U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

Special Report:

The Aftermath of

Firefighter Fatality Incidents

Preparing for the Worst

USFA-TR-089/September 1998

Homeland

Security

U.S. Fire Administration Fire Investigations Program

T

he U.S. Fire Administration develops reports on selected major fires throughout the country. 

The fires usually involve multiple deaths or a large loss of property. But the primary criterion 

for deciding to do a report is whether it will result in significant “lessons learned.” In some 

cases these lessons bring to light new knowledge about fire--the effect of building construction or 

contents, human behavior in fire, etc. In other cases, the lessons are not new but are serious enough 

to highlight once again, with yet another fire tragedy report. In some cases, special reports are developed to discuss events, drills, or new technologies which are of interest to the fire service.

The reports are sent to fire magazines and are distributed at National and Regional fire meetings. The 

International Association of Fire Chiefs assists the USFA in disseminating the findings throughout the 

fire service. On a continuing basis the reports are available on request from the USFA; announcements of their availability are published widely in fire journals and newsletters.

This body of work provides detailed information on the nature of the fire problem for policymakers 

who must decide on allocations of resources between fire and other pressing problems, and within 

the fire service to improve codes and code enforcement, training, public fire education, building 

technology, and other related areas.

The Fire Administration, which has no regulatory authority, sends an experienced fire investigator 

into a community after a major incident only after having conferred with the local fire authorities 

to insure that the assistance and presence of the USFA would be supportive and would in no way 

interfere with any review of the incident they are themselves conducting. The intent is not to arrive 

during the event or even immediately after, but rather after the dust settles, so that a complete and 

objective review of all the important aspects of the incident can be made. Local authorities review 

the USFA’s report while it is in draft. The USFA investigator or team is available to local authorities 

should they wish to request technical assistance for their own investigation.

For additional copies of this report write to the U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Avenue, 

Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727. The report is available on the Administration’s Web site at http://

www.usfa.dhs.gov/

Special Report:

The Aftermath of 

Firefighter Fatality Incidents:

Preparing for the Worst

 

Reported by: Adam K. Thiel

This is Report 089 of the Major Fires Investigation Project conducted 

by Varley-Campbell and Associates, Inc./TriData Corporation under 

contract EMW-94-4423 to the United States Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency.

Homeland

Security

Department of Homeland Security

United States Fire Administration

National Fire Data Center

U.S. Fire Administration

Mission Statement

As an entity of the Department of Homeland 

Security, the mission of the USFA is to reduce life and economic losses due to fire 

and related emergencies, through leadership, advocacy, coordination, and support. 

We serve the Nation independently, in coordination with other Federal agencies, 

and in partnership with fire protection and 

emergency service communities. With a 

commitment to excellence, we provide public education, training, technology, and data 

initiatives.

Homeland

Security

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The U.S. Fire Administration greatly appreciates the cooperation received from the following people 

and organizations during the preparation of this report:

Hilltop Hose Company

of Natrona Heights (PA) Chief Matt Frantz; Don Frantz; and others

Memphis (TN) Division 

of Fire Services Director Charles E. Smith; Deputy Director Herbert C. Redden; Chief 

J.C. Fleming; IAFF Local 1784 President Danny Todd; and the firefighters and officers of Engines 1, 5, 7, and Snorkel 13.

Milford (MI) 

Fire Department Assistant Chief Bob Schwartz

City of New York (NY)

Fire Department Commissioner Thomas Von Essen; First Deputy Commissioner William 

Feehan; Chief of Department Joseph Casaburi; Chief of Operations 

Peter Ganci, Jr.; Assistant Chief Kenneth Cerreta; Chief Medical Officer 

Dr. Kerry Kelly, M.D.; Battalion Chief William Nagle; Battalion Chief Ray 

Downey; Captain Thomas Fitzpatrick; Mr. Malachy Corrigan; and the 

firefighters and officers of Rescue 2, Engine 24 and Ladder 5.

Pittsburgh (PA)

Bureau of Fire Chief Charlie Dickinson; Deputy Chief Dan Hennessey; Battalion Chief 

Joseph Wasielski; and the firefighters and officers of Engine 8, Truck 8, 

and Engine 17.

Seattle (WA)

Fire Department Chief James E. Sewell, (former) Interim Chief Donald Taylor; IAFF 

Local 27 President Paul Harvey; Local 27 Vice President Mike Mylum; 

Assistant Chief Gregory Dean; Assistant Chief John Hadfield; Assistant 

Chief Michael Jurus; Deputy Chief Byron Braden; Deputy Chief Steven 

Brown; Battalion Chief James Duggins; Public Information Officer 

Georgia Taylor; Captain Randy Hansen; Captain James Youngs; and the 

firefighters and officers of Engines 4, 5, 25, and Ladder 10.

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

IMPACTS ON OPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Safety Consciousness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Morale and Productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Incident Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Personnel Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

IMPACTS ON OTHER AREAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Recruitment and Retention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

After-Action Reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

PREPARING FOR THE AFTERMATH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Guidance for Dealing with Firefighter Fatalities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Media Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Legal Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Financial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Donations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Crisis Management/Counseling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

APPENDIX A: Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire SOP 70.0 – Investigative Procedures 

Involving Line of Duty Deaths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

APPENDIX B: Memphis Division of Fire Services – Funeral Protocols and 

Death Notification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Despite the recent emphasis on health and safety within the fire service, almost 100 firefighters 

continue to die each year in the line of duty, while many others suffer severe injuries. A relatively 

small number of these deaths and injuries occur in firefighter fatality incidents; however, the impact 

of these incidents on the affected fire departments, their firefighters, and the fire service at-large is 

very significant.

The continued incidence of these tragedies, and several cases in which there were long-term effects 

on fire departments, prompted the United States Fire Administration to study the aftermath of firefighter fatality incidents. Attention was paid to both the immediate and long-term after-effects on 

fire departments and firefighters.

Firefighter fatality incidents have occurred in all types of fire departments in recent years, from rural 

volunteer forces to major metropolitan career departments. This study focused on the experiences of 

six fire departments that suffered at least one multiple firefighter- fatality incident during the past 10 

years. Each of the incidents discussed here already had been extensively investigated from a operational standpoint prior to this study, and no attempt is made to further critique the specific operational details of any incident. Rather, the focus is on the operational, organizational, and cultural 

impacts on the fire departments and their members. Commonalties and trends in the experiences 

of the fire departments were examined to describe any changes that occurred within the department 

after the incident, identify potential areas of concern, and disseminate the lessons learned.

Although it is impossible to prepare for the emotional effects of a firefighter fatality incident, the 

goal of this report is to provide useful information to fire departments and firefighters that may help 

in dealing with the consequences of such a tragedy. While the findings presented here are drawn 

from multiple firefighter-fatality incidents, this does not diminish their potential relevance to any 

incident involving a firefighter line-of-duty death.

Special Report:

The Aftermath of 

Firefighter Fatality Incidents:

Preparing for the Worst
2

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Impact on Operations The grieving fire department’s members, and often the community, need to feel that 

any operational problems which led to the fatalities are being addressed. A firefighter 

fatality incident may require changes to operational policies or procedures, or increased 

emphasis on adhering to existing policies and procedures. While the full investigation 

and its recommendations take time, there will be a demand for some immediate and 

visible action. The incident investigation may not only trigger changes in operations 

relevant to the fatalities, but also changes in other operational aspects.

