OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL

COORDINATOR OFCM FOR METEOROLOGY

FCM-P1-2008

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

Fiscal Year 2009

Natural Disasters in Urban Environments
THE FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (FCMSSR)

DR. WILLIAM BRENNAN

Chairman, Department of Commerce

DR. SHARON L. HAYS

Office of Science and Technology Policy

DR. RAYMOND MOTHA

Department of Agriculture

DR. JOHN (JACK) L. HAYES

Department of Commerce

MR. ALAN SHAFFER

Department of Defense

DR. ANNA PALMISANO

Department of Energy

MR. KEVIN (SPANKY) KIRSCH

Science and Technology Directorate

Department of Homeland Security

DR. HERBERT FROST (Acting)

Department of the Interior

MR. KENNETH HODGKINS

Department of State

MR. RANDOLPH LYON

Office of Management and Budget

MS. VICTORIA COX

Department of Transportation

MR. DAVID MAURSTAD 

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Department of Homeland Security

DR. EDWARD WEILER

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

DR. TIM KILLEEN 

National Science Foundation

MR. PAUL MISENCIK

National Transportation Safety Board

MR. MICHAEL JOHNSON

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

DR. LAWRENCE REITER

Environmental Protection Agency

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON

Federal Coordinator 

MR. MICHAEL BABCOCK, Secretariat

Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

THE INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (ICMSSR)

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON, Chairman

Federal Coordinator

MR. THOMAS PUTERBAUGH

Department of Agriculture

DR. JOHN (JACK) L. HAYES

Department of Commerce

RADM DAVID A. GOVE, USN

United States Navy

Department of Defense

DR. FRED P. LEWIS

United States Air Force

Department of Defense

MR. RICKEY PETTY

Department of Energy

MR. KEVIN (SPANKY) KIRSCH

Science and Technology Directorate

Department of Homeland Security

MR. JOHN VIMONT

Department of the Interior

MR. ROBERT (BOB) ARNOLD

Federal Highway Administration

Department of Transportation

MR. KENNETH M. LEONARD

Federal Aviation Administration

Department of Transportation

DR. JONATHAN M. BERKSON

United States Coast Guard

Department of Homeland Security

MR. NORMAN BARTH (Acting)

Department of State

DR. S. T. RAO

Environmental Protection Agency

MR. DANIEL CATLETT

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Department of Homeland Security

DR. RAMESH KAKAR

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

DR. JARVIS MOYERS

National Science Foundation

MR. DONALD E. EICK

National Transportation Safety Board

MS. JOCELYN MITCHELL

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

MS. GRACE HU

Office of Management and Budget

MR. MICHAEL BABCOCK, Secretariat

Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

Pictures displayed on the cover.

Bottom Left: Tornado damage from Atlanta storm. [NOAA-NWS photo]

Middle: Atlanta, GA tornado path and intensity. [NOAA-NWS photo]

Top Right Interstate 5 under the flood water in Seattle, Washington. [WSDOT photo]
The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

FISCAL YEAR 2009

FEDERAL COORDINATOR

FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1500

Silver Spring, MD 20910

301-427-2002

FCM-P1-2008

OCTOBER 2008

WASHINGTON, D.C.

Editors: Lt Col Charles Harris 

 Erin McNamara

 Kenneth Barnett
PREFACE iii 

PREFACE

 Since 1965, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting 

Research (OFCM) has developed a Federal Plan that articulates the provision of meteorological services 

and the support for meteorological and related research by agencies of the Federal government. The 2008 

Federal Plan provides Congress and the Executive Branch with a comprehensive compilation of proposed 

programs for fiscal year (FY) 2009 and a review of agency programs in FY 2008. The Federal Plan's narratives, timelines, and schedules are current as of November 2008.

 The Federal Plan consists of an Executive Summary, three sections, and Appendices. The Executive 

Summary, which is written as a concise, stand-alone report, provides a high-level view of the Federal 

resources dedicated to meteorological programs and the achievements of those programs.

 This year's feature article (Section 1) focuses on recent natural disasters that have impacted urban 

areas in the United States. These disasters are categorized into five areas: severe weather, homeland 

security, air quality, water quality, and climate. The purpose of this article is to raise the awareness of the 

increasing problem of urban natural disasters.

 Section 2 of the Federal Plan summarizes the resources appropriated by Congress for FY 2008 and 

the resources requested in the President's FY 2009 Budget. Section 3 contains departmental and agency 

narratives on programs for providing meteorological services and supporting research and development. 

It also describes relevant research funded by the National Science Foundation.

 Appendix A describes the OFCM's coordination, program, and planning activities. Appendix B 

addresses the World Meteorological Organization's World Weather Program. Appendix C lists the feature 

articles published in previous Federal Plans. The acronyms and abbreviations used throughout this year's 

Federal Plan are defined in Appendix D. The inside front cover lists the current members of the Federal 

and Interdepartmental Committees for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, which provide 

guidance and support for OFCM activities. The inside back cover diagrams the infrastructure through 

which the OFCM performs its coordinating mission.

 Samuel P. Williamson

 Federal Coordinator for Meteorological

 Services and Supporting Research
v

 THE FEDERAL PLAN FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

 AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH, FISCAL YEAR 2009

 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Section 1. NATURAL DISASTERS AND HIGH IMPACT EVENTS AFFECTING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

 URBAN COMMUNITIES 

Section 2. RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

 Agency Obligations for Meteorological Operations

 and Supporting Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

 Department of Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

 Department of Commerce (DOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

 Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

 Department of Homeland Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

 Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

 Department of Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

 Environmental Protection Agency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

 National Aeronautics and Space Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

 Nuclear Regulatory Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

 Agency Funding by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

 Agency Funding by Service Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

 Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

 Interagency Fund Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

 Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Section 3. AGENCY METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING 

 RESEARCH PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

 Department of Agriculture Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

 DOC Weather Programs/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

 National Weather Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

 Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

 National Ocean Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

 NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

 Department of Defense Weather Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

 United States Air Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

 United States Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
 Department of Energy and National Nuclear Security Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

 Department of Homeland Security Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

 Department of the Interior Weather Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

 Department of State Climate and Atmospheric Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

 Department of Transportation Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

 Federal Aviation Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

 Federal Highway Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

 Federal Railroad Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

 Environmental Protection Agency Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

 Nuclear Regulatory Commission Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

 National Science Foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

APPENDICES 

A. FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

B. WORLD WEATHER PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

C. LISTING OF PREVIOUS FEATURE ARTICLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

D. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

 LIST OF TABLES 

ES-1 Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations and Supporting

 Research, FY 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

2.1 Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

 Costs, by Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Agency Operational Costs, by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.3 Agency Supporting Research Costs, by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.4 Agency Operational Costs, by Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.5 Agency Supporting Research Costs, by Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.6 Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.7 Interagency Fund Transfers for Meteorological 

 Operations and Supporting Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.8 Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

vi 
EXEC SUM vii 

THE FEDERAL PLAN FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES 

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

FISCAL YEAR 2009

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

 For Fiscal Year (FY) 2009, the President’s 

budget requests over a total of $4.49 billion for meteorological services and supporting research. Of 

the requested total, over $3.20 billion is designated 

for operations and over $1.29 billion for supporting 

research. Table ES-1 lists a breakout of the FY 2009 

budget proposal.

 For FY 2009, 98.1 percent of the total funds 

requested will go to the Department of Commerce 

(DOC), the Department of Defense (DOD), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 

and the Department of Transportation (DOT). The 

distribution among these four agencies is DOC 49.8 

percent, DOD 21.9 percent, NASA 16.5 percent, 

and DOT 9.9 percent. The other Federal agencies 

will share the remaining 1.9 percent.

 Table 2-1 shows the total FY 2009 request 

represents an increase of 7.4 percent above the 

over $4.18 billion appropriated in FY 2008. Within 

the four agencies mentioned above, DOC’s request 

is an increase of 12.6 percent, DOD a decrease of 

5.4 percent, NASA’s request is an increase of 12.9 

percent, and DOT has a 7.9 increase. The overall 

DOC increase is mainly the result of increases in 

NESDIS requested funding. DOD’s decrease is attributable to a decrease in DMSP and Navy operations requests.

 The budget requests for the other departments are as follows:

• Department of Agriculture (USDA): decrease of 

9.7 percent,

• Department of the Interior (DOI): no change,

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): no 

change,

• Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC): large 

percent increase of over 300 percent stemming 

from an increase from $120K appropriated to 

$500K requested.

 All agencies project a personnel total of 

11,286 full-time equivalent (FTE) to be employed in 

Federal meteorological operations in FY 2009. This 

figure represents a decrease of less than one percent from the 11,383 FTE employed in FY 2008.

 % of Supporting % of % of

Agency Operations TOTAL Research TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL

Agriculture 16,335 0.5 29,063 2.3 45,398 1.0

Commerce 2,113,708 66.1 122,798 9.5 2,236,506 49.8

Defense 625,045 19.6 357,612 27.7 982,657 21.9

Homeland Security 23,060 0.7 0 0.0 23,060 0.5

Interior 2,400 0.1 0 0.0 2,400 0.1

Transportation 408,033 12.8 38,252 3.0 446,285 9.9

EPA 0 0.0 9,000 0.7 9,000 0.2

NASA 7,497 0.2 733,212 56.8 740,709 16.5

NRC 500 0.0 0 0.0 500 0.0

 TOTAL $3,196,578 100 $1,289,937 100 $4,486,515 100

 Table ES-1. Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations and Supporting

Research, FY 2009 (in thousands of dollars)
EXEC SUM viii

MAJOR PROGRAMS--DOC, DOD, NASA, AND 

DOT

NEXT GENERATION WEATHER RADAR 

(NEXRAD)

 NEXRAD is the joint National Weather Service 

(NWS), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and 

Department of Defense (DOD) weather radar system consisting of 159 operational radars. NEXRAD 

utilizes Doppler technology and hydrometeorological processing to provide significant improvements 

over the previous generation of weather radars for 

tornado and thunderstorm warnings, air safety, flash 

flood warnings, and water resources management. 

The system is modular in design, upgradeable, has 

long life cycle expectancy, and provides its principal 

users with a wide array of automated weather information that will increase their capability to meet their 

respective operational requirements.

 The NEXRAD Program, which was initiated 

in FY 1981, was responsible for procurement, installation, and operation of the Weather Surveillance 

Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D). The first limited 

production WSR-88D system was installed at Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in May 1990, and commissioned four years later in February 1994. The original program plan called for a total of 161 radars. In 

response to a National Research Council report, 3 

additional radars were deployed, which raised the 

total to 164 radar sites (158 operational sites and 6 

support sites). By agency, as of June 2001, the Department of Commerce (DOC)/NWS had commissioned 120 operational sites, the DOD (USAF and 

Army) had commissioned 26 sites (within the United 

States and overseas), and the Department of Transportation (DOT)/FAA had commissioned 12 sites. 

DOD has three systems at Keesler AFB, Mississippi, 

for training; DOC/NWS has one each at the National Reconditioning Center, the NWS Training Center 

in Kansas City, Missouri, and the Radar Operations 

Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In 2004, an additional WSR-88D was commissioned in Evansville, 

Indiana, to augment coverage for southern Indiana 

and western Kentucky, bringing the count of operational radars to 159. 

