for monitoring and observing the environment. Among the balloons' capabilities would be atmospheric soundings. The trajectory of the

balloons could be controlled to some

extent by adjusting their altitude so as

to take advantage of the vertical shear.

The balloons would carry compact,

light-weight sondes whose locations

could be tracked as they fell toward the

surface. The balloons would comprise

a moderately priced global system.

A number of engineering tests have

already been performed at altitude by

piggybacking on a zero-pressure balloon launched by the Physical Science

Laboratory at New Mexico State

University and with launches near the

Oregon coast. Telemetry was received

line-of-sight from a distance of over

200 miles, the storage batteries were

charged by solar panels, the proper

thermal environment was maintained

during the daytime heating cycle, and

the instrument package was successfully recovered after descent by parachute.

In a related balloon development

effort, the Idaho Falls Division of the

Air Resources Laboratory is refining

its constant-level "smart" balloon,

intended to serve as a marker of

parcels of air moving across the countryside and permitting samples to be

made of the changes occurring in its

composition. The Idaho Falls group is

also active in the development of high

wind speed sensors, such as are used

on aircraft and for studies of hurricanes. A specialized probe to measure

turbulence during hurricanes is now

nearing completion, as a joint project

with the Oak Ridge Division of ARL.

The Oak Ridge group continues to lead

in the development of specialized sensors for measuring atmospheric turbulence. Their systems are now widely

used for measuring the efficiency of

coupling between the air and the surface, and have recently been selected

for instrumenting the latest generation

of research aircraft, manufactured in Italy.

During FY 2002, ETL and FSL will

continue development of new sensors

and innovative techniques for combinFigure 3-DOC-12. FSL-developed Local Analysis Prediction System (LAPS) ing observing systems synergistically

can generate model predictions of cloud cover.
SECTION 3 DOC 59

and economically. One effort involves

the extension of wind profiler (RASS)

and other data sources to develop

humidity profiles through the planetary

boundary layer. Other efforts include

developing tools and techniques to

integrate the data from surface-based

and satellite-borne profiling systems

for more effective use of these data in

forecasts. In support of this effort,

ETL has recently added a satellite

remote sensing group that uses data

from various environmental satellites

to study air-sea interaction processes,

the global hydrological cycle including

water vapor and precipitation, and the

Earth's radiation budget.

ETL scientists, in conjunction with

NASA, are also investigating the

potential of a new observational platform featuring Unmanned Aerial

Vehicles or UAVs. The concept is to

deploy specialized cameras called

hyperspectral imagers on these remotecontrolled, solar-powered aircraft.

Recent developments indicate that

UAV's will eventually be capable of

flying indefinitely at altitudes exceeding 50,000 ft, higher than most weather events, but much lower than satellites, making them ideal observational

platforms. Dubbed Peacewing, ETL

scientists envision many potential

applications of this technology.

Images from UAV-mounted cameras

can be used to enhance satellite images

of severe storms such as hurricanes.

This platform can also be used to monitor the health of coral reefs. It can

also be flown over land to assess moisture content of soil and vegetation,

both of which are indicators of

drought and fire susceptibility.

Peacewing is a perfect complement to

satellite-borne sensors and ground

based systems.

In a new development, ETL has

demonstrated that tornadoes can be

detected well before touch down by

listening for their unique infrasonic

signatures. Infrasonic antennas located in the central United States have

been used to detect and locate numerous tornadoes. Verification has been

provided by Doppler radar and visual

sightings. This research effort is continuing and it is proposed that a network of these inexpensive infrasonic

systems be deployed at WSR-88D sites

to enhance early detection capability.

Icing is a weather hazard that occasionally causes aviation disasters,

especially in winter. In-flight icing

forms on wings and other exposed surfaces as an aircraft flies through clouds

that contain super-cooled liquid water

droplets. Leveraging earlier work with

polarization-sensitive cloud radars,

ETL is designing a new ground-based

cloud radar and radiometer system to

monitor clouds in the vicinity of airports and to provide automated warnings of icing conditions aloft. This

instrument is the Ground-based

Remote Icing Detection System

(GRIDS). It will form the initial component of the FAA Icing Remote

Sensor Testbed (FIRST).

Development of the pilot demonstration unit is sponsored by the FAA as

part of a proposed new NWS initiative.

ETL will also continue development

of Lidars and infrared Doppler multifrequency radars as research tools to

improve our knowledge of atmospheric winds, turbulence, and moisture

processes. Development of dualpolarization Doppler and multi-frequency radars and passive radiometers

will also be undertaken to study convective storms and their precursors,

including in-cloud and entrainment

processes. ETL will also continue

research in the area of ocean remote

sensing, including theoretical and

experimental studies of rough surface

scattering processes. In particular,

ETL has demonstrated the potential

application of Cold War-era over-thehorizon (OTH) surveillance radars for

the large-scale mapping of ocean surface currents and winds. ETL is also

developing an airborne Polarimetric

Scanning Radiometer (PSR) designed

to provide higher resolution measurements of sea state quantities, including

surface winds.

The discussion of observing technologies would be incomplete without

mention of the North American

Atmospheric Observing System

(NAOS) Program. The overriding purpose of NAOS is to make recommendations on the configuration of the

upper air observing system over North

America and adjacent water areas.

Government organizations and universities in Canada, Mexico, and the

United States support NAOS. About

15 agencies from these countries have

representatives on the NAOS Council,

which identifies issues, sets priorities,

coordinates the work of the program,

and seeks financial support.

Eventually, the council will advise

governments on how to: (1) improve

the utility of existing observing systems and reduce costs, (2) design a

cost-effective observing system for the

21st Century, and (3) evolve toward that

system from the present one. OAR

representatives serve on the NAOS

council and its two principal working

groups.

The NSSL is known for its role in the

development of the WSR-88D

NEXRAD radar. Regarding the radar

software, NSSL is presently working

to improve the WSR-88D software

algorithms used by the NWS forecasters. Regarding the radar hardware,

NSSL is exploring ways to enhance the

WSR-88D hardware using dual polarization techniques. Most weather

radars, including the WSR-88D

NEXRAD radar, transmit radio wave

pulses that have a horizontal orientation. Polarimetric radars (also referred

to as dual-polarization radars), however, transmit radio wave pulses that

have both horizontal and vertical orientations. The horizontal pulses essentially give a measure of the horizontal

dimension of cloud (cloud water and

cloud ice) and precipitation (snow, ice

pellets, hail, rain) particles while the
60 DOC SECTION 3 

vertical pulses essentially give a measure of the vertical dimension. Since

the power returned to the radar is a

complicated function of each particle

size, shape, and ice density, this additional information results in improved

estimates of rain and snow rates, better

detection of large hail location in summer storms, and improved identification of rain/snow transition regions in

winter storms. The first step in the

processing is to prototype a new Radar

Data Acquisition (RDA) unit for the

WSR-88D capable of processing the

additional information to produce the

dual polarization information. The

next step will be to implement dualpolarization on the NSSL's WSR-88D

research radar.

Tropical Atmospheric Research

The Tropical Dynamics and Climate

Program of the Aeronomy Laboratory

(AL) is using a network of remotesensing wind profilers in a long-term

study of tropical circulation and its

impact on global climate. The TransPacific Profiler Network consists of an

array of wind profilers that make continuous measurements of atmospheric

winds and other parameters in the tropical Pacific. In addition to 50-MHz

wind profilers, the network is incorporating 915-MHz lower tropospheric

wind profilers developed at AL. The

observations, which extend from the

boundary layer to the lower stratosphere, reveal the relationship between

atmospheric vertical motions and convective systems in the tropics.

Precipitation measurements can be

made with sufficient vertical resolution

to categorize precipitation in deep and

shallow convective systems and in

stratiform conditions. The network

will: (1) provide valuable improvements to the boundary layer and convective parameterization schemes used

in general circulation models and

(2) contribute to climate forecasting by

furthering the understanding of the

coupled ocean-atmosphere dynamics

that governs the El Niño-Southern

Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, the

dominant component of interannual

climate change. A description of the

TPPN and access to the data can be

found on the AL web page

www.al.noaa.gov/WWWHD/pubdocs/ElNino.html. Routine wind

observations are made at Christmas

Island using 50-MHz and 915-MHz

profilers. Lower tropospheric wind

measurements using 915-MHz profilers are made at San Cristobal, Ecuador;

and Tarawa, Kiribati. In addition, surface and upper air measurements are

being made at Nauru and Manus

Island, Papua, New Guinea at sites collocated with the Atmospheric

Radiation CART Sites (ARCS) maintained by the Department of Energy

(DOE), Atmospheric Radiation

Measurement (ARM) program. The

wind data are assimilated into the

analyses and forecast models of the

European Centre for Medium-Range

Weather Forecasting (ECMWF),

NCEP, and other meteorological centers. The data are also used by climate

researchers to support investigations of

the variability of tropical circulation

systems. A recent focus of research

with profilers has been to provide

ground validation research in support

of the NASA Tropical Rainfall

Measuring Mission (TRMM). Profiler

observations were made by the

Aeronomy Laboratory during several

TRMM Ground Validation Field

Campaigns in 1998 and 1999. These

observations have provided important

information on the vertical structure

and temporal evolution of precipitating

cloud systems during these campaigns.

The profiler observations have been

made available to the TRMM Science

Team and can be viewed on the

Aeronomy Laboratory web page. The

observations made during the field

campaigns are the subject of collaborative research with other TRMM

researchers with an emphasis on the

use of profilers to calibrate scanning

radars used for TRMM ground validation research and the use of profilers to

retrieve drop-size distributions and

related precipitation parameters of

interest to the TRMM Science Team.

One profiler is being maintained for

TRMM on Legan in Kwajalein to

obtain a longer term perspective on the

structure of precipitating clouds and

the variability of drop size distributions in oceanic precipitation.

Validation of drop-size distributions

used in algorithms is key to improving

the retrieval of rainfall estimates from

the TRMM satellite. In 2001 the

Aeronomy Laboratory will participate

in the EPIC 2001 field campaign in the

eastern Pacific by operating a profiler

for precipitation studies on the R/V

New Horizon. The EPIC campaign is

part of the PACS program and is

designed to improve understanding of

the eastern Pacific ITCZ cold tongue

complex.

Severe Weather Analysis and

Forecasting Research

The NSSL in Norman, Oklahoma,

focuses on research to understand and

forecast severe weather systems and

their associated hazards, such as tornadoes, hail, high winds, heavy rain and

snow, lightning, and ice storms. The

parameters of storm development and

intensification are identified and studied by incorporating observations from

Doppler weather radar, satellites,

remote-sensing wind profilers, instrumented aircraft, and lightning-location

networks. In addition, work includes

assessment and improvement of

numerical models to forecast severe

weather systems.

NSSL provides significant technical

and scientific support, including

research and development, for the

WSR-88D program. In FY 2002,

NSSL will continue to develop techniques in cooperation with the NWS to

forecast and warn of weather hazards

to aviation and the general public.

Knowledge gained from the VORTEX

experiments in the mid and late 1990's,

and subsequent experiments like
SECTION 3 DOC 61

MeaPRS, provide new understanding

of severe thunderstorms, storm electrification, and tornadoes and lead to

improved methods to detect, model,

and predict these storms. Also in

FY 2002, NSSL will conduct an experiment called TIMEx, Thunderstorm

Initiation Mobile Experiment. TIMEx

is a series of field programs and analyses designed to answer specific questions concerning the evolution of convective precipitating systems.

Immediate technology transfer will be

effected by close association with several NWS Weather Forecast Offices,

including Norman and Tulsa,

Oklahoma; Phoenix, Arizona;

Melbourne, Florida; Jackson,

Mississippi; Fort Worth, Texas;

Denver, Colorado; and Salt Lake City,

Utah.

NSSL works closely with the NWS

WSR-88D Radar Operations Center

(ROC). Together, they are re-hosting

the Radar Product Generator, the

Radar Data Acquisition system, and

the Principal User Processor to an open

systems computation platform. The rehosting will continue for the next several years and will result in vastly

improved capabilities for the

WSR-88D radar. The new system will

ease the incorporation of new software

applications and allow for integration

of new hardware technology into the

radar system resulting in less time

needed for technology transfer. ORPG

deployment for 170 total radar sites,

both operational and non-operational,

will begin August 2001 and run

through FY 2002.

Improvement of short-range

(1-12 hour) forecasting will be accomplished by the development and evaluation of new local data system technologies and techniques, many of

which can be incorporated into operational weather forecasting in the near

term. FSL develops and evaluates

state-of-the-art workstations for forecast office environments. Specifically,

FSL has and will continue to develop

capabilities to allow the forecaster to

integrate, view, and manipulate observations from current and planned

meteorological sensing systems using

computer-assisted data display and

synthesis techniques. By maintaining

state-of-the-art capability for use in

research and development of operational techniques, it continues to provide a mechanism to evaluate weather

service requirements for AWIPS.

FSL will continue efforts toward

effective assimilation of diverse observational data into numerical prediction

models. Data from the Aeronautical

Radio Incorporated (ARINC) Aircraft

Communications, Addressing, and

Reporting System (ACARS),

WSR-88D Doppler radars, the NOAA

Profiler Network, and weather satellites, especially GOES, are frequent

and provide unprecedented resolution,

either in the vertical or the horizontal,

or both. These data are being more

fully exploited in the Local Analysis

and Prediction System which provides

highly detailed analyses and forecasts

over areas hundreds of kilometers on a

side, and the Mesoscale Analysis and

Prediction System, the basis for operational and frequent short-term forecasts for the lower 48 states. The system has been incorporated into the

AWIPS system and is being used by a

number of other agencies, not only for

various regions of the United States,

but for a number of regions throughout

the world.

OAR will continue to transfer

knowledge of Doppler radar applications, severe weather systems, and

heavy rainfall events; much of the

transfer is through courses at the NWS

training center. Visits and interactions

with NWS centers, regional headquarters, and forecast offices continue and

NSSL is participating directly in training programs, such as COMET in

Boulder, Colorado, and the WSR-88D

Operational Support Facility in

Norman, Oklahoma.

A multi-year program of coastal

meteorology research continues at the

Pacific Marine Environmental

Laboratory (PMEL). This program

also involves ETL and NSSL, the

NWS Seattle WFO, NCAR, and the

University of Washington. Support for

the program is also being provided by

the Office of Naval Research. This

research improves understanding of

the effects of prominent terrain on

West Coast weather, with the ultimate

goal of providing improved forecasts

of coastal winds, precipitation, sea

state, and storm surges. The emphasis

is on the upstream effects of the coastal

terrain in the storm environment when

the background forcing is strong and

the coastal forecasts are most critical.

The approach involves special field

observations and diagnostic studies

using experimental numerical simulations. Field work featuring a NOAA

WP-3 research aircraft in FY 1994 and

1996, for example, has yielded meteorological data for the Pacific Northwest

coast with low-level winds of up to 85

knots, in the vicinity of strong fronts

and, in one case, an intense, landfalling

low. The case studies from this work

provide immediate insights on the

influences of the coastal terrain on

landfalling storms, and high quality

data sets for numerical model initialization and validation. Follow-up field

programs in FY 2001 and FY 2002 will

focus on cloud and precipitation

processes using special observations

from research aircraft and land-based

radars. The results are providing information on how to improve forecasts of

Northwest weather.

Taking advantage of the 1997-98 El

Niño event, ETL led the California

Land-Falling Jets Experiment (CALJET) with participation by PMEL

(OMIC), FSL, the Naval Research

Laboratory (NRL), and the Naval Post

Graduate School. CALJET took place

between December 1997 and February

1998 and was designed to study the

development of the pre-frontal lowlevel jet along the coast of California.
62 DOC SECTION 3 

This moist jet can cause severe, flooding rains along and near the coast as it

impinges on the coastal mountains.

The large volume of data gathered during this experiment, including those

data from the NOAA WP-3 and from

an array of radar wind profilers along

the coast, was analyzed throughout

FY 1998-99 to determine the mechanisms of jet development. This knowledge was incorporated into numerical

models to improve the accuracy and

lead time of forecasts of heavy, flooding coastal rains in California. This

study is occurring with close cooperation between the scientists and the

NWS forecasters in California

(Figure 3-DOC-13).

Mesometeorology and Precipitation

Forecasting and Warning Research

NSSL develops techniques to

improve short-term forecasts of significant weather events. Through detailed

case studies and regional climatologies, scientists have developed diagnostic tools and aids for operationally

forecasting thunderstorms, lightning,

flash floods, and large mesoscale convective storms complexes. Recent

experiments called MeaPRS (MCS

Electrification and Polarimetric Radar

Study) and STEPS (Severe

Thunderstorm Electrification and

Precipitation Study) were conducted to

improve the science behind the technology. MeaPRS was specifically

designed to investigate Mesoscale

Convective Systems (MCS) electrification processes and ways to improve

understanding of polarimetric radar

measurements in preparation for possibly upgrading NWS radars in the

future. STEPS was designed to

improve our understanding of how

severe storms become electrified and

to better understand how variations in

type and flash rate of lightning relate to

the type of severe storm and its evolution. Other studies underway are

focused on the precipitation structure

of mesoscale convective systems, the

interactions between mesosconvective

systems and the larger environment,

the use of satellites to infer storm

development and rainfall, short-range

ensemble forecasting techniques, and

winter storm forecasting procedures.

In FY 2002, NSSL will continue to

investigate various model convective

parameterization schemes, along with

our techniques to improve model initialization through four-dimensional

data assimilation.

NSSL is working with the NWS

Storm Prediction Center (SPC) to

improve their ability to forecast severe

weather and to provide severe winter

weather guidance products. Data collected during the Intermountain

Precipitation Experiment (IPEX) held

in FY 2001 should help. The data are

being analyzed by NSSL, the NWS

Storm Prediction Center, and

University of Utah scientists. The

IPEX field and research program was

designed to improve the understanding, analysis, and prediction of precipitation and precipitation processes in

complex terrain. Data analysis of

IPEX will continue in FY 2002.

Mesoscale Dynamics at GFDL

develops and utilizes atmospheric

models with limited spatial domains to

understand mesoscale phenomena and

the interaction of these regional scale

features with the atmosphere's largerscale synoptic processes. As part of

these research activities, GFDL scientists investigate the practical limits of

forecast models to predict the behavior

of these mesoscale features through

model sensitivity studies.

The FSL implemented a Rapid

Update Cycle (RUC) at NCEP in 1994.

The RUC gave a new analysis of surface and atmospheric conditions every

three hours as well as short-range predictions for the next 12 hours. This

information is useful to forecasters at

local NWS offices around the country

and also supports commercial and general aviation.

A higher-resolution, higher-frequency version of the RUC was implemented at NCEP in February 1998. This

new version operates at 40-km horizontal resolution with 40 vertical levels and provides updates every hour,

thus, incorporating information from

virtually all high frequency data

sources: hourly wind profiles,

WSR-88D (Doppler radar) velocity

azimuth displays, ACARS reports (up

to 65,000 per day), cloud-drift winds

and estimates of total precipitable

water vapor from the GOES satellites,

and surface observations.

The new RUC also includes explicit

forecasts of cloud droplets, ice crystals, raindrops, snowflakes, and graupel (snow pellets). This improves forecasts of precipitation type. The RUC

exploits a new, multi-level soil and

vegetation model to improve forecasts

at and near the earth's surface. With

the arrival of a larger computer at

NCEP, the way is open for expanding

the geographical domain of the RUC

and moving toward finer resolution of

the computational grid (20-km). The

20-km version of the RUC is expected

to become operational in FY 2001.

The new version will also incorporate Figure 3-DOC-13. CALJET sensor

package
SECTION 3 DOC 63

a three dimensional variational

(3DVAR) analysis that will replace the

optimum interpolation method used

earlier.

Along with NCAR, NCEP, and a few

universities, FSL is collaborating on

the development of a new mesoscale

model, the Weather Research and

Forecast (WRF) model. The goal of

this development, from the beginning,

is that the WRF model should become

a community model and a tool both for

experimental and operational prediction, thus paving the way for quick

realization of research advances in

forecast dissemination to the public

and industry. A management plan has

been published, and working groups

are organized to pursue various aspects

of development.

The Air Resources Laboratory is also

involved in the development of new

models for operational use by NCEP.

The main focus is on mesoscale models and in the development of new

capabilities for data assimilation. In

particular, the new generation of

mesoscale models (such as the WRF

model referred to above) will require

advanced descriptions of the coupling

between the air and the surface, a matter that is being studied intensively in

ARL programs involving closely interacting measurement and modeling

activities. To this end, ARL maintains

the nation's surface radiation network

(SURFRAD), data from which are

now routinely employed to test both

forecast mesoscale models (such as

Eta) and satellite outputs. ARL conducts research on the surface energy

balance and on the spatial variability of

surface fluxes using aircraft. In addition, ARL serves as the provider of the

NCEP modeling capability to address

situations of atmospheric dispersion,

such as of emissions from sources like

volcanos and industrial enterprises. In

recent work, ARL is developing a new

system for forecasting the dispersion

of smoke from forest fires, in collaboration with the Association of South

East Asian Nations and their Regional

Haze Action Plan.

Hurricane Analysis and Prediction

Research

The Hurricane Research Division

(HRD) of the Atlantic Oceanographic

and Meteorological Laboratory

(AOML) explores hurricanes in dedicated research flights aboard the WP3D aircraft operated by NOAA's

Aircraft Operations Center (AOC).

The P-3s carry a suite of instruments to

measure a wide range of meteorological quantities, including standard

flight-level data, precipitation characteristics, remotely-sensed surface

winds, vertical soundings, ocean thermal structure, radar reflectivity, and

Doppler radar winds. In addition to the

airborne observations, HRD develops

techniques for real-time analysis and

display of hurricane data, especially of

surface winds. It also carries out modeling and theoretical studies closely

tied to the observational program and

studies interannual and inter-decadal

changes in hurricane activity.

The 1995-1999 hurricane seasons

were the five most active consecutive

ones in the >100-year quantitative climatology. There is a growing body of

evidence indicating that the relatively

low level of hurricane activity experienced in the 1970s and the 1980s is

over and that the first decade or two of

the 21st Century will see a return to the

more active conditions that characterized the 1940-1960s. If this hypothesis

proves true, land-use and development

decisions made over the last two

decades may be inappropriate to the

present hurricane climatology and the

need for more accurate forecasts and

better informed policy guidance will

become pressing.

An exciting new tool for this effort is

AOC's newly commissioned

Gulfstream IV (G-IV) jet which has

operated successfully in the hurricane

environment since 1997. The G-IV

extends the envelope of observations

throughout the depth of the troposphere. Use of these aircraft presents

an unprecedented opportunity for better understanding and forecasting of

hurricanes through detailed observations. Of special interest are the hurricanes' inner core, the oceanographic

and upper tropospheric synoptic-scale

forcings that control intensity and

motion, and the kinematics and thermodynamics of the near-surface

boundary layer. The GPS-based dropsondes procured as the G-IV's main

scientific payload have a vital role in

these investigations because of their

high vertical resolution and superior

thermodynamic and wind sensing

capability. The 1998 season constituted the first major field program for

HaL carried out in collaboration with

NASA's Third Convection and

Moisture Experiment (CAMEX-3).

The success of this campaign combined with follow-on missions in 1999

was unprecedented. NOAA and

NASA aircraft flew a combined total

of more than 100 scientific sorties in

1998 and 1999. Participation by the GIV and NASA's DC-8 and ER-2 provided extensive in situ observations

above the middle troposphere for the

first time since the 1960s. In addition

to airborne measurements, university

teams with instrumented towers,

mobile Doppler radars, and portable

profilers coordinated with HRD to

obtain detailed measurements of nearsurface conditions in most hurricanes

that passed onshore during these seasons. The 1998 campaign will be

repeated in conjunction with

CAMEX-4 in 2001.

The motivation for acquisition of the

G-IV was a statistically rigorous

demonstration, based upon more than a

decade of experiments with the P-3s,

that intensive observations of the flows

surrounding hurricanes can produce

substantial (16-30 percent) reductions

in track forecast errors. Data from

multiple-aircraft experiments involving the G-IV and both WP-3Ds should

confirm the GI-V's ability to improve
64 DOC SECTION 3 

forecasts. Adaptive targeting of aircraft observations to regions where

they will do the most good is a strategy to realize even further improvement.

The forecast system currently has

limited skill in prediction of intensity.

Through continuing research with the

expanded aircraft fleet, the nation can

realize large (billions of dollars per

year) economic benefits through more

accurate routine operational track forecasts. A second, equally significant,

outcome is the promise of dynamically-based, skillful intensity forecasts.

Because hurricanes inflict huge costs

on the United States economy, even

incremental improvements in forecasts

have large benefit to expenditure

ratios. The report on HaL by the

USWRP Prospectus Development

Team 5 (PDT5) contains a comprehensive, focused scientific strategy to realize these benefits (BAMS, 79, 305-323).

In addition to HRD research activities, the OAR scientists carry out hurricane research at the Geophysical

Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) in

Princeton, New Jersey. GFDL's

Hurricane Dynamics group performs

hurricane modeling research to study

the genesis, development, and decay of

tropical storms using multi-nested

three-dimensional computer models of

the hurricane system and its surrounding environment.

In the early 1990's, this research

model proved so successful for simulation of observed storm behavior that

the NWS adopted a version of it for

use in operational forecasting. From

the 1995 through the 1999 hurricane

seasons, the GFDL Hurricane

Prediction System provided the most

accurate hurricane-track forecast guidance available and contributed substantially to the dramatic error reductions in official forecasts that have

occurred since its introduction.

Under the USWRP, OAR, NWS,

NESDIS, and the USWRP participating agencies are currently establishing

a Joint Hurricane Test-bed (JHT) at the

Tropical Prediction Center in Miami.

It is anticipated that the JHT will grow

in FY 2002 as more resources become

available. This test-bed is where the

hurricane research will be evaluated

for operational use and those research

products passing the test will be handed off to operations.

Numerical Analysis and Prediction

Modeling

As part of its weather research activities, GFDL conducts long lead-time

research to understand the predictability of weather on both large and small

scales and to translate this understanding into improved NWP models.

Three groups at GFDL are engaged in

weather research activities:

Experimental Prediction, Mesoscale

Dynamics, and Hurricane Dynamics

(described above).

Experimental Prediction at GFDL

develops and improves numerical

models of the atmosphere-oceanland system in order to produce useful weather forecasts with lead-times

ranging from weeks to seasons and

beyond. The group is pursuing several avenues of research to achieve

such improvements. First, GFDL

scientists are investigating methods

of stochastic dynamic prediction in

order to extract as much forecast

information as possible from numerical prediction models, given imperfectly observed initial conditions. In

addition, laboratory scientists are

developing methods for the assimilation of ocean observations into prediction models in order to improve

the forecast of the atmosphere and

the ocean. GFDL is in the process of

establishing a unit, the Technology

Infusion Group, at the National

Centers for Environmental

Prediction (NCEP)/NWS, to facilitate the transition into operations of

advances in coupled climate forecast

systems and the ocean data assimilation systems required to initialize

these forecasts.

Air Quality Research

The principal mission of the Air

Resources Laboratory (ARL) is to

improve the capability to forecast

changes in air quality and atmospheric

deposition. Deposition is the factor

that links the pollutant characteristics

of the air with the terrestrial and aquatic environments. ARL's research

focuses on the lower atmosphere,

where the atmosphere is in direct contact with other media--aquatic, terrestrial, and biospheric. The core of ARL

research relates to studies of the atmosphere as a component of the total environment. Much of this work is in collaboration with other parts of NOAA

(principally NCEP) and with other

agencies, such as EPA, DOE, and

DOD.

The ARL Headquarters Division in

Silver Spring, Maryland, develops

models for air quality prediction, for

use in special forecasting (both weather and air quality) programs, and in

emergency response. The

Atmospheric Sciences Modeling

Division, in Research Triangle Park,

North Carolina, develops predictive

models on local, regional, and global

scales for assessing changes in air

quality and air pollution exposure as

affected by ecosystem management

and regulations. This work is primarily to provide technical guidance to the

EPA on air pollution control strategies

for attainment and maintenance of

ambient air quality standards. The

Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion

Division, in Oak Ridge, Tennessee,

conducts studies to improve understanding of atmospheric transport, diffusion, and air-surface exchange

processes, and to develop new predictive models. The Field Research

Division, in Idaho Falls, Idaho, designs

and conducts field studies to evaluate

the performance of transport and dispersion models, over local, regional,

and continental scales, and specializes

in the development of high-technology

airborne instrumentation (for both air-
SECTION 3 DOC 65

craft and balloons). The Special

Operations and Research Division, in

Las Vegas, Nevada, conducts research

on problems of mutual interest to

NOAA and DOE that relate to the

Nevada Test Site, its atmospheric environment, and its emergency preparedness and emergency response activities. SORD also serves as the main

NOAA facility working with the

Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric

Studies and Terrestrial Applications

(CIASTA) of the University of Nevada

system.

Air quality forecasting is a major

theme of ARL research. Over the last

several years, ARL has made ozone

forecasts available to interested

researchers, via the web, with focus

mainly on the area surrounding the

Great Smoky Mountains. In this area,

ozone exceedances are reported with

increasing frequency, and forecasts of

ozone levels are being requested by

federal and state agencies alike. The

ARL effort in this regard is targeted

through its East Tennessee Ozone

Study (ETOS), which has been a focus

for regional air quality attention for the

last three years. In future years, it is

planned to develop air quality forecast

capabilities using the supercomputing

center of the University of Nevada at

Las Vegas, through the formal linkage

with the Cooperative Institute for

Atmospheric Studies and Terrestrial

Applications (CIASTA).

ARL operates two national networks

that direct research attention on the

needs of the next generation of predictive models. The Atmospheric

Integrated Research Monitoring

Network (AIRMoN) is a nested-network with sites of varying complexity

addressing evolving scientific issues of

wet and dry deposition from the atmosphere. A major current item for scientific attention is the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen compounds and its

role in promoting eutrophication of

ecosystems, primarily coastal. The

ARL-run Integrated Surface Irradiance

Study (ISIS) serves as the national

array of monitoring stations for solar

radiation (and ultraviolet-B) with a

subset of more advanced stations (the

SURFRAD array) where both incoming and outgoing radiation components

are monitored. Many of the

SURFRAD stations are augmented

with instrumentation to measure fluxes

of sensible heat, latent heat, momentum, and carbon dioxide. Thus, the

SURFRAD program is evolving into

one of complete energy balance with

supporting data on carbon dioxide

exchange. This work forms an intersection with the new flux measurement

networks in the United States and

overseas, referred to as "Ameriflux"

and "Fluxnet." All of this work is coupled with ARL research on atmospheric aerosols and with the development

of new automatic methods for measuring cloud cover.

Much of ARL's research focus is on

expressing air surface exchange

processes in numerical models. To this

end, ARL scientists have been instrumental in developing methods for

describing areal air surface exchange

appropriate for use with model grid

cells of several tens of kilometers on a

side. To test the aerial integration capabilities, ARL has instrumented an aircraft of the NOAA fleet (a DeHavilland

Twin Otter) to measure all of the eddy

fluxes as well as a number of trace gas

exchange rates. This instrumented aircraft has been used in several field

experiments and has already demonstrated that considerable error can

result when local values are inappropriately taken to represent larger areas.

ARL also provides forecast support

to NOAA's emergency response systems with emphasis on nuclear and volcanic events. For this application, ARL

develops and couples advanced

mesoscale models with the forecast

products of the NWS to provide a basis

for trajectory and dispersion calculations. Users also may access these

products through the Internet.

The Aeronomy Laboratory (AL)

coordinates a NOAA/OAR air quality

research effort, the Health of the

Atmosphere research. NOAA's Health

of the Atmosphere research is focused

on the atmospheric science that underlies regional and continental air quality, with the goal of improving our ability to predict and monitor future

changes, leading to improved scientific input to decision-making.

NOAA/OAR's Aeronomy Laboratory,

Air Resources Laboratory, Climate

Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, Forecast Systems Laboratory, and

Environmental Technology Laboratory

participate in the research. The Health

of the Atmosphere research goals are:

 Characterize regional ozone

episodes: Characterize the origin

of ozone in rural areas, where crop

and forest damage are of increasing

concern. In 2000, a comprehensive

air quality field experiment took

place in the region around Houston

Texas. This experiment was

designed to investigate the complex chemical and meteorological

factors that influence the air quality of that coastal region. The

regional chemistry is of special

interest because of the presence of

large natural as well as anthropogenic sources of hydrocarbons

(including the petrochemical

industry) and because of the unique

influence of coastal meteorology

on air quality of the region.

 Document trends in air quality:

Help evaluate predicted atmospheric responses to changes in emissions (i.e., the ongoing measurements provided by the Atmospheric

Integrated Research Monitoring

Network (AIRMoN) and the ozone

profiling network).

 Develop a better understanding of

the fundamental science underlying

the processes responsible for the

formation and distribution of fine

particles in the atmosphere.

Improve the atmospheric predictive
66 DOC SECTION 3 

capability that links sources of fine

particles and their precursors to

human exposure and visibility

impairment. In 1999, an experiment was conducted in Atlanta to

compare research capabilities related to the measurement of fine particles in the lower atmosphere.

In future Health of the Atmosphere

research, the OAR Laboratories will

integrate their meteorological, chemical, and forecasting expertise to build

an assessment and prediction capability for regional air quality that incorporates the influence of multiple-timescale meteorology/climatology. While

the ambient levels of pollutants like

ozone and fine particles are clearly

dependent on pollutant emissions, a

large fraction of the variation in those

levels is driven by meteorology, both

in the short term and longer term.

Therefore, the key to assessing both

the intended long-term improvements

in air quality and the more-episodic

variations lies in understanding not

only the atmospheric linkages between

emissions and concentrations, but also

in understanding the coupled chemical

and meteorological processes. This

"chemical meteorology" research will

extend the current program focus on

emissions/concentration linkages to

include a predictive understanding of

the role of synoptic, seasonal/interannual, and longer-term meteorological/climatological changes on the

chemistry of the lower atmosphere.

Research efforts will also focus on an

evaluation and improvement of the

tools used to forecast future air quality

and the observing systems needed to

evaluate their skill. The Air Quality

Research Subcommittee of the

Committee on Environment and

Natural Resources (CENR) will provide the interagency collaboration at

the United States federal level. On the

broader international arena, the coordinating body is the North American

Research Strategy for Tropospheric

Ozone (NARSTO), a tri-lateral public/private partnership focused on

ozone and particulate matter research

in the United States, Canada, and

Mexico. NOAA is the public-sector

co-chair of NARSTO.

ETL uses its suite of remote sensors,

including a mobile profiler network,

airborne and ground-based ozone

Lidars, Doppler Lidar, and supporting

turbulence instrumentation to understand and better model the transport,

transformation, and fate of primary

and secondary pollutants in both rural

and urban environments as well as in

complex orography.

In the summer of FY 2001, an evaluative testing will begin using a regional ozone forecasting model. The

model will be run at the Skaggs Center

in Boulder, Colorado. Candidate

regions include Texas, North Carolina,

and New England, all which have significant ozone problems. This test will

mark the beginning of the establishment of a regional air quality forecasting test-bed which may expand to

other atmospheric constituents.

Space Environment Services and the

Space Environment Center

NOAA and the Air Force jointly

operate the National Space Weather

Operations (SWO) group in NOAA's

Space Environment Center (SEC) in

Boulder, Colorado. The SEC, working

closely with the Air Force Weather

Agency (AFWA), provides forecasts,

alerts, indices, and summaries of disturbances occurring on the Sun, in

space, in the geomagnetic environment, and in the upper atmosphere

(Figure 3-DOC-14). The services are

used by DOD, DOT, DOC, DOI, DOE,

NASA, NSF, commercial users, and

the research community:

 To optimize the operation of technical systems that are adversely

affected by disturbances in the

space environment.

 To protect astronauts from harmful

radiation.

 To carry out research in the solarterrestrial environment.

Examples of the adverse effects

include loss or reduced efficiency of

communication systems, radiation hazards to personnel and systems in high

altitude aircraft and in space, degradation of surveillance and monitoring

systems for defense, errors in navigation systems, perturbations of satellite

orbits, and disruptions in power distribution networks. The United

States Air Force operates a space

weather operations center at Air Force

Weather Agency (AFWA) to provide

space weather support, including products from the SWO, to DOD assets.

The AFWA operates and maintains the

solar observing network with sites at

Palehua, Hawaii; Learmouth,

Australia; San Vito, Italy; Ramey,

Puerto Rico; Sagamore Hill,

Massachusetts; and Holloman AFB,

New Mexico. The AFWA space

weather operations group shares space

weather data and support responsibilities with its civilian counterpart at

SEC.

SEC serves as the international

World Warning Agency for the

International Space Environment

Service (ISES). It exchanges international data--solar-wind, X-ray,

Figure 3-DOC-14. A solar flare (a

sudden, rapid, and intense variation in

brightness) occurs when magnetic

energy that has built up in the solar

atmosphere is suddenly released,

launching material outward at millions

of kilometers per hour. Observed by

Solar Heliospheric Observatory

(SOHO) on May 2, 1998.
SECTION 3 DOC 67

sunspot, corona, magnetic, and ionospheric measurements--in real-time

and, from these data, provides and

meets additional specific needs of

other government agencies. SEC distributes (receives) data to (from) other

countries and issues a consensus set of

daily forecasts for international use.

There is also a substantial and rapidly

growing customer base in the private

sector.

SEC operates with observations

received from agencies that contribute

their data and, in return, receive the

synthesized and integrated services to

meet their needs. Agencies making

major contributions of data include:

DOD, NASA, DOC, NSF, DOE, and

DOI. SEC cooperates directly with

NESDIS to receive solar X-ray, particle, in situ magnetic field, and plasma

data from the SEM on GOES and the

polar-orbiting NOAA satellites. Data

are collected, stored, and displayed for

analysis and products and distributed

to outside customers primarily via the

Internet (www.sec.noaa.gov), by

NOAA Weather Wire, and digital data

links (primarily operated by other

agencies). Radio broadcast, mail, and

recorded telephone messages are available to users as well.

Research and development at the

Space Environment Center emphasizes

understanding of the fundamental

physical processes governing the

regime from the solar surface, through

the interplanetary medium, into the

magnetospheric-ionospheric regions,

and ending in Earth's upper atmosphere. These processes are manifest in

the climatology and disturbances of

Earth's magnetic field, the ionosphere,

the charged particle populations at

satellite orbits, and the atmospheric

density at high altitudes (including

low-Earth orbit). Our research is

focused on areas where advanced

applications can be developed and prototyped to improve space weather services, whereby the nation is served

through alerts and warnings of those

conditions that can be often hazardous

to technological systems in space and

on the ground and human activities in

space.

Solar Terrestrial Models and

Theory. SEC work is also devoted to

basic research of Earth's space environment and the application of this

research to space weather operations.

The staff has expertise spanning from

solar physics to Earth's upper atmosphere, and maintains close collaborations throughout the research community. They publish regularly in scientific journals, and work directly with

the SEC Space Weather Operations

and the Systems Division to develop

state-of-the-art capabilities for the

NOAA/SEC forecast center.

Solar Terrestrial Instrumentation

and Data. The group ensures

that space environment data are

processed, validated, interpreted, and

disseminated in an efficient and timely fashion. The group develops analysis tools for working with data from a

variety of spacecraft, including the

NOAA geosynchronous and polar

orbiters, and spacecraft in the solar

wind. Data access is provided

through customized data-analysis routines and individualized displays. In

addition to enhancing the utility and

value of the primary data through

research and analysis, the group

explores sources of new data and

improved monitoring to support

Space Weather Operations.

Solar Influences and Imaging. SEC

conducts research into understanding

processes on the sun and the effects of

solar activity on the near-Earth space

environment. The group leads in the

development of techniques to process

and interpret both ground-based and

space-based solar imagery, and has

special expertise in solar X-ray imaging. To support Space Weather

Operations, the staff examines both

short and long-term solar influences

on human activities in space and on

the ground.

Rapid Prototyping Center. A unique

facility dedicated to moving space

environment models from a researchdevelopment mode to an operational

mode.

Satellites. Developing space monitoring instrument specifications,

receiving and validating data from

these instruments, analyzing and presenting data, and archiving data in the

National Geophysical Data Center

(NGDC) are all aspects with which the

SEC is involved. The Space

Environment Monitor (SEM) instruments on the Geostationary

Operational Environmental Satellite

(GOES) and the Polar-orbiting

Operational Environment Satellite

(POES) are among our major responsibilities. The SEM instruments on

POES include energetic particle monitors and SBUV. The SEM instruments

on GOES include magnetometers,

energetic particle monitors, and solar

x-ray intensity measurements. Future

GOES will add measurements of the

extreme ultraviolet (EUV), a Solar Xray Imager, and a broader range of

energies of energetic particles. In

addition, we cooperate with other

agency satellite missions to provide

real-time space weather information.

These include the NASA missions:

WIND, ACE, and IMAGE. In FY

2002, SEC will emphasize improvement of space weather observations.

Solar X-Ray Imager. A Solar X-ray

Imager (SXI) telescope will be flown

on the GOES M satellite, due for

launch late in FY 2001. The SXI will

provide images of the solar atmosphere

on time scales of an image every few

minutes. The SXI telescope based on

recent research instruments flown on

American and Japanese satellites will

enable observations of the threedimensional structure of solar disturbances as they develop and propagate

in the solar atmosphere. The new

instrument will fill an important gap in

the ability to model and predict space

weather disturbances as they propagate
68 DOC SECTION 3 

from the Sun to Earth. First level integration of the SXI data into space

weather operations will be completed

early in FY 2002 and successive incremental implementations will be made

later in the year.

GOES NO/PQ satellites. SEC will

be completing full implementation of

the ingest, processing, analysis, and

distribution of the new instruments that

allow measurements of the environment immediately surrounding the

satellite. The measurements, of

low energy but dense radiation,

will improve our capability to

specify conditions that can interrupt or disable satellite operations. The use of models being

developed in the research community and evaluated for operational use in SEC will allow the

new measurements to be extrapolated throughout near-earth

space. With the combination of

new measurements and models,

the environment can be specified

at any location for the hundreds

of satellites in geosynchronous

orbit around Earth.

Expanded use of the NOAA

Space Weather Scales and New

Products. Use of the NOAA

scales for classifying space

weather disturbances continued

to increase through FY 2001.

Several new alert categories have been

developed and implemented to make

use of the scale in response to users

who find the scales offer more useable

information than previous, often overly technical alerts.

SEC will propose additional space

weather products, including new alerts

and graphical products, for assignment

of World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) codes to facilitate the SEC

program to integrate space weather

products into the NOAA suite of

weather services. This continues a

series of implementations of space

weather products into the NOAA

Family of Services.

New products describing the location and intensity of the energy put into

the atmosphere by the aurora are being

put in place in FY 2001 and this effort

will continue in FY 2002, using data

from the POES.

SEC will participate directly in interagency programs directed at improving

our understanding of the space environment. These include the Living

With a Star Program (a NASA initiative), and three cooperative campaigns

covering the Sun, Earth's magnetic

field, and the ionosphere.

Use of Global Positioning System

(GPS) to measure the ionosphere.

SEC, in cooperation with FSL and with

support from the DOD, will continue

to develop a capability to measure the

ionosphere, including its electron content and height, through use of the

DOD Global Positioning System

(GPS). By recording thousands of

GPS signals each day and using data

assimilation techniques that allow the

measurements to be reversed, the ionosphere can be mapped in greater detail

than with current measurement systems.

Voluntary Observing Ship (VOS)

Program. OAR operates a global VOS

program that provides real-time meteorological and oceanographic data

from selected vessels. Data are collected with the Shipboard

Environmental Data Acquisition

System, which transmits the information to NOAA via the GOES system.

The information is then disseminated

nationally and internationally using

existing data networks. Presently,

there are over 120 vessels in the

program which record and transmit surface meteorological information four times per day at synoptic hours. Of these vessels,

about 60 vessels are also

equipped to collect expendable

bathythermograph data.

Southern Hemisphere Drifting

Buoy Program. In support of

Global Climate Observing

System (GCOS) requirements,

OAR, in cooperation with NWS,

OGP, AOML, and the Scripps

Institution of Oceanography,

maintains a network of approximately 100 meteorological drifting buoys in the Southern

Hemisphere. The buoys measure

sea-level atmospheric pressure,

air temperature, and sea water

temperature. Observations are

obtained through the ARGOS

data collection and platform location

system on-board the NOAA polarorbiting satellites.

The TAO/TRITON array consists of

approximately 70 ATLAS and TRITON moorings in the Tropical Pacific

Ocean, telemetering oceanographic

and meteorological data to shore in

real-time via the Argos satellite system. Designed to improve detection,

understanding, and prediction of El

Niño, TAO/TRITON is a major component of the El Niño/Southern

Oscillation (ENSO) Observing

System, the Global Climate Observing

System (GCOS), and the Global Ocean

Observing System (GOOS). The array
SECTION 3 DOC 69

is supported primarily by the

United States (NOAA) and Japan

(JAMSTEC) with contributions

from France (IRD) and Taiwan

(NTU). The mooring array is

operated and maintained by the

TAO Project Office located at

PMEL in Seattle, Washington,

which has responsibility for project management, operations and

logistics. These buoys provide climate researchers, weather prediction centers, and scientists around

the world with real-time data from the

tropical Pacific. El Niño (the warm

phase of the ENSO cycle) is associated

with a disruption of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific and

has important consequences for weather around the globe. A description and

overview of the TAO/TRITON Array

is available at www.pmel.noaa.gov/

toga-tao/ overview1.html.

PIRATA (Pilot Research Moored

Array in the Tropical Atlantic) is a

project designed as an extension of the

TAO array into the Atlantic. The purpose of PIRATA is to study oceanatmosphere interactions in the tropical

Atlantic that are relevant to regional

climate variability on seasonal, interannual and longer time scales. It consists of an array of 12 ATLAS moorings similar to those deployed in the

Pacific.

Global Drifter Program. The

Atlantic Oceanographic and

Meteorological Laboratory, in Miami,

Florida, manages the deployment of

drifting buoys around the world,

deploying some 300 new drifters annually and tracking nearly 700. Using

research ships, Volunteer Observation

Ships (VOS), and United States Navy

aircraft, Global Lagrangian Drifters

(GLD) are placed in areas of interest.

Once verified operational, they are

reported to AOML's Data Assembly

Center (DAC). Incoming data from

the drifter are then placed on the

Global Telecommunications System

(GTS) for distribution to meteorological services everywhere. The primary

goal of this project is to assemble and

provide uniform quality control of SST

and surface velocity measurements.

These measurements are obtained as

part of an international program

designed to make this data available in

an effort to improve climate prediction.

Climate prediction models require

accurate estimates of SST to initialize

their ocean component. Drifting

buoys provide essential ground truth

SST data for this purpose. The models also require validation by comparison with independent data sets.

Surface velocity measurements are

used for this validation.

ARGO--Global Array of Profiling

Floats--will deploy a global array of

3,000 profiling floats to better understand and forecast climate. ARGO

floats will be parked at 1,000m and

will profile the water column from the

surface to 2,000m. Observations will

be made in real-time. Along with

satellites, ARGO will initiate the

oceanic equivalent of today's operational observing system for the global

atmosphere.

NOAA Ship RONALD H. BROWN.

NOAA recently installed and deployed

a 5-cm Doppler precipitation radar to

conduct studies of atmospheric

processes over the ocean

(Figure 3-DOC-15). The system has

been shown to not only be effective for

studying convective processes but also

processes associated with marine stratus clouds. In August-October of

2000, NOAA/ETL installed and tested

a novel phased array, electronically

stabilized radar for measuring wind

profiles above the ocean. This profiler

will be used to monitor winds in several upcoming field experiments (e.g.,

EPIC 2001, PACS 2001).

Figure 3-DOC-15. NOAA Research Vessel

Ronald H. Brown.
70 DOC SECTION 3 
SECTION 3 DOC 71

The National Ocean Service (NOS)

monitors, assesses, and forecasts conditions in the coastal and oceanic environment to maintain a healthy, safe,

and economically productive coastal

and oceanic environment for present

and future generations. NOS is the primary civil agency within the federal

government responsible for the health

and safety of our nation's coastal and

oceanic environment. NOS acquires

water levels, currents, winds, and other

physical oceanographic and meteorological data, and distributes

these data and circulation predictions as elements of an integrated NOS program to provide a comprehensive sciencebased suite of information

products required by the

marine transportation community to ensure safe and efficient

marine transportation, including the transport of oil and

other hazardous materials.

Also, NOS provides coastal

oceanographic and meteorological products required by

the National Weather Service

(NWS) to meet its short-term

weather and forecasting

responsibilities, including

tsunami and storm surge warnings/forecasts.

National Water Level

Observation Network (NWLON).

NOS manages the NWLON, stations

located along the coasts of the United

States and the Great Lakes, from which

water level data, as well as other

oceanographic and meteorological

data, are collected and disseminated.

NWLON provides a number of NOAA

and other federal programs with data

and supporting information, such as

the NOAA Tide and Tidal Current

Prediction program, NWS Tsunami

Warning System, NWS storm surge

warning/forecast activities, and the

Climate and Global Change Program.

An event triggered NWLON modification is now operational that allows

emergency "Tsunami Warning" GOES

transmissions to NWS when the water

level exceeds a specified high/low

limit or when the rate of change

between the standard 6-minute water

level values exceeds a specified value.

The NOS Continuous Real-Time

Monitoring System (CORMS) was

designed to operate on a 24hour/7 days

a week basis to ensure the accuracy of

tide and current observations acquired

via the National Water Level and

Physical Oceanographic Real-Time

System (PORTS) Programs.

CORMS improves the overall data

quality assurance of real-time measurements, reduces NOAA's potential

liability from disseminating inadequate data, and makes the observations

more useful for all applications.

CORMS ingests real-time data from all

field sensors, determines data quality,

and identifies and communicates the

presence of invalid or suspect data to

real-time users/customers who rely on

the data. An advanced version of this

system, CORMS II, is presently in developmental stages (Figure 3-DOC-16).

Physical Oceanographic Real-Time

System (PORTS). PORTS is a

decision support tool which improves

the safety and efficiency of maritime

commerce and coastal resource management through the integration of

real-time environmental observations,

forecasts, and other geospatial information. PORTS measures and disseminates observations and predictions

of water levels, currents, salinity, and

many meteorological parameters, e.g

winds and visibility, needed by the

mariner to navigate safely.

Bridge mounted "Air Gap" sensors for water level detection

are presently being developed

and are included in future plans

for PORTS.

PORTS systems come in a

variety of sizes and configurations, each specifically

designed to meet local user

requirements. The largest of

NOS' existing PORTS installations is comprised of over 26

separate instruments. The

smallest consists of a single

water level gauge and associated meteorological instruments,

i.e. winds, barometric pressure,

etc. (Figure 3-DOC-17).

Regardless of its size, each

PORTS installation provides

information that allows shippers and port operators to maximize

port throughput while maintaining an

adequate margin of safety for the

increasingly large vessels visiting

United States ports. In addition, prevention of maritime accidents is the

most cost effective measure that can be

taken to protect fragile coastal ecosystems. One major oil spill, e.g.

EXXON VALDEZ, can cost billions of

dollars and destroy sensitive marine

habitats critical to supporting coastal

marine ecosystems. PORTS provides information to make navigation

safer, thus reducing the likelihood of a

maritime accident, and also provides

NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE

Figure 3-DOC-16. PORTS sites in the Chesapeake Bay.
72 DOC SECTION 3

the information necessary to mitigate

the damages from a spill, should one

occur.

An extensible PORTS can be integrated with other marine transportation

technologies such as Electronic Chart

Display Information Systems (ECDIS)

and Vessel Traffic Systems (VTS).

Also, new developments will enable

PORTS to incorporate biological

and chemical sensor systems and integrate the information with circulation

measurements to provide information

on transports of materials in the

ecosystem essential for effective

marine resource management.

The integration of PORTS technology and numerical circulation models allows nowcasts and predictions of

parameters within the boundaries of

the models even at locations where

physical measurements are not available. The Chesapeake Bay

Oceanographic Forecasting System

(CBOFS) is an NOS project that provides forecasts of total water level

within the Bay in addition to the astronomical tidal prediction. Using wind

observations from multiple locations to

help force the model, the 1-year

root-mean-square difference between

the modeled and observed water level

at Baltimore is 9.4 cm.

Figure 3-DOC-17. San Francisco Bay PORTS: Golden Gate Composite.
SECTION 3 DOC 73

The Aircraft Operations Center

(AOC) provides aircraft support to

many NOAA missions, several of them

associated with the Natural Disaster

Reduction Initiative (NDRI). In particular, AOC operates a fleet of aircraft

to support NOAA's research and development programs to improve weather,

marine, and climate services. It provides hurricane reconnaissance and

surveillance support to NOAA's

National Hurricane/Tropical Prediction Center with its Lockheed WP-3D

and Gulfstream IV (G-IV) aircraft as

well as flight services to other federal

agencies and international programs

approved by NOAA's Aircraft

Allocation Council. AOC's light aircraft provide hydrologic data for soil

moisture forecasts, aerial photography

and remote sensing for nautical and

aeronautical charting, and living

marine resources surveys.

AOC was established in October

1983 through a consolidation of all

existing NOAA organizations and elements operating NOAA aircraft. This

consolidation was accomplished to

achieve a more efficient, more economical, and safer operation of NOAA

aircraft. Fourteen aircraft, located

throughout the United States, are managed by AOC from its home base at

MacDill AFB in Tampa, Florida.

NOAA's atmospheric and oceanographic research, as well as its reconnaissance operations, are supported by

two WP-3D Lockheed Orion aircraft

which carry a full array of state-of-theart environmental research instrumentation. The aircraft research and navigation systems provide detailed spatial

and temporal observations of a wide

range of atmospheric and oceanic

parameters. AOC develops and calibrates specialized instruments, integrates user-supplied instrumentation

into its automated data recording systems, and processes and analyzes data

sets collected during various field programs.

AOC has integrated into its operations a high-altitude jet, the G-IV,

which is used for hurricane surveillance. This aircraft flies in the environment surrounding hurricanes at altitudes up to 45,000 feet. The G-IV dispenses GPS dropwindsondes and

transmits the resulting profiles of thermodynamic and wind information to

the NCEP and the National Hurricane

Center (NHC) for inclusion into their

computer prediction models. Initial

estimates of the improvement in hurricane track predictions is between 20

and 30 percent, and these improvements are expected to result in future

savings of $10 million or more per hurricane in warning and preparedness

costs. With its high-altitude capability,

the G-IV is the central focus for additional research leading to improvements in hurricane intensity forecasts. 

The aircraft is also beginning to be

used for air chemistry studies and other

research in the upper troposphere.

The AOC WP-3D aircraft, while

executing the complex patterns for

hurricane research, also provide storm

data to the NHC in near-real-time,

transmitting flight level data, dropwindsonde messages, and radar images

via its aircraft-satellite data link. The

AOC aircraft have primary reconnaissance responsibility for tropical storms

and hurricanes in foreign airspace and

also augment the Air Force Reserve

aircraft reconnaissance during particularly active storm periods when tasking 

requirements exceed available

resources.

Land-falling hurricanes, a major

subject of the United States Weather

Research Program and NDRI, receive

particular attention from AOC aircraft.

During the 1998 hurricane season, the

G-IV and WP-3D aircraft flew a combined total of over 400 surveillance,

reconnaissance, and research hours on

Atlantic storms that made or nearly

made landfall in the continental United

States. Joining the Air Force Reserve

and National Aeronautics and Space

Administration aircraft, the NOAA

planes participated in the first multiagency hurricane research experiment

since STORMFURY, a hurricane modification project that took place in the

early to mid-70's. The Convection and

Moisture Experiment III (CAMEX-3)

experiment focused on the measurement of cloud moisture using a variety

of space-borne and aircraft-mounted

remote sensors. This experiment will

be repeated in 2001 as CAMEX-4.

OFFICE OF NOAA CORPS OPERATIONS

AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS CENTER
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

The Air Force functional manager for

meteorological and space environmental services is the Director of Weather

within the Headquarters, United States

Air Force (HQ USAF/XOW), Deputy

Chief of Staff for Air and Space

Operations. HQ USAF/XOW oversees the development and implementation of weather support concepts, doctrine, policies, plans, and programs to

ensure effective weather support for

the Air Force, Army, and other agencies as directed by the Chief of Staff,

USAF. The Air Force also provides

support to DOD Joint operations as

directed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff

under the Unified Action Armed

Forces (JCS Publication O-2) document. HQ USAF/XOW interfaces

with other military departments, federal agencies, and international organizations concerning coordination, cooperation, standardization, and interoperability of weather services.

Air Force Weather (AFW)

Organization. AFW is a Total Force

organization, employing the active

forces as well as Air Force Reserve and

Air National Guard weather personnel.

The active component of AFW has

nearly completed reengineering to mirror the three levels of military operations--strategic, theater (operational),

and tactical. The Air Force Weather

Agency (AFWA), a field operating

agency (FOA) reporting to HQ

USAF/XOW, provides strategic-level

weather support (global and synopticscale) for their worldwide customers,

as well as fulfilling some unique mission requirements (discussed later).

HQ AFWA, located at Offutt AFB,

Nebraska, has two subordinate centers:

the Air Force Combat Climatology

Center (AFCCC) at Asheville, North

Carolina, and the Air Force Combat

Weather Center (AFCWC) at Hurlburt

AFB, Florida. Space environmental

support is split between HQ AFWA

and the 55th Space Weather Squadron

(55 SWXS) at Schriever AFB,

Colorado, as the transition of strategiclevel space weather functions to

AFWA continues. Eight Operational

Weather Squadrons (OWSs) serve in

direct support of overseas theater

CINC and/or Numbered Air Force

(NAF) operations. Each OWS is designated as the forecast agency for a

specific geographical Area of

Responsibility (AOR) in concert with

their supported NAFs or Theater's

AOR (Figure 3-DOD-1). Continental

United States (CONUS) OWSs are

also responsible for CONUS regional

weather support. They produce and

disseminate terminal forecasts, weather warnings and advisories, planning

and execution area forecasts, and other

operational products to Combat

Weather Teams (CWTs). The CWTs,

located at the base and post level, take

and disseminate local observations and

provide mission-tailored forecasts and

briefings based on centrally produced

guidance. In addition to the active

duty force, approximately 110 weather

officers serve as Air Force Reserve

individual mobilization augmentees

assigned to various active AFW units

at all levels. They typically train during two days each month and for two

weeks each year. The Air National

Guard (ANG) program consists of two

distinct functions. The traditional program consists of 33 weather flights,

ranging in size from 13 to 25 personnel. The flights meet monthly to train

for their wartime missions and support

both Army National Guard (ARNG)

and United States Army Reserve

(USAR) units as well as ANG flying

units. The ANG operates the Weather

Readiness Training Center at Camp

Blanding in Starke, Florida, to provide

Army tactical skills training that is not

available elsewhere in the Air Force.