Impact on Safety Consciousness A common after-effect of firefighter fatality incidents is a renewed interest in safety 

among fire department members at every organizational level. In addition to formal 

changes made to SOPs or policies, informal cultural changes often occur with respect to 

firefighter attitudes toward safety. However, this consciousness may diminish with time 

unless the department takes formal action to preserve it.

Impact on Equipment An intense focus on firefighter personal protective equipment by the media, regulatory 

agencies, and others is common after a firefighter fatality incident. This results in a 

tendency to focus on equipment or equipment failure as THE cause of the fatalities, 

when investigation and analysis usually reveals several factors acting in combination.

Impact on Training The operational circumstances of several of the incidents studied led to an increased 

focus on training within the affected fire departments, with particular emphasis on 

basic firefighting skills and procedures, building construction principles, general hazard 

awareness, and improving fireground communications.

Impact on Morale and Productivity Firefighters will initially be subject to a variety of emotional stressors after a firefighter 

fatality incident. Generally, while the loss of a comrade in the line of duty may challenge 

the feeling of invulnerability enjoyed by many firefighters, they are very resilient and 

tend to “bounce back” relatively quickly from the tragedy. Still, some fire department 

members will need time to emotionally heal than others. These members should be 

given the time and support they need to grieve in their own way.

Firefighter Aggressiveness Although individual firefighters will react differently to tragedy, in most cases a firefighter 

fatality incident does not appear to significantly affect the willingness of firefighters to 

place themselves “in harm’s way”. For the most part, they retain the aggressive, ‘can 

do” attitude that characterizes the predominant fire service culture in the United States. 

The use of the aggressive, interior firefighting tactics that are part of the same culture 

should be balanced with the knowledge that the nature of fires and fire buildings has 

changed considerably in recent years, especially with the increased use of lightweight 

construction and synthetic interior furnishings.

Impact of After-Action Reporting After-action reports are extremely valuable tools for dealing with the emotional aftermath 

of a firefighter fatality incident. When approached from a “lessons learned” perspective, 

the information disseminated is helpful to fire departments and firefighters alike for 

understanding what happened, and for reducing rumors. An additional benefit of afteraction reporting is the potential for helping to prevent similar incidents from occurring in 

the future. 

Importance of Preparedness Firefighter fatality incidents are rare, unthinkable occurrences for most departments. 

Nonetheless, fire departments should have plans and guidelines in place to 

handle the myriad essential functions following such an incident: investigation and 

notification procedures, personnel debriefing and counseling, media relations, funeral 

preparations, etc.
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 3

Media Relations Fire departments can expect extensive media coverage after a firefighter fatality incident. 

More than ever it is a time for a department spokesperson to be the focal point for public 

attention. Good relationships and procedures for handling media representatives may 

help mitigate any potentially negative consequences of this coverage. Media coverage 

may reoccur on the anniversary of the incident.

Legal Implications Criminal or civil cases may result from the incident. Fire departments should be 

prepared to participate in legal proceedings ranging from homicide and arson trials to 

probate hearings. A key issue is the importance of complete, accurate documentation of 

the incident and its subsequent investigations.

Under the Looking Glass Intense scrutiny of virtually every aspect of fire department operations and administration 

can be expected following a firefighter fatality incident. This scrutiny comes from a 

variety of sources both outside and from within the fire department. External forces 

often seek to assign blame, while the fire department’s internal focus is usually on the 

lessons learned and preventing future tragedies.

Crisis Management/Counseling Most fire departments are aware of the value of immediate post-incident stress 

debriefing. Fewer realize the importance of having long-term counseling available 

for helping firefighters deal with the emotional after-effects of a firefighter fatality 

incident. Although every individual will have different needs, counseling and long-term 

psychological support should be made available to firefighters, family members, and 

civilian employees.

Taking Care of Your Own There is a tendency among survivors to become wrapped up in the details of funeral 

preparations, helping the victims’ families, and other functions, at the expense of 

providing support to their own families, and to their colleagues, who may also be 

suffering emotionally. Members of the fire department, at all levels, should remember to 

take care of those people most important to them.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to provide information on the operational, organizational, and cultural 

impacts on fire departments during the aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident. The goal of the 

United States Fire Administration is to help fire departments suffering similar tragedies by offering 

suggestions for dealing with some of the issues that can be expected to arise after such an incident. 

While the applicability of these suggestions to individual fire departments may vary, they are based 

upon the experiences of six departments that have “weathered the storm” in the past.

To ensure the broadest possible input for the report, interviews were conducted with fire department managers, medical personnel, union representatives, and firefighters in companies affected by 

the tragedies. The operational details of the particular incidents were de-emphasized, since they had 

already been investigated in depth. Emphasis was instead placed on identifying the lessons learned 

about the impacts on the department and its members. Special attention was paid to identifying the 

long-term effects. The investigator’s role during these meetings was as a facilitator, with the content 

of the interviews determined primarily by the participants.

The incidents listed below were used to provide a starting point of the examination of the aftereffects of a firefighter fatality incident. Detailed information on these incidents is available from a 

variety of sources including the United States Fire Administration’s Major Fires Investigation Series, 

Fire Engineering magazine, Firehouse magazine, and the NFPA Journal, among others.
4

Milford, MI, October 25, 1987 – Three firefighters died during a training burn in a farmhouse after they 

were caught in a flashover.

Brackenridge, PA, December 20, 1991 – Four firefighters performing interior operations died after a floor 

collapse in a commercial building.

Memphis, TN, December 26, 1992 – Two firefighters operating an attack line died after a church roof 

collapsed. 

New York, NY March 28, 1994 – Three firefighters died after they were caught in a back-draft in a threestory residential building.

Memphis, TN, April 11, 1994 – Two firefighters died while conducting interior operations in a residential high-rise.

Seattle, WA, January 5, 1995 – Four firefighters performing interior operations died after a floor collapse 

inside a multi-use commercial building.

Pittsburgh, PA, February 14, 1995 – Three firefighters died while conducting interior operations at a 

house fire.

IMPACTS ON OPERATIONS

A firefighter fatality incident may provide the impetus for significant changes to fire department 

operations. Additional pressure to change is provided by the intense scrutiny brought to bear on 

the department by the media, other government bodies, regulatory agencies, labor unions, and from 

department members. This section summarizes some of the areas where change can be expected to 

occur after a firefighter fatality incident, based on the experiences of the six fire departments that 

participated in the study.

Some of the changes made by fire departments after a firefighter fatality incident may not directly 

result from specific problems that occurred during the incident. Because of the intense scrutiny 

of virtually every aspect of fire department operations after a fatality occurs, sometimes factors are 

identified that may not have directly impacted the outcome of the incident, but that pose safety or 

efficiency problems not previously noticed or given attention.

Procedures

Firefighter fatalities often lead to significant changes in operational procedures. In some cases, 

operational changes attributed to the aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident were already being 

studied or implemented when the fatalities occurred. The tragic outcome of the incident further 

demonstrated the need for change, and accelerated the implementation of the changes.

An intense review of virtually all the fire department’s existing policies, guidelines, and Standard 

Operating Procedures (SOPs) can be expected following a firefighter fatality incident. This may or 

may not be part of the formal investigation. The reviewers will usually include department members 

of various ranks and positions, union representatives, and often government regulators (especially 

State or Federal OSHA). The media may closely watch and report on any findings or actions taken as 

a result of these reviews.
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 5

A firefighter fatality incident can serve as a powerful motivation to change or create SOPs or operating guidelines. While a firefighter fatality tends to lend a particular urgency to this process, changes 

should not be undertaken without due consideration, and the involvement of department members. 