 The NEXRAD Program has an ongoing 

process of modifying, retrofitting, and enhancing 

NEXRAD hardware and software. These efforts 

target obsolescence avoidance, improved operational reliability, lower operating costs, higher quality data, and meeting new operational requirements. 

The next major NEXRAD enhancement is to add a 

dual polarization capability which will improve radar 

precipitation accumulation estimates, hail and icing 

conditions, and higher data quality. The dual polarization capability is expected to begin deployment in 

2010. 

AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVING SYSTEM 

(ASOS) 

 ASOS is the primary minute-by-minute, 24-

hour weather observation system for NWS, FAA, and 

DOD. ASOS generates the basic Aviation Routing 

Weather Report (METAR) and Aviation Selected 

Special Weather Report (SPECI). This information 

is essential for safe and efficient aviation operations 

and is used by the public to plan day-to-day activities. ASOS also provides valuable information for 

the hydrometeorologic, climatologic, and meteorologic research communities. 

 The ASOS program began in 1983 as a joint 

development effort between the DOC/NWS, DOD, 

and DOT/FAA. Installation of ASOS units started 

in 1992. Implementation of ASOS into NWS field 

operations provides continuous weather watch and 

yields improved staff productivity. A total of 1,003 

units have been purchased. The NWS has purchased, accepted, and commissioned 312 sites. 

The FAA has purchased 573 units, all of which have 

been accepted and commissioned by the NWS. The 

Navy has purchased and accepted 71 sites. The Air 

Force has purchased and accepted 47 sites. 

 The ASOS Product Improvement Program 

was established in 1999 to address technology 

insertion and system improvement. Agency priorities have been established for seven improvement 

areas. Replacement of the under-powered ASOS 

processing unit and re-hosting of the ASOS software was the highest priority effort, and was successfully completed in 2005. Replacement of the 

temperature dewpoint sensor, necessitated due to 

excessive required maintenance, was completed in 

2005 as well. In 2005, NWS systems were upgraded with the All Weather Precipitation Accumulation 
EXEC SUM ix 

Gauge (AWPAG) to meet NWS climatology needs. 

The mechanical cup and vane wind sensors, subject 

to freezing, were replaced by the Ultrasonic Wind 

Sensor in 2007. A replacement for the logistically 

unsupportable legacy cloud height sensor will be 

fielded beginning in 2010, and will be followed by a 

new sensor to provide automatic reporting of drizzle, 

hail, and ice pellets. The last of the prioritized efforts, 

incorporation of a sunshine duration reporting capability, is expected to begin in 2011. 

AUTOMATED WEATHER INFORMATION SYSTEMS (AWIS) 

 The DOC, DOD, and DOT require AWIS to 

facilitate the collection, processing, and interpretation of meteorological data. AWIS are procured to 

provide an automated, high-speed, user-friendly interface to access and process large volumes of sophisticated meteorological data. AWIS programs 

support the timely production of accurate and geographically precise warnings, forecasts, and special 

tailored products. They also provide the communications capability for expeditious product dissemination. 

 Major agency systems classified as AWIS 

are: NOAA’s Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS), FAA’s Weather and Radar 

Processor (WARP); Air Force’s Joint Environmental 

Toolkit (JET); and the Naval Integrated Tactical Environmental Subsystem (NITES).

AWIPS

 In February 1997, the Secretary of Commerce approved the limited deployment of AWIPS 

at over 40 sites. On April 9, 1998, the Secretary 

authorized full-scale production and deployment 

of AWIPS, through Build 4.2, for the remaining 95 

systems. Installation of these 95 systems began in 

September 1998 and was completed in June 1999. 

An Operational Test and Evaluation of the commissioning software load (Release 4.2) was successfully conducted from mid-May through June 1999. 

AWIPS commissioning began in January 2000 and 

was completed in November 2000 with 141 NWS 

systems commissioned at 122 Weather Forecast 

Offices (WFOs), 13 River Forecast Centers (RFCs), 

the Spaceflight Meteorology Group (SMG), and 

the National Centers for Environmental Prediction 

(NCEP). 

 The NWS successfully completed the final 

development release of AWIPS (Build 5) in early 

2003, completed deployment of its first Operational 

Build (OB1) that summer, OB2 in December 2003, 

OB3 in August 2004, OB4 in February 2005, and 

OB5 in December 2005. Additional AWIPS releases were deployed to field offices as OB6 in 

February 2006, OB7.1 in October 2006, OB7.2 in 

January 2007, OB8.1 in July 2007, and OB8.2 in 

January 2008. OB8.3 began deployment in midJune 2008. The AWIPS Operational Builds deliver 

new functionality, enhancements, and fixes for the 

areas of warning product generation and support, 

hydrological product generation, forecast generation, data and imagery display, communications, and 

infrastructure. 

 Significant activities underway include the rearchitecture of the current AWIPS software, which is 

known as AWIPS-II, and is planned for deployment 

starting in 2010. AWIPS-II will transition the system to a Service Oriented Architecture (SOA), and 

will require extensive testing to validate whether it 

can meet or exceed the performance of the software 

currently deployed in the field. A follow-on project, 

AWIPS-II Extended, will enable AWIPS to be the 

visualization system for the entire NOAA Weather 

Enterprise. AWIPS-II will include a Thin Client capability, which is essential for AWIPS-like operations 

for NWS Weather Service Offices (WSOs), Incident 

Meteorologists (IMET) in the field, and NCEP. 

WARP

 The FAA’s WARP will greatly enhance the dissemination of aviation weather information throughout the National Airspace System (NAS). WARP will 

automatically create unique regional, WSR-88Dbased mosaic products and send these products, 

along with other time-critical weather information, to 

controllers through the Advanced Automation System (AAS), as well as to pilots via the aeronautical 

data link.

JET

 JET will replace several disparate legacy 

weather systems with a single, integrated means of 

supporting both garrison and deployed operations, 
EXEC SUM x

including a “first-in” weather forecasting capability. 

Combining forecasting, product-tailoring, and mission-impact capabilities in an interactive, networkcentric, standards-based package; JET accesses, 

processes, analyzes, tailors, and integrates terrestrial and space weather information into command and 

control systems to guide warfighter decision making. 

This effort will eliminate Air Force weather weapon 

system redundancies and inefficiencies, reduce the 

burden on system administrators, and ultimately extend, consolidate, or replace the following systems: 

Operational Weather Squadron Production System 

Phase II, the New-Tactical Forecast System, the Joint 

Weather Impacts System, and the Army’s Integrated 

Meteorological System Weather Toolkit.

NITES

 A series of NITES variants (I - IV) were reengineered from the Tactical Environmental Surveillance System and other legacy systems of the early 

1990’s. NITES has capabilities to ingest, process, 

fuse, display, and disseminate meteorological and 

oceanographic (METOC) information and its impact 

on tactical operations. In early 2000, the NITES II 

application software was redesigned to align with 

the Global Command and Control System (GCCS) 

Family of Systems 4.x, provide increased flexibility, enable operating system and/or hardware independence, and improve user operability with a new 

graphical-user interface for tactical decision aid applications. The NITES II redesign suite of software 

is integrated with both GCCS-Maritime (M) and 

GCCS-Joint (J) 4.x versions.

The Navy will field a follow-on system, called “NITES – Next,” to increase the capabilities for ashore, 

afloat and mobile METOC support to naval tactical 

operations and be net-centric and interoperable with 

the other services. NITES – Next will be a software 

only solution and compliant with the DOD Global Information Grid and Navy FORCEnet architectures. 

Navy is coordinating with the Air Force to efficiently 

and effectively leverage the Air Force’s Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET) Program to eliminate unnecessary duplication of METOC capabilities.

THROUGH-THE-SENSOR (TTS) CAPABILITIES

 The Hazardous Weather Detection and Display Capability (HWDDC) and Tactical Environmental Processor (TEP) are TTS technologies which will 

passively tap the AN/SPS-48G(V) (HWDDC) and 

SPY-1 (TEP) 3D air search radars to obtain and display hazardous weather information. The TEP and 

HWDDC systems will be based off common modular 

weather processing algorithms, and will have similar 

data product and display capabilities. Essentially, 

they are one common set of processing applied to 

two different radars. The differences in capabilities 

supported by the systems are driven by the differences in the radars, themselves. 

The HWDDC will be integrated into the baseline 

AN/SPS-48G air-search radar, allowing it to extract 

and display reflectivity data. HWDDC addresses a 

long-standing fleet requirement for real-time hazardous weather detection/display to support safety of 

flight and operations planning within Carrier and Expeditionary Strike Groups. The knowledge of hazardous weather conditions afloat greatly enhances 

readiness and combat posture.

The TEP, which will be installed on modernized Destroyers (DDG), provides not only convective weather detection and display, but also real-time volumetric wind profiles and radar refractivity assessments 

for SPY-1 radar returns. This Refractivity from Clutter (RFC) capability supports SPY-1 optimization, 

which is critical in rapidly changing afloat refractivity 

environments. RFC enhances detection capability 

of small surface vessels and low-flying aircraft, while 

also significantly contributing to improvement in atmospheric modeling quality. 

 

GEOSTATIONARY OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES (GOES)

 The GOES spacecraft circle the Earth in a 

geosynchronous orbit. This means they orbit the 

equatorial plane of the Earth at a speed matching 

the Earth’s rotation. These satellites provide continuous monitoring necessary for effective, detailed, 

and extensive near-term severe weather monitoring 

and fore-casting and long-term environmental monitoring. GOES-East at 75°W and GOES-West at 

135°W provide data on the United States and the 

Western Hemisphere. GOES-East monitors North 

and South America and most of the Atlantic Ocean. 

GOES-West monitors North America and the Pacific 

Ocean basin. In FY 2009, the next spacecraft in the 
EXEC SUM xi 

current GOES series will be launched. GOES-O is 

slated to launch in December 2008 and will become 

an on-orbit spare (GOES-14).

NATIONAL POLAR-ORBITING OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE SYSTEM (NPOESS)

 The NPOESS Program began when Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) NSTC-2 established the Integrated Program Office (IPO) in October 1994. Under the terms of this PDD, the IPO’s 

function is to “...reduce the cost of acquiring and 

operating polar-orbiting environmental satellite systems, while continuing to satisfy Department of Defense (DOD) and Department of Commerce (DOC) 

operational requirements for data from these systems.” Effectively, the directive combines the current operations and future follow-on activities of the 

DOD Defense Meteorological Satellite Program with 

the DOC NOAA Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite program. The new follow-on system 

will be called NPOESS. Cooperation with foreign 

governments and international organizations are to 

be encouraged as well.

 NPOESS is an integrated DOC, DOD, and 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) program. Through the IPO, DOC is responsible for operations and overall program management; DOD is responsible for the acquisition and 

launch of the satellites; and NASA is responsible for 

insertion of new and innovative technology.

 In January 2006, the program was expected 

to exceed its approved program baseline by 25 percent. This required the DOD to recertify the program 

to Congress in accordance with the Nunn-McCurdy 

Amendment of the 1982 Defense Authorization Act. 

The program configuration was reduced from three 

to two orbital planes and from six to four satellites.