The ANG is also responsible for peacetime weather operations at locations

where the ANG is responsible for airfield support. Total Force AFW perDEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of Defense (DOD) operates a military environmental service system to provide specialized worldwide meteorological, space environmental and oceanographic analysis and prediction

services in support of military forces. This system directly supports all phases of military operations,

from strategic planning to tactical operations. While the Army and Marine Corps each have a small

specialized weather support capability, the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command and Air

Force Weather are the primary sources of military weather products. The military weather services contribute to the national and international weather observing capability by taking conventional observations on land and at sea where there are no other conventional weather observing capabilities and where the observations are most needed to meet military requirements. In addition, DOD maintains specialized observing capabilities,

such as the Defense Meteorological Satellite and Global Weather Intercept Programs, to meet unique military requirements. Observational data are sent by military communications networks to military and civil facilities in the United

States and overseas.

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

SECTION 3 DOD 75
76 DOD SECTION 3

sonnel enhance the unique global capability of ground and aerospace military

operations, while indirectly assisting

civil aviation by providing flight

weather briefings, air/ground radio

services, and tailored observations,

forecasts, watches, and warnings for

military operations.

To fulfill its global mission of providing timely, accurate, and relevant

weather information, AFW maintains

and continually improves on its five

core processes: data collection, analysis, forecasting, tailoring, and dissemination. The following paragraphs provide more information on each of these

areas.

Weather Data Collection integrates

the spectrum of remote and in situ sensors into a single meteorological sensing and instrumentation approach for

battlefield and in-garrison operations.

Data collection in the space environment is discussed in the Space

Environmental Services section.

AFW personnel take surface observations to support military operations

and for weather analysis and forecasting. Weather personnel at both Air

Force and Army locations (fixed and

tactical) make observations available

to local users and transmit them to military and civil locations throughout the

world via the Automated Weather

Network (AWN). Upper air observations provide vital input to numerical

weather analysis and prediction.

United States and foreign rawinsonde

reports are primary sources and are

supplemented with military and civilian pilot reports. The Observing

System 21st Century (OS-21) program

provides a much-needed, state-of-theart, life-cycle replacement for Air

Force observing equipment. OS-21

includes five different configurations:

fixed, deployable, remote, manual, and

upper air. The manual configuration is

intended for tactical operations and

continues the improvements begun

under the Manual Observing System

(MOS) and Tactical Meteorological

Observing System Modification

(TACMET MOD) programs. For

remote observations, AFW purchased

commercial off-the-shelf Remote

Miniature Weather Sensors to provide

accurate real-time weather information

from forward unmanned locations.

Installation of the new fixed configuration should begin in FY 2002.

Weather radar is a principal source of

information needed to produce severe

weather warnings. Within the

CONUS, AFW uses the WSR-88D.

DOD, NOAA, and the FAA operate

Figure 3-DOD-1. Areas of Responsibility for Air Force Weathers Operational Weather Squadrons.
SECTION 3 DOD 77

and maintain the radars within

CONUS and the Air Force operates

and maintains the overseas radars.

Tactical Weather Radars (TWRs) are

used to support worldwide military

contingency operations by providing

tactical/deployable weather radar capability, replacing existing radars at

deployed locations and at select fixed

locations overseas.

The Defense Meteorological

Satellite Program (DMSP), which provides a large volume of cloud, upper

air, and space environmental data, is a

vital source of global weather data

used for combat support. On-board

sensors provide AFWA, 55 SWXS, and

the Navy's Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography

Center (FNMOC) with visible,

infrared, and microwave imagery of

the entire globe, temperature and moisture sounding data, electrically charged

particle fluxes, and other specialized

space environment data. DMSP also

supplies direct, real-time readout of

regional imagery and mission-sensor

data to DOD land-based and shipborne

terminals located worldwide.

The present DMSP satellite series

(Block 5D-2) uses the Operational

Linescan System to provide visible

imagery to optimize distinction among

clouds, ground, snow, and

water. The DMSP also flies

a microwave temperature

and moisture sounder

(SSM/T, SSM/T-2) which

provides vertical temperature, moisture, and height

profiles of the atmosphere,

providing key data for

numerical analysis and forecasting. The microwave

imager (SSM/I) observes

rainfall, ocean surface wind

speed, cloud and soil moisture, ice

conditions, and other environmental

data. The Block 5D-3 spacecraft will

begin service in November 2001 with

the launch of DMSP Flight 16. The

new spacecraft will provide enhanced

microwave imaging and sounding

through the SSMIS system as well as

several other improvements.

AFW continues to participate in the

refinement of requirements for the

National Polar-orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite System

(NPOESS). NPOESS will replace the

existing DMSP and NOAA polar-orbiting satellite systems beginning in

approximately 2010 and is a joint

Department of Defense, Department of

Commerce, and NASA program. The

new system will also provide a direct

readout capability for tactical users

similar to DMSP. AFW also expects to

gain operational experience as well as

benefit from the risk reduction planned

with the NPOESS Preparatory

Program (NPP) planned for launch in

CY 2005.

To receive environmental current

satellite downlinks, the Small Tactical

Terminal (STT) provides worldwide

tactical users with a survivable "firstin" source of meteorological satellite

data, processed by small, portable terminals in forward areas of conflict.

These terminals process remotelysensed visual and thermal imagery and

other non-imagery weather data from

both polar-orbiting and geostationary

satellites to support combat forces.

The Air Force Reserve Command's

53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron

(53 WRS) "Hurricane Hunters" provide another means of collecting vital

meteorological data, especially in and

around tropical cyclones. Their specially-equipped WC-130 aircraft collect temperature, moisture, wind, pressure, and visually-observed information at the aircraft location as well as

vertical profiles of the atmosphere collected by dropwinsondes. They penetrate the eyes of tropical cyclones to

provide a very accurate center fix location as well as providing meteorological parameters, including sea level

pressure, to the National Hurricane

Center. In addition to the tropical

cyclone reconnaissance mission, the

53 WRS collects meteorological information to improve wintertime West

Coast forecasts as well as supporting

scientific field programs when possible. For more information, see their

web site at http://www.hurricanehunters.com/.

Analysis and Forecasting. AFWA is

the primary strategic production center

for weather analyses and forecasts

while the OWSs are the primary theater-scale production centers for Air

Force and Army operations. AFWA

uses a networked computer system and

an interactive graphics and imagery

system to implement a "build-andapply" concept. World-wide weather

data are relayed to AFWA and blended

with civil and military meteorological

satellite data to construct a real-time,

integrated environmental

database. Computer programs further digest the

data to construct models of

the atmosphere and to forecast its future behavior.

Manual tailoring of the data

is critical for application to

the specific needs of the

warfighters. The interaction between forecaster and

machine is accomplished

with the Satellite Data

Handling System (SDHS). SDHS consists of interactive workstations capable of high-speed manipulation of

satellite and conventional meteorological data to prepare forecasts and other

environmental products. AFWA also
78 DOD SECTION 3

provides backup for the National

Weather Service's (NWS) Storm

Prediction Center and Aviation

Weather Center.

AFWA has organized forecast operations to achieve greater flexibility and

focus production on its primary customers. Forecasts are generated in the

agency's Global Weather Center

Division, which consists of four production branches: Forecast Production, Special Support Operations,

National Programs Operations, and

Satellite Applications.

The Strategic Section of the Forecast

Production Branch produces tailored

worldwide meteorological analyses

and forecasts in support of aviation

customers. The branch also provides

forecasts of CONUS low-level aviation hazards. The CONUS Severe

Forecast Section provides specific

point weather warnings for Air Force

and Army installations in the CONUS

and hot backup to Aviation Weather

Center and Storm Prediction Center.

The American Forces Network Section

provides worldwide, broadcast-quality

public weather services and planning

forecast support through the American

Forces Television Network to DOD

personnel and family members stationed overseas.

The Special Support Operations

Branch (SSOB) provides worldwide

mission-tailored forecasts to Joint

Special Operations Forces (SOF). The

branch acts as a clearinghouse for

unique data requests from the SOF

customers; provides end-to-end targeting support to unified command, component, and national customers; produces long-range (4-8 day) forecasts to

unified command, component, and

national customers; and supplies the

Nation's reconnaissance cloud-free

forecast products. SSOB is also in the

process of accepting portions of the

space-forecast mission from the

55 SWXS. As the space weather mission transitions from 55 SWXS to HQ

AFWA, SSOB provides worldwide

general and tailored analyses, forecasts, advisories, and warnings for

space weather phenomena that can

affect military operations and National

Programs activities. The branch provides products for agencies from all

DOD Services using space weather

measurements from a variety of

ground- and space-based sensors.

Data sharing and forecast coordination

is performed with the NOAA Space

Environment Center (SEC) in Boulder,

Colorado.

The National Programs Operations

Branch provides weather support for

classified National Programs directed

by the Secretary of the Air Force. The

branch produces detailed global cloud

analyses to update and refine the Real

Time Nephanalysis (RTNEPH) database. The branch identifies and documents weather service requirements

and initiates actions to ensure Sensitive

Compartmented Information (SCI) and

Special Access Program (SAP) weather support needs are met. They serve

as the focal point for AFWA SAPs;

ensure National Program and other

SCI and SAP support requirements are

integrated into AFWA programs; monitor and evaluate accuracy and timeliness of centralized weather services to

National Programs; and interface with

the DOD and national intelligence

community regarding weather services

and exploitation of weather information.

The Satellite Applications Branch

provides rapid response tailored METSAT imagery and evaluation for DOD

contingency mission support. The

branch produces regional snow and ice

cover analyses to update and refine the

Snow Depth (SNODEP) database; and

generates automated METSAT

imagery products for unclassified and

classified web-based distribution to

DOD customers. The branch also

tracks and classifies tropical cyclones

(METSAT analysis) for the DOD Joint

Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and

other United States tropical cyclone

warning centers; provides hot back up

for JTWC satellite operations; backs

up the Washington Volcanic Ash

Advisory Center; monitors operational

status; and evaluates quality of

imagery ingested at AFWA. They

coordinate corrective actions; maintain, modify, and develop new capabilities to display and visualize satellite

imagery on workstations; infuse stateof-the-art techniques into improved

imagery analysis ensuring high quality

customer products; serve as AFW focal

point on technical issues regarding

METSAT imagery utilization; and

interface with the DMSP System

Program Office, Air Force Space

Command, and other DOD and governmental agencies on METSAT data

exploitation issues.

On-going modernization initiatives at

AFWA include the Cloud Depiction

and Forecasting System (CDFS) II,

Global Theater Weather Analysis and

Prediction System (GTWAPS), Space

Weather Analysis and Forecasting

System (SWAFS), and modernization

of the communications and data processing infrastructure including a significant increase in the database capacity. CDFS II brings major software and

hardware modifications at AFWA to

upgrade the weather satellite data processing, cloud depiction and forecasting, and classified weather support

functions for operational customers and

National Programs, providing a capability that cannot be met with the current system. The GTWAPS program is

nearly complete and will improved

interaction of the strategic and OWS

theater-level forecasting systems. The

key software component of the

GTWAPS program is a theater analysis

and forecast model--Mesoscale Model

version 5 (MM5), which provides highly accurate, fine-scale forecast data.

SWAFS will integrate additional space

weather data sources and execute nextgeneration space weather models in

support of DOD and National

Programs operations.
SECTION 3 DOD 79

OWSs provide theater-scale battlespace forecasts; drop zone, range, and

aerial refueling track forecasts; finescale target forecasts; and airfield forecasts and warnings for Air Force and

Army installations within their area of

responsibility. Their primary tool is

the OWS Production System II

(OPS-II), used to ingest data and

strategic center information, create and

disseminate theater-scale products.

Product Tailoring/Warfighter

Applications. Progressive focusing

and tailoring of weather information is

the heart of the reengineered AFW

organization, leading to individual

mission-specific support at the CWT

level. An example of specific mission

tailoring performed for an emerging

system still in testing is the Global

Hawk high-altitude reconnaissance

system and the turbulence forecasts

provided by the weather support team

(Figure 3-DOD-2). The Forecasting

System 21st Century (FS-21) program

is the vehicle for providing necessary

computer hardware and software at

both the OWSs and CWTs. The OWS

Production System, Phase 2 (OPS-II),

is the backbone of the OWS production system. This hybrid system of

databases, servers, and workstations,

provides the computer hardware and

software necessary for OWSs to produce and disseminate forecast products

to CWTs.

The New Tactical Forecast System

(N-TFS) provides in-garrison and

deployed CWT personnel the meteorological tools necessary to manipulate

and disseminate graphical and

alphanumeric products (satellite

imagery, graphical forecast products,

weather forecasts, advisories, briefings, observations, etc.) to Army and Air

Force operational, command and control, and support forces worldwide.

N-TFS provides weather personnel the

ability to use the same system in

"peace and war", thus providing a

robust "first in" and sustainment

weather forecast capability to combat

weather units worldwide. Additionally, N-TFS ingests data from Air

Force observing systems and observations from indigenous sources. Data

from the N-TFS, combined with satellite imagery from the STT, provide the

essential capability required for

deployed weather units to meet operational mission requirements.

Dissemination. The AFW dissemination system uses a variety of media to

meet the needs of its worldwide customer base. High-speed communications between large DOD and civilian

processing centers facilitate sharing of

data, high-resolution satellite imagery,

and output from numerical weather prediction models. Additional circuits provide a subset of this data to the OWS

facilities. Forecaster-developed products

and gridded data sets are distributed from

HQ AFWA via the Communications

Front-End Processor to base and post

weather stations worldwide using dedicated 9600-baud circuits. AFW will continue replacing these dedicated circuits in

FY 2002 with commercial Kμ-band

broadcast satellites over the CONUS,

Europe, and the Pacific, saving significant communications costs by eliminating the network of expensive landlines to

each weather station.

Figure 3-DOD-2. AFW personnel from

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,

scan up-to-the-minute weather charts

and satellite reports to provide United

States and Australian command and control operators critical flight safety information for Global Hawk.
80 DOD SECTION 3

Alphanumeric data including synoptic, upper-air, and pilot reports are collected and distributed via the AWN.

The AWN is a collection of dedicated

circuits ranging from 74-baud to

56kbps linking DOD, national and

international facilities worldwide.

Data is also received from DOD-operated High Frequency (HF) radio

receiver sites strategically positioned

around the globe to intercept weather

broadcasts. These broadcasts originate

from nations that do not routinely

make data available through World

Meteorological Organization (WMO)

channels. The Automatic Digital

Weather Switch at Tinker AFB,

Oklahoma, receives alphanumeric

weather data and Notices to Airman

(NOTAMs), parses them according to

data type, eliminates duplicate reports

from different sources, and creates specially tailored bulletins. Some of these

bulletins are sent to the large processing centers to provide the input data for

global, regional, and fine-scale forecast models. Other bulletins are redistributed to end users over: (1) the

same dedicated circuits, (2) the DOD's

Non-secure Internet Protocol Router

Network (NIPRNET), and (3) HF and

satellite broadcast facilities. The current HF Regional Broadcast (HFRB)

system will be terminated in FY 2002

and replaced by more reliable satellitebased, worldwide-capable communications.

AFW utilizes the NIPRNET to host

the Joint Air Force-Army Weather

Information Network (JAAWIN) and

the Military Aircrew Information

System (MAIS). JAAWIN provides

worldwide access to numerical model

forecast graphics, satellite imagery,

and text bulletins. MAIS uses aircrew

mission parameters and provides

weather data for the takeoff base, route

of flight, and destination. MAIS will

be replaced in FY 2002.

Additional means of dissemination

of tailored weather information include

the Joint Weather Impacts System

(JWIS). JWIS provides a link to

weather information from both AF and

Navy sources for use by command and

control users and applications. AFW

successfully demonstrated JWIS during Joint Expeditionary Force

Experiment 2000 and is integrating the

initial capability into the Combined Air

Operations Center-Experimental

(CAOC-X) in 2001. AFW is also seeking rapid acquisition process funding

in FY 2002 for the Weather Impacts

Information Integration (WI3

) initiative

to provide a four-dimensional weather

data cube to feed decision aids integrated in command and control systems.

Finally, AFWA established in 2001

an initial capability to provide weather

information to any AF user through the

new Air Force Portal, a system

designed to be a "one-stop shop" for all

support-type activities for all AF personnel. Additional capabilities will be

added in 2002.

Unique Support Requirements. A

special aspect of the military weather

mission is the need to provide decision

assistance to commanders and resource

managers as well as operational units.

To fulfill this requirement, designated

AFW personnel serve as part of the

staff of operational Air Force, Army,

and joint force units. In this capacity,

AFW personnel identify all weathersensitive areas of the operation, monitor the weather service provided in

these areas, and provide expert advice

to mitigate weather impacts on training

or combat operations. Support is tailored to the needs of weapon systems

being developed or used, command

and control systems, Army firing units,

research, development and evaluation,

testing, training and deployment of

military forces, and contingency operations. This effort helps ensure that

Air Force, Army, and joint force units

fulfill their missions regardless of the

weather and results in efficient use of

weather resources by gearing them to

mission specific requirements.

The Army weather support mission is

completely integrated into the Air

Force's overall mission concept. The

Army trains and educates Air Force

personnel about Army organizations,

concepts of operations, and the weather sensitivities of Army operations and

equipment. AFW units are aligned and

integrated with the Army intelligence

organization. Weather products are

tailored to be directly usable and

understandable by Army personnel and

are integrated into Army communications systems. Mobile and fixed meteorological equipment is programmed

by the Air Force. In a tactical environment, weather personnel serve with

echelon-above-corps, corps, divisions,

separate brigades, regiments, aviation

brigades, armored cavalry regiments,

ranger regiments, and special forces

groups (as well as subordinate battalions deployed at forward operating

bases). The Air Force provides

observer support to all command levels

identified above. The Army Forward

Area Limited Observing Program

(FALOP) and the Army artillery meteorology (ARTYMET) program augment the Air Force observations in the

tactical environment.

The Air Force provides meteorological products to the Nation's space and

missile programs. This support includes

a wide range of weather observing services at the Air Force Eastern Range and

the Kennedy Space Center. The Air

Force provides tailored forecasting for

NASA's manned and unmanned launches and for commercial launches from the

Kennedy Space Center. The Air Force

also provides specialized meteorological

services for the Air Force Western

Range at Vandenberg AFB, California,

and the Pacific Missile Range which

includes Point Mugu and San Nicholas

Island, California, and Barking Sands,

Hawaii. In addition, the Air Force supports the White Sands Missile Range,

New Mexico, the Kwajalein Missile

Range, and other DOD research and test

facilities.
SECTION 3 DOD 81

The Air Force and Navy operate

JTWC, which moved to Hawaii in

1999. JTWC provides tropical cyclone

warning services to DOD units and

other United States subscribers in the

area west of 180 degrees longitude to

the East Coast of Africa in both hemispheres.

The Air Force directly supports DOD

Special Strategic Programs, the

National Command Authority, the

National Military Command System,

and the National Security Agency.

Tailored environmental support products are disseminated to these customers worldwide.

The Air Force also provides agrometeorological output to the USDA's

Foreign Agricultural Service and other

national customers. The output provided includes diagnostic soil hydrology and other meteorological output

pertinent to crop growth and yield estimation.

AFCCC provides climatic data and

specialized studies to support the Air

Force, Army, and other government

agencies. Typical support satisfies

requirements for assessments of natural environmental effects on military

plans, weapon systems, facilities, and

intelligence activities. AFCCC collects environmental data from AFWA

and then sorts, checks, stores, and

employs these data to produce tailored

products. AFCCC is co-located with

the National Climatic Data Center to

facilitate cooperation and data

exchange. AFCCC typically collects,

quality assures, and applies worldwide

surface and upper air observations, a

three-dimensional (3-D) cloud analysis

extracted from meteorological satellite

imagery (Real-time Nephanalysis), a

global analysis of snow cover, solar,

geomagnetic, and space observations

and indices, and many other specialized environmental data sets.

The Air Force Director of Weather is

the DOD Modeling and Simulation

Executive Agent (MSEA) for the Air

and Space Natural Environment

(ASNE). The director executes his

responsibilities through the Office

Chief co-located with AFCCC. The

Executive Agent is responsible to

ensure modeling and simulation developers and users have environmental

models, algorithms, and data to represent the air and space environment rapidly, thoroughly, accurately, and consistently in a manner that promotes

cost-effectiveness, ready access, interoperability, re-use, and confidence.

S PACE ENVIRONMENTA L

SERVICES

The 55 SWXS has been the DOD

focal point for space environmental

support and the transition to AFWA of

the strategic functions of the 55th will

be completed during FY 2002. The

55 SWXS currently oversees six solar

observatories located throughout the

world and participates with NOAA in

the operation of NOAA's Space

Environment Center.

Many DOD systems are affected by

space weather phenomena that occur in

the near-Earth environment. Space

weather impacts fall in three general

categories: electromagnetic radiation,

high-energy charged particles, and

electrically charged particle clouds.

Figure 3-DOD-3 includes information

on the arrival times, duration, and

effects of these events. AFWA provides a suite of automated and manually tailored space weather products to

the range of customers susceptible to

these impacts.

Figure 3-DOD-3. Solar activity produces radiation and particle effects in the near-Earth environment which affect

military operations.
82 DOD SECTION 3

Sources of Space Environmental

Information. A variety of ground- and

space-based space weather data is

available to forecasters providing

space weather support.

The 55 SWXS operates a network of

solar optical and radio telescopes at

Sagamore Hill, Massachusetts; Ramey,

Puerto Rico; Holloman AFB, New

Mexico; Palehua, Hawaii; San Vito,

Italy; and Learmonth, Australia. These

systems provide observations of solar

phenomena at optical and radio wavelengths.

A worldwide (primarily Northern

Hemisphere) network of ground-based

ionosondes and other sensors provide

ionospheric data. AFW manages the

automated Digital Ionospheric

Sounding System (DISS) to provide

measurements of disturbances in the

ionosphere. The Jet Propulsion

Laboratory also operates a complementary global network of sensors providing ionospheric data and the United

States Geological Survey (USGS)

operates a network of magnetometers.

The USGS data provides indirect

measurements of the strength of ionospheric and magnetospheric electric

currents which create their own magnetic field superimposed upon the

Earth's magnetic field.

The Geostationary Operational

Environmental Satellite (GOES) vehicles provide real-time solar X-ray,

electrically charged energetic particle,

and geomagnetic data, made available

through the SEC. DMSP, NOAA, and

other DOD geostationary satellites

provide additional energetic electrically charged particle data in low-Earth

and geosynchronous orbits.

Additionally, AFW leverages spacebased data from NASA and other agencies. For example, NASA's Advanced

Composition Explorer satellite provides real-time solar wind data.

A number of additional sensors or

improvements to existing space weather sensors are planned. The Solar

X-Ray Imager (SXI) recently went into

orbit aboard GOES-12. The SXI will

monitor solar emissions in the extreme

ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray portions

of the solar spectrum. AFW expects

the first Solar Radio Burst Locator

(SRBL) to become operational in 2002

to provide radio wave measurements

of the Sun while also mapping certain

solar phenomena blocked from optical

view by cloud cover. AFWA has additional improvements scheduled for the

optical telescopes as well as for the

ionospheric sensors. 

AFWA uses a suite of space weather

models to specify current solar or global characteristics of space weather

where observations are not available

and to assist in forecasting future conditions. These models use available

observations and and include both climatology-based and physics-based

algorithms.

More detailed descriptions of both

the available observations and current

models are available in Chapter 2 of

the National Space Weather Program

Implementation Plan, Second Edition,

available from OFCM.

Mainstreaming Space. AFW initiated an effort in FY 2001 to mainstream

space weather for both the providers

and users and will continue this effort

in FY 2002. DOD's increasing reliance

on space weather-affected systems,

continuing expansion of operations

into space, and the Air Force's designation as executive agent for space indicates space weather support will

become increasingly important. AFW

will treat space weather initiatives the

same as terrestrial weather initiatives

and the spectrum of weather information users should think of space weather as quickly as they do terrestrial

weather. The AFW goal is to create a

seamless, real-time depiction of the

entire natural environment from the

mud to the Sun. The realignment of

the 55 SWXS is part of this effort as

well as the planning, programming,

and budgeting for space weather initiatives following the National Space

Weather Program and National

Security Space Architect space weather architecture. AFW is taking steps to

standardize support, improve space

weather training for both providers and

users, integrate dissemination channels

for both space and terrestrial weather,

and improve customer interaction. To

improve interaction, AFW in conjunction with the AF Flight Standards

Agency (AFFSA) is modifying the

flight weather briefing form to include

space weather effects on navigation

and communication and establishing a

space weather "pilot report" process to

obtain feedback to identify, quantify,

and archive space weather impacts.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

The overarching objective of the Air

Force meteorological and space environmental R&D program is to provide

system designers, operational weather

support personnel, and weather information users with the technology and

tools to gain and maintain the advantage over a potential adversary.

Documented R&D requirements in the

atmospheric sciences are articulated in

the AFW Mission Support Plan and in

the Mission Area Plans of the Air

Force major commands. Space environment R&D is targeted to meet the

DOD's space weather requirements as

summarized in the National Security

Space Architect's Space Weather

Architecture Study and the associated

Transition Plan as well as the National

Space Weather Program Implementation Plan, Second Edition.

In meteorological R&D, the AF is

improving numerical weather prediction, studying such problems as optical

turbulence, and has transitioned key

advances in tactical decision aids into

operations, permitting improved forecasting of electro-optical system performance and generation of cloud and

target scene visualizations for training,

system development, and mission

rehearsal. More detailed information

on weather impact decision aids was
SECTION 3 DOD 83

provided in this section of last year's

Federal Plan. In addition to internal

efforts, AFW will continue to rely on

collaboration and leveraging of efforts

with other federal meteorological

agencies, research labs, and universities to meet supporting research needs.

Mesoscale Modeling for Air Force

and Army Operations. Supporting

research in the area of mesoscale

numerical weather prediction continues to pay dividends. Recent research

paid off in 2001 with the AFWA MM5

implementation of the Land Surface

Model (LSM) to support Air Force and

Army operations worldwide. The

LSM analyzes the current state of the

land surface to provide information to

both DOD and civilian agencies and,

through coupling with MM5, improves

forecasting performance in the low

levels. This allowed AFW to improve

forecasting for low-level aircraft operations, trafficability for ground forces,

dispersion of contaminants, and

employment of precision guided munitions. The advances achieved in the

LSM are also being carried over into

Weather Research and Forecasting

(WRF) model development, another

area of AFWA participation in supporting research. AFWA is closely collaborating with NCAR, NCEP, FSL, and

the University of Oklahoma's Center

for the Analysis and Prediction of

Storms (CAPS) in WRF development.

WRF is the next generation community model expected to replace MM5,

and AFWA is benefiting by leveraging

the efforts of more than 200 registered

users developing the model. AFWA is

preparing to fully implement WRF

operationally in the 2004 to 2005 timeframe and will continue in 2002 with

sponsorship and funding of development at NCAR and FSL, test and evaluation of real-time runs of the WRF

prototype, and will lead the LSM

Working Group while participating in

others.

Atmospheric Optical Turbulence.

Electro-optical (EO) systems are

adversely affected by optical distortions caused by atmospheric thermal or

refractive turbulence. As the sophistication of current and next generation

military systems grows, the requirement for more detailed knowledge of

fine scale (meters or less) atmospheric

behavior also grows. The Airborne

Laser (ABL) program is one such system. Since the meteorological conditions that produce turbulence vary, the

performance of such systems varies.

The Air Force program in atmospheric

optical turbulence measurements and

modeling seeks to address these needs.

Researchers used a balloon-borne turbulence sensor mated to a standard

radiosonde (Figure 3-DOD-4) to

obtain measurements, producing data

and empirical models that are the basis

for ABL system specification.

Balloon-borne measurements were

made in conjunction with airborne stellar scintillometer measurements to

understand the relation between atmospheric structure and path-integrated

optical effects. The turbulent scalar

spectrum was also sampled using balloon-borne high-bandwidth sensors.

As part of an international program,

aircraft measurements of temperature

and velocity turbulence have been

made in different locales worldwide.

Horizontal measurements by the aircraft augment the vertical profiling by

balloons to assist in the development

of the detailed knowledge to support

new EO systems.

United States Weather Research

Program (USWRP). AFW entered into

discussions with USWRP in 2001 to

explore expanded participation in the

program and is looking forward to

increased collaboration in 2002.

USWRP's mission is to accelerate forecast improvements of high-impact

weather and facilitate full use of

advanced weather information. The

program currently focused on landfalling hurricanes, heavy precipitation,

and socio-economic impacts. AFW

anticipates being able to leverage the

advances made in the focus areas of

landfalling hurricanes and heavy precipitation and is eager to leverage

future efforts in the areas of observing

and assimilation strategies in data

sparse regions and urban forecast

issues and opportunities. AFW is

already committed to the USWRPFigure 3-DOD-4. An AF weather officer prepares a balloon for measuring

atmospheric turbulence conditions as part of the airborne laser program.

(US Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Timothy Cook)
84 DOD SECTION 3

affiliated community development of

the Weather Research and Forecasting

(WRF) model and will continue to support this development during FY 2002.

The basic WRF model is running at

AFWA now and initial results are very

favorable.

University Partnering for

Operational Support (UPOS). AFW

continued to collaborate through the

UPOS program with the Johns

Hopkins University Applied Physics

Laboratory (JHU/APL), the University

of Alaska at Fairbanks and its

Geophysical Institute, and with the

Army Research Laboratory (ARL).

UPOS provides a link between university research and the DOD operational

community and is currently focused on

near-term forecasts of ground, tropospheric, ionospheric, magnetospheric,

and solar weather. The goals of UPOS

are to provide an alternate path for

rapid transition of the best applied

research ideas to the warfighter and to

raise awareness of DOD operational

needs within the academic community.

The partnership delivers prototype

operational products to the AF and

Army sponsors. The UPOS Steering

Committee, which includes the AF

Director of Weather, meets approximately semiannually to review

progress and select new projects as

appropriate. UPOS includes warfighter exercise support to demonstrate utility of products through web-based,

non-operational access as well as collecting direct user feedback for faster

updates of the prototype systems.

Some examples of tropospheric weather UPOS work include fine-scale polar

numerical weather prediction, operational volcanic plume forecasting, and

electromagnetic propagation forecast

maps generated from MM5 output.

Examples of space science work

include high frequency radar and communication propagation to predict the

area a transmitter can illuminate, forecasting coronal mass ejections, and

improving determination of solar

events which will cause militarily significant space weather effects on and

near Earth.

Air Force Research Laboratory

(AFRL). In other space weather

research, AFRL programs focus on

ionospheric impacts on RF systems,

space particle specification and forecast, solar disturbance prediction, and

neutral density effects on LEO spacecraft. Working closely with SMC/CI

under a Memorandum of Agreement,

AFRL supports the development and

upgrading of operational space weather sensors, models, and software products to include space environment sensors on the DMSP spacecraft, state-ofthe-art ground-based scintillation

detectors, total electron content sensors, Digital Ionospheric Sounding

Systems (DISS), the Improved Solar

Observing Optical Network (ISOON),

and the Operationalized Space

Environment Network Display (OPSEND) suite of web-based products.

AFRL also conducts customer-supported R&D for NPOESS, the

Defense Modeling and Simulation

Office (DMSO), the National

Reconnaissance Office (NRO), the

Ballistic Missile Defense Office

(BMDO), the DOD High Performance

Computing Modernization Office

(HPCMO), and NASA. More detail

on AFRL's space weather research is

well documented in this section of last

year's Federal Plan and this program

will continue in 2002 to build

improvements for future operational

implementation.

In addition to the AFRL research

portfolio, AFW collaborates with others in the space weather community to

develop new techniques, models, and

systems for transition to operational

applications. These include the

Community Coordinated Modeling

Center, the Constellation Observing

System for Meteorology, Ionosphere,

and Climate, and the University

Partnering for Operational Support

mentioned previously.

Community Coordinated Modeling

Center (CCMC). AFW is a full member of the consortium that formed the

CCMC in 2000, co-chairs the CCMC

Steering Committee, and supported

center efforts in 2001 by providing

Defense Research and Engineering

Network (DREN) connectivity and

exclusive access to a set of supercomputing nodes at AFWA. The CCMC

mission is to provide a computing

facility to enable, support, and perform

research for the next generation of

space weather models, preparing them

for transition to operations through the

rapid prototyping centers at both

NOAA's SEC and the Air Force. The

CCMC provides a place where

researchers can try out space weather

models in a large-scale computing

environment, explore integration with

other models, and structure their code

to ease transition to operations. The

center currently plans to deliver the

first model, a 3-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic magnetospheric model,

to the rapid prototyping centers in

September 2001. Sponsoring agencies

are also planning a CCMC Workshop

early in FY 2002 to explore future

research activities for the center. AFW

will continue to support the CCMC in

FY 2002 but is examining alternatives

to the increasing cost of maintaining

the computing nodes dedicated to the

CCMC. Additional information on the

center is available at its web site at

http://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/

(Figure 3-DOD-5).

Constellation Observing System for

Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

(COSMIC). AFW, through the Air

Force Office of Scientific Research

(AFOSR), will continue to collaborate

with UCAR, NOAA, NASA, NSF, and

the Navy on the COSMIC program.

COSMIC comprises six micro-satellites planned for launch in 2005 to provide approximately 3,000 daily global

observations of pressure, temperature,

humidity, refractivity, ionospheric

electron density, and ionospheric scin-
SECTION 3 DOD 85

tillation. The system will use GPS

occultation techniques to provide vertical atmospheric soundings as well as

an ionospheric photometer and a triband beacon to measure electron densities and ionospheric parameters. The

global coverage of atmospheric profiles should improve global-scale

numerical weather prediction models

as well as more limited value in

regional models and point analysis

models. The space weather observations will complement other sensors to

provide a more complete picture of the

ionosphere and improve prediction of

communication and navigation degradations. Additional information on

COSMIC is available at

http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu.

In conclusion, through a continuous

process of review and definition, the

AF documents its requirements for

supporting research aimed ultimately

at providing timely, accurate, and relevant weather information to the

warfighter today and in the future. In

meteorological R&D, AFW is committed to continued development of the

WRF model and collaboration with

others to the benefit of the warfighter

and the nation overall. Space weather

research will continue with a strong

program in 2002 both in AFRL as well

as in leveraged programs such as

UPOS and the CCMC to speed needed

capabilities to operations at minimum

expense.

Figure 3-DOD-5. The home page of the Community Coordinated Modeling Center provides information on the center

as well as access to research model output. (See text for URL.)
86 DOD SECTION 3
SECTION 3 DOD 87

PROGRAM OVERVIEW

The United States Navy has the

unique military requirement to assess

meteorological and oceanographic

(METOC) impacts on naval, joint, and

combined operations. METOC support

begins by measuring the battlespace

physical environment and culminates

with safe, effective

weapons systems and sensor employment. The perspective is global and historically focuses on areas

outside of the contiguous

48 states, but the emphasis

is wherever the fleet goes

and includes force protection within the coastal

waters of the United States.

Developing METOC forecasts and determining

potential effects on

weapons system information requires:

 the collection of data

through tactical and dedicated sensors (including satellites);

 fusion and analysis of atmospheric

and oceanographic phenomena;

and

 meteorological information in tactical decision aids and mission

planning systems.

The Chief of Naval Operations,

through the Oceanographer of the

Navy (CNO(N096)), sponsors operational Navy METOC services and

related research and development

(R&D). The Navy provides meteorological services for Navy and joint

forces, meteorological products to the

USMC, and oceanographic support to

all elements of DOD. The

Oceanographer of the Navy sponsors

programs in four closely related disciplines to provide worldwide, comprehensive, integrated weather and ocean

support - meteorology, oceanography,

geospatial information and services,

and precise time and astrometry. All

are used to protect ships, aircraft, fighting forces, and shore establishments

from adverse ocean and weather conditions, and to provide a decisive tactical

or strategic edge by exploiting the

physical environment. Early in 2001,

the Oceanographer of the Navy was

named the "Navigator of the Navy."

He serves as the Chief of Naval

Operations' focal point for the development of technical standards for navigation plans, data standards, training, and

navigation system certification. He

also serves as an advocate and broker

for all fleet navigation issues. The

Oceanographer of the Navy also

recently streamlined his staff's organizational structure to better respond to

fleet needs. The Oceanographer of the

Navy's websites are at www.oceanographer.navy.mil and (for navigation

information) www.navigator.navy.mil.

Research and development is conducted by warfare centers, laboratories, and systems commands, through

sponsorship by the Chief of Naval

Research and the Oceanographer of the

Navy. To ensure that all research and

development supported by the

Oceanographer is in direct support of

the Naval mission as established by

formal Navy doctrine, the

Oceanographer recently developed and

implemented a comprehensive framework to transition research to operations. The Naval Research Laboratory

(NRL) and the Space and Naval

Warfare Systems Command

(SPAWARSYSCOM) are the primary

activities that manage naval research

and transition to operations, and are

supplemented by various universities,

industry partners, and organizations

under Navy contract. NRL

detachments are collocated

with the Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography Center in Monterey,

California and with the

Naval Oceano-graphic

Office at Stennis Space

Center, Mississippi. The

S P A W ARSYSCOM

METOC Systems Program

Office (PMW-155) is

Navy's single program manager for METOC system

development and acquisition.

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

UNITED STATES NAVY

Operational support within the Navy

is provided by elements of the Naval

Meteorology and Oceanography

Command (NAVMETOCCOM).

Navy METOC activities are involved

in worldwide collection of observations ashore, afloat and through remote

sensors, and in the assimilation and

processing of these observations on a

global basis to support analysis and

forecasting throughout the world.

The Fleet Numerical Meteorology

and Oceanography Center (FLENUMMETOCCEN), in Monterey,

California, provides global, regional,

and tactical observations, analyses, and

coupled air-ocean forecasts.

Environmental data is acquired

through links with DOD and National

Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) conventional

and remotely sensed data distribution

systems. By agreement between Navy

and Air Force, FLENUMMETOCCEN

UNITED STATES NAVY
88 DOD SECTION 3

is the primary DOD global numerical

weather prediction center, running the

Navy Operational Global Atmospheric

Prediction System (NOGAPS), developed by the Naval Research

Laboratory's Marine Meteorology

Division, also in Monterey. NOGAPS

provides global atmospheric predictions and drives a variety of ocean

models, including the global Wave

Watch III ocean wave model run at

FLENUMMETOCCEN.

In near-shore regions, the smallscale interactions between the atmosphere, underlying ocean, and nearby

land make it necessary to analyze and

predict the battlespace environment

with higher resolution and improved

physics. In addition to the global product suite, FLENUMMETOCCEN is

uniquely capable of providing high

resolution coupled air-ocean products

on short notice for any location in support of global contingency military and

humanitarian operations. Navy's

Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere

Mesoscale Prediction System

(COAMPS) is an operational tactical

system featuring data quality control

algorithms; nested, non-hydrostatic

physics; explicit moisture physics;

aerosols; and improved data assimilation. Using lateral boundary conditions provided by NOGAPS,

COAMPS provides a high-resolution,

re-locatable, METOC prediction capability to support joint littoral operations. COAMPS is routinely run for

Europe, Southwest Asia, Western

Pacific, Central America, Western

Atlantic, the continental United States,

and the Eastern Pacific. COAMPS is

frequently run in other areas around

the world as requirements dictate.

NOGAPS and COAMPS forecast

products are distributed via various

communications systems including the

Internet, either directly to Fleet customers or through the Navy regional

METOC centers. The regional

METOC centers develop value-added

products and services tailored to specific operational requirements. COMNAVMETOCCOM recently installed

computer systems at all their regional

centers to run COAMPS in theater,

allowing them to respond to Fleet commanders' requirements in near realtime. As a complement to numerical

forecast products, FLENUMMETOCCEN provides atmospheric and

oceanographic observations, satellite

products, data extracts, and data for

tactical decision aids. Additionally,

FLENUMMETOCCEN is the designated National Center of Excellence

for remotely sensed microwave products under the Air Force/Navy/NOAA

Shared Satellite Processing

Agreement. The FLENUMMETOCCEN web site is www.fnmoc.navy.mil.

Since atmospheric conditions are

inherently coupled to oceanographic

conditions, the Navy's program in

meteorology is closely linked with

oceanography, the focus of the Naval

Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO), Stennis Space Center,

Mississippi. NAVOCEANO's primary

responsibilities include the collection,

processing, and distribution of oceanographic, hydrographic, and other geophysical data and products. NAVOCEANO recently began disseminating

products from the world's first operational global layered ocean model -

NLOM. NAVOCEANO is the Navy's

primary processing facility for NOAA

polar-orbiting satellite data and is the

National Center of Excellence for

satellite-derived sea-surface temperature measurements providing the global sea surface temperature data critically important to successfully running

NOGAPS and COAMPS.

Additionally, NAVOCEANO is a DOD

Major Shared Resource Center,

enabling creation of the latest research

and development models on the most

modern scalable supercomputing

architecture and facilitating transition

from R&D to operational use. The

NAVOCEANO web site is www.navoceano.navy.mil.

Tailored Theater and Regional Support

Theater and regional support are provided to forces ashore and afloat

through six regional centers delivering

METOC services within their broad

areas of responsibility (AORs).

Aligned with specific Naval

Component Commanders of the

Unified Commanders-in-Chiefs

(CINCs), these centers tailor services

to theater requirements, and manage

and prioritize dissemination of numerical products from FLENUMMETOCCEN and NAVOCEANO

(Figure 3-DOD-6). Special products

needed to meet requirements of Joint

Figure 3-DOD-6. Global locations for United States Navy theater

and regional support
SECTION 3 DOD 89

Force Commanders are also generated

by the regional centers. Additionally,

the Joint Typhoon Warning Center

(JTWC) (operated by Navy and Air

Force) is co-located with the Naval

Pacific Meteorology and

Oceanography Center in Pearl Harbor,

Hawaii. Specific METOC products

common to the regional centers

include high winds and seas warnings

for the world's oceans, tailored forecast

support for Navy, Coast Guard and

NOAA ships at sea, and ship routing

services for ocean transits.

Tailored ice forecasts and analyses

are provided to DOD by the Naval Ice

Center (NAVICECEN), located in

Suitland, Maryland. The Navy

(through NAVICECEN), NOAA, and

the United States Coast Guard, jointly

operate the National Ice Center (NIC).

The NIC provides ice analyses and

forecasts for the Arctic and Antarctic

regions, coastal United States waters,

and the Great Lakes to civil as well as

military activities.

Local and Aviation Support

NAVMETOCCOM Facilities at

Whidbey Island, Washington, Naples,

Italy and at Jacksonville and

Pensacola, Florida, provide aviation

forecast services as well as Fleet

Operating Area (OPAREA) and local

forecasts and warnings for aircraft,

ships, submarines and naval bases and

staffs. Additionally, there are

31 NAVMETOCCOM detachments

worldwide. Though primarily situated

at Naval Air Stations for aviation safety of flight forecasting, several are

located at Naval Stations in support of

sea-going units. The detachments provide METOC forecasting and warning

services to DOD and allied units within their local and functional areas of

responsibility (Figure 3-DOD-7).

Detachments and Facilities within the

continental United States use numerical products from both FLENUMMETOCCEN and NOAA's National

Centers for Environmental Prediction

(NCEP). Overseas Detachments and

Facilities use FLENUMMETOCCEN

numerical products, in addition to AF

and foreign products. Additionally,

Fleet Numerical provides aircraft routing services for military (primarily

Navy) aircraft on demand.

Two detachments provide specific

technical services: one, at the National

Climatic Data Center, Asheville, North

Carolina, coordinates the Navy's climatological program as part of the

Federal Climate Complex. The

detachment, at Tinker AFB,

Oklahoma, manages Naval data

requirements for the AF Automated

Weather Network (AWN).

On-Scene Support

The Navy's permanent afloat METOC

assets are their OA Divisions,

embarked aboard aircraft carriers,

major amphibious ships and command

ships. The OA division's primary

objectives are safety of ships, aircraft

and embarked personnel, optimum tactical and planning support to on-board

warfare commanders, and tailored onscene products and services for the

assigned task force/group and Allied

units in joint, combined, or coalition

military and humanitarian operations.

The primary source of on-scene Navy

METOC support for other forces afloat

and those deployed ashore are deployable Mobile Environmental Teams

(METs). These teams provide shortterm, on-scene services to DOD activities without organic METOC personnel, other government agencies, and

elements of the armed forces of allied

nations during combined exercises or

operations. METOC products and

services provided by these teams are

tailored to each units' requirements and

include tactical METOC information

and forecasts for operations, weapon

and sensor system employment and

tactical decision making, and climatological information for long-range

planning.

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

(USMC).

On-Scene METOC forecasts are

vital to the operation of the USMC.

The Deputy Chief of Staff for

Aviation, Headquarters, United

States Marine Corps (Code ASL37)

is the cognizant office for Marine

Corps METOC support and requirements. The Marine Corps weather

organization consists of two operational chains of command, one for

garrison aviation weather units and

the other for the Fleet Marine Force

(FMF) (Figure 3-DOD-8).

Figure 3-DOD-7. SH-60 Seahawk rotors illuminated by sparks from blowing

sands off Kuwait.
90 DOD SECTION 3

Garrison aviation weather units at

Marine Corps Air Stations (MCAS)

and Facilities (MCAF) are manned by

USMC personnel and provide direct

aviation weather support to host and

tenant units. Integral to Marine Corps

aviation activities, these weather units

provide services to assigned activities

and organizations, which include nine

major air stations in the continental

United States, one in Hawaii, and two

in Japan.

Marine Corps METOC support

activities are assigned to the FMF in

the Aviation Combat Element (ACE)

of the Marine Air Ground Task Force

(MAGTF). ACE METOC support is

derived from the Marine Wing Support

Squadron (MWSS) within the parent

Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW). The

existing 10 MWSS METOC activities

are equipped to provide support at a

bare-based or expeditionary airfield by

deploying the Meteorological Mobile

Facility (METMF). Additionally,

Meteorological Support Teams (MSTs)

from the ACE MWSS can be assigned

in direct support of the Command

Element, Ground Combat Element,

and Combat Service Support Element

of the MAGTF, and may augment a

Marine Expeditionary Unit and

Joint/Combined METOC Forecast

Unit.

MAJOR METOC SYSTEMS

The capability to provide near realtime global, regional, and local

METOC services to the Navy and

Marine Corps team requires a robust

and evolving set of leading edge technology tools. Theses tools are embodied in the following systems:

Primary Oceanographic Prediction

System (POPS) II Upgrade. The

Primary Oceanographic Prediction

System (POPS II U) operates complex

computer-based models of the world's

ocean and atmosphere and disseminates METOC forecasts, charts,

imagery and operational data sets to

support deployed Navy and DOD

forces worldwide. This data is essential to the safety and effectiveness of

the Navy's operational platforms, sensors, and weapons including cruise and

ballistic missiles, ships, aircraft, radar

and sonar. POPS II U prediction models must provide horizontal resolutions

of 1-5 kilometers and in near real time

for use in on-scene tactical decision

aids and systems.

POPS II U is the DOD approved system that operates global, regional, and

tactical atmospheric, oceanographic,

ice, wave, and tropical cyclone models

(Figure 3-DOD-9). The POPS II U,

located at FLENUMMETOCCEN also

provides the computing capability

required to support DOD's only global

atmospheric forecast model under an

agreement between the Navy and Air

Force. Under an umbrella memorandum of agreement signed in 1993

between NOAA and FLENUMMETOCCEN, both sides will provide

cooperative efforts in operational

numerical modeling, data exchange,

and mutual backup between NCEP and

FLENUMMETOCCEN. In 1999, FLENUMMETOCCEN provided numerical modeling backup capability to

NCEP for two Atlantic hurricanes and

for a five month duration after the

NCEP computer-fire outage in

October.

POPS II U is composed of a number

of different high-performance computer systems, including a SGI Origin

3000 (512 processors) and two Origin

2000s (128 processors). By the end of

Phase 1 (FY 2001), POPS II U will

have replacement hardware and software that forms the basis of METOC

support throughout DOD. This capability includes state-of-the-art

decoders, data managers, quality control algorithms, and observational

assimilating software for all types of

METOC data from all available sensors. These data will support state-ofthe-art numerical weather, ocean,

chemical/biological, and acoustic

models, run in multiple nested fashion

from global scale models at resolutions

of tens of kilometers to

battlegroup/battlefield models at resolutions of a few kilometers.

The POPS system performance

improvement objectives will support

DOD in the following specific ways:

a. Improved METOC forecast skill

worldwide at increasingly longer

time periods

b. Optimal aircraft routing services

c. Safe and direct ship routing

services

d. Hurricane, cyclone, and tropical

storm prediction worldwide

e. Open ocean and coastal wave prediction

Figure 3-DOD-8. Marines launch reconnaissance craft from USS Austin

(LPD 4) near Croatia. Small craft are especially susceptible to heavy seas.
SECTION 3 DOD 91

f. Precipitation prediction

g. Refractivity conditions/ducting

range

h. Acoustics support

i. Ballistic missile targeting support

j. Search and rescue

k. Low level chemical/biological/

nuclear transport prediction

Distributed Atmospheric Modeling

Prediction System (DAMPS). For

centuries, military commanders have

looked to the weather for tactical

advantage. The Navy is currently the

nation's only military service that operates a distributed model in support of

tactical weather prediction. DAMPS

allows users to ingest high-resolution

data and on-scene observations into

regional and global model information

received from the Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography

Center in Monterey, California. The

result is an on-scene weather model

that provides accurate weather predictions for an operating area within a

24-hour timeframe.

DAMPS is fielded at all Navy

METOC centers worldwide and uses

the COAMPS model to develop

METOC prediction products out to

48-hours. DAMPS uses real-time

weather data from ship and battle

group observations, including parameters such as: wind, temperature, cloud,

visibility and radar data, and then

incorporate this data into its analysis.

This analysis can be highly focused on

any area of interest. 

Tactical Environmental Support

System (TESS). The Navy is presently undergoing migration towards a

modular, interoperable suite of systems

to ingest, process, fuse, display, and

disseminate METOC data. The program consists of five seamless versions

known as the Naval Integrated Tactical

Environmental Subsystem (NITES)

versions I-V. NITES systems will be

fielded in FY 2000 through FY 2004.

The five NITES versions are:

 NITES I. Provides Navy decision-makers on major combatant

ships with METOC assessments

and forecasts, and integrates data

with sensor and weapon platform

parameters for system performance assessments. Theater

METOC Centers use NITES I to

provide value-added products to

fleet units, and the numerical

prediction guidance generated by

FLENUMMETOCCEN.

 NITES II. Makes METOC data

and products available to Navy

and Marine Corps activities

afloat and ashore via the Global

Command and Control SystemMaritime (GCCS-M). TESS data

and products are used to feed tactical decision aids resident within GCCS-M. NITES II is the

basis for the Joint METOC

Segment of the new Global

Command and Control System

(GCCS) V3.0.

 NITES III. An unclassified forecast, briefing, and display system

tailored to Naval METOC shore

activities in support of aviation

operations.

 NITES IV. A portable system

tailored to Mobile Environmental

Team (MET) and USMC

Meteorological Support Team

(MST) METOC requirements.

Fielding of NITES IV is expected to commence in FY 2003.

 NITES V. A forecast, briefing, and

display system for foreign military

sales to ensure interoperability with

our allies. It is a follow-on to the

Allied Environmental Support

System (AESS) and will incorporate capabilities used in the other

NITES variants.

Tactical Environmental Data Server

(TEDS). TEDS is a storage and data

management system for METOC

information. It is the central engine in

both the Tactical Environmental

Support System (TESS) and the Navy

Integrated Tactical Environmental

System (NITES), providing the broadest support via access to the full spectrum of client applications and

METOC models. TEDS architecture

connects to government historical

databases and commercial relational

databases management systems

(RDBMS) using network and Internet

protocols. With the associated METCAST automated delivery software,

users with Internet access can monitor

information updates on demand, continuously, or on schedule.

Meteorological Data ReceiverRecorder (AN/SMQ-11). AN/SMQ-11

is the principal Navy system to acquire

environmental data directly from satellites. There are different equipment

configurations for ships and shore

sites, and through their interface with

Figure 3-DOD-9. USS KETCHIKAN (YTB 975) run aground by super

typhoon in Guam.
92 DOD SECTION 3

TESS variants they provide remotely

sensed information to the operator.

Automated Surface Observing

System (ASOS). ASOS supports aviation and local area observing requirements at Navy and Marine Corps stations worldwide, leveraging development efforts of the National Weather

Service (NWS). ASOS helps assimilate field meteorological parameters

and facilitates efficient entry of surface

aviation observations and synoptic

weather reports into the Automated

Weather Network (AWN).

Supplemental Weather Radars

(SWR) (AN/FPS-131 and

AN/TPS-76). The Navy has procured

Supplemental Weather Radars to provide Doppler weather radar coverage

at selected Navy and USMC sites,

mostly overseas, outside of NEXRAD

coverage. This system replaced the

obsolete AN/FPS-106 non-Doppler

weather radars.

Meteorological Mobile Facility

Replacement (METMF(R)). The

METMF(R) is a transportable system

that houses meteorological support

equipment for the Marine Air Ground

Task Force (MAGTF). This

8x8x20 foot van provides a fully functioning weather office designed to support Marine Corps expeditionary airfield operations for 30 days without

resupply. It includes sub-systems for

data collection (local, remote and

upper air sensors), data processing,

satellite data ingest and display,

Doppler radar, communications, briefing support, and support for remote

forces. The METMF(R) is interoperable with the Marine Corps C4

I systems

and METOC systems of the other

Services via the Global Command and

Control System (GCCS).

Operational Products and Services

Optimum Track Ship Routing

(OTSR), and Optimum Path Aircraft

Routing System (OPARS) are advisory

services for fleet units. They are based

on NOGAPS, COAMPS and wave

forecast data, are tailored to the customer, and provide guidance to the

forecaster for the safe operation and

cost-effective routing of DOD ships

and aircraft as they have for nearly

30 years (Figure 3-DOD-10). OTSR

and OPARS save the operating forces

of all services approximately $57 million per year in reduced fuel consumption and personnel costs.

The Navy Oceanographic Data

Distribution System (NODDS) is a

PC-based software package originally

developed in 1982 to make FLENUMMETOCCEN numerical products

available to front line DOD users. All

standard METOC fields, synoptic

observations and basic DMSP satellite

imagery is also available. NODDS has

been made available to non-DOD

Federal agencies and others in the

civilian community through an earlier

agreement between Navy and NOAA,

but is now being phased out in favor of

Web-based display capabilities.

The Joint METOC Viewer (JMV) is

a more recent capability that is integrated into NITES and is gradually

replacing NODDS. Building on the

availability of the Internet and the successful user interface of NODDS, JMV

provides an intuitive Graphical User

Interface for retrieving, viewing and

annotating METOC information.

Authorized DOD and Government

users with Internet access now have a

simple, cost-efficient way to display

weather and ocean information on various computer platforms and operating

systems. JMV is operational at several

hundred DOD and other government

sites including ships, and is available

to authorized non-government users as

well.

WxMAP ("Weather Map") is a new

Web-based service from Fleet

Numerical which allows military and

civilian users worldwide to access

numerical output of selected weather

parameters at pre-established geographical areas throughout the world.

Because of continually emerging

Internet technology, a large subset of

these products can also be made available to the general public at no additional cost.

Since 1983, the Naval Regional

Meteorology and Oceanography

Center, in Norfolk Virginia has provided long range forecasts in support of

Energy Conservation efforts at Naval

shore installations in the continental

United States. The services are primarily in the form of extended-range

(10 day) temperature forecasts providFigure 3-DOD-10. Waves crash over the 65-foot-high bow of the aircraft

carrier JOHN C. STENNIS (CVN 74).
SECTION 3 DOD 93

ed to energy managers to assist in optimizing power plant operations.

Monthly temperature/degree day outlooks and long-lead (12 month) seasonal and precipitation forecasts are

also issued to assist in strategic planning of fuel purchasing and resource

allocation. Documented savings from

the Energy Conservation Forecast

Program exceed $62 million, with the

majority of savings resulting from

power plant steam/air conditioning

on/off recommendations and energy

resource/fuel allocation based on longlead forecast products. Customers

include 128 Navy and Marine Corps

facilities and commands.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

The Navy administers a diverse

research and development (R&D) program, ranging from software development to sensor engineering, and processing, display, and distribution

devices. Application of R&D activities of other Services and Federal

agencies is always considered, and use

of existing government and commercial off-the-shelf items is emphasized.

The Navy is a world leader in the

field of numerical weather prediction

for marine environmental services.

Transitioning fundamental scientific

research, through additional development, into operational METOC models

is key to a successful numerical prediction program. This ongoing process

includes work at universities and the

Naval Research Laboratory's Marine

Meteorological Division to keep the

NOGAPS and the COAMPS at the

leading edge of technology.

Development is also underway to

improve data assimilation, quality control, and management techniques to

support these models. A major numerical weather prediction thrust is underway to develop a shipboard tactical

atmospheric forecast capability to

assimilate locally acquired data in real

time and deliver high resolution

(5 km), limited area (100s of km),

short range (12-24 hr) atmospheric

predictions in tactical timeframes.

The Navy R&D program in remote

sensing develops techniques to extract

tactically significant information in the

littoral regions of the world. Sensors

aboard existing satellites are exploited

to the greatest extent possible and

plans are in place to incorporate new

capabilities when introduced. Because

many satellite processing algorithms

are designed for use with tactical systems, expert or rule-based processes

are used where possible to reduce

human-intensive interpretation.