Training may need to accompany any changes to operational SOPs, to help ensure they are properly 

understood and followed. It is also important to consider whether an SOP created or modified to 

address one problem may cause problems in other areas.

The Memphis Division of Fire Services successfully took action after two firefighters died while 

fighting a fire in a residential high-rise building. Memphis began the process of creating a new 

procedure for firefighting operations in high-rises by forming a committee that involved members 

of all ranks, with an emphasis on those assigned to areas with high-rise buildings. The operational 

procedure created as a result of this process is highly regarded by the firefighters.

An example of a procedural change not related to the specific circumstances of an incident occurred 

after four firefighters died during a commercial building fire in Brackenridge, PA. Although the 

locations and assignments of the firefighters who died were known at the time of the collapse that 

killed them, the intense review of operational procedures following the incident prompted several 

fire departments in Allegheny County (PA) to implement formal personnel accountability systems.

The fatal house fire in Pittsburgh prompted the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire to change several operational policies and procedures, including:1

• Mandatory activation of PASS device in a Hazard Zone (the PBFs newest SCBA are equipped 

with an integrated PASS device)

• The response of an additional Battalion Chief on all structure fires, who assumes the role of 

Safety Officer

• Safety Unit/Command Board response to all structure fires

• Dispatch of a standby company or “Go-Team” (Rapid Intervention Team) on all structure fires

Eighteen months after Pittsburgh’s fatal house fire, the same platoon responded to an incident with 

almost identical characteristics. This fire was much easier to manage and the positive outcome 

helped reinforce the procedure changes undertaken after the Bricelyn Street incident.

Safety Consciousness

As might be expected, a firefighter fatality incident will usually have a great impact on the awareness and safety consciousness of fire department managers and firefighters alike. Formal changes 

resulting from this increased awareness may include the creation of new policies and procedures, 

the re-affirmation of existing procedures, the formation of new positions (e.g., safety officer) and 

programs, or increasing the scope of existing safety programs.

The formal changes to procedures often have been accompanied by informal fire department cultured changes. These changes take place at the company level, as firefighters who may normally take 

“shortcuts” from safety-related procedures become more aware of the potentially negative outcomes 

that can result from such behavior. The death of a fellow firefighter serves as a compelling reason to 

change personal habits. As a result, the common firehouse atmosphere of safety practices viewed as 

1

This fire was described in the USFA Major Fire Investigation Report entitled Three Firefighters Die in Pittsburgh House Fire.
6

an imposition from management changes to an environment where self-preservation, peer pressure, 

and a desire to secure the safety of the entire firefighting team become primary motivators for using 

safe operating practices and procedures.

Some of the personal, safety-related behavioral shared by firefighters included: an increased respect 

for elevator-use procedures, even on non-fire or fire alarm incidents; a greater tendency for members 

to ensure that they are using all of their protective clothing and equipment on every fire-related call 

(even at buildings known for “nuisance” alarms); an increased respect for the seriousness of the job; 

and the importance of using safe operating practices at every call.

The relative strength of these informal changes varies with organizational “distance” from the event. 

Members who actually participated in a firefighter fatality incident may become safety advocates, 

or at least make permanent behavioral changes, while those not directly involved may experience 

only short-term changes. Some firefighters expressed concern that the incident provided a “30-day 

wake-up call”, after which most members went back to their old behavior. As the amount of time 

since the event increases, the institutional memory fades and the organization may begin to forget 

the safety-related lessons learned from the incident.

To help prevent the safety consciousness from “fading”, fire departments can build on the desire to 

take action by reinforcing the informal behavioral and cultural changes with training, SOPs, and the 

prompt preparation and dissemination of after-action reports. The actions of veteran firefighters 

who were directly involved with the incident can also have a great impact on other members by 

providing examples of safe habits whose importance hit home during their tragic experience. 

Equipment

A major emphasis on the adequacy and safety of equipment can be expected following a firefighter 

fatality incident. This includes both fire apparatus and firefighter personal protective equipment. 

Firefighter fatality incidents often result in changes or upgrades to firefighter personal protective 

equipment. In some cases changes were already under consideration or planned by the fire department, and the incident served to accelerate the speed of their implementation.

There may be a tendency by the media or others to focus on the absence or inadequacy of a particular item of equipment, or an equipment failure, as THE cause of the fatalities. Investigation and 

analysis of the incident usually reveals several factors (some equipment related, some not) acting 

in combination to produce the tragic results. It is rare that an equipment failure alone was the sole 

contributor to the fatalities. Therefore, it is important that fire departments and other reviewers 

objectively examine every angle of the incident to ensure that undue emphasis is not being placed 

on a single contributing factor at the expense of identifying others.

An example of this phenomenon was the experience of the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire after their 

three-fatality house fire. The intense emphasis on the firefighters’ self-contained breathing apparatus 

(SCBA) as a potential contributing factor in their deaths belied the fact that several other important 

problems occurred that contributed to the outcome of the incident. Despite pressure to attribute 

the cause solely to the firefighters’ SCBA, the PBF and other reviewers identified several contributing 

operational factors needing correction.

In order to prevent the dissemination of inaccurate information, it may be necessary for fire department personnel to educate elected officials and media members on the components and operation 

of specific items of firefighter personal protective equipment, and their contribution to safety and 
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 7

fireground efficiency. After their tragic incidents, the fire departments in both Seattle and Memphis 

took steps to educate the media on the use of PASS devices. These measures were taken after a great 

deal of media attention was focused on PASS devices as THE technological answer to preventing firefighter fatalities. In most cases, the media members directing this attention did not understand what 

a PASS device is or how it functions.

A highly visible tragedy like a firefighter fatality incident may highlight equipment changes previously requested by the fire department that were not implemented due to budgetary constraints. 

In these cases, the money to purchase or upgrade firefighter personal protective equipment may 

become available rather quickly. Public memory and media attention often have short durations as 

other news can quickly take the spotlight from the firefighter fatalities. Despite the need to carefully 

consider all aspects of the incident before determining cause, fire departments should take advantage 

of the “media spotlight” to call attention to areas where deficiencies in equipment are known. It is 

therefore important not to belittle the contribution of safety equipment, while also not letting the 

equipment or its absence be mistaken as the sole problem, when there may be several others.

Although the need for bunker-type firefighter protective clothing had been well established prior 

to the fire in a three-story residential building that fatally burned three firefighters, the City of 

New York Fire Department (FDNY) had not been able to provide this equipment for its approximately 12,000 firefighters due to budget limitations. In the aftermath of this tragedy, the city 

administration made the funds available for every FDNY firefighter to receive this protective clothing without additional delay.

Training 

The circumstances surrounding a firefighter fatality incident may identify real or perceived training 

deficiencies within a fire department. Changes to operational SOPs or guidelines resulting from the 

incident must also be accompanied by thorough training to ensure their proper implementation.

Although a firefighter fatality incident may highlight areas where previous training was inadequate 

or did not occur, a more common finding from such incidents is the need for renewed emphasis on 

training in basic firefighting skills and procedures. These skills are often taught during recruit training, but their importance may not be re-emphasized until after an incident with a negative outcome, 

or they simply may not be refreshed often enough.