 The space segment of NPOESS will include 

space platforms and sensors that will collect and 

store environmental and other data until it can be 

downlinked directly to operational weather processing centers (e.g., Air Force Weather Agency, Fleet 

Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, 

Naval Oceanographic Office, and National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS)) and field terminals (receivers used by deployed 

and/or remote military units and civilian users to obtain environmental data). The space segment will 

consist of meteorological, oceanographic, terrestrial, 

space environmental monitoring, climatic sensors, 

and other capabilities such as surface data collection and/or location and aid to search and rescue 

operations. The satellite will store and download all 

data to ground stations with a latency of less than 90 

minutes and will also provide continuous downlink of 

data for receipt by worldwide civilian and DOD users.

 The NPOESS constellation will notionally 

consist of U.S. satellites in two orbital planes and 

will receive data from one European Organization 

for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) satellite via European ground sites. The 

US satellites will fly at 833 ± 17 km altitude with an 

inclination of 98.7 ± 0.05 degrees in two distinct 

sun-synchronous orbits: early morning and early afternoon. EUMETSAT will cover the mid-morning orbital plane.

 Each satellite will carry several types of sensors to accomplish its mission, including electrooptical (E/O), microwave (MW), and space environment (the exception is the first NPOESS satellite, 

C1, which will not carry a space environment package). The E/O instruments include a Visible/Infrared 

Imager/Radiometer Suite to provide imagery in the 

visible and infrared spectra, a cross-track infrared 

sounder to provide high-resolution vertical profiles 

of atmospheric properties in conjunction with MW 

soundings, and an ozone mapping and profiler suite 

to measure ozone in the earth’s atmosphere. 

 NPOESS will carry other payloads that are 

similar to existing instruments, such as NOAA’s managed data collection system (DCS), which collects, 

processes, and stores for subsequent transmission 

buoy, free-floating balloon, and remote weather 

station measurements; and the search and rescue 

satellite aided tracking (SARSAT) system that uses 

NOAA satellites in low-Earth and geostationary orbits to detect and locate users in distress. The satellites relay distress signals from emergency beacons 

to a network of ground stations and ultimately to the 

SARSAT U.S. Mission Control Center (USMCC) in 

Suitland, Maryland. USMCC alerts the appropriate 

search and rescue authorities.

 NPOESS also recently sponsored the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Co-
EXEC SUM xii

operative program for Operational Meteorology, 

Education, and Training (COMET) in branching into 

high-latitude territory. Since the usefulness of geostationary satellites declines rapidly at latitudes above 

60° north and south, NPOESS data are especially 

important toward the poles. COMET is developing 

a series of modules to help prepare forecasters for 

the products available from the polar orbiters.

 The IPO is working with the NPOESS contractor to ensure ground systems are in place and 

operating in time to use NPOESS Preparatory Project data in 2010 and that all systems are ready for 

an expected 2013 launch of the first operational 

NPOESS satellite. 

 NASA’s FY 2009 request is for just over a 

total of $740.7 million--over $7.50 million for operations and $733.2 million for supporting research. 

These funding levels are composed of the estimated meteorology share of the supporting research 

and analysis programs as well as Earth Observing 

System (EOS) and Earth Probe instruments, EOS 

science, and the EOS Data Information System elements of the NASA Office of Earth Science budget.

OTHER AGENCY PROGRAMS 

 For FY 2009, the Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) requested $45.4 million for meteorological 

operations and supporting research. Operationally, 

the USDA supports specialized weather observation 

networks and also conducts an active supporting 

research program to ensure an abundance of highquality agricultural commodities, while minimizing 

the adverse effects of agriculture on the environment. Under supporting research, USDA focuses 

on the interactions of weather and climate with plant 

and animal production and water resources management.

 The Department of the Interior’s (DOI) FY 

2009 request of $2.4 million is primarily to support 

the Bureau of Land Management’s Remote Automatic Weather Station (RAWS) program.

 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

budget request for FY 2009 is $9.0 million, the same 

amount as in FY 2008, to provide user-appropriate 

and scientifically credible air-quality and meteorological programs and models to support regulatory 

applications.

 The Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s 

(NRC’s) request for $500,000 in FY 2009 is for operations. With an increased emphasis on nuclear 

energy, the NRC will dedicate the increased funding to obtain and analyze meteorological data and 

information related to siting more new nuclear power 

plants than last year and continued safe operation of 

nuclear facilities, to the protection of public health 

and safety, and protection of the environment.

FEDERAL COORDINATION

NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION

INTERDEPARTMENTAL HURRICANE CONFERENCE

 The OFCM annually hosts the Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (IHC) to provide a forum for the responsible Federal agencies, together 

with representatives of the user communities such 

as emergency management, to review the nation’s 

hurricane forecast and warning program and to make 

recommendations on how to improve the program. 

The 62nd IHC in Charleston, South Carolina, March 

3-7, 2008, was attended by approximately 200 

people including representatives from nine Federal 

agencies. Objectives of the 2008 IHC included the 

following: (1) review the Nation’s tropical cyclone 

forecast and warning program from end-to-end; (2) 

update the National Hurricane Operations Plan for 

2008; (3) review the 2007 Joint Hurricane Testbed 

(JHT) projects, and identify candidates that may be 

successfully transitioned into operations; (4) examine how hazard risk reduction improvements can be 

made through stronger local partnerships and alliances; and (5) as recommended in the Interagency 

Strategic Research Plan for Tropical Cyclones: The 

Way Ahead, begin developing an interagency implementation strategy for the tropical cyclone research 

priorities. Actions resulting from the conference included: (1) Update and execute the National Hurricane Operations Plan for the 2008 hurricane season; (2) Analyze tropical cyclone research activities 

presented at the 62nd IHC and other subsequent 

forums with respect to the priorities established in 

Table 5.1 of the interagency strategic research plan; 

(3) Identify overlaps, gaps, areas for collaboration 

and leveraging opportunities; and (4) Establish the 
EXEC SUM xiii 

next steps needed to fill the gaps. The IHC was extremely successful in bringing the operational and research communities together to further improve the 

tropical cyclone forecast and warning program. Finally, the conference provided a baseline of research 

activities that will enable the development of an interagency implementation strategy for the tropical 

cyclone research priorities, which can be reviewed 

at subsequent IHCs. The 63rd IHC is being planned 

for March 2009 in St. Petersburg, Florida.

TROPICAL CYCLONE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN

 The tropical cyclone forecast and warning 

program is an interdepartmental collaboration to provide the United States and designated international 

recipients with forecasts, warnings, and assessments concerning tropical and subtropical weather 

systems. The Interagency Strategic Research Plan 

for Tropical Cyclones: The Way Ahead provides a 

strategy to improve the effectiveness of operational 

forecasts and warnings through increased collaboration among the major players in the operational 

and research and development (R&D) communities. 

This strategic plan has become the underpinning of 

NOAA’s Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program 

and provides a foundation for Navy and NASA research as well as supporting NSF’s related activities. 

In response to direction from the Interdepartmental 

Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR), the OFCM formed the 

Working Group for Tropical Cyclone Research with 

cochairs from NOAA and the Navy in the summer of 

2008. In FY 2009, the Working Group will be developing an implementation strategy for the research 

objectives outlined in the strategic plan. 

POST-STORM DATA ACQUISITION

 The OFCM continued to coordinate, as required, timely post-storm data acquisition surveys in 

response to Presidentially declared natural disasters 

and other agency requirements. Under the 5-year 

Umbrella Agreement and an FY 2008 funding agreement between OFCM and the U.S. Air Force for up 

to $22,000 in reimbursable support, the Civil Air Patrol flew 17 missions in support of tornado and hurricane damage assessments, flood assessment, survey of potential dam breaks, glacial lake damming in 

Alaska, and a pre-storm hydrology survey in Hawaii. 

This support will continue in FY 2009 at a planned 

level of $25,000 set aside for these missions.

URBAN METEOROLOGY

NATIONAL WILDLAND FIRE WEATHER NEEDS 

ASSESSMENT

 The needs assessment has been completed, 

capabilities information has been gathered, and an 

initial gap analysis has been accomplished. The 

needs assessment identified 47 specific needs in 

nine functional areas and the preliminary gap analysis indicates just two of these needs may have no 

activity against them but, conversely, none of the 

needs may be considered fully met at this time. The 

OFCM briefed the results of the needs assessment 

and provided a copy of the summary report to the 

NOAA Science Advisory Board’s Working Group on 

Fire Weather Research as part of their kickoff activities in October 2007. The results of the NOAA 

SAB’s working group study have been incorporated 

into the draft final report. In FY 2009, the Working 

Group for Wildland Fire Weather will complete the 

final report which will outline the needs, capabilities, 

gaps, and a framework to address the needs.

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION 

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

 The Joint Action Group for Joint Urban Test 

Beds (JAG/JUTB), under the Working Group for Urban Meteorology (WG/UM), is continuing work to 

develop an operational concept document for multifunctional joint urban test beds to provide services 

and data to model developers, test and evaluation 

personnel, and users. The joint urban test beds will 

support the following functional areas: severe weather (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves and cold 

spells, drought, and wildland fires), homeland security (dispersion of hazardous materials), climate, air 

quality (e.g., particulate matter aerosols), and water 

quality (e.g., deposition of airborne contaminants on 

water sources and waterborne transport of contaminants). JAG/JUTB is currently planning to pursue 

implementation of a JUTB over the National Capital 

Region first; this JUTB would be the proof of concept and our experience with it would allow for the 

improved development of an operational concept 
EXEC SUM xiv

document based upon experiences with this first 

JUTB. 

GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION MODELING 

CONFERENCE

 George Mason University (GMU), Fairfax, 

Virginia, conducted its 12th Annual Conference on 

Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Modeling in 

July, 2008, and the OFCM cosponsored the event 

together with a number of other agencies. Technical 

topics of interest for the conference were: new developments in basic theories of boundary layer models and transport and diffusion models; urban-scale 

meteorological and dispersion experiments and models; computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model theory and applications; field experiments and laboratory 

experiments concerned with boundary layer studies 

and turbulence and dispersion studies; mesoscale 

meteorological modeling for input to transport and 

dispersion models; the use of remote sensing technology in boundary layer and transport and dispersion studies; model evaluation methods, uncertainty/

sensitivity analyses, and risk assessments; improvements in model inputs (e.g., land-use data, 3-D building data) and output visualizations; and methods and 

criteria for emergency response and decision making. 

OPERATIONAL PROCESSING

 Interagency cooperation continued to improve processing and backup capabilities of NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction 

and Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution, the Air Force Weather Agency, and the U.S. 

Navy’s Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center and Naval Oceanographic Office. In 

FY 2008, the agencies signed the Data Acquisition, 

Processing, and Exchange (DAPE) Memorandum of 

Agreement to update and formalize these activities 

among the operational processing centers, and the 

Environmental Satellite Data Acquisition (ESDA) annex to the DAPE MOA is in final coordination to be 

completed in FY 2009. This annex will replace the 

expiring Shared Processing Program (SPP) agreement which provides for funding to support the exchange of extensive volumes of data.