ONR and SPAWARSYSCOM continue to explore techniques for assimilating environmental data through nontraditional sensors. One such effort is

investigating the AEGIS Weapon

System's AN/SPY-1 radar and developing the ability to produce

NEXRAD-like radar information from

ships at sea.

INTERAGENCY COOPERATION

Navy and Air Force have long been

cooperating in DOD weather support,

and these efforts have led to such successes as the Defense Meteorological

Satellite Program and the Joint

Typhoon Warning Center. Recently,

the two services have reinvigorated

efforts to increase efficiencies in their

METOC programs through greater

cooperation. The NAVAF-21 Charter,

signed in June 1999 by the

Oceanographer of the Navy and the Air

Force Director of Weather, expands on

the 1992 NAVAF Agreement for longterm cooperation in DOD operational

METOC efforts. NAVAF-21 implements mechanisms to formalize information exchange and cooperation,

focus limited resources and prioritize

issues to most efficiently meet longterm DOD METOC requirements, and

establish an enduring methodology for

documenting and periodically reviewing

decisions on areas of mutual interest.

To maximize efficiency and benefit

for Navy and NOAA cooperative

activities, an Umbrella Memorandum

of Agreement (MOA) between these

two agencies was signed in 1993.

Additionally, an agreement for shared

processing of remotely sensed data

was last updated in 1997. Both agencies continue to identify new areas of

cooperation and review existing agreements for conversion into annexes to

this MOA. Specific areas include:

 Cooperative efforts in operational

numerical modeling, data

exchange, and mutual backup

between FLENUMMETOCCEN

and the NCEP.

 Navy/NOAA/Coast Guard operation of the National Ice Center.

 Cooperative efforts between

FLENUMMETOCCEN and the

Pacific Fisheries Environmental

Laboratory of the National Marine

Fisheries Service

 Air Force Weather Agency

(AFWA)/Navy(FLENUMMETOCCEN, NAVOCEANO)/

NOAA-NESDIS agreement on

shared processing of satellite data.

 Navy/NOAA agreement on ASOS

procurement and installation.

 Satellite altimetry data processing.

 Training cooperation through

Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology Education and

Training (COMET).

MOAs also exist between the

Department of Commerce (DOC),

Department of Transportation, and the

DOD concerning procurement and

operation of NEXRAD. Additionally,

Navy is a DOD participant in the

development of the DOC/DOD/NASA

converged National Polar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite

System (NPOESS).

NATURALDISASTER MITIGATION

Navy METOC plays a vital role in

reducing the impact of natural disasters

to units both ashore and afloat. Severe

weather warnings are issued at Naval

facilities by the local NAVMETOCCOM activity when conditions war-
94 DOD SECTION 3

rant. For ships operating at sea without

METOC personnel embarked, tailored

enroute weather forecast messages

(WEAX) and high winds and seas

warnings provide commanding officers with advance notice of heavy

weather, and Optimum Track Ship

Routing (OTSR) forecasters monitor

ship movements and provide heavy

weather avoidance recommendations.

Tropical cyclones and even severe

winter storms provide even greater

challenges, as ships cannot generally

"ride out" storms in-port without sustaining damage. Similarly, once they

get underway (or "sortie") ships must

steer well clear of the highest winds

and seas, to avoid personnel injuries

and damage and ensure their stability

limits are not exceeded. Storms of little consequence to the general public -

those that remain well out at sea - are

still of great concern to the Navy.

Because of the need to sortie ahead of

tropical cyclones, the Navy must make

decisions 3- to 5-days in advance of

potentially dangerous weather. Sortie

decisions are extraordinarily difficult

to make because of their high cost and

impact on personnel and operations.

In making these decisions, Fleet commanders must strike a balance between

the risk of staying in port versus the

cost and potential for damage at sea.

Additionally, naval exercises and ship

transits are often placed at risk by multiple tropical cyclone events, which

can make successful evasion extremely difficult. Forecasts are provided to

the fleet commanders and their staffs

by the nearest NAVMETOCCOM

activity. Within CONUS and adjacent

ocean areas, tropical cyclone forecasts

in particular are closely coordinated

with those of the National Weather

Service. Overseas, local tropical

cyclone warnings and forecasts are

based on guidance provided by the

Joint Typhoon Warning Center, Pearl

Harbor, Hawaii.
SECTION 3 DOD 95

ARMY TRANSFORMATION

Global changes to the strategic environment dictate that the Army significantly alters the way it conducts business (Figure 3-DOD-11). On

12 October 1999, the Secretary of the

Army and the Chief of Staff of the

Army articulated a Vision designed to

posture the Army so that it can better

meet the demands of the 21st Century:

"Soldiers on Point for the

NationPersuasive in Peace,

Invincible in War." The requirement to

transform the Army is based upon

emerging security challenges in the

21st Century as well as the requirement

to respond more rapidly across the full

spectrum of operations. In support of

the National Security Strategy (NSS),

the strategic significance of land forces

lie in their ability to not only fight and

win our Nation's wars, but also to provide options to shape the global environment to the future benefit of the

United States and its allies. To this

end, the Army developed a strategy

and plan to guide this transformation.

The Army Vision is about People,

Readiness and Transformation. People

are the centerpiece of our formations;

leadership is our stock in trade. It is

imperative that we continue to take

care of our quality soldiers, civilians,

veterans and their families as we transform our Army. Readiness remains, as

it has always been, our top priority.

We have a non-negotiable contract

with the American people - to fight and

win the Nations wars. We must

ensure that at all times, the Army can

meet demands of the National Military

Strategy and requirements specified in

the Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan

(JSCP). Finally, the Army must transform, to become more strategically

responsive and dominant at every point

on the spectrum of operations.

The vision represents goals for the

Army, while Transformation and its

accompanying Transformation

Campaign Plan (TCP) are vehicles for

becoming more strategically responsive and dominant. Achieving the

vision requires a complete transformation of the entire Army.

Transformation consists of three

major objectives: Initial Force,

Interim Force and Objective Force,

with three corresponding phases

(Figure 3-DOD-12). The first phase of

Army Transformation has already

begun. During this phase, the Army is

fielding an Initial Force of two Brigade

Combat Teams at Fort Lewis,

Washington. During FY 2000-01,

these two units will establish and validate an organizational and operational

model for Interim Brigade Combat

Teams. To bridge the gap between the

capabilities of today's force and the

Objective Force, it is necessary to field

an Interim Force of six to eight

brigades, employing the Interim

Armored Vehicles (IAVs) and currently available off-the-shelf equipment.

These Interim Brigade Combat Teams

(IBCTs) will be the vanguard of the

future Objective Force - they will have

full spectrum capability and be available for apportionment to the warfighting CINCs. These Interim Brigades

will also have the capability to deploy

anywhere in the world in 96 hours.

The Army envisions fielding the first

units of the Objective Force in eight to

ten years. This force will not only

retain the capability to deploy a combat-capable brigade anywhere in the

world in 96 hours, but also a division

in 120 hours and five divisions in

30 days. The Objective Force will provide the National Command Authority

(NCA) with an increased number of

options for regional engagement, crisis

response and sustained land force

operations. The Objective Force is

designed around a Future Combat

System (FCS) that will incorporate

state of the art technologies and capabilities into a multi-mission combat

system. The Army has significantly

increased spending in Science and

Technology in order to develop the

operational capabilities of the FCS and

the overall force. Throughout the

transformation, readiness remains our

top priority - the Legacy Force provides this capability. The Army must

fulfill its non-negotiable contract with

the American people-to fight and win

the Nation's wars. Therefore, the

Army must sustain and recapitalize its

Legacy Force to guarantee mainteUNITED STATES ARMY

Figure 3-DOD-11. The United States Army Strategic Environment.
96 DOD SECTION 3

nance of critical warfighting readiness.

To accomplish this, the Army will

recapitalize selected legacy formations, in its Active and Reserve

Components, to enhance key armored

and aviation systems, as well as

enhance light force lethality and survivability.

These changes to the Army structure

dictate changes in both weather support requirements and the way weather

is provided to the new Brigade Combat

Teams. Weather teams will be smaller

in size and will depend more heavily

on "reach back" capabilities to obtain

meteorological data. The United

States Air Force (USAF) is working

with the Army to optimize the type and

level of weather support that will be

provided to the new brigades, while

still maintaining appropriate support to

the legacy force during transformation.

ARMY OPERATIONAL AND MISSION SUPPORT

United States Army weather support

is a mix of Army and USAF personnel

and equipment under Law and according to Army-Air Force (AF) agreement. Army Regulation (AR)

115-10/AF Joint Instruction (AFJI)

15-157, Weather Support for the

United States Army, 30 June 1996

describes the Service responsibilities

and those of Major Army Commands

(MACOMs) within the Army providing weather support. The United

States Army provides direct weather

support to two Army missions: upper

air observations for Field Artillery fire

support, and limited surface weather

observations to support Army weapon

systems forward of Division tactical

operations centers (Figure 3-DOD-13).

AF Major Commands (MAJCOMs)

provide operational weather services to

warfighting MACOMs in combat, contingencies, and peacetime training.

United States Army Forces Command

(FORSCOM), United States Army

Europe (USAREUR), United States

Army Pacific (USARPAC), United

States Army Special Operations

Command (USASOC), Eighth United

States Army (EUSA), and United

States Army Training and Doctrine

Command (TRADOC) have AF

Weather personnel providing daily

installation and tactical weather support. Army Artillery Meteorological

(ARTYMET) crews provide direct

upper air observation support to

artillery units in the same MACOMs.

During peacetime training and activation, the Air National Guard (ANG)

provides AF operational weather support to the Army Reserve and Army

National Guard (ARNG), collectively

designated the Reserve Component

(RC). In addition, during exercises

and contingencies, the ANG may augment the active Army Combat Weather

Teams (CWTs).

The Army also provides the operational weather support to Army

Research Development, Test and

Evaluation (RDTE) ranges, centers,

and other research facilities using the

Developmental Test Command's

(DTC) Meteorological Teams (MET

Teams) and United States Army Space

and Missile Defense Command

(SMDC) contractors. DTC operational

support is described under Army Test

and Evaluation Command. SMDC

provides weather support to Kwajalein

Missile Range (KMR) through a

Meteorological Environmental Test

Support contractor.

The Army provides the tactical field

and communications equipment to

USAF CWTs for tactical operations.

The Integrated Meteorological System

(IMETS) is an automated mobile

weather support and communications

system. The Project Director (PD) for

IMETS is under the direction of

Program Manager, Intelligence Fusion.

The Communications and Electronics

Command (CECOM) and Army

Research Laboratory (ARL) provide

fielding and technical support to PD,

IMETS and to Field Artillery meteorology programs.

ARTYMET crews are assigned to

Artillery units at Division level, to Field

Artillery Brigades, and to Separate

Brigades with a direct support Artillery

Battalion. Army soldiers regularly take

tactical upper air observations to support Field Artillery units during tactical

training exercises, at permanent Army

Artillery Ranges, or during the full

range of combat missions. ARTYMET

crews also take limited surface observations at tactical locations on an "as

needed" basis to support artillery operational requirements.

Figure 3-DOD-12. United States Army Transformation.
SECTION 3 DOD 97

ARTYMET Crews in the Active

Component (AC) and RC sections currently use the Meteorological

Measuring Set (MMS), AN/TMQ-41,

to take upper air observations during

tactical operations. It is a mobile,

upper air sounding system mounted on

a High Mobility Multi-purpose

Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV). The

MMS provides upper air data to the

Field Artillery Tactical Data System

for use in adjusting artillery fire, to

USAF CWTs, and to the Chemical

Officer for use in smoke and in

Nuclear, Biological and Chemical

(NBC) defense operations. The

CECOM section provides a complete

description of MMS. The United

States Army Field Artillery School

(USAFAS), Fort Sill, Oklahoma,

develops the requirement documents

and is the combat and training developer for meteorological equipment

used for Field Artillery support.

The Army provides supplemental,

limited surface observations when

required in tactical situations to support Army operations. When directed

by the Intelligence Officer (S2),

Intelligence personnel in the forward

combat areas take these observations.

Headquarters, Department of the

Army, Office of the Deputy Chief of

Staff for Intelligence (ODCSINT) is

responsible for Army weather support

policy. The Office of the Deputy Chief

of Staff for Operations and Plans

(ODCSOPS) is responsible for validating and prioritizing weather support

requirements and programs to meet

Army requirements. The Army Staff

also has a full-time active duty User

Liaison assigned to the National PolarOrbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite System (NPOESS) Integrated

Program Office and an Intelligence

Officer assigned to the AFW Agency

(AFWA) at Offutt AFB, Nebraska.

Army Operational Support provided

by the Air Force

Under AR 115-10/AFJI 15-157, the

AF is responsible for providing the

Army with the necessary manpower

and unique tactical and fixed weather

equipment to meet Army tactical and

garrison active component (AC)/RC

support requirements. Army support

manpower requirements are sourced

from AF active, reserve, and ANG

weather units. While direct support of

the Field Artillery remains an Army

responsibility and is supported by

Army ARTYMET teams, AF CWTs

provide supplemental information to

artillery crews in contingencies for

areas beyond direct ARTYMET observation capabilities. The AF assigns AF

weather personnel to the warfighting

MACOMs at theater, corps, division,

armored cavalry regiments, aviation

brigades, separate brigades, and special forces groups/ranger regiments to

provide direct, on site weather support.

AF weather squadrons and flights provide garrison and tactical weather

warning, observing, forecasting, special support, and staff weather officer

(SWO) services to Combat, Combat

Support, and Combat Service Support

units throughout the peacetime/war

continuum. Peacetime garrison activities include supporting flying operations at Army Airfields and severe

weather watch, warning, and advisory

services for aircraft and post resource

protection. The AF is responsible for

installation, operation, and maintenance of standard AF meteorological

and observing equipment at Army

Airfield Weather Stations. Tactically,

the Army is responsible for vehicles,

tactical communications, and weather

effects criteria. The Army Integrated

Meteorological System (IMETS) is

fielded for these purposes and is operated by AF CWTs. The Army also

maintains IMETS hardware and software, with the AF maintaining AF software that performs meteorological

functions within IMETS. IMETS uses

AF meteorological software, but

IMETS is built on an Army vehicle,

uses Army tactical communications

and Army weather effects software.

The Army provides other tactical

equipment to AF CWTs through an

Army Table of Organizations and

Equipment (TOE).

Eighth United States Army Support

Eighth United States Army (EUSA)

requires, and uses, Army resources to

conduct two major meteorological

services in direct support of Army operations: collecting and disseminating

upper air observations for artillery support, and collecting and disseminating

limited surface weather observations to

support all tactical units and operations. Figure 3-DOD-13. Army Weather Support Architecture.
98 DOD SECTION 3

Two artillery meteorological

(ARTYMET) crews with the Second

Infantry Division use AN/TMQ-41

MMS to collect upper air observations

for direct use by field artillery units.

ARTYMET crews also collect upper

air observations for training; these

observations are available to the 607th

Weather Squadron (607 WS) upon

request.

Additionally, under the Forward

Area Limited Observing Program

(FALOP), Army personnel use tactical

weather kits to collect limited weather

observations in data sparse, forward

areas. Observations are typically collected by intelligence personnel at

brigade and battalion tactical operations centers (TOC) during contingencies or exercises and, in turn, are disseminated to and through USAF

weather teams supporting Army air,

ground, or special operations. These

observations are used by forecasters at

the 607 WS Theater Forecast Unit

(TFU) to accurately predict mission

limiting weather in the demilitarized

zone (DMZ).

The USAF will use new automated

COTS observing systems at eight locations in the area of the DMZ.

Observations from these systems will

be transmitted via phone lines to pilots,

as well as to forecasters back in the

607 WS TFU. They will also be incorporated into the global weather database to improve short term forecasting

in the northern ROK. There are plans

to buy more automated COTS sensors

in FY 2002, for use along the DMZ

and in the northern ROK.

USAF weather personnel assigned to

the 607 WS provide fixed and tactical

weather support to EUSA units and

installations. 607 WS provides garrison and tactical weather warning,

observing, forecast, special support,

and staff weather officer (SWO) services during contingency, exercise, or

armistice operations. 607 WS units

provide direct, on-site support at eight

EUSA installations and at deployed

locations. Support is focused on air,

ground, special operations, and other

combat and combat support missions.

The 607 WS TFU took over forecasting responsibilities for the eight EUSA

locations in FY 2000, and is responsible for terminal aerodrome forecasts,

along with weather advisories and

forecasts for these locations. The

EUSA CWTs are primarily responsible

for providing their customers with

observations and tailored support.

607WS provides 97 trained weather

personnel and required fixed and tactical weather sensing, data processing,

and communications equipment.

EUSA provides supporting USAF

units needed tactical vehicles, MTOE

and CTA equipment, and operating

funds (for expendables, maintenance,

etc.).

United States Army In Europe And

Seventh Army

United States Army Europe

(USAREUR) and 7th Army require and

use Army resources to conduct meteorological services in direct support of

Army operations. These services

include collecting and disseminating

upper air observations for artillery support and collecting and disseminating

limited surface weather observations to

support all tactical units and operations.

7th Weather Squadron (7 WS) provides USAREUR/7th Army in-garrison

and tactical weather intelligence and

support. This includes observing services for in-garrison operations, contingency and exercise operations, staff

weather officer (SWO) services, and

specialized support. The United States

Air Forces in Europe (USAFE)

Operational Weather Squadron (OWS)

at Sembach AB, Germany, provides

operational-level forecast products for

the European Command Area of

Responsibility, to include all

USAREUR units (Figure 3-DOD-14).

Combat weather teams located at

V Corps and its aviation assets,

1st Infantry Division and its aviation

brigade, 1st Armored Division and it

aviation brigade, evaluate and tailor

these forecast products to produce mission execution forecasts.

The mission of 7 WS and its ten

detachments is to provide weather

operations packages to conform to the

Army's Transformation initiative.

7 WS will match the deploying weather force structure to the mission that

USAREUR is called upon to execute.

7 WS will utilize "reachback" capabilities to the maximum extent possible to

minimize the deployed footprint without compromising weather operations.

The Automated Meteorological

Information System (AMIS) is the primary in-garrison weather equipment

for receiving graphics and alphanumeric data. Data is received via VSAT

and hard-wire circuits. The New

Tactical Forecast System (NTFS) is the

primary equipment used for deployed

locations with data received via

TV-SAT, NIPRNET and SIPRNET.

Units also use the NATO Automated

Meteorological Information System

(NAMIS) to receive NATO generated

Figure 3-DOD-14. United States

Army Soldiers on partol in Bosnia.
SECTION 3 DOD 99

weather products. NAMIS software is

hosted on a laptop and receives data

via VSAT. Satellite imagery

(METEOSAT and DMSP) is received

via the Small Tactical Terminal (STT).

Five Integrated Meteorological

Systems (IMETS) have been fielded

within USAREUR, with two more programmed for FY 2002. Five Portable

Automated Observing Systems

(PASOS) and Portable Weather Radar

are deployed to Task Force Falcon

(TFF), Kosovo, with an additional

PASOS unit currently being installed.

USAREUR provides supporting

USAF weather teams with tactical

vehicles, MTOE and Common Table

of Allowances (CTA) equipment and

operating funds (expendables, maintenance, etc.). Four artillery meteorological (ARTYMET) sections collect

upper air observations for direct use by

field artillery units. The Forward Area

Limited Observing Program (FALOP)

consists of Army personnel taking limited observations at forward areas in

the battlespace.

United States Army Special Operations

Command (USASOC)

Weather support to USASOC consists of forecasts and observations, climatological studies and course of

action recommendations to aid commanders in improving efficiency,

effectiveness, and safety of operations

for USASOC units. USASOC personnel provide limited scope meteorological observations in direct support of

Army operations using tactical weather kits to collect limited weather data

in data sparse permissive and non-permissive environments. Observations

are typically collected by Army

Special Operations Forces at the team

level and are passed to operating bases

for use by Army commanders and

staff, as well as AF Special Operations

Command (AFSOC) and ANG weather personnel. AFSOC and ANG

weather personnel supporting

USASOC are assigned to the 10th

Combat Weather Squadron (CWS),

OL-A, 320 Special Tactics Squadron

(STS), OL-A, 321 STS and the 107th,

146th, and 181st ANG Combat Weather

Flights (CWF's). These weather units

provide garrison and tactical support to

USASOC units including the 75th

Ranger Regiment and subordinate battalions, the 160th Special Operations

Aviation Regiment, seven Special

Forces Groups and subordinate battalions and two Psychological Operations

Groups. Support provided includes

climatological information, mission

forecasts, command decision forecasts,

aviation forecasts and observations,

drop zone forecasts and observations,

special reconnaissance, and Foreign

Internal Defense/Unconven-tional

Warfare. The 10 CWS also provides

staff support to USASOC, the United

States Army Special Forces Command

(Airborne), and the United States

Army John F. Kennedy Special

Warfare Center and School. USASOC

provides supporting AFSOC and ANG

units with required facilities, equipment, and operating funds (for expendables, maintenance, etc.).

United States Army Pacific

(USARPAC)

USARPAC uses Army resources to

conduct meteorological services in

direct support of Army operations.

These services include collecting and

disseminating upper air observations

for artillery support and collecting and

disseminating surface weather observations to support tactical units and

operations.

USARPAC provides supporting

USAF units with tactical vehicles,

MTOE and Common Table of

Allowances (CTA) equipment and

operations and maintenance funds.

The IMETS and New Tactical

Forecast System (NTFS) have been

fielded within USARPAC as the primary meteorological equipment for

deployed operations. The IMETS and

NTFS reachback for data via Army

provided NIPRNET and SIPRNET

conduits. Deployed weather teams

also use the Small Tactical Terminal

(STT) for direct reception of weather

satellite imagery.

In FY 2001 the 17th Operational

Weather Squadron (17 OWS) was activated, as part of ongoing reengineering

and realigning. The 17 OWS provides

CWTs within its area of responsibility

with garrison and tactical weather

warnings, forecasts, special support,

and Staff Weather Officer (SWO) services during contingencies and humanitarian operations. Additional CWTs

assigned to United States Army Japan

(USARJ), 25th ID and 172nd SIB provide direct, on-site support at five

USARPAC installations. The CWTs

also deploy with their customers providing tailored battlefield observations

and forecasts. Weather reengineering

will reduce the requirement for forward deployed weather personnel, and

instead leverage IMETS and other

recently fielded technology. The 17

OWS, through reachback, will provide

regional weather support, allowing the

forward-deployed forces to focus on

specific area and target forecasts. 

United States Army Forces Command

(FORSCOM)

Weather support to the United States

Army Forces Command (FORSCOM)

is diverse and demanding. FORSCOM

is the Army's largest major command

and requires and uses Army resources

to conduct meteorological services in

direct support of Army operations.

These services include collecting and

disseminating upper air observations

for artillery support and collecting and

disseminating limited surface weather

observations to support all tactical

units and operations. FORSCOM consists of more than 760,000 Active

Army (AA), United States Army

Reserve and ARNG soldiers. These

soldiers account for around 85 percent

of the Army's combat power.

FORSCOM trains, mobilizes, deploys,

and sustains combat ready forces capable of responding rapidly to crises

worldwide. The AA of FORSCOM
100 DOD SECTION 3

has nearly 200,000 soldiers. Third

United States Army is the Army component of United States Central

Command (USCENTCOM), the Joint

command responsible for Southwest

Asia (SWA) and the Horn of Africa.

FORSCOM also commands two Army

Corps: III Corps at Fort Hood, Texas;

and XVIII Airborne Corps at Fort

Bragg, North Carolina. Together they

include six divisions, two armored

cavalry regiments, five separate

brigades, and a range of other corps

combat, combat support and combat

service support units. The two

Continental United States Armies

(CONUSAs), First United States Army

and Fifth United States Army, are

responsible for training, mobilization

and deployment support to Reserve

Component units in FORSCOM.

A major subordinate command of

FORSCOM, the United States Army

Reserve Command (USARC) commands all United States Army Reserve

units in the continental United States,

except those assigned to Special

Operations Command. FORSCOM's

Army Reserve strength stands at about

196,000 soldiers. USARC units are

part of the Federal force and make

their primary contribution to

FORSCOM combat power in combat

support and combat service support

specialties such as medical, civil

affairs, transportation, maintenance

and supply.

The ARNG provides FORSCOM a

balanced force of eight National Guard

combat divisions, 15 enhanced separate

brigades, and extensive combat support

and combat service support units. The

current FORSCOM ARNG strength is

approximately 367,000 soldiers.

United States Army Signal

Command also falls under control of

FORSCOM and provides all Echelon

Above Corps (EAC) tactical, power

projection, and strategic signal support

to warfighting unified commanders, as

well as Army component commanders,

in both war and peace.

Weather support to FORSCOM's AA

units comes from dedicated AF weather teams aligned under three Air

Support Operations Groups (ASOGs):

1st ASOG at Fort Lewis, Washington;

3rd ASOG at Fort Hood, Texas; and

18th ASOG at Pope AFB, North

Carolina. A weather squadron for each

ASOG makes up the Corps combat

weather team (CWT). Each Army

division has their own dedicated CWT.

These CWTs are aligned under an Air

Support Operations Squadron (ASOS)

or one of the weather squadrons, at

their respective installations. Corps

and division CWTs are authorized

enough personnel and equipment to

support a variety of missions at the

various Army echelons. Weather support at each Army echelon is provided

according to Army Field

Manual 34-81/AF Joint Pamphlet

15-127, Weather Support for Army

Tactical Operations. Currently, there

are nearly 350 AF weather authorizations supporting various echelons

across FORSCOM. These AFW personnel provide garrison and tactical

weather warning, observing, forecast,

special support, and staff weather officer (SWO) services during contingency, exercise, or armistice operations.

FORSCOM weather units provide

direct, on-site support at 11 major

installations, including the National

Training Center at Fort Irwin,

California, and the Joint Readiness

Training Center at Fort Polk, Louisiana

and at deployed locations. Support is

focused on air, ground, special operations, and other combat and combat

support missions.

FORSCOM provides supporting

USAF units with a Modified Table of

Organization and Equipment (MTOE)

and operating funds (expendables,

maintenance, etc.). Eleven artillery

meteorological (ARTYMET) sections

collect upper air observations for direct

use by field artillery units. The

Forward Area Limited Observing

Program (FALOP) consists of Army

personnel taking limited observations

at forward areas in the battlespace.

The Automated Meteorological

Information System (AMIS) is the primary in-garrison weather equipment

for receiving graphics and alphanumeric data. Data is received via VSAT

and hard-wire circuits. The New

Tactical Forecast System (NTFS) is the

primary equipment used for deployed

locations with data received via NIPRNET and SIPRNET. Satellite imagery

(METEOSAT and DMSP) is received

via the Small Tactical Terminal (STT).

Nineteen IMETS have been fielded

within FORSCOM. Two Automated

Surface Observing Systems (ASOS)

with one located Yakima Training

Center and the other a Camp Doha,

Kuwait.

Training and Doctrine Command

(TRADOC) Programs

HQ TRADOC is responsible for

development and management of training programs, writing Army and Joint

weather support doctrine (concepts and

field manuals), and establishing the

weather requirements documents for

Army tactical weather support equipment. Headquarters, TRADOC is the

approval authority for Army-AF

weather doctrine, Army weather hardware requirements, and weather support policy. A key mission area for the

next few years will be to coordinate

Army weather support requirements

during AFW Reengineering and Army

Transformation. Deployed weather

support will improve significantly with

the digitization of these experimental

Army units. Customized battlefield

weather "visualizations" transmitted

via the Integrated Meteorological

System (IMETS) will take the place of

the stand-up weather briefings of the

past. The results of the Advanced

Warfighting Experiments (AWEs) will

show us new tactics, techniques, and

procedures for the exploitation of

weather during military operations.

Identified software enhancements will
SECTION 3 DOD 101

transition to the appropriate materiel

developer for further integration.

Finally, these experiments provide an

opportunity to educate Army leaders

and their staffs on the effects of weather on the battlefields of the future.

Weather Support Process

TRADOC schools submit requirements for weather support to HQ

TRADOC for approval. Upon concurrence, HQ TRADOC normally states

requirements for USAF support to HQ,

Air Staff - Director of Weather, for

solution/implementation. Requirements for Army-provided communications or tactical equipment are submitted through ODCSOPS to prioritize

and program resources.

The United States Army Intelligence

Center and Fort Huachuca

(USAIC&FH) is the Army's functional

proponent for tactical weather support.

The Weather Support Team (WST)

advises the Commanding General of

USAIC&FH, ARL, and AFW on

Army-wide weather support requirements and known deficiencies. They

frame requirements to meet both active

and reserve force needs. They assist in

training development for AFW personnel supporting the Army (i.e., the Staff

Weather Officer Army Indoctrination

Course), as well as training Army leaders to leverage weather intelligence on

the battlefield (Figure 3-DOD-15).

With dwindling resources and personnel reductions, the team has sought

solutions that are compatible with

AFW Reengineering plans and that

maintain quality weather support to the

Army warfighter. The USAIC&FH

WST currently consists of an AF Staff

Weather Officer, one senior AF

Noncommissioned Officer, plus other

USAIC&FH intelligence analysts and

combat developers on a task-organized

basis.

The Staff Weather Officer at the

United States Army Combined Arms

Center facilitates modifications to the

Tables of Organization and Equipment

for Army CWTs, and through the

TRADOC System Manager for Army

Battle Command System and Battle

Command Battle Lab-Leavenworth,

provides environmental data for the

Command, Control, Communications,

Computer and Information (C4

I) network.

The Schools and Battle Laboratories

The United States Army Field

Artillery School (USAFAS), Fort Sill,

Oklahoma, is the proponent for upper

air meteorological support to the

Army. Artillery meteorological crews,

Active and Reserve, currently use the

AN/TMQ-50 to measure surface

weather parameters, and the MMS,

AN/TMQ-41 to take upper air observations. The MMS provides weather

data to the Field Artillery Tactical Data

System for ballistic calculations; to

USAF CWTs for weather forecasting;

and to the Chemical Officer for obscurant deployment, and Nuclear,

Biological, Chemical (NBC) defense

operations.

The Engineer School (USAES), Fort

Leonard Wood, Missouri, coordinates

weather support requirements for

Terrain Analysis and Topographic

Engineering. USAES develops methods of measuring and forecasting state

of the ground for trafficability assessments, using input weather data fields.

Their mission also includes identifying, and documenting requirements to

interface meteorological and engineer

battlefield systems. Due to force cuts,

USAES no longer has a full time civilian meteorologist in the Terrain

Visualization Center, DCD.

(Operating Location B, 3rd Weather

Squadron, USAF, provides weather

observation services at Forney Army

Airfield, Fort Leonard Wood,

Missouri. OL-B is included in this

report only to the extent that Fort

Leonard Wood provides funding for its

expendables and overhead.)

In 1999, the Army Military Police

and Chemical Schools moved to Fort

Leonard Wood. Neither currently

employ staff meteorologists.

The Aviation Center at Fort Rucker

incorporates weather instruction and

procedures into rotary-wing training

programs in their mission areas. The

Center has requirements for weather

observations and USAF forecast support at Cairns Army Airfield, Troy

Municipal Airport (MAP), Alabama,

and Andalusia MAP, Alabama.

Additionally, Fort Rucker operates

observing and communications equipment to relay weather intelligence and

resource protection advisories to

numerous Army remote training sites.

Army National Guard Artillery

Figure 3-DOD-15. Ft. Drum Weather Team at the Joint Readiness T The ARNG has 48 Meteorological raining

Center.
102 DOD SECTION 3

Sections assigned to artillery units at

Division level, Field Artillery

Brigades, and in Separate Brigades.

The ARTYMET sections provide

upper air observations at least 39 training days each year supporting artillery

live fire during Annual Training and

monthly Inactive Duty Training. The

ARTYMET sections support an average of 20 live fire training days and

annually expend in excess of 100 balloons per section. The ARNG is in the

process of modernizing to the MMS,

AN/TMQ-41A. Active component

fielding of Profiler will facilitate continued modernization through the cascade of MMS to the ARNG.

Army Corps of Engineers Civil

Operational Activities

The Corps of Engineers (COE) uses

a network of about 8,810 land-based

gauges. About 55 percent of the sites

collect meteorological data, 35 percent

a combination of hydrologic and meteorological data, and 10 percent hydrologic or water quality data. The Corps

funds or partially funds 61 percent

(4,500) of all the gauges it used.

Meteorological gauges commonly

measure precipitation, temperature.

Meteorological data represents only

about ten percent of the COE's gauging

program funding. Most gauging stations include hydrologic measurements for surface water runoff, water

quality and sediment. All data is used

in the regulation of COE dams and

other water projects used for flood

control, navigation, hydroelectric

power, irrigation, water supply, water

quality, and recreation. The COE

transfers funds to NOAA/National

Weather Service (NWS) to collect and

maintain precipitation information

from 600 of meteorological sites.

Similarly, COE transfers funds to the

United States Geological Survey

(USGS) to maintain precipitation data

collection from 500 sites, while the

COE maintains the rest. Eight-two

percent of all Corps sites provide realtime via satellite microwaves meterbursts, landlines or radio. Data from

all COE networks are available and

used by other federal, state and local

agencies, and are extensively used by

NWS and USGS to support their programs.

United States Army Space and Missile

Defense Command (USASMDC)

Army Space Command (ARSPACE),

a SMDC component, provides operational space weather support on a limited basis to Army units through it's

Army Space Support Teams (ARSST)

as well as Space Operations Officers

(FA40). ARSST teams and FA 40s'

provide space weather support to the

warfighter through an Army - AF

agreement where ARSPACE will provide space weather support until an

appropriate number of AFW personnel

are trained in space weather and

assume the mission. Space weather

support is provided to Army warfighters as part of ARSPACE's effort to

improved overall space support and situational awareness. Potential space

weather effects including disruptions of

over the horizon communications,

radar interference, space environment

induced satellite service disruptions,

high flyer radiation hazards and hazard

warnings to civil power grids resulting

from geomagnetic activity.

Related projects include the annually

updated Space Weather Smart Book

that is intended to improve the

ARSPACE staff, ARSST teams and

FA 40s understanding of space weather

fundamentals. In addition, ARSPACE

is developing a Space Intelligence

Preparation of the Battlefield (SPACEIPB) visualization tool that will include

a visual depiction of scintillation (disturbed ionosphere) conditions over a

given operational area.

ARSPACE provides space weather

support through a .5 staff year contract

valued at $53,000. There has been no

change in funding levels between

FY 2001 and FY 2002.

The High Energy Laser Systems Test

Facility (HELSTF), a subcommand of

USASMDC located on White Sands

Missile Range, is designated as the

DOD National Test Range for high

energy laser test and evaluation. In

addition to laser systems test and evaluation, extensive use has been made of

on-site laser systems to perform damage and vulnerability testing on laserhardened materials, missile and aircraft components, and assorted battlefield equipment. The atmospheric sciences/meteorological mission is to

support HELSTF activities by providing atmospheric propagation and meteorological measurements, planning,

and analysis as required. These capabilities also support the safe storage,

handling and use of the toxic laser

fuels.

United States Army Kwajalein Atoll

(USAKA) is a subcommand of USASMDC, which provides operational support to the test facilities at the

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). The

KMR meteorological services support

contractor performs meteorological

functions in support of missile operations and for synoptic purposes,

including surface, upper air, and meteorological satellite observations, and

the preparation of daily aviation,

marine and special weather observations for the range.

WEATHER SUPPORT FOR

RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT,

TEST, AND EVALUATION (RDTE)

Under Army-AF agreement, the Army

has responsibility for weather support

for research, development, test, and

evaluation (RDTE) to support Army

ground combat missions as specified in

AR 115-10/AFJI 15-157. The COE and

the Army Materiel Command (AMC)

are the major contributors to weather

research. The Medical Research and

Materiel Command does research related to soldiers performance in the range

of weather conditions expected to be

encountered in all theaters of operations.

Corps of Engineers

The Corps of Engineers (COE)
SECTION 3 DOD 103

Engineer Research and Development

Center (ERDC) performs military

engineering and civil works research

through its seven laboratories at 4 geographic sites (Champaign, Illinois;

Arlington, Virginia; Hanover, New

Hampshire; and Vicksburg,

Mississippi). The ERDC manages the

Military Engineering research program

addressing a wide range of topographic and combat engineering future operational capabilities (FOCs). The

ERDC also is responsible for reviewing all emerging Army systems for

environmental effects, as stated in

AR 70-1. Many of the tactical decision

aids (TDAs) developed within the military engineering program interpret the

impact of weather and terrain conditions on Army systems and operations.

They are based on weather and terrain

limitations, known as critical values.

Critical values define system limitations and are used by decision-makers

to take advantage over opposing

forces. Technology advancements are

transitioned to terrain and weather systems such as the IMETS, the Digital

Topographic Support System (DTSS),

the Army Tactical Command and

Control System (ATCCS). The COE

Topographic Engineering Center

(TEC), Arlington, Virginia, provides

basic and applied environmental support to Army R&D programs and coordinates the development of TDAs

relating to environmental effects on

combat systems, operations, and personnel. This support includes the

development of: (1) environmental

effects databases and models that are

relevant to military plans, operations

and the acquisition communities;

(2) models and techniques to assist in

the generation of proxy environmental

information (climate and terrain) for

data sparse areas and the integration of

models to enable the spreading of this

information spatially over map backgrounds; and (3) integrated software

modules that are designed to be

exploited in the synthetic environment

arena and techniques to portray natural

and induced battlefield environments,

thus enhancing computerized battle

simulations. TEC also contributes to

the development of policies and procedures for the consideration of realistic

natural environmental conditions for

application in the materiel acquisition

process. The Cold Regions Research

and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL),

Hanover, New Hampshire, conducts

research in sensor signal interaction

with snow, ice, and frozen soil, icing

accretion on surfaces and structures,

deicing technologies, and cold regions

surface-air boundary process. CRREL

develops databases and models predicting infrared and millimeter wave

(MMW) weapon system performance,

and the capability of technology to

enhance military operations in cold

environments. Other specific programs include weather effects on environmental research for military training lands, helicopter pre-flight deicing

and airborne icing avoidance, remote

sensing for predicting snow coverage

and snow-water equivalence for snow

melt runoff, and modeling winter

effects for input into Army operational

and training models and simulations.

Army Matériel Command (AMC)

The Army Matériel Command

(AMC) is responsible for the design,

development, test, and evaluation of

equipment to satisfy requirements for

meteorological support equipment.

AMC provides climatological and

meteorological support to RDTE projects involving electro-optics and

obscurants. It is also responsible for

determining weather effects critical

threshold values and environmental

sensitivities of battlefield systems.

AMC has several subcommands and

elements carrying out weather research

and development responsibilities.

The Army Research Laboratory

(ARL) Battlefield Environment (BE)

Division is the lead DOD agency for

research and development in the portion of the atmosphere unique to the

Army warfighter's battlespace--the

planetary boundary layer. BE's mission is to provide the technology and

tools (1) for the Warfighter to exploit

weather on the battlefield, (2) for the

Commander to avoid exposing the

Soldier to environmental hazards,

(3) for the Materiel Developer to minimize system weather impacts, supplying atmospheric effects information

and (4) increase the battlefield situational awareness by accurately assessing environmental effects. The joint

Army/AF "Own The Weather" initiative provides the knowledge of current

and forecasted battlefield environmental conditions, along with their effects

on systems, soldiers, operations, and

tactics, to contribute to achieving the

Army's decisive advantage over its

opponents. Within the DOD, BE is the

lead agency for multi-service R&D

programs in transport and dispersion

modeling, boundary layer meteorology

over land, atmospheric effects on

acoustic and electro-optic propagation,

and mobile atmospheric profiling. In

addition, BE contributes to tri-service

goals in the areas of theater data fusion

and predictions, boundary layer

processes, and atmospheric effects.

The BE program is driven by the

Army's need for meteorological information at smaller scales than used by

either the AF, Navy, or civilian community, and over data-sparse geographic regions. While the AF provides the Army with is basic tactical

weather support, the Army provides

technology to support such serviceunique requirements, and Army systems, as well as distributing this

weather intelligence information to the

Army Battle Command Systems

(ABCS) on the battlefield.

The Army has begun an active reprogramming to respond to the new

AFW Re-Engineering initiatives, and

will work to ensure the ongoing success of the Army weather intelligence

technology. BE continues to develop

and provide the software tools for the
104 DOD SECTION 3

Army's Integrated Meteorological

System (IMETS), and works with the

AFWA and Combat Weather Center to

make IMETS an integral part of the

total battlefield weather support mission.

The BE Division within the ARL

Computational and Information

Sciences Directorate, consists of four

Branches, two each at the ARL primary side at Adelphi, Maryland, and

the White Sand Missile Range, New

Mexico. These four branches combine

basic research programs focused in the

areas of chemical/biological transport

and dispersion theory, and in-depth

understanding of the meteorological

processes inherent in the planetary

boundary layer, with an applied

research development program

focused on transitioning of products

for Army tactical operations. BE

opened an experimental site at

Blossom Point, Maryland, in mid1998, in a complex littoral region on

the north shore of the Potomac River,

and is able to conduct field experiments in electro-optic and acoustic

propagation, as well as test weather

modeling tools.

At the Adelphi Laboratory Center

(ALC) in Maryland the two branches

are (1) the Atmospheric Acoustics and

Electro-Optics (A&EO) Propagation

Branch and the (2) the Boundary Layer

Meteorology and Aerosol Research

Branch (BLM&AR). The A&EO

Branch provides basic research in the

modeling and simulation of environmental effects on acoustic and electrooptics propagation, and laboratory and

field experimental research into environmental effects on acoustic and electro-optic propagation and the mitigation of those effects. The BLM&AR

Branch conducts a research program in

the micrometeorological processes and

structure of the atmospheric boundary

layer. This program focuses on the

interaction of the land-air interface

with wind fields, turbulence, and fluxes and on optical methods of detection

of aerosols (primarily chemical-biological agents) and the modeling of

their transport and dispersion in the

tactical environment.

At the Weather Exploitation Branch,

located at the White Sands Missile

Range location, research and development efforts involve several areas.

They address tactical weather data

assimilation and distribution, to

include exploitation of commercial and

military satellite technology to move

meteorological data to the battlefield

Tactical Operations Centers and

between echelons. They generate gridded meteorological databases to support C4

I systems, mission planning and

rehearsal, and integrate weather forecast analysis tools to identify the location and timing of hazardous and significant weather at small scales in the

boundary layer. They develop rulebased tactical decision aids for impacts

of weather on military systems, platforms and operations. And, they integrate physics based weather effects

models and meteorological satellite

analysis algorithms with weather data

visualization tools for improved mission planning and situation awareness.

As part of the tactical weather product

development, the branch also performs

the following: configuration management and validation of new products;

improvements through end-user feedback from Advanced Warfighting

Experiments, TRADOC Concept

Experimentation Programs, and integration at the Army's Central Technical

Support Facility at Fort Hood; and

delivery of software for integration

into IMETS. The IMETS integration

includes tactical weather overlays,

databases of dynamic gridded weather

parameters, weather effects decision

aids, and weather data visualization

tools, all of which can be executed in

the field using Common Hardware/

Software and Common Operating

Environments.

BE develops the weather application

software for IMETS that is part of the

Army's effort to Digitize the

Battlefield and will provide weather

capabilities in the Army's First

Digitized Division (FDD) in FY 2000

and the First Digitized Corps in

FY 2001. From FY 1997 to the present, BE has successfully used the

Army's Task Force XXI Advanced

Warfighting Experiments (AWE's) to

evaluate and improve its delivered

IMETS Block I and Block II software.

In FY 1999 and FY 2000, the

BE/IMETS tactical weather applications were being upgraded and delivered for integration to the other C4

I tactical systems operating under the Army

Battle Command System, version 5.0

(ABCS 5.0). These IMETS applications incorporate significant changes in

the sharing of data between Battlefield

Functional Areas by exploiting

client/server relationships and the

IMETS Gridded Meteorological

Database. The weather overlays are

converted to use the Joint Mapping

Tool Kit (JMTK) software for map

overlays. And, the initial integration of

AFW Re-engineering includes passing

meteorological data and products from

AF central hub sites to the Army battlefield TOC's using WMO data standards such as GRIB and BUFR. The

weather impact rules and critical values for the BE-developed Integrated

Weather Effects Decision Aid

(IWEDA) have been assembled jointly

across the services to provide a common rule-base for weather impact decision aids.

The Artillery Meteorology Branch,

also located at the WSMR site, combines a research and development program that focuses on the means to

measure, process, analyze, and predict

atmospheric conditions in target areas

for fire support and related Army activities. Technical expertise and support is

provided directly to the PM NV/RSTA

and PM TESA in the design and development of the Engineering Manufacturing Development (EMD) Profiler

system. Research is being focused on
SECTION 3 DOD 105

developing new algorithms for the

retrieval of meteorological parameters

and profiles that will lead to the ability

to process meteorological data at rates

approximating real-time. Research is

also underway in enabling technologies that will permit the handling and

transfer of large met data sets over the

distributed, net centric force of the

future.

The Army Research Office (ARO),

Research Triangle Park, North

Carolina, manages the Army's extramural basic research program in the

atmospheric sciences. These programs

are concerned with understanding the

dynamics and kinematics processes of

the atmospheric boundary layer at

scales of interest to the Army (millimeters to 10's of kilometers) through

measurements, simulations, and theoretical considerations. The basic

research program is conducted through

the peer-reviewed, individual investigator program and occasional special

initiatives. The focus of the research is

on the atmospheric processes and

effects of the atmospheric boundary

layer where the Army operates.

Objectives of the research are to develop, from first principles, the physical

basis for understanding the boundary

layer processes, thereby leading to better understanding of atmospheric

effects on soldiers, materials, and

weapon systems. The research examines dispersion of battlefield materials,

the effects of heterogeneous terrain

features on airflow, and the development of natural obscurations throughout the diurnal cycle. An essential element of the research is the development of instrumentation to measure the

volumetric fields of wind velocity,

temperature, and moisture of the

boundary layer at turbulence time

scales. Other areas of special funding

are also managed. The Defense

University Research and

Instrumentation Program (DURIP)

provides funds for instrumentation

needed to support ongoing research

activities. The Defense Experimental

Program to Stimulate Competitive

Research (EPSCoR) participation is a

competition restricted to universities in

certain states that compete for additional basic research funds. Also basic

research under the Small Business

Innovative Research Program (SBIR)

is managed for selected topics. At the

Army Research Office, funding for

basic research remains relatively static.

Increased funding will come if special

program initiatives or requests are

approved. The primary focus will be

on analysis and understanding of data

taken in a recent field study of the stable boundary layer.

The CECOM Logistic Readiness

Center is the level II manager of the

MMS program. It is supported by the

Information and Intelligence Warfare

Directorate and other internal organizations in developing and fielding

weather support systems. CECOM

also provides support to the Program

Manager, Intelligence Fusion and

Program Manager, Night Vision/

Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and

Target Acquisition with technical management of weather programs. Current

programs supported are the MMS,

MMS-Profiler (MMS-P), and the

Integrated Meteorological System

(IMETS). A brief description of each

of these programs shows CECOM's

involvement.

Meteorological Measuring Set,

AN/TMQ-41. The MMS is an upper

air meteorological data collection,

processing and dissemination system

that provides data to the field artillery

and target acquisition users. The system is a non-developmental item

(NDI). All active Army units are

equipped with the MMS. Additional

systems to modernize the National

Guard were begun in FY 1999 and will

continue through FY 2002. In

FY 2001, the Army bought an additional 14 systems. More systems are

anticipated as being bought in

FY 2002.

Meteorological Measuring SetProfiler, AN/TMQ-52 System. The

Meteorological Measurement SetProfiler (MMS-P) is a major improvement over the MMS. The AN/TMQ-52

designed to support the new generation

of artillery weapons. It will provide

more frequent messages with validity

over a larger battlespace than current

equipment. The MMS-P uses the MM5

mesoscale meteorological model to

assimilate data from a variety of sources

to provide the best meteorological messages to the user in a timely fashion.

The system receives data from groundbased sources, from radiosondes, and

from satellite-based sources, such as

boundary data from communications

and polar orbiting meteorological satellites, through on-board satellite receiving capability. The data is used to affect

the operation of the mesoscale meteorological model and for post-processing

of the data so that all the required meteorological messages can be generated.

Finally, an operator interface, in conjunction with the message generation

and formatting software, facilitates

communication between the MMS-P

and all other systems that require interoperability with the MMS-P. Currently

in development are four Engineering

and Manufacturing Development

(EMD) models. Development and testing will be accomplished during

FY 2001 and FY 2002, with testing and

a production decision scheduled for

FY 2003.

Integrated Meteorological System,

AN/TMQ-40B. The IMETS is the

weather component of the Intelligence

Electronic Warfare (IEW) sub-element

of the Army Battle Command System

(ABCS). The IMETS provides commanders at all echelons with an automated tactical weather system that

receives, processes, and disseminates

weather observations, forecasts, battlefield visualization, and weather effects

decision aids to all Army Tactical

Command and Control System

(ATCCS) Battlefield Functional Areas
106 DOD SECTION 3

(BFAs). IMETS receives weather

information from polar-orbiting civilian and defense meteorological satellites, civilian forecast centers, the

AFW Agency, artillery meteorological

sections and remote sensors. IMETS

processes and collates forecasts, observations, and climatological data to produce timely and accurate weather

products tailored to the specific

warfighter's needs. The most significant weather and environmental support to warfighters are the automated

tactical decision aids. These graphics

display the impact of the weather on

current or planned operations for both

friendly and enemy forces. The

warfighter can thus more effectively

employ his forces and weapons systems to achieve success in battle.

FY 2002 efforts will focus on four

main areas. The Army will field one

AN/TMQ-40C vehicle mounted configuration and complete the upgrade of

twenty fielded IMETS from

AN/TMQ-40A's to AN/TMQ-40B.

The Army will also hand-receipt a second IMETS Light to the IBCT and will

conduct an IMETS Light combined

developmental and operational test in

order to achieve a Milestone III decision for fielding this configuration.

Army Test and Evaluation Command

(ATEC)

The Developmental Test Command

(DTC), a subordinate command of

United States Army Test and

Evaluation Command (ATEC), is

responsible for providing operational

meteorological support to eight Army

ranges and test sites. Under responsibilities established in AR 115-10/

AFJI 15-157, the DTC meteorological

units provide meteorological data collection and analysis, consultation, and

weather forecast and warning services

to support Army and other DOD

research, development, test and evaluation (RDT&E) activities at the eight

Army installations. Funding for the

Army RDT&E Meteorology Program

under Program Element 665702 has

stabilized after several years of decline

and is sufficient to maintain the basic

meteorological support infrastructure

at Army RDT&E ranges and sites.

However, instrumentation needed to

support unique or test-specific requirements generally must be funded by test

sponsors.

The Army RDT&E Meteorology

Program has entered into a multi-year

working relationship with the National

Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR) to enhance "range scale"

(mesoscale to microscale) forecast and

analysis technology. The principal

product of this relationship is the FourDimensional Weather (4DWX)

System, which consists of a central

data archival/retrieval system for all

range and external meteorological and

model data, a high-resolution mesoscale meteorological model, and a

variety of user-configurable displays.

The MM5 mesoscale model is used

operationally in both predictive and

analysis modes to provide detailed

information about the past, current,

and forecast structure of the atmosphere over the Army's test ranges.

Output from both MM5 forecasts and

analyses is used as meteorological

input to atmospheric dispersion, noise

propagation, ballistic trajectory, and

other range applications models to

simulate many tests and their associated impacts. The 4DWX system contributes to improved test planning and

conduct, selection of more representative locations for test sensors, inclusion of realistic atmospheric effects in

virtual testing, and forensic analyses of

meteorological effects on test results.

The Chief of the Meteorology and

Obscurants Division at Dugway

Proving Ground's West Desert Test

Center serves as the Program Manager

for Meteorological Support to Army

RDT&E. Under Program Element

0605384, the Division's Modeling and

Assessment Branch also provides the

following specialized services:

(1) atmospheric model verification and

validation, including algorithm evaluation and the generation of validation

data sets; (2) chemical/biological

threat analysis, detection, and decontamination tests and studies for the Joint

Contact Point Project (DO49); and

(3) prototype development of virtual

proving ground meteorological support. Division employees also serve

on various national and international

committees addressing issues related

to meteorological measurements,

atmospheric dispersion modeling, and

chemical/biological hazard assessment.

Army Medical Research and Matériel

Command

The United States Army Research

Institute of Environmental Medicine

(USARIEM) conducts basic and

applied research on the effects of heat,

cold, high terrestrial altitude, and nutritional status on the health and performance of individual soldiers and combat

crews operating Army systems.

Applied research in thermal physiology and biophysical modeling are

directed toward improving soldier performance and minimizing health risks

in climatic extremes. The sensitivity

of the soldier to local weather parameters (primarily ambient temperature,

dew point, wind speed, and solar radiation) defines an operational envelope

for unimpaired human performance.

The overall goals of USARIEM's

weather-related research programs are

to develop methods to effectively monitor and, where possible, extend the

operational envelope for both training

and operational scenarios.

Weather-related research efforts

include the development and validation of automated methods to integrate

thermal strain prediction models with

real-time weather information

resources relevant to dismounted

infantry operations. Temporal and spatial scales of interest are meters to kilometers and minutes to several days.

The Operational Medicine Environmental Grid Applications (OMEGA)
SECTION 3 DOD 107

project is a software development

effort intended to provide an integrated

research platform for the evaluation of

predictive modeling strategies for

warfighters. It enables the integration

of digital terrain data and real-time

weather information with candidate

physiologically-based environmental

injury risk and performance prediction

models. This test-bed system has a

field of view of up to 200x200 km and

uses a color-coded map overlay display format. The web-enabled clientserver architecture and archiving

resources of OMEGA are intended to

provide a rich and extensible tool set

for model development efforts at

USARIEM and to contribute key modeling methodologies directly to other

projects.

The environmental Heat Stress

Monitor (HSM), a pocket-sized electronic device, combines the

USARIEM heat strain prediction

model with a miniaturized sensor suite

to measure air temperature, humidity,

wind speed, solar radiation, and barometric pressure. This device provides

tailored local guidance on optimal

work/rest cycle limits, safe work time,

and hourly drinking water needs for a

wide range of military clothing types

and work categories.

As part of the warfighter physiological status monitoring (WPSM) program, USARIEM is investigating

methodologies needed to integrate

real-time local environmental data and

warfighter physiological data with predictive model processes. The effective

fusion of these two real-time data

streams will enable near term environmental strain and performance status

predictions for individual warfighters.

Research efforts in this area are intended to address capabilities identified in

the Operational Requirements

Document (ORD) for the Army's Land

Warrior program.

The availability of ground level

environmental data at high temporal

and spatial resolution continues to pose

a significant challenge for predictive

model development and validation. A

Phase II Small Business Innovative

Research (SBIR) project to design and

build a very small wireless networkcapable, expendable, micro-environmental sensing system is underway,

and the feasibility of on-body environmental sensors is also being investigated.
AVIATION WEATHER MANAGEMENT

The Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) has the leadership role for the

national aviation weather program. As

the leader, FAA must conduct continual coordination for identifying needs

for aviation weather products and services among the Air Traffic Control

organization, the aviation industry

components and among service

providers. The coordination process

leads to opportunities to leverage

efforts and resources to form partnerships in finding solutions in response

to the needs. The National Aviation

Weather Program Strategic Plan and

The National Aviation Weather

Initiatives are two documents that formalize the coordination and partnerships.

The FAA focus for Aviation Weather

has been to promote safety first, then

improve the National Airspace System

(NAS) efficiency to promote reductions in the delays and re-routing due

to weather. The Administrator has

launched The Safer Skies, A Focused

Safety Agenda which includes special

analysis teams to evaluate the series of

events leading to investigated accidents, and get a sense for what decisions were made in the course of the

flight. Other teams, using the findings

of the first team, develop intervention

actions to eliminate or reduce the causes or improve the actions in the decision making process. Training about

the decision making process has been

identified by these teams as part of the

solution.

Aviation weather information, which

is complex and highly perishable, is

most useful when customers can successfully plan, act, and respond in

ways that avoid accidents and delays.

FAA will improve the ability of the

aviation community to use weather

information through a review and

upgrade of airmen training and certification programs. FAA will also develop multi-media training tools to support aviation safety and training initiatives. Funding has been requested to

further this effort.

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the responsibility to provide national and international leadership in the optimization of aviation weather systems and services. This leadership is manifested through the management of a safe and efficient National Airspace System (NAS) and the encouragement of consensus and cooperation between government agencies, private weather services,

research organizations, and user groups involved in aviation weather. The Federal Highway

Administration (FHWA) manages programs that provide federal financial and technical assistance to

the states, promotes safe commercial motor vehicle operations, and provides access to and within national forests and

parks, native American reservations, and other public lands. Safety, efficiency, and mobility in these programs requires

the incorporation and use of timely weather and road condition information. The Federal Railroad Administration is

promotes and regulates railroad safety. It also sponsors research to enhance railroad safety and efficiency, including

support for improved collection, dissemination, and application of weather information to reduce hazards to train operations and to railroad employees. The Federal Transit Administration mission is to ensure personal mobility and

America's economic and community vitality by supporting high quality public transportation through leadership, technical assistance and financial resources. The United States Coast Guard (USCG) meteorological activities include the

taking, collection, and transmission of marine and coastal weather warnings and observations; deployment and maintenance of offshore environmental monitoring buoys; and the operation of long-range radionavigation networks.

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

SECTION 3 DOT 109
110 DOT SECTION 3

Weather has been made a standard

consideration in all aspects of the operation and architecture of the NAS.

Aviation weather needs from the field,

federal agencies, and industry are

entered into the FAA Acquisition

Management System (AMS) through

which all new programs and changes

to the NAS are processed, evaluated,

validated, engineered to a requirement,

and acquired. The Air Traffic System

Requirements Service (ARS) has the

responsibility to guide all initiatives

through the AMS process and organization, including the Integrated

Requirements Team, the Integrated

Product Team, and the Decision

Boards; to assure the development

continues to meet the original need;

and to guide the activity should the

need be evolving. ARS has added

improvements to the AMS process

whereby non-system or non-hardware

(e.g. service improvement or rule

changes) solutions will receive the

same rigorous evaluation and validation.

