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##  A New Framework for Teaching in the Cognitive Domain. ERIC Digest.           

For the past half century a central concern of instructional                    technologists has been not so much the production and use of                    instructional materials but rather the design of instructional                  systems-lessons, courses, and programs. This shift of emphasis                  occurred with the advent of the programmed instruction movement in              the late 1950s when educators and instructional media specialists               came to understand that the "magic" of teaching machines was not in             the hardware but in the pedagogical design of the software. As media            specialists morphed into instructional technologists and became                 immersed in programmed-instruction lesson design they found                     themselves in league with instructional theorists, grappling with               the issue of how to structure a lesson for maximum learning                     impact. 
At mid-twentieth century, the dominant framework for                  lesson design-the programmed instruction format-was derived from                efforts to apply operant conditioning to human learning. Cognitive              psychology soon offered an alternative view, represented by Robert              Gagne's Events of Instruction, which became the dominant framework              through the end of the twentieth century. More recent developments              suggest that a new conceptual framework, offered by M. David                    Merrill, may provide an even more comprehensive synthesis of                    instructional research and theory than the previous ones. THE                 BEHAVIORIST MODELThe first major influence on instructional                 technologists' thinking about lesson design was B.F. Skinner's                  programmed instruction, which he created to instantiate the                     principles of learning that he and others had discovered in the                 operant conditioning laboratory (Skinner, 1954). The framework that             evolved specified six major elements: "(1) an ordered sequence of               stimulus items; (2) to each of which a student responds in some                 specified way; (3) his responses being reinforced by immediate                  knowledge of results; (4) so that he moves by small steps; (5)                  therefore making few errors and practicing mostly correct                       responses; (6) from what he knows, by a process of successively                 closer approximations toward what he is supposed to learn from the              program" (Schramm, 1962, p. 2). 
As research and practical                     experience accumulated, exemplified by Lumsdaine and Glaser (1960)              and Glaser (1965), the generality of many of these principles came              into question. For example, the sequence of experiences, the nature             of the response, the timing of feedback, and the size of steps all              appeared to be contingent on various learner and learning                       conditions. Programmed instruction's prescriptions were then                    broadened and reduced by Popham (1971) to four principles: (1)                  provide relevant practice for the learner, (2) provide knowledge of             results, (3) avoid the inclusion of irrelevancies, (4) make the                 material interesting (p. 171). COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY                           INFLUENCESince the 1960s instructional design has been informed             increasingly by principles drawn from other sources, especially                 cognitive psychology. Cognitive models for instruction emphasize the            importance of the learners' cognitive and affective processes in                mediating the effects of instruction. 
One branch of cognitive                 theory-information-processing theory-conceived the human learner as             a processor of information, similar to a computer. In this view,                represented by the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), sensory                inputs are selected, encoded, and stored in short-term and possibly             long-term memory. Later, well-stored information may be retrieved               and used. 