WEATHER INFORMATION FOR SURFACE 

TRANSPORTATION

 In 2008, the interagency weather community continued to move forward in support of surface 

transportation. The Fourth National Symposium on 

Surface Transportation Weather was held in Indianapolis, Indiana, in June 2008 and several U.S. representatives attended the Safety in Mobility conference held in Velden, Austria, in July 2008. At the 

invitation of the U.S. Embassy in Austria, the Federal 

Coordinator for Meteorology provided a keynote address. Agency representatives attended the Intelligent Transportation System World Congress in 

New York City in November 2008. In FY 2009, the 

interagency community will focus on areas such as: 

current and emerging capabilities; transition of research to operations to improve products and services; getting the right message out and the need for 

social science involvement; education and outreach; 

the need for metrics to measure success and guide 

resource allocation; identifying gaps and setting research priorities; and exploiting the opportunity for a 

near-term intermodal initiative to develop and demonstrate emerging capabilities. 

AVIATION WEATHER

 Agency representatives continued to participate in the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) Weather Working Group and the 

Friends/Partners in Aviation Weather (FPAW). The 

OFCM presented results of the 10-year National Aviation Weather Program effort to reduce weather-related aviation accidents at a National Aviation Weather 

Program Council meeting and at the FPAW meeting 

at the National Business Aviation Association annual 

conference. The goal was to reduce weather-related fatal aviation accidents by 80 percent over the 

10-year period from 1997 through 2006. Although 

the National Aviation Weather Program achieved 

significant progress over this period, particularly in 

the area of general aviation, the second five years 

of the 10-year period showed a marked slow down 

in the decline of accident rates and the ambitious 

80 percent reduction goal was not achieved. The 

OFCM will be working with the NTSB and others in 
EXEC SUM xv 

FY 2009 to develop an understanding of the change 

in the trend lines, how the program can sustain the 

progress which has already been made, and how to 

jump start additional progress toward the overall 80 

percent reduction. The final report assessing this 

goal will be published in FY 2009. 

SPACE WEATHER

 The Committee for Space Weather is refining the draft and expects to publish the new NSWP 

Strategic Plan in FY 2009, with a follow-on effort to 

craft an updated Implementation Plan. In a complementary effort, the Committee prepared and submitted a Space Weather Implementation Plan (SWxIP) 

as requested by the Committee on Environment and 

Natural Resources (CENR) Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction (SDR). The SWxIP is in final review within the Executive Office of the President and 

publication is expected in 2009. Another significant 

NSWP effort in FY 2008 was the completion of the 

report Impacts of NPOESS Nunn-McCurdy Certification and Potential Loss of ACE Spacecraft Solar 

Wind Data on National Space Environmental Monitoring Capabilities, documenting the results of a study 

requested by the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy (OSTP). The For Official Use Only report identifies a number of significant impacts resulting from 

the expected loss of significant space environmental 

sensing capabilities. The space weather community 

received a follow-on request from OSTP to conduct 

a mitigation study in FY 2009. 

PHASED ARRAY RADAR

 The interagency weather community continued to move forward with a coordinated approach to 

risk reduction for applying multifunction phased array 

radar (MPAR) to weather detection and concurrent 

air and weather surveillance. The MPAR Symposium 

in October 2007 highlighted that now is the time to 

begin the evaluation of MPAR, and a risk-reduction 

implementation strategy was needed. The WG/

MPAR developed a coordinated implementation 

strategy in early 2008, which formed the anchor point 

for ongoing planning and coordinated action across 

NOAA, DOD, DHS, and the FAA. The Working 

Group for MPAR (WG/MPAR) completed a service 

improvement assessment for weather surveillance 

which mapped the linkages from basic capabilities 

expected of a PAR system, to derived capabilities, 

and subsequently to anticipated service improvements. Also in late FY 2008, the National Academies’ Board on Atmospheric Science and Climate 

(BASC) Committee on the Evaluation of the MPAR 

Planning Process delivered their report. Their overarching recommendation was to continue the MPAR 

research and development. The WG/MPAR is defining requirements and drafting an operations concept for MPAR. Over the last year, DHS supported 

targeted research using the National Weather Radar 

Testbed at the National Severe Storms Laboratory in 

Norman, OK, and additional future funds were programmed for phased array radar work in NOAA. At 

its meeting on September 29, 2008, the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and 

Supporting Research (ICMSSR) supported the creation of a senior policy council for MPAR within the 

Federal meteorological coordinating infrastructure. 

This council would begin addressing policy issues 

among the key stakeholding agencies as anticipated 

funding increases materialize in the years ahead. 

CROSSCUTTING HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL 

ASSESSMENT

 In September 2008, a one-day interagency 

hydrometeorology mini-workshop by OFCM brought 

together the relevant Federal agencies to initiate discussion on topics such as programs, product suites 

and services, needs and requirements, transitioning 

research into operational applications, and related 

education and outreach activities. The workshop 

spurred interest among the participants to see what 

others are working on and to continue gathering 

needs and requirements and identifying priorities 

and gaps. A follow-on mini-workshop is planned for 

December 2008. 

CRITICAL SKILL SHORTAGES

 The interagency weather community has already identified a deficiency in advanced data assimilation expertise and anecdotal evidence indicates additional potential shortages in the areas of 
EXEC SUM xvi

probability, radar meteorology, and tropical meteorology. Senior leaders agreed to establish the Joint 

Action Group for Critical Skill Shortages to identify 

other critical areas, collect information, and conduct 

an analysis of the Federal sector’s current and projected critical skill shortages. The group will then 

make recommendations to address the skill shortages identified.
 SECTION 1 1

Meteorology: Meeting Weather Needs in the Urban 

Community [2] which highlighted five primary elements within urban meteorology: severe weather, 

homeland security, air quality, water quality, and climate. This report and the subsequent September 

2004 Forum on Urban Meteorology established a 

discussion framework to begin identifying needs, priorities, and common problems. The OFCM also initiated coordinated action moving forward in partnership to improve services in the urban environment. 

Today, the federal meteorological community is pursuing action on a number of fronts to bring these 

improved services to fruition. This article reviews 

some specific examples of high impact events in the 

urban environment, the associated challenges, and 

coordinated activity underway to improve products 

and services.

Severe Weather

 Severe weather as used in this context is not 

limited to tornadoes or localized convective storms 

with winds greater than 50 knots and large hail. 

Severe weather includes the range of high impact 

weather events including tornadoes, certainly, but 

also flooding rains, tropical cyclones, ice storms, 

snow storms, and extreme heat and cold, for example. Please note that beginning in 2007, the strength 

of tornadoes is classified using the new Enhanced 

Fujita (EF) scale (see Table 1), which is referred to 

in subsequent sections. The following sections describe several severe weather events and specific 

impacts on urban areas.

Tornadoes

 Greensburg, Kansas Tornado – May 4, 2007. 

The most devastating tornado of 2007 occurred on 

May 4 when just after 9:30 p.m., the town of Greensburg, Kansas, suffered a direct hit from an EF5 tornado. The huge tornado, over one and one-half miles 

wide, moved across the center of Greensburg and 

Introduction

 In late summer 2008, a large portion of the 

United States population was preparing for or enduring the effects of the Atlantic hurricane season 

as the U.S. coastline experienced tropical cyclones 

such as Hurricane Gustav, Tropical Storm Hanna, 

and Hurricane Ike. As these systems approached 

the coastline and multiple major urban areas, they 

tested several of the lessons learned from Hurricane 

Katrina just three years before. Would people evacuate the coastal communities? What would be the 

impact on gas prices? Where would the storm make 

landfall? How strong would the storm be at landfall? Would the local, State, and Federal government 

agencies be prepared? These were just some of the 

questions on the minds of U.S. citizens and government officials. As the hurricane season continued, 

the threat of tropical cyclones highlighted the significance of natural disasters and other high impact 

events on urban communities.

 Of the approximately 281 million people living in the U.S. in 2000, more than 68 percent lived in 

urban areas comprising just two percent of the U.S. 

landmass [1]. The built environment in these urban 

areas significantly alters the meteorology of the area, 

including temperatures, humidity, winds, and precipitation. It also alters air and water quality, what happens to precipitation reaching the ground, and the 

climate itself. Although the effects of the built environment vary by areal coverage, vertical extent, and 

types and distribution of structures and pavements, 

“urban” in this context includes small towns and not 

just major metropolitan areas. The unique aspects 

of this environment present special challenges for 

the meteorological community to meet the increasing demands of the urban population for improved 

products and services. 

 In 2004, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM) published a report entitled Urban 

NATURAL DISASTERS AND HIGH IMPACT EVENTS AFFECTING 

URBAN COMMUNITIES

SECTION 1

Article prepared by Ronla Henry
SECTION 1 2

the mayor later estimated 95 percent of the town of 

about 1,500 people had been completely destroyed 

(Figure 1). Ten people were confirmed dead in 

Greensburg as a result of this first tornado rated as 

an EF5. The last tornado rated in the highest category of the previous Fujita F-scale had occurred 

seven years earlier in Oklahoma. Two other tornadorelated deaths happened in outlying areas that same 

evening as more than 20 tornadoes were reported. 

Although little can be done to reduce property damage in the face of an EF5 tornado, increasing warning accuracy and lead times can help save lives and 

reduce injuries. 

EF Number 3 Second Gust (mph)

0 65-85

1 86-110

2 111-135

3 136-165

4 166-200

5 Over 200

 Memphis and Nashville, Tennessee – February 5-6, 2008. Eighty-two tornadoes struck the midSouth and Tennessee Valley in roughly a 12-hour 

period from the afternoon of Tuesday, February 5, 

through the early morning of February 6, 2008. Subsequent damage surveys indicated that, of the 82 

tornadoes reported, five were violent EF4 tornadoes, 

five were rated EF3, and 15 were rated EF2, leaving 

56 people dead in four states and making this event 

the deadliest tornado outbreak since May 31, 1985. 

All fatalities occurred with tornadoes categorized 

EF2 or greater.

 One of those tornadoes, an EF2, affected 

southern parts of the Memphis, Tennessee, metropolitan area on February 5, 2008. As the storm 

moved through the southern Memphis suburbs, it 

affected Memphis International Airport, the Federal 

Aviation Administration air traffic control tower, and 

the NWS Weather Forecast Office (WFO), with 

personnel in the latter two locations evacuating their 

buildings during the storm. The tornado caused four 

fatalities in the Memphis area but the outcome could 

have been much worse. The tornado struck at the 

time of day when large numbers of school buses 

would normally have been on the roads, but Memphis city school officials had dismissed schools early 

on February 5 because of the storm warnings. 

 An EF2 tornado also hit Union University in 

nearby Jackson, Tennessee, on February 5, but there 

were no fatalities and only minimal injuries at the university. University officials attributed this to advance 

warning and a good emergency preparedness plan.

 Later in the evening of February 5, an EF2 tornado affected portions of the Nashville metropolitan 

area and at the Sommet Center, officials temporarily 

halted a National Hockey League game and the fans 

sheltered in the arena during the storm. There were 

no fatalities in the Nashville area during this event 

but the same thunderstorm later produced an EF3 

tornado northeast of Nashville, near the rural community of Lafayette, Tennessee, killing 22 people. 

Atlanta, Georgia – March 14, 2008. Although conditions were less than optimum for tornadoes or severe thunderstorms, an isolated supercell 

developed just northwest of the city of Atlanta on the 

evening of March 14, 2008. This storm intensified 

as it moved into the city and it produced a tornado 

that caused damage along a six-mile path, stretching 

from west of the Georgia World Congress Center 

to western DeKalb County south of Interstate 20. 