The successful execution of a national aviation weather program is first

dependent upon an explicit and mutually understood definition and acceptance of roles and responsibilities both

within and outside of the FAA. The

execution of these roles and responsibilities have been enhanced by the

chartering and complete staffing of the

ARS, clarifying FAA lines of business,

and completing intra-agency and interagency plans.

FAA relies on other federal agencies

for weather services and support, especially NOAA's National Weather

Service (NWS) and its Aviation

Weather Center. Requirements validated by FAA for domestic and

International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) users are coordinated annually and supported through

the agencies and contractual arrangements. All agencies' efforts in the area

of aviation weather services is coordinated for use by all as appropriate.

Aviation weather technology includes

the ways in which aviation weather

information is gathered, assimilated,

analyzed, forecast, disseminated, and

displayed. The development of this

technology also demands that consideration be given to human factors and

the application of decision-making

tools. FAA will support the use of

technology to improve aviation weather information through integration of

federal and non-federal resources.

Automation, improved product generation, and dissemination to the cockpit

offer early opportunities.

A VIA TION WEA THER

ACQUISITION AND SERVICES

One of the primary functions of the

FAA ARS organization is the development and management of requirements

for the FAA Capital Investment Plan.

Recent projects in the AMS have

focused on weather detection and display systems for pilots and air traffic

controllers to ensure that aircraft avoid

hazardous weather. The following

paragraphs describe many of those

projects.

The Integrated Terminal Weather

System (ITWS) will integrate weather

data from sensors in the terminal area to

provide and display compatible, consistent, real-time products that require no

additional interpretation by controllers

or pilots--the primary users. ITWS will

use data from automated surface observing systems, Doppler weather radars,

and low-level wind-shear alert systems,

together with NWS data and products, to

forecast aviation impact parameters,

such as convection, visibility, icing, and

wind shear, including down bursts.

Initial capabilities will include sensors

available now through the early years of

the 21st

Century. The development is

now in the demonstration phase at several airports in various climatic regimes.

There will be 38 ITWSs which will provide displays at 47 high activity airports

that are supported by terminal Doppler

weather radars. Full production is

expected by early calendar year (CY)

2001 (Figure 3-DOT-1). Figure 3-DOT-1. The ITWS will integrate data from FAA and NWS sensors

and systems to provide a suite of weather informational products.
SECTION 3 DOT 111

The Terminal Doppler Weather

Radar (TDWR) program consists of

the procurement and installation of a

new terminal weather radar based on

Doppler techniques. TDWR units

have been located to optimize the

detection of microbursts and wind

shear at selected high activity airports.

In addition, it has the capability to

identify areas of precipitation and the

locations of thunderstorms

(Figure 3-DOT-2).

Microbursts are weather phenomenon that consist of an intense down

draft with strong surface outflows.

They are particularly dangerous to aircraft that are landing or departing.

TDWR scanning strategy is optimized

for microburst/wind shear detection.

The radars are located near the airport

operating areas in a way to best scan

the runways as well as the approach

and departure corridors. The displays

are located in the tower cab and

Terminal Radar Approach Control

(TRACON).

FAA has 45 TDWR systems commissioned and the remaining 2 systems

will be commissioned by the end of

FY 2002. A software upgrade which

integrates TDWR and low level wind

shear alert system data has been integrated at 9 high traffic/high weather

threat airports.

The Low Level Wind Shear Alert

System (LLWAS) provides pilots with

information on hazardous wind shear

that create unsafe conditions for aircraft landings and departures. A total

of 110 airports have LLWAS. The 101

basic systems, LLWAS-2, consists of a

wind sensor located at center field and

5 to 32 sensors near the periphery of

the airport (Figure 3-DOT-3). A computer processes the sensor information

and displays wind shear conditions on

a Ribbon display to air traffic controllers for relay to pilots. The

improvement phase, referred to as

LLWAS-Relocation/Sustainment

(LLWAS-RS), will include expanding

the network of sensors, developing

improved algorithms for the expanded

network, and installing new information/alert displays. The new information/alert displays will enable controllers to provide pilots with head

wind gain or loss estimates for specific

runways. These improvements will

increase the system's wind shear detection capability and reduce false alarms.

Improvements are also expected to

reduce maintenance costs. Forty

LLWASRS are being deployed in

CY 2001and the remainder by mid

FY 2003.

The Weather Systems Processor

(WSP) program provides an additional

radar channel for processing weather

returns and de-alias returns from the

other weather channel in the ASR-9.

The displays of convective weather,

microbursts, and other wind shear

events will provide information for

controllers and pilots to help aircraft

avoid those hazards. A prototype has

been demonstrated and limited production has commenced. Full production

deliveries are expected to be completed in FY 2002.

The Terminal Weather Information

for Pilots (TWIP) program provides

text message descriptions and character graphic depiction of potentially

hazardous weather conditions in the

terminal area of airports with installed

TDWR systems. TWIP provides pilots

with information on regions of moderate to heavy precipitation, gust fronts,

and microburst conditions. The TWIP

capability is incorporated in the

TDWR software application. Text

messages or character graphic depiction are received in the cockpit through

the Aeronautical Radio Incorporated

(ARINC) Communication Addressing

and Reporting System (ACARS) data

link system. A total of 47 TDWR systems will be deployed with 45 of those

currently installed and commissioned.

The TWIP capability is operational at

31 of the TDWR sites. Activation of

TWIP at the remaining sites is dependent on availability of NADIN II connectivity and program funding.

The Flight Information System (FIS)

Policy was implemented during

FY 2001, through GovernmentIndustry Project Performance

Agreements (G-IPPAs) with two

industry FIS data link service

providers (ARNAV Systems, Inc. and

Figure 3-DOT-2. FAA Terminal

Doppler Weather Radars provide supplementary wind and precipitation

conditions for airport approach and

departure. 
112 DOT SECTION 3

Honeywell International, Inc.).

Through the government-industry

agreements, the FAA provides access

to four VHF channels (136.425-

136.500) in the aeronautical spectrum

while industry provides the ground

infrastructure for data link broadcasts

of text and graphic FIS products at no

cost to the FAA. Under the agreements, a basic set of text products are

provided at no fee to the pilot users

while industry may charge subscription fees for other value-added text and

graphic products.

The FAA FIS data link program will

continue development of necessary

standards and guidelines supporting

inter-operability and operational use.

In addition, the need and feasibility for

establishing a national capability for

collecting and distributing electronic

pilot reports (E-PIREPs) from low-altitude general aviation operations is

being evaluated. Also, in FY 2001 a

concept analysis will be initiated to

define the need for transition and evolution of FIS data link services supporting the future NAS architecture

including Free Flight operations.

Surface Weather Observing Program

Aviation weather observations. The

FAA has taken responsibility for aviation weather observations at many airports across the country. To provide

the appropriate observational service,

FAA is using automated systems,

human observers, or a mix of the two.

It has been necessary to place airports

into four categories according to the

number of operations per year, any

special designation for the airport, and

the frequency at which the airport is

impacted by weather.

 Level D service is provided by a

stand-alone Automated Weather

Observing System (AWOS) or an

Automated Surface Observing

System (ASOS). In the future,

Level D service may be available at

as many as 400 airports.

 Level C service includes the

ASOS/AWOS plus augmentation

by tower personnel. Tower personnel will add to the report observations of thunderstorms, tornadoes,

hail, tower visibility, volcanic ash,

and virga when the tower is in operation. Level C service includes

about 250 airports.

 Level B service includes all of the

weather parameters in Level C

service plus Runway Visual Range

(RVR) and the following parameters when observed--freezing drizzle versus freezing rain, ice pellets,

snow depth and snow increasing

rapidly remarks, thunderstorm/

lightning location remarks, and

remarks for observed significant

weather not at the station. Level B

service includes about 57 airports.

 Level A service includes all of the

weather parameters in Level B

service plus 10-minute averaged

RVR for long-line transmission or

additional visibility increments of

1/8, 1/16, and 0 miles. Level A

service includes about 78 airports.

Automated surface aviation weather

observing systems will provide aviation-critical weather data (e.g., wind

velocity, temperature, dew point,

altimeter setting, cloud height, visibility, and precipitation--type, occurrence,

and accumulation) through the use of

automated sensors. These systems will

process data and allow dissemination

of output information to a variety of

users, including pilots via computergenerated voice.

Automated Weather Observing

Systems (AWOS) was deployed at

over 200 airports to provide the basic

aviation weather observation information directly to pilots approaching the

airport. The majority of these systems

were installed at various non-towered

airports to enhance aviation safety and

the efficiency of flight operations by

providing real-time weather data at airports that previously did not have local

weather reporting capability. These

systems are built to the standards of

quality necessary to ensure the safety

of flight operations and are available

off-the-shelf as a commercial product.

There remain 198 AWOSs.

Automated Surface Observing

Systems (ASOS). In a joint program

with NOAA NWS, the FAA has procured, installed, and operates ASOS at

the remaining airports where the FAA

provides observations and at additional

non-towered airports without weather

reporting capabilities in accord with

the levels of service listed above.

Production is complete and the FAA

has 569 systems installed and will have

Figure 3-DOT-3. Artists drawing of LLWAS tower positions on an airfield.
SECTION 3 DOT 113

all commissioned by the end of

CY 2001

Aviation Weather Sensor Systems

(AWSS), a new program, will have

capability similar to ASOS. However,

the AWSS is a direct acquisition of the

FAA and not from the joint program.

Full production may begin in FY2002,

pending funding, with commissioning

completed in FY 2003.

The AWOS/ASOS Data Acquisition

System (ADAS) functions primarily as

a message concentrator and will collect

weather messages from AWOS and

ASOS equipment located at controlled

and non-controlled airports within

each air route traffic control center's

(ARTCC) area of responsibility.

ADAS will distribute minute-byminute AWOS/ASOS data to the

Weather and Radar Processor (WARP)

within the air route traffic control center in which it is installed. ADAS will

also distribute AWOS data to the

National Airspace Data Interchange

Network (NADIN) which will in-turn

forward the data to Weather Message

Switching Center Replacement

(WMSCR) for further distribution.

Field implementation of ADAS has

been completed.

The Automated Lightning Detection

and Reporting System (ALDARS) is a

system adjunct to the ADAS.

ALDARS collects lightning stroke

information from the National

Lightning Detection Network (NLDN)

and disseminates this data to

AWOS/ASOS for the reporting of

thunderstorms in METAR or SPECI

observations, when appropriate. The

use of ALDARS eliminates the need

for manual reporting of thunderstorms

and increases the number of airports

where thunderstorms will be reported.

Stand Alone Weather Sensors

(SAWS) are planned to be back-up for

some AWOS/ASOS sensors at locations where no other back-up capability is available. SAWS is in the demonstration phase with full delivery

expected in CY 2002.

AWOS for Non-Federal

Applications. Under the Airport

Improvement Program (AIP), state and

other local jurisdictions may justify to

the FAA their need to enhance their

airport facilities. Upon approval, these

improvements may be partially funded

by the FAA using resources from the

Airway Trust Fund. The local airport

authority becomes responsible for the

remainder of the funding necessary to

complete the procurement as well as

the funding for the regular maintenance. The addition of an AWOS is

one of the improvements that qualify

for AIP funding assistance. Systems

that qualify must meet certain standards which are defined in an FAA

Advisory Circular on Non-Federal

Automated Weather Observing

Systems.

There are more than 275 non-Federal

AWOS locations. Some of these are

capable of reporting through a geostationary communications satellite;

many more will acquire that capability

during the year. These observations

will be entered into the national network for use in support of the NAS and

the national weather network.

The New Generation Runway Visual

Range (NRVR) program provides for a

new generation RVR sub-element of

the NAS. The RVR provides runway

visual range information to controllers

and users in support of precision landing and take-off operations. The new

generation RVR incorporates state-ofthe-art sensor technology and embedded remote maintenance monitoring.

FAA plans to procure and install these

RVR systems at all new qualifying

locations. FAA plans also call for the

replacement of many existing RVRs in

the NAS inventory.

The RVR provides for near real-time

measurement of visibility conditions

along a runway (up to three points

along the runway can be measured--

touchdown, midpoint, and rollout) and

reports these visibility conditions to air

traffic controllers and other users. The

system automatically collects and formats data from three sensors: a visibility sensor--forward scatter meters

will replace the transmissometers currently in use, a runway light intensity

monitor for both runway edges and

center-line lights, and an ambient light

sensor which controls computer calculations using a day or night algorithm.

The data processing unit calculates

RVR products and distributes the products to controllers and other users. 

A total of 528 RVR visibility sensors

will be deployed at 264 airports.

Delivery of the new RVR sensors

began in November 1998. Sixty new

RVRs have been fielded with the rest

expected by the end of CY 2001.

Enhancements are planned to interface

with the control tower and the ASOS

by mid 2000.

The FAA is procuring the

Operational and Supportability

Implementation System (OASIS) to

improve weather products, flight information, aeronautical data collection,

analysis, and timeliness of dissemination and, thereby, enhance the safety

and efficiency of the NAS. OASIS

will replace the Model-1 Full Capacity

Flight Service Automation System,

which includes the Aviation Weather

Processor. OASIS will also integrate

the Interim Graphic Weather Display

System functions and include several

automated flight service data handling

capabilities. This configuration will be

its initial deployment capability.

Operational testing began in 1999;

deployment will commence in

FY 2002.

Future enhancements leading to the

full capability deployment will

include: interactive alphanumeric and

graphic weather briefings, direct user

access terminal (DUAT) service functionality, automated special use airspace, and training support. OASIS

will support flight planning, weather

briefings, NOTAM service, search and

rescue, and pilot access terminal services.
114 DOT SECTION 3

The Next Generation Weather Radar

(NEXRAD), known operationally as

the Weather Surveillance Radar-1988

Doppler (WSR-88D), is a multiagency program that defined, developed, and implemented the new weather radar. Field implementation began

in 1990 and was completed in 1996.

There are a total of 161 WSR-88D systems deployed. The FAA sponsored 12

systems in Alaska, Hawaii, and the

Caribbean. DOC and DOD

WSR88Ds provide coverage over the

continental United States.

The FAA emphasized the development of WSR-88D algorithms that take

advantage of the improved detection of

precipitation, wind velocity, and hazardous storms. The FAA also stressed

that these algorithms provide new or

improved aviation-oriented products.

These improvements in detection of

hazardous weather will reduce flight

delays and improve flight planning

services through aviation weather

products related to wind, wind shear,

thunderstorm detection, storm movement prediction, precipitation, hail,

frontal activity, and mesocyclones and

tornadoes. WSR-88D data provided to

ATC through the WARP will increase

aviation safety and fuel efficiency.

In addition, the three funding agencies support the field sites through the

WSR-88D Radar Operations Center

(ROC) at Norman, Oklahoma. The

ROC provides software maintenance,

operational troubleshooting, configuration control, and training. Planned

product improvements include a shift

to an open architecture, new antenna

design, dual polarization, and the

development of more algorithms associated with specific weather events,

such as hurricanes.

The Air Route Surveillance Radar

(ARSR-4) provides the ARTCCs with

accurate multiple weather levels out to

200 nautical miles. The ARSR-4 is the

first en route radar with the ability to

accurately report targets in weather.

The ARSR-4 can provide weather

information to supplement other

sources. The ARSR-4 is a joint

FAA/USAF funded project. Forty

joint radar sites were installed during

the 1992-1995 period.

The Weather and Radar Processor

(WARP), Stage 0 has replaced the

Meteorologists Weather Processor to

provide aviation weather information

to the Center Weather Service Units.

Stage 1 and 2 will automatically create

unique regional, WSR-88D-based,

mosaic products, and send these products, along with other time-critical

weather information, to controllers

through the Display System

Replacement and to pilots via the FIS.

WARP will greatly enhance the dissemination of aviation weather information throughout the NAS. WARP is

currently undergoing operational testing and evaluation and will be fielded

at the ARTCCs in FY 2002.

The Direct User Access Terminal

(DUAT) system has been operational

since February 1990. Through DUAT,

pilots are able to access weather and

NOTAMs and also file their IFR

and/or VFR flight plans from their

home or office personal computer.

This system will eventually be

absorbed into OASIS.

AVIA TION WEA THER

COMMUNICATIONS

It should be noted that FAA communications systems are multi-purpose.

Weather data, products, and information constitute a large percentage of the

traffic, as do NOTAMS, flight plans,

and other aeronautical data. 

The National Airspace Data

Interchange Network (NADIN II)

packet-switched network was implemented to serve as the primary interfacility data communications resource

for a large community of NAS computer subsystems. The network design

incorporates packet-switching technology into a highly connected backbone

network, which provides extremely

high data flow capacity and efficiency

to the network users. NADIN II consists of operational switching nodes at

two network control centers (and

nodes) at the National Aviation

Weather Processing Facilities at Salt

Lake City, Utah, and Atlanta, Georgia.

It will interface directly to Weather

Message Switching Center

Replacement (WMSCR), WARP,

ADAS, TMS, and the Consolidated

NOTAM System. NADIN II also may

be used as the intra-facility communications system between these (collocated) users during transition to end

state.

The Weather Message Switching

Center Replacement replaced the

Weather Message Switching Center

(WMSC) located at FAA's National

Communications Center (NATCOM),

Kansas City, Missouri, with state-ofthe-art technology. WMSCR performs

all current alphanumeric weather data

handling functions of the WMSC and

the storage and distribution of

NOTAMs. WMSCR will rely on

NADIN for a majority of its communications support. The system will

accommodate graphic data and function as the primary FAA gateway to the

NWS' National Centers for

Environmental Prediction (NCEP)--

the principal source of NWS products

for the NAS.

To provide for geographic redundancy, the system has nodes in the NADIN

buildings in Atlanta, Georgia, and Salt

Lake City, Utah. Each node supports

approximately one-half of the United

States and will continuously exchange

information with the other to ensure

that both nodes have identical national

databases. In the event of a nodal failure, the surviving one will assume

responsibility for dissemination to the

entire network.

Currently, specifications for an

upgrade or replacement for the

WMSCR are being formulated. The

needs, when developed, will be entered

into the AMS process for validation and

acceptance into the NAS architecture.
SECTION 3 DOT 115

The Flight Information Service (FIS)

is a new communications systems to

provide weather information to pilots

in the cockpit. FIS is a partnership

program among the government and

private industry with the government

providing the base information and the

bandwidth while the private companies

provide the broadcast and value-added

products. New products are screened

for technical suitability and value to

the pilots. Two companies have

demonstrated preliminary products

and capability.

The Worldwide Aeronautical

Forecast System (WAFS) is a three

geosynchronous satellite-based system

for collecting and disseminating aviation weather information and products

to/from domestic or international aviation offices as well as in-flight aircraft.

The information and products are prepared at designated offices in

Washington, District of Columbia, and

Bracknell, United Kingdom. The

United States portion of WAFS is a

joint project of the FAA and NWS to

meet requirements of the ICAO member states. FAA funds the satellite

communications link and the NWS

provides the information/product

stream.

Two of the three satellites are funded

by the United States. The first is located over the western Atlantic with a

footprint covering western Africa and

Europe, the Atlantic Ocean, South

America, and North America (except

for the West Coast and Alaska). The

second United States-funded satellite

is positioned over the Pacific and covers the United States West Coast and

Alaska, the Pacific Ocean, and the

Pacific rim of Asia. The third satellite,

operated by the United Kingdom, is

stationed over the western Indian

Ocean and covers the remaining areas

of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The data

available via WAFS include flight

winds, observations, forecasts,

SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and hazards to

aviation including volcanic ash clouds.

AVIATION WEATHER RESEARCH

PROGRAM

Working closely with the Integrated

Product Team for Weather/Flight

Services Systems, ARW sponsors

research on specific aviation weather

phenomena which are hazardous

and/or limiting to aircraft operations.

This research is performed through

collaborative efforts with the National

Science Foundation (NSF), NOAA,

NASA, and the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory. A

primary concern is the effective management of limited research, engineering, and development resources and

their direct application to known deficiencies and technical enhancements.

Improved Aircraft Icing Forecasts.

The purpose of this initiative is to

establish a comprehensive multi-year

research and development effort to

improve aircraft icing forecasts as

described in the FAA Aircraft Icing

Plan. The objectives of this plan are to

develop: (1) an icing severity index,

(2) icing guidance models, and (3) a

better comprehension of synoptic and

mesoscale conditions leading to inflight icing. The result of this effort

will be an improved icing forecasting

capability that provides pilots with

more timely and accurate forecasts of

actual and expected icing areas by

location, altitude, duration, and potential severity.

Convective Weather Forecasting.

The purpose of this research effort is to

establish more comprehensive knowledge of the conditions that trigger convection and thunderstorms and, in general, the dynamics of a thunderstorm's

life cycle. The program will lead to

enhanced capability to predict growth,

areal extent, movement, and type of

precipitation from thunderstorms.

Gaining this forecast capability will

allow better use of the airspace and

help aircraft avoid areas with hazardous convective conditions.

Model Development and

Enhancement. This research is aimed

at developing or improving models to

better characterize the state of the

atmosphere and stratosphere in general, with specific emphasis on the flight

operation environment specifically,

with the aim to provide superior aviation weather products to end users.

Aviation Forecast and Quality

Assurance (AF&QA). The Product

Development Team for AFGS is working on the development of products for

dissemination on the Aviation Digital

Data System. New algorithms will be

developed to present hazardous conditions in the flight operations environment. They will develop a process for

automated production of the

SIGMETs. There will be capability to

assure quality and a real-time verication process.

Weather Support to Deicing Decision

Making (WSDDM). This system

develops products that provide forecasts on the intensity of snow and

freezing rain, and how or when these

phenomena will change in the short

term. This information is needed by

airport management to determine when

an aircraft will require deicing before

take-off. The water content of snow is

believed to be an important factor. The

output product is designed for nonmeteorological aviation users and has

been demonstrated at three different

airports. Development work has been

completed and FAA has made this system available to airport authorities who

wish to use it as a decision aid.

Ceiling and Visibility. A development and demonstration is underway

in the San Francisco Bay area. The

project will have unique sensors and

the data will be used in new algorithms

to develop improved forecasts. The

project will continue over a number

years as the progress is evaluated. This

project is a joint effort with other federal agencies and some of the effort is

performed by academic researchers.

Turbulence. In addition to the

work being performed by the Joint

Safety Analysis Team under the
116 DOT SECTION 3

Safer Skies Program, a PDT has a

seven year plan to evaluate wind

shear and turbulence around and on

the approaches to Juneau, Alaska.

Also, they are working with certain

airlines to install instruments on aircraft with the capability to measure

turbulence as sensed on the aircraft

and report this information automatically. The data will be used to verify forecasts and to develop a standard index to report and warn for

turbulence.

NEXRAD Enhancements. Work is

continuing to develop improvements

to the existing products and to develop some new graphics. Hardware

and software pre-planned product

improvements are are being pursued.

These efforts are joint among DOT,

DOD and DOC.

Space Weather. Space Weather is of

concern to the FAA in several areas of

operations and regulations. Ionospheric

scintillation creates certain errors in the

Global Positioning System that affects

navigation, especially for instrument

approaches to airports. In programs for

Wide Area and Local Area

Augmentation Systems (WAAS and

LAAS) corrections for these effects are

being developed. This will be a very

important advance to promote the Free

Flight management of the National

Airspace System. In addition, the

effects on the ionosphere have grave

impacts on the use of high frequency

communications which are essential in

air traffic control of flights across the

oceans and over the poles of the Earth.

FAA is embarking in research at the

Civil Aeromedical Institute in

Oklahoma City on the radiation effects

on fetuses of newly pregnant women

when flying at high altitudes and at high

latitudes where exposure is increased.

The exposure of flight crews to this hazard will be measured to determine if

repeated flights in this regime may

accumulate deleterious results.

FAA planners for commercial space

operations are working on the weather

requirements to set criteria for space

launch activities. The commercial

launch sites in California, Florida and

Virginia are co-located with government sites where the weather support is

available. However, at the new commercial space launch site in Kodiak,

Alaska new criteria must be developed

and established for standard procedures.
SECTION 3 DOT 117

FEDERAL PROGRAMS IN

SUPPORT OF ROAD WEATHER

Strategic Highway Research Program

The Strategic Highway Research

Program (SHRP) was established by

the United States Congress through the

1987 Highway Act. In this Act, the

Federal government obligated

$150 million over five years to

improve the performance and durability of our Nation's roads and to make

those roads safer for both motorists

and highway workers. The SHRP program examined a number of different

subject areas, with the winter maintenance efforts falling under the highway

operations subject area. Products from

this program include specifications,

testing methods, equipment, and

advanced technologies.

Following the success of this initial,

5-year effort, the FHWA took on the

task of coordinating a national program to work with state and local highway agencies to effectively implement

and evaluate these products. This

phase, entitled SHRP Implementation,

was funded through the 1991 Highway

Act, entitled the Intermodal Surface

Transportation Efficiency Act. This

Act obligated $108 million over six

years, and was administered by a joint

effort between the FHWA, the

American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials

(AASHTO), and the Transportation

Research Board.

The research program, which was

active until 1993, encompassed various technology areas, including AntiIcing and Roadway Weather

Information Systems. The Nation's

transportation agencies are currently

evaluating and implementing SHRP

products. The SHRP Evaluation and

Implementation Database

(www.wsdot.wa.gov/fossc/OTA/SHRP/)

contains information on the SHRP

Lead States program, SHRP products

and vendors, SHRP and other publications, discussion groups, a personnel

directory, and a calendar of SHRPrelated events. A new research program is being developed to address

transportation issues likely to be of

concern in the next 20 years.

Intelligent Transportation Systems

While the SHRP program was underway, the Department of Transportation

(DOT) was also investing in a significant program aimed at implementing

technologies for a host of other transportation challenges, namely the

Intelligent Transportation System

(ITS) program. Of the many goals of

the ITS program, one is to coordinate

and deploy some of the SHRP products

involving communications and control

in winter maintenance. Such implementations are guided by the National

ITS Architecture, which provides the

framework for road weather system

design and information exchange. The

development of ITS in the United

States is overseen by the ITS Joint

Program Office (ITS-JPO) within the

DOT. A new user service is being

added to the National ITS Architecture

that focuses on Maintenance and

Construction Operations (MCO),

including roadway maintenance and

maintenance vehicle fleet management.

Development of Road Weather

Information Systems

The efforts following SHRP, as well

as the results of the ITS program, have

resulted in a host of improvements to

treatment of and response to weather in

surface transportation. Many of these

improvements have been fully evaluated, while others are still evolving or

under going further evaluation.

Road Weather Information Systems

(RWIS)

SHRP and other FHWA or State

DOT programs have identified weather information applications for winter

maintenance managers, traffic managers, and emergency managers.

RWIS initially referred only to the

fixed roadside sensor suites for pavement condition (temperature, chemical

concentration, surface water/snow/

ice), surface weather observations

(temperature, relative humidity, winds,

visibility, precipitation), and air/water

quality conditions. Figure 3-DOT-4

reflects the widespread deployment of

Environmental Sensor Stations (ESS)

throughout the United States. Over

time, the RWIS definition has broadened to include sensor systems, communication systems, and central analyFEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

Figure 3-DOT-4. Pavement and ESS Technology Deployment.
118 DOT SECTION 3

Maintenance Decision Support System (MDSS) Project

For the FHWA Road Weather Management Program

The Maintenance Decision Support System (MDSS) project is a multi-year effort to prototype and field

test advanced decision support components for winter road maintenance managers. The development of a

prototype MDSS is part of the Surface Transportation Weather Decision Support Requirements (STWDSR)

initiative conducted by Mitretek Systems, Inc. The documents STWDSR V2.01 and the MDSS Project Plan2

give background information on the project and operational concept for decision support associated with winter road maintenance. These documents explain the process used by the FHWA and stakeholder groups

(users, vendors, and researchers) to produce the MDSS prototype.

The MDSS is based on leading diagnostic and prognostic weather research capabilities (high resolution

numerical forecast models and experimental algorithms) and road behavior (surface and subsurface), which

are being developed at six national research centers. It is anticipated that components of the prototype MDSS

system developed by this project will ultimately be deployed by road operating agencies, including state

departments of transportation (DOTs), and generally supplied by private vendors.

The MDSS project goal is to develop a prototype capability that: (1) capitalizes on existing road and weather data sources, (2) augments data sources where they are weak or where improved accuracy could significantly improve decision-making tasks, (3) fuses data to create an open, integrated and understandable presentation of current environmental and road conditions, (4) processes data to generate diagnostic and prognostic maps of road conditions along road corridors, with emphasis on the one- to 48-hour horizon (historical information from the previous 48 hours will also be available), (5) provides a display capability on the

state of the roadway, and (6) provides a decision support tool that includes recommendations on road maintenance courses of action. All of the above will be provided on a single platform, with simple and intuitive

operating requirements in a readily comprehensible display of results and recommended courses of action,

together with anticipated consequences of action or inaction.

With user needs in mind, a conceptual structure of the prototype MDSS has been developed. The prototype

MDSS is divided into five primary elements as shown in the diagram below.

1 STWDSR V2.0 Operational Concept Description (http://www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov/jpodocs/EDLBrow/401!.pdf) and

Preliminary Interface Requirements (http://www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov/jpodocs/repts_te/@701!.pdf) 2 MDSS Project Plan (http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/mdss.pdf) 
SECTION 3 DOT 119

sis systems providing weather information used to improve roadway maintenance and traffic operations, as well

as ensure public safety. Consequently,

the more precise term for the sensors,

both fixed and mobile, is the ESS. The

ESS Standard defines protocols for

data passage from a roadside sensor or

maintenance vehicle to a central processing unit. This observing network

is sparse, with about 1,200 remote

units covering four million highway

route miles. Techniques such as thermal mapping or use of heat value models with ESS data are necessary to

extend coverage of road condition

information.

Winter maintenance managers have

found anti-icing--the pretreatment of

roads for better snow removal and ice

control--to be cost-effective. Antiicing relies heavily on RWIS as well as

weather and pavement condition products specifically aimed at the highway

maintenance community. Traffic managers are able to better manage surface

transportation infrastructure and provide information to travelers with

RWIS data. For example, traffic signal

start-up times may be lengthened

under icy pavement conditions or

speed limits may be lowered under low

visibility conditions. Emergency managers may use RWIS data to make

evacuation decisions under hurricane

threats.

Advanced Transportation Weather

Information System (ATWIS)

Federally supported projects stemming from the first generation SHRP

RWIS projects have been important in

developing route-specific road condition information. The Advanced

Transportation Weather Information

System (ATWIS) was developed by

the University of North Dakota for

North and South Dakota, and the system has recently expanded into

Minnesota and Montana. The primary

purpose of the ATWIS research program is to demonstrate how current

technologies in weather forecasting,

weather analysis, telecommunications

and road condition monitoring can be

merged effectively to produce a safer

and more efficient transportation system for both commercial and general

travel. ATWIS operates its own mesoscale numerical model, analyzed to

road conditions on segments of the

Interstate freeway and arterial system

in its states. Information is conveyed

interactively to travelers, primarily via

cell phone. 

Key areas of interest of this study

include:

 public use and acceptance of road

weather information,

 the added value of highly accurate

weather forecasts,

 information dissemination methods,

and the role of telecommunications,

 the need for 24-hour operations,

 the role of road condition monitoring,

 how to generate efficient forecasts,

and

 commercial viability of the system.

ATWIS teams public and private

partners to meet the immediate and

future needs of rural transportation. As

a dynamic Information Service

Provider, University of North Dakota's

Regional Weather Information Center

operates a Transportation Management

Center, collecting, analyzing, and providing weather and road condition

information to the general public, and

State DOTs.

FORETELL

With the intent of integrating RWIS

with other ITS services, the FORETELL project was initiated with federal,

state, and private funds, in Iowa,

Missouri, and Wisconsin. Developing

similar capabilities as seen in the

ATWIS project, FORETELL focuses

more on detailed decision support for

road maintenance and the development

of heat balance algorithms in combination with its meso-scale numerical modeling. FORETELL is a consortium

made up of federal, state, research

agencies, and private sector partners

from diverse ITS and meteorological

backgrounds, that share the common

resolve to see detailed road and weather information become an everyday

commercial reality.

FORETELL enhances safety and

facilitates travel by linking road condition information with other types of

traveler information (e.g. incidents,

work zones, road closures, etc).

FORETELL's objectives include:

 integrating RWIS across State borders,

 assimilating all of the existing

weather and road condition data

sources,

 cutting costs and substantially benefiting the environment by increasing the levels of forecasting detail,

 improving timeliness and the accuracy of road weather information,

and

 using multiple media for information dissemination.

FORETELL is based on an opensystem architecture, which enables

ease in evolution and information

presentation. Accidents, road closures, congestion, weather conditions,

delays, lane closures, current weather

conditions are among the many types

of information displayed on the website.

With FORETELL, highway operating agencies will be able to detect

changing conditions sooner and provide advanced warnings and information to the public. Due to increased

levels of forecast detail, highway and

maintenance professionals will be able

to make more informed decisions

about the roadway network and more

effectively manage resources while

maintaining high levels of service.

The public will be able to make more

specific travel decisions, based on

highly detailed road weather information. Additionally, public-public and

public-private partnerships will result

in improved coordination between

FORETELL partners, affiliates and

their RWIS and related ITS deployments.
120 DOT SECTION 3

Nationwide Expansion of Road

Weather Information

Early results from field operational

tests and other experiences have

demonstrated encouraging benefits of

utilizing technology to develop road

weather information. As these systems evolve, a clear pattern of regional services is emerging.

Figure 3-DOT-5 reflects these

regional road weather information

systems across the United States ranging from the I-95 Corridor

Information Exchange Network (IEN)

project to rWeather in Washington

State (sponsored by Washington DOT

and the University of Washington).

Also included is the Highway Closure

and Restriction System (HCRS)

developed by Arizona DOT, as well as

the traveler information system entitled Condition Acquisition and

Reporting System (CARS), which

built upon the FORETELL project.

Other projects include the ATWIS

project in North and South Dakota

and Minnesota, the SAFE-PASSAGE

project in Montana, the Utah DOT

and University of Utah mesonet project, the Southeastern Michigan Snow

and Ice Management (SEMSIM) project located in the Detroit the metropolitan area, the OK-FIRST project in

Oklahoma, and the Virtual Traffic

Management Center in Texas. The

Intelligent Road and Rail Information

System (IRRIS) is a motorist information system for military movements

that is working with Texas to obtain

dynamic road condition information.

This figure raises a number of questions, for example: (1) should these

regional developments limit their geographic scope or should they continue to

expand and overlap? (2) how do we

ensure that a person driving from one

service area to another is able to obtain

consistent information? (3) what are the

appropriate public and private weather

information rates? (4) how can different

road condition models be reconciled or

combined?

Current Benefits

The cost savings for a state's highway winter maintenance operations

have been achieved due to reduction of

personnel overtime costs and

decreased use of deicing chemicals and

abrasives. For example, Minnesota

DOT has calculated a 6:1 to 10:1 return

on investment in RWIS for winter

maintenance practices. Likewise,

RWIS and anti-icing has lead to costsavings for Wisconsin DOT--the use of

RWIS and anti-icing has reduced salt

use by 37,500 tons over one season.

This reduction equates to approximately

$1.1 million saved.

Another example of winter maintenance costs saving was in the state of

Indiana, the implementation of the

Computer Aided System for Planning

Efficient Routes (CASPER). The system is used to assist with the design of

routes needed to service the roadway

networks based, in part, on road weather conditions. Developers estimate

that the equipment and operating cost

for winter maintenance has been

reduced between $11 million and

$14 million.

Improved winter maintenance practices that reduce chemical and abrasive

usage also minimize environmental

impacts. Dissemination of road weather information to drivers can enhance

safety and improve mobility. A

Nevada DOT RWIS provides warnings

to truck drivers on US 395 when wind

gust exceed 30 mph, significantly

reducing high-profile vehicle accidents. The Adverse Visibility

Information System on Interstate 215

in Utah automatically displays recommended travel speeds based upon prevailing visibility and traffic conditions.

In response to advisory messages,

overly cautious drivers increase speed

causing a 22 percent reduction in speed

variation resulting in more uniform

traffic flow and reduced accident risk.

FHWA's Road Weather Management

Program

The FHWA continues to make road

weather management a priority in their

transportation operations program. As

described earlier, a significant amount

of federal dollars have been invested

over the course of the last 13+ years.

Recent expenditures, on the order of

$2 million/year, have also represented

a commitment to this program.

However, this expenditure represents

only a fraction of the amount of money

spent on road weather, as the state and

local agencies fund a number of their

own research and development projects. Such achievements and ongoing

Figure 3-DOT-5 . Regional Weather Information systems.
SECTION 3 DOT 121

efforts are fundamental to achieving

our vision, while the goals of the program in support of our vision have

been defined as: (1) to develop

improved road weather information

systems that meet the demands of all

users and operators; (2) to develop

improved tools and technologies for

road weather management and winter

maintenance; and (3) to improve traffic

operations/incident management procedures for all types of weather events.

By providing weather information

that is more accurate and easily understood, outcomes of improved mobility,

safety, and productivity will be

achieved.

There are many program efforts that

need to take place to achieve these

goals, and FHWA is central to most of

these, either as developer, coordinator,

or promoter. The following objectives

have been identified in an effort to

achieve our goals over the next five

years:

 At a national level build consensus

and continue to strengthen the relationship between meteorologists

and transportation professionals

thus providing the leadership for

state efforts and creating a common

vision for the overall program

design.

 Provide improved weather information by developing decision support systems that use better

processed weather data and

improved weather observation networks to furnish information that is

easily interpreted and that adequately combines all types of information that is required to make

informed decisions. 

 Develop advanced maintenance

technologies that are designed to

meet the needs of maintenance personnel.

 Develop road weather management

practices that define how traffic

and incident managers can optimize the performance of their system.

 In coordination with current federal

programs, such as Professional

Capacity Building and Local

Technology Assistance Programs,

develop outreach and training

course material for program delivery, training, and promotion.

Current and Future Efforts

A number of other research efforts

have been completed or are underway

to reach our goals and objectives.

Perhaps the most significant is our

effort to document the road weather

decision support requirements needed

by end users to support more effective

decision making. Such an effort has

never been done before, yet is fundamental to all research, development,

and testing efforts. Other ongoing

efforts include the prototyping of a low

cost visibility sensor for the highway

environment, and remote sensors for

detecting ice on pavements. The

FHWA has also worked with our partners to test and evaluate systems that

automatically control anti-icing

sprayers on bridge decks. As previously mentioned, FHWA has also been

instrumental in the FORETELL field

operational test.

The Maintenance Decision Support

System (MDSS) project is a multi-year

effort to prototype and field test

advanced decision support components for winter road maintenance. The

prototype development phase is being

conducted by a team of six national

research laboratories with expertise to

winter road maintenance decision support. This effort will lead to an operational test of the MDSS, as well as

produce decision support components

that private vendors can incorporate

into their products for maintenance

managers.

Future efforts will focus on all technical aspects of the road transportation

system, including weather data collection, processing and dissemination, as

well as the institutional challenges surrounding system implementation. The

institutional challenges include coordination within state and local DOTs,

such as between maintenance and travel management offices, as well as

across the transportation and meteorological communities. With regard to

technical areas of interest, data collection efforts will include optimizing

ESS siting, as well as incorporating

road weather observational data, such

as pavement and subsurface observations, into broader meteorological

observation networks. Better processing includes the application of higher

resolution weather models, and the

development of other road condition

prediction models (e.g. heat balance

models) that are needed to develop the

appropriate weather information. Such

products will be incorporated into

decision support systems, whose

design is based on the current efforts to

document road weather decision support requirements. Development of

such systems requires strong inter-federal coordination between the transportation and meteorological communities.

With respect to implementation, it is

important to note that unlike the FAA,

FHWA is not a modal operating

agency, and it represents many constituents, such as state, cities and local

governments. FHWA will take the

lead in initiating efforts, such as defining road weather decision support

requirements, and prototyping decision

support systems. However, the success

of this program largely depends on the

efforts of the operating agencies, as

well as the coordination across the

transportation and meteorological

communities. Therefore, it is expected

that the results of these efforts will lead

the owners and operators of the

nation's highways, the state and local

DOTs, to invest in the implementation

of these systems nationwide.

National Coordination

In order to achieve the maximum

benefit and desired output from this

program area there must be a mutual

interest and commitment across the
122 DOT SECTION 3

transportation and meteorological

communities. Currently, efforts to

develop weather information systems

for surface transportation are moving

forward. These efforts are complicated

by the need for significant coordination between the transportation and

meteorological communities--to date

the two communities have had little

direct interaction on a national level.

As this working relationship builds, it

has become evident that the meteorological community must have a clear

idea of the surface transportation

weather requirements in order to

respond with the appropriate products

and services. Consequently, the transportation community must articulate

it's needs, and in a manner that enables

the meteorological community (both

public and private) to respond.

Likewise, the meteorological community must be committed to helping

resolve the problems that weather

inflicts upon the surface transportation

system.

Continued national-level consensus

building will be necessary both to provide leadership for state efforts and to

create a common vision for the overall

program design. It is important to

coordinate our efforts with others, as it

ensures that we are not duplicating

effort, while also keeping our goals

and objectives focused on the needs of

our constituents. The most apparent

groups to link to include: federal, state

and local agencies both in the transportation and meteorological communities, standards development organizations, and national committees and

associations dealing with surface transportation weather and winter mobility.

To date there have been some significant achievements, such as the formation of the OFCM Joint Action Group

for Weather Information for Surface

Transportation (JAG/WIST), and

FHWA--FEMA coordination for hurricane evacuation. However, this is only

considered the first of many successful

partnerships. The FHWA looks forward to building upon these successes

to achieve the needed improvement to

the highway environment.
SECTION 3 DOT 123

The Federal Railroad Administration

(FRA) supports improving the collection, dissemination, and application of

weather data to enhance railroad safety

through the Intelligent Weather

Systems project, as part of the

Intelligent Railroad Systems and

Railroad System Safety research programs. These programs address safety

issues for freight, commuter, intercity

passenger, and high-speed passenger

railroads.

Intelligent Weather Systems for railroad operations consist of networks of

local weather sensors and instrumentation - both wayside and on-board

locomotives - combined with national,

regional, and local forecast data to alert

train control centers, train crews, and

maintenance crews of actual or potential hazardous weather conditions.

Intelligent weather systems will provide advance warning of weathercaused hazards such as flooding; track

washouts; snow, mud, or rock slides;

high winds; fog; high track-buckling

risk; or other conditions which require

adjustment to train operations or action

by maintenance personnel

(Figure 3-DOT-6). Weather data collected on the railroad could also be forwarded to weather forecasting centers

to augment their other data sources.

The installation of the digital data link

communications network is a prerequisite for this activity.

FRA intends to examine ways that

weather data can be collected on railroads and moved to forecasters, and

ways that forecasts and current weather information can be moved to railroad control centers and train and

maintenance crews to avoid potential

accident situations. This research is

estimated to continue for 5-6 years

after it begins. This is one of the partnership initiatives identified in the

NSTC's National Transportation

Technology Plan.

FEDERAL RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION

Figure 3-DOT-6. Track trussel

washed out by flood waters.
124 DOT SECTION 3
SECTION 3 DOT 125

The Federal Transit Administrations

(FTA) mission is to "provide leadership, technical assistance and financial resources for safe, technologically

advanced public transportation which

enhances all citizens' mobility and

accessibility, improves America's communities and natural environment, and

strengthens the national economy." In

this context, FTA provides an energy

efficient means of transporting people,

thereby, reducing emissions caused by

transportation and lessening the

Nation's dependence on fossil fuels,

including foreign oil. One-hundred

gallons of fuel can be saved each year

for every person riding the bus instead

of driving. The savings by train and

trolley riders are even greater.

The United States Department of

Transportation (DOT) has a variety of

research development and demonstration programs and initiatives that are

targeted at reducing the emissions and

improving the efficiency of vehicles

including trucks, buses, marine vessels, airport support equipment, and

other specialty vehicles. The underlying assumption of many of these public-private partnership efforts is to

improve current vehicles without sacrificing vehicle performance or limiting consumer choices in the marketplace.

In particular, the FTA Fuel Cell

Transit Bus Program and the Hybrid

Electric and Electric Bus Program

(Figure 3-DOT-7) focus on developing

and demonstrating innovative transit

bus technologies that can improve the

energy efficiency and reduce harmful

emissions from transit buses, including

greenhouse gas emissions. Through

these efforts, the benefits and viability

of both fuel cells and hybrid electric

drive technology for transit bus applications are being demonstrated.

Similarly, the Advanced Vehicle

Technologies program (AVP) managed

by DOT, is a collaborative program

between the Federal government and

over 500 companies, universities,

national laboratories, state, regional,

and local governments focused on

innovative technologies for medium

and heavy-duty vehicles that can

lessen the transportation sector's

dependence on foreign oil, reduce

emissions from transportation vehicles, and enhance the development of a

domestic advanced transportation

industry. The technologies developed

and demonstrated under the program

are closely related to transit research

needs, or directly develop and demon

sate advanced technologies for transit.

The Transit Cooperative Research

Program is currently researching FTA's

role in avoiding greenhouse gas emissions. Project H-21 is examining how

transit service can contribute to community sustainability and provide

enhanced mobility while addressing

climate change at the community and

regional level.

One example of research for vehicle

emissions is with the Desert Research

Institute (DRI) to develop and test a

new remote sensing device that accurately estimates particulate emissions

from motor vehicles and will quantify

the contributions of ozone precursor

and small particular emissions from

sources outside the Las Vegas metropolitan area. The meteorological and

air quality modeling will attempt to

quantify the level of emissions transported into the area from the Los

Angeles South Coast Air Basin. 

In FTA's national rural and parks

programs coordinated with the

research efforts currently underway

with the Weather Information for

Surface Transportation (WIST) initiative. This research will take advantage

of other related rural ITS weather

resources to integrate transit and emergency services through the "Common

Communication Backbone Concept."

Many rural areas can greatly benefit

from a Joint Operational center that

consolidates transit management,

emergency management, and emergency medical service operations utilizing light rail, ferry, van, and bus

transit services. This integrated management and transit emergency service

will enable rural transit operators to

manage weather-related incidents

more efficiently, while improving the

coordination with travelers and emergency management staffs

(Figure 3-DOT-8.).

FEDERAL TRANSIT ADMINISTRATION

Figure 3-DOT-7. Protoype of FTAs

electric bus program.

Figure 3-DOT-8. Weather poses a

significant impact on transit operations in the Washington metropolitan

area. (WMATA Photograph)
126 DOT SECTION 3
SECTION 3 DOT 127

Although no United States Coast

Guard (USCG) cutters or shore units

are solely dedicated to meteorology,

they collectively perform a variety of

functions in support of the national

meteorology program. USCG oceangoing cutters and coastal stations provide weather observations to the

National Weather Service (NWS).

Coast Guard communications stations

broadcast NWS marine forecasts,

weather warnings, and weather facsimile charts and, also, collect weather

observations from commercial shipping for the NWS. The Coast Guard

also operates the LORAN C radionavigation system and the Maritime

Differential GPS (DGPS) Service. The

LORAN C system provides Position,

Navigation, and Timing (PNT) information to a variety of navigation and

non-navigation users throughout the

continental United States and Alaska

(e.g. radiosondes). The Maritime

DGPS Service is an augmentation to

the GPS that improves GPS-only accuracy to better than ten meters and provides DGPS coverage to coastal areas

of the continental United States, the

Great Lakes, Puerto Rico, portions of

Alaska and Hawaii, and portions of the

Mississippi River Basin.

USCGC HEALY, a new icebreaking

research vessel, was delivered to the

Coast Guard in November 1999 and

conducted successful shakedown tests

of the hull, machinery, and scientific

equipment during January-August

2000 (Figure 3-DOT-9). The first

unrestricted science cruise is scheduled

for the Eastern Arctic in the summer of

2001. HEALY, has a length of 420

feet, beam of 82 feet, and displaces

over 16,000 tons. Scientific systems

and gear include a bottom mapping

multi-beam sonar system; a sub-bottom profiling system; a conductivitydepth-temperature data system; an

expendable oceanographic probe system; an Acoustic Doppler Current

Profiler; a jumbo coring system; a continuous flow, seawater sampling system; a meteorological measurement

system; and a bow tower for clean air

experiments. To schedule time on

HEALY, see the UNOLS web site,

http://gso.uri.edu/unols/unols.html.

For more information, see the Coast

Guard web page for HEALY,

http://www.uscg.mil/pacarea/healy/.

USCG maintains the International

Ice Patrol (IIP) which uses sensorequipped aircraft to patrol the Grand

Banks of Newfoundland to locate and

track icebergs which pose a hazard to

North Atlantic shipping. Direct observations are supplemented and extrapolated using a numerical iceberg drift

and deterioration model. IIP determines the geographic limits of the iceberg hazard and, twice daily, broadcasts iceberg warning bulletins and ice

facsimile charts which define the limits

of the iceberg threat during the iceberg

season (spring and summer). IIP annually archives data on all confirmed and

suspected targets, and forward these

data to the National Snow and Ice Data

Center. These data can be accessed via

the IIP web page www.uscg.mil/

lantarea/iip/home.html. Archived data

contains all iceberg sighting data along

with the last model-predicted position

of each berg.

The Coast Guard participates with

the Navy and NOAA in conducting the

National Ice Center, a multi-agency

operational center that produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic,

Great Lakes, and coastal ice conditions.

The Coast Guard also collaborates

with NOAA in operating the National

Data Buoy Center (NDBC) which

deploys and maintains NOAA's automated network of environmental monitoring platforms in the deep ocean and

coastal regions. Five Coast Guard personnel fill key technical and logistics

support positions within NDBC. Coast

Guard cutters support the deployment

and retrieval of data buoys, and provide periodic maintenance visits to

both buoys and coastal stations,

expending approximately 180 cutter

days annually. Coast Guard aircraft,

small boats, and shore facilities also

provide NDBC support.

Meteorological activities are coordinated by the Icebreaking Division of

the Office of Aids to Navigation at

Coast Guard Headquarters. Field management of Coast Guard meteorological support services is accomplished as

the Coast Guard Area and District levels.

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

Figure 3-DOT-9. USCGC HEALEY,

the Coast Guards new icebreaking

research vessel, conducting ice trials.
METEOROLOGICAL PROGRAMS

The World Agricultural Outlook

Board (WAOB), in cooperation with

National Weather Service's (NWS)

Climate Prediction Center, staffs and

supports the Joint Agricultural Weather

Facility (JAWF). The JAWF monitors

the daily weather patterns around the

world, and serves as the Department's

focal point for weather data received

from the World Meteorological

Organization's (WMO) Global Weather

Observing System. These data are

used at JAWF and other USDA agencies for a number of agricultural applications (Figure 3-USDA-1). WAOB

agricultural meteorologists convert the

weather data into information to assess

crop development and yield potential

of all major commodity crops for the

major producing areas of the world.

Special weekly briefings are provided

to the Secretary of Agriculture and to

the economic and commodity analysts

of USDA. The Senate and House

Agricultural Committees also request

periodic agricultural weather briefings

that focus on the severity and impact of

drought, heat wave, and excessive wetness on major crop areas around the

Nation.

Historically, the Forest Service (FS)

has collected meteorological data to

assist in the control of forest fires and

in the management of smoke from prescribed burning. Other activities also

require weather data to ensure sound

management decisions. To support

these needs and requirements, a

national weather program was established to coordinate all FS meteorological activities and to meet the increasing need for diverse weather information. The major objectives of the program are to: (1) improve quality control of weather data, (2) improve the

design and operation of data collection

from networks, (3) increase data

recovery from the weather stations,

and (4) upgrade station maintenance.

Meteorological data collected from

manual weather stations and Remote

Automated Weather Stations (RAWS)

support research of weather effects on

forestry management, forest fires,

smoke management, visibility protection in wilderness areas, and atmospheric deposition. A weather information management system and a library

to archive all FS weather data are

being developed in cooperation with

regional climate centers. The FS monitoring network will provide essential

data for use in Global Change

Research Program (GCRP) work.

The FS operates more than 900

RAWS and manual stations, many in

the western United States. Air temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture,

wind direction and speed, and precipitation are transmitted via NOAA's

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WEATHER PROGRAMS

Weather is the most important factor influencing the Nation's variability in crop yields and related production. The Nation's food and fiber products are a critical resource impacting our domestic and international economic position and have taken on new dimensions in foreign affairs and national security.

The continued expansion in export markets has reduced stocks and benefitted our farm sectors as global consumption of total grains has exceeded production in recent years. The United States Department

of Agriculture (USDA) conducts supporting research that focuses on understanding the interactions of

weather and climate with plants, animals, forests, and forest ecological systems, and assists the Department of

Commerce in determining farmers' needs for weather information and in disseminating that information to them.

SECTION 3 USDA 129

Figure 3-USDA-1. United States Climate and Crop Information depiction of

climate features. [Source: Joint Agricultural Weather Facilty (JAWF) web site.]
130 USDA SECTION 3

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) telemetry.

These data are received via a directreadout ground site in Boise, Idaho, in

cooperation with the Bureau of Land

Management. The main use of the data

is in the calculation of the fire danger

rating for the FS and cooperating agencies. These data are also used by other

resource managers, such as, road engineers, wildlife biologists, and hydrologists who monitor precipitation; silviculturalists (who are attempting to

maximize tree-planting opportunities);

and ecologists, soil specialists, and

fisheries biologists (who monitor the

effects of runoff). Another major user

of RAWS data is the NWS for fire

weather forecasting and flood warnings.

The Natural Resources Conservation

Service (NRCS) continues to operate a

network of 1,400 manual snow courses

and over 550 automated data collection

sites in conjunction with the Snow

Telemetry (SNOTEL) project for the

western United States and Alaska. The

primary objective of the project is to

forecast water supplies and streamflow

for the coming spring run-off season.

These measurements are made in

cooperation with other federal, state,

and local agencies, power companies,

irrigation companies, and the provincial government of British Columbia.

Water-supply forecasts help irrigators make the most effective use of

available streamflow for achieving

their agricultural production goals.

Farmers, who collectively irrigate

more than 10 million acres of land in

the western United States, benefit from

these water supply forecasts. Other

federal agencies and private organizations also use water supply forecast

information to help them carry out

their missions. These forecasts also

help the federal government in administering international water treaties.

NRCS continues to upgrade the

SNOTEL data collection system. The

effort includes upgrading the data collection sites in the existing SNOTEL

system with new state-of-the-art equipment and adding additional sites. The

data collection site upgrades include

replacement of snow pillows, transducers, damaged precipitation gages,

antennas, towers, solar panels, battery

temperature sensors, and deteriorated

shelter houses.

The Foreign Agricultural Service's

(FAS) satellite remote-sensing program, operated by the Production

Estimates and Crop Assessment

Division (PECAD), is a critical element in USDA's analysis of global

crop conditions and agricultural production providing timely, accurate, and

unbiased estimates of global area,

yield, and production. The PECAD

mission of alert analysis requires rapid

system response. Working in conjunction with the Farm Services Agency

(FSA), PECAD provides alerts as well

as routine crop condition assessments

for crops in the United States. FAS

provides early warning of environmental changes that affect the production

and quality of commodities and renewable resources.

The FAS/PECAD analysts employ a

proven "convergence of evidence"

approach to crop assessment -- incorporating NOAA AVHRR, LandSat,

and SPOT imagery, crop models, global weather data, United States agricultural attache reports, field travel, and

ancillary data to forecast foreign grain,

oilseed, and cotton production. To

complement the remote sensing image

data sets, weather data are also

processed from 6,912 of the United

Nations' WMO stations and from

approximately 88,500 grid cells of the

Air Force gridded weather data are

processed on a daily basis. Crop models are based on daily data loaded from

meteorological stations and/or Air

Force gridded weather data. Some

models add Vegetative Index Number

(VIN) information. The goal of a crop

model is to provide a number that can

be quantified to yield per acre.

The Farm Service Agency (FSA),

continued to share with FAS the cost of

analyzing imagery of the United

States. Timely analysis of United

States crop conditions, combined with

weather data, crop model results, and

GIS products made possible the development of accurate and timely projections and comprehensive evaluations

of crop disaster situations. FSA continued to be a partner in the National

Aerial Photography Program (NAPP)

and National Digital Orthoquad

Program (NDOP). FSA started to field

re-engineered business processes that

combine the use of digital orthophotography, GIS, GPS, and satellite

imagery to replace the use of hardcopy

NAPP aerial photography and 35mm

slides.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

The mission of the USDA supporting

research program is to develop and disseminate information and techniques

to ensure high quality commodities

and products while minimizing any

adverse effects of agriculture on the

environment. As part of the USDA

reorganization, the Undersecretary for

Research, Education, and Economics

was created. This reorganization

included the merger of the Cooperative

State Research Service and the

Extension Service, and the transfer of

the Economic Research Service and

the National Agricultural Statistics

Service (NASS).

The research efforts of the

Agricultural Research Service (ARS)

relate directly to the effects of climate

on agricultural production and the natural resource base. These efforts are

directed toward developing technologies and systems for: (1) managing

precipitation and solar energy for optimum crop production; (2) improving

our understanding of water-plantatmosphere interactions; (3) optimizing the use of energy, water, and agricultural chemicals; (4) reducing plant

and livestock losses from pests and
SECTION 3 USDA 131

environmental stress; (5) developing

improved techniques for irrigation and

drainage; and (6) minimizing the

adverse effects of climate and weather,

including atmospheric contaminants,

on the environment.

The Cooperative State Research,

Education, and Extension Service

(CSREES) coordinates research programs in the state agricultural experiment stations, the 1890 Land Grant

Distributions, and cooperating forestry

schools. These institutions conduct a

wide variety of research applicable to

agriculture and forestry. Meteorological research in these institutions is

practically all climatological. A proportion of each state's program is consolidated into broad regional research

projects. Animals and plants are subjected to many climatic stresses and,

therefore, are the focus of this

research. Research on the changes in

levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation as

part of the GCRP was significantly

expanded through the CSREES competitive grants program in FY 1994.

The work is coordinated with EPA's

UV radiation program and will support assessment efforts to develop

related national policy on the environment.

