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##  Stress and Young Children. ERIC Digest.                                      

Traditionally, stress has been defined in terms of its source (e.g.,            internal and external) (Marion, 2003). Internal sources of stress               include hunger; pain; sensitivity to noise, temperature change, and             crowding (social density); fatigue; and over- or under-stimulation              from one's immediate physical environment. External stressors                   include separation from family, change in family composition,                   exposure to arguing and interpersonal conflict, exposure to                     violence, experiencing the aggression of others (bullying), loss of             important personal property or a pet, exposure to excessive                     expectations for accomplishment, "hurrying," and disorganization in             one's daily life events (Bullock, 2002). Although the research                  literature tends to focus on the impact of single-variable stressors            on children's development, in real-life situations, children                    experience stress from multiple sources. Researchers note that                  multiple stressors interact with one another and can have cumulative            effects (Stansbury & Harris, 2000). This Digest discusses how                   children experience and adapt to stress, and offers suggestions to              teachers and parents on preventing and reducing children's                      stress. HOW VULNERABLE ARE YOUNG CHILDREN TO STRESS?Stress is             experienced in many forms and varies by the individual, the child's             developmental level, and the child's previous life experience.                  Adapting or managing stress appears to be highly dependent on a                 child's developmental capabilities and coping-skill inventory.                  Researchers suggest that children under the age of 6 are                        developmentally less capable of (1) thinking about an event in its              entirety; (2) selecting from a menu of possible behaviors in                    response to any new, interesting, or anxiety-inducing event; (3)                comprehending an event separate from their own feelings; and (4)                modifying their physical reactions in response to change in                     stimuli (Allen & Marotz, 2003). 
Stress can have positive as well              as negative influences. The younger the child, the greater the                  impact of new events, and the more powerful and potentially negative            stress becomes. Some stress is a normal part of a child's everyday              life and can have positive influences. However, excessive stress can            have both immediate and far-reaching effects on children's                      adaptability to new situations, even events that are seemingly                  unrelated to the specific stressful event. 
Research indicates that            the negative impact of stress is more profound on children who are              younger than age 10, have a genetic temperament that                            is "slow-to-warm-up" or "difficult," were born premature, are male,             have limited cognitive capacity, or have experienced prenatal                   stress (Monk et al., 2000). Children who live in poverty, who live              in violent communities, or who are bullied in school settings are               also subject to more external stress (McLoyd, 1998) than other                  children. Children who have lower thresholds for external and                   internal stimuli will find a wider variety of events and conditions             to be negatively stressful (Stansbury & Harris, 2000). HOW DO                 CHILDREN EXPERIENCE STRESS?Specialists have identified two                  categories of stressful experiences. Acute stress is defined as a               sudden, intense onset (e.g., short-term parental illness) and then              the subsidence of stressful stimuli. Chronic stress (e.g., loss                 through death or prolonged separation of a significant person in the            child's life--grandparent, caregiver, sibling) is, on the other                 hand, ongoing and has the most significant and detrimental effects              on children, including changing brain chemistry and function, and               lowering resistance to disease (Gunnar & Barr, 1998; Lombroso &                 Sapolsky, 1998). 
Zegans (1982) theorizes that stress is                       experienced in four somewhat distinct stages: (1) alarm and physical            reaction; (2) appraisal, as a child attempts to make meaning from               the event; (3) searching for adaptation and coping strategies; and              finally (4) implementation of a strategy or strategies. This                    implementation stage may be a one-time action or may be extended                over hours or days. Children's appraisal of stressful events and                their choices of viable coping strategies are different from those              used by adults (e.g., leaving a favorite toy at child care overnight            may have a negative impact on children who cannot "find" a way                  to "wait" until they are reunited; this reaction and fear of its                recurrence may last for several days). In addition, experts have                observed that children's physical responses to stress are also                  different from adult responses in that they may be more intense and             involve the whole body (Zegans, 1982). HOW DOES STRESS MANIFEST               ITSELF IN CHILDREN?Stress is most often seen as an overt                    physical reaction: crying, sweating palms, running away, aggressive             or defensive outbursts, rocking and self-comforting behaviors,                  headaches and stomachaches, nervous fine motor behaviors (e.g., hair            twirling or pulling, chewing and sucking, biting of skin and                    fingernails), toileting accidents, and sleep                                    disturbances (Stansbury & Harris, 2000; Fallin, Wallinga, & Coleman,            2001; Marion, 2003). Experts suggest that children may react                    globally through depression and avoidance; excessive shyness;                   hyper-vigilance; excessive worrying; "freezing up" in social                    situations; seemingly obsessive interest in objects, routines, food,            and persistent concern about "what comes next"; and excessive                   clinging (Dacey & Fiore, 2000). HOW DO CHILDREN ADAPT TO                      STRESS?Theorists believe that these behaviors represent                     children's struggles to manage and react to stressful events. They              believe that children generally distance themselves emotionally from            stressful situations by behaving in ways to diminish the                        stress (e.g., crying and being upset in order to show feelings of               abandonment when parents go to work) or acting in ways to cover or              conceal feelings of vulnerability (e.g., acting out and being                   aggressive or disruptive when it's time for toys to be put away or              play to stop). With age, children increasingly use cognitive                    problem-solving strategies to cope with negative stress by asking               questions about events, circumstances, and expectations for what                will happen and clarification of what has                                       happened (Kochenderfer-Ladd & Skinner, 2002). 