The storm struck at 9:38 p.m. during a 2008 Southeastern Conference Men’s Basketball Tournament 

game in the Georgia Dome in downtown Atlanta. 

The tornado passed just north of the dome and had 

the game not gone into overtime, thousands of fans 

Figure 1: Greensburg, Kansas, after the May 4, 2007, 

EF5 tornado. (Photo credit: NOAA)

Table 1: The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale for estimating tornadic wind speeds based on resulting damage, adapted from 

the National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center [3]. 
 SECTION 1 3

would have been in the streets headed to their vehicles or public transportation when the tornado hit, 

likely significantly increasing the number of deaths 

and injuries. This tornado was rated EF2, with maximum winds estimated to be 130 MPH. Figure 2 

shows some of the damage in downtown Atlanta 

from this tornado. [4] 

 These tornado examples highlight the value 

of an effective warning system, well-designed and 

executed emergency plans, and the leadership of 

organizations who understand the severe weather 

threat and act on it. In addition to improving warning capability through potential new systems such 

as Multifunctional Phased Array Radar (MPAR) and 

better high-resolution weather forecasting models, 

the meteorological community needs to better understand the social sciences aspects of preparedness, warning, and response. These examples highlight the need for continued education and outreach 

to the public and public officials to improve response 

to warnings, and the interagency community is moving today to improve these capabilities.

Seattle Area Flooding – December 1-3, 2007

 Three successive storms affected the Pacific Northwest on December 1-3, 2007. Fueled 

by remnants of Pacific Tropical Storms Hagibis and 

Mitag, the third storm to hit the Seattle area was the strongest. Heavy 

rainfall and rapidly melting snow 

produced record flooding in western Oregon and Washington State. 

The worst flooding occurred about 

85 miles south of Seattle near Chehalis, Washington, where 10 feet of 

water covered a portion of Interstate 

5 (Figure 3). Authorities closed a 

20-mile stretch of the highway 

for several days, blocking the major thoroughfare between Seattle, 

Washington, and Portland, Oregon. 

According to the Washington State 

Department of Transportation (WSDOT), the closure cost the state’s 

economy more than $47 million in 

economic output from the freight 

system alone. [5] 

 The Seattle-Tacoma official observing station 

received 5.57 inches of rain during this three-day period, with 3.77 inches (a record for the day) falling 

on December 3. NWS WFO Seattle received 4.15 

inches of rain that day, setting an all-time record 

for 24-hour rainfall at that station. Major urban and 

small stream flooding occurred surprisingly rapidly 

in King County and the Seattle metropolitan area, an 

unusual occurrence for these areas. Despite significant road damage in King County, no fatalities were 

attributed to the flooding.

 This case highlights the significant economic 

impacts of weather events in the urban environment 

even without widespread, violent destruction of infrastructure. It points to the importance of accurate, 

relevant, and timely hydrometeorological data and 

predictions and highlights the importance of weather 

information for surface transportation. The OFCM 

hosted mini-workshops on hydrometeorology needs 

in the fall of 2008 and continues to advance weather 

support for surface transportation. As in the tornado 

cases, advanced weather radars and integration of 

social sciences into the warning process can improve support to the public and protection of life and 

property.

North American Ice Storm – January, 2007

 A series of winter storms plagued much of 

Figure 2: Downtown Atlanta, Georgia, after the March 

14, 2008, tornado. (Photo credit: NOAA)
SECTION 1 4

North America in January, 2007. 

The first storm traveled from the 

Rio Grande Valley on January 

11 to New England by January 16, followed immediately by 

another storm January 16–18 

which affected the southern 

United States from Texas to the 

Carolinas. The final storm hit the 

southern plains and Mid-Atlantic 

States January 19–24. 

 These winter storms created a wide swath of damage, 

affecting several urban areas including St. Louis, Missouri; Dallas-Forth Worth, Texas; San Antonio, Texas; Columbia, South 

Carolina, and both Raleigh 

and Charlotte, North Carolina. 

Heavy snow and ice accumulations on power lines, towers, 

and trees caused extensive damage across the area, 

resulting in multiple power outages for hundreds of 

thousands of residents in these states with some 

outages lasting up to a week.

 The winter weather also significantly disrupted multiple modes of transportation when snow-covered or icy roads caused numerous traffic accidents, 

rail traffic slowed to a crawl, and ground delays 

scrambled airline schedules. In Oklahoma, a truck 

carrying hazardous material slid off of a river bridge. 

No one was injured, but the truck’s hazardous cargo 

disappeared into the water. 

 These storms resulted in at least 87 lives lost 

as well as significant clean-up and repair costs, highlighting the need for improved hydrometeorological 

predictions, weather information for surface transportation, and effective ways to convey anticipated 

impacts to the public and public officials. 

Improving Products and Services for Severe Weather

 The OFCM and the federal meteorological community are working together in a number 

of ways to improve products and services to better 

serve the nation’s urban population leading up to 

and during the types of high-impact weather events 

described above. The Multifunction Phased Array 

Radar (MPAR) risk reduction effort seeks to explore 

the potential of phased array radar to more rapidly 

detect the precursors and onset of tornadic conditions and for improved weather surveillance overall, including heavy precipitation and discriminating 

rain/ice/snow events. The community is also working together in the area of weather information for 

surface transportation, moving ahead to bring more 

and improved information to vehicle operators of 

all types; highway, railway, waterway, pipeline, and 

airport managers; maintainers of this infrastructure; 

and design engineers and policy makers. Related 

and supporting work includes coordinated tropical 

cyclone research and development and improving space weather services. Tropical cyclones are 

clearly high-impact weather events for coastal urban 

areas and improved intensity forecasting is a high 

priority. The understanding of space weather effects 

on communications, navigation, security, health, and 

the electrical power grid continues to grow through 

continuing education and outreach efforts of the National Space Weather Program. The community is 

also more attuned to the social sciences aspects of 

the forecasting and warning system, building on the 

work of the OFCM exploration of tropical cyclone 

warnings in Mobile, Alabama, and Charleston, South 

Carolina, and the expanded activity in this area in National Science Foundation grants. 

Figure 3: Flooding of Interstate 5 near Chehalis, Washington, December 2007. 

(Photo credit: Washington State DOT, by Jim Walker)
 SECTION 1 5

Homeland Security

 The homeland security element of urban 

meteorology addresses primarily the vectors of air 

and water in dispersion of accidental and deliberate 

releases of chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological hazards. The urban environment by its nature 

places large numbers of people in a small area and 

this area is typically a road, rail, transit, water, pipeline, or air hub, or perhaps all six in the cases of major metropolitan areas. The transport of significant 

amounts of all variety of hazardous materials into or 

near urban areas increases the risk of accidental release as does the prevalence of industry often located in or near urban areas. The increased volume 

of hazardous materials stored, used, produced, or 

transiting urban areas also brings with it the threat 

of accidental release caused by weather conditions 

such as hurricanes, flooding, and tornadoes. Unfortunately, the higher concentration of people also 

provides a more lucrative target for terrorist activity because of the likelihood of more casualties and 

greater psychological and political impact. The flow 

of air and water in the urban environment is critical 

to responding effectively to either an accidental or 

deliberate release of hazardous materials.

 Accurate diagnostic and predictive transport 

and diffusion modeling is difficult in the best circumstances and the urban environment adds even more 

complexity in observing, understanding, predicting, 

and responding to accidental and deliberate releases of hazardous chemicals, biological agents, and radiological particles. Meteorological conditions such 

as wind, temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation, 

combined with the effects of complex terrain dramatically alter the dispersion of these hazards and 

the resulting effects on the urban populace and infrastructure. Urban terrain includes a wide range of 

objects from bushes and trees, to houses, bridges, 

and skyscrapers, all varying in size from a few feet to 

hundreds of feet to thousands of feet, meaning one 

or a few observations of meteorological conditions in 

or near the area will be insufficient for accurate prediction. These features add extreme complexity to 

urban plume modeling, largely because of the challenge of accurately representing turbulent processes. In addition, the problem is often compounded by 

a lack of information on the hazard source—what was 

released, when, and how much. Furthermore, the 

lack of information on the exchange of indoor and 

outdoor air for every building in the area adds additional uncertainty in any prediction, particularly for 

determining effects on the populace. 

Improving Products and Services for Homeland Security

 Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the interagency community under the 

OFCM’s leadership assessed the state of the art 

among available dispersion models and decided 

on a core capability. They also established the Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment 

Center (IMAAC) to provide a coordinated first response to hazardous releases, and the OFCM led 

the development of an interagency dispersion model 

R&D plan to improve capability in light of the extensive limitations of the current generation of models. 

Although improvements have been made, much 

work remains to be done. In a June 2008 report, 

the GAO determined that first responders’ ability to 

detect and model hazardous releases in urban areas is significantly limited. [6] Among their recommendations was a call for accelerated research and 

development to address plume model deficiencies 

and improve federal modeling and assessment capabilities, including improvements in meteorological 

information, plume models, and data sets with which 

to evaluate plume models.

 In addition to improving the models, other 

actions underway may ultimately contribute to improved capability. Modeling for the urban environment requires complex data assimilation, an area of 

expertise already identified as critically short. The 

OFCM is leading an interagency effort to identify other critical skill shortages among the agencies to allow timely action to mitigate this and future shortfalls. 

In the systems area, MPAR can directly measure the 

three-dimensional wind field to provide a key input to 

prediction models and the Joint Urban Testbed project presents the opportunity to improve the overall 

process but, in particular, improve the availability and 

quality of meteorological and other observations in 

major metropolitan areas. 
SECTION 1 6

Air and Water Quality

 The air and water quality elements of urban 

meteorology are of widespread and constant concern for the health and economic vitality of the urban 

area. Unlike the severe weather and homeland security elements which may have very dramatic consequences but tend to be short in duration, air and 

water quality affects everyone all of the time. Pollutant loading is a concern in both areas, including the 

spectrum of chemical and particulate pollutants produced locally or carried into the area. These pollutants are generated from transportation, industry, energy production, building heating systems, and even 

wildland fires where smoke is carried into the area 

or changes in land cover in burned areas degrade 

water quality following precipitation and runoff. Predicting the dispersion of pollutants in the urban environment is similar to the plume modeling challenge 

identified in the homeland security section, but can 

be additionally complicated by the widespread, various, and persistent sources of pollution compared to 

the oftentimes point source of an accidental or deliberate release of hazardous chemicals or materials. 

 Air quality affects the health of the urban 

populace, particularly the at risk populations of the 

elderly, infants, and those with respiratory problems. 

Large metropolitan areas experiencing stagnant meteorological conditions or situated in certain topography often experience particularly severe episodes 

of poor air quality. Notable recent examples include 

the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, and calls 

for reduced outdoor activity because of wildfires 

in Northern California. China took unprecedented 

steps to reduce air pollution during the Games by 

closing factories and reducing vehicular traffic, leading to the best air quality in a decade and making 

the mountains north and west of the city visible from 

the city center. In the United States, wildland fires 

have been particularly severe in recent years, with 

records set for acreage burned in wildland fires in 

2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007 [7] including the immediate San Diego, California, area in 2007. In June 

2008, for example, poor air quality prompted officials 

to cancel outdoor activities in Northern California 

due to smoke from wildland fires. 