Investigations by NASS support

domestic crop estimating programs for

all major commodities. Promising

studies are underway to develop models relating weather parameters and

associated variables to corn ear weight

and wheat head weight. Previous

efforts to develop models for shortterm forecasting have had only limited

success. Research will continue in this

area with the expectation that the relationships between weather variables

and crop yield will improve as better

plant process models become available

and more information, such as soil

moisture, are operationally observed.

A NASS program to explore the use

of satellite and weather data for assessing crop conditions is continuing. A

preliminary investigation using polarorbiting meteorological satellite data

showed a good relationship between

crop conditions and reflectance data as

determined by the agreement between

measured and forecast final corn and

soybean yields. The crop conditions

assessment procedures, based on meteorological satellite data, are being

automated and near real-time applications are being explored.

FS research includes efforts to:

(1) understand and control forest fire

initiation by lightning, (2) improve the

translation of mid-range forecast elements to describe forestry conditions,

(3) incorporate drought information

into management decision-making,

and (4) better describe how regional

climatic variability affects the use of

daily weather information by foresters.

The FS long-term monitoring network

will provide critical data for use in the

GCRP work.
The Department of Energy (DOE)

continues to address its mission areas

of national security, science and technology, energy security, and environmental quality. Atmospheric science

research and operations have been an

integral part of DOE and its predecessor agencies since the cold war era. It

is vital to understand the processes of

the atmospheric domain in order to

enhance predictive capabilities, particularly to understand how various

atmospheric energy-related phenomena interacts with the ocean and terrestrial systems. Today's global climate

change debates and outcomes are relying on information collected through

basic atmospheric science research

programs that one day will reduce substantial uncertainties in these areas.

DOE coordinates programmatic

activities throughout its various offices

such as the Office of Science (SC),

Defense Programs (DP),

Environmental Management (EM),

and Energy Efficiency and

Renewables (EE). At its core, DOE is

a science agency. DOE is the third

largest government sponsor of basic

research, following the National

Institutes of Health and the National

Science Foundation. DOE has principal responsibility for basic research in

high-energy physics, nuclear physics,

and fusion energy sciences. DOE also

supports important research in the

material science, biology, chemistry,

nuclear medicine, global climate

change research, and computational

science. The Office of Science underpins the applied research and development conducted throughout DOE. The

Office of Biological and

Environmental Research (BER) has

been a member of the Office of the

Federal Coordinator for Meteorology

(OFCM) since the early eighties, and it

is with this tradition that BER participates and supports the various DOEmission-related activities of the

OFCM.

Over the years, there has been some

examples of technology transfer from

research to operations, such as some of

the science associated with DOE's

Atmospheric Studies in Complex

Terrain (ASCOT) program, contributing to the various modeling routines in

the Atmospheric Release Advisory

Capability (ARAC) national emergency response service, that is used as

an emergency response tool at the

DOE field sites and other locations.

Meteorological services at DOE

facilities range from cutting-edge basic

research to providing daily operational

support. Some examples of research

and development are investigations of

potential global climatic change, radiation and cloud studies, atmospheric

chemistry, and studies of atmospheric

boundary layer processes. Operational

support programs include daily customized weather forecasting services,

special project support, on-site meteorological monitoring programs, climatology services, and emergency

response program support.

Some DOE sites maintain 24-hour

weather watches for severe weather

conditions that have the potential to

impact site operations, damage property, or threaten lives. DOE-wide lightning safety initiatives, which are

becoming integral elements of a ISMS,

are supported by DOE operational

meteorological programs.

Several DOE field offices and their

associated sites and facilities cover

large areas (e.g., Idaho National

Engineering and Environmental

Laboratory (INEEL) nearby Idaho

Falls, Idaho; Oak Ridge Reservation in

Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Nevada Test

Site nearby Las Vegas, Nevada;

Hanford nearby Richland, Washington;

and Savannah River Site, nearby

Aiken, South Carolina). In addition,

several DOE sites are situated in areas

of complex topography and heterogeneous surface characteristics, creating

mesoscale conditions that locally influDEPARTMENT OF ENERGY OPERATIONAL AND RESEARCH

WEATHER PROGRAMS

For almost 60 years, the Department of Energy (DOE) and its predecessors, the Atomic Energy

Commission (AEC) and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), have established and supported meteorological operations and atmospheric research at the DOE field offices. The

need for meteorological services began in 1944 with the development, fabrication, and testing of atomic weapons and the national security and safety issues associated with them. Meteorological program

requirements were subsequently augmented, starting in the late-1960's, by the passage of environmental protection legislation under 40 CFR, which is enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and by several DOE Orders that specify requirements for meteorological services to protect public health and safety and the environment. Quality-assured meteorological data is an important element of a DOE Integrated Safety Management System

(ISMS) since it supports the development of Authorization Basis (AB) safety documentation, the consequence assessments of an emergency management system, and the preparation of environmental compliance activities.

SECTION 3 DOE 133
134 DOE SECTION 3

ence onsite weather and atmospheric

transport and diffusion. For these reasons, and to protect public health and

safety and environment, onsite meteorological monitoring programs have

been, remain, and will always be an

essential part of DOE atmospheric science programs.

Some DOE sites enhance the spatial

resolution of the National Weather

Service (NWS) observing network by

taking standard surface and upper-air

observations. Many of these sites are

in remote areas where NWS and community weather observations would

otherwise be limited. Weather observations taken at a few DOE field sites

are entered into the database via the

NWS meteorological data distribution

and display system. This distribution

and display system interconnects field

offices and serves as the distribution

system for NWS meteorological products that are centrally produced by the

National Centers for Environmental

Prediction (NCEP). Some DOE sites

employ the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Advanced Weather Information

Processing System (AWIPS) [e.g.,

NOAA Air Resources Laboratory

(ARL)/Special Operations and

Research Division (SORD), Las

Vegas, Nevada].

An accidental release of radioactive,

chemical, or even biological toxic

material into the atmosphere can have

potentially serious health effects, as

well as environmental consequences.

Meteorological transport and dispersion processes play a key role in determining the fate of radioactive, toxic

chemical, or biological agents released

into the atmosphere. Consequently, a

central theme within the DOE community has been to protect public health,

safety, and the environment on and

around DOE facilities by accurately

measuring and characterizing the

important atmospheric processes.

In recognition of this need, DOE has

established and supported onsite meteorological monitoring programs since

1944 (i.e., Hanford site). Each meteorological program is primarily directed

towards the support of emergency

response programs and in the protection of the environment and safety and

health of the onsite work force and the

public. In addition, research on the

modeling of the transport, dispersion,

deposition, and resuspension of

radioactive, toxic chemical, and biological agent materials is undertaken to

refine the models used in these endeavors. Onsite weather forecasting services, each tailored specifically for the

special operational and emergency

management requirements at each

DOE site, provide necessary support to

the safety and health programs

designed to protect site personnel and

the public.

Much of the research and most of the

operational support has been provided

by the atmospheric research programs

at the six major field offices directly

involved in national defense programs.

Over the years, these programs have

grown to address many environmental,

safety, and health issues. Due to the

complexity of these activities, it was

recognized that efforts should be made

to coordinate meteorological operations and research among the field

offices to enhance cost effectiveness.

The following narrative highlights

meteorological activities at fifteen (15)

separate DOE sites:

Argonne National Laboratory (ANL)

Argonne National Laboratory (ANL)

is one of DOE's largest research centers. It is also the nation's first national laboratory, chartered in 1946. The

University of Chicago manages and

operates Argonne for the DOE

Chicago Operations Office. Argonne

occupies two sites, designated as ANLEast in Illinois and ANL-West in

Idaho. The Illinois site is surrounded

by forest preserve on 1,500 wooded

acres about 25 miles southwest of

Chicago's Loop. The site also houses

the DOE Chicago Operations Office.

Argonne-West occupies about

900 acres about 50 miles west of Idaho

Falls in the Snake River Valley. It is

the home of most of ANL's major

nuclear reactor research facilities.

There are three divisions,

Environmental Research (ER),

Decision and Information Sciences

(DIS) and Environmental Assessment

(EAD) at ANL with meteorological

research or operational program support. Two cross-divisional groups are

involved in these programs at ANL:

the Atmospheric Research Section

(ARS) and the AtmosphericEmergency Preparedness (AEP)

Group. The ARS is composed of scientist with research activities in both

basic and applied science; particular

technical strengths are in the areas of

air-surface exchange, remote sensing,

atmospheric chemistry, and numerical

modeling. About half of the ARS support is currently devoted to activities

associated with the DOE Atmospheric

Radiation Measurement (ARM)

Program. The AEP is composed of scientists and engineers in two divisions

involved in programs with a greater

emphasis on applied science.

Particular technical strengths include

air pollution meteorology, emergency

preparedness and response, and stochastic systems simulations. More

than half of the AEP support is associated with DOE's PROTECT Critical

Infrastructure Program involving

chemical and biological agents.

ARS has operated and maintains a

60 meter (m) meteorological tower and

supplies meteorological data for emergency response, facility operations,

and regulatory compliance for ANL
SECTION 3 DOE 135

operations. Wind and temperature

measurements are taken at the 10m and

60m levels. Real-time and historical

data are available via the Web

(http://gonzalo.er.anl.gov/ANLMET).

As part of a larger program for the

protection of subway systems from terrorist attacks using chemical agents,

AEP is installing sonic anemometers

as well as temperature and pressure

sensors in the subway tunnels of a

large urban subway system. These

instruments will assist in the understanding of flows in the tunnels, which

are driven by a combination of: (1) the

"piston" action of train motion and

(2) buoyancy effects and above ground

forcing. Measurements from these

instruments will be correlated with the

above ground measurements to develop and validate predictive and emergency response models for flow and

dispersion in subway systems. The

AEP group research also focuses on

the analysis of routinely measured

meteorological data to provide atmospheric boundary layer turbulence

information for atmospheric dispersion

calculations. Under the Department of

the Army Chemical Stockpile

Emergency Preparedness Program

(CSEPP), ANL provides support to

improve the collection efficiency and

quality of meteorological data measured at the Army's Demilitarization

towers. The data are used the emergency operation centers in support of

emergency response exercises and for

use in real-time in the event an actual

accident. The goal of the CSEPP support is to improve the accuracy and

robustness of the data obtained from

the meteorological monitoring stations

and to develop unified quality control

and analyses procedures of the data

collected by the towers.

Key support is also provided to

Department of Transportation (DOT)

in applying an ANL-developed

5-year meteorological database for

over 100 locations in the United

States to conduct statistical analyses

of hazardous materials incidents on a

national basis. Recent work for DOT

has centered on development of the

Table of Initial Isolation and

Protective Action Distances for the

2000 Emergency Response

Guidebook. Protective Action

Distances are given in the Table for

over 200 toxic-by-inhalation chemicals and generic compounds for both

daytime and nighttime accidents, and

represent the safe distance for 90 percent of hazardous materials transportation accidents considering variability in meteorology and spill size.

Recent work for DOT has also

involved conducting national risk

assessments for transportation of certain high volume toxic chemicals like

chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride and sulfur dioxide.

The Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Experiments (ABLE) is one of several

DOE supported research programs

conducted by the ARS. ABLE is located on the lower Walnut Watershed,

mostly in Butler County east of the city

of Wichita, Kansas. This location is

within the existing boundaries of the

DOE Atmospheric Radiation

Measurement (ARM) Southern Great

Plains (SGP) Clouds and Radiation

Test bed (CART) site. The establishment of this facility offers a virtual

atmospheric observatory and provides

essential research tools for addressing

a myriad of unresolved fundamental

questions in atmospheric research.

The ABLE provides a continuous view

of processes in the lower atmosphere

over a limited domain within the SGP

CART site.

ABLE Doppler Minisodar

General Purpose: The minisodar measures wind profiles from about 10m to 200m above

the surface, thus filling in the gap left below the minimum height of the wind profilers.

Primary Quantities Measured: The primary quantities measured the the system are the

intensity and Doppler shift of backscattered acoustic energy from index of refraction fluctuations (created by temperature and wind fluctuations) embedded in the atmosphere. 

Description: The minisodar has been developed and fabricated at Argonne National

Laboratory (ANL). It consists of a 32 element array of piezoceramic tweeters mounted

vertically within a protective enclosure roughly

1.5 m X 1.5m X 1.5m. The acoustic "in

phase" transmission is reflected off a plate

into a vertically propagating wave. This orientation enables the system to operate in all

weather conditions. The minisodars operate

by transmitting in two different vertical

planes and receiving backscattered energy

from refractive index fluctuations moving

with the mean wind. By sampling in the vertical direction and two tilted planes, the three

components of motion can be determined. The

system consists of a single phased array antenna that transmits alternately along three

pointing directions: one vertical, one in the north-south vertical plane (to the north) and

one in the east-west vertical plane (to the east). The non-vertical beams are tilted about

17 degrees from vertical. Radial components of motion above each pointing direction

are determined sequentially, separated by about 1.5 seconds. Thus, the system repeats

its sequence about every 5 seconds. The data from each transmit pulse are processed

with a FFT centered about each range gate (e.g. every 5m increment in the vertical) to

determine the mean Doppler shift. The signal-to-noise ratio is used to determine if each

estimate is acceptable. All the acceptable data within an averaging interval (e.g. 15 minutes) are averaged and combined to produce a wind profile if there are enough acceptable data points (25 percent, e.g.) within the interval. The averaged data are output in

files with format similar to radar wind profiler (".sod") format for consistency. High

resolution radial moments data and spectra can be produced if desired. 
136 DOE SECTION 3

The initial focus of the ABLE is

measurements of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) where almost all interactions between the atmosphere and

humans take place. Many scientific

issues may be addressed by use of such

a facility, including:

 Natural disaster reduction and public safety;

 Safe and efficient aviation and

other transportation;

 Agriculture;

 Water resource management;

 Effective energy production, use

and environmental protection;

 Space flight operations;

 Defense; and,

 Related areas of Earth Science.

Instrumentation at the ABLE site

includes winds, temperatures, moisture, surface net radiation and soil

moisture as the minimum set of atmospheric observations.

The initial set of equipment, which is

be available at the ABLE includes:

 Three 915 MHz RWP-RASS (wind

speed and direction, virtual temperature profiles);

 Three minisodars (wind and turbulence profiles between heights of

10m and 200m);

 One lidar ceilometer (cloud base

height);

 One balloon-borne sounding system (wind, temperature, moisture

profiles);

 Five surface flux stations (surface

sensible and latent heat, ground

heat storage);

 Five soil moisture sampling stations (soil moisture and soil temperature);

 One satellite data receiver-processor;

 One data hub/central location for

data collection; and,

 One (extra) instrument pad for visiting scientist instrument accommodation.

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL)

The BNL, under the responsibility of

the Brookhaven Area Office, has been

active in both operational meteorology

and atmospheric sciences for the past

50 years. BNL is now managed by

Brookhaven Science Associates which

is a joint venture by Battelle Memorial

Institute Incorporated, The Research

Foundation of the State University of

New York at Stony Brook, and six

other core university partners.

Meteorological operations and

research cover a wide range of programs encompassing interpretive and

theoretical studies. BNL is located

near the geographical center of Long

Island, New York. Long Island is glacial in origin and, as a result, has sandy

soil, mostly gentle undulating contours, and a single water aquifer for the

entire island. Elevations vary between

20m and 35m. The BNL site is rectangular and approximately 5,200 acres in

area. Winds are predominantly southwesterly, and plume dispersion studies

show that it is essential to monitor

winds well beyond laboratory borders.

The NWS New York City Weather

Forecast Office is located at BNL.

This office has an umbrella of coverage that includes an estimated population of 1 million. Nearby, in Bohemia,

is the NWS Eastern Regional

Headquarters that administers a

12-state region.

The mesoscale meteorological measurements necessary for emergency

response are the responsibility of the

Meteorological Services Group, a support group under the Department of

Applied Science, Environmental

Biology and Instrumentation Division

(EBID).

The Meteorological Services Group

maintains two meteorological towers,

10m and 88m, and an instrument shelter. By integrating redundant pairs of

standard, approved meteorological

sensors throughout the system, an

overall data availability of better than

99 percent is achieved. The real-time

data are merged into the laboratory

emergency response network. A database of 50 years (in digital format

since 1960), one of the longest continuous meteorological time series in the

United States, is archived and is available. A real-time monitoring network

with worldwide web access covers the

east-end of Long Island. Coastal

weather stations at Smith Point and

Orient Point transmit data each

minute. Pollution-monitoring data

buoys are added during field programs.

The Meteorological Services Group

provides a locally tuned forecast twice

daily during normal working hours.

Weather forecasts and data are available by telephone or the Internet

(www.weather.bnl.gov). During severe

weather events, updates are given

every 3 hours and, in the case of a hazardous material or radiological release,

a member of the Meteorological

Services Group will assist the emergency coordinator with regular forecasts and information on local wind

fields and gustiness. Areas of meteorological research include:

 Instrumentation development for

field studies of atmospheric constituents, air-sea interaction, and laboratory experiments;

 Gaseous tracer studies of atmospheric transport and dispersion;

 Aerosol formation and behavior;

Atmospheric pollution studies;

 Modeling of atmospheric chemical

reactions;

 Acid rain studies both in the field and

in the laboratory;

Figure 3-DOE-1. Battelle operates

the Gulfstream-1 as a research facility

under contract with the DOEs

Atmospheric Chemistry Program.
SECTION 3 DOE 137

 Theoretical and observational studies

of radiative transfer and fluxes; and,

 Analysis of data and development

of parameterizations relevant to

global climate change.

The Atmospheric Radiation

Measurement (ARM) Program provides

the stimulus for a wide range of climaterelated studies. The ARM ocean monitoring program is developing instrumentation and a broad ship- and buoy-based

observational network in the tropical

western Pacific Ocean. The

Atmospheric Chemistry Program (ACP)

provides the Atmospheric Chemistry

Division's concern with aerosol sources,

transport, and fate in the global atmosphere and the overall, and little understood, impact of aerosols on global climate dynamics (Figure 3-DOE-1). The

ARM External Data Center is the center

for collection, archival, and dissemination of all climate-related data sets for

the ARM program.

An exciting new effort in radar meteorology focuses on algorithms for

cloud detection and cloud mapping

using both the WSR-88D radar network and research radar. BNL is a site

in the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) Solar

Irradiance Network and continuous

short wave absorption measurements

are made here. In a related NASA

study, oceanic aerosol optical depths

are measured and used to validate

absorption algorithms in the SeaWiFS

ocean color program.

The Optical Remote Sensing group,

within the Department of Advanced

Technology, is presently modifying

one of its Raman lidar systems for vertical profiling of carbon dioxide. The

Raman lidar instrument is a self-calibrating sensor that means that data

from a variety of locations in the world

can be compared. With the incorporation of a large (1.25m) antenna and

advanced filters and detectors, a vertical profile of CO2 concentration with a

precision of 1 part per million (ppm)

(Note: atmospheric mean = 370 ppm)

and maximum height of 2-3 km can be

produced routinely. These profiles will

support model development and validation. Importantly, comparison of

CO2 concentrations collected throughout the world and over time will prove

invaluable in confirming adherence to

the Kyoto protocols.

Hanford

For more than 55 years, meteorological services have been provided to the

Richland Operations Office and the

Hanford Site. For the last 33 years,

this program has been managed by the

Battelle Pacific Northwest National

Laboratory) (PNNL). Not only has

operational support been provided, but

also supporting research into atmospheric processes has been a key part of

the PNNL support to DOE Richland.

The facility covers 560 square miles

within the arid and sparsely vegetated

Columbia River basin in southeastern

Washington.

Global Climate Research Program

focuses on the study of basic geophysical processes and on the development

of databases that are critical for understanding global and regional climate

change. The ARM program is

designed to characterize empirically

the radiative processes in the atmosphere with high spatial, temporal, and

spectral resolution and accuracy at

three climatically distinct sites:

 Southern Great Plains of Oklahoma;

 Tropical Western Pacific just off

northern part of Papua, New

Guinea; and,

 North slope of Barrow, Alaska.

In addition, carbon dioxide emissions research is aimed at providing a

scientific basis for forecasting future

emissions of carbon dioxide and

other important gases of radiative

importance.

The PNNL Meteorological and

Climatological Services Project

(MSCP) office provides meteorological monitoring and operational support. The monitoring system consists of an array of twenty-six 10m

towers, three 60m towers and one

125m tower instrumented with temperature and wind direction and

speed sensors. Atmospheric pressure and precipitation data are also

collected. Data from this network

are transmitted via UHF radio to a

computer that decodes the data and

plots graphics products for immediate display and use by Hanford

Meteorological Station personnel.

Other meteorological data are

received via the NWS/DOE AFOS

network.

Meteorological services include

emergency response functions,

weather forecasting for on-site operations and special projects, and climatological support.

MSCP support to the Hanford site

includes:

 Extensive data acquisition via a

site-wide meteorological monitoring network;

 Weather forecasting services 24-

hours/day (Monday through

Friday), and 8-hours/day on

weekends and holidays; 
138 DOE SECTION 3

 Hourly surface observations, and

6-hourly synoptic observations;

and,

 Monthly and annual climatological

data summaries, plus meteorological input to annual environmental

reports.

Idaho National Engineering and

Environmental Laboratory (INEEL)

INEEL is managed by the Idaho

Operations Office and is on 890 square

miles of rolling, arid terrain in southeastern Idaho at the foot of the Lost

River and Lemhi mountain ranges.

The primary mission of the INEEL for

years has been nuclear reactor research

with a focus on cleanup and environmental restoration. Meteorological

services and supporting research are

provided to INEEL via NOAA ARL

Field Research Division (FRD). The

Division, under administration from

various agencies, has provided support

to INEEL for over 50 years. Its current

mission to DOE/ID is to support emergency response and operations with

real-time meteorological data, climatological data, weather predictions, dispersion calculations, and consultation.

ARL/FRD maintains other capabilities

that are not funded directly by DOE.

ARL/FRD designs, arranges, and conducts field studies as needed to evaluate the performance of transport and

dispersion models over local, regional,

and continental scales, and to obtain

high quality databases for model

improvement. An airborne geosciences program is also maintained to

measure fluxes of carbon dioxide,

water vapor, and other atmospheric

constituents that affect climate. These

interactions provide ARL/FRD staff

with additional insights that aid in the

understanding of local meteorological

phenomena.

ARL/FRD operates a large meteorological monitoring network to characterize the meteorology and climatology

of the INEEL site. The network consists of thirty-three meteorological

towers that are deployed both on-site

and off-site. The overall meteorological measurement program is designed

to provide representative data for the

INEEL to meet specific operational

and potential emergency response situations. The network covers an area of

approximately 15,000 square miles.

Many of the towers are 15m tall and

provide wind speed and direction at

15m and air temperature at 2 and 15m

(Figure 3-DOE-2). Fifteen of the 15m

towers also provide relative humidity

at 2m, precipitation, and global solar

radiation, eleven provide barometric

pressure. The other three towers range

from 46 to 76m in height and are

instrumented at multiple levels. The

sensors at all stations are scanned

every second and averaged or totaled

over five minutes.

The data are subsequently retrieved

into the data display and archive system at the ARL/FRD office through a

radio repeater located at an elevation

of 8,930 ft MSL. Continuous wind and

temperature profiles are obtained from

a 915MHz radar wind profiler and

Radio Acoustic Sounding System

(RASS). A Doppler SODAR supplements the wind profile at lower levels

with higher resolution data.

Meteorological data are quality-controlled through automated and manual

processes.

INEEL meteorological monitoring

and emergency response efforts are

enhanced with the use of an ARL/FRD

meteorological data display and visualization program known as INEELViz.

This program has been widely

deployed at 50 sites on and around the

INEEL for access by federal, state, and

Indian tribes via the Internet. Within

INEELViz, meteorological data are

displayed in real-time and overlaid on

maps of the local area that include

political and terrain features. In addition, the local MDIFF puff dispersion

model can be accessed through the

INEELViz front-end and the model

output can be displayed as trajectories

or concentration isopleths on the

INEELViz display screen. The incorporation of RSAC dose conversions

permits the user to also view real-time

dose estimates from the model output.

These features have become very useful enhancements to the INEEL emergency response capability.

Partnerships forged with DOE-ID,

the State of Idaho INEEL Oversight

Program, and the Shoshone-Bannock

Indian Tribes have resulted in additional methods of meteorological data dissemination. Meteorological and background nuclear radiation data from

four public access sites on and surrounding the INEEL are displayed at

nearby kiosks in real-time. Additional

information on nuclear radiation and

meteorological tutorials are presented

at the kiosks. The data are also available on the Internet at

http://oversite.inel.gov. ARL/FRD

maintains its own web site at

www.noaa.inel.gov.

Lawrence Livermore National

Laboratory (LLNL)

LLNL is located in a valley in

California's Coast Range Mountains

about 25 miles east of Oakland. LLNL

Figure 3-DOE-2. Meteorological

towers record temperature and wind

direction and speed at various levels.
SECTION 3 DOE 139

covers approximately 2 square miles

and is operated by the University of

California for the DOE Oakland

Operations Office. Two groups are

involved in the atmospheric sciences at

LLNL: the Environmental Protection

Department (EPD) and the

Atmospheric Sciences Division

(ASD).

EPD operates a 40m tower and supplies meteorological data for facility

operations, regulatory compliance, and

emergency response. Real-time and

historical data are available at

http://www-metdat.llnl.gov/.

Within the LLNL Earth and

Environmental Sciences Directorate,

ASD conducts research on climate and

weather processes on local to global

scales on the following issues:

 Understanding the transport, diffusion, deposition, transformation,

and atmospheric effects of accidental releases or pollutants;

 Developing and testing models for

improved representation of atmospheric processes on building,

urban, regional, and global scales;

 Understanding the uptake and

removal of carbon dioxide emitted

through fossil fuel combustion by

the biosphere and oceans so that the

effects of future emissions may be

accurately predicted;

 Understanding the role of pollutants from fossil fuel emissions in

determining greenhouse gas and

aerosol concentrations and climate

forcing;

 Understanding and predicting the

extent to which stratospheric ozone

may decrease as a result of anthropogenic emissions;

 Understanding and quantifying the

natural variability of the climate

system; and,

 Understanding and quantifying

interactions between the biosphere

and climate. Some of these efforts

stem from the need to be able to

predict the regional to global environment and its changing nature

over the next few decades, so that

policy makers will have the information needed for the formulation

of national energy policy.

LLNL ASD scientists contribute to

two long-term DOE research programs--ARM and the Chemical

Biological Non-proliferation Program

(CBNP) as well as lead two other programs--Program for Climate Model

Diagnosis and Intercomparison

(PCMDI) and National Atmospheric

Release Advisory Center (NARAC).

PCMDI develops and distributes software tools to facilitate model diagnosis

and inter-comparison, documents the

features of models that are in use by

the world climate community, and

archives extensive collections of

model output data. The Program also

provides quality global observational

products for application as model validation data (http://wwwpcmdi.llnl.gov/).

Since 1979, LLNL has provided

emergency response services via the

NARAC program. NARAC is a centralized federal resource responsible to

DOE, the Department of Defense

(DOD), and other federal agencies

under the auspices of the Federal

Radiological Emergency Response

Plan (FRERP). The NARAC mission

is to deliver realistic real-time graphical dose and exposure assessments to

emergency decision-makers to assist in

the protection of populations at risk for

releases of radiological and other hazardous material to the atmosphere.

NARAC supports all elements of the

DOE Emergency Preparedness and

Response Program, NEST, ARG,

FRMAC, and the Radiological

Assistance Program (RAP). 

NARAC consists of automated continuous worldwide meteorological data

acquisition, detailed worldwide terrain

and geographic mapping databases,

and a suite of three-dimensional, complex terrain, atmospheric dispersion

models prepared to assess explosions,

fires, vents, spills, or other releases of

radiological or hazardous material.

ARAC has an entirely new emergency

response system with state-of-the-art,

high-resolution, terrain-following,

variable-gridded diagnostic meteorological and dispersion models including new user interfaces and extensive

graphical displays. In addition, the system includes relocatable prognostic

model that provides high-resolution

2-3 day forecasts in the region of interest. 

NARAC provides a 24-hour on-call

response, using redundant computer

systems with uninterruptible power.

NARAC provides on-site and off-site

emergency response services to about

40 DOE and DOD facilities around the

United States via a Site Workstation

System linked to Livermore. Each Site

Workstation also collects on-site meteorological data from one or more towers. The response time for the delivery

of an initial ARAC assessment is less

than 15 minutes for a computer-linked

site and 45-90 minutes for a non-computer-linked site. ARAC has responded to over 80 real-world events and

conducted thousands of exercises with

supported sites and agencies.

More information on the NARAC

program can be located on the Internet

(http://www-ep.es.llnl.gov/wwwep/atm/ARAC/arac.html) and an educational presentation of some past

NARAC responses is located at

http://air.llnl.gov/.

Los Alamos National Laboratory

(LANL)

LANL is operated by the University

of California under the responsibility

of the Albuquerque Operations Office,

and is spread across 43 square miles

(112 km2) of the Pajarito Plateau at the

foot of the Jemez Mountains that

extend up to around 900m above the

plateau. LANL is about 30 miles

northwest of Santa Fe in north central

New Mexico. The Pajarito Plateau

slopes to the east-southeast, dropping

400m across the Laboratory, with

canyons and mesas running along the

slope of the plateau. The broad Rio
140 DOE SECTION 3

Grande Valley lies to the east of the

laboratory. Los Alamos has a semiarid, temperate, mountain climate.

The operational meteorological program at Los Alamos operates a network of six towers (ranging in height

from 23m to 92m), a mono-static

Doppler SODAR, and three supplemental precipitation stations. Data

from four instrumented meteorological

towers that are located on the Pajarito

plateau drives a diagnostic wind field

for the program's plume modeling

capability. A fifth tower is located in

Los Alamos Canyon to give information on the larger canyons in the area,

and a sixth tower is located on top of

Pajarito Mountain to measure ambient

conditions. The SODAR gives information on winds up to the level of the

Pajarito Mountain tower.

More than 100 instruments, consisting of over 20 different types of sensors, are used to collect data throughout the network. Variables measured

by the program can be grouped into the

categories of wind, SODAR-derived

wind, atmospheric state, precipitationrelated, radiative fluxes, eddy heat

fluxes, subsurface measurements, and

fuel moisture. Data collected by the

network are checked for quality before

its archival, and raw data and real-time

displays of graphs and tables are made

available via the Internet.

The LANL Air Quality Group provides regulatory and environmental

surveillance leadership and services to

meet LANL air quality obligations and

public assurance needs. The group

develops and implements programs to

ensure and address institutional compliance with State and Federal laws

related to air quality regulations, DOE

orders for emergency management, air

quality surveillance, dose assessment

activities, and community concerns

related to air quality issues. The group

takes a proactive approach to managing air emissions by providing continuous air monitoring and measurement

of external penetrating radiation onsite and off-site. The group also coordinates LANL activities to ensure full

compliance with air emission regulations, providing monitoring and modeling for emergency response, and

assisting operating groups in developing and implementing new methods

and systems to reduce emissions to as

low as reasonably achievable. The

monitoring capabilities of the Air

Quality Group are supplemented by

the field team of the Atmospheric and

Climate Sciences Group, that operates

various sensor systems including a

unique Raman lidar system to obtain

images of atmospheric water vapor

distributions.

Research within the LANL

Atmospheric and Climate Sciences

Group supports DOE missions in both

the defense and civilian sectors, such

as work in the propagation of verylow-frequency sound ("infra-sound")

waves. Modeling studies contributed

to understanding of propagation and,

in particular, sources of infrasound.

Just as it is possible to infer earthquake

epicenters from seismic wave observations, infrasound sources can be

inferred from atmospheric observations. This work is an important component of monitoring compliance with

the proposed Comprehensive Test Ban

Treaty (CTBT). The CTBT work

involves a number of organizations

within DOE and DOD community,

including interactions with other DOE

laboratories within the CTBT Research

and Development program.

Operational issues involve close

work with the Air Force Technical

Applications Center (AFTAC) at

Patrick AFB, Florida, the DOD organization that handles monitoring systems. In addition, several active international collaborations with other

infrasound researchers are ongoing.

The Meteorology Team within the

Atmospheric and Climate Sciences

Group at Los Alamos National

Laboratory conducts analysis and

modeling on microscale to mesoscale

atmospheric flows and phenomena. In

support of the DOE Chemical and

Biological Non-proliferation Program,

a model for High Resolution and

Strong Gradient (HIGRAD) applications is being used to study the effects

of radiative heating and shading

around groups of buildings. The

objective of this study is to determine

how these processes may influence the

transport of agents within the urban

environment. On larger scales, the

team is examining the influence of

flow merger and urban roughness on

the vertical transport and mixing of

pollutants with the Regional

Atmospheric Modeling System

(RAMS) for several western United

States valleys and basins. This project

is in support of the DOE

Environmental Meteorology Program

and for the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA). As part of the LANL

initiative in Coupled Environmental

Modeling, researchers within the

Meteorology Team are developing a

physics-based fire behavior model

(FIRETEC) and coupling this model to

the HIGRAD atmospheric dynamics

code to examine the details of the

interaction between local winds and

the intense heat generated by wildfires.

Also as part of this initiative, a land

surface model is being coupled that

includes hydrologic processes (i.e.,

SPLASH) to the RAMS mesoscale

model for multi-seasonal simulations

of the water resources of the upper Rio

Grande Basin.

Meteorology Team members are also

working on the LANL Urban Security

project, which is linking physical and

urban growth models to address the

needs of cities. In this framework, we

are using the RAMS model to provide

meteorological fields for use by air

chemistry, urban runoff, and other

models. The Meteorology Team within the Atmospheric and Climate

Sciences Group conducts analysis and

modeling on microscale to mesoscale.

On global scales, research within the
SECTION 3 DOE 141

LANL meteorological community

involves the study of climate change and

variability. A major project is the development of a global coupled oceanatmosphere model sponsored by the

DOE Climate Change Prediction

Program. The global model being

developed consists of a Los Alamos

global ocean Global Climate Models

(GCMs) Parallel Ocean Program (POP),

the Los Alamos sea-ice model (CICE),

the NCAR Community Climate Model

(CCM3), and a "flux coupler" to link the

media consistently. The two GCM's and

the CICE model exchange heat, momentum, and water mass across the air-sea

boundary. A ten-year synchronized simulation revealed the synoptic weather

events, seasonal cycles and inter-annual

variations.

Observations related to understanding global climate are the focus of the

Tropical Western Pacific (TWP)

Program Office LANL, an element of

the DOE ARM Program. The TWP

Program Office is responsible for the

development and operation of the

TWP CART locale, a large expanse of

tropical ocean and maritime continent

lying roughly between 10o

S and 10oN

latitude and from 135oE to 150oW longitude. The maritime continent area is

largely in the southwest and the open

ocean area in the northeast of the

locale. The local climate is characterized by warm sea surface temperatures, deep and frequent atmospheric

convection, high rain rates, strong coupling between the atmosphere and

ocean, and substantial variability associated with El Niño Southern

Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon.

Scientific questions that need to be

addressed in the TWP can be grouped

under three main headings:

 Radiation budget and cloud forcing; 

 Water and energy budgets; and,

 Ocean-atmosphere interactions.

The program supports a variety of

operations at LANL. The primary

client of the program is the Emergency

Management Group, for which the

program provides a plume modeling

capability. Other clients use the program's data for such activities as operations and planning, hazard and accident analyses, environmental studies,

support for experiments, compliance,

and documentation.

Nevada Test Site (NTS)

The NTS is managed and operated

by the DOE Nevada Operations Office

(DOE/NV). The NTS has been the

Nations' underground nuclear weapons

testing facility and is now used to support sub-critical experiments and other

national defense missions of the

United States. The NTS occupies

1,350 square miles of south central

Nevada and is approximately 75 miles

northwest of Las Vegas, Nevada. The

topography of the NTS is complex

with a system of dry lakebeds and

mountains. Elevations range from

nearly 2,700 feet (ft) above mean sea

level (MSL) to 7,600 ft MSL. The climate is arid.

Meteorological services are provided

to DOE/NV by components of the

Department of Commerce (DOC),

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA). The DOC

has had a presence on the NTS for

more than 45 years through various

Interagency Agreements. During this

time, NOAA personnel have built a

solid technical reputation in meteorological operations and emergency

response. Presently, NOAA support is

provided by the Air Resources

Laboratory/Special Operations and

Research Division (ARL/SORD), recognized for its expertise in the transport, dispersion, and deposition of

radioactive and toxic materials. SORD

has developed a rapid emergency

response capability for the unlikely

occurrence of an accidental release of

radioactive or hazardous material into

the atmosphere.

Both basic and applied research is

carried out on problems of mutual

interest to DOE and to NOAA.

Emphasis is on the maintenance of

meteorological support to national

defense projects and to the stewardship

of nuclear weapons. These capabilities

focus on those facets of meteorology

having a direct bearing on the transport, dispersion, deposition (i.e., fallout), and resuspension of radioactive

and/or toxic materials. Other research

includes documentation and study of

extreme precipitation events, desert

thunderstorms, cloud-to-ground lightning, and environmental issues related

to air quality and visibility.

ARL/SORD provides full meteorological support to all DOE/NV operations on and off the NTS. Meteorology

plays a key role in environmental, safety, and health responsibilities of

DOE/NV. The SORD staff is responsible for conducting a modern program

in support of nuclear and non-nuclear

projects authorized by DOE/NV.

Furthermore, the mission of SORD

involves technical support to the emergency preparedness and response

activities of DOE/NV. SORD operates

a comprehensive meteorological monitoring program for the NTS, and provides meteorological and climatology

services required to support the

DOE/NV and contractor programs at

the NTS and elsewhere, as necessary. 

Personnel at SORD also consult with

senior scientists and engineers at the

DOE National Laboratories, National

Aeronautical and Space

Administration (NASA), private contractors, Desert Research Institute

(DRI), United States Geological

Services (USGS), United States Forest

Services (USFS), and other NOAA

laboratories.

The SORD meteorological monitoring network consists of twenty-nine

(29) 10m towers and two 30m towers.

Wind direction and speed is measured

at the 10m level on all the towers and

temperature and relative humidity is

sampled at the 2m level. Data from

these towers are transmitted via

microwave radio to a central processor
142 DOE SECTION 3

that checks the data, creates data files,

and archives the data every 15 minutes.

The data files are accessed by microcomputer to create graphics products

for operational use and for immediate

display at 15-minute intervals. 

SORD also operates two 915MHz

vertical profilers on the NTS--one

located in the middle of Yucca Flat and

one at the Hazardous Materials Spill

Center (HMSC) in Frenchman Flat

near Mercury, Nevada. In addition, a

NOAA full surface radiation

(SURFRAD) budget station is operated and maintained at the Desert Rock

Meteorological Observatory (DRA)

located in the southern part of the NTS.

Upper-air soundings are taken twice

daily, at 00 and 12 Universal Time

Coordinated (UTC) from the DRA

facility. SORD also operates mobile

upper-air sounding systems and mobile

pilot balloon (PIBAL) equipment to

support special projects requiring

winds aloft data in real-time.

Large-scale meteorological data and

National Center for Environmental

Prediction (NCEP) weather forecast

products are received via AWIPS, or

from University Center for

Atmospheric Research (UCAR) and

ARL-Silver Spring. Weather products

are supplied to DOE contractors, the

National Laboratories (e.g., SNL,

LANL, and LLNL), the NWS, and

Nellis AFB include real-time cloud-toground lightning flash graphical products and local forecast products.

SORD has also implemented the

Regional Atmospheric Modeling

System (RAMS) that can predict

boundary layer air flow over complex

terrain. RAMS accesses the NCEP

predictive model outputs and is run at

the University of Nevada at Las Vegas

Supercomputer Center on a daily basis.

SORD provides meteorological

monitoring support and project-specific weather forecast services to the

Nuclear Emergency Search Team

(NEST), the Federal Radiological

Monitoring and Assessment Center

(FRMAC), and the Accident Response

Group (ARG) activities. Monitoring

support includes surface and upper-air

data collection and analysis. Weather

forecast service entails maintaining a

constant weather watch for conditions

that might impact NEST/FRMAC/

ARG operations and personnel, issuing

site-specific mesoscale wind, stability,

and weather forecasts, aviation weather support, and providing consultation

to the On-Scene Commander and to

National Laboratories personnel.

SORD maintains a web site

(www.sord.nv.doe.gov) that includes

graphical products that display current

meteorological conditions on the NTS,

including data from SORD vertical

profilers and climatological data.

Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR)

The ORR is home to four DOE sites:

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

(ORNL), the Y-12 Plant, the East

Tennessee Technology Park (ETTP,

formerly K-25 Site), and the Oak

Ridge Institute for Science and

Education (ORISE). Managed by the

Oak Ridge Operations Office (ORO),

the ORR encompasses nearly 100

square miles of hilly and heavily vegetated terrain in eastern Tennessee.

Meteorological network systems,

which support day-to-day operations,

are managed and operated at the three

main sites by the University of

Tennessee/Battelle, BWXT Y-12 and

Bechtel Jacobs Company. These network systems provide data that support

environmental management (permitting, facility siting and environmental

impact assessment), facility safety

(safety analyses), emergency management (hazards and consequence assessment), operations (work planning) and

substantial research.

The meteorological data acquisition

program at ETTP has two main towers.

K-1209 is 60m high while K-1208 is

30m in height. In addition, two 10m

supplemental towers are still operating. Lastly, a NEXRAD radar system,

and The Weather Channel are available

to each of the control rooms and emergency response facilities.

The Y-12 Plant has two meteorological towers (i.e., 100m and 60m) located at the east and west ends of the site,

respectively, and a Remtech Sodar

reporting vertical profile data from 50-

500m. ETTP and Y-12 Plant meteorological data is fed into the ORR

Emergency Operations Center (EOC)

and at emergency control centers for

hazard assessment, consequence

assessment, and protective action recommendations.

The data acquisition program at the

ORNL consists of three (two 30m and

one 100m) meteorological towers.

Meteorological data is fed to an ORNL

central computer system for analysis

and dissemination.

The NOAA Air Resources

Laboratory/Atmospheric Turbulence

and Diffusion Division (ARL/ATDD)

is located in Oak Ridge near the ORR.

The primary mission of ATDD is

atmospheric research. Substantial

research programs at ATDD are undertaken with the assistance of staff from

ORISE/Oak Ridge Associated

Universities (ORAU) and scientists

from other national laboratories and

organizations in the United States and

abroad. ARL/ATDD also works closely with the ORAU to enhance educational opportunities in atmospheric science.

ARL/ATDD research attention is

focused on the physics of the lower

atmosphere, with special emphasis on

the processes contributing to atmospheric transport, dispersion, and airsurface exchange, and on the development and improvement of predictive

capabilities using the results of this

research. Many other projects are

underway such as surface energy balance and CO2 exchange studies and

long-term studies of CO2 exchange

aimed at process-level understanding.

Operationally, ARL/ATDD personnel

provide meteorological consultation

and supplemental data for air quality
SECTION 3 DOE 143

analyses, environmental reports, and

hazard and consequence assessments.

Local climatology data are routinely

collected and distributed. Under

NOAA funding, ARL/ATDD operates

a regional network of 15 towers ranging from the Cumberland Mountains

(middle Tennessee) to the Smoky

Mountains on Tennessee's eastern border. Wind, temperature, and precipitation data are recovered every 15 minutes by telemetry and made available

to users.

ARL/ATDD incorporates NWS forecast products into the high-resolution,

regional, meteorological model (i.e.,

RAMS) to produce twice-daily

12-hour, 24-hour, and 36-hour predictions of surface winds for eastern

Tennessee, and transport trajectory

predictions for the ORR.

Pantex Plant

The Pantex Plant covers 15,977 acres

and is located 27 kilometers (km) (17

miles) northeast of Amarillo, Texas, in

Carson County. The Plant was a World

War II munitions factory and was converted to a nuclear weapons assembly

facility in 1951. Today, it is the

nation's only assembly/disassembly

facility supporting the nuclear

weapons arsenal. Pantex Plant is a

government-owned, contractor-operated facility. DOE oversees operation of

Pantex Plant through the Amarillo

Area Office, which reports to the

Albuquerque Operations Office.

Mason and Hanger Corporation has

been the operating contractor since

1956. On February 1, 2001, BWXT

Pantex has assumed the Pantex contract.

The Plant is composed of several

functional areas, commonly referred to

as numbered zones. These include a

weapons assembly/disassembly area, a

weapons staging area, an area for

development of experimental explosives, a drinking water treatment facility, a sanitary wastewater treatment

facility, and vehicle maintenance and

administrative areas. Other functional

areas include a utility area for steam

and compressed air, an explosive testfiring facility, a burning ground for

thermally treating explosive materials,

and landfills. Overall, there are more

than 700 buildings at the Pantex Plant.

The Environmental Protection/

Restoration Department (EP/RD) of

the Environment, Safety and Health

Directorate is tasked with the quality

assurance program for the meteorological data captured by the one on-site

two-level tower located in the northeast corner of the Plant site. The data

from this tower (10m and 60m) are

collected and used by the DOE

NARAC site workstation, located in

the Plant EOC. These data are collected and archived as 15-minute averages

plus maximum and minimum values

for each 15-minute period. They are

primarily used for input to the NARAC

emergency response models that could

be used for off-normal events involving radionuclides. Annual dispersion

model calculations of offsite radiation

doses from on site sources, required by

40 CFR 61, Subpart H, National

Emission Standards for Hazardous Air

Pollutants (NESHAP), are accomplished by the EP/RD. EP/RD uses the

EPA-approved CAP88-PC model and

the Pantex meteorological tower data

processed into the STAR format. This

department also maintains the Pantex

Plant climatology database.

Meteorological tower data is also

used by the Risk Management

Department for plume dispersion modeling applied to the Plutonium

Dispersal Consequence Analysis for

the Basis for Interim Operations (BIO)

validation and upgrade reports, other

operations directives, and other safety

analyses. Routine preventive maintenance on the meteorological instruments as well as calibration and certification are done semi-annually by the

United States Bureau of Land

Management (BLM). The BLM maintenance depot at Boise, Idaho performs

similar work for the United States

Forest Service's own meteorological

towers instruments. This work is done

under a contract administered by the

Pantex Emergency Management

Department. Emergency repairs and

replacement of sensors are also handled by the BLM Idaho depot.

Temperature and wind sensors are

replaced semi-annually with calibrated

and certified sensors. The barometer is

replaced annually. During the semiannual preventive maintenance visits

all of the other meteorological instruments are replaced by the BLM technician with rebuilt/refurbished, calibrated equipment, from the Idaho depot.

The maintenance check also includes

the telephone line, modem, and backup

power supply.

As a result of a FY 2000 project

meteorological tower data is now displayed on the Pantex Plant Intranet for

use by Plant personnel. During

FY2001, the potential for replacing the

existing wind sensor on the meteorological tower with a 3-dimensional

wind sensor will be evaluated. In addition, replacing/upgrading the NARAC

computer and software located at the

base of the tower that feeds data into

the NARAC Site System in the EOC

will also be considered. 

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at the Pantex Plant.

Rocky Flats Environmental

Technology Site (RFETS)

The RFETS is managed by the

Rocky Flats Operations Office and is

located approximately 16 miles northwest of downtown Denver, Colorado.

One of the smaller DOE sites, the facility occupies a 10 square mile area

along the foothills of the Rocky

Mountain Front Range.

A 61m meteorological tower at the

west-end of the site continuously monitors meteorological conditions at surface, 10, 25, and 60m above ground

level. The data are analyzed, quality

assured, and assembled into data sets

for use in atmospheric modeling, cli-
144 DOE SECTION 3

matology, and other analyses at the

site. Data from the 61 and 10m towers

are also transmitted back to the main

site every 15 minutes by telemetry for

use in emergency response modeling.

The Regional Atmospheric Response

Center (RARC) conducts meteorological activities associated with emergency preparedness and response at the

site. An upper air remote sensing

Sound Detection and Ranging/Radio

Acoustic Sounding System

(SODAR/RASS) continuously monitors winds, temperatures, and atmospheric stability above RFETS.

Through a cooperative agreement

with the Colorado Department of

Public Health and Environment, meteorological data are transmitted to the

site from five surface meteorological

stations by telemetry that form a ring

around the site perimeter. Another

cooperative agreement with NOAA

provides near real-time data from multiple monitoring sites throughout the

Denver metropolitan area. These data

are all received, quality assured, and

combined into a 3-dimensional observation set for emergency response

modeling every 15 minutes, 24 hours

per day.

The RARC provides 24-hour consequence assessment support for any

unplanned radiological or chemical

releases from the site. The Center

responds with customized weather

forecasts, plume projections, and dose

modeling results that lead to event

classifications and protective actions

for on-site and off-site populations.

RARC also conducts specialized consequence assessments in support of

emergency preparedness, hazard

assessments, and risk assessments for

RFETS. Weather forecasts are provided for severe weather events, such as

winter storms, windstorms, and severe

thunderstorms.

A customized modeling system has

been developed and implemented at

RFETS to predict the path and impacts

from any radiological emergency at the

site. Called the Computer-Assisted

Protective Action Recommendation

System (CAPARS), the new capability

addresses the need for fast, accurate

plume predictions in a complex atmosphere.

CAPARS provides a variety of

plume, weather, hazard, and related

products with the accuracy and speed

needed for response to an emergency

at RFETS. Eleven integrated major

subsystems form the overall CAPARS

capability. 

The State of Colorado has formally

accepted the CAPARS modeling system for emergency response and planning applications at RFETS. A specialized planning version of the

CAPARS system has been developed,

implemented, and applied for emergency planning at the RFETS. Called

the TRAC Risk Assessment/Hazards

Assessment Model, the capability is

designed to support hazards and risk

assessments for RFETS and to form

the basis for an evaluation of the size

and shape of the Emergency Planning

Zone (EPZ) surrounding RFETS.

Sandia National Laboratory (SNL)

The DOE Kirtland Area Office manages SNL in Albuquerque, New

Mexico, located between the Rio

Grande Valley and Manzano

Mountains. SNL covers approximately 80 square miles of flat to mountainFigure 3-DOE-3. Program overview of DOEs Atmospheric Radiation

Measurement (ARM) Program.
SECTION 3 DOE 145

ous arid terrain. Meteorological

Programs at SNL include both support

and research activities.

Meteorological services and support

are provided through the

Environmental Operations Center

(EOC) in the Laboratory Services

Division (LSD). The mission is to provide meteorological support for various operations including:

 Emergency response;

 Environmental surveillance and

characterization; and,

 Regulatory compliance.

The monitoring network consists of

six 10m and two 60m towers used to

measure wind direction and speed,

ambient temperature, and relative

humidity. There are also three precipitation gauges, two barometric pressure

sensors, and one solar radiation pyranometer in the network.

Key research activities are provided

through the Energy and Critical

Infrastructure Center in the Energy,

Information, and Technology Division.

SNL/NM scientists are involved in the

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement

(ARM) program and the Surface Heat

Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA).

The ARM project is a combined measurement and modeling program

(Figure 3-DOE-3). The goal is to gain

a better understanding of clouds and

their effect on atmospheric radiation,

with the final goal of developing better

climate models. The SHEBA program

addresses the interaction of the surface

energy balance, atmospheric radiation

and clouds over the Arctic Ocean.

Savannah River Site (SRS)

The SRS is under the responsibility

of the Savannah River Operations

Office (SR) and operated by the

Westinghouse Savannah River

Company. SRS is located in southwestern South Carolina, along the

banks of the Savannah River. The SRS

covers an area of approximately 300

square miles. It is heavily vegetated

with evergreen trees and contains

many streams, a swamp, and a 2,700-

acre reservoir built as a cooling pond

for the plant reactors. The topography

of SRS is characterized by gently

rolling forested hills with an adjacent

flood plain near the Savannah River.

The climate at SRS is typical of the

southeastern United States with long,

hot and humid summers and short mild

winters.

The Atmospheric Technologies

Group (ATG) of the Savannah River

Technology Center (SRTC) developed

the SRS meteorological monitoring

and modeling program in the early

1970's. This program supports the

SRS operations in the areas of emergency response consequence assessment, radiological and non-radiological air quality calculations for regulatory compliance, safety analyses, environmental impacts, engineering studies, environmental research and nonproliferation activities.

Meteorological activities include

daily weather forecasting services in

support of operations at SRS, with particular emphasis on severe weather

impacts. Local meteorological data are

obtained from a network of eight 200-

foot meteorological observing towers

located near the major production sites.

The instrumentation on these towers

includes sensitive bi-directional vanes

(i.e., bi-vanes), cup anemometers,

resistance thermometers and lithium

chloride humidity sensors. Additional

meteorological instrumentation is

located at the Central Climatology

Facility located near the geographical

center of the site to measure precipitation, evaporation, barometric pressure,

soil temperature, solar and long wave

radiation. Central Climatology

includes a 200-foot tower instrumented

at four levels. A network of twelve

additional rain gauges (that are read

daily) is located within SRS.

Additional local upper-air data are collected from three acoustic Doppler

radars, an airsonde system, and a tethersonde system. Portable towers are

used for case studies (Figure 3-DOT-4).

A collaborative agreement with surrounding counties involves assisting

them to install and operate several

local meteorological towers at nearby

chemical plants. Data from these towers are being integrated into the SRS

meteorological archiving and display

system the Weather Information and

Display System (WINDS).

The WINDS is the primary consequence assessment system for atmospheric and hydrologic releases from

SRS operations. A suite of atmospheric models linked to real-time site wide

atmospheric monitoring provides

transport, dispersion and consequence

calculations for emergency response.

The WIND system underwent a complete re-engineering to improve the

computer system reliability, performance and serviceability. The re-engineering involved distributing the data

processing and utilizing new data

acquisition hardware and relational

data base software. New workstation

clustering for data management and

PC/NT user workstations for local

Figure 3-DOE-4. Tethered meteorological Tower (Tethersonde).
146 DOE SECTION 3

model operation and graphical user

interfacing for displays were added.

An advanced non-hydrostatic, threedimensional, prognostic atmospheric

model is run twice daily on the SRTC's

CRAY computer separate domains:

(1) the Central Savannah River Area

(CSRA), (2) kilometer grid resolution); and (3) the area encompassing

South Carolina and Georgia (20km

resolution).

The CSRA model provides forecasts

with a minimum of six hours useable

forecast fields. The Georgia-South

Carolina model run provides forecasts

with a minimum of 24 hours useable

forecast fields. These forecast fields

are integrated into the WIND system

consequence assessment models.

Additional model runs are conducted

on an expanded domain to include the

entire southeastern United States on an

ad hoc basis when the SRS is threatened by hurricanes.

An aqueous model is also resident on

WINDS and linked to real-time stream

flow monitors operated by the USGS.

This model enables consequence

assessments for emergency response to

site streams and the Savannah River.

Regional, national, and international

meteorological data are received from

a commercial weather data provider

via satellite in real-time. Weather

workstations provide surface and

upper observations, analyzed and forecast weather parameter fields from the

NWS and the European Modeling

Center. These data are input into an

advanced, three dimensional, prognostic, atmospheric modeling system for

applications locally in the southeastern

United States and globally. Satellite

and Doppler radar data are also available in near real-time.

Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP)

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

(WIPP) is operated by Westinghouse

Electric Company's Waste Isolation

Division for the DOE Carlsbad Area

Office. A cornerstone of the DOE's

national clean-up strategy, the WIPP is

designed to permanently dispose of

transuranic radioactive waste generated by defense-related activities in the

Salado salt formation 2,150 ft beneath

the surface. WIPP is located in Eddy

County in southeastern New Mexico,

26 miles east of Carlsbad, and occupies 16 square miles of a region know

as Los Medanos. Geographically, the

region is regarded as a relatively flat,

sparsely inhabited plateau with little

surface water.

The WIPP Environmental Monitoring

(EM) Section performs meteorological

monitoring as part of the Non-radiological Environmental Monitoring

Program. The primary meteorological

station provides measurement of wind

direction and speed, temperature at 2,

10, and 50m, as well as ground level

measurements of barometric pressure,

relative humidity, precipitation, and

solar radiation. The main function of

the station is to generate data for operational support, emergency response

and regulatory dispersion modeling

applications. Parameters are monitored continuously and the data are

stored in the Central Monitoring

System, a computerized system including automated parameter checks, realtime displays in the Central

Monitoring Room, and data archiving.

Meteorological data are compiled and

distributed to stakeholders, including

the NOAA NWS, on a monthly basis.

In addition to the primary meteorological station, the Far Field Station

serves as a secondary meteorological

station and measures wind direction

and speed at 10m as well as temperature, barometric pressure at ground

level. System upgrades are currently

being considered for this station.

WIPP also, under a cooperative

agreement with the NWS, maintains a

Cooperative Weather Observing

Station at the Far Field Station. Data

from this station are compiled monthly

and the Record of Climatological

Observations form is submitted to the

Weather Forecast Office in Midland,

Texas. Under the same cooperative

agreement, the Midland office is given

access to real-time data from the primary meteorological station.

Weldon Springs Site Remedial Action

Project (WSSRAP)

Various facilities at Weldon Springs

in St. Charles County, Missouri were

no longer needed, and a Remedial

Action Plan (RAP) was developed to

restore the site to its environmental

baseline. This activity is being coordinated under the Weldon Springs Site

Remedial Action Plan (WSSRAP),

under the management of DOE Oak

Ridge Operations Office (ORO), and

operated by an integrated Project

Management Contractor (PMC) consisting of MK-Ferguson and Jacobs

Engineering Group, Inc. WSSRAP,

which is approximately 30 miles west

of St. Louis, Missouri, is approaching

completion.

The mission of the WSSRAP has

been to conduct environmental restoration of the following:

 A 166-acre inactive uranium feed

materials plant (i.e., chemical plant

area);

 A 51-acre raffinate pit area;

 A 9-acre limestone quarry located

4 miles from the main site; and,

 Associated vicinity properties.

Within the scope of remediation is

cleanup of both radiological and chemical contaminants resulting from historical operations that included trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dinitrotoluene

(DNT) production (i.e., 1941-1945),

and uranium processing (i.e., 1956-

1966).

Fourteen interim response actions

were developed and approved by

WSSRAP. Interim response actions

are activities that will not change the

ultimate disposal method but will mitigate or eliminate conditions that pose

immediate or potential threats to worker safety, public health, or the environment. Some of the interim actions

taken were removal of exposed friable

asbestos, overhead piping, polychlori-
SECTION 3 DOE 147

nated biphenyl (PCB) electrical equipment, power poles and wires, demolition of all buildings, isolation and capping of Ash Pond, and capping of other

highly contaminated areas. 