The City of New York Fire Department (FDNY) instituted a “Back-to-Basics” training program 

designed to ensure that firefighters maintain proficiency in the most important aspects of fire suppression operations while they receive training in new areas. This training emphasizes the importance of basic procedures like the coordination of engine and truck company operations. Even with 

the large number of experienced firefighters in New York City, the value of this continued emphasis 

on basic firefighting procedures is readily apparent and accepted by most firefighters. The FDNY 

went a step further by assigning some of their best, most experienced officers to teach in this program and pass on their hard-won lessons of applying basic skills. This helped lend credibility and 

validity to the training.

Some fire departments also reported an increase in the intensity or urgency of training sessions after 

a fatality incident. This intensity can be capitalized on by providing drills or training evolutions that 

emphasize areas needing correction, or allow firefighters to successfully meet the challenges of simulated incidents. Successful training may help alleviate the operational tentativeness or uncertainty 
8

following a firefighter fatality incident, and may help firefighters cope emotionally by allowing them 

to demonstrate that they can still “do the job”.

The importance of training firefighters in building construction hazards has been identified as a 

need by many departments that have suffered a firefighter fatality incident. Although all Seattle Fire 

Department officers received training in building construction prior to the collapse that killed four 

firefighters during a fatal warehouse fire, the department provided building construction training to 

all firefighters after the tragic event.

Sometimes firefighters themselves recognize the need for additional training and take their own 

initiative. The Hilltop Hose Company of Natrona Heights (PA), a volunteer department, noted an 

increase in the number of members who signed up for the building construction classes offered at 

local fire schools, following their fatal incident.

In 1996, the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire conducted a strategy and tactics course for all command 

officers at the rank of battalion chief and above. The information and exercises incorporated into 

the course are aimed at improving the ability of command officers to maintain communications and 

keep abreast of changing fireground situations. The success of this course has led to its being offered 

on an annual basis.

The Memphis Division of Fire Services uses videos extensively for training purposes. After the 1988 

fire in a Hackensack, NJ auto dealership that resulted in the deaths of five firefighters, the Memphis 

department had all company officers view a tape of that fire to reinforce the value of accountability 

for their firefighters during fire suppression operations. After their own tragedy at the 1994 highrise fire that claimed lives and passed on their hard-won lessons of applying basic skills. This helped 

lend credibility and validity to the training.

After their own tragedy at the 1994 high-rise fire that claimed the lives of two firefighters, Memphis 

and American Heat cooperated to produce a nationally distributed video re-creation of the fire. This 

video helps ensure that the lessons learned during this fatal fire in a residential high-rise are disseminated throughout the fire service.

The Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire also collaborated with American Heat to produce videos detailing the 

circumstances of the house fire in which three firefighters were killed, the lessons learned from 

the incident, and the steps that were subsequently taken to prevent such an incident from happening again.

Morale and Productivity

Individual fire department members will react differently and have different personal needs following a firefighter fatality incident. Some members need to take time off to grieve, while others cope 

by staying busy and getting back to their normal work routine. Among the firefighters interviewed 

here, some felt that mandatory time off is the only way to ensure the proper mental health of members, while others felt that staying busy was the best way to cope. Fire department managers need 

to pay close attention to their employees after a fatality and give them the flexibility to grieve and 

cope in their own way.

Several fire department members consulted for this report indicated that the “healing” process may be 

significantly different depending upon the incident and on whether the critically injured firefighters 

required extensive hospitalization. Some surviving firefighters felt that the emotional impacts were 
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 9

tougher, with longer-lasting impacts, after a long and painful hospital stay by their fallen comrades. 

This should be considered when determining the motional fitness for duty of company members, 

as well as their long-term counseling needs. The families of the fallen firefighters may also need 

sustained support during a long-term hospitalization likely to result in a fatality.

By and large, firefighters are very resilient and able to “bounce back” from tragedy. Still, the coping 

process takes time and will vary with the individual. Some firefighters felt that a fatality incident 

challenges the perception of invulnerability developed by many firefighters; as a result, there is a 

tendency to slow down and more carefully consider situations before taking action.

Following the incident there may be some initial tentativeness displayed by incident commanders 

and firefighters alike, although this will usually subside after several incidents are handled in a “routine” manner. The firefighters interviewed for this report agreed that eliminating this tentativeness 

may take up to one year and possibly more depending on the circumstances surrounding the incident. One firefighter related that his company members seemed “punch drunk” for almost one year 

after their tragic incident. Command officers in one city also reported that for several months after 

their incident they saw fires being fought in a defensive mode that normally would have been fought 

offensively. In this case, it took several successfully extinguished fires to help restore the confidence 

of firefighters and company officers. Training activities (including realistic firefighting scenarios) 

were also conducted by this fire department to help restore confidence and refresh basic skills.

Despite the tentativeness that may be displayed following the death of fellow firefighters in the line 

of duty, firefighters seem to retain the aggressive tendencies and “can do” attitude that characterizes 

the fire service in the United States. Even in fire departments that have experienced a firefighter 

fatality incident, a great deal of emphasis is still placed on the use of aggressive, interior firefighting 

tactics as the primary means through which to preserve lives and property. Fire department command officers and firefighters interviewed for this report indicate that tension often exists between 

incident commanders, whose goals primarily include safety and accountability for their personnel, 

and firefighters who want to aggressively perform interior operations. This tension is especially 

palpable in the wake of a firefighter fatality incident when emotions are running high, and the need 

for firefighters and officers alike to prove to themselves that they can successfully “do the job” is 

particularly important.

Within 24 hours after the house fire in Pittsburgh that claimed the lives of three firefighters, the 

same platoon responded to a four-alarm fire in the eastern portion of the city. Despite the strong 

emotions still evident from the previous day’s tragedy, the same firefighters stopped the fire cold on 

what many agreed was one of the best managed firegrounds in a long time. It seemed that the loss 

of their fellow firefighters had hardened the resolve of D-Platoon to perform their duties safely and 

aggressively.

Despite the fire department’s eventual “return to normalcy”, fire department personnel should 

remain alert for circumstances that may stimulate the re-surfacing of strong emotions. This may 

occur after an incident similar to that at which the fatalities occurred, or during legal proceedings 

concerning the fatal incident, or even after a seemingly unrelated incident.

Crisis intervention and counseling resources should be made available for members and their families to deal with a possible resurgence of the feelings triggered by the incident. The need for crisis 

intervention long after the fatal incident is not often thought about, although it is potentially as 

important to firefighters as the debriefing that commonly occurs during the immediate aftermath.
10 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

Incident Management

Most of the fire departments studied for this report use a formalized Incident Management System 

(IMS) to manage emergency operations. The need for such a system is an accepted practice within 

the fire service and may be required by Federal law depending upon the nature of the incident (e.g., 

hazardous materials). Among the fire departments studied for this report there was a feeling that 

while an IMS is inherently valuable, it is too often seen as a panacea or scapegoat for all of the possible problems that can occur on the fireground.

A major concern raised by members of several departments was the potential for the incident commander to quickly become overwhelmed by fireground events and information, especially when 

things start to go wrong, even when an IMS is being used. This problem was thought to be related to 

the decrease in the number of on-duty command officers and the demise of the chief’s driver/aide 

position in many departments, thus reducing the number of assistants available to help the incident 

commander early in the incident.

Many incidents, such as emergency medical calls or responses to activated fire alarms, are not usually 

directed by a command officer. If a command officer does respond to this type of incident, it is often 

for the purpose of observing company officers and firefighters (though that itself is important for 

evaluating performance and identifying areas where training is needed). However, for serious situations (including structure fires) or when an incident takes a turn for the worse, several command 

officers and support staff are needed immediately to properly implement the IMA.