Another branch-assimilation theory-focused on the human             learner's cognitive structure and the processes whereby new                     information was integrated into the overall structure.                          Ausubel (1980) described schemata as providing ideational                       scaffolding, containing "slots" that can be instantiated with                   particular cases. These schemata allow learners to organize                     information into meaningful units. GAGNE'S EVENTS OF                          INSTRUCTIONRobert Gagne was a leading interpreter of learning               theory into instructional theory. Early editions of his influential             book, Conditions of Learning (Gagne 1965, 1977) proposed that the               information-processing model of learning could be combined with                 behaviorist concepts to provide a more complete view of learning                tasks. From descriptive theories of information processing Gagne                deduced prescriptive theories about instruction methods ("external              conditions of learning"). In subsequent editions he attempted to                incorporate newer research findings into an overarching template for            instructional planning. His list of nine Events of Instruction                  became a robust and influential conceptual schema for lesson                    design: "gaining attention; informing learners of the objective;                stimulating recall of prior learning; presenting the content;                   providing 'learning guidance'; eliciting performance; providing                 feedback; assessing performance; enhancing retention and                        transfer" (Gagne & Medsker, 1996, p. 140). CONSTRUCTIVIST                     INFLUENCESOther educational theories emphasize the importance of            the ideas generated by learners themselves. Wittrock (1974)                     described a view of learning and instruction in which                           the "generations" performed by learners influence the success of                instruction. Generations are mental activities performed by                     learners, such as summaries, pictures, analogies, and discussions.              This emphasis on learner generation characterizes another view that             became prominent in the late 1980s as constructivism, which proposes            that "knowledge is individually constructed and socially                        co-constructed by learners based on their interpretations of                    experiences in the world" (Jonassen 1999, p. 217). Prescriptive                 principles from constructivism include: (1) embed learning in                   complex, realistic, and relevant environments; (2) provide for                  social negotiation as an integral part of learning; (3) support                 multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of                          representation; (4) encourage ownership in learning; (5) nurture                self-awareness of the knowledge construction process (Driscoll,                 2000, pp. 382-383). A NEW COMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORKA recent                 synthesis by M. David Merrill (2002) provides the most recent                   comprehensive framework for design of lessons aimed primarily at                cognitive learning. It springs from an eclectic perspective and                 explicitly attempts to assimilate the prescriptions of a broad array            of instructional theories. 
Merrill's framework, which he refers to            as "First Principles of Instruction," proposes four phases to the               instructional process:  "(1) activation of prior experience, (2)                demonstration of skills, (3) application of skills, and (4)                     integration of these skills into real-world activities" (Merrill,               2002)-with all four phases revolving around a problem, as shown in              Figure 1 below. 
Integration                                                   Activation 
Problem 
Application         Demonstration 
Figure 1.            First Principles of Instruction. Copyright M. David Merrill, Utah               State University. Reprinted by permission of the author. 
Each of              these five elements has supporting generalizations, which provide               the prescriptions for effective instruction: 
Problem-centered.                Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world            problems. Some corollaries: 
Show task: Learners are shown the                 tasks they will be able to do. 
Task level: Learners are engaged at            the problem or task level, not just the operation or action                     level. 
Problem progression: Learners solve a progression of                   problems that are explicitly compared to one another. 
Activation              Phase. Learning is promoted when relevant previous experience is                activated. Some corollaries: 
Previous experience: Learners are                directed to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from                   relevant past experience that can be used as a foundation for the               new knowledge. 
New experience: Learners are provided relevant                 experience that can be used as a foundation for the new                         knowledge. 
Structure: Learners are provided or encouraged to                  recall a structure that can be used to organize the new                         knowledge. 
Demonstration Phase. Learning is promoted when the                 instruction demonstrates what is to be learned rather than merely               telling information about what is to be learned. Some                           corollaries: 
Demonstration consistency: The demonstration is                  consistent with the learning goal (i.e., examples for concepts,                 demonstrations for procedures, visualizations for processes, and                modeling for behavior). 
Learner guidance: Learners are provided               appropriate learner guidance including some of the following:  they             are directed to relevant information, multiple representations are              used for the demonstrations, or multiple demonstrations are                     explicitly compared. 
Relevant media: Media play a relevant                    instructional role and multiple forms of media do not compete for               the attention of the learner. 
Application Phase. Learning is                  promoted when learners are required to use their new knowledge or               skill to solve problems. Some corollaries: 
Practice consistency:              The practice and posttest are consistent with the stated or implied             objectives. 
Diminishing coaching: Learners are guided in their                problem solving by appropriate feedback and coaching, including                 error detection and correction, and when this coaching is gradually             withdrawn. 
Varied problems: Learners are required to solve a                  sequence of varied problems. 
Integration Phase. Learning is                   promoted when learners are encouraged to integrate (transfer) the               new knowledge or skill into their everyday life. Some                           corollaries: 
Watch me: Learners are given the opportunity to                  publicly demonstrate their new knowledge or skill. 