 The urban area and its built environment of 

impermeable pavements, structures, and roofs present an engineering challenge for the design of effective drainage systems, driving the need for climatological information for design and meteorological 

information for day-to-day management. Overtaxed 

drainage systems can lead to serious water quality 

problems and create health hazards when sewage 

treatment facilities are overwhelmed. Even systems 

providing adequate drainage can reduce water quality through untreated run-off of chemicals, particulates, and fertilizers from urban roadways, structures, 

and lawns. 

 Urban areas often encompass one or more 

rivers and heavy rains and sudden snow melt across 

wide areas, including rural areas upstream, can result in urban flooding as described above for the 

Seattle area. Another example of flooding that also 

raised concerns over water quality came in June 

2008, when portions of the central United States 

experienced extensive river flooding across much of 

Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, 

and Wisconsin. Central Iowa and the city of Cedar 

Rapids were among the hardest hit areas, experiencing floodwaters contaminated with an unhealthy 

mix of sewage, farm and animal waste runoff, and 

petroleum products. Residents of Cedar Rapids 

who returned to their homes to inspect damage and 

salvage belongings had to wade through the ankledeep contaminated floodwater, raising concerns 

about the availability of clean drinking water and skin 

exposure.

 In addition to the negative health effects, various air and water pollutants accelerate corrosion of 

structures, vehicles, and equipment, adding to the 

infrastructure maintenance challenges for urban areas. Pollution can also degrade recreational opportunities, not just from a health perspective but from 

reduced visibility in scenic areas both inside and outside of the urban zone itself. 

 Water presents the additional problem of the 

adequacy of supply in addition to the quality of the 

water available. Drought conditions at various times 

and locations throughout the country have exacerbated existing conflict and created new conflict over 

water rights, management, and distribution. Changes in precipitation patterns across urban areas and 

their supplying watersheds as a result of changing 

climate can heighten tension as demand grows. The 

next major section will address climate variability and 
 SECTION 1 7

change in more detail. 

Improving Products and Services for Air and Water 

Quality

 Many of the same interagency efforts already 

described also support improving products and services for air and water quality, including phased array 

radar, weather information for surface transportation, 

dispersion modeling, and assessing and addressing hydrometeorological needs. MPAR can directly 

measure three-dimensional winds in and around the 

urban area, and improved transportation efficiency 

through more accurate forecasts and improved application of weather information can reduce the pollutant loading in and downstream from the urban area. 

As plume modeling improves to support homeland 

security, those advances will support improved modeling of pollutant dispersion, a better understanding 

of air and water quality, and potential steps to take to 

improve air and water quality. Finally, the hydrometeorology mini-workshops in the fall of 2008 began a 

coordinated approach to identify needs and set priorities to drive improvements in hydrometeorological 

products and services, not just for the urban environment but across the spectrum of environments and 

users.

Climate Variability and Change

 As the causes and effects of climate variability 

and change continue to be studied, towns and cities 

are beginning to prepare for and respond to extreme 

weather events which may increase in frequency and 

intensity with changes in climate. According to the 

U.S. Climate Change Science Program Synthesis 

and Assessment Product 3.3, Weather and Climate 

Extremes in a Changing Climate, published in June 

2008 [8]:

 “In the future, with continued global warming, heat waves and heavy downpours are 

very likely to further increase in frequency and 

intensity. Substantial areas of North America 

are likely to have more frequent droughts of 

greater severity. Hurricane wind speeds, rainfall intensity, and storm surge levels are likely 

to increase. The strongest cold season storms 

are likely to become more frequent, with stronger winds and more extreme wave heights.” 

 Extreme weather and weather-driven events 

such as heat waves, droughts, wildfires, heavy and 

persistent rainfall, and floods in urban areas pose 

risks to urban lives and infrastructure. Severe convective activity such as lightning, damaging winds, 

and tornadoes routinely threaten and occasionally 

cause major destruction in urban areas. In coastal 

areas, rising seas, warming waters, and hurricanes 

affect the economy, daily lives, and activities not 

only of urban populations but of the entire nation. 

The prospect of increased frequency and severity of 

these events and the new risk to urban areas with no 

previous experience in such problems has prompted 

growing concern among public officials. City leaders and other government officials are beginning to 

take notice and take action.

 In New York City, New York, in 2008 the mayor formed a Climate Change Adaptation Task Force 

and the New York City Panel on Climate Change 

to develop adaptation strategies to protect the city’s 

infrastructure. [9] The task force brought together 

city and state agencies, authorities, and private sector entities that operate, maintain, or control critical 

infrastructure and the Panel organized experts from 

academia and the legal, engineering, and insurance 

industries to provide advice to the task force. 

 As civic leaders at all levels begin to assess the risks associated with climate variability and 

change and make decisions about planning for adaptation or mitigation, they will need sound advice 

and the best information possible to support their 

decisions. The door is open for the federal agencies to begin eliciting specific needs, requirements, 

and priorities for climate products and services to 

support decision makers such as city leaders and 

the New York City Task Force. This decision support will be needed across a number of weather and 

climate areas, including wildland fires, flooding, severe local storms, water resources and drought, and 

tropical cyclones.

Changing Patterns of Wildland Fires

 Wildfires increasingly infringe on urban areas 

as the urban boundary expands and blurs at the wildland-urban interface. Changing precipitation and 

temperature patterns, increasing drought, and accumulated fuel load are raising the risk of extensive 

fire, especially in the West. Wildland fires burned 
SECTION 1 8

record acreage in 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007 [7] 

and trends show a dramatic increase in fire activity 

over the last two decades. [10] This increase in activity has placed significant strain on firefighting and 

fire suppression budgets as well as the fire crews 

themselves. Climate variability and change can expand, shrink, or shift the areas at greatest risk, and 

the OFCM’s national needs assessment for wildland 

fire weather showed that 83 percent of respondents 

rated fire and climate change important. 

 The interagency wildland fire weather community has completed a national needs assessment 

and in 2009 will be completing its assessment of 

current and planned capabilities, identifying gaps in 

meeting needs, and developing the framework to address the gaps through coordinated interagency activity. The results of this work will support improved 

wildland fire weather services to the benefit of the 

urban community and the nation overall. The need 

for climate information is clear and the potential payoff is high from reliable support to activities such as 

land use planning and planning and budgeting for 

firefighting and suppression activities at all levels of 

government. 

Conveying Flood Risk to Leaders and the Public

 The frequency and severity of flooding may 

also be changing and floods will continue to be a 

threat to urban areas. As illustrated earlier in this 

article, the recent catastrophic floods in the Midwest 

have shown the vulnerability of many cities. Flood 

predictions in these areas were characterized as 

historic flood events and forecasters for Burlington, 

Iowa, for example, called for the crest to be a 100- 

to 200-year flood, second only to the Great Flood 

of 1993 which was considered a 500-year flood 

event. However, such characterizations have drawn 

criticism because the region was struck for a second time since 1993 by a “once in a lifetime” flood. 

The widespread misunderstanding of 100-year and 

500-year floods among the general public pointedly 

demonstrates the need for improved integration of 

the social sciences in the forecasting and warning 

process to deliver products and services that will be 

more clearly understood and acted upon as intended. This is applicable to both weather and climate 

products and services and may be even more important for climate because of its more probabilistic and 

statistical nature.

Localized High-Impact Weather – Implications for 

Infrastructure

 A variable and changing climate can be expected to alter the patterns of severe convective 

activity such as lightning, damaging winds, and tornadoes that strike urban areas. During the summer 

of 2008, a powerful and fast-moving severe thunderstorm complex moved through Chicago, Illinois, causing baseball fans to seek shelter in the stadium concourse at Wrigley Field and passengers at O’Hare 

International Airport to evacuate to lower levels of 

the terminal. In all, 350 flights were canceled as the 

fast-moving storms passed through the area, generating effects felt throughout the country’s airline and 

air traffic system. What climate products and services do public officials and the public need in the face 

of these potential changes? Where is the boundary 

between climate and a long-term weather forecast 

and does that matter to the user? Would an airline 

place enough confidence in a climate prediction to 

alter its flight schedules? These are just some of the 

challenging questions yet to be answered. 

Water Resources, Water Quality, and Adapting to 

Drought

 Climate variability and change will undoubtedly change the supply and quality of water in some 

if not many urban areas. Droughts of varying severity, coverage, and duration have real impact on urban areas as water supplies dwindle, water quality 

declines, fire danger grows in surrounding wildland 

areas, food shortages drive economic hardships and 

potentially health problems, energy needs change, 

and other direct and indirect effects alter the society 

and the economy. Drought rarely affects a single 

governmental jurisdiction alone and the likelihood of 

water-based conflict among local, state, tribal, and 

national governments and other stakeholders is high. 

Reliable long term estimates of drought conditions 

can at least bound the problem and reduce some 

conflict, but how much uncertainty can be tolerated? What level of confidence is needed in a climate 

product or service before it will be used as a basis 

for decisions and agreements with major impacts on 

large populations? Can intergovernmental agreements and infrastructure projects be flexible enough 

to change with differing and uncertain time scales of 

variability?
 SECTION 1 9

Changing Tropical Cyclone Threat

 Storm surge, damaging winds, flooding, mass 

evacuations, and in-place sheltering will continue to 

pose significant challenges for urban emergency 

managers and city officials. Additional research is 

needed to understand changes in tropical cyclone 

activity as a result of climate variability and change, 

but the potential for increased frequency and severity 

is a source of concern among these managers and 

officials. And although coastal urban areas are at 

highest risk, urban areas well inland also face severe 

weather and flooding as the remnants of cyclones 

move across these areas. Predicting the track, intensity, structure, and effects of tropical cyclones remains a challenge and a focus today for coordinated 

interagency research and development. Tropical cyclones are one example of an area needing improved 

understanding of the physical processes and greater 

modeling capacity to be able to meaningfully assess 

the effects of climate variability and change on the 

tropical cyclone threat for a given urban area. 

Summary

 More than two-thirds of the U.S. population 

resides in an urban area and urban areas present 

unique challenges for meteorological services and 

supporting research. This article presented a number of examples of high-impact, weather-related 

events in urban environments, highlighted some of 

the associated challenges, and described a number 

of interagency, coordinated activities underway to 

address the unique problems of urban meteorology. 

In 2004, the OFCM in its report, Urban Meteorology: 

Meeting Weather Needs in the Urban Community, 

identified five elements of primary interest: 1) severe 

weather; 2) homeland security; 3) air quality; 4) water quality; and 5) climate and this breakout served 

as the framework for this article. 

 Challenges in urban meteorology include improving observations and data collection, improving 

forecasts, integrating social sciences into the forecasting and warning process to deliver products and 

services that will be more clearly understood and 

acted upon as intended, and beginning to understand the effects of climate variability and change on 

the urban environment including beginning to define 

future climate products and services. 

 To address these challenges, the OFCM and 

its interagency partners are working together to improve capability in a number of areas. These include 

risk reduction for the Multifunction Phased Array Radar, Weather Information for Surface Transportation, 

tropical cyclone research and development, wildland fire weather needs, assessing hydrometeorology needs and identifying priorities, improving atmospheric dispersion models and establishing the Joint 

Urban Testbed, and incorporating social science aspects into services to obtain desired responses. 