Using company officers perform command tasks or fill command positions in the IMS increases 

the risk for firefighters as their officers’ attention is directed away from the tactical tasks at hand. 

Incidents requiring multiple command officers, by their inherently serious nature, also require that 

company officers remain with their firefighters and give their full and undivided attention to safety 

performing tactical operations.

The Memphis Division of Fire Services has made an effort to increase command presence on the scene 

with the response of additional chief officers to working fires. For high-rise buildings, Memphis has 

also implemented the use of a battalion chief on the fire floor to directly supervise the operations of 

a Task Force consisting of 2 engines and 1 truck company. This helps to address unity-of-command 

and span-of-control issues by ensuring close supervision and accountability in a dangerous fire 

environment remote from the command post.

The Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire enhanced their command procedures by dispatching an additional 

battalion chief to all structure fires, whose primary responsibility is firefighter safety and supervision 

of the Safety Unit.

Technology may also help provide some relief for overburdened incident commanders. Following 

their fatal incident, the Seattle Fire Department installed a computer system in the on-duty chief’s 

vehicle that quickly provides the incident commander with building information gathered during 

pre-fire planning. Prompt access to this information is vital for helping to make sound strategic and 

tactical decisions.

Personnel Accountability

The increased fire service emphasis on personnel accountability in the past decade is at least partially 

based on incidents where firefighters were injured or died because it was not known where they 
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 11

were in the structure, or even that they were inside at all. If conditions should deteriorate, a personnel accountability system (PAS) helps ensure that firefighters are quickly located and rescued, if 

necessary2. The PAS also helps the incident commander maintain tactical control of the incident by 

visually representing the locations and assignments of firefighting teams. Many departments now 

have formal personnel accountability systems using “passports”, barcodes, or tags. It was agreed 

upon by those interviewed for this report that for a PAS to be effective it must be used routinely, and 

implemented immediately upon arrival of the first units at the fire scene.

During the warehouse fire in Seattle, a personnel accountability system was in operation, and the 

location and assignment of the members who died was known at the time of the floor collapse that 

trapped them. The PAS information was critical to the SFD for directing and maintaining control of 

the many firefighters on the scene during their heroic search and rescue efforts, and may well have 

helped prevent further injuries.

Although many fire departments have adopted some form of personnel accountability system, it 

is important that the system is routinely implemented and that all personnel are well-versed in its 

operation. The experience of the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire during their fatal incident prompted 

them to reinforce the importance of using their existing PAS at every structure fire.

An effective PAS should be flexible enough to allow for implementation at a variety of incidents and 

should be adaptable to situations where personnel will be operating in locations remote from the 

command post. This flexibility will help ensure that the system enhances safety on the firegound 

without having a detrimental effect on critical missions by slowing up or reducing staffing for fire 

attack, ventilation, and the primary search for occupants. Additionally, a designated officer (other 

officers can also be assigned to maintain accountability at remote entry points) should be assigned to 

supervise the PAS during the incident. It is important that the Incident Commander and operational 

Sector/Group/Division Officers are allowed to develop strategy, manage resources, and focus their 

attention on the fire situation, without having the additional burden of managing the PAS.

IMPACTS ON OTHER AREAS

The aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident usually impacts the fire department in a variety of areas 

besides those pertaining to operations. The scope of these impacts will vary with each incident and 

department. The section describes other areas of impact identified by the six fire departments whose 

post-fatality experience was analyzed.

Recruitment and Retention

There was no hard data available on how these multiple firefighter-fatality incidents affected the 

recruitment and retention of firefighters. Several departments felt that their fatal incidents caused 

them to prematurely lose some members who were eligible to retire, although no specific data were 

kept on whether the retirements occurred directly as a result of the incident. The retirement of command officers who participated in a firefighter fatality incident was noted in several cases.

Firefighters tended to bond together very closely after the loss of their comrades as the everyday 

problems associated with firehouse life were quickly forgotten. Even though some members may 

2

As a side note, some people confuse PASS device with the acronym PAS (Personnel Accountability System)
12 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

have initially felt like leaving the department or company, they stayed to provide support to the other 

members of their fire department “family”. Some fire department members interviewed therefore 

felt that this type of incident may even have had an overall positive effect on member recruitment 

and retention. The limited evidence suggests no large effect either way.

The volunteers in Milford and Brackenridge reported that they had above-average turnouts for calls 

occurring for several months after their tragedies. A fire that occurred in Milford, MI during the 

same week as their tragic incident drew a 100% turnout of volunteer members. Both departments 

also experienced minimal changes in the number of volunteer applications following the incidents. 

After-Action Reporting

All six of the fire departments considered after-action reporting an extremely valuable and essential 

tool for dealing with the aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident. A thorough, objective, and timely 

review of the entire incident can help prevent recurrence by identifying and correcting problems. 

This also can aid the grieving process by enabling members of the department to understand the 

incident as it happened, and by helping ensure that surviving firefighters, who may not have been 

directly involved in the tragedy, have the opportunity to learn from the events.

After-action reports can also be useful for dealing with the media and representatives of other agencies. By presenting the Board of Inquiry’s after-action report to the media after their fatal high-rise 

fire, the Memphis Division of Fire Services was able to provide reporters with complete and accurate 

information on which to base their reports. The presentation itself, held at the fire department headquarters and attended by members of the Division’s Senior Staff, gave reporters the opportunity to 

ask questions and clarify issues before writing their stories.

Some departments have experienced internal morale problems when comprehensive reports have 

not been issued promptly. The timely completion and dissemination of report findings demonstrates 

the fire department’s willingness to identify and correct problems, and also helps satisfy the surviving 

firefighter’s intense need to understand what happened to their comrades. In fact, the early release of 

factual information, even before the completion of a formal after-action report, was considered very 

helpful by firefighters for understanding how the incident “went down”.

Although it is important to conduct a thorough investigation and complete review of the incident, 

after-action reporting should be approached from the perspective of identifying problems or “lessons learned”, without placing blame or dishonoring the memory of those who died. Firefighters 

are generally willing to learn from past mistakes provided that the lessons are presented in a manner 

that does not single out a particular individual or company for criticism. To ensure the cooperation 

of those involved in the incident, it must be clearly understood that the purpose of the reporting 

process is not to assess blame or take disciplinary action on individuals, but to identify areas where 

problems occurred and detail any lessons learned to prevent future tragedies. This is not to denigrate 

holding people accountable for their actions, but is meant to avoid mistaken accusations or scapegoating based on the clarity of hindsight.

Fire department managers and firefighters alike also felt that after-action reports should be written 

not just for incidents with negative outcomes, but also for incidents where everything went smoothly. 

The City of New York Department has expanded its program of conducting incident critiques to 

include “routine” incidents, with the aim of reinforcing the value of good operating practices.
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 13

Fire department personnel interviewed during this study considered outside incident reviewers 

important assets that lend credibility to after-action reports and help ensure their objectivity; reports 

that are produced entirely “in-house” may not benefit from the collective experience of the fire 

service as a whole. The use of outside resources also helps ensure that the incident is examined 

from different points of view. Some of the organizations producing after-action reports for the incidents summarized here included the United States Fire Administration, the National Fire Protection 

Association, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

Investigations

The occurrence of a firefighter fatality incident will place into motion a variety of investigations conducted both internally and from outside the fire department. These investigations may be separate 

from the after-action reporting process, and range from the routine cause and origin investigations 

conducted by fire department personnel for all fires, to arson or homicide investigations conducted 

by local, State, and Federal agencies.