Reflection:                Learners can reflect-on, discuss, and defend their new knowledge or             skill. 
Creation: Learners can create, invent, and explore new and             personal ways to use their new knowledge (Merrill, 2002, pp.                    45-50). 
Gagne's Events of Instruction has had a long run as the               premier conceptual framework for the design of instruction, but it              may be time for a new paradigm, one that more explicitly reflects               the growing consensus that "meaning-making" is at the heart of                  cognitive learning. Merrill's First Principles capture this idea,               providing essentially a new paradigm for thinking about cognitive               instruction. Time will tell whether Merrill's First Principles will             supplant Gagne's model and for how long before yet another paradigm             emerges. REFERENCESAtkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. (1968).                Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K.                Spence & J. Spence (Eds.), "The psychology of learning and                      motivation (Vol. 2)."  New York: Academic Press. 
Ausubel, D.                  P. (1980). Schemata, cognitive structure, and advance organizers: A             reply to Anderson, Spiro, and Anderson. "American Educational                   Research Journal," 17 (3), 400-404. (ERIC Document Reproduction                 Service No. EJ 237 870) 
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). "Psychology of                learning for instruction," 2nd ed.  Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 
Gagne,             R. M. (1965). "The conditions of learning." New York: Holt, Rinehart            and Winston. 
Gagne, R. M. (1977). "The conditions of learning,"               3rd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehard and Winston. 
Gagne, R. M., &                 Medsker K. L. (1996). "The conditions of learning: Training                     applications." Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College                           Publishers. 
Glaser, R. (Ed.). (1965). "Teaching machines and                  programed learning, II: Data and directions." Washington DC:                    Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, National Education                      Association. 
Jonassen, D. (1999). Designing constructivist                    learning environments.  In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), "Instructional                design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional                     theory (Vol. 2)," pp. 215-239. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum                     Associates, Publishers. 
Lumsdaine, A. A., & Glaser,                           R. (Eds.). (1960). "Teaching machines and programmed learning: A                source book." Washington DC: Department of Audio-Visual Instruction,            National Education Association. 
Merrill, M. D. (2002). First                  principles of instruction. "Educational Technology Research and                 Development," 50 (3), 43-59. 
Popham, W. J. (1971). Preparing                  instructional products: Four developmental principles. In R. L.                 Baker and R. E. Schutz (Eds.), "Instructional product development,"             pp. 169-207. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. 
Schramm,                W. (1962). "Programed instruction: Today and tomorrow." New York:               The Fund for the Advancement of Education. 
Skinner, B. F. (1954).             The science of learning and the art of teaching. "Harvard                       Educational Review," 24 (1), 86-97. 
Wittrock, M. C. (1974).                   Learning as a generative process. "Educational Psychology," 11,                 87-95. 
THE AUTHOR 
Michael Molenda, Associate Professor of                   Instructional Systems Technology at Indiana University, Bloomington,            is co-author of Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning,              7th ed. (Prentice-Hall, 2002). 
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This publication is funded in part            with Federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education under                  contract number ED-99-CO-0005. The content of this publication does             not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department            of Education nor does mention of trade names, commercial products,              or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. Visit the            Department of Education's Web site at: http://www.ed.gov/.                   **Title:** A New Framework for Teaching in the Cognitive Domain. ERIC Digest.           **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse University,            621 Skytop Rd., Suite 160, Syracuse, NY 13244-5290. Tel:                        315-443-3640; Tel: 800-464-9107 (Toll Free); Fax: 315-443-5448;                 e-mail: [email protected]. For full text: http://ericit.org.                   **Descriptors:** Cognitive Processes, Cognitive Psychology,  Educational Principles,              Instructional Design,  Problem Solving, Teaching Methods,  Teaching            Models                                                                       **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests,  Gagne (Robert M), Gagnes Taxonomy,  Merrill (M D)             
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