 All of these efforts are interconnected, mutually supporting, and aimed at addressing the challenges of the urban environment and high-impact 

events in these unique areas. The overarching drive 

is to improve products and services to meet societal 

demand.

End Notes

1. U.S. Census Bureau, United States Summary 

2000: Population and Housing Unit Counts, 

Part 1, Report No. PHC-3-1, April 2004; Tables 

6 and 18.

2. Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, Urban Meteorology – Meeting Weather Needs in 

the Urban Community, FCM-R22-2004, January 

2004; available online at http://www.ofcm.gov/

homepage/text/spc_proj/urban_met/DiscussionFramework.pdf

3. National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center, Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage, 

available online at http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/

tornado/ef-scale.html

4. National Weather Service Forecast Office 

Peachtree City, GA, The Atlanta Tornado, March 

14, 2008, available online at http://www.srh.

noaa.gov/ffc/html/atltor31408.shtml

5. Washington State Department of Transportation Freight Systems Division, Storm-Related 

Closures of I-5 and I-90: Freight Transportation 

Economic Impact Assessment Report Winter 

2007-2008, Report No. WA-RD 708.1, September 2008.

6. United States Government Accountability Office, 

First Responders’ Ability to Detect and Model 

Hazardous Releases in Urban Areas Is Signifi-
SECTION 1 10

cantly Limited, Report GAO-08-180, June 2008, 

http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d08180.pdf.

7. National Interagency Fire Center, Fire Information 

– Wildland Fire Statistics, Total Wildland Fires 

and Acres, 1960-2007, available online at http://

www.nifc.gov/fire_info/fires_acres.htm.

8. U.S. Climate Change Science Program, Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate, 

Synthesis and Assessment Product 3.3, June 

2008, p. vii; available online at http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap3-3/default.

php.

9. City of New York, New York, Mayor Bloomberg 

Launches Task Force to Adapt Critical Infrastructure to Environmental Effects of Climate Change, 

PR-308-08, August 12, 2008.

10. National Climatic Data Center, Climate of 2007 

Wildfire Season Summary, January 10, 2008; 

available online at http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/

oa/climate/ research/2007/fire07.html; see specifically http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/img/climate/ 

research/2007/dec/us-wildfires-1960to2007-

pg.gif.
SECTION 2 11

RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES

The tables in this section summarize budgetary information of the Federal government for fiscal years 

2008 and 2009. The funds shown are used to provide meteorological services and associated supporting research that has as its immediate objective service improvement. Fiscal data are current as of the end 

of September 2008 and are subject to later changes. The data for Fiscal Year (FY) 2009 do not have legislative approval and do not constitute a commitment by the United States Government. The budget data 

are prepared in compliance with Section 304 of Public Law 87-843, in which Congress directed that an 

annual horizontal budget be prepared for meteorological programs conducted by the Federal agencies.

AGENCY OBLIGATIONS FOR METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

 Table 2.1 contains fiscal information, by agency, for meteorological operations and supporting research. The table shows the funding level for FY 

2008 based on Congressional appropriations, the 

budget request for FY 2009, the percent change, 

and the individual agencies’ percent of the total Federal funding for FY 2008 and FY 2009.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA)

 The USDA budget request for FY 2009 is 

$45.4 million for operations and supporting research, 

representing a 9.7 percent decrease from the FY 

2008 funding level. This decline was due to a reduction in funding for supporting research. USDA has 

requested $29.1 million for research and development programs, a $5.1 million decrease from 2008. 

The FY 2009 amount requested for meteorological 

operations is $16.3 million, up from $16.1 million in 

FY 2008. Operational activities include specialized 

weather observing networks such as the SNOTEL 

(SNOw pack TELemetry) system operated by the 

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) 

and the remote automated weather stations (RAWS) 

network managed by the Forest Service. The SNOTEL and RAWS networks provide cooperative data 

for NOAA’s river forecast activities, irrigation water 

supply estimates, and Bureau of Land Management 

operations. The Forest Service is also the world 

leader in developing emissions factors from fires and 

modeling its dispersion. The USDA and the Department of Commerce (DOC) jointly operate a global 

agricultural weather and information center located 

in Washington, D.C. This Joint Agricultural Weather 

Facility operationally monitors global weather conditions and assesses the impacts of growing season 

weather on crop and livestock production prospects. 

This information keeps crop and livestock producers, 

farm organizations, agribusinesses, state and national farm policy-makers, government agencies, and 

foreign buyers of agricultural products apprised of 

worldwide weather-related developments and their 

effects on crops and livestock. Furthermore, tracking weather and crop developments in countries that 

are either major exporters or importers of agricultural 

commodities keeps the agricultural sector informed 

on potential competitors. USDA is also actively involved in drought monitoring efforts in concert with 

the National Drought Mitigation Center.

 For supporting research, USDA funds research projects through the Cooperative State 

Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES) that study the impact of climate and weather 

on food and fiber production. The goal of supporting research is to develop and disseminate information and techniques to ensure an abundance of 

high-quality agricultural commodities and products 

while minimizing the adverse effects of agriculture 

on the environment. Furthermore, the Agricultural 

Research Service (ARS) conducts research on how 

annual variation in weather adversely effects crop 

and animal production, hydrologic processes, the 

availability of water from watersheds, and the enviSECTION 2
SECTION 2 12

 TABLE 2.1 METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH COSTS*, BY AGENCY

 (Thousands of Dollars)

% of % of % of % of

Operations FY2009 Supporting Research FY2009 Total FY2008 FY2009

AGENCY FY2008 FY2009 %CHG TOTAL FY2008 FY2009 %CHG TOTAL FY2008 FY2009 %CHG TOTAL TOTALAgriculture 16077 16335 1.6 0.5 34206 29063 -15.0 2.3 50283 45398 -9.7 1.2 1.0Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 1880870 2113708 12.4 66.1 105195 122798 16.7 9.5 1986065 2236506 12.6 47.5 49.8 NWS 893345 916743 2.6 28.7 17151 26234 53.0 2.0 910496 942977 3.6 21.8 21.0 NESDIS*** 927663 1129504 21.8 35.3 26459 28376 7.2 2.2 954122 1157880 21.4 22.8 25.8 OAR 0 0 0 0.0 52018 57515 10.6 4.5 52018 57515 10.6 1.2 1.3 NOS 25668 28314 10.3 0.9 500 500 0.0 0.0 26168 28814 10.1 0.6 0.6 OMAO 34194 39147 14.5 1.2 9067 10173 12.2 0.8 43261 49320 14.0 1.0 1.1Defense(Subtot) 648568 625045 -3.6 19.6 389801 357612 -8.3 27.7 1038369 982657 -5.4 24.9 21.9 Air Force*** 382535 389453 1.8 12.2 373484 336816 -9.8 26.1 756019 726269 -3.9 18.1 16.2 DMSP** 132964 119092 -10.4 3.7 0 0 0 0.0 132964 119092 -10.4 3.2 2.7 Navy 87370 70890 -18.9 2.2 2518 9731 286.5 0.8 89888 80621 -10.3 2.2 1.8 Army 45699 45610 -0.2 1.4 13799 11065 -19.8 0.9 59498 56675 -4.7 1.4 1.3Homeland Security (Subtot) 21540 23060 7.1 0.7 0 0 0.0 0.0 21540 23060 7.1 0.5 0.5 USCG 21540 23060 7.1 0.7 0 0 0.0 0.0 21540 23060 7.1 0.5 0.5Interior/BLM 2400 2400 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 0.0 2400 2400 0.0 0.1 0.1Transportation(Subtot) 381186 408033 7.0 12.8 32514 38252 17.6 3.0 413700 446285 7.9 9.9 9.9 FAA 381186 408033 7.0 12.8 28314 34052 20.3 2.6 409500 442085 8.0 9.8 9.9 FRA 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 FHWA 0 0 0.0 0.0 4200 4200 0.0 0.3 4200 4200 0.0 0.1 0.1EPA 0 0 0.0 0.0 9000 9000 0.0 0.7 9000 9000 0.0 0.2 0.2NASA 7199 7497 4.1 0.2 648866 733212 13.0 56.8 656065 740709 12.9 15.7 16.5NRC 120 500 316.7 0.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 120 500 316.7 0.0 0.0TOTAL 2957960 3196578 8.1 100.0 1219582 1289937 5.8 100.0 4177542 4486515 7.4 100.0 100.0% of FY TOTAL 70.8% 71.2% 29.2% 28.8% 100.0% 100.0%*The FY 2008 funding reflects Congressionally appropriated funds; the FY 2009 funding reflects the amount requested in the President's FY 2009 budgetsubmission to Congress.**DMSP is the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program that supports all DOD Components and other government agencies. It is primarily funded and managed by the Air Force.***NESDIS and Air Force budget numbers include the DOC and DOD shares of the NPOESS budget, respectively.
SECTION 2 13

ronmental and economic sustainability of agricultural 

enterprises. 

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE (DOC)

 The DOC/NOAA budget request for FY 2009 

is 2.24 billion (Table 2.1, line 2) for operations and 

supporting research, representing a 12.6 percent 

increase from the FY 2008 funding level. The overall DOC increase is mainly the result of increases in 

NESDIS requested funding. Of the $2.24 billion 

in DOC/NOAA funding, the vast majority funds operations ($2.11 billion) with the rest ($122.8 million) 

going to supporting research.

NOAA’s NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE (NWS) 

 The National Weather Service (NWS) provides weather, hydrologic, and climate forecasts and 

warnings for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters, and ocean areas for the protection of 

life and property and the enhancement of the national 

economy. NWS data and products form a national 

information database and infrastructure for use by 

other government agencies, the private sector, the 

public, and the global community.

 The FY 2009 President’s Budget Request 

supports the funding and program requirements 

necessary to address established NOAA strategic 

goals and sets NWS on a path to achieve the following objectives: produce and deliver effective and 

timely forecasts and warnings that can be trusted in 

order to protect lives and property; use cutting-edge 

technologies to provide the best services possible 

in a cost-effective manner; and improve economic 

benefits by the timely and accurate dissemination of 

weather, water, and climate information.

 The NWS requested a total of $943.0 million 

and 4,640 Full Time Equivalent (FTE) employees to 

support continued and enhanced operations. The 

total includes $9.1 million for Adjustments to Base 

(ATB), and Net Program Changes of $50.2 million. 

The changes are summarized at the subactivity level 

below and, to be concise, do not include descriptions below $1.0 million. Descriptions of each request by line item are located in the NOAA FY 2009 

Technical Budget.

 NWS requested $9.1 million and 0 FTE to 

fund ATB across all activity accounts. With this increase, program totals will fund the estimated FY 

2009 Federal pay raise and annualize the FY 2008 

pay raise through the remainder of the calendar year. 

Program totals will provide inflationary increases for 

non-labor activities, including service contracts, utilities, field office lease payments, and rent charges 

from the General Services Administration.

 NWS also requests transfers between appropriations or line offices including:

• $3.0 million is transferred from Local Warnings & 

Forecasts to Complete & Sustain NOAA All Hazards Weather Radio resulting in a net 0 change 

for NWS.

• $5.9 million is transferred from the U.S. Weather 

Research Program (USWRP) in NWS to the Office of Atmospheric Research (OAR).