Proper handling of the investigation proceedings is a vital part of effectively dealing with the aftermath of the incident. The close scrutiny that can be expected following such a tragedy leaves little 

margin for error, making it critical that established guidelines and procedures are followed to the 

letter. It is also important that the investigative efforts are comprehensive in nature, with equal attention paid to examining the events leading up to the critical moment, as well as subsequent events. 

Performing such an investigation may be difficult for local resources to handle alone. Fire and police 

departments tasked with conducting these investigations can make the job easier by enlisting the 

cooperation of outside resources and agencies.

Fire departments should also be prepared to cooperate with other agencies who, while they may 

have different mandates, are essentially seeking the same types of information. Agencies that can be 

expected to become involved with the aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident include the local and 

State Police; the State Fire Marshal; State and Federal Occupational Safety and Health agencies (OSHA 

or equivalent); the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH); the Bureau of 

Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF); the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI); and the United 

States Fire Administration (USFA).

These agencies have specialized resources and may be able to assist the fire department with its 

own investigation. Coordination and cooperation with these agencies is facilitated when the fire 

department has and follows written procedures for dealing with a line-of-duty death investigation. 

Adherence to these procedures is also important for ensuring that the families of fallen firefighters 

receive the proper benefits in a timely manner.

The first step in any firefighter fatality investigation is the fire department’s responsibility to secure 

the fire scene and preserve the evidentiary chain of custody until law enforcement personnel arrive. 

This is vitally important and any scene where a firefighter fatality has occurred should be treated as 

a crime scene. Publications that can assist fire departments in conducting line-of-duty death investigations include: Line-of-Duty Death Investigation Procedures (available from the International Association 

of Fire Chiefs), and the USFA’s Firefighter Autopsy Protocol (autopsies are required to obtain Federal death 

benefits for public safety officers). Sample investigative procedures from fire departments that have 

experienced a firefighter fatality incident are included in the appendix.
14 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

PREPARING FOR THE AFTERMATH

It is impossible to emotionally prepare for the aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident. Nonetheless, 

fire departments can mitigate the impact by having policies and procedures in place to deal with the 

multitude of concerns following such an incident, including: investigation procedures, funeral protocols, counseling resources, and others. It is vital that these procedures are already in place to help 

ensure that the, “right things get done right”, in the limited amount of time between the incident 

and the funerals. All of the departments studied for this report emphasized the importance of having 

written guidelines to help handle the complexities of the arrangements required after such an incident. Even with these procedures in place, it is possible for the fire department to be overwhelmed 

by the concerns stemming from the incident.

The aftermath of every firefighter fatality incident will present unique concerns related to the individual department’s characteristics, the specific circumstances of the incident, and the personalities 

of those involved. Nonetheless, many of the concerns affecting fire departments after such an incident are not unique, and have been handled by other fire departments forced to deal with them. In 

an attempt to help fire departments develop appropriate procedures and in order to give some idea 

of what to expect following a firefighter fatality incident, this section will identify some common 

concerns and give recommendations of managing them, based on the experiences of the six departments that participated in this review.

Guidance for Dealing with Firefighter Fatalities

It is common for fire departments and firefighters to feel overwhelmed after a firefighter fatality 

incident. Other members of the fire service represent an extremely valuable resource at that time, 

especially those with first-hand experience in coping with the aftermath of firefighter fatalities. 

Firefighters and chief officers from other jurisdictions will usually offer a great deal of assistance, 

often without being asked. The annual Firefighter Fatality Analysis Project and Report published by the United 

States Fire Administration lists the fire departments that experienced fatalities during the previous 

year. Fire departments can use this report to identify departments nearby, or ones with which they 

have contacts, who can offer guidance on what to expect and how to cope.

In the aftermath of the house fire that resulted in the deaths of the three firefighters, Chief Charlie 

Dickinson of the Pittsburg Bureau of Fire received a call from Director Charles Smith in Memphis. 

Chief Dickinson found this call extremely helpful, as Director Smith was able to give him first-hand 

knowledge on what to expect, how to cope with the tragedy, and provide advice on how to establish 

a Board of Inquiry to begin the after-action reporting process. Chiefs, as well as firefighters, need 

help in dealing with the tragedy as they are often a focal point during the aftermath.

Members of the New York City Fire Department have developed several guidance mechanisms for 

dealing with the aftermath of firefighter fatality incidents. In order to prevent the knowledge gained 

from dealing with the aftermath of previous incidents from being lost, an informal document known 

as “The Book” was created by the members of several companies that had experienced firefighter 

fatality incidents. “The Book” contains specific and detailed information on funeral procedures, 

family assistance, organizing memorial ceremonies, and funding. “The Book” is kept by the company that last needed it, and their experience is added to the document. When another fatality 

occurs, firefighters from this company take “The Book” to the company whose members died, and 

counsel them on its contents and what to expect during the aftermath. This guidance is critical for 

helping members deal with their tragedy. The possibility of formalizing “The Book” is now being 

considered by the Department.
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 15

Media Relations

The high visibility of a firefighter fatality incident will generate heavy media coverage of the fire 

department, firefighters, and their families. Dealing with such intense coverage is difficult, but can 

be made easier through the use of existing media relationships. A positive working relationship with 

the media may help prevent or lessen rumors, speculation, and sensationalism from dominating the 

coverage.

It is important during the aftermath of the incident that the fire department understand the role of 

the media, and provide them with accurate, timely information. Although there may be tremendous 

pressure to provide the media with explanations or “educated guesses”, only factual information 

should be presented.

The designated source, who is often but not necessarily the department’s Public Information Officer 

(PIO), will be responsible for fielding inquiries, preparing statements, and presenting information 

during interviews or press conferences. Dealing with the media after a firefighter fatality incident 

is a challenging assignment. The person responsible may need assistance from other department 

members. As a result of their experience, the Seattle Fire Department trained and appointed several 

“Backup PIOs”, as the media onslaught was too much for one person to handle.

Efforts should be made to protect family and fire department members from intrusive media coverage. Allowing unrestricted access to these people may hinder their grieving process and cause 

emotional harm. The best method of ensuring respect for their privacy is to consistently provide 

accurate, timely information to the media through a designated source.

After the incident in Brackenridge, PA, the Hilltop Hose Company of Natrona Heights (PA) experienced a media deluge that was especially difficult for a volunteer department to handle. By channeling all media requests for information through a designated Public Information Officer, providing 

interviews with the Chief and President, and denying access to the firehouse, the members of Hilltop 

Hose were able to effectively deal with the media during the aftermath of their tragic incident, and 

maintain privacy for members and their families.

When two firefighters were killed in a high-rise fire in Memphis, the Memphis Division of Fire 

Services issued an immediate statement to members of the media. This statement gave a brief description of the incident and the steps that were being taken to gather more information, including the 

establishment of a Board of Inquiry. When the Board of Inquiry finished their review of the incident, 

media representatives were invited to the fire department headquarters for a comprehensive briefing 

on the Board’s findings. This approach proved very effective.

Legal Issues

There are a variety of legal issues that may arise following a firefighter fatality incident. These can 

range from criminal investigation of arson or homicide to civil proceedings against a fire department by surviving family members. Many people have a tendency to want someone to blame for the 

incident, someone to “pay” for what happened. The potential for monetary compensation is also a 

factor in civil suits. 