A meteorological monitoring program has been operated at the WSSRAP since 1994. The program consists

of a single monitoring station, located

at the eastern edge of the chemical

area, more than 400 ft from the nearest

building and is considered representative of all areas undergoing remediation. The WSSRAP meteorological

station continuously measures and

records wind speed and wind direction

at 10m above ground level, as well as

horizontal wind fluctuation at 10m

above ground level, barometric pressure, relative humidity, solar radiation,

and precipitation intensity. 

The data collected by this station has

been used to support numerous project

functions at the site, including:

 Meteorological information to support emergency response activities

in the event of an unscheduled

chemical or radiological release;

 Information for atmospheric dispersion modeling to provide an

environmental safety and health

contribution to engineering design

of site facilities;

 Rainfall, temperature, and wind

speed data to support wetland and

lake ecological studies and for support of foliar vegetation absorption

analysis;

 Precipitation data to support the

correlation of aquifer level fluctuations in the quarry and Femme

Osage Slough;

 Environmental reporting including

the annual Site Environmental

Report and the Effluent

Information System/On-Site

Discharge Information System

Report;

 Wind speed data needed for compliance with Occupational Safety and

Health Administration (OSHA)

construction management activities;

 Precipitation data to support the

National Pollutant Discharge

Elimination System (NPDES)

storm water permit application;

 Temperature and relative humidity

data to support environmental safety and health field activities during

periods of extreme heat and cold;

 Groundwater studies to evaluate the

impact of rainfall on contamination

in the underlying aquifer; and,

 Wetland and lake ecological studies

for support of foliar vegetation

absorption analysis.

As of the end of 2000, the site has

been essentially remediated and almost

all contaminated materials have been

permanently disposed in the 45-acre

onsite disposal cell. The contaminated

material in the cell is covered by at

least I foot of clean soil, and the cell

cap is due to be placed during 2001.

Thus, the meteorological station is no

longer necessary to support radiological activities or dispersion modeling.

However, it will continue to be operated for at least another year in support

of general construction activities and

groundwater studies.

Yucca Mountain Project (YMP)

As part of DOE's Office of Civilian

Radioactive Waste Management

(OCRWM), the Yucca Mountain

Project (YMP) studies may eventually

support a recommendation of Yucca

Mountain for the nation's first geologic repository for spent nuclear fuel and

other high level radioactive waste. The

current meteorological program within

the YMP focuses on environmental

compliance and operational health and

safety considerations, for both employees and the general public

(Figure 3-DOE-5).

As with a number of DOE sites, the

Yucca Mountain area is one of complex topography and heterogeneous

surface characteristics, creating

mesoscale conditions that locally influence onsite weather. The YMP meteorological program, therefore, includes

four full stations for measuring atmospheric dispersion and general meteorological conditions, as well as nine precipitation stations. These stations

serve to monitor the significant variations in airflow, rainfall, and temperature caused by the area's complex terrain environment. The meteorological

stations are key to the thorough monitoring of these variations that is essential for YMP's ongoing commitment to

Figure 3-DOE-5. Yucca Mountain (100 miles northwest of Las Vegas,

Nevada) is unpopulated land owned by the Federal Government and adjacent

to the Nation's nuclear weapons test site.
148 DOE SECTION 3

environmental compliance and to the

health and safety of employees and the

public. 

The YMP meteorological program

also provides essential data for the

studies necessary to evaluate the site's

suitability for a potential repository.

Should the site be deemed suitable and

a repository licensed, built, and operated, water would be the primary means

by which radioactive materials could

be transported to the accessible environment. Thus, movement of water

from the atmosphere to the surface and

on through the mountain is a key concern. The meteorological program

provides essential data for the infiltration model of the mountain. Data

about precipitation, humidity, evapotranspiration, surface water run-on,

solar radiation, air temperatures, and

wind patterns all contribute to the

overall infiltration model. The model

gives special emphasis to the transient,

or temporal, versus steady-state rates

of water movement through the unsaturated zone of rock at Yucca Mountain.

The temporal variation of infiltration

may be short term, due to weather fluctuations that drive episodic flow, or

much longer term, in periods corresponding to climate change. Data

from the meteorological program's

ongoing monitoring programs are supplemented by the program's paleoclimatology studies. Together, they provide essential information for the YMP

modeling of past, present, and future

infiltration rates. 

If the potential repository were actually built and operated, continuous

meteorological monitoring and analysis would also be essential for the operational facilities on the surface of the

mountain, at least until the final closure of the repository. Buildings

would be built to withstand the probable maximum flood and wind conditions, and administrative controls

would be in place to suspend operations during severe weather conditions.

An integral part of the emergency

response system would include monitoring the overall environmental situation at the repository site. In turn, an

integral part of the overall environmental monitoring system would be

the meteorological monitoring system.

This system would collect real-time

meteorological information about the

site and provide weather forecasting

and climatological data. Such data

would be essential for management

decisions regarding the health and

safety conditions for employees and

the public.

DOE Meteorological Coordinating

Council (DMCC)

Based on a need to facilitate more

coordination and cooperation among

the meteorological activities at the

DOE field offices, the DMCC (the

Council) was established in December

1994. The mission of the Council is to

coordinate meteorological support and

research to meet DOE objectives. The

objectives of the council are to:

 Promote cost-effective support for

all DOE facilities;

 Plan for future needs, requirements,

and missions;

 Advocate awareness of atmospheric science applications and benefits

to DOE; and,

 Advocate the use of common methods, procedures, and standards.

Council oversight is provided by a

steering committee consisting of DOE

headquarters and field element representatives. Products of the DMCC

include analysis of meteorological

requirements embedded in DOE orders

and guidance, site meteorological program peer reviews, and, as needed,

customized technical assistance.

Assist visits have been conducted at

DOE/NV, WIPP, Pantex, and

DOE/OR. A follow-up assist visit was

also conducted at WIPP. Additional

assist visits are in the planning stages

and will be conducted over the next

several years. The DMCC web page

has been broadened and can be

accessed at www.sord.nv.doe.gov.

Space Weather Activities

Los Alamos National Laboratory is

involved in a full spectrum of space

weather activities. LANLs responsibility begins with the design, fabrication, testing, and integration of space

hardware on United States satellite

assets. LANL is also responsible for

the collection, analysis, and archiving

of data from those instruments, and for

providing value-added data products,

theory, simulation, and expertise to

end-users. DOE's National Nuclear

Security Administration (NNSA)

funds the activities described here in

accordance to a Memorandum of

Understanding with other United

States agencies, such as the DOD. The

two primary programs that provide

space weather data and make them

available to a broad user community

are: (1) several series of classified

geosynchronous satellites and (2) the

Global Positioning System (GPS).

The geosynchronous data set at

LANL spans more than 26 years (two

complete solar cycles) of energetic

particle data and 13 years (1989-present) of complete energy coverage,

from nearly zero eV to many MeV.

The current generation of LANL/GEO

satellite instruments include three particle detectors--(1) the Magnetospheric

Plasma Analyzer (MPA), (2) the

Synchronous Orbit Plasma Analyzer

(SOPA), and (3) the Energetic

Spectrometer for Particles (ESP).

Using funding from the NSF Space

Weather Program and Boeing

Corporation, LANL has produced a set

of "merged" data from the MPA,

SOPA, and ESP detectors and provided

those data to NSF, Boeing, and other

interested agencies and researchers.

The GPS consists of 24 satellites at

55 degree inclination orbits with a

period of 12 hours. GPS is best known

for its navigational mission and for the

ability to measure ionospheric total

electron content (TEC) along the line

of site from a ground station to a satellite. The GPS satellites, however, have
SECTION 3 DOE 149

an additional space weather capability

provided by energetic particle detectors, which measure the energetic particle radiation environment. To date,

the GPS energetic particle data have

primarily been used in studies of the

Earth's relativistic electron belt. A

major change is planned for this program as the Burst Detector Dosimeter

(BDD) instruments will be replaced by

Combined X-Ray Dosimeters (CXD).

BDD instruments were flown on 4 of

the 24 GPS satellites, providing simultaneous coverage from four spacecraft.

CXD instruments will be flown on

every GPS IIF spacecraft, eventually

providing a constellation of 24 simultaneously operating energetic particle

detectors measuring the Earth's radiation belts. When complete, the GPS

constellation will represent the largest

operational fleet of space weather platforms in existence.
Bureau of Land Management

BLM is one of five Federal Land

Management agencies which have centralized Wildland fire weather operations at the National Interagency Fire

Center (NIFC), Boise, Idaho

(Figure 3-DOI-1). BLM's Initial

Attack Management System (IAMS)

was designed in the mid-1980's to provide real time data access and modeling for the fire management organization. The IAMS required a considerable dedicated telecommunications

network for data distribution. In an

effort to reduce these inherent telecommunications costs, the BLM has

moved into a "web server" environment. This new system is called the

BLM Wildland Fire Management

Information Site (WFMIS)

(www.nifc.blm.gov). Many of the

capabilities that were centrally located

in the old IAMS have been moved to

other web sites.

The principal WFMIS inputs remain

the same with Remote Automatic

Weather Station (RAWS) and National

Lightning Detection Network (NLDN)

information. Additional fire management information is summarized and

made available at the Western

Regional Climate Center (www.wrcc.

sage.dri.edu) and the United States

Forest Service Wildland Fire Assessment System (//svinet2.fs.fed.us/

land/wfas/).

The BLM's RAWS Program primarily collects meteorological data for fire

weather forecasting. In past years, the

network also provided considerable

support to nonfire entities and was

operated year around. However, with

increased pressure on operational dollars, the BLM Office of Fire and

Aviation Management has decided to

restructure its network. Plans were to

reduce the fire network by about one

fourth in the western states. However,

after considerable study, and optimization, actual reductions have been about

15 percent. With continued funding

pressures, the requirement to replace

aging equipment, and the considerable

costs associated with maintaining such

a large network, BLM Fire

Management's strategy was to reduce

the total number of RAWS, move to a

single station classification (all stations

configured the same), operate only

during the traditional western fire season (RAWS no longer maintained in

winter months), and to use any savings

in operating funds to replace aging

equipment and upgrade the remaining

network. However, once again, the

expanded use of Fire Managements

RAWS data set by other non-fire users

has generated funding to permit year

around operation of the entire network.

The BLM's Resource Management and

Oregon O&C (West-Side) RAWS networks will continue to operate and to

be supported as in the past. These networks are much smaller and have specific program requirements that differ

from fire management.

In 1997, the BLM began contracting

with a private vendor via the National

Weather Service for lightning location

data. Data is received at the NIFC in

Boise, Idaho and placed on the BLM

WFMIS for qualified user access.

Current plans are to continue the operDEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of the Interior's (DOI) Atmospheric Science activities are primarily research and, historically, have been reported through the Subcommittee for Atmospheric Research. However, budgetary information for the Bureau of Land Management's operational wildfire weather data collection system is reported in this Federal Plan. The narrative below describes the full-range of meteorological

activity in the Interior Department.

SECTION 3 DOI 151

Figure 3-DOI-1. National Interagency Coordination Center coordinates with

the GACCs for wildland fire supplies and resources.
152 DOI SECTION 3

ation of the Alaska Automatic

Lightning Detection System as an

independent government-owed and

operated system.

The BLM's Remote Sensing Fire

Weather Support Unit at NIFC provides a full range of specialized management, maintenance, data, and support services for the BLM and numerous other Government agencies. This

interagency staffed and funded facility

performs work under long-term interagency agreements with those agencies

within the government having similar

equipment and requirements. Staffing

levels within this Group are being

adjusted to meet the overall interagency requirements.

In addition to the meteorological

monitoring BLM conducts primarily to

support Wildland fire management

activities, the BLM also conducts sitespecific climate monitoring at over 200

manual weather station locations on

the Public Lands in the eleven western

states and Alaska. The operation of

these sites ranges from seasonal to

annual measurements of precipitation,

temperature, soil moisture and other

meteorological parameters necessary

to assess local climatic influences.

These data are primarily used for natural resources management and planning at the local level.

During the 1999 fire season, the

Remote Sensing/Fire Weather Support

Unit began a 2-year "proof of concept"

effort with a portable weather station

referred to as the Fire RAWS (FRWS).

FRWS are intended for use on or near

the fireline and are rapidly relocated to

points desired by Fire Behavior

Analysts (FBA's) for real time weather

data. Due to the extreme fire season in

both 1999 and 2000, the FRWS was

used extensively and was found to be a

valuable asset for firefighter safety and

fire weather forecasting.

Currently, seventeen FRWS systems

are cached at NIFC for use during the

2001 season. Prescribed Fire managers are encouraged to call for information pertaining to weather window

prescriptions. FRWS collect, store,

and forward data by interrogated voice

radio with new data available every fifteen minutes. Satellite data can be

retrieved from the BLM/NIFC website. Hourly satellite data is available

to Fire Weather Forecasting Staff for

spot forecasts and fire support from all

central locations (GACC's, NIFC,

etc.).

National Park Service

The Park Service monitors air quality and visibility in several national

parks and monuments

(Figure 3-DOI-2). Gaseous pollutants

data are collected on continuous and

integrated (24-hour) bases. Surface

meteorological data are collected and

analyzed for hourly averages.

Precipitation chemistry is determined

on week-long integrated rainfall samples. Twenty-four hour, average particle concentrations (mass, elemental

analyses, some chemical constituent

analyses) are measured twice weekly.

Atmospheric light extinction is measured continuously and relayed to a central location for analyses.

The NPS also conducts and contracts

research to develop and test air quality

models to assess long-range transport,

chemical transformation, and deposition of air pollutants. These models

are used to estimate source contributions to, and to identify source regions

responsible for, observed pollutant

loadings.

The Fish and Wildlife Service Air

Quality Branch and the NPS Air

Resources Division operate under an

interagency agreement and are collocated in Lakewood, Colorado.

Expertise from both agencies is pooled

to address the air quality issues that are

the responsibility of the Assistant

Secretary of the Interior for Fish and

Wildlife and Parks (Figure 3-DOI-3).

United States Geological Survey

The Survey's Water Resources

Division (WRD) collects streamflow,

precipitation, and other climatological

data for a number of projects concerning rainfall/runoff, water quality and

hydrologic processes. Currently, the

Geological Survey collects hydrometeorological data from approximately

5130 remote Data Collection

Platforms. The data are transmitted to

Wallops, Virginia, via GOES and

rebroadcast to a domestic communication satellite (DOMSAT). Data are

received from the DOMSAT by local

readout ground stations (LRGS) procured by the Geological Survey under

a 1992 contract. The USGS currently

operates 15 LRGS' which provide

near-real-time data to the Survey's

computerized National Water

Information System. The USGS also

collects precipitation samples in a

number of studies for the determination of atmospheric contribution to the

chemical constituent loads to runoff,

and for defining the effect of atmosFigure 3-DOI-2. Visibility impairment from air pollution at Acadia

National Park, Maine. Top: Clear;

middle: moderate; bottom: hazy
SECTION 3 DOI 153

pheric deposition on water quality and

the aquatic environment.

The USGS is carrying out a joint

research program with NASA and the

University of Washington, Seattle,

WA, Electrical and Civil Engineering

Departments to measure snowpack

water equivalent or snow depth using

satellite passive microwave observations from the Defense Meteorological

Satellite Program SSM/I sensor.

Unlike observations in the visible

bands, passive microwave observations are independent of cloud cover

and solar illumination and respond to

both snow depth and snowpack grain

size. The satellite observations are

being compared to snowpack data

from a variety of sources:

USDA/NRCS automatic SNOTEL

sites; NOAA/NWS sites; and observations by USGS field teams which

include grain size, density and stratigraphy. The object of the program is to

develop algorithms to extract snow

depth or water equivalent information

from the satellite observations to be

used in near real time water resource

assessments and in climatological

studies based on snow pack distributions determined from the two decade

long satellite record. The investigation

is developing techniques to utilize

algorithms that include the effects of

grain size metamorphoses and to incorporate these algorithms into hydrologic models.

The Survey also carries out research

in past climate change, regional

hydrology, the carbon cycle, coastal

erosion, volcanic activity, and glaciology. As part of its glaciology program,

the Survey maintains a benchmark program on three benchmark glaciers representative of different climatic zones

of the western United States, one in

Washington, one on the south coast of

Alaska and one in the interior of

Alaska. At each glacier the program

measures the winter snow accumulation, summer snow and iceablation, air

temperature, and runoff in the glacier

basin. Analysis of this 39 year long

record is providing a greater understanding of the climate variability and

its effects on water resources of the

western United States. The record

clearly shows the effects of changing

winter precipitation patterns associated

with El Niño and La Nina events. In

addition, the record from South

Cascade Glacier, in Washington State,

indicates that we are returning to the

cool phase of the Pacific Decadal

Oscillation. Both the snowpack and

glaciology program now incorporate

data supplied by the intelligence community through the coordination of the

Civil Applications Committee (CAC).

The Survey's Geologic Division,

through the USGS Geomagnetism

Group in Golden, Colorado, collects

data on temporal variations of the

Earth's magnetic field from a global

network of over 70 geomagnetic observatories. These observatories (which

include 14 operated directly by USGS)

all belong to the INTERMAGNET

program. Under INTERMAGNET,

data from a global network of geomagnetic observatories are transmitted in

near-real-time via satellites and computer links (E-mail) to collection and

dissemination points called

Geomagnetic Information Nodes

(GIN's). Five GIN's are now located in

Europe, North America, and Asia.

Magnetic field data are key inputs to

the National Space Environment

Forecast and Warning Program, which

is coordinated by the OFCM, and to

the new inter-agency National Space

Weather Program. These data are used

for nowcasting, forecasting, and modeling of "space weather" -- particularly

the effects of geomagnetic disturbances. These effects range from:

satellite computer upsets and early reentry, to disruption of radio communications, to degradation of navigation

systems [such as Global Positioning

System (GPS)], and to outages of

power distribution grids. The roles and

responsibilities of agencies participating in the National Space Environment

and Warning Program are detailed in

the "National Plan for Space

Environment Services and Supporting

Research, 1993-1997" (FCMP10-

1993) which was prepared by the

OFCM Committee for Space

Environment Forecasting.

The Survey participates in the

Working Group for Volcanic Ash

(WG/VA) of the OFCM. This working

group is preparing A National

Figure 3-DOI-3. Air pollutants emitted by human-made sources affect natural

resources of FWS lands.
154 DOI SECTION 3

Framework for Volcanic Ash Hazards

to Aviation. Through its Volcanic

Hazards Program, the Survey is

responsible for monitoring volcanoes

in the United States; of the approximately 56 historically active volcanoes

in the United States, 44 are in Alaska.

Until the 1980s, the Alaskan volcanoes

had been largely unstudied. Despite

the low population density of much of

the State, Alaska's volcanoes underlie

the heavily traveled air routes of the

North Pacific region.

During recent years, the Survey's

Alaskan Volcano Observatory (AVO)

has expanded its network of real-time

seismic monitoring stations to bring 21

of the State's volcanoes under continuous, real-time surveillance. Data and

information from the AVO monitoring

activities are integrated directly into

the regional operational activities of

the FAA, DOD, and NWS to provide

warnings for pilots and aircraft operators in the Alaskan region

(Figure 3-DOI-4).

Internationally, the OFCMs WG/VA

supported expansion of Survey monitoring activities in the remote Pacific

Rim of explosive volcanoes. The 100

historically active volcanoes in Alaska,

Kamchatka, and the Kuriles are monitored through satellite imagery several

times a day. Currently, about 220 aircraft per day - carrying about 20,000

passengers and millions of dollars of

cargo value - fly international Northern

Pacific Routes near these historically

active volcanos. About half these

flights are United States carriers.

AVO, through its working agreement

with the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption

Response Team (KVERT) in

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Russia,

also supplies information about eruptive activity in Kamchatka and the

Kuriles to the FAA, the NWS, and

numerous domestic and foreign air carriers.

Bureau of Reclamation

The Bureau of Reclamation

(Reclamation) activities requiring the

collection and use of meteorological

data include water supply forecasting,

snowpack water equivalent assessment, river system management, reservoir operations, irrigation scheduling,

drought status assessment, flood

hydrology, and projects related to

hydroelectric energy resources. One

example of such an ongoing activity

within the Science and Technology

Program is the Watershed and River

System Management Program

(WaRSMP), which is being developed

in partnership with the USGS. This

program provides a data-centered

framework for science-based water

resources decision making. Major

components are:

 Hydrologic Data Base (HDB),

 Modular Modeling System (MMS), 

 RiverWare river system modeling

framework,

 Stochastic Analysis, Modeling and

Simulation (SAMS) system, and

 Agricultural Water Resources

Decision Support (AWARDS) and

Evapotranspiration Toolbox (ET

Toolbox) system.

Hydrologic modeling: SAMS is

being used in WaRSMP to assist water

resource managers in developing likely hydrologic scenarios for water supplies. It allows users to test various

water resources management strategies, including extreme drought and

high flow scenarios which haven't been

encountered in the historical period of

record.

The RiverWare and HDB data-centered decision support system enables

water managers to examine a variety of

observed and forecast hydrologic scenarios using hourly, daily, or monthly

data within the legal and physical constraints on operations of the river system. This model provides a holistic

Figure 3-DOI-4. Composite image shows the relative movement of the

February 19, 2001 eruption cloud from Mt. Cleveland as observed by the

GOES 10 satellite. The first image at 1615 UTC on 2/19/01 is approximately

2 hours after the initial eruption start time. Over time, this first plume became

bifurcated, or split, and sent ash to the southeast up to FL200 (20,000 ft.) and

to the northwest up to FL300 (30,000 ft.). After this time, the plume rose to

FL350 (35,000 ft.). Times are listed in UTC (or Z).
SECTION 3 DOI 155

management tool for watershed and

river systems, in order to meet a variety of competing demands for water.

Each new river system requires considerable development work (2-3 years)

for RiverWare and HDB implementation. However, such a system can provide for efficient water operations

management, and is especially useful

during periods of drought and surplus -

as demonstrated by the recent

"Colorado River Interim Surplus

Criteria: Final Environmental Impact

Statement". (www.lc.usbr.gov/~g4000/

surplus/SURPLUS_FEIS.HTML)

Current Reclamation Science and

Technology Program projects under

WaRSMP include:

 Planning and developing HDB,

MMS and RiverWare systems for

the Gunnison, San Juan, Rio

Grande, Yakima, and Truckee river

systems;

 SAMS integration and testing for

the Colorado River Basin;

 Implementing AWARDS systems

to improve the efficiency of water

management and irrigation scheduling for the Tualatin Project,

Upper Columbia project areas, and

Lower Colorado area;

 Developing the AWARDS/ET

Toolbox system in the Middle Rio

Grande and providing 24-hr water

use estimates for input, via the

Corps of Engineers' Hydrologic

Engineering Center Decision

Support System or a new HDB, to

the Rio Grande RiverWare; and

 Implementing similar

AWARDS/ET Toolbox systems

with input to local HDBs and

RiverWare systems in the Upper

Columbia, Lower Colorado, and

possibly the Truckee-Carson areas.

An additional product of the

WaRSMP is the Hydrologic Modeling

Inventory (HMI) which provides general technical information and contacts

for a wide variety of water resources

models presently in use. The HMI is

being expanded and can be accessed

on the Web (www.usbr.gov/hmi).

Decision Support Systems: The

AWARDS/ET Toolbox for the Middle

Rio Grande is a good example of decision support tool development to

enhance river system management. An

AWARDS system was implemented to

meet a critical need for improvement

in calculating and forecasting daily

agricultural and riparian water use

demands along the Middle Rio

Grande. This Internet-based automated information system assists water

managers and users by providing easy

access to daily rainfall and crop water

use estimates. These estimates are

based on real-time data obtained from

NEXRAD radar systems and automated weather stations. The NEXRAD

precipitation products use the NWS's

Hydrologic Rainfall Analysis Project

(HRAP) grid, which has a resolution of

about 4km2.

The ET Toolbox builds on the

AWARDS system, adding GIS land

use to specify crop, riparian, and open

water acreage within each grid cell.

The primary purpose of the ET

Toolbox is to accumulate the grid cells'

daily rainfall and water use estimates

within specified river reaches. These

estimates are presented on the Internet

(www.usbr.gov/rsmg/nexrad) and

imported into RiverWare, which is the

river modeling and water accounting

system used by the Upper Rio Grande

Water Operations Model.

Figure 3-DOI-5 (below) is an example

Figure 3-DOI-5. Example of a Middle Rio Grande Evapotranspiration

Toolbox pop-up graph for daily water consumption use.
156 DOI SECTION 3

of an ET Toolbox pop-up graph summary of daily water consumptive use

for the area from Cochiti Dam to San

Marcial, New Mexico, for a time period in July-August 2000. The figure

shows the effect of a heavy rainfall

event on 29 July; the effects of lighter

rainfall events can also be noted.

Rio Grande water operations managers at Reclamation's Albuquerque

Area Office used the ET Toolbox website several times a day to direct critical water releases for the threatened

Silvery Minnow and to meet other irrigation demands during the severe 2000

drought. They found that the ET

Toolbox information was "invaluable"

for their decision making. System

enhancements were made in near real

time to provide specialized support.

Radar meteorology: A new version

of Reclamation's Snow Accumulation

Algorithm (SAA) was developed

under the auspices of the GEWEX

Continental-Scale International

Program (GCIP) and Reclamation's

Science and Technology Program.

This model uses real-time NEXRAD

Level III radar data and was deployed

in the north-central United States as a

demonstration project during cool seasons from 1998-2001. It provides

graphical distributions of snow water

equivalent (SWE) and snow depth

(SD) estimates on the Internet. The

end goal is to improve snowpack water

equivalent assessments and input SWE

into the river model at the NWS

Missouri Basin River Forecast Center,

which will lead to more accurate

streamflow forecasts.

Recently the SAA was improved by

several major modifications, which

primarily identify different precipitation types (snow, melting snow, rain).

The inclusion of different precipitation

types, led to renaming the SAA as the

Precipitation Accumulation Algorithm

(PAA). The former SAA range correction employed a mean Vertical Profile

of Reflectivity (VPR) recast as a function of range. The PAA restores the

adjustment with a true VPR based on

clearance between the radar beam center and the terrain surface.

In the PAA, precipitation phase in the

radar beam and at the surface is classified into three types: dry snow, melting

snow (slush), and rain, based on hourly

model sounding altitudes of the highest

0

o

C and lowest +4oC levels. If any part

of the radar beam is between those altitudes, it is considered contaminated by

bright band effects. If the surface temperature is warmer than +4o

C, snow

depth SD is not accumulated because

rain is assumed. The relationship

between equivalent radar reflectivity

Ze and rainfall rate R is approximated

by the power law Ze =aR

b

. The three

precipitation type classes in the PAA

have different a but bremains constant

(2.0). Tests are also being implemented in the PAA to identify virga, or precipitation that is not reaching the

ground.

Improved quantitative precipitation

estimates are expected from PAA -

which will lead to better watershed

precipitation water volume and runoff

estimates for the AWARDS system.

This will provide water managers with

near real-time estimates of possible

sidewash inflows into the mainstem of

river systems (via a hydrologic runoff

model).

Water conservation efforts:

Reclamation is a partner with several

large western municipal water

providers in the study of benefits from

the implementation of water conserving landscaping. The study known as

the National Xeriscape Demonstration

Program includes the development of a

numerical evapotranspiration-based

model that will use municipal logistical and climatological data as inputs to

develop benefit estimates for municipalities of the West. Some early suggestions from the study point to inefficient irrigation by homeowners caused

by inefficient systems and operation, in

addition to using high water-consuming landscape plants. More study is

needed on development of "smart"

irrigation scheduling systems and centralized control by water providers.

During abnormal regional climate

conditions, Reclamation meteorologists assist water managers by evaluating environmental information and

providing guidance based on the

NOAA Climate Prediction Center's

(CPC) Weekly Threats Briefing

updates and CPC's seasonal and annual climate forecasts. Special related

studies are done upon the request of

Reclamation water operations managers, policy team leaders, and cooperating agencies.

Instrumentation: Currently, Reclamation's HYDROMET system collects

data from approximately 400 hydrometeorological data collection platforms

(DCPs) which transmit data in the

"real-time" through the GOES to the

Bureau's DRGS in Boise, Idaho.

AGRIMET is another network of

60 DCPs dedicated to analysis of crop

water use and water conservation in

the Pacific Northwest. Data collected

and products created in Boise are electronically transferred to other Bureau,

Federal and state offices.

Minerals Management Service

The Minerals Management Service's

Environmental Studies Program gathers offshore environmental data for use

in the management of offshore oil and
SECTION 3 DOI 157

gas resources. Currently, MMS is

funding the continued operation of five

meteorological buoys which transmit

data via NOAA satellites. Two buoys

are located in the Gulf of Mexico and

three in the Pacific Ocean off

California. The MMS also utilizes

data from other buoys funded by

NOAA. The buoys collect air temperature, sea surface temperature, wind

direction, wind speed, wave height,

and wave spectrum data.

In FY 1998, the MMS started data

collection from two 915-MHz profilers

with RASS to study the atmospheric

boundary layer over the Gulf of

Mexico. One profiler is located on a

platform about 6 miles off the central

Louisiana coast; the other is placed in

deeper waters about 130 km from

shore. Hourly observations are transmitted to the NWS via GOES satellite

on a real-time basis for use in prognostic models. Data collection started in

June 1998 and will end in late 2001.

Each site also collects surface data on

wind, temperature, relative humidity,

atmospheric pressure, and sea surface

temperature. The MMS initiated a

3-year study to synthesize the data

from the two profilers along with data

from various other sources in the Gulf

of Mexico and adjacent onshore area.

The goal of this effort is to establish a

data base on marine boundary layer

and atmospheric dispersion characteristics in the Gulf.

Upon request by MMS, the oil and

gas industry has undertaken an aerometric monitoring program for the offshore area within 100 km of the Breton

National Wilderness Area. Six monitoring stations were established, five of

them located on offshore platforms.

All of them collect surface meteorological data. Four of the sites have

radar profilers with RASS. Three of

the sites also collect air quality data.

Data collection started in September

2000 and will continue through August

2001. The purpose of the program is to

obtain a data set for air quality modeling in the area.

Bureau of Indian Affairs

The Bureau of

Indian Affairs collects atmospheric

data to evaluate

potentially irrigable

IndianTrust lands in

the Southwest. The Bureau also shares

fire weather data with other Federal

agencies while participating in fire

weather forecasting at NIFC.
Stratospheric ozone depletion has

been recognized as a critical health and

environmental problem for more than a

decade. Under DOS leadership, the

United States worked to negotiate

international agreements to phase out

ozone-depleting substances, which

should lead to a recovery of the ozone

layer in the next century. To date,

these treaties have been signed and ratified by more than 170 countries

(including the United States), representing 99 percent of the world's production of ozone depleting substances.

The IPCC, which is jointly sponsored by the World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) and the United

Nations Environment Program

(UNEP), held its first session in 1988.

This organization serves as a government forum to assess the state of scientific and technical information regarding climate change. The IPCC is currently organized in three working

groups, examining: (1) the state of the

science, (2) impacts and adaptation,

and (3) mitigation. The IPCC released

its first and second assessment reports

in 1990 and 1995, respectively, and a

third assessment report from each of

the working groups is scheduled for

publication in the middle of 2001. In

addition to preparing assessment

reports, the IPCC also contributed to

international negotiations through

preparation and review of special

reports and development of methodologies requested by the Framework

Convention on Climate Change

(FCCC).

The FCCC was negotiated beginning

in February 1991; the Convention was

open for signature in Rio de Janeiro at

the Earth Summit in June 1992. As of

March 2001, it had been ratified by

186 countries, including the United

States. The first meeting of the

Conference of the Parties to the

Convention was held in Berlin in

March/April 1995. The Convention

calls for all countries to develop inventories of their emissions and sinks of

greenhouse gases and calls upon developed countries and economies in transition to aim to return these emissions

to their 1990 levels by the year 2000.

In December 1997, Parties to the

Convention reached agreement on the

Kyoto Protocol, which establishes targets for the reduction of greenhouse

gas emissions in developed countries

and countries with economies in transition.

In addition to its primary role in the

fora listed above, DOS is active on the

Committee on Environment and

Natural Resources (CENR) of the

National Science and Technology

Council. The CENR was established

in 1993 to coordinate scientific domestic programs. Furthermore, while the

emphasis on global environmental

issues is a key new component of the

department's focus, traditional DOS

responsibilities, described in earlier

federal plans, continue. These include,

but are not limited to, international

aspects of food policy, disaster warnings and assistance, WMO and UNEP

activities, and international meteorological programs.

DEPARTMENT OF STATE CLIMATE AND ATMOSPHERIC PROGRAMS

The Department of State (DOS) plays an active role in international climate/meteorological policy making as a result of the growing worldwide concern with global environmental issues, including the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and climate change. The role of DOS has principally revolved

around preparation and negotiation of the United States position in three fora: (1) the Conference of the

Parties to the Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone

Layer, (2) the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); and (3) negotiation under the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

SECTION 3 DOS 159
160 DOS SECTION 3
Meteorological support to the EPA

Office of Research and Development,

the EPA Office of Air and Radiation,

the EPA Regional Offices, and to state

and local agencies includes: (1) development and application of air quality

dispersion models for pollution control, direct and indirect exposure

assessments, and strategy creation;

(2) preparation and performance of

dispersion studies and air quality

model evaluations; and (3) review of

meteorological aspects of environmental impact statements, state implementation plans, and pollution variance

requests. Meteorological expertise and

guidance are also provided for the air

quality standard, modeling guideline,

and policy development activities of

the EPA.

In light of the 1990 Amendments to

the Clean Air Act, air quality models

and the manner in which they are used

are expected to continue to evolve over

the next few years. In the area of pollutant deposition, the evaluation of

nitrogen, oxidant, sulfur and aerosol

chemistries will help to clarify the

roles of model formulation, cloud

processes, radiative transfer, and

air/surface exchanges in air quality

model predictions, leading to a better

understanding of model predictions

relative to control strategy assessments. Further development and evaluation of existing air quality models

will take place to accommodate the

inter-pollutant effects resulting from

the variety of control programs that are

now or may be in place, such as the

revisions to the National Ambient Air

Quality Standards for ozone and particulate pollution. These inter- pollutant effects include trade-offs among

controls on ozone, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds, as well as developing predictable methods of forecasting the

impacts on various measures of air

quality.

With respect to inhalable particulate

model development, dispersion models

are being enhanced to accurately predict

aerosol growth from precursors over

local and regional transport distances.

To assist in the evaluation of the contribution of various sources to regional air

degradation, inert tracer and tagged

species numerical models have been

developed. These models will introduce separate calculations for inert or

reactive chemical species emitted from

a particular source or region. The calculations will proceed to simulate transport and transformation to a receptor

point, where the contribution of the particular source could be isolated.

With respect to oxidant air quality

modeling, the roles of biogenic volatile

organic compounds, rural nitrogen

oxides, and atmospheric transport are

being elucidated. A better understanding will be developed of the fundamental aspects of the ozone nonattainment problem such as differences in

urban and rural rates of and/or sources

of photochemical production and the

interaction through transport of these

ozone precursors. Much of this

research will be performed under the

program previously known as the

North American Research Strategy for

Tropospheric Ozone, now identified as

NARSTO.

Atmospheric research in the areas of

climate and climate change includes

ozone distribution in the global troposphere, the relationship between that

ozone distribution and climate (including temporal and spatial aspects), and

regional climate studies addressing the

interaction of climate with the biosphere. The climatology program

involves both analytical and statistical

climatology as well as support for

regional-scale climate model development. Climate change issues and their

feedbacks with the biosphere are being

stressed.

Research in human exposure modeling includes microenvironmental monitoring and modeling, and development of exposure assessment tools.

Microenvironmental algorithms are

being developed based on field data to

predict air quality in buildings,

attached garages, and street canyons.

These improved algorithms are then

incorporated into microenvironmental

simulation models for conducting

human exposure assessments within

enclosed spaces in which specific

human activities occur. A specific

application involves computer graphics-based solar radiation exposure

modeling. Three-dimensional graphics modeling software is used to display a near-photographic-quality

human model, and to illuminate the

model with a simulated sunlight

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCYWEATHER PROGRAMS

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for working with state, local, and other federal government agencies to provide user-appropriate and scientifically credible air quality meteorological programs to support regulatory applications. Applied research and meteorological support are

furnished primarily by the EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory and the EPA Office of Air

Quality Planning and Standards, both located in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. This activity

is provided through interagency agreements with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), which provides approximately 50 research meteorologists to the EPA.

SECTION 3 EPA 161
162 EPA SECTION 3

source. Since the American Cancer

Society reports that over 80 percent of

skin cancers occur on the face, head,

neck, and back of the hands, modeling

human exposure to solar radiation

requires that exposure calculations be

anatomically resolved. The calculation

of light illumination for various receptor points across the anatomy will provide information about different exposures as a function of model posture,

orientation relative to the sun, and sun

elevation. This kind of research will

provide a "dose" factor needed to

develop dose-response functions for

skin cancer, immune system suppression, and cataract formation.

In addition to these major areas, dispersion models for inert, reactive and

toxic pollutants are under development

and evaluation on all temporal and spatial scales, e.g., indoor, urban, complex

terrain, mesoscale, and regional. Other

efforts include construction and application of air pollution climatologies;

modeling of agricultural pesticide

spray drift and of fugitive particles

from surface coal mines; modeling of

trace metal deposition to the Great

Lakes, nutrient deposition to

Chesapeake Bay, and mercury deposition to the Florida Everglades; modeling of accidental releases of toxic compounds forming dense gas clouds;

determination and description of pollutant effects on atmospheric parameters;

and conversely, determination of meteorological effects on air quality.

Atmospheric flow and dispersion

experimental data obtained from wind

tunnel, water channel/towing tank, and

convection tank experiments in the

EPA Fluid Modeling Facility will be

used to continue development and

evaluation of these models in the

FY 2002 period, along with providing

researchers with insight into the basic

physical processes that affect pollutant

dispersion around natural and manmade obstacles. The convection tank

is also being used to simulate and

develop improved models for open

burning and open detonation of surplus

and obsolete military munitions.

Over the past twenty-five years,

numerous air quality simulation models have been developed to estimate

reductions of ambient air pollutants

resulting from potential emission control strategies. Separate models were

developed, for example, for tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog,

for acid deposition, and for fine particles. Distinct models also existed for

addressing urban scale problems and

the larger regional scale problems. It

has been recognized, however, that the

various pollutant regimes are closely

linked chemically and spatially in the

atmosphere. The principal purpose of

the Models-3/Community Multi-scale

Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling project

was to develop a "one atmosphere"

flexible environmental modeling tool

that integrates the major atmospheric

pollution regimes in a multi-scale,

multi-pollutant modeling system. This

system will enable high-level computational access to both scientific and air

quality management users for socioeconomic applications in community

health assessments and ecosystem sustainability studies.

After seven years of development,

the Models-3/CMAQ was released in

June 1998 and is being updated annually for use by Federal agencies,

States, industry, and academia. The

latest release occurred in April 2001. It

is also intended to serve as a commuFigure 3-EPA-1. (Left panel) Models-3/CMAQ simulation results for July 13, 1995, for the eastern United States at

36-km grid resolution showing (a) maximum hourly ozone concentration (ppmV) in each grid cell between 7 AM and

midnight EDT. (Right panel) 24-hr averages of PM2.5 concentrations (micrograms/m3) in each 36-km grid cell.
SECTION 3 EPA 163

nity framework for continual advancement and use of environmental assessment tools. Models-3/CMAQ, configured for the Windows-NT computer

system, is available on tapes from the

National Technical Information

Service (NTIS). It is accompanied by

an Installation and Operations Manual,

a User Manual, a Science Document,

and a Tutorial providing step by step

instructions for use of the modeling

capabilities. For more information,

visit the Models-3 web site at

http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/models3/.

Figure 3-EPA-1 illustrates

Models-3/CMAQ simulation results

for ozone and fine particulate matter

(PM2.5) for July 13, 1995, over the

eastern United States, a period of widespread ambient pollution in this part of

the nation.

EPA participation in the interagency

Information Technology Research

and Development (IT R&D) Program

is developing a modeling framework

that supports integration of diverse

models (e.g, atmospheric, land surface, and watershed) as part of EPA's

Multimedia Integrated Modeling

System (MIMS) project, described at

http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/mims/.

EPA's IT R&D work also enables

increased efficiency in air quality

meteorological modeling through

research on parallel implementation

of the CMAQ modeling system.

The evolving MIMS research seeks

to improve the environmental management community's ability to evaluate

the impact of air quality and watershed

management practices, at multiple

scales, on stream and estuarine conditions. Toward this goal the primary

objectives include: (1) developing a

prototype multiscale integrated modeling system with predictive meteorological capability for transport and fate of

nutrients and chemical stressors;

(2) enabling the use of remotely sensed

meteorological data; and (3) developing a computer-based problem solving

environment with ready access to data,

models, and integrated visualization

and analysis tools for water and air

quality management, local and regional development planning, and exposure-risk assessments. Under the

MIMS project, a variety of research

areas are being pursued such as the

integration of the National Weather

Service Next Generation Radar

(NEXRAD) Stage IV data into watershed modeling applications; enhanced

atmospheric dry deposition models;

multi-scale, spatially explicit watershed modeling tools; and model-coupling technology for integrating media

specific models. The MIMS development extends the open architecture

approach demonstrated in the third

generation modeling system,

Models-3/CMAQ, and is the next generation of modeling frameworks under

the IT R&D program.

The EPA also maintains relations

with foreign countries to promote

exchange of research meteorologists

and research results pertaining to meteorological aspects of air pollution.

One of the most active areas of cooperative research is with Russia under

the 1972 Nixon-Podgorny Agreement

forming the United States/Russia

(US/USSR) Joint Committee on

Cooperation in the Field of

Environmental Protection and under

the 1993 Gore-Chernomyrdin

Agreement forming the US/USSR

Commission on Economic and

Technological Cooperation. Other

agreements are in place with Canada,

Japan, Korea, China, and Mexico, and

with several European countries under

the NATO Committee on the

Challenges of Modern Society

(CCMS).
In carrying out its role, FEMA works

with all of the agencies to assure that

the delivery of meteorology-related

information is conducted in keeping

with established goals and objectives.

As administrator of the National Flood

Insurance Program (NFIP), FEMA

publishes Flood Insurance Rate Maps

for all flood-prone communities,

which serve as the official demarcation

for flood risk. FEMA administers the

National Hurricane Program and, for

regions subject to hurricanes, publishes hurricane evacuation maps based on

model simulation results from the

National Weather Service's National

Hurricane Center.

FEMA's priority interests with

OFCM are in supporting FEMA's predisaster initiatives (including Project

Impact) and in promoting standards

and procedures which will enhance the

ability of the Nation to mitigate and

recover from emergencies and disasters. These interests extend to national

standards for geographic information

systems (GIS) used for delivery of

meteorological products and services

by other agencies. FEMA also actively supports the OFCM-sponsored

Working Group for Post-Storm Data

Acquisition (WG/PSDA) and the

WG/PSDA's efforts to develop a

National Plan for Post-Storm Data

Acquisition to coordinate and support

the collection, by the federal agencies,

of perishable data after major storms.

These data have potential applications

in post-disaster mitigation activities,

the NFIP flood hazard analysis, the

FEMA National Hurricane Program

hurricane evacuation studies, and other

FEMA's risk analysis activities, such

as the Multi-Hazard Loss Estimation

Methodology (HAZUS). The

Technical Services Division is the

principal contact for hurricane evacuation studies and flood risk analysis as

well as the FEMA contact point for

meteorology-related matters.

(www.fema.gov) (Figure 3-FEMA-1).

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is the central agency within the federal government responsible for emergency preparedness training and exercises, mitigation, response, and recovery. Working closely with state and local governments, FEMA funds and provides leadership for predisaster mitigation activities, emergency programs and offers technical guidance and training. FEMA

also coordinates federal disaster relief resources following catastrophic disasters. These Presidentiallydeclared activities ensure a broad-based program to protect life and property and provide recovery assistance after a disaster. The agency was formed in 1979 by Presidential Executive Order 12127, replacing five former

agencies and consolidating the Nation's emergency-related programs, including meteorological emergencies.

SECTION 3 FEMA 165

Figure 3-FEMA-1. In-land flooding in the Florida panhandle resulting from

Hurricanes Georges.
166 FEMA SECTION 3
OPERATIONS

The goal of the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration (NASA)

operations program is to provide the

specialized meteorological data and

techniques needed by forecasters at

Cape Canaveral Air Station and the

Spaceflight Meteorology Group

(SMG) at Johnson Space Center (JSC)

to support the Space Shuttle and

Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV)

programs. The focus is on observing

and forecasting the mesoscale weather

events that strongly impact ground

processing, launch, and landing operations.

This goal requires exploitation of the

latest technology. The Applied

Meteorology Unit (AMU), co-located

with the Air Force's Range Weather

Operations, provides a facility to

develop, evaluate and, if warranted,

transition new meteorological technology into operations. For instance, the

AMU strives to develop techniques

and systems to help predict and avoid

the impacts of Kennedy Space Center's

(KSC) frequent thunderstorms which

endanger the ground processing,

launch, and landing operations of the

American Space Program--Space

Shuttle, Department of Defense

(DOD), and commercial. Special

attention has been given to evaluating

mesoscale numerical models. The

AMU functions under a joint NASA,

Air Force (AF), and National Weather

Service (NWS) Memorandum of

Understanding. AMU tasks during

FY 2001 include:

(a) Development and evaluation of

statistical forecast tools for winds

and ceilings.

(b) Continued evaluation of the

Eastern Range Dispersion

Assessment System/Regional

Atmospheric Modeling System

(ERDAS/RAMS).

(c) Development and evaluation of

land breeze forecast methodologies.

(d) Development and evaluation of

thunderstorm anvil forecast

methodologies.

(e) Evaluation and implementation of

the Neumann-Pfeffer

Thunderstorm Probability Index.

(f) Continued evaluation and implementation of a Local Data

Integration System (LDIS) at the

NWS office in Melbourne, Florida.

(g) Continued development, evaluation and implementation of tools

and techniques for most effective

use of the AF WSR-74C radar and

its SIGMET processor.

(h) Comparison of Lightning

Detection and Ranging (LDAR)

antenna systems.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WEATHER PROGRAMS

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Headquarters Weather Support Office has

continued to improve NASA's weather support capabilities for both manned and unmanned space launch

vehicles. It is expected that these improvements will strengthen and enhance the information provided

to the ground-based decision-makers and astronaut observers to insure that NASA achieves the best

operational posture for Space Shuttle launches and landings. The goal of the operations program is to

provide the specialized meteorological data needed by operational forecasters at Cape Canaveral Air

Station of Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and Johnson Space Center to support the Space Shuttle program. The focus is

on detecting and forecasting the mesoscale weather events which strongly impact Shuttle ground processing, launches,

and landing operations. NASAs also performs aviation research to improve safety, develop weather information technologies, and increase aviation system capacity. Advanced operations technologies can increase the number of operations per runway in all weather conditions. The research applies to both commercial and general aviation.

SECTION 3 NASA 167
168 NASA SECTION 3

(i) Development, evaluation and

implementation of a forecast tool

for estimating the time of recovery from violations of the Shuttle

Low Temperature Launch

Commit Criterion.

(j) Development and implementation

of software for operational support to the Airborne Field Mill

program (see below).

The KSC Weather Office is improving the weather infrastructure at KSC

and conducting research to improve

operational processes and facilities. In

FY 2001, five suites of visibility and

soil moisture sensors were installed to

the west of KSC to aid in the forecast

of morning fog that could impact

Shuttle landings. The Weather Office

also conducted a major field research

program called "Airborne Field Mill"

(ABFM) to collect data necessary to

relax the lightning launch constraints

while making them even safer. ABFM

was cooperatively funded by the

Shuttle program, NASA ELVs, and AF.

The ABFM team includes more than

50 personnel from eleven organizations including other Governmental

agencies, NASA Centers, universities

and their contractors. Data analysis

should be complete and new launch

rules proposed by the end of FY 2002.

The KSC Weather Office, the SMG

at JSC, and the AMU continue to work

on Range Standardization and

Automation (RSA) and the new

Spacelift Range Systems Contract

(SLRS-C). RSA is a major AF program to modernize the Eastern and

Western Range infrastructure.

SLRS-C will handle sustaining engineering for what RSA provides.

Deliveries of weather sensors, models,

and control and display systems began

in FY 2000 and will conclude in

FY 2003. Transfer of the KSC

50 MHz Doppler Radar Wind Profiler

to the Eastern Range and modernization of its electronic components is

proposed. There are many issues related to the pending changes to the

Eastern and Western Ranges' meteorological infrastructures. The AF and

NASA weather communities continue

to expend significant resources to

solve potential major deficiencies.

NASA KSC, JSC and Marshall

Spaceflight Center depend heavily on

this infrastructure for their weather

support.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

The supporting research activities are

sponsored by the NASA's Earth

Science Enterprise (ESE). The mission of NASA's ESE is to develop a

scientific understanding of the Earth

system and its response to natural and

human-induced changes to enable

improved prediction of climate, weather, and natural hazards for present and

future generations. NASA brings to

this endeavor the vantagepoint of

space, allowing global views of Earth

system change. NASA is a provider of

objective scientific information, via

observation, research, modeling, and

applications demonstration, for use by

decision-makers in both the public and

private sectors. NASA has been studying the Earth from space from its

beginnings as an agency. These efforts

have led to our current activity of

deploying the first series of Earth

Observing System (EOS) satellites that

will concurrently observe the major

interactions of the land, oceans, atmosphere, ice, and life that comprise the

Earth system. In short, the purpose of

the Enterprise is to provide scientific

answers to the fundamental question:

How is the Earth changing, and

what are the consequences for life

on Earth?

A fundamental discovery made during the 20th century, enabled in large

part by NASA's global view from

space, is the existence of a multiplicity

of linkages between diverse natural

phenomena and interactions between

the individual components of the Earth

system. As a result, NASA has worked

with other agencies to develop a new,

interdisciplinary field of "Earth system

science", with the aim of investigating

the complex behavior of the total Earth

environment in which the global

atmosphere, the oceans, the solid Earth

and ice-covered regions of the Earth,

and the biosphere all function as a single interactive system. Earth system

science is an area of research with

immense benefits to the Nation, yielding new knowledge and tools for

weather forecasting, agriculture, water

resource management, urban and land

use planning, and other areas of economic and environmental importance.

In concert with other agencies and the

global research community, ESE is

providing the scientific foundation

needed for the complex policy choices

that lie ahead on the road to sustainable

development.

ESE has established three broad

goals through which to carry out its

mission:

 Science: Observe, understand, and

model the Earth system to learn

how it is changing, and the consequences for life on Earth;

 Applications: Expand and accelerate the realization of economic and

societal benefits from Earth science, information, and technology;

 Technology: Develop and adopt

advanced technologies to enable

mission success and serve national

priorities. These goals are articulated in the ESE Strategic Plan.

NASA and its partners have already

made considerable progress in understanding the Earth system. With satellites launched over the past decade,

ESE has charted global ocean circulation including the waxing and waning

of El Niño, mapped land cover change

over the entire globe, illuminated the

3-D structure of hurricanes, and

explored the chemistry of the upper

atmosphere and the causes of ozone

depletion. With deployment of the

EOS now underway, ESE is opening a

new era in Earth observation from

space in which the major interactions
SECTION 3 NASA 169

of the Earth system are studied simultaneously to provide a global view on climate change. With this

knowledge, NASA and its

partners will develop prediction capabilities to quantify

the effects of natural and

human-induced changes on

the global environment.

Operational agencies such as

National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) and United States

Geological Survey (USGS),

who are partners in this

effort, can use these capabilities to improve weather and

climate forecasting, natural

resource management, and

other services on which the

Nation relies.

STRATEGY FOR

ACHIEVING GOALS

Science

We know that natural and

human-induced changes are acting on

the Earth system. Natural forces

include variation in the Sun's energy

output and volcanic eruptions which

spew dust into the atmosphere and

scatter incoming sunlight. Human

forces include deforestation, carbon

emission from burning of fossil fuels,

methane and soil dust production from

agriculture, and ozone depletion by

various industrial chemicals. Internal

climate factors, such as atmospheric

water vapor and clouds, also introduce

feedbacks that serve to either dampen

or enhance the strength of climate forcing. We also know the climate system

exhibits considerable variability in

time and space, i. e., both short and

long term changes and regionally-specific impacts (Figure 3-NASA-1).

NASA has used the concept of Earth

System Science in developing its program. Researchers have constructed

computer models to simulate the Earth

system, and to explore the possible

outcomes of potential changes they

introduce in the models. This way of

looking at the Earth as a system is a

powerful means of understanding

changes we see around us. That has

two implications for Earth Science.

First, we need to characterize (that is,

identify and measure) the forces acting

on the Earth system and its responses.

Second, we have to peer inside the system to understand the source of internal variability--the complex interplay

among components that comprise the

system. By combining observations,

research and modeling, we create a

capability to predict Earth system

change to help our partners produce

better forecasts of change.

Earth system changes are global phenomena. Yet the system comprises

many micro-scale processes, and the

most significant manifestations are

regional. Thus, studying such changes

requires a global view at regionally

discerning resolutions. This is where

NASA comes in, bringing the unique

capability to study

planet Earth from the

vantagepoint of space.

To characterize the

forces acting on the

Earth system and its

responses, understand

the source of internal

variability and predict

Earth system change,

NASA must observe

the Earth, conduct

research and analysis of

the data, model the data

and synthesize the

information into new

knowledge. Where we

are on this knowledge

"life cycle" determines

the strategy for our

investment decisions.

The ESE is pursuing a

targeted research program, focused on a set

of specific science questions that can be

addressed effectively

with NASA's capabilities. ESE formulates comprehensive research strategies that can lead to definitive scientific answers and potentially to effective

applications by other entities.

The key Earth Science research topics sponsored by NASA follow from

this view of the Earth as a system.

Thus they are grouped into categories

of: (a) variability in the Earth System,

(b) forces acting on the Earth system,

(c) responses of the system to change,

(d) consequences of change, and

(e) prediction of future changes.

Complicating this seemingly linear

construct is a set of feedbacks;

responses to change often become

forces of additional change themselves. This conceptual approach

applies in essence to all research areas

of NASA's Earth Science program,

although it is particularly relevant to

the problem of climate change, a major

Earth Science-related challenge facing

our nation and the rest of the world.

Figure 3-NASA-1. Mid Atlantic states on March 24, 2000 from

the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR), on board

NASAs Terra satellite. Yellowish smudge at the top of the

Chesapeake Bay is likely sediment from the Susquehanna River,

flowing into the upper Chesapeake (Source: GSFC web site).
170 NASA SECTION 3

The ESE has articulated an overarching question and a set of strategic science questions reflecting this Earth

system approach, which its observational programs, research and analysis,

modeling, and advanced technology

activities are directed at answering.

 How is the Earth system changing,

and what are the consequences for

life on Earth?

 How is the global Earth system

changing?

 What are the primary causes of

change in the Earth system?

 How does the Earth system respond

to natural and human-induced

changes?

 What are the consequences of

changes in the Earth system for

human civilization?

 How can we predict future changes

in the Earth system?

ESE's Research Strategy for 2000-

2010 describes NASA's approach to

answering these questions. The intellectual capital behind Earth science

missions, and the key to generating

new knowledge from them, is vested in

an active program of research and

analysis. Over 1,500 scientific

research tasks from nearly every state

within the United States are funded by

the Earth science research and analysis

program. Scientists from seventeen

other nations, funded by their own

countries and collaborating with

United States researchers, are also part

of the Earth science program. These

researchers develop Earth system models from Earth science data, conduct

laboratory and field experiments, run

aircraft campaigns, develop new

instruments, and thus expand the frontier of our understanding of our planet.

ESE-funded scientists are recognized

as world leaders in their fields, as

exemplified by the award of the 1995

Nobel Prize in chemistry to two scientists who first recognized that cholorflorocarbons provided a threat to upper

atmospheric ozone. The research and

analysis program is also the basis for

generation of application pilot programs that enable universities, commercial firms, and state and local governments to turn scientific understanding into economically valuable products and services.

Applications

NASA expects that expanded scientific knowledge of Earth processes and

the utilization of advanced space-based

and airborne observing techniques or

facilities developed by NASA will ultimately result in practical applications

beneficial to all citizens. Examples of

these applications may include: quantitative weather and hydrologic forecasts

over an extended range of one to two

weeks; prediction of seasonal or

longer-range climate variations; the

prediction of impacts of environmental

changes on fisheries, agriculture, and

water resources; global air quality

forecasts, and natural hazards risk

assessments. NASA ESE has a role in

demonstrating the potential applications.

ESE continues to build a viable

applications, education and outreach

program that bridges our focused

Research and Analysis (R&A) and

mission science investments towards

demonstration of new remote sensing

data products for industry and regional

and local decision makers. The

emphasis is to focus on the dissemination of information to non-traditional

Earth science customers, such as

states, counties and regional managers

and decision-makers. A base program

is funded to put the essential tools in

place and pilot several key demonstration projects. Eventually we hope that

our demonstration of this concept will

allow products to reach a much broader user base -practically every state in

the Union.

A series of regional workshops have

been held around the Nation to enable

a wide variety of state and local government users to explain the challenges

they face that might be addressed with

tools based on satellite remote sensing.

One result is the establishment of regular, open, competitively selected

opportunities for these organizations to

propose partnerships with NASA, academia and industry to demonstrate new

applications of Earth science to specific problems. Successful demonstrations are expected to lead to new commercial/state and local government

transactions, while ESE moves on to

the next new demonstration activity.

Technology

In addition to ensuring a robust science program, this budget contains a

vigorous Advanced Technology program that supports development of key

technologies to enable our future science missions. In addition to our baseline technology program that includes

the New Millennium Program (NMP),

Instrument Incubator and High

Performance Computing and Communications (HPCC), an Advanced

Technology Initiative will identify and

invest in critical instrument, spacecraft

and information system technologies.