Prolonged exposure              to stress and a child's continued use of coping strategies may                  result in behavior patterns that are difficult to change if the                 child perceives the strategy as being effective (Kochenderfer-Ladd &            Skinner, 2002; Stansbury & Harris, 2000). HOW CAN ADULTS RESPOND              TO CHILDREN'S STRESS?Assisting children in understanding and                using effective adaptation and coping strategies must be based on               the child's developmental level and understanding of the nature of              the stress-inducing event. Teachers and parents can prevent and                 reduce stress for children in many ways: 
   * Help the child                  anticipate stressful events, such as a 
   first haircut or the                birth of a sibling. Adults can prepare 
   children by increasing              their understanding of the 
   upcoming event and reducing its                 stressful impact 
   (Marion, 2003). Over-preparing children for               upcoming 
   stressful events, however, can prove even more 
                 stressful than the event itself (Donate-Bartfield & 
   Passman,               2000). Adults can judge the optimal level of 
   preparation by                encouraging the child to ask questions 
   if he or she wants to               know more. 
   * Provide supportive environments where children                can 
   play out or use art materials to express their                         concerns 
 (Gross & Clemens, 2002). 
   * Help children identify a            variety of coping strategies 
   (e.g., "ask for help if someone is            teasing you"; "tell 
   them you don't like it"; "walk away").                 Coping strategies 
   help children feel more effective in                     stressful situations 
   (Fallin, Wallinga, & Coleman, 2001). 
               * Help children recognize, name, accept, and express 
   their                 feelings appropriately. 
   * Teach children relaxation techniques.            Consider 
   suggesting to a child such things as "take three                  deep 
 breaths"; "count backwards"; "tense and release your 
                 muscles"; "play with play dough"; "dance"; "imagine a 
   favorite             place to be and visit that place in your mind" 
   (use creative               imagery) (O'Neill, 1993). 
   * Practice positive self-talk                    skills (e.g., "I'll try. I 
   think I can do this.") to help in               promoting stress management 
   (O'Neill, 1993). 
Other basic                 strategies include implementing sound positive discipline                       strategies, following consistent routines, enhancing cooperation,               and providing time for children to safely disclose their concerns               and stresses privately and in groups. CONCLUSIONOur increasing            knowledge about the importance and impact of stress on young                    children should be put to good use in reducing stress factors for               young children and in assisting children to increase coping                     strategies and healthy responses to the unavoidable stresses in                 their lives. FOR MORE INFORMATIONAllen, K. E., & Marotz, L.               R. (2003). DEVELOPMENTAL PROFILES (4th ed.). Albany, NY:                        Delmar. 
Bullock, J. (2002). Bullying. Childhood Education, 78(3),             130-133. Dacey, J. S., & Fiore, L. B. (2000). YOUR ANXIOUS CHILD.               San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 
Donate-Bartfield, E., & Passman, R.               H. (2000). Establishing rapport with preschool-age children:                    Implications for practitioners. CHILDREN'S HEALTH CARE, 29(3),                  179-188. 
Elkind, D. (1988). THE HURRIED CHILD (Rev. ed.). Menlo               Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. 
Fallin, K., Wallinga, C., & Coleman,                M. (2001). Helping children cope with stress in the classroom                   setting. Childhood Education, 78(1), 17-24. EJ 643 730. 
Greenman,             J. (2001). What happened to the world? St. Paul, MN: Redleaf                    Press. 
Gross, T., & Clemens, S. G. (2002). Painting a tragedy:                Young children process the events of September 11. YOUNG CHILDREN,              57(3), 44-51. 
Gunnar, M R., & Barr, R. G. (1998). Stress, early               brain development, and behavior. INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN, 11(1),             1-14. EJ 570 187. 
Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., & Skinner, K. (2002).                Children's coping strategies: Moderators of the effects of peer                 victimization? DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, 38(2), 267-278. 
Lombroso,            P. J., & Sapolsky, R. (1998). Development of the cerebral cortex:               XII. Stress and brain development: I. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN                   ACADEMY OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY, 37(12),                             1337-1339. 
Marion, M. (2003). GUIDANCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN (6th                 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 
McLoyd, V. C. (1998).            Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. AMERICAN                      PSYCHOLOGIST, 53(2), 185-204. 
Monk, C. F., Fifer, W. P., Myers, M.            M., Sloan, R. P., Trien, L., & Hurtado, A. (2000). Maternal stress              responses and anxiety during pregnancy: Effects on fetal heart rate.            DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, 36(1), 67-77. 
O'Neill, C. (1993). Relax.            Auburn, ME: Child's Play International. Stansbury, K., & Harris, M.             L. (2000). Individual differences in stress reactions during a peer             entry episode: Effects of age, temperament, approach behavior, and              self-perceived peer competence. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL CHILD                   PSYCHOLOGY, 76(1), 50-63. EJ 605 474. 
Zegans, L. (1982). Stress               and the development of somatic disorders. In L. Goldberger & S.                 Breznitz (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF STRESS: THEORETICAL AND CLINICAL                   ASPECTS (pp. 134-152). New York: Free Press. 
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ERIC/EECE                Digests are short reports on topics of current interest in                      education. Digests are targeted to teachers, administrators,                    parents, policy makers, and other practitioners. They are designed              to provide an overview of information on a given topic and                      references to items that provide more detailed information. Reviewed            by subject experts who are content specialists in the field, the                digests are funded by the Office of Educational Research and                    Improvement (OERI) of the U.S. Department of Education. 
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