Fire departments should be prepared to participate in a variety of legal proceedings. Some fire 

departments retain their own legal counsel, while others utilize the services of an attorney provided 

by the municipal government. When the Hilltop Hose Company of Natrona Heights (PA) needed 
16 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

legal advice during the aftermath of their incident a local attorney provided legal counsel on a pro 

bono basis. Fire departments can help prepare for this eventuality by establishing a relationship with 

an attorney prior to needing their services.

The importance of documentation after a firefighter fatality incident cannot be overstated. Fire 

departments should use established investigative and chain-of-custody procedures to minimize legal 

complications. Assistance from outside agencies, like the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms 

(ATF) that specialize in fire and arson investigation is invaluable for ensuring that documentation 

and investigative efforts are comprehensive. Events should be logged and recorded in detail. Phone 

calls and offers of assistance should also be logged if possible. Accurate, extensive documentation 

will help the fire department avoid potentially negative legal outcomes. Procedures and protocols for 

ensuring effective documentation can be prepared in advance and should designate who is responsible for each aspect of the documentation effort. Staff or clerical personnel from the fire department 

or another agency could be assigned to handle incoming calls at the affected fire station (s), which 

would help alleviate the stress on surviving firefighters, as well as ensure that trained personnel 

with good notetaking and telephone skills are fully utilized. Fire department photo units or “fire 

buff” associations could be enlisted to help create photographic or videotaped records of important 

events. 

Legal proceedings can have both a positive and negative effect on the healing process for department members. The trial and sentencing of an arsonist found guilty of setting a fire that resulted 

in a firefighter fatality incident may help provide closure to the incident. On the other hand, complicated legal maneuverings, coupled with the need for potential witnesses (firefighters involved 

in the incident) to remain cautious about revealing their feelings, may hamper the healing process 

and heighten the negative impacts on the fire department. Criminal investigations may prevent the 

fire department from being completely open about the circumstances surrounding the incident, 

which can create an atmosphere of conflict and suspicion with the media, union representatives, and 

department members. 

The experience of the Seattle Fire Department during the extradition of the suspected arsonist in 

the 1995 warehouse fire that killed four firefighters illustrates that long, complicated legal proceedings may have an extremely detrimental effect on the fire department following a firefighter fatality 

incident. Many members of the department feel that the need, identified soon after the incident, 

to prevent information from leaking that might jeopardize the criminal investigation, negatively 

impacted firefighters’ ability to cope with the loss of their comrades. The lack of closure to the incident ensured continued media coverage (local and National) and scrutiny from other government 

agencies. These factors, combined with the legal maneuverings involved in bringing the suspect to 

trial, created an extremely difficult situation for members of the SFD and their families. The trial of 

the suspect on arson charges, which at the time of this report had still not taken place, is expected to 

re-open many emotional wounds.

When helping members involved in firefighter fatality incidents resulting from arson fires, the 

Counseling Unit of the City of New York Fire Department has found that firefighters may be reluctant to “open up” during counseling sessions due to pressure placed on them as potential witnesses 

in criminal investigations. For this reason, counselors try to focus on sights, sounds, and feelings 

without going into incident specifics.
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 17

Financial

The financial consequences of a firefighter fatality incident can be extremely significant. 

Understandably, few fire departments have budgeted funds for expenses related to firefighter line-ofduty death, especially a multiple firefighter fatality incident, can place a heavy financial burden on a 

fire department, firefighters, and on the families of fallen firefighters.

There are many areas of financial concern that commonly arise following a firefighter fatality incident. These concerns may be further complicated by the sudden nature of the event, the short time 

frame between the event and the funeral (s), the differing needs of family members, and the intense 

emotion prevalent throughout the aftermath of the incident. The financial costs of the incident may 

be direct, including the replacement costs for lost or damaged portable equipment/apparatus; sick 

leave and overtime costs; funeral expenses (typically several thousand dollars/person); cost of the 

reception and memorial services; cost of providing food, toilet facilities, etc. to visiting firefighters 

at the funeral or reception; or indirect, such as the cost of providing for the needs of the fallen firefighters’ family members (groceries, transportation, etc.). Fire departments that have experienced 

firefighter fatalities have developed some mechanisms for addressing these concerns.

Members of the City of New York Fire Department (FDNY) regularly contribute to a “Death Fund” 

that is administered by a designated company in each Division. The primary goal of this fund is to 

quickly provide money for supporting the families of fallen firefighters. Without this fund, it would 

be difficult to collect and distribute donations quickly enough to provide for the immediate needs 

of family members. Although the needs of the family members are paramount, these funds can also 

be used to help pay for memorial services, although the expense of these events can quickly outstrip 

available funds. One fire company interviewed for this report has still not recouped their personal 

expenses for putting on a memorial service.

In fire departments with career staff, organized labor units may provide financial and other types of 

support to their members and the families of the fallen firefighters. This support may be substantial 

and can originate locally, or from a National organization such as the International Association of Fire 

Fighters. Some fire departments also have “relief” organizations or associations that regularly collect 

contributions to help members during times of crisis. These organizations may hold fund drives or 

participate in charitable campaigns sponsored by groups such as the United Way.

Some communities have service organizations that exist to provide support to community members 

following various types of crises. These organizations may offer support to fire departments after a 

firefighter fatality incident. An example is the “100 Club” in Memphis, a group of 100 anonymous 

business and civic leaders who provided financial assistance to the families of the fallen firefighters 

in Memphis.

For the families of fallen firefighters, the complex documentation required for claiming death benefits and for dealing with the financial aftermath of the incident may prove especially burdensome. 

Several of the fire departments recommended assigning a fire department representative to each family as both a liaison and resource for the family. The job of this representative is to take care of the 

deceased member’s family’s immediate needs and to help them navigate through the many details 

of the funeral preparations, memorial services, insurance claims, etc. Some departments and labor 

unions have set up family assistance teams to provide 24-hour support to the family for transportation, groceries, and incidentals.
18 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

Other financial concerns may be addressed through the creation of charitable or memorial funds in 

the names of the fallen firefighters or their families. These funds may be set up to receive donations 

from the community for purposes such as providing education for the children of the fallen firefighters, or creating a memorial in the firefighters’ honor. The special concerns related to handling 

donations are discussed in the next section.

Donations

Fire departments can expect to receive numerous donations from both civilians and organizations 

after a firefighter fatality incident. The sheer volume of requests to help and the number of donations can become overwhelming. However, there are some things that should be considered to help 

properly manage donations and prevent complications from developing.

Monetary donations must be properly accounted for and deposited in bank accounts separate from 

those used for other purposes. An individual should be designated to handle monetary donations, 

to help ensure proper accountability for the funds. Donors should be specific about the intended 

purpose of their donation, for example, to provide for the needs of the family or to help defray the 

costs of the funeral and memorial service. Funds should be equitably distributed, with input from 

family members, to help prevent conflicts.