The ESE will lead the way in the

development of highly capable, remote

and in situ instruments and the information system technologies needed to

support coupled Earth system models.

Together they will enable affordable

investigation and broad understanding

of the global Earth system. The ESE

will emphasize the development of

information system architectures to

increase the number of users of

Enterprise information from hundreds

to tens of thousands, with the goal of

providing easy access to global information for science, education and

applications. Finally, ESE will work in

partnership with industry and operational organizations to develop the

capabilities and infrastructure to facilitate the transition of sustained measurements and information dissemination to commercial enterprises. 

ESE's technology strategy seeks to

leverage the entire range of technology

development programs offering benefits in cost, performance and timeliness
SECTION 3 NASA 171

of future Earth science process and

monitoring campaigns. ESE's strategy

is to establish strong links to other government programs in order to maximize mutual benefit to use open competitions for ESE-sponsored technology programs to attract the best ideas

and capabilities from the broad technology community, including industry

and academia.

Technology investments will be

made in the following areas:

 Advanced instrument and measurement technologies for new and/

or lower cost scientific investigations;

 Cutting-edge technologies,

processes, techniques and engineering capabilities that reduce

development, operations costs, and

mission risk and that support rapid

implementation of productive, economical, and timely missions;

 Advanced end-to-end mission

information system technologies:

technologies affecting the data

flow from origination at the instrument detector through data archiving, for collecting and disseminating information about the Earth

system, and enabling the productive use of Enterprise science and

technology in the public and private sectors.

MISSION IMPLEMENTATION

The pursuit of Earth system science

would be impractical without the continuous, global observations provided

by satellite-borne instruments.

NASA's Earth science research program comprises an integrated slate of

spacecraft and in situ measurement

capabilities; data and information management systems to acquire, process,

archive and distribute global data sets;

and research and analysis projects to

convert data into new knowledge of

the Earth system. Numerous users in

academia, industry, federal, state, and

local government use this knowledge

to produce products and services

essential to achieving sustainable

development. Enabling us to get at the

answers to the science questions, our

top priority continues to be our existing near term commitments with the

launch of our first series of EOS and

selected Earth Explorer missions that

are nearing completion. In addition,

we are committed to deliver a functioning data and information system to

support the processing, archival and

distribution of data products for these

missions. These satellites will propel

the ESE into a new era of data collection, research and analysis for which

both the national and international

Earth science community has been

preparing over the last decade.

Realizing Scientific Return from Past

Investments

Preceding the EOS were a number

of individual satellite and Shuttlebased missions that are helping to

reveal basic processes. The Upper

Atmosphere Research Satellite

(UARS), launched in 1991, collects

data on atmospheric chemistry.

The Total Ozone Mapping

Spectrometer (TOMS) instruments,

launched in 1978, 1991, and 1996,

measure ozone distribution and

depletion. Two TOMS instruments

were launched in 1996, one on the

Japanese Advanced Earth

Observing System (ADEOS) mission and the other on a dedicated

United States Earth Probe. France

and the United States collaborated

on the Ocean Topography

Experiment (TOPEX/ Poseidon),

launched in 1992, to study ocean

topography and circulation. In

1997, the Tropical Rainfall

Measuring Mission (TRMM) was

launched to provide the first-ever

measurements of tropical precipitation (Figure 3-NASA-2). Also in

1997, ESE began purchasing ocean

color data from a commercial vendor based on our joint investment

in the Sea-viewing Wide Field

Scanner (SeaWiFS) instrument

(Figure 3-NASA-3).

Figure 3-NASA-2. The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) is a joint mission between NASA and the

National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan designed to monitor an study tropical rainfall and the associated release of energy that helps to power the global atmospheric circulation shaping both weather and climate

around the globe (Source: GSFC Web site)
172 NASA SECTION 3

Opening a New Era in Earth System

Science with the Earth Observing

System

The EOS, the centerpiece of Earth

science, is a program of multiple

spacecraft (the Terra, Aqua, Aura,

Landsat-7, Jason-1, ICEsat, ACRIMSAT, Seawinds, SORCE, SAGE III,

QuikSCAT, and follow-on missions)

and interdisciplinary science investigations to provide a data set of key

parameters needed to understand global climate change.

Terra was recently launched on

December 18, 1999. Terra is providing

key measurements that are significantly contributing to our understanding of

the total Earth system. The instrument

complement is obtaining information

about the physical and radiative properties of clouds, air-land and air-sea

exchanges of energy, carbon, and

water, measurements of trace gases,

and volcanology.

Landsat-7 was also launched in

1999. Landsat-7's single instrument,

the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus

(ETM+), is making high spatial resolution measurements of land surface and

surrounding coastal regions. This mission is successfully providing data

continuity with previous Landsat

measurements. Landsat data are used

for global change research, regional

environmental change studies, and

other civil and commercial purposes.

The QuikSCAT spacecraft was

launched in June 1999. QuikSCAT,

carrying instruments to collect sea surface wind data, is filling the gap in

such critical data between ADEOS 1,

which failed in June 1997 after seven

months on-orbit, and ADEOS II. The

availability of components of the

Seawinds instrument originally

planned for launch on Japan's ADEOS

II was accelerated to fly on QuikSCAT.

Japan has yet to decide on the timing

and form of an ADEOS II mission (or

missions), but the ESE still intends to

fly a Seawinds instrument in that context as the follow-on instrument to

QuikSCAT. It now appears that

ADEOS-II will be launched no earlier

than 2002 with the delay due to a failure

of the Japanese H-IIA launch vehicle.

The Active Cavity Radiometer

Irradiance Monitor Satellite

(ACRIMSat) was launched on

December 20, 1999 providing for the

continuation of the long-term, quantitative understanding of the solar forcing of Earth's climate.

The Earth Explorers Program contains a series of focused, rapid development missions to study emerging

Figure 3-NASA-3. High resolution imagery from NASAs Sea-viewing Wide Field Scanner (SeaWiFS) instrument 
SECTION 3 NASA 173

science questions and processes utilizing innovative measurement techniques as a complement to the systematic measurements made through the

EOS. The Shuttle Radar Topography

Mission (SRTM) flown on STS-99 in

February 2000 was a joint NASA and

National Imaging and Mapping

Agency (NIMA) mission to create a

near-global, high-resolution digital

elevation topographic map of the

world. The data from the SRTM will

allow scientists in federal, state and

local agencies and academia to study

the terrain for basic research in the

areas of ecology, geology, geodynamics, hydrology and atmosphere modeling.

Some missions in this category are

Earth System Science Pathfinder

(ESSP). Four ESSP missions have

been selected: (1) Gravity Recovery

and Climate Experiment (GRACE)

with launch in 2001, (2) Vegetation

Canopy Lidar (VCL) with launch TBD

(launch date under review),

(3) CloudSat with launch in 2003, and

(4) the Pathfinder Instruments for

Cloud and Aerosol Spaceborne

Observations-Climatologie Etendue

des Nuages et des Aerosols (PICASSO-CENA) with launch to be determined (launch date is under review).

The Earth Explorers Program also

encompasses various missions, which

are developed in response to requirements that provide or continue highly

focused Earth science process measurements. This currently is

QuikTOMS (TOMS FM-5) with

launch planned for June

2001(Figure 3-NASA-4). Because the

launch date for Triana remains uncertain until the Shuttle manifest becomes

definitized, Triana will be placed in

storage following completion of spacecraft development. In addition, the

University Earth System Science

(UnESS) program is being cancelled to

fund immediate priorities in the Earth

Science budget. A small amount of

funding will be retained for these

activities to complete contractual obligations associated with proposal evaluations.

EOS and related missions in development and preparation for launch

through 2003 are:

 QuikTOMS (2001) - Atmospheric

ozone and aerosols

 SAGE III (2001) - Stratospheric

aerosols and gases experiment

 Jason (2001) - ocean topography;

successor to TOPEX/ Poseidon

 Aqua (2001) - atmospheric temperature and humidity, clouds, sea surface temperature, biosphere

 GRACE (2001) - time variations of

Earth's gravity field

 ICEsat (2001/ 02) - ice sheet topography

 SORCE (2002) - solar irradiance

 SeaWinds (2002) - on Japan's

ADEOS II satellite; ocean winds

successor to QuikSCAT

 Vegetation Canopy Lidar (TBD) -

Forest canopy height

 Aura (2003) - Upper and lower

atmospheric chemistry

 Cloudsat (2003) - 3-D cloud profiles

 PICASSO-CENA (TBD) - 3-D

aerosol profiles

The EOS Data and Information

System (EOSDIS) is operating the

EOS satellites now in orbit, and

retrieving flight data and converting it

into useful scientific information.

EOSDIS is nearly complete; remaining

segments are timed for release to support the upcoming launches of EOS

missions through Aura in 2003.

Following the recommendation of the

National Research Council, NASA is

exploring the creation of a federation

of Earth science information partners

in academia, industry and government

to broaden the participation in the creation and distribution of EOSDIS

information products. As a federation

pilot project, 24 organizations were

competitively selected in December

1997 to become Earth Science

Information Partners (ESIPs) to develop innovative science and applications

products. This is part of a broader

analysis of how ESE's approach to data

Figure 3-NASA-4. Largest-ever Ozone hole, roughly three times the size of

the United States, was detected on September 6, 2000 by NASAs Total Ozone

Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) (Source: GSFC website) 
174 NASA SECTION 3

and information systems services

should evolve in the future. In addition

to the EOSDIS that will produce data

products for a wide range of users,

NASA is engaging in a variety of

activities to extend the utility of Earth

Science data to a broader range of

users such as regional Earth science

applications centers, Earth science

information partners, and efforts are

under way to fuse science data, socioeconomic data and other data sets that

can be "geo-referenced" in readily

understandable data visualizations.

The measurements to be made by

these and other future Earth science

missions as well as current on-orbit

missions provide data products that are

used extensively in the Earth science

program. These activities are providing an ever increasing scientific understanding of global environment and the

effects of natural and human sources of

change.

Preparing for the Next Decade of

Scientific Discovery

In parallel with deploying EOS,

NASA ESE is looking ahead to determine what will be the important Earth

science questions in the next decade,

and which require NASA's leadership

to be answered. Drawing on existing

reports of the National Academy of

Sciences and the state of progress in

current scientific endeavors, ESE has

developed a Research Strategy for

2000-2010 that articulates a hierarchy

of one overarching question, five

broad subordinate questions, and twenty-three detailed questions that can and

should be tackled over this decade.

For each, the Research Strategy

defines the observational requirements, which in turn provide the basis

for definition of candidate missions to

be pursued. An early, high priority in

this timeframe is the National PolarOrbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite System (NPOESS)

Preparatory Program (NPP), which

will serve to provide continuity with

the Terra and Aqua missions as well as

a demonstration of instruments for the

converged weather satellite program.

NASA and the Integrated Program

Office (IPO) jointly fund the NPP mission. The IPO consists of representative from the three agencies participating in NPOESS-NASA, NOAA, and

the AF. Another priority is the Landsat

Data Continuity Mission to succeed

Landsat-7. As with Landsat-7, this

mission is being planned in partnership

with the USGS. NASA and USGS are

also working with industry to explore

the potential for a commercial purchase of Landsat-type data to meet this

data continuity requirement. 

In NASA's FY 2001 appropriation,

Congress included funds for concept

definition work for potential missions

to observe global precipitation, global

earthquakes, and global tropospheric

winds. Studies are underway, with further definition work anticipated to proceed in FY 2002. Also in FY 2002,

ESE plans to begin similar definition

activities for observation of global

ocean topography and ocean surface

winds to succeed Jason and SeaWinds

on ADEOS II, respectively. Beginning

in FY 2001, NASA is soliciting its

third round of ESSP missions, with

selection(s) anticipated in FY 2002.

In developing its measurement/mission strategy, the ESE desires to reduce

the risk to overall program objectives

from any single mission failure by

developing smaller, less expensive

missions and implementing shorter

development cycles from mission definition to launch. Shorter development

times will allow more flexible responses to current and evolving scientific

priorities and more effective uses of

the latest technologies. In accordance

with this philosophy, the implementation of each successive future mission

in the ESE flight program will be

based on specific solicitation alternatives (e.g. Announcement of

Opportunity, Request for Proposal,

etc.) and competitive selection of

instrument payloads and implementation options. In each solicitation, we

will ask commercial industry to come

forward and offer science-quality data

that meet NASA requirements for

NASA to purchase. It is important,

under this new approach, that instrument technology developments be conducted largely before the relevant mission payload selection. A science and

applications-based space-based measurement concept set is indispensable to

guide these pre-mission technology

developments, particularly the

Enterprise's Instrument Incubator

Program. Our goal is to reach a mission development cycle of 2-3 years

from the time of selection. 

Finally, along with space-based

observations, ESE will pursue a guided

evolution of data and information system services to support missions and

research in the next decade. NASA's

FY 2001 appropriation also included

funds to develop the "NewDISS" concept for this evolution. Studies in this

arena are underway as well.

PARTNERSHIPS ARE ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS IN EARTH

SCIENCE

The challenges of Earth System

Science, sustainable development, and

mitigation of risks to people, property

and the environment from natural disasters, require collaborative efforts

among a broad range of national and

international partners. NASA's Earth

science research program constitutes

its contribution to the United States

Global Change Research Program

(USGCRP), an interagency effort to

understand the processes and patterns

of global change. The USGCRP coordinates research among ten United

States government agencies. NASA is

by far the largest partner in the

USGCRP, providing the bulk of

USGCRP's space-based observational

needs.

NASA has extensive collaboration

with the NOAA on climate-related

issues. The ESE is the responsible
SECTION 3 NASA 175

managing agent in NASA for the development of NOAA's operational environmental satellites. NOAA, NASA,

and DOD jointly work to achieve the

convergence of civilian and military

weather satellite systems. NASA collaborates with the USGS on a range of

land surface, solid Earth and hydrology

research projects. NASA and USGS

collaborate in the Landsat-7 program,

and NASA, DOD and USGS are working together on a third flight of the

Shuttle Radar Laboratory modified to

yield a digital terrain map of most of

the Earth's surface. NASA participates

in the World Climate Research

Program, the International Geosphere/

Biosphere Program, and the ozone

assessments of the World

Meteorological Organization.

International cooperation is an essential element in the Earth science program. Earth science addresses global

issues and requires international

involvement in its implementation and

application. Acquiring and analyzing

the information necessary to address

the science questions is a bigger task

than a single nation can undertake.

Furthermore, the acceptance and use of

the scientific knowledge in policy and

resource management decisions around

the world require the engagement of

the international scientific community.

Global data and global participation are

needed to devise a global response to

environmental change. In addition,

integrating our complementary science

programs can result in fiscal benefits to

the NASA program. For this reason,

NASA has sought and nurtured international partnerships spanning science,

data and information systems, and

flight missions. Most of Earth science's

satellite missions have international

participation, ranging from simple data

sharing agreements to joint missions

involving provision of instruments,

spacecraft, and launch services. In the

past three years over 60 international

agreements have been concluded and

more than 40 more are pending. In

some capacity, Earth science programs

involve international partners from

over 35 nations, including Argentina,

Armenia, Australia, Belgium, Brazil,

Canada, Chile, China, Denmark,

Egypt, France, Germany, India, Israel,

Italy, Japan, Mongolia, Russia, South

Africa, Ukraine and others.

SPACE WEATHER The Living

With A Star (LWS) Program

(Figure 3-NASA-5) addresses the linkage between three fundamental questions of the NASA solar-terrestrial

physics programs the Sun Earth

Connection (SEC) program:

How and why does the sun vary?

How does the Earth respond to solar

variations?

How does solar variability affect life

and society?

The SEC Program strives to understand the physical processes and connections that control the dynamics of

the Sun-Earth connected system. The

system dynamics are driven by violent

solar bursts, long term solar variability,

and instabilities of the magnetized

Earth-space, geospace. LWS is

grounded in service to humanity and

it's technological systems. It is based

on solving the specific problem of

being able to predict solar variations

and the effects of those variations on

humanity and human systems. LWS

will integrate results from existing and

future space missions as they contribute to the SEC system level goals.

The program is based on providing the

understanding necessary to predict

what will happen where and when to

the heliosphere, geospace, and Earth's

Figure 3-NASA-5. Bulbous prominence -- A large, twirling prominence taken

on February 12, 2001. Prominences are huge clouds of relatively cool dense

plasma suspended in the Sun's hot, thin corona. At times, they can extend outward and break away from the Sun's atmosphere. This image shows ions of

helium heated at 60,000 degrees C.
176 NASA SECTION 3

climate given observations of conditions on the Sun. 

While both existing SEC programs

and LWS are basic research, there are

some significant differences in concept

and approach. The primary difference

is that in addition to the traditional

input from the space science community, LWS derives requirements from

Earth science, human spaceflight,

industry and other federal agencies

(National Space Weather Program,

Office of the Secretary of Defense

Space Weather Architecture, DOD,

NOAA, FAA). The LWS Program has

characteristic features: there is a significant component that deals with

specification models; what is the environment as a function of space and

time. This is an important need for

industry that must build spacecraft that

survive, and to provide anomaly resolution. There is a need for human

spaceflight radiation protection.

Finally, there is the issue of prediction,

which is the more traditional science.

The program priorities are (numbers

indicate priority rank):

(1) Solar influences on Global

Change: Global change is the single

most important environmental problem facing humanity. This issue

involves major national and international policies because of the potential

economic impacts of global change

and/or mitigation actions. Objectives:

4Determine how and why the Sun

varies (for assessment of past and

future role in global climate change).

4Identify and understand mechanisms by which solar variability

affects terrestrial climate (and possibly weather).

(2) Space environmental "climate"

data (e.g., specification models):

4Needed for design of cost-effective

systems with minimal or no sensitivity to space weather.

4The goal is to have economical "all

weather" systems; not to be dependent on predictions.

(3) Nowcasting space environment:

4For rapid anomaly resolution for

space and communication/navigation

systems--if an anomaly is due to a

known space environmental effect, it

is often possible to get back into

operation rapidly. If it is due to an

unknown cause, it may be necessary

to do detailed failure analysis--requiring extended downtime of the affected system.

4Astronauts safety--in the event of

significant radiation, astronauts can

move to shielded areas.

(4) Prediction of:

4Solar Proton Events (astronaut/airline flight safety). Goals: (a) reliable

warnings (minimize false alarm rate)

and (b) reliable forecast of "all clear"

periods for EVA's.

4Prediction of geomagnetic storms

for applications where effective mitigation is possible (e.g. electric power

grid). Goals--reliable forecasts

(storm is coming) and very reliable

shorter term (~hour) warnings to

minimize unnecessary mitigation by

reducing capacity, etc. which can

reduce system efficiency.

4Predictions of space environment

for operation and utilization of space

systems. Goals: (a) reliably forecast

availability/accuracy/sensitivity of

communication and navigation systems susceptible to space weather

(e.g. ionospheric scintillations) and

(b) enable optimization of systems

and the allocation of resources during

times of extreme space weather conditions.

In summary, LWS will characterize

the space environment with the aim

being to help spacecraft designers and

operators, and address astronaut health

and safety. LWS will produce the system knowledge to predict solar effects

on climate, and solar/geospace effects

on human systems in space and on the

ground.

The approach to achieving our goals

is to treat the Sun, heliosphere, and

geospace as a system. The key to dealing with the problem as a system is to

understand that physics-based models

will be the "glue" that holds the system

together. It is assumed that ultimately

reliable and serviceable models combined with key observations of the

SEC system will allow the prediction

of what will happen--where and when.

Model requirements will drive what

observations are needed for boundary

conditions and "truth" tests of the

models.

The present approach to implementing a systems-based program is to

define the management structure along

scientific problem lines. The space

environment research area includes the

effects of solar variability on climate

and global change as well as specification of radiation and density models.

The space storms area includes the

specification of the environment on a

more real-time or nowcasting and

event basis. Included as well is the

ultimate goal of the LWS, the physical

understanding of the end-to-end SunEarth system, enabling reliable predictive capability of storm effects. The

program has the following elements:

(1) a Space Weather Research Network

of solar-terrestrial spacecraft; (2) a theory, modeling, and data analysis program; and (3) Space Environment

Testbeds (SET) for flight testing radiation-hardened and radiation-tolerant

systems in the Earth's space environment. Vital to the success of LWS and

critical to the satisfaction of national

needs is the development of partnerships with national and international

agencies and industry.

Implementation of LWS will proceed

in two phases. The first phase will

include: (1) a geosynchronous spacecraft that will observe the Sun from its

interior (via helioseismology techniques) to the outermost extensions of

its atmosphere where solar activity

produces the variable solar output of

electromagnetic radiation, solar wind,

and energetic particles, and (2) the

Geospace Mission, a set of spacecraft
SECTION 3 NASA 177

to understand geospace as a function of

time and the effects of solar events and

local instabilities on its evolution. The

second phase will add a set of heliospheric spacecraft to determine the state

of the solar wind and the propagation

of events. 

AVIATION SAFETY PROGRAM

NASA's Aviation Safety Program is

aggressively pursuing three primary

areas:

 Aviation Weather Information

Distribution and Presentation: This

effort includes combining the

inputs from a variety of sources of

weather data into a convenient,

cockpit display that is simple and

easy for the pilot to comprehend. It

will likely be a multi-function flat

panel display that will display all

forms of weather, terrain and traffic

hazards (Figure 3-NASA-6 and

Figure 3-NASA-7).

 Synthetic Vision in the Cockpit:

Synthetic Vision is electronically

enhanced vision for the pilot. It

combines a very detailed world

wide terrain map (obtained from a

recent Space Shuttle mapping mission), precise GPS navigation data,

and integrity-monitoring sensors to

provide a realistic view of the

world through a cockpit head-updisplay (HUD) or panel mounted

display. The pilot will look through

the HUD as he or she looks out the

window. This see-through HUD

will make the world look like a

bright sunny day even when the airplane is approaching a fogged-in

airport at midnight--one that would

be shut down under today's operating rules.

 Turbulence Detection: This project

is the development of aircraftmounted, forward looking turbulence detectors that look several

kilometers ahead of the aircraft

using Lidar and radar sensors. A

suitable cockpit warning device

would alert pilots of impending

encounters. There is also work in

ground based detection

(Figure 3-NASA-8).

NASA's Icing Research is pursuing a

large number of areas that affect aircraft in flight. Primary examples of

this effort are:

 The development of icing training

videos and other materials will help

educate pilots on all aspects of aviation icing.

 The development of improved

wind tunnel and analytical techniques to predict icing accumulation patterns on wings, tails, and

inlets will help designers improve

future aircraft and engines.

 Forward looking, aircraft mounted

detectors will detect moisture laden

clouds miles ahead of the aircraft.

Adding air temperature, pressure,

and humidity to the data received

from the sensors, computers will

compute the icing potential of the

approaching cloud and will display

"high risk areas" to the pilot in an

easily read, color cockpit display.

 Sensors that measure the accumulated ice on aircraft in-flight will automatically activate, new, low cost deicing devices that will shed the ice

before the aircraft gets in danger.

 The potential for satellite detection of

icing conditions is being investigated.

General Aviation

NASA's General Aviation element is

actively researching new, low power,

and low cost pneumatic and electrical

ice removal technology. Also in development are low cost displays that

graphically show icing weather information so icing conditions can be

avoided during flight planning.

Terminal Area Productivity

NASA's Terminal Area Productivity

element is contributing via these areas:

 Wake vortex detection/prediction to

improve the efficiency of aircraft

spacing.

 A heads up display that electronically displays the edges of taxiways

and runways, shows ground traffic

and marks clearance routes to gates

and/or runways. All this is overlaid

on the pilot's "real world" view out

the window while stereo headphones allow the pilot to hear

ground traffic from the direction

the other aircraft really are. This

technology will be a great aid to

vision in poor visibility--especially

at unfamiliar airports.

Figure 3-NASA-6. Cockpit display of national weather radar mosaic.
178 NASA SECTION 3

 A look down electronic display

shows a bird's eye view of the airport as if the pilot were looking at

the airport on a bright sunny day

from about 1,000 feet above the airport. The position of all runways,

taxiways, buildings, and ground

traffic is clearly displayed--as is the

exact route the pilot is cleared to

take to get to the gate or the runway. Another huge aid to vision in

bad weather.

As with virtually all of NASA's aviation research, most of the research

mentioned above also helps pilots in

good weather too.

Figure 3-NASA-8. NASAs Aviation Safety Program

plans to detect atmospheric turbulence through the use

of advanced technologies.

Figure 3-NASA-7. Communication and distribution

channels for Aviation weather information.
Within the NRC, the Office of

Nuclear Reactor Regulation and the

Office of Nuclear Material Safety and

Safeguards conduct reviews of nuclear

facility siting, design, construction,

and operation. These reviews include

consideration of meteorological factors. The two offices also conduct

rulemaking to establish regulatory

requirements. The NRC Regional

Offices assure that licensing conditions

are followed by NRC licensees.

Together with the NRC Incident

Response Operations, they also carry

out NRC responses to nuclear facility

emergencies.

The Office of Nuclear Regulatory

Research (RES) conducts research in

various categories to identify potential

safety issues, and to prepare the agency

to regulate the use of new technology.

RES also develops regulatory guidance

and participates in the development of

criteria and consensus standards related to the protection of the public health

and safety and the environment.

At the present time, the NRC is a

user of meteorological information,

rather than performing research in this

field. Meteorological data will be used

to assess radiological impacts of routine airborne releases from facilities

and to evaluate the impact of proposed

changes in plant design or operation on

unplanned releases. Information of

this type is also important for developing scenarios of climatological impacts

on the isolation of long-lived nuclear

wastes. The NRC also maintains an

interest in the transport and dispersion

of airborne, hazardous, non-radioactive materials, and the effects of

extreme meteorological events on the

safe operation of nuclear facilities.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION WEATHER PROGRAMS

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses and regulates all nuclear facilities

subject to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 as amended. The licensing and operation of these nuclear

facilities require the identification of meteorological and climatological conditions that can affect the

safe operation of the facility, and that provide input to the assessment of the radiological impacts of any

airborne releases from the facility.

SECTION 3 NRC 179

Figure 3-NRC-1. NRC regulates the

storage of spent fuel at nuclear plants.

The photo shows a fuel cask being

maneuvered in a cradle at the Hatch

plant in Georgia.
SECTION 180
The Division of Atmospheric

Sciences manages NSF's basic atmospheric research support. This research

focuses on new and fundamental

knowledge needed to better understand

the atmosphere and related sciences

and to manage atmospheric science

programs including natural disaster

reduction, space weather, global

change, and air quality.

Natural Disaster Reduction. NSF

supports two interagency programs

under natural disaster reduction and

mitigation: the United States Weather

Research Program (USWRP) and the

National Space Weather Program

(NSWP).

The USWRP is an interagency effort

to perform the research and technology

transfer needed to improve the delivery

of weather services to the country.

Participating agencies include NSF,

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), National

Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA) and Navy's Office of Naval

Research (ONR). NSF supports fundamental and applied research to meet

the USWRP objectives. Initial foci

are:

 better understanding and forecasting of hurricane track and intensity;

 better quantitative precipitation

forecasting;

 optimal use of observations in

numerical models; and 

 the societal/economic impacts of

improved weather information.

The total research support for FY 2001

was $13.9 million and this amount is

expected to decrease slightly in

FY 2002.

The objective of the NSWP is to perform the research and technology

transfer needed to improve the specification and forecasts of space weather

events that can cause disruption and

failure of space-borne and groundbased technological systems and can

endanger human health. Participating

agencies are: NSF, NASA, NOAA,

Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA), Department of Defense (DOD)

Air Force and Navy's ONR,

Department of Energy, and

Department of the Interior. The

FY-2001 shared budget was $14.0 million with NSF supplying $2.7 million.

The total funding for FY 2002 is

expected to increase slightly.

Global Change. Under the United

States Global Change Research

Program (USGCRP), NSF programs

support research and related activities

that advance fundamental understanding of dynamic physical, biological,

and socioeconomic systems as well as

interactions among those systems. In

addition to research on Earth system

processes and the consequences of

changes in those systems, NSF programs facilitate data acquisition and

data management activities necessary

for basic research on global change,

promote the enhancement of modeling

designed to improve representations of

Earth system interactions, and develop

advanced analytic methods to facilitate

fundamental research. NSF also supports fundamental research on the general processes used by governments

and other organizations to identify and

evaluate different types of policies for

mitigation, adaptation, and other

responses to changing global environmental conditions. The total NSF

FY 2001 USGCRP funding was

$187.5 million and in FY 2002 is

expected to be $187.5 million. The

Division of Atmospheric Sciences

USGCRP funding for FY 2001 was

$44.0 million with FY 2002 funding

expected to be $44 million.

Air Quality. NSF supported fundamental research in the area of air quality helps develop improved understanding of the sources, formation, and

atmospheric processing of ambient air

pollutants. Atmospheric oxidant

species (and their precursors), sulfur

dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon

monoxide, fine particles, and acid deposition (and its precursors) are important atmospheric constituents that

influence air quality. Field experiments, laboratory studies, instrumentation development, new methods of

chemical analysis, and improved models of atmospheric chemical transport

and depositional phenomena are examples of air quality research supported

by NSF. These categories provide scientific and technical input for management and control of atmospheric pollutant gases and particles. NSF funding

for FY 2001 was $1.5 million and is

expected to stay the same for FY 2002.

NOTE: NSF budget data is not captured in Tables 2.1-2.5.

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency of the Federal Government established to promote and advance scientific and engineering progress. The NSF sponsors and funds scientific and engineering research and education projects and supports cooperative research to gain new

understanding of the behavior of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans. NSF does not itself conduct

research but funds research performed by scientists at universities and other entities. In addition, NSF

provides support for the maintenance and operation of the National Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR) which is devoted to large-scale atmospheric research projects conducted in cooperation with universities and

other federal, state and/or local organizations. 

SECTION 3-NSF-181
182 NSF SECTION 3
APPENDIX A

MISSION AND STAFFING OF THE

OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGY

The mission of the OFCM is to

ensure the effective use of federal

meteorological resources by leading

the systematic coordination of operational weather requirements and services, and supporting research, among

the federal agencies. To discharge its

mission, OFCM has meshed its objectives with the objectives of the agencies that provide the services and perform the research. 

These objectives include:

 Documenting agency programs and

activities in a series of national

plans and reports that enable agencies to revise/adjust their individual

ongoing programs and provide a

means for communicating new

ideas and approaches to fulfill

requirements.

 Providing structure and programs

to promote continuity in the development and coordination of interagency plans and procedures for

meteorological services and supporting research activities.

 Preparing analyses, summaries, or

evaluations of agency meteorological programs and plans that provide

a factual basis for the Executive

and Legislative branches to make

appropriate decisions related to the

allocation of funds.

 Reviewing federal weather programs and federal requirements for

meteorological services and supporting research. This review may

suggest additions or revisions to

current or proposed programs, or

identify opportunities for improved

efficiency, reliability, or cost avoidance through coordinated actions or

integrated programs.

DOC currently has ten positions

assigned to OFCM. DOC also provides administrative support to OFCM

and approximately one-half of

OFCMs annual operating budget. The

Department of Defense (DOD) currently provides two senior staff officers--one Air Force and one Navy--and

contributes approximately one-fourth

of the annual operating budget. The

Department of Transportation (DOT)

Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) provides one professional staff

member and also provides approximately one-fourth of the annual operating budget. These three agency representatives are designated Assistant

Federal Coordinators for liaison to

their respective agencies. In all, 13

meteorologists, oceanographers, physical scientists, and administrative and

computer-support personnel are

assigned to the OFCM staff.

BASIS FOR FEDERAL COORDINATION PROCESS

In 1963, Congress and the Executive Office of the President expressed concern about the adequacy of coordination of

federal meteorological activities. In response, Congress directed in Section 304 of Public Law 87-843--the

Appropriations Act for State, Justice, Commerce, and Related Agencies--that the Bureau of the Budget prepare an annual horizontal budget for all meteorological programs in the federal agencies.

The Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget) issued a report entitled "Survey of Federal

Meteorological Activities" (1963). The report described each agency's program in some detail, particularly its operational services, and detailed the relationship between the programs of the various agencies. The report revealed close

cooperation but little evidence of systematic coordination. Based on this study, the Bureau of the Budget issued a set

of ground rules to be followed in the coordination process. It established a permanent general philosophy for assignment and assessment of agency roles in the field of meteorology and set certain goals to be achieved by the coordination process. The Bureau of the Budget tasked the Department of Commerce (DOC) to establish the coordinating mechanism in concert with the other federal agencies. It also reaffirmed the concept of having a central agency--the

DOC--responsible for providing common meteorological facilities and services and clarified the responsibilities of

other agencies for providing meteorological services specific to their own needs.

The implementation of these directives by DOC led to the creation of the Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM) which operates with policy guidance from the Federal

Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. The principal work in the coordination of meteorological activities and in the preparation and maintenance of federal plans is accomplished by the OFCM staff with the

advice and assistance of the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, and

over 30 program councils, committees, working groups, and joint action groups.

FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING

APPENDIX A 183
184 APPENDIX A

N A TURAL DISASTER

REDUCTION

55th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference (IHC) (March 5-9, 2001).

OFCM annually hosts the

Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference to provide a forum for the responsible federal agencies, together with

representatives of the user communities such as emergency management,

to review the nation's hurricane forecast and warning program and to make

recommendations on how to improve

the program in the future. The

55th IHC was held in Orlando, Florida.

The theme for the conference was

Landfalling Hurricanes-A Major

Challenge for Operations and

Research in the 21st Century. The conference was attended by over 210 people -- a new record, representing

twelve federal agencies, the academic

community, local emergency management, and the weather media. Special

sessions were conducted on transitioning research to operations and the

Hurricane Landfall component of the

United States Weather Research

Program (USWRP). The major outcome of the IHC was identification of

the need for a sustainable, formalized

approach to transition successful

research results into the operational

environment, which the OFCM will

pursue through its Committee for

Cooperative Research. In May, OFCM

published the 39th edition of the

National Hurricane Operations Plan,

which details responsibilities of federal agencies; operations and procedures;

products; aircraft, satellite, radar, and

buoy data collection; and marine

weather broadcasts.

National Hurricane Conference

(April 9-13, 2001). OFCM sponsored a

three-hour session attended by more

than 200 individuals at the 2001

National Hurricane Conference with the

theme Toward a Safer America: Making

the Nation More Resilient to

Hurricanes. The session included two

distinguished panels which addressed

managing the public's vulnerabilities

and consequences through risk assessment and management, and improving

hurricane preparedness and response

through new communications technology and enhancing public outreach and

education.

Post-Storm Data Acquisition. The

OFCM-sponsored Working Group for

Natural Disaster Reduction/Post-Storm

Data Acquisition coordinated efforts to

examine the devastation that resulted

from the tornado outbreak in the

Tallahassee Florida area (northern

Florida and southern Georgia) in midMarch 2001, and to examine flooding,

ice jams, and levies in the area of the

Red River near Grand Forks, North

Dakota, in early April 2001. Aerial photographic support was provided by the

Air Force's Civil Air Patrol (CAP). The

CAP support, negotiated by the working

group and documented in a memorandum of understanding, has proven to be

both timely and very cost effective. 

Severe Local Storms Operations. In

May 2001, the OFCM-sponsored Joint

Action Group for Severe Local Storms

Operations published the National

Severe Local Storms Operations Plan.

The plan outlines the responsibilities of

the various United States federal agencies that provide meteorological services in observing, forecasting, and warning of severe local storms. It also

defines meteorological terms used by

the agencies preparing severe local

storms forecasts and warnings; identifies differing operational warning criteria and procedures; and discusses communications, observations, and some

public release aspects of severe storms

warnings.

TRANSITION ISSUES

The Federal Committee for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research (FCMSSR) met

on November 14, 2000, in the Herbert

C. Hoover Building, Washington,

The Federal Committee for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research (FCMSSR),

established in 1964, provides policylevel agency representation and guidance to the Federal Coordinator to

address agency differences that arise

during the coordination of meteorological activities and the preparation of

federal plans. The Under Secretary of

Commerce for Oceans and

Atmosphere, who is also the

Administrator of the National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA), serves as the FCMSSR Chair.

The 15 federal agencies that engage

in meteorological activities or have a

need for meteorological services are

represented on FCMSSR. The

FCMSSR membership includes:

DOC, DOD, DOT, the Departments of

Agriculture (USDA), Energy (DOE),

Interior (DOI), and State (DOS), and

the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), Federal Emergency

Management Agency (FEMA),

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), National

Science Foundation (NSF), National

Transportation Safety Board (NTSB),

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC), the Office of Science and

Technology Policy (OSTP), and the

Office of Management and Budget

(OMB).

HIGHLIGHTS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2001

AND PLANS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2002

FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH
APPENDIX A 185

District of Columbia, to focus on

issues that were relevant to the transition team for the next administration.

The meeting was very successful and

was attended by thirteen of the

FCMSSR agencies. A white paper

identifying and describing transition

issues was prepared subsequent to the

meeting and provided to the agencies

for use in interactions with the transition team. Areas and issues identified

were: (1) The Next Step Beyond

Modernization (fully implement observational program; continue evolution

of National Weather Service (NWS)

systems); (2) Climate Services (implement global climate ocean observing

systems; upgrade national computational capabilities); (3) Comprehensive

Strategy for Emergency Management

(support FEMA's Project Impact; support the Global Disaster Information

Network; communicate rainfall and

flooding information better); (4)

Landfalling Hurricanes (improve hurricane track and intensity forecasts;

follow and report on hurricanes after

landfall); (5) Transportation (enhance

weather information dissemination for

aviation; improve accuracy of convective forecasts for aviation; improve

road weather information); and (6)

Strategy for Atmospheric Information

(develop a strategy for atmospheric

information; improve communication

of weather and climate information).

ANNUAL FEDERAL PLAN

OFCM prepared The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research -- Fiscal Year

2002. The Federal Plan is

Congressionally mandated and is a

one-of-a-kind document which articulates the meteorological services provided and supporting research conducted by agencies of the federal government. The Federal Plan helps to

reduce duplication among the agencies. It is a comprehensive publication

that documents proposed programs for

Fiscal Year 2002 and reviews agency

programs in Fiscal Year 2001. The

Plan demonstrates to the Congress and

to the Executive Branch how the agencies work together to accomplish their

missions in an effective and efficient

manner.

WEATHER INFORMATION FOR

SURFACE TRANSPORTATION

OFCM has continued its extensive

involvement in the area of Weather

Information for Surface Transportation

(WIST). The OFCM and United States

Department of Transportation - Federal

Highway Administration (USDOTFHWA) co-sponsored Symposium on

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation, Preparing for the

Future: Improved Weather Information

for Decision-Makers was held

December 4-6, 2000, in Rockville,

Maryland. The symposium was

attended by more than 100 individuals

who were a cross-section of the transportation and weather communities

(federal, state, and city governments,

urban and rural transportation agencies, professional and trade organizations, and government and commercial

weather service providers). Eight

overarching areas of concern were

identified and five specific action

items were highlighted as needing priority for continued progress. The bottom line is that improvements in surface transportation weather support

will result in safer and more efficient

operations by all users.

OFCM also made substantial

progress in preparation of a document

addressing meteorological requirements for the six core modes of surface

transportation: roadway, railway, transit, waterway, pipeline, and airport

ground operations. This activity has

included formation of a joint action

group to address meteorological

requirements for surface transportation; questionnaires; surveys; WIST

symposia conducted jointly with the

Federal Highway Administration;

meetings with railroad, pipeline, and

emergency managers; and participation on panels concerning public-private partnerships in transportation and

Intelligent Transportation Systems.

The requirements document will be a

culmination of intensive OFCM efforts

in this area and is expected to be published in November 2001.

AVIATION WEATHER

OFCM completed its analysis of

agency and industry programs/projects

identified as meeting the needs and

concerns contained in the January

1999 National Aviation Weather

Initiatives document. A significant

enabler in the process was the OFCMsponsored July 2000 Aviation Weather

User Forum. The forum provided an

opportunity for open dialog between

program managers as well as the users

and providers of aviation weather

information. The forum also played a

significant role in completing the

National Aviation Weather Initiatives

Tier 3 (Service Design)/Tier 4 (Budgets

and Schedules) Baseline Report which

was issued in April 2001, a first-ever

achievement for all government. The

report was a major contribution toward

establishing a baseline for ongoing and

planned research and development for

each initiative (requirements and products). The report will serve as a vehicle for transitioning research results

into operations. Of the 86 initiatives,

only ten have no agency identified as

satisfying a particular need or concern.

The next step will focus on key issues

and actions identified during the

Aviation Weather User Forum. One

such issue is the need for improved

aviation weather training and, in that

regard, OFCM will take a leadership

role in coordinating the establishment

of a National Training Program.

Another issue deals with establishing,

validating, and prioritizing requirements. Now that we have established a

baseline, the Joint Action Group for

Aviation Weather will revisit the initiatives to determine if they continue to
186 APPENDIX A

represent the priorities for aviation

safety and efficiency. Consideration

will also be given as to how best to

meet the requirements for the ten initiatives identified that are not now

being addressed by agencies or industry. OFCM is also continuing efforts

concerning volcanic ash and expects to

publish A National Framework for

Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation during FY 2002.

WIND CHILL TEMPERATURE

INDEX

Under the leadership of OFCM's federal coordinating infrastructure, United

States federal agencies, Canadian participants, and the academic research

community have taken an important

step towards improving the Wind Chill

Temperature (WCT) Index. The new

WCT Index will provide the citizens of

the United States and Canada better

protection of life and property. The

current wind chill index attempts to

measure the rate of heat loss by the

human body as wind blows across it at

different temperatures and speeds. The

index was developed in the 1940s during an Antarctic expedition, and is now

known to overestimate the effect of

wind by at least ten degrees. This

overestimate gives a false sense of

security and people are sometimes not

aware or prepared for the danger of

severe winter weather. OFCM led the

improvement effort by creating a Joint

Action Group for Temperature Indices

within its federal coordinating infrastructure, and this Joint Action Group

pulled together the various United

States, Canadian, and academic entities to develop the new WCT Index

based on 21st Century science.

Funding for the development of the

new WCT Index was provided by

OFCM, the United States Army's Cold

Region Research and Engineering

Laboratory, and the Defence Research

and Development Canada. NOAA's

NWS, the United States Air Force, and

the Meteorological Service of Canada

will implement the new WCT Index

during the winter season of 2001-2002.

This new WCT Index will be a substantial improvement over the current

practice and will be based on a human

face model, use wind speed calculated

at the average height of an adult's face,

incorporate modern heat transfer theory, lower the walking speed threshold

used in calm wind situations, and use a

consistent standard for skin tissue

resistance. Later refinements will

include adjustments for solar radiation

for a variety of conditions.

SPACE WEATHER

Space weather refers to conditions

on the Sun and in the solar wind, magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere that can influence the performance and reliability of space-borne and

ground-based technological systems,

and can endanger human life or health.

Space weather storms can cause disruption of satellites, communications,

navigation, and electric power distribution grids. The overarching goal of

the National Space Weather Program

(NSWP), which is managed by an

OFCM program council, is to achieve

an active, synergistic, interagency system to provide timely, accurate, and

reliable space weather warnings,

observations, specifications, and forecasts within the next ten years. The

NSWP Strategic Plan and

Implementation Plans provide, respectively, broad guidance and a detailed

roadmap for the Program. The

Committee for Space Weather (CSW)

recently established the Community

Coordinated Modeling Center

(CCMC), with a mission to prepare the

next generation of space weather models for transition to operations through

the operational centers' rapid prototyping centers. During FY 2001, the

fledgling CCMC transferred its first

model to the Department of

Commerce's Space Environment

Center (SEC). The magnetohydrodynamic version of the Magnetospheric

Specification Model will significantly

improve the SEC's ability to predict the

future state of the magnetosphere

based on solar wind inputs. Nearing

completion is work on coupling this

model with a radiation belt model.

During 2002, the CCMC will focus on

ionospheric and heliospheric models

and coupling ionospheric and magnetospheric models. In addition, the

highly successful competition for

space weather research grants, sponsored and administered by the National

Science Foundation (NSF), will continue in 2002 with a modest increase in

funding.

STRATEGY FOR PROVIDING

ATMOSPHERIC INFORMATION

OFCM is planning a forum to

respond to the agency priorities and to

address Leadership and Management

Recommendation 1 of the National

Research Council/National Academy

of Sciences Board on Atmospheric

Sciences and Climate (BASC) report

The Atmospheric Sciences Entering the

Twenty-First Century, which states:

The Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research should lead a

thorough examination of the issues

that arise as the national system for

providing atmospheric information

becomes more distributed. Key federal organizations, the private sector,

academe, and professional organizations should all be represented in such

a study and should help develop a

strategic plan. The Federal

Coordinator began this effort by drafting a concept development paper

which was provided to thirty agencies

and individuals for feedback. The

objective was defined to "Plan and promote the effective and efficient availability and distribution of atmospheric

information that meets the requirements of all agencies (operational and

research)." Major issues were identified to include: roles and responsibilities of the public and private sectors;
APPENDIX A 187

availability of data (data receipt and

distribution) and archival capabilities;

health of the meteorological infrastructure; international commitments for

free and open data exchange; and role

of academic research, both basic and

applied. The methodology would

examine major issues in climate, natural hazards, technological hazards,

urban meteorology and air quality,

ecosystem management and agriculture, and aviation and surface transportation. The forum will be conducted in early December 2001.

UNITED STATES WEATHER

RESEARCH PROGRAM

The USWRP mission is to accelerate

forecast improvements of high-impact

weather and facilitate full use of

advanced weather information. The

USWRP's vision is to mitigate the

effects of weather-induced disasters;

reduce the costs associated with routinely disruptive weather; create

opportunities for increased productivity through better weather information;

and assist the military in the accomplishment of its mission. The current

USWRP team includes NOAA as the

lead agency, NSF, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration,

and the United States Navy. The

Federal Coordinator has taken steps to

contact additional agencies to broaden

federal participation in the USWRP in

accordance with an action from the

Interdepartmental Committee for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research, direction from

the Chairman of the Federal

Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research, and

also recommendation from the

National Academy of

Sciences/National Research Council

Board on Atmospheric Sciences and

Climate (BASC). OFCM hosted meetings on expanded agency participation

in the USWRP on May 11 and

August 24, 2001. The additional agencies included Federal Aviation

Administration, FHWA, USAF, DOE,

USDA, and FEMA. These meetings

have led to more interaction directly

between the leadership of the USWRP

and interested agencies to discuss, in

more detail, agency specific needs

which may be benefited by the program. It is expected that several additional federal participants will join the

USWRP and that the USWRP priorities will be expanded to address their

needs.

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

OFCM and the Committee on

Environment and Natural Resources

(CENR) Subcommittee on Natural

Disaster Reduction (SNDR) cosponsored the Forum on Risk Management

and Assessments of Natural Hazards

February 5-6, 2001. The forum theme

was Toward a Safer America: Building

Natural Hazard Resistant

Communities through Risk

Management and Assessments. It was

attended by an unprecedented crosssection of more than 120 weather, natural disaster and risk management professionals, and academia. Consensus

was reached to proceed with a national

natural hazard assessment and to

develop an action plan which would

deal with the assessment in manageable pieces. It was also agreed to integrate efforts with the Congressional

Natural Hazards Caucus; develop

improved partnerships between users

and developers; standardize terminology, methodology, and approach within

risk assessment and management;

compile available risk assessment tools

and models; and improve public outreach, education, and training.

AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL

SOCIETY

During FY 2001, OFCM joined nine

leading environmental science and

service corporations in supporting

undergraduate scholarships in the

atmospheric and related oceanic and

hydrologic sciences. The scholarships,

awarded for the junior and senior

years, are designed to encourage outstanding undergraduates to pursue

careers in the fields covered by the

awards. OFCM plans to continue this

support in FY 2002. OFCM also supports American Meteorological

Society endeavors by participating in

AMS conferences and workshops and

other environmental science education

and outreach programs.

PUBLICATIONS AND OFCM'S

WEBSITE

The following plans and publications

were prepared in hardcopy form and

also placed on OFCM's website

(www.ofcm.gov):

 The Federal Plan for

Meteorological Services and

Supporting Research -- Fiscal Year

2001

 National Hurricane Operations

Plan

 55th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference (Minutes)

 Proceedings for the Symposium

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation, Preparing for the

Future: Improved Weather

Information for Decision-Makers

 Proceedings of the Forum on Risk

Management and Assessments of

Natural Hazards

 National Severe Local Storms

Operations Plan

 National Aviation Weather

Initiatives Tier 3 (Service

Design)/Tier 4 (Budgets and

Schedules) Baseline Report

The following documents are

planned for publication during

FY 2002:

 The Federal Plan for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research --

Fiscal Year 2002

 National Hurricane Operations

Plan

 56th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference (Minutes)
Table A.1 Current OFCM Publications

Publication Title Date Number

Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, Fiscal Year 2001 June 2000 FCM-P1-2000

National Plan for Space Environment Services and Supporting Research: 1993-1997 August 1993 FCM-P10-1993

National Severe Local Storms Operations Plan May 2001 FCM-P11-2001

National Hurricane Operations Plan May 2001 FCM-P12-2001

National Winter Storms Operations Plan November 2000 FCM-P13-2000

Federal Plan for Cooperative Support and Backup Among Operational May 1996 FCM-P14-1996

Processing Centers

National Plan for Stratospheric Monitoring, 1988-1997 July 1989 FCM-P17-1989

National Aircraft Icing Technology Plan April 1986 FCM-P20-1986

National Plan to Improve Aircraft Icing Forecasts July 1986 FCM-P21-1986

Federal Plan for the Coordination of Automated Weather Information May 1988 FCM-P23-1988

System Programs 

Federal Plan for Meteorological Information Management July 1991 FCM-P24-1991

National Plan for Tropical Cyclone Research and Reconnaissance (1997-2002) January 1997 FCM-P25-1997

National Aviation Weather Program Plan September 1992 FCM-P27-1992

National Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)

Data Collection System (DCS) Operations Plan August 1997 FCM-P28-1997

Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Data, Services, and Supporting Research June 1996 FCM-P29-1996

The National Space Weather Program: Strategic Plan August 1995 FCM-P30-1995

The National Space Weather Program: Implementation Plan - 2nd Edition July 2000 FCM-P31-2000

National Aviation Weather Strategic Plan April 1997 FCM-P32-1997

National Aviation Weather Initiatives February 1999 FCM-P34-1999

National Aviation Weather Initiatives, Final Baseline Tier 3 and 4 Report April 2000

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 1 - Surface Weather Observations December 1995 FCM-H1-1995

and Reports

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 2 - Surface Synoptic Codes December 1988 FCM-H2-1988

Surface Synoptic Code Tables (Update) July 1990 FCM-T1-1990

188 APPENDIX A

 Weather Information for Surface

Transportation (WIST) Requirements

 Proceedings for Workshop on

BASC 21st Century Report

Recommendation -- A Strategy for

Atmospheric Information

 National Plan for Post-Storm Data

Acquisition

 A National Framework for

Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation

During FY 2001, OFCM continued

to make substantial progress on its use

of the Internet. In addition to information about the office, OFCM has

placed its current publications on its

website, and keeps the website current

with information regarding workshops

and symposia being conducted by the

office. OFCM will continue to make

information available on the Internet

during FY 2002.
APPENDIX A 189

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 3 - Rawinsonde and Pibal Observations May 1997 FCM-H3-1997

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 10 - Meteorological Rocket Observations December 1988 FCM-H10-1988 

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 11 - Doppler Radar Meteorological Observations

Part A - System Concepts, Responsibilities and Procedures June 1991 FCM-H11A-1991

Part B - Doppler Radar Theory and Meteorology June 1990 FCM-H11B-1990

Part C - WSR-88D Products and Algorithms February 1991 FCM-H11C-1991

Part D - WSR-88D Unit Description and Operational Analysis April 1992 FCM-H11D-1992

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 12 - United States Meteorological Codes December 1998 FCM-H12-1998

and Coding Practices

Directory of Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion Consequence Assessment Models March 1999 FCM-I3-1999

Federal Directory of Mobile Meteorological Equipment and Capabilities December 1995 FCM-I5-1995

A Guide to WMO Code Form FM 94 BUFR March 1995 FCM-I6-1995

Tropical Cyclone Studies December 1988 FCM-R11-1988

Tropical Cyclone Studies Supplement August 1989 FCM-R11-1988S

Interdepartmental Meteorological Data Exchange System Report, IMDES August 1998 FCM-R12-1998

Federal Meteorological Requirements 2000 October 1990 FCM-R13-1990

U.S. Wind Profiler: A Review March 1998 FCM-R14-1998

Standard Formats for Weather Data Exchange Among Automated Weather November 1994 FCM-S2-1994

Information Systems

Standard Telecommunication Procedures for Weather Data Exchange (under revision) October 1991 FCM-S3-1991

Federal Standard for Siting Meteorological Sensors at Airports August 1994 FCM-S4-1994

54th Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (Minutes) May 2000

Proceedings of the Workshop on Multiscale Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling June 2000

within the Federal Community

Proceedings of the Aviation Weather User Forum--Aviation Weather: Opportunities July 2000

for Implementation

Proceedings for the Weather Information for Surface Transportation: Delivering Improved

Safety and Efficiency for Tomorrow Symposium February 2000

Proceedings of the Symposium on the Weather Information for Surface Transportation March 2001

-- Preparing for the Future: Improved Weather Information for Decision Makers

Proceedings of the Forum on Risk Management and Assessment of Natural Hazards July 2001

Italics = publication available online at www.ofcm.gov

Table A.1 Current OFCM Publications (cont.)

Publication Title Date Number
APPENDIX B

GOALS AND ORGANIZATION

The WWP goals are to extend the

time, accuracy, range, and scope of

weather prediction and to understand

the physical basis of climate and climatic change. The ability of the

United States and other nations to use

their existing scientific capability to

understand the climate and to increase

their weather predicting skills is limited by the lack of global weather data.

Available weather data are inadequately observed over a significant portion

of the Earth's surface, especially over

isolated areas including the oceans.

Development of the technology and

the systems to obtain these observations, especially over the oceans, presents formidable problems. With the

use of satellites, aircraft, ships, radar,

anchored and drifting buoys, and balloons, however, an integrated system

can be developed to observe and collect comprehensive data about the

atmosphere over the entire globe. This

system is too complex to be implemented by a single nation--a fact clearly recognized by the leaders of many

nations whose international cooperation in meteorology has been a tradition for more than a century. In 1961,

this continuing need for international

cooperation prompted the President of

the United States to propose to the

United Nations (UN) the establishment

of an international effort in weather

prediction. The UN responded by calling upon the World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) and the

International Council of Scientific

Unions (ICSU) to develop measures to

improve weather forecasting capabilities and to advance the knowledge of

the basic physical forces that determine climate.

The WMO, with 185 Members, is a

specialized agency created by the UN

to facilitate international cooperation

in the fields of meteorology and operational hydrology. The WMO responded to the UN request with the concept

of the World Weather Watch (WWW),

an operational system to bring the

global atmosphere under improved

surveillance and to provide for the

rapid collection and exchange of

weather data as well as for the dissemination of weather products from centralized processing centers.

More recently, the WMO, through its

commission structure, is working

towards the design and implementation

of improved observations for a Global

Climate Observing System (GCOS)

through enhancements to the Global

Observing System (GOS) and other

appropriate measures. These efforts

are expected to yield an enhanced GOS

for both operational and research purposes and are part of the effort to

strengthen the WMO's commitment to

improve the understanding of climate

and related environmental matters, as

articulated by the Second World

Climate Conference in 1990 and

repeated at the UN Conference on the

Environment and Development.

The responsibilities of United States

federal agencies in the WWP are as

follows:

 Department of Commerce (DOC).

Represents the United States at

WMO and, through the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), provides

the focal point to coordinate our

Nation's efforts in these international programs, implements those

service improvements in the existing international weather system

for which the United States accepts

responsibility, and develops new

technology.

 Department of State (DOS).

Maintains relations with developing nations and, through NOAA

and the WMO, assists developing

nations in improving their national

weather services. DOS also develops appropriate multilateral and

bilateral arrangements to further

international participation.

 National Science Foundation

(NSF). Stimulates and supports

basic research by non-government

scientists on atmospheric and ocean

circulations and modeling. It also

promotes the education and training

of atmospheric and ocean scientists

at universities.

 Department of Defense (DOD).

Although the mission of DOD weather services is basically internal, the

nature of DOD's operations is global.

As such, the observation, telecommunications, and data-processing

programs of the military weather

services provide significant indirect

support to the WWW through DOD's

interface with NOAA's National

Weather Service (NWS).

Information from the research and

development activities of these services is exchanged routinely with

other similar national agencies and is

often presented at national forums.

WORLD WEATHER PROGRAM

The Department of Commerce (DOC) was designated by the President, following Senate Concurrent Resolution 67

(1968), to be the lead agency for coordinating United States participation in the World Weather Program (WWP). Until

1983, DOC published a separate report on WWP Plans. Beginning with the 1983 edition of the Federal Plan for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, a section on the WWP has been included, obviating the need for a

separate report. The last segment of this narrative includes information on bilateral and regional international cooperative activities which are not under the WWP.

APPENDIX B 191
192 APPENDIX B

 Department of Transportation

(DOT). Through the United States

Coast Guard, provides personnel to

support NOAA's National Data

Buoy Center (NDBC) in developing, operating, and evaluating data

buoy systems. Coast Guard cutters

and aircraft provide operational

support to deploy, service, and

retrieve buoys built for test or operational purposes. DOT's observation and telecommunications programs also provide significant indirect support to the WWW through

DOT's interaction with the NWS.

 National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA). Performs

research and develops aerospace

technology required for an effective

global weather system.

THE WORLD WEATHER WATCH

The WWW is an integrated services system which functions on three

levels--global, regional, and national. The WWW is divided into three

essential elements that are closely

linked and interdependent--the

Global Data Processing System

(GDPS), Global Telecommunication

System (GTS), and GOS.

These elements are coordinated

and closely integrated through three

WWW support functions: (1) the

data management function coordinates, monitors, and manages the

flow of data and products within the

WWW system to assure their quality and timely delivery. It also

includes the definition and use of

code forms for data exchange; (2)

the systems support activity provides guidance, technical and scientific information, and training to

those involved in the planning,

development, and operation of

WWW components; and (3) the

implementation and coordination

function assures the timely completion of the WWW implementation

and effective support and maintenance of the WWW system.

Global Observing System

The GOS is a coordinated system of

methods, techniques, and facilities for

making meteorological observations

on a worldwide scale. It is a composite system containing surface-based

and space-based (satellite) subsystems.

The main elements of the subsystem

are:

 Regional, basic-synoptic networks,

staffed and automated, for both surface and upper-air observations.

 Fixed sea stations, composed of

ocean weather stations, fixed and

anchored platform stations, and

island and coastal stations.

 Mobile sea stations, including moving ships.

 Moored and drifting buoys.

 Aircraft meteorological stations,

including automated aircraft reporting systems.

The space-based (satellite) subsystem provides vital support for meteorological and hydrological predictions

and warnings. The use of satellites

enables the routine collection of environmental observations from even the

most remote locations. Two categories

of satellites are used: polar orbiters and

geostationary.

Presently, operational meteorological

satellites in polar orbits are operated by

Russia (the METEOR-3 series) and the

United States. The United States operates the civilian NOAA Polar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite

(POES) series along with the Defense

Meteorological Satellite Program

(DMSP) series of polar-orbiting spacecraft. NOAA currently launches satellites, alternately, into afternoon and

morning orbits to maintain an uninterrupted stream of global data. The current primary operational NOAA polarorbiting satellites are NOAA-16

(launched in an afternoon orbit in

September 2000) and NOAA-15

(launched in a morning orbit in May

1998). The current primary operational DMSP polar-orbiting satellites

are F-15 (launched in December 1999)

and F-14 (launched in April 1997).

Also, China is operating its first generation FY-1C satellite launched in

May 1999 in sun-synchronous morning orbit.

Preparations continue with the

Europeans for their assumption of

NOAA's morning polar orbit mission

starting with the launch of Metop-1 in

2005. This complements United States

plans to merge NOAA's POES with the

DMSP to form an integrated system

called NPOESS (National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite) System that is expected to fly

at the end of this decade. NOAA,

DOD, and NASA are working together

to implement NPOESS in the context

of an Integrated Program Office (IPO).

NOAA heads the IPO and is responsible for operating the NPOESS and for

relations with national and international civilian users of the system. DOD

has the lead responsibility for

NPOESS acquisition, launch, and system integration. NOAA will facilitate

the development and incorporation of

new, cost-effective technologies to

enhance the NPOESS capabilities.

Operational geostationary weather

satellites are currently operated by

Japan, India, Russia, the United States,

and the European Organization for the

Exploitation of (EUMETSAT).

Japan's Geostationary Meteorological

Satellite (GMS) is positioned at

140 degrees East, India's Indian

National Satellites (INSAT) are at

74 degrees East and 93.5 degrees East,

Russia's GOMS/Elektro #1 satellite is

at 76 degrees East (operational from

June 1996 until September 1998, currently in stand-by), and EUMETSAT's

METEOSATs are at 0 degrees and

63 degrees East. The United States

operates two Geostationary

Operational Environmental Satellites

(GOES) - at 75 degrees West and

135 degrees West. GOES-8, launched

in April 1994, is operational at

75 degrees West and GOES-10,

launched in April 1997, is operational
APPENDIX B 193

at 135 degrees West. China's also

launched its first pre-operational geostationary environmental satellite

FY2A on June 10, 1997, and its second

FY2B on June 25, 2000. FY2B is

located at 105 degrees East and FY2A

was moved to the backup position at

85.6 degrees East.

Broadcast of data from both the

NOAA and GOES series of United

States satellites is free, unrestricted,

and does not require any prior notification. Data can be received directly by

any properly-equipped ground station

within the satellites' line-of-sight. The

United States, through NOAA, develops information and products from

these data for further distribution over

the GTS.

The WWW is a flexible system

which can be adapted to changing

technology and operational conditions.

The latest technological and scientific

developments in observations, data

processing, and telecommunications

are under constant review with an eye

towards improving the GOS, GDPS,

and GTS.

Over the last few years, several systems intended to improve the operation

of the GOS have continued to undergo

development and deployment. Among

these systems is the family of automated aircraft reporting systems known as

the Automated Meteorological Data

and Reporting (AMDAR) systems.

This family of systems includes the

Aircraft to Satellite Data Relay

(ASDAR) System and the ARINC

Communications Addressing and

Reporting System (ACARS). ARINC

is Aeronautical Radio Incorporated--a

wholly owned subsidiary of the airlines. ASDAR uses a dedicated onboard processor connected to the aircraft avionics system and transmits

observations automatically via the

meteorological geosynchronous satellites of the International Data

Collection System (IDCS). ASDAR

uses hardware which was developed in

the 1980's and was fitted to the aircraft,

requiring relatively expensive and

time-consuming certification and

installation. It has the important

advantage of using the meteorological

satellite communications facility

which is free for this type of message.

On the other hand, ACARS uses the

plane's own avionics system thus

requiring no certification or alteration

to the airframe. It does, however, use

the airlines' communications system

which could entail communication

costs.

The ASDAR program has continued to

provide valuable observations over data

sparse regions of South America, the

central and southern Atlantic Ocean,

Africa, the Indian Ocean, Asia, and

Eastern Europe. Much of this area is

otherwise not covered by any in-situ

upper air observations. However, this

situation is expected to change in the

near future as many of the existing

ASDAR equipped aircraft will be converted or replaced by other aircraft fitted

with conventional AMDAR systems.

The program peaked early in 1998 with

21 operational systems. However, since

then there has been a substantial reduction in the size of the ASDAR program.

This was accomplished in 2 phases with

the first 5 British Airways 747 aircraft

decommissioned between October 1998

and August 1999 and the second and

final 5 aircraft between January and June

2000. These same aircraft have been fitted with AMDAR software along with

45 other aircraft in the B747-400 fleet.

KLM decommissioned the first of its 3

operational units in April 2001. 

Although the program is in decline,

several units have a priority and should

be kept operating for a few more years as

they will still form the main source of

aircraft observations in critical data void

areas. These include units on aircraft

from Air Mauritius (2), KLM (2) and

Aerolineas Argentinas (2). The South

African units (2) will eventually be

replaced by AMDAR systems as will be

the 2 units operated by Saudi Arabia, but

not for at least another year.

During the second quarter of 2001,

data availability indicates 93.3 percent

of observations were received within

60 minutes and 99.5 percent within

115 minutes. An average of 994

reports per day were received.

Concerns regarding data quality of

some aircraft, particularly in temperature, are being addressed.

The United States AMDAR program,

called Meteorological Data

Communications and Reporting

System (MDCRS), began in the early

1980's and is a cooperative effort

among ARINC, the NWS, and the

FAA. It grew slowly in the first 10

years, but has grown rapidly during the

decade of the 1990's. Over 80,000

reports of wind and temperature are

sent every day in the Binary Universal

Form for Representation of

Meteorological Data (BUFR) code.

These MDCRS reports are provided by

six airlines: Delta, Northwest, United,

United Parcel Service (UPS),

American Airlines and Federal Express

(FedEx).

Two additional MDCRS reporting

elements continue under development:

water vapor and turbulence. A new

water vapor sensor, using diode laser

technology, is being tested. This new

sensor will replace the current version

being flown on 30 UPS B-757 aircraft

as part of a demonstration program.

Ultimately, this new technology is

hoped to be flown operationally on

commercial aircraft. A new turbulence

algorithm, developed by the National

Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR) derives an objective, aircraft

independent measure of turbulence

(eddy dissipation rate-EDR) from aircraft vertical acceleration. The EDR is

included as part of the MDCRS data

stream. The algorithm is currently

installed on 90 United Airlines aircraft

and will be installed on over 400

United, American, Delta, and

Northwest aircraft by FY 2003.

Large quantities of weather reports,

particularly over oceanic and other
194 APPENDIX B

data-sparse areas, will be realized via

satellite communications and navigation systems. This source of data is of

interest to the United States and others

of the international aeronautical community, especially Numerical Weather

Prediction (NWP) Centers including

World Area Forecast Centers

(WAFCs).

The Forty-Ninth Session of WMO's

Executive Council (Geneva, June

1997) established a Panel on Aircraft

Meteorological Data Reporting composed of Members of WMO that operate, or intend to operate, national

AMDAR Programs to coordinate and

promote global AMDAR development

be established. Several countries have

developed AMDAR programs of their

own, focused on obtaining aircraft data

over data sparse areas, including South

Africa, Hong Kong, Russia, Saudi

Arabia, and the Caribbean.

In addition to these aircraft-based

systems, other observation systems are

being deployed to improve the GOS.

For example, there has been deployment of substantial numbers of drifting

buoys. A number of nations, including

the United States, have implemented

experimental or quasi-operational networks or single sites of ground-based

Doppler radars called wind profilers to

provide nearly continuous wind soundings. A network of 32 tropospheric

wind profilers is being operated quasioperationally at 404 MHZ primarily in

the central part of the United States.

To improve the methodology used in

developing and deploying observing

systems, NOAA in 1997, established

the North American Atmospheric

Observing System (NAOS) program.

The group has representatives from

several federal agencies along with

representatives from Canada and

Mexico. NAOS objectives are to: (1)

define a cost-effective, requirementsdriven "best mix" of observing platforms and instruments and (2) reduce

observing system risks and uncertainties. While the initial focus of the program will be to modernize the composite upper-air network, NAOS is expected to guide the resource-allocation

process for most future observing systems developed and/or fielded by

NOAA. Several projects of NAOS

have been undertaken to assess the

utility of the MDCRS data in numerical models, including the impact of

replacing some numbers of rawinsonde

sites with MDCRS soundings, an

assessment of forecaster use of

MDCRS, and the impact on shortrange forecasting.

Efforts are underway to design and

implement a GCOS, building upon the

WWW, Global Atmospheric Watch,

Integrated Global Ocean Services

System, and other existing systems to

further the knowledge and understanding of climate and the prediction of climate and climate change. Efforts to

date have established planning groups

to address needs and requirements for

atmospheric, oceanic, and land-surface

data. Upper-air and surface-observing

networks have been defined to provide

basic global measurements for the

GCOS. Links to existing organizational structures are being established and

a high priority has been given to making observational enhancements. The

GCOS Upper Air Network (GUAN)

and the GCOS Surface Network

(GSN) have been established.

Global Data Processing System

The purpose of GDPS is to make

available all processed information

required for both real-time and nonreal-time applications. GDPS provides

products and processed information,

based on recent advances in atmospheric science, using powerful numerical computer methods. Members

have real-time, unrestricted access

through the GTS to GDPS products

which allow all countries to benefit

from their participation in the WWW. 

The GDPS is organized as a threelevel system. It consists of World

Meteorological Centers (WMC),

Regional/Specialized Meteorological

Centers (RSMC), and National

Meteorological Centers (NMC).

NMCs carry out GDPS functions at the

national level. In general, real-time

functions of the system involve preprocessing of data including real-time

quality control, analysis, and prognosis, including derivation of appropriate

meteorological parameters. The nonreal-time functions include data collection and archival, and additional quality control, storage, and retrieval, to

include cataloging observational data

and processed information for operational and special applications and for

research.

WMCs are located in Melbourne,

Moscow, and Washington; they provide guidance products used for general short, medium, and long-range

weather forecasts on a global scale.

Melbourne specializes in forecast

products for the Southern Hemisphere.

The RSMCs with geographical specialization are located at Algiers,

Algeria; Antananarivo, Malagasy;

Beijing, China; Bracknell, United

Kingdom; Brasilia, Brazil; Buenos

Aires, Argentina; Cairo, Egypt; Dakar,

Senegal; Darwin, Australia; Jeddah,

Saudi Arabia; Khabarovsk, Russia;

Lagos, Nigeria; Melbourne, Australia;

Miami, Florida; Montreal, Canada;

Moscow, Russia; Nairobi, Kenya; New

Delhi, India; Novosibirsk, Russia;

Offenbach, Germany; Rome, Italy;

Singapore; Tashkent, Uzbekistan;

Tokyo, Japan; Tunis, Tunisia;

Washington D.C., United States; and

Wellington, New Zealand.

RSMCs with activity specialization

are found at the European Center for

Medium Range Forecasts; Réunion

Island (France); Toulouse, France;

Miami, Florida. and Honolulu, Hawaii,

United States; and Nadi. Fiji.

The regional centers at Bracknell,

Miami, Montreal, New Delhi, and

Tokyo have dual geographical and

activity specialization responsibilities.

These centers provide regional products used for short and medium-range
APPENDIX B 195

forecasting of small, mesoscale, and

large scale meteorological systems by

WMCs. Products of RSMCs can be

used by members at the national level

for further processing or interpretation

to provide assistance or service to

users.

In the World Area Forecast System

(WAFS), two centers (Washington and

London) are designated by the

International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) as World Area

Forecast Centers (WAFC). They issue

upper-wind and temperature forecasts

with global coverage to associated

Regional Area Forecast Centers

(RAFC). The regional centers also

prepare and distribute forecasts of

weather elements defined by ICAO as

significant weather, and act as back-up

for one another.

The gradual implementation of the

final phase of the WAFS has begun.

The planned final phase call for the

two WAFCs to prepare and issue computer-based wind and temperature

forecasts as they now do. In addition,

those centers will automate all of the

significant weather elements. While

some of these elements are now prepared automatically, others are developed through forecaster-initiated

graphic interaction.

The dissemination of aeronautical

information via global satellite broadcast began in 1995. The United States

provides the links to two of the three

satellites specified in the system.

Global Telecommunication System

The GTS provides communication

services for the collection, exchange,

and distribution of observational data

and processed information among the

WMCs, RSMCs, and NMCs of the

WWW to meet the member needs for

real-time or quasi-real-time exchange

of information for both operational

and research purposes. The GTS also

supports other WMO programs, joint

programs with other inter-national

organizations, and environmental programs as decided by the WMO

Congress and is organized on three

levels:

 The Main Telecommunication

Network (MTN).

 The Regional Meteorological

Telecommunication Networks

(RMTN).

 The National Meteorological

Telecommunication Networks

(NMTN).

The GTS is supported by the

telecommunications functions of the

WMCs, Regional Telecommunications

Hubs (RTH), RSMCs, and NMCs.

The MTN links the WMCs at

Melbourne, Moscow, and Washington

with the RTHs at Algiers; Beijing;

Bracknell; Brasilia; Buenos Aires;

Cairo; Dakar; Jeddah; Maracay,

Venezuela; Nairobi; New Delhi;

Norrköping, Sweden; Offenbach;

Prague; Rome; Sofia; Tokyo;

Toulouse; and Wellington. It ensures

the rapid and reliable exchange of

observational data and processed information required by the members.

The RMTNs consist of an integrated

system of links which interconnects

RTHs, NMCs, and RSMCs to WMCs.

The RMTNs provide for the collection

of observational data and the selective

distribution of meteorological information to member nations.

In summary, the GTS enables the

NMCs to receive and distribute observational data and meteorological information to meet the requirements of

members. Ongoing WWW activities

include:

 GTS network redesign to take into

consideration new technical opportunities, such as Internet-like services.

 Improvement of the capacity of

MTN links and inclusion of graphics

(e.g., Washington-Brasilia,

Washington-Buenos Aires,

Washington-Tokyo). 

 Continued implementation of satellite-serviced data collection platforms to enhance the collection of

meteorological data from upper-air

and surface-observing sites.

 Continued implementation of satellite direct-readout stations that are

compatible with polar-orbiting

satellites and the weather facsimile

(WEFAX) component of the geostationary satellites. The need to

convert WEFAX to LRIT and APT

to LRPT formats will have to be

undertaken during the next decade.

Voluntary Cooperation Program (VCP)

From the beginning of WWW, it was

clear that all countries need better

weather observations and improved

communications systems. To help

remedy deficiencies and to fully implement the WWW, the WMO established

a Voluntary Assistance Program in

1967. The name of the program was

changed to Voluntary Cooperation

Program (VCP) in 1979.

The WMO-VCP helps the developing countries to implement the WWW

program by providing equipment,

services, and long-term and short-term

study fellowships. Since the inception

of the VCP, the United States has provided short-term fellowships in electronics, communications, operation

and maintenance of weather data collection systems and electrolytic hydrogen generators, and tropical meteorology and river flood forecasting to students from more than 50 countries.

Long-term fellowships, through which

the students receive baccalaureate or

advanced degrees, have been completed by candidates from over 48 countries. Highest priorities are given to

those facilities needed to support the

global aspects of WWW. The goal of

VCP is to eliminate deficiencies in

global observations and communications and to establish ground-readout

stations for Automatic Picture

Transmission reception so that the

countries may benefit more fully from

weather satellite services.

The DOS provides funding for VCP

projects with NOAA administering and

carrying out programs designed to aid

meteorological/hydrological and climate projects in recipient countries.
196 APPENDIX B

VCP Projects for 2001 include:

 Implementation and updating of

surface and upper-air observational

programs in the tropics, the

Southern Hemisphere, and Africa

as resources and priorities permit.

 Support of WAFS applications and

utilization.

 Continued support for the implementation of VCP projects in Latin

America and the Caribbean areas in

support of the hurricane and tropical storm programs.

 Connecting National Meteorological

Services to the Internet as a lowcost way to collect and enhance a

global data base.

BILATERAL AND REGIONAL

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

United States - Peoples Republic of

China Protocol in the Field of

Atmospheric Science and Technology

For more than 15 years, this protocol

has covered a broad area of research

and operational activities in the field of

atmospheric science and technology.

Program areas include the following:

 Climate Studies (which includes

scientific experiments and research

on monsoons and Tropical Ocean

Global Atmosphere).

 Mesoscale Meteorology (which

includes operational techniques for

forecasting torrential rains).

 Training and Participation.

 Atmospheric Chemistry.

 Satellite Meteorology and

Meteorological Satellites.

 Modernization Activities.

The cooperative activities between

the United States and China under this

program have decreased over the past

2 years. The main cooperative activity

has been within the Training and

Participation Program with a dozen

Chinese scientists and trainees working at NOAA facilities for up to

18 months.

United States-Mexico Meteorological

and Hydrologic Program

The United States and Mexico have

signed a cooperative agreement to

enhance the scope of their cooperation

in the fields of meteorology, hydrology, and climatology which began over

50 years ago. The new agreement

facilitates the following activities:

 The international dissemination of

observations from meteorological

and hydrologic observation systems.

 The exchange of meteorological,

hydrologic, and related data and

products between the United States

and Mexico.

 The cooperation necessary to

assure prompt transmission through

telecommunications networks of

these data and products.

Over the past few years, the Mexican

Meteorological Service has undergone

some modernization which included

upgrading upper-air observation systems and installing Doppler weather

radars. This cooperative agreement

will facilitate the exchange of data and

information to the benefit of both

countries.
APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C 197

r Program

oals of the program were articulated in the NSWP Strategic

n the next ten years, an interagency system to provide time

asts. A detailed Implementation Plan was published in 1997

ons, models, and education-which, taken together, support

ariety of customers. This customer base includes operators

ms, and manned spaceflight systems.

ce of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM).

policy and provides oversight and direction to the program.

l and implements policy and provides management of the

us sections of this plan. The reader is invited to review the

SPACE

WEATHER

nt of Transportation: p.116

nt of Energy: p. 148-149

nt of the Interior: p. 153

Aeronautics and Space Administration: p. 175-177

Science Foundation: p. 181

the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology Highlights: p. 186 Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) blast and subsequent impact

at Earth

This illustration shows a CME blasting off the Suns surface.

The left portion is composed of an extreme ultra-violet (EUV)image superimposed on SOHOs coronagraph. Two to four dayslater, the CME cloud is shown striking and beginning to be mostly deflected around the Earths magnetosphere. The blue pathsemanating from the Earths poles represent some of its magnetic field lines. The magnetic cloud of plasma can extend to 30 million miles wide by the time it reaches earth. These storms, whichoccur frequently, can disrupt communications and navigationalequipment, damage satellites, and even cause blackouts.(Objects in the illustration are not drawn to scale.)

Solar Variability

of two images almost

ustrates how the level

has increased signifi

attained its expected

m in the year 2000.

e captured using Fe

on showing the solar

perature of about 1.3

more sunspots, solar

nal mass ejections

solar maximum. The

regions and the num

tic loops in the recent

ncrease.

All solar images from Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)
APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C 197

r Program

oals of the program were articulated in the NSWP Strategic

n the next ten years, an interagency system to provide time

asts. A detailed Implementation Plan was published in 1997

ons, models, and education-which, taken together, support

ariety of customers. This customer base includes operators

ms, and manned spaceflight systems.

ce of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM).

policy and provides oversight and direction to the program.

l and implements policy and provides management of the

us sections of this plan. The reader is invited to review the

SPACE

WEATHER

nt of Transportation: p.116nt of Energy: p. 148-149nt of the Interior: p. 153

Aeronautics and Space Administration: p. 175-177

Science Foundation: p. 181

the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology Highlights: p. 186 Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) blast and subsequent impact

at Earth

This illustration shows a CME blasting off the Suns surface.

The left portion is composed of an extreme ultra-violet (EUV)image superimposed on SOHOs coronagraph. Two to four dayslater, the CME cloud is shown striking and beginning to be mostly deflected around the Earths magnetosphere. The blue pathsemanating from the Earths poles represent some of its magnetic field lines. The magnetic cloud of plasma can extend to 30 million miles wide by the time it reaches earth. These storms, which

occur frequently, can disrupt communications and navigationalequipment, damage satellites, and even cause blackouts.(Objects in the illustration are not drawn to scale.)

Solar Variability

of two images almost

ustrates how the level

has increased signifi

attained its expected

m in the year 2000.

e captured using Fe

on showing the solar

perature of about 1.3

more sunspots, solar

nal mass ejections

solar maximum. The

regions and the num

tic loops in the recent

ncrease.

All solar images from Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)
APPENDIX D

PREVIOUS FEATURE ARTICLES

APPENDIX D 199

2000 FY 2001 The Legacy of Hurricane Floyd--Inland Mr. Robert Dumont, OFCM

Flooding and a Massive Evacuation

1999 FY 2000 Natural Disaster Reduction--Reducing the OFCM Staff in collaboration with

Impacts of Natural Hazards Dr. William Hooke, OAR, and

Ms. Keli Tarp, NOAA Public Affairs

1998 FY 1999 Aviation Weather: Taking A Leadership Role FAA's Aviation Weather Policy Division

(ARW-100) Staff

1997 FY 1998 Owning The Weather--An Army Force Mr. Richard J. Szymber, Army

Multiplier

1996 FY 1997 Space Weather - A New Challenge for Col Jud Stailey, USAF

Meteorologists

1995 FY 1996 The Role of Federal Agencies in International Mr. Blaine K. Tsugawa, OFCM

Aviation Meteorology

1994 FY 1995 Data Continuity in the Climatological Record Dr. Nathaniel B. Guttman, NCDC

Mr. Andrew H. Horvitz, NWS

Mr. Arthur L. Booth, NOAA-EOSDIS

1993 FY 1994 Training and Professional Development in the Mr. Eli Jacks, NWS

Modernized Weather Services Mr. LeRoy Spayd, NWS

1992 FY 1993 Mesoscale Meteorology Mr. Floyd F. Hauth, OFCM

1991 FY 1992 Some Recent Developments in Lightning Dr. Donald R. MacGorman, NOAA

Mapping Systems Dr. Frederick R. Mosher, NOAA

Ms. Jan S. Lewis, NOAA

1990 FY 1991 The Next Generation Weather Radar - Mr. E. Don Sarreals, NEXRAD JSPO 

A System for Locating and Tracking 

Severe Weather

1989 FY 1990 Strategic Plan for the Modernization and Verbatim reproduction of a plan

Associated Restructuring of the required by Congress and submitted

National Weather Service by DOC and OMB

1988 FY 1989 Supercomputers for Meteorological Services (Source or author unknown)

and Supporting Research
200 APPENDIX D
APPENDIX E

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

APPENDIX E 201

4DWX Four Dimensional Weather (Army)

AA Active Army

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (FHWA)

ABCS Army Battle Command System (Army)

ABFM Airborne Field Mill (NASA)

ABL Airborne Laser (AF)

ABLE Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (DOE)

AC Active Component (DOD)

ACARS ARINC Communication Addressing and Reporting System

ACE Aviation Combat Element (USMC)

ACP Atmospheric Chemistry Program (DOE)

ACRIMSAT Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Satellite (NASA)

ADAS AWOS/ASOS Data Acquisition System (FAA)

ADEOS Advanced Earth Observing System (NASA)

AESS Allied Environmental Support System (Navy)

AF Air Force (USAF) 

AFB Air Force Base 

AFCCC Air Force Combat Climatology Center

AFCWC Air Force Global Combat Weather Center 

AFFFSA Air Force Flight Standards Agency

AFJI Air Force Joint Instruction

AFOSR Air Force Special Office of Scientific Research

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

AFSOC Air Force Special Operations Command

AFTAC Air Force Technical Applications Center

AFW Air Force Weather

AFWA Air Force Weather Agency

AFWIN Air Force Weather Information Network

AHPS Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Services (NOAA/NWS)

AGFS Aviation Gridded Forecast System (FAA)

AIP Airport Improvement Program (FAA)

AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network (NOAA/OAR)

AIRS Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (NASA)

AL Aeronomy Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

ALC Adelphi Laboratory Center (Army)

ALDARS Automated Lightning Detection and Reporting System (FAA)

AMC Army Matériel Command (Army)

AMDAR Automatic Meteorological Data and Reporting

AMIS Automated Meteorological Information System (AF)

AMOS Automated Meteorological Observing System (Navy)

AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit

AMU Applied Meteorology Unit (NASA)

ANG Air National Guard

ANL Argonne National Laboratory (DOE)

AOC Aircraft Operations Center (NOAA)

AOML Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

AOR Area of Responsibility (DOD)

AOT Aerosol Optical Thickness (NOAA/NESDIS)

APT Automatic Picture Transmission

AR Army Regulation

ARAC Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability (DOE)

ARCS Atmospheric Radiation CART Sites (NOAA/OAR)

ARG Accident Response Group (DOE)
202 APPENDIX E

ARGOS French Satellite Data Collection System 

ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated

ARL Army Research Laboratory (Army)

Air Resources Laboratory (NOAA)

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Monitoring (DOE)

ARNG Army National Guard

ARO Army Research Office

ARS Agricultural Research Service (USDA)

Air Traffic System Requirements Service (FAA)

ARSPACE Army Space Command

ARSR Air Route Surveillance Radar (FAA)

ARSST Army Space Support Team

ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Center (FAA)

ARTYMET Artillery Meteorological (Army)

ARW Aviation Weather Directorate (FAA)

ASD Atmospheric Sciences Division (DOE)

ASDAR Aircraft to Satellite Data Relay

ASNE Air and Space Natural Environment (AF)

ASOG Air Support Operations Group (AF)

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System 

ASR Airport Surveillance Radar (FAA)

ATC Air Traffic Control (FAA)

ATCCS Army Tactical Command and Control System

ATDD Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division (NOAA/ARL) 

ATWIS Advanced Transportation Weather Information System (FHWA)

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA)

AVO Alaskan Volcano Observatory (DOI/USGS)

AWARDS Agricultural Water Resources Decision Support (DOI/BUREC)

AWC Aviation Weather Center (NOAA/NCEP)

AWDS Automated Weather Distribution System (AF)

AWE Advanced Warfighting Experiments (Army)

AWIPS Advanced Weather Interactive Processing Systems (NOAA)

AWN Automated Weather Network (DOD)

AWOS Automated Weather Observing System (FAA)

AWR Aviation Weather Research (FAA)

AWSS Aviation Weather Sensor System (FAA)

BASC Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

BE Battlefield Environment (Army)

BED Battlefield Environment Directorate (Army)

BER Biological and Environmental Research (DOE)

BFA Battlefield Functional Areas (Army)

BLM Bureau of Land Management (DOI)

BMDO Ballistic Missile Defense Office (AF)

BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory (DOE)

BUFR Binary Universal Form for the Representation of Meteorological Data

BUREC Bureau of Reclamation (DOI)

C2 Command and control (DOD)

C4I Command, Control, Communications, Computer and Information (DOD)

CAAM Computer Assisted Artillery Meteorology (Army)

CALJET California Land-falling Jets Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

CAMEX Convective and Moisture Experiment (NASA)

CAP Civil Air Patrol

CAPARS Computer-Assisted Protective Action Recommendation System (DOE)

CARDS Comprehensive Aerological Reference Data Set (NOAA/NCDC)

CARS Condition Acquisition and Reporting System (FHWA)

CASPER Computer Aided System For Planning Efficient Routes (FHWA)
APPENDIX E 203

CART Clouds and Radiation TEstbed (DOE)

CAWIS Committee for Automated Weather Information Systems (OFCM)

CBNP Chemical Biological Non-Proliferation Program (DOE)

CBOFS Chesapeake Bay Oceanographic Forecasting System (NOAA/NOS)

CCM3 Community Climate Model-3

CCMC Community Coordinated Modeling Center (AF)

CCMS Committee on the Challenge of Modern Society (EPA)

CDA Command and Data Acquisition 

CDAS Command and Data Acquisition Station 

CDFS Cloud Depiction and Forecast System (AF)

CEASE Compact Environment Anomaly Sensor (AF)

CECOM Communications and Electronics Command (Army)

CEMSCS Central Environmental Satellite Computer System (NOAA/NESDIS)

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (NOAA/NESDIS)

CERES Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (NASA)

CHAMMP Computer Hardware Advanced Mathematics and Model Physics (DOE)

CIASTA Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Studies and Terrestrial Applications (NOAA/OAR)

CIDE Communications Interfaces and Data Exchange (OFCM)

CINC Commanders-in-Chief (DOD)

CIRES Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (NOAA)

CLASS Comprehensive Large Array-Data Stewardship System (NOAA/NESDIS)

CMAQ Community Multi-scale Air Quality (EPA)

CME Coronal Mass Ejection (AF)

CMFC Coordinating METOC Forecast Center (Navy)

COADS Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (NOAA/NCDC) 

COAMPS Coupled Oceanographic and Atmospheric Model (Navy)

COARE Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment

COE Corps of Engineers (Army)

COMET Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education and Training

CONUS Continental United States (DOD)

CONUSA Continental United States Armies (Army)

COPC Committee for Operational Processing Centers (OFCM)

COOP Cooperative Observer Program (NOAA/NWS)

CORMS Continuous Real-time Monitoring System (NOAA/NOS)

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (AF)

COTS Commercial Off-the-Shelf

CPC Climate Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement

CRN Climate Reference Network (NOAA)

CRREL Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (Army)

CS Climate Services (OFCM) 

CSD Climate Services Division (NOAA/NWS)

CSEPP Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (DOE)

CSRA Central Savannah River Area (DOE)

CSREES Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA)

CSSM Cloud Scene Simulation Model (AF)

CSW Committee for Space Weather (OFCM)

CTA Common Table of Allowances (Army)

CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (DOE)

CTWFC CINC Target Weather Forecast Center (AF)

CWF Combat Weather Flight (AF)

CWS Combat Weather Squadron (AF)

CWSU Center Weather Service Unit (FAA)

CWT Combat Weather Team (AF)
204 APPENDIX E

CXD Combined X-ray Dosimeter (DOE)

CY Calendar Year

DAC Data Assembly Center (NOAA/OAR)

DAMPS Distributed Atmospheric Modeling Prediction System (Navy)

DCO Data Collection Office (NOAA/NWS)

DCP Data Collection Package

DCS Data Collection System (NOAA/NESDIS)

DGPS Differential Global Positioning System (USGS)

DISS Digital Ionospheric Sounding System (AF)

DMCC DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council

DMSO Defense Modeling and Simulation Office (AF)

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (AF)

DOC Department of Commerce 

DOD Department of Defense 

DOE Department of Energy 

DOI Department of Interior 

DOMSAT Domestic Communications Satellite

DOS Department of State 

DOT Department of Transportation

DRA Desert Rock Meteorological Observatory (DOE)

DREN Defense Research and Engineering Network (AF)

DRGS Direct readout ground stations (DOI)

DRWP Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (NASA)

DTC Developmental Test Command (Army)

DTSS Digital Topographic Support System (Army)

DUAT Direct User Access Terminal (FAA)

DURIP Defense University Research Instrumentation Program (Army)

DWSW Deployable Weather Satellite Workstation (Army)

EAC Echelon Above Corps (Army)

ECDIS Electronic Chart Display Information System (NOAA/NOS)

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting

EDAS Eta Data Assimilation System (NOAA/NESDIS)

EDIS Environmental Data and Information Service (NOAA)

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle (NASA)

EMC Environmental Modeling Center (NOAA/NCEP)

ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation

EO Electro-optical

Earth Observation (NASA)

EOC Emergency Operations Center

Environmental Operations Center (DOE)

EOS Earth Observing System (NASA)

EOSDIS EOS Data and Information System (NASA)

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

EPD Environmental Protection Division (DOE)

E-PIREPS Electronic Pilot Reports (FAA)

EPSCoR Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitivee Research (DOD)

ER Eastern Range (NASA)

ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (NASA)

ERC Extended Research Checkout

ERDAS Eastern Range Dispersion Assessment System (NASA)

ERDC Engineering Research and Development Center (Army)

ERL Environmental Research Laboratories (NOAA)

ESD/IPC Environmental Satellite Distribution/Interactive Processing Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

ESE Earth Science Enterprise (NASA)

ESIP Earth Science Information Partners (NASA)
APPENDIX E 205

ESP Energy Spectrometer for Particles (DOE)

Ensemble Streamflow Prediction (NWS)

ESS Environmental Sensor Station (FHWA)

ESSP Earth System Science Pathfinders (NASA)

ETL Environmental Technology Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

ETTP East Tennessee Technology Park (DOE)

ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (NASA)

EUMETSAT European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

EUSA Eighth U.S. Army

EUV Extreme Ultraviolet

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FALOP Forward Area Limited Observing Program (AF)

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA)

FBA Fire Behavior Analysts (DOI)

FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change (DOS)

FCMSSR Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 

FCS Future Combat System (Army)

FDD First Digitized Division (Army)

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

FIRESTORM Federation of Intelligence, Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Targeting Operations and

Research Models (Army)

FIRETEC Fire Behavior Model (DOE)

FIRST FAA Icing Remost Sensor Testbed (NOAA/OAR)

FIS Flight Information System (FAA)

FLENUMMETOCCEN Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Monterey, California

FMF Fleet Marine Force

FMH Federal Meteorological Handbook (OFCM)

FNMOC Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (Navy)

FOA Field operating agency (AF)

FOC Future Operational Capability (Army)

FORSCOM U.S. Army Forces Command

FOV Field of vision

FRA Federal Railroad Administration

FRD Field Research Division (NOAA/ARL)

FRERP Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (DOE)

FRMAC Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (DOE)

FRRS Federal Records Retention System

FRWS Fire RAWS (DOI)

FS-21 Forecasting System 21st Century

FS Forest Service (USDA)

FSA Farm Services Agency (USDA)

FSL Forecast Systems Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

FTA Federal Transit Administration

FTE Full-time Equivalent

FTP File Transfer Protocol

FU Forecast Unit

FY fiscal year 

G-IV Gulfstream IV (NOAA)

GAC Global Area Coverage

GACC Geographic Areas and Coordination Center (DOI)

GAPP GEWEX Applications Prediction Program (DOI/BUREC)

GAO General Accounting Office

GCCR Global Climate Change Research (DOE)

GCCS Global Command and Control System (DOD)
206 APPENDIX E

GCIP GEWEX Continental-scale International Project (DOI)

GCM Global Climate Models (DOE)

GCOS Global Climate Observing System (WWP)

GCPS Global Climate Perspectives System

GCRP Global Change Research Program

GDPS Global Data Processing System (WWP)

GEOSAR Geostationary Earth Orbit Search and Rescue (NOAA/NESDIS)

GEWEX Global Energy and Water-Balance Experiment

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

GHCN Global Historical Climatology Network

G-IPPA Government-Industry Project Performance Agreement (FAA)

GIN Geomagnetic Information Nodes (DOI)

GIS Geographic Information System

GLD Global Lagrangian Drifters (NOAA/OAR)

GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System (NOAA/NESDIS)

GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (Japan)

GMSRA GOES Multi-Spectral Rainfall Algorithms (NOAA/NESDIS)

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System

GOS Global Observing System (WWP)

GOSSP Global Observing Systems Space Panel (NOAA/NESDIS)

GPCP Global Precipitation Climatology Program

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS/MET GPS for Meteorology

GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (NASA)

GRIB Gridded Binary (FM 92-X Ext.)

GRIDS Ground-based Remote Icing Detection System (NOAA/OAR)

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)

GSN GCOS Surface Network (WWP)

GTS Global Telecommunications System (WWP)

GTSPP Global Temperature-Salinity Pilot Project

GTWAPS Global Theater Weather Analysis and Prediction System (AF)

GUAN GCOS Upper Air Network (WWP)

HaL Hurricanes at Landfall (NOAA/OAR)

HCRS Highway Closure and Restriction System (FHWA)

HELSTF High Energy Laser System Test Facility (Army)

HF High frequency (AF)

HFRB High frequency regional broadcast (DOD)

HIGRAD High Resolution and Strong Gradient

HIRS/3 High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

HMI Hydrologic Modeling Inventory (DOI)

HMSC Hazardous Materials Spill Center (DOE)

HMMWV High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle (Army)

HPC Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

HPCC High Performance Computing and Communications

HPCMO High Performance Computing Modernization Office (AF)

HRAP Hydrologic Rainfall Analysis Project (DOI)

HRD Hurricane Research Division (NOAA/ERL)

HRPT High Resolution Picture Transmission (NOAA/NESDIS)

HSA Hydrologic Service Area (NOAA/NWS)

HSM Heat Stress Monitor (Army)

HUD Head-up display (NASA)

IAMS Initial Attack Management System (DOI)

IAS International Airspace System (NOAA/NWS)

IAV Interim Armored Vehicle (Army)
APPENDIX E 207

IBCT Interim Brigade Combat Teams (Army)

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICMSSR Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 

ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions

IDCS International Data Collection System (WWP) 

IEN Information Exchange Network (FHWA)

IEW Intelligence and Electronic Warfare (Army)

IFFA Interactive Flash Flood Analyzer (NOAA/NESDIS)

IGBP International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (WWP)

IHC Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (OFCM)

IIP International Ice Patrol (USCG)

IMDES Interdepartmental Meteorological Data Exchange System 

IMETS Integrated Meteorological System (Army)

Incident Meteorologists (NOAA/NWS)

IMEX Inner Magnetosphere Explorer (NASA)

IMOSS Interim Mobile Oceanography Support System (Navy)

IMS Ionospheric Measuring System (AF)

INEEL Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (DOE)

INSAT India's Indian National Satellite (WWP)

IPB Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (Army)

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (WWP/DOS)

IPEX Intermountain Precipitation Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

IPO Integrated Program Office

IR Infrared

IRRIS Intelligent Road and Rail Information System (FHWA)

IRTSS Infrared Target Scene Simulation Software (AF)

ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Program (NOAA/NESDIS)

ISES International Space Environment Service (NOAA/OAR)

ISIS Integrated Solar Irradiance Study (NOAA/OAR)

ISPM Interplanetary Shock Propagation Models (AF)

ISOON Improved Solar Optical Observing Network (AF)

ITCZ Inter-tropical convergence zone

ITS Intelligent Transportation System (FHWA)

ITS-JPO ITS Joint Program Office FHWA)

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System (FAA)

IWEDA Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid (Army)

IWRS Improved Weather Reconnaissance System

IWRPC Improved Weather Reconnaissance System Program Council

J-TRWS Joint TESS Remote Workstation (Navy)

JAAWIN Joint Air Force-Army Weather Information Network (AF)

JAG Joint Action Group

JASL Joint Archive for Sea Level

JAWF Joint Agricultural Weather Facility (USDA)

JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

JMTK Joint Mapping Took Kit (Army)

JMV Joint METOC Viewer (Navy)

JPL Joint Propulsion Laboratory (NASA)

JSC Johnson Space Center (NASA)

JSCP Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan (Army)

JTWC Joint Typhoon Warning Center (AF/Navy)

JWIS Joint Weather Impacts System (AF)

KM Kilometer

KMR Kwajalein Missile Range (Army)

KSC Kennedy Space Center

KVERT Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (DOI)
208 APPENDIX E

LAAS Local Area Augmentation System (FAA)

LAC Local Area Coverage

LAN local area network

LANL Los Alamos National Library (DOE)

LAPS Local Analysis and Prediction System (NOAA/FSL)

LDAR Lightning Detection and Ranging (NASA)

LDIS Local Data Integration System (NASA)

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (DOE)

LLWAS Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (FAA)

LLWAS-RS LLWAS-Relocation/Sustainment (FAA)

LRGS local readout ground stations (DOI)

LSM Land Surface Model (AF)

LWS Living With A Star (NASA)

MACOM Major Army Command

MAGTF Marine Air Ground Task Force

MAIS Military Aircrew Information System (AF)

MAJCOM Major Command (AF)

MAW Marine Aircraft Wing

MB Millibars

MC Meteorological Codes

MCAF Marine Corps Air Facilities

MCAS Marine Corps Air Station

MCD Mesoscale Discussions (NOAA/NWS)

MCO Maintenance and Construction Operations (FHWA)

MCS Mesoscale Convective System (NOAA/OAR)

MDCRS Meteorological Data Communications and Reporting System (WWP)

MDS Meteorological Distribution System (Army)

MDSS Maintenance Decision Support System (FHWA)

MeaPRS MCS Electrification and Polarimetric Radar Study (NOAA/OAR)

MEPED Medium Energy Proton and Electron Detector (NOAA/NESDIS)

MES Marine Environmental Services (OFCM)

MET Mobile Environmental Teams (Navy)

Meteorological Teams (Army)

METMF(R) Meteorological Mobile Facility (Replacement) (Navy)

METOC Meteorological and Oceanographic (DOD)

MHS Microwave Humidity Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

MIMS Multimedia Integrated Modeling System (EPA)

MISR Multi-Angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (NASA)

MM5 Mesoscale Meteorological Model-Version 5.0 (AF)

MME Mobile Meteorological Equipment (OFCM)

MMS Meteorological Measuring System (Army)

Mineral Management Service (DOI)

MMS-P Meteorological Measuring System-Profiler (Army)

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOBY Marine Optical Buoy (NOAA/NESDIS)

MOCE Marine Optical Characterization Experiment (NOAA/NESDIA)

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (NASA)

MOS Manual Observing System (AF)

MPA Magnetospheric Plasma Analyzer (DOE)

MPC Marine Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

MS Monitoring the Stratosphere (OFCM)

MSCP Meteorological and Climate Services Project (DOE)

MSEA Modeling and Simulatin Executive Agent (AF)

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA)

MSL Mean sea level
APPENDIX E 209

MSM Magnetospheric Specification Model (AF)

MST Meteorological Support Teams (USMC)

MSU Microwave Sounding Unit (NOAA/NESDIS)

MTN Main Telecommunications Network (WWP)

MTPE Mission to Planet Earth (NASA)

MWO Meteorological Watch Office (NOAA/NWS)

MWSS Marine Wing Support Squadron

NADIN National Airspace Data Interchange Network (FAA)

NAF Numbered Air Force

NAMIS NATO Automated Meteorological Information System (DOD)

NAPP National Aerial Photography Program (USDA)

NAOS North American Atmospheric Observing System (NOAA)

NARAC National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (DOE)

NARSTO North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone (EPA)

NAS National Airspace System (FAA)

National Academy of Sciences

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASDA National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASA)

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA)

NATCOM National Communications Center (FAA)

NAVICECEN Naval Ice Center

NAVOCEANO Naval Oceanographic Office 

NAVLANTMETOCCEN Naval Atlantic Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Norfolk, Virginia

NAVMETOCCOM Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

NAVPACMETOCCEN Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

NAWPC National Aviation Weather Program Council (OFCM)

NBC Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (DOD)

NC NOAA Corps Operations

NCA National Command Authority (DOD)

NCAR National Centers for Atmospheric Research 

NCDC National Climatic Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NCEP National Center for Environmental Prediction (NOAA/NWS)

NCO NCEP Central Operations (NOAA/NCEP)

Non-commissioned officer (DOD)

NDBC National Data Buoy Center (NOAA/NWS)

NDI non-developmental item

NDOP National Digital Orthoquad Program (USDA)

NDRI Natural Disaster Reduction Initiative (NOAA)

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NOAA)

NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (DOE)

NESS National Environmental Satellite Service (NOAA)

NEST Nuclear Emergency Search Team (DOE)

NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar (WSR-88D)

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA)

NFDRS National Fire Danger Rating System (DOI/BLM)

NGDC National Geophysical Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NGIC National Geomagnetic Information Center (DOI)

NGRVR New Generation Runway Visual Range (FAA)

NHC National Hurricane Center (NOAA/NWS)

NHOP National Hurricane Operations Plan (OFCM)

NIC National Ice Center (DOT/USCG)

NIFC National Interagency Fire Center (DOI)

NIMA National Imaging and Mapping Agency (DOD)

NIPRNET Non-secure Internet Protocol Network (DOD)

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology (DOC)

NITES Naval Integrated Tactical Environmental Subsystem
210 APPENDIX E

NLDN National Lightning Detection Network (FAA)

NMC National Meteorological Center(s) (WWP)

NMOC Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

NMP New Mellenium Program (NASA)

NMTN National Telecommunications Network (WWP)

NNDC NOAA National Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration (DOE)

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NODC National Oceanographic Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NODDS Naval Oceanographic Data Distribution System

NOGAPS Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System

NOS National Ocean Service (NOAA) 

NOTAMS Notices to Airmen (FAA)

NOWS NVG Operations Weather Software (AF)

NPN NOAA Profiler Network (NOAA/OAR)

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NPP NPOESS Preparatory Program (NASA)

NPS National Park Service (DOI)

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA)

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NRO National Reconnaissance Office (AF)

NRVR New Generation Runway Visual Range (FAA)

NSCAT NASA Scatterometer (NASA)

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center (NOAA)

NSSL National Severe Storms Laboratory (NOAA)

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NSWP National Space Weather Program (OFCM)

N-TFS New Tactical Forecast System (AF)

NTIS Naational Technical Information Service

NTS Nevada Test Site (DOE)

NTSB National Transportation Safety Board 

NV Nevada Operations Office (DOE)

NVG night vision goggle (DOD)

NWLON National Water-Level Observation Network (NOAA/NOS)

NWP Numerical Weather Predication

NWS National Weather Service 

OAR Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (NOAA)

OASIS Operational and Supportability Implementation System (FAA)

OCAP Operating Consortium of ASDAR Participants (WWP)

OCWWS Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services (NOAA/NWS)

ODCSINT Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence (Army)

ODCSOPS Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations (Army)

OES Office of Earth Sciences (NASA)

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology 

OGP Office of Global Programs (NOAA)

OMB Office of Management and Budget

ONR Office of Naval Research

OPAREA Fleet Operational Area (Navy)

OPARS Optimum Path Aircraft Routing System (Navy)

OPS-II Operational Weather Squadron Production System II

OP-SEND Operationalized Space Environment Network Display (AF)

OR&F Operations, Research, and Facilities (NOAA/NWS)

ORA Office of Research and Applications (NOAA/NESDIS)

ORAU Oak Ridge Associated Universities (DOE)
APPENDIX E 211

ORD Operational Requirements Documents (DOD)

ORISE Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (DOE)

ORR Oak Ridge Reservation (DOE)

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory (DOE)

ORO Oak Ridge Operations (DOE)

OS-21 Observing System 21st Century (AF)

OSDPD Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSEI Operational Significant Event Imagery (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSO Office of Satellite Operations (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSTEP Ocean Systems Test and Evaluation Program (NOAA/NOS)

OSTP Office of Sciencey and Technology Policy

OTH Over the horizon (NOAA/OAR)

OTW Owning the Weather (Army)

OTSR Optimum Track Ship Routing (Navy)

OWS Operational Weather Squadron (AF)

OWSE Operational World Weather Watch Systems Evaluation (WWP)

PAA Precipitation Accumulation Algorithm (DOI)

PAC Procurement, Acquisition, and Construction (NOAA/NWS)

PACS Polar Acquisition and Control Subsystem (NOAA/NESDIS)

PASOS Portable Automated Observing System (AF)

PBL Planetary Boundary Layer (DOE)

PC Program Council (OFCM)

PCMDI Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (DOE)

PD Project Director (Army)

PECAD Production Estimates and Corp Assessment Division (USDA)

PIBAL Pilot Balloon

PICASSO-CENA Pathfinder Instruments for Cloud and Aerosol Spaceborne Observations-Climatologie

Etendue des Nuages et des Aerosols (NASA)

PIPS Polar Ice Predication System (NOAA/NESDIS)

PIRATA Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic (NOAA/OAR)

PIREP Pilot Report

PMEL Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratories (DOE)

POES Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)

POP Parallel Ocean Program (DOE)

POPS Primary Oceanographic Prediction System (Navy)

PORTS Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System (NOAA/NOS)

PRISM Parameterized Real-time Ionospheric and Specification Model (AF)

PSDA Post-Storm Data Acquisition (OFCM)

PSR Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer (NOAA/OAR)

PUP Principal User Processor

QPF Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (NOAA/NCEP)

R&A Research and Analysis

R&D Research and Development 

RAFC Regional Area Forecast Center (WWP)

RAMS Regional Atmopsheric Modeling System (DOE)

RAMSDIS RAMM Branch Advanced Meteorological Satellite Demonstration and

Interpretation System (NOAA/NESDIS)

RAP Radiological Assistance Program (DOE)

RARC Regional Atmospheric Response Center (DOE)

RASS Radio Acoustic Sounding System (NOAA/OAR)

RAWS Remote Automatic Weather Station (USDA/DOI)

RC Reserve Component (DOD)

RCC Regional Climate Center (NOAA/NESDIS)
212 APPENDIX E

RDTE Research and Development, Test and Evaluation (Army)

REEPER Relativistic Electorn and Energetic Proton Experiment (AF)

RFETS Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (DOE)

RFC River Forecast Center (NOAA/NWS)

RMTN Regional Telecommunications Network (WWP)

ROC Radar Operations Center (NOAA/NWS)

RPC Rapid Prototype Center (NOAA/SEC)

RSA Range Standardization and Automation (NASA)

RSMC Regional/Specialized Meteorological Centers (WWP)

RTH Regional Telecommunications Hub (WWP)

RTNEPH Real-time Nephanalysis (AF)

RUC Rapid Update Cycle (NOAA)

RVR Runway Visual Range (FAA)

RWIS Road Weather Information System (FHWA)

S2 Intelligence Section (Army)

SAA Satellite Active Archive

Snow Accumulation Algorithm (DOI/BLM)

SAMS Stochastic Analysis, Modeling, And Simulation (DOI)

SAP Special Access Program

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar (NOAA/NESDIS)

SARSAT Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking

SBIR Small Business Innovative Research Program (DOD)

SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultra-violet Instrument (NOAA/NESDIS)

SCI Sensitive Compartmented Information (DOD)

SCINDA Scintillation Network Decision Aid (AF)

SDHS Satellite Data Handling System (AF)

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field Scanner (NASA)

SEC Space Environmental Center (NOAA/NCEP)

Sun Earth Connection (NASA)

SEM Space Environment Monitor (NOAA)

SEMSIM Southeastern Michigan Snow and Ice Management (FHWA)

SET Space Environment Testbed (NASA)

SFMR Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometer

SHEBA Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (DOE)

SHRP Stragetic Highway Research Program (FHWA)

SMEI Solar Mass Ejection Imager (AF)

SMDC Space and Missile Defense Command (DOE)

SMG Spaceflight Meteorology Group (NASA)

SMOOS Shipboard Meteorological and Oceanographic Observing Sensor (Navy)

SNDR Subcommittee on Natural Disaster Reduction

SNL Sandia National Laboratory (DOE)

SNODEP Snow depth (AF)

SNOTEL Snow Telemetry (USDA)

SOCC Satellite Operations Control Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

SODAR Sound Detection and Ranging (DOE)

SOF Special Operations Forces (Army)

SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea (NOAA/NCEP)

SOPA Synchronous Orbit Plasma Analyzer (DOE)

SORD Special Operations and Research Division (NOAA/ARL)

SPAWARSYSCOM Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command

SPC Storm Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

SR Savannah River (DOE)

SRBL Solar Radio Burst Locator (AF)

SRS Savannah River Site (DOE)

SRTC Savannah River Technology Center (DOE)

SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (NASA)

SSOB Special Support Operations Branch (DOD)
APPENDIX E 213

SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (NOAA/NESDIS)

SST Sea surface temperature

SSU Stratospheric Sounding Unit (NOAA)

STIWG Satellite Telemetry Interagency Working Group (OFCM)

STOA Shock Time of Arrival (AF)

STP Solar-Terrestrial Physics

STS Special Tactics Squadron (AF)

STT Small Tactical Terminal (AF)

STWDSR Surface Transportation Weather Decision Support Requirements (FHWA)

SURFRAD Surface Radiation (DOE)

SWA Southwest Asia (DOD)

SWAFS Space Weather Analysis and Forecasting System (AF)

SWE Snow Water Equivalent (DOI/BUREC)

SWIM Solar Wind Interplanetary Measurements (AF)

SWO Staff weather officer (AF)

Space Weather Operations (NOAA/OAR)

SWXS Space Weather Squadron (AF)

SXI Solar X-Ray Imager (AF)

T2 Technology transfer

TAF Aerodrome Forecast

TAO Tropical Atmosphere Ocean

TACMET-MOD Tactical Meteorological Observing System Modification (AF)

TACWX Tactical weather (DOD)

TAWS Tactical Acquisition Weather Software (AF)

TCP Transformation Campaign Plan (Army)

TDA Tactical Decision Aid (Army)

TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (FAA)

TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (FHWA)

TEC Topographic Engineering Center (Army)

Total Electron Content (DOE)

TED Total Energy Detector (NOAA/NESDIS)

TESS Tactical Environmental Support System (Navy)

TF Terminal Forecast

TFF Task Force Falcon (Army)

TFS Tactical Forecast System (AF)

TFU Theater Forecast Unit (AF)

TIMEX Thunderstorm Initiation Mobile Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

TIROS Television Infrared Observation Satellite (NOAA/NESDIS)

TMI TRMM Microwave Imager (NASA)

TOC Tactical Operations Center (Army)

TOE Table of Organization and Equipment (Army)

TOFS Tactical Observing and Forecasting System (AF)

TOGA Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere 

TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (NASA)

TOPEX Topography Experiment (NASA)

TOVS TIROS N Operational Vertical Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

TPC Tropical Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

TPW Total Precipitable Water (NOAA/NESDIS)

TRACON Terminal Radar Approach Control (FAA)

TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command (Army)

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (NASA)

TUAN Tactical Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Army)

TWIP Terminal Weather Information for Pilots (FAA)

TWP Tropical Western Pacific (DOE)

TWR Tactical Weather Radar (AF)

UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (NASA)
214 APPENDIX E

UCAR University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

UN United Nations 

UNEP United Nations Environment Program (WWP/DOS)

UnESS University Earth System Science (NASA)

UPOS University Partnering for Operational Support (AF)

USA U.S. Army

USAES U.S. Army Engineer School

USAF U.S. Air Force 

USAFE U.S. Air Forces in Europe

USAFAS U.S. Army Field Artillery School

USAIC&FH U.S. Army Intelligence Center and Fort Huachuca

USAKA U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll

USAR U.S. Army Reserve

USARC U.S. Army Reserve Command

USAREUR U.S. Army Europe

USARIEM U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine

USARJ U.S. Army Japan

USARPAC U.S. Army Pacific

USASMDC U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command

USASOC U.S. Army Special Operations Command

USCENTCOM U.S. Central Command

USCG U.S. Coast Guard 

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

USHCN U.S. Historical Climatology Network

USIABP U.S. Interagency Arctic Buoy Program (NOAA/NESDIS)

USMC U.S. Marine Corps

USMCC U.S. SARSAT Mission Control Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

USN U.S. Navy

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program

UTC Universal Time Coordinated (Zulu)

UV Ultra-violet

VA Volcanic Ash 

VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

VAS VISSR Atmospheric Sounder 

VCL Vegetation Canopy LIDAR (NASA)

VCP Voluntary Cooperation Program (WWP)

VIN Vegetative Index Number (USDA)

VIRS Visible and Infrared Scanner (NASA)

VISSR Visible and Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer 

VOS Voluntary Observing Ship (WWP)

VTS Vessel Traffic System (NOAA/NOS)

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System (FAA)

WAFC World Area Forecast Center (WWP)

WAFS World Area Forecast System (WWP) 

WAM Wave model (Navy)

WAMPS Weather Automated Mission Planning Software

WAOB World Agricultural Outlook Board (USDA)

WARP Weather and Radar Processor (FAA)

WARSMP Watershed and River System Management Program (DOI)

WCT Wind Chill Temperature (OFCM)

WEFAX Weather Facsimile (WWP)

WETM Weather Team (DOD)

WFAS Wildland Fire Assessment System (DOI)

WFMIS Wildland Fire Management Information Site (DOI)
APPENDIX E 215

WFO Weather Forecast Office (NOAA/NWS)

WG Working Group

WGCV Working Group on Calibration and Validation (NOAA/NESDIS)

WI3 Weather Impacts Information Integration (AF)

WIDA Weather Impact Decision Aids (AF)

WINDS Weather Information and Display System (DOE)

WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (DOE)

WIST Weather Information for Surface Transportation

WMC World Meteorological Center(s) (WWP)

WMO World Meteorological Organization 

WMSCR Weather Message Switching Center-Replacement (FAA)

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment (NOAA/NESDIS)

WPDN Wind Profile Demonstration Network (NOAA)

WPSM Warfighter Physiological Status Monitoring (Army)

WRD Water Resources Division (DOI/USGS)

WRF Weather Research and Forecast (NOAA/OAR)

WRS Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (AF)

Weather Squadron (AF)

WSDDM Weather Support to Deicing Decision Making (FAA)

WSP Weather Systems Processor (FAA)

WSR-88D Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (NEXRAD)

WSSRAP Weldon Springs Site Remedial Action Project (DOE)

WST Weather Support Team (Army)

WSU Weather Support Unit (AF)

WTU Weather Technology Unit (AF)

WWP World Weather Program 

WWW World Weather Watch (WMO)

World wide web

XOW Director of Weather (AF)

YMP Yucca Mountain Project (DOE)