Some thought should be given to the process for handling donations prior to the incidence of a 

firefighter fatality incident. Often, the treasurer or person responsible for station funds will become 

responsible for handling donations, since they usually deal with station finances, and may be bonded 

or have essential skills like bookkeeping experience. However, handling the number of donations 

received can be difficult under the best of circumstances, and it should be remembered that these 

individuals also need time to grieve and cope emotionally. It may be helpful, under these circumstances, to arrange for assistance from another government agency or a private accounting firm. To 

help ensure that donations are properly earmarked by donors, a mechanism of coordination should 

be set up among each fallen firefighters’ family (or their representative), the fire department, and 

the media representative or PIO. The will enable the family members’ needs and desires to be determined, specified, and publicized to potential donors. Separate accounts should be set up for each 

family, child, or purpose (e.g., memorial construction).

Non-monetary donations can take many forms, from citizens bringing food or flowers, to loans of fire 

apparatus and personnel from other departments to provide coverage for a neighboring fire department. (Mutual aid agreements might include provisions for such coverage.) Donations received in 

the form of goods or services (food, personnel, portable equipment, protective clothing, etc.) should 

be properly documented, accounted for, and appropriately acknowledged.

Several study participants related that while most donations come from individuals or organizations 

that are just “happy to help”, in some cases donors may expect something from the fire department 

in return; for example, publicity or a photo opportunity. Fire department members should be aware 

of this possibility to ensure that only donations with no strings attached are accepted.

All of the fire departments consulted for this report stated that the number of donations and offers of 

assistance exceeded their expectations. Despite the necessity of taking the precautions noted above, 

this outpouring of support was found very helpful for coping with the aftermath of a firefighter 

fatality incident.
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 19

Crisis Management/Counseling

Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) and long-term counseling are critical to helping fire departments and firefighters deal with the many stresses encountered after a firefighter fatality incident. 

These services should also be made available to department members’ families and the families of 

the fallen firefighters.

The fire departments studied here found that initial debriefings and long-term counseling for members needing additional assistance were vital for safely returning members to active duty. Failure 

to provide emotional and psychological support may result in the resurgence of emotions during 

stressful situations, which may have a detrimental impact on safe operations. Considering the power 

of the emotions involved with a firefighter fatality, it is important that trained professionals be used 

to provide these services. Firefighters felt that better results were obtained if the counselors were 

members of the emergency service community.

Fire department chaplains are another important resource for both firefighters and family members. 

Chaplains can provide on-scene emotional support to firefighters during rescue or recovery efforts; 

they can also provide support to critically injured firefighters and their families. While not all fire 

departments have chaplains, arrangements to provide clergy members during crises should be considered as part of the planning process.

The benefits of CISD are widely accepted throughout the fire service, but the importance of long-term 

counseling for firefighters and others affected by tragic incidents is less often considered. Surviving 

firefighters may initially become caught up in immediate concerns like funerals, memorials, and 

helping the families of their fallen comrades; they may not begin to react emotionally until long 

after the incident.

Several fire department members felt that memorial services like the annual National Fallen Firefighters’ 

Memorial Service in Emmitsburg, MD, are helpful to both firefighters and families for providing a 

sense of closure, enabling sharing between survivors and families who have suffered such tragedies, 

and by honoring the fallen firefighters.

There is a significant amount of recent literature on crisis management and stress debriefing. This 

report makes no attempt to detail a methodology for providing this vital service. More information 

on this topic can be found in fire-rescue service trade magazines or by contacting the International 

Critical Incident Stress Foundation in Ellicott City, Maryland.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following is a consensus of recommendations for dealing with the aftermath of a firefighter 

fatality incident, made by fire department managers, union representatives, medical personnel, and 

the firefighters who participated in this study. Although their applicability depends upon individual 

department characteristics, these recommendations were found helpful to all of the fire departments 

and firefighters studied for this report.

1. Give members the opportunity to grieve. Although the issue of mandatory versus optional time off for 

members following a firefighter fatality incident was the subject of some debate, fire department 

managers should ensure that firefighters are given the time they need to deal with their emotional 

stress. This is imperative to maintain operational safety and productivity.
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2. Be alert for signs of emotional stressors throughout the fire department after the incident. The emotional 

trauma resulting from a firefighter fatality incident can affect members in any area of the organization. The fallen firefighters often are known by many people in the department during their careers. 

Even those who didn’t know them may be affected. Supervisors must look for signs of emotional 

difficulty not only in those directly affected by the incident, but in every area, at every organizational 

level.

3. Provide trained crisis management support and long-term counseling for members and their families. Although 

not all fire department members will need to take advantage of this support, making the service 

available is crucial to ensuring the emotional health and recuperation of department members and 

their families.

4. Use written guidelines, established beforehand, to handle investigations, funerals, and media relations. By preparing in advance for a firefighter fatality incident, fire departments will ensure that they are able to 

handle at least some of the myriad items that must be dealt with after such a devastating event. The 

use of established guidelines will also help in the event of legal proceedings related to the incident.

5. Be prepared to participate in a variety of legal proceedings. Documentation is critical to ensure that fire 

departments are prepared for a variety of legal issues that may arise following a firefighter fatality 

incident.

6. Prepare timely, thorough, and objective after-action reports These reports will help satisfy the department’s 

need to ensure that any problems have been identified and addressed; they are also helpful for disseminating lessons learned with the goal of changing behavior to prevent future tragedies. Several 

fire departments found the prompt formation of a Board of Inquiry or other investigative body very 

helpful for ensuring the success of the after-action reporting process. Outside reviewers can be helpful by lending credibility, technical support, and different points of view to the process.

7. Give thought to financial preparation for dealing with the aftermath of a firefighter fatality incident. A contingency fund for dealing with the financial concerns after a tragic incident is important for helping 

family and fellow company members deal with the loss of their loved ones. The financial impacts 

of such an incident are not trivial and can be quite costly. Firefighters can help reduce the potential 

burden on their families by ensuring that financial arrangements (e.g., wills, insurance policies, and 

beneficiaries) are periodically reviewed and kept current.

8 Develop and maintain good working relationships with the media. Established media relationships and a 

mutual understanding of each others’ needs and concerns can help ensure positive, accurate, and 

respectful media coverage.

9. Establish lines of communication within the fire department to ensure that members can be given timely accurate 

incident information. It is important for fire department managers to quickly disseminate information 

about the incident to members. Additionally, members must know that the incident is being thoroughly studied in order to identify any problems that could lead to other tragedies.

10. Establish Firefighter Fatality Assistance Task Forces. Many of those interviewed for this report felt that, 

although a firefighter fatality incident is an extremely sad and difficult event for a fire department, 
USFA-TR-089/September 1998 21

one of the positive things to arise from it is the great outpouring of support from the community 

and other members of the fire service. Assistance from the other members of the fire service community was found to be especially helpful.

As a means of formalizing and extending this support to fire departments in their time of need, several study participants suggested that a national task force be formed to respond to fire departments 

suffering a line-of-duty death incident. This task force would provide guidance and technical assistance to the fire department during the difficult time after the incident. A region or county might 

consider establishing a more locally organized task force.

11. Eliminate the causes of firefighter fatality incidents. Despite the best efforts of many in the fire service 

to widely disseminate the lessons learned from firefighter fatalities, such incidents continue to occur. 

Further attention must be directed toward changing procedures and behaviors which are proven 

killers. Reducing the fire problem through prevention and public education is another fundamental 

way to reduce firefighter deaths and injuries.
22

APPENDIX A 

Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire SOP 70.0

Investigative Procedures Involving Line of Duty Deaths
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Appendix A continued
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Appendix A continued
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Appendix A continued
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Appendix A continued
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APPENDIX B

Memphis Division of Fire Services

Funeral Protocols and Death Notification
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued

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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued
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Appendix B continued