NWS PROGRAM CHANGE HIGHLIGHTS FOR FY 

2009:

 NWS requested a net increase of $32.5 million from FY 2008 and 1 FTE for a total request of 

$943.0 million and 4,640 FTE. 

Operations, Research, and Facilities (ORF) 

 A net increase of $31.6 million and 1 FTE 

above the base is requested in ORF for a total of 

$828.1 million and 4,609 FTE.

Operations and Research (O&R) 

 A net increase of $28.8 million and 1 FTE 

above the base is requested in the Operations and 

Research subactivity, for a total of $729.8 million 

and 4,421 FTE.

Local Warnings and Forecasts

 $14.5 million and 0 FTE in net increases 

above the base, for a total of $662.6 million and 

4,114 FTE, requested under the Local Warnings and 

Forecasts line item of the Operations and Research 

subactivity.

• TAO Tropical Moored Buoy Technology Refresh 

(+0 FTE and +$1.1 million): NOAA requests an 

increase of 0 FTE and $1.1 million to replace obsolete components of the Nation’s foremost climate observing system. Total funding required to 

replace obsolete components for the 55 buoys in 

this array is $6.6 million. This effort will be ac-
SECTION 2 14

complished over a six year period beginning in 

FY 2008. 

• Florida/Caribbean Hurricane Data Buoy (Operation and Maintenance) (+0 FTE and +$3.0 million): NOAA requested an increase of 0 FTEs 

and $3.0 million for a total of $4.4 million to operate and maintain 15 weather data buoys (eight 

buoys funded under the FY 2006 Hurricane 

Supplemental Appropriation and seven funded 

by the FY 2005 Hurricane Supplemental Appropriation) for enhanced real time hurricane data 

observations and storm monitoring in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean to 

support the NOAA hurricane warning and forecast mission.

• Ocean Sensor Operation and Maintenance (+0 

FTE and +$1.4 million): NOAA requested an 

increase of 0 FTEs and $1.4 million for ongoing operation and maintenance of the Congressionally mandated ocean instrumentation which 

was funded and installed by National Ocean Service “Convert Weather Buoys Initiative.” These 

sensors augment fixed and buoy observational 

sites. In keeping with NOAA’s commitment to 

increased interoperability and cost effective approach to oceanographic observing, the NOS 

Convert Weather Buoys Initiative augments 

existing National Weather Service buoys with 

oceanographic sensors. This national network of 

weather observing buoys has been augmented 

with ocean sensors to measure directional waves 

and wave heights, and ocean current, temperature, and salinity profiles.

• Ongoing Operations and Maintenance for Systems/equipment Purchased to Meet Requirements of Hurricane Supplemental (+0 FTE and 

+ $1.2 million): NOAA requested 0 FTE and 

$1.2 million to pay on-going operations and 

maintenance costs for Incident Meteorologist 

equipment, software support, and communications, ASOS and NWR backup power units, and 

backup communications for coastal Weather 

Forecast Offices and Weather Radars.

Central Forecast Guidance

 Net increases above the base of $14.3 million and 1 FTE, for a total of $67.2 million and 307 

FTEs, are requested under the Central Forecast 

Guidance line item of the Operations and Research 

subactivity.

• Hurricane/Environmental Modeling Improvements (+1 FTE and +$14.3 million): Through the 

President’s Budget Amendment, NOAA requested a total increase of 1 FTE and $14.3 million 

for a total of $14.3 million in FY 2009 to sustain 

the Administration’s commitment to significantly 

accelerate the improvement in hurricane track 

and intensity forecasts. Funds are required to 

increase the research and development necessary to accelerate the improvement in the NOAA 

Hurricane Forecast System (NHFS), transition 

and test new capabilities in operations, and operate and maintain the expanded NHFS (including coupled global, hurricane, ocean, wave, and 

storm surge models). The goal of the hurricane 

forecast improvement program is to increase accuracy of hurricane track and intensity forecasts, 

provide for objective forecast guidance and substantially improve the capability to forecast associated storm surge.

System Operations & Maintenance (O&M) 

 NWS requested $98.3 million and 188 FTE, 

which is an increase of $2.8 million and 0 FTE to 

support the ongoing operations and maintenance 

of major NWS observation and processing systems. These systems include the Next Generation 

Weather Radar (NEXRAD), Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS)/NOAAPort, and 

the NWS Telecommunications Gateway System 

(NWSTG) and its backup. NWS currently operates 

121 NEXRAD Systems that utilize Doppler technology and hydrometeorological processing to provide 

weather radar data for tornado and thunderstorm 

warnings, air safety, flash flood warnings, and water 

resource information. The 312 NWS ASOS sites 

provide reliable 24-hour per day surface weather observations. AWIPS provides an integrated system 

to display all hydrometeorological data at NWS field 

offices. The system acquires and processes data 

from modernized sensors and local sources, provides computational and display functions, provides 

interactive communication systems, and disseminates weather and flood warnings and forecasts in 

a rapid and highly reliable manner. The NWSTG 
SECTION 2 15

and its backup systems serve as the Nation’s hub 

for the collection and distribution of weather data 

and products. NWSTG and backup provide national and global real-time exchange services using 

an automated communication system to collect and 

distribute a wide range of environmental data such 

as observations, analyses, forecasts, and warning 

products.

Procurement, Acquisition, and Construction 

 A net increase of $18.6 million and 0 FTE 

above the base is requested in Procurement, Acquisition, and Construction, for a total of $114.9 million 

and 31 FTE.

System Acquisition 

 A net increase of $18.4 million and 0 FTE 

above the base is requested in the System Acquisition subactivity, for a total of $88.3 million and 31 

FTE.

• Weather Radio Improvement Project (+0 FTE and 

+$2.9 million): NOAA requested an increase of 

$2.9 million and 0 FTE for a total of $5.7 million to 

fund the effort to modernize the NOAA Weather 

Radio All Hazards (NWR) network, replacing obsolete unsupportable broadcast equipment and 

taking advantage of satellite technology to allow 

for point to multi-point communications capability and network redundancy and meet Federal 

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) needs. 

This increase will allow the NWS to deploy the 

NWR Broadcast Management System (BMS). 

The BMS is a replacement for the Console Replacement System (CRS). Also included is the 

development of a system that will integrate the 

NOAA Weather Wire Service (NWWS) into a 

consolidated network with the BMS. Currently, 

the contract to maintain the NWWS expires in 

FY 2009. The current CRS is at its end of life 

and cannot be supported at the current level due 

to parts obsolescence. The CRS is a main component of NWR that converts text warning messages into digital voice. This conversion provides 

the voice warning messages that are broadcast 

over the NWR to alert the public. It is critical 

that we address this issue now in order to avert 

potential outages that might affect our ability to 

disseminate warnings to the public.

• NOAA Profiler Network (NPN) Conversion (+0 

FTE and +$4.8 million): NOAA requests an increase of 0 FTE and $4.8 million for a total of $9.7 

million to replace transmitters that interfere with 

Search and Rescue Satellites and to conduct 

technology refresh of the 20-year-old network. 

This increase continues the approved multi-year 

investment. The Wind Profilers, vertical looking 

radars installed in 1988, are used as input for numerical weather models that predict clouds, precipitation, and temperature. The data also provide important indicators of where severe weather 

such as tornadoes and winter storms may form 

and is used for issuing aviation advisories and 

wildfire predictions. Research has shown Wind 

Profiler data improves accuracy and lead times 

for tornado, severe thunderstorm, flash flood, and 

winter storm warnings. Thirty-two of the 37 wind 

profilers are using an experimental transmitter 

frequency of 404 megahertz (MHz) issued by the 

National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA). NTIA has given the 404 

MHz frequency to search and rescue satellites 

(SARSAT) and granted the NPN permanent use 

of 449 MHz. In addition, the European Space 

Agency began launching a constellation of 30 

satellites called Galileo in FY 2006, which also 

have a SAR capability with an operating frequency of 404 MHz. Thirty operational 404 MHz wind 

profilers require their transmitters to be converted 

from 404 to 449 MHz. In addition to the 30 operational sites using 404MHz, there are two 404 

MHz wind profilers at the National Reconditioning Center and National Weather Service Training Center (used for testing and training). There 

are also five wind profilers in the NPN that operate at the non-interfering 449 MHz frequency: 

three in Alaska, one in Syracuse, New York, and 

one in Platteville, Colorado. In 2009, the NPN 

will have been installed for 20 years without any 

technology refresh during its life cycle. Therefore 

a second priority is a technology refresh for the 

entire 37 wind profiler network. This refresh includes replacing the 5 existing 449 MHz profilers, 

replacing the network’s VAX system computers 

and re-hosting the software on a LINUX platform; 

improving the telecommunications network, replacing site modems, data collection modems, 
SECTION 2 16

and uninterruptible power systems; and providing a major overhaul of site shelters, facility electric distribution, replacement of Radio Acoustic 

Sounding System components, and upgraded 

satellite communications equipment.

• AWIPS Technology Infusion (+0 FTE and +$6.6 

million): NOAA requests an increase of 0 FTE 

and $6.6 million for a total of $19.1 million to 

invest in new forecaster workstation technology 

and to develop capabilities necessary to meet the 

growing demands of society for improved high 

impact forecast and warning services. These services include on site incident support; provision 

of services using new dissemination media with 

the latest graphical display formats; provision of 

probability information; improved service backup; 

and forecast collaboration. Evolving NWS services will require capitalizing on new technology 

and infusing new science and techniques. This 

will not be possible without a technology infusion 

of the Advanced Weather Interactive Process 

System (AWIPS), the key workstation forecasters use at Weather Forecast Offices to integrate, 

interpret multiple sources of observational and 

model data, and generate forecast and warning 

products.

• Weather and Climate Supercomputing (+0 FTE 

and +$3.0 million): Through the President’s Budget Amendment, NOAA requests an increase of 

0 FTE and $3.0 million for a total of 0 FTE and 

$22.1 million for its Weather and Climate Supercomputing program to accelerate planned NOAA 

hurricane forecasting system improvements in 

both hurricane track and hurricane intensity forecasts. Funds are required to procure additional 

High Performance Computing (HPC) necessary 

to provide higher resolution numerical weather 

prediction modeling to support the acceleration 

of improved intensity forecasts. 

Construction 

 NOAA requests $14.1 million to complete the 

NOAA Center for Weather and Climate Prediction 

(NCWCP) and $12.5 million for Weather Forecast 

Office (WFO) construction funding to NOAA facilities to support NOAA facility planning requirements 

for at total of $26.6 million. Construction subactivity 

does not have FY 2009 program changes.

NOAA’s NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE, DATA AND INFORMATION SERVICES (NESDIS)

 Proposed funding for FY 2009 includes a 

decrease in the Polar-Orbiting Satellite Program 

(POES) of $48.9 million, a net increase in the Geostationary Satellite Program (GOES) of $235.2 million, and a request to fund the National Polar-orbiting 

Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) at the Nunn-McCurdy Certified program funding level. These changes allow for continuation of 

procurements to provide the spacecraft and instruments, launch services, and ground systems necessary to assure continuity of environmental satellite 

coverage. The budget request will maintain a system 

of polar-orbiting satellites that obtains global data 

and a system of geostationary satellites that provides 

near-continuous observations of the Earth’s western 

hemisphere. Funding for the POES program is decreasing as it approaches the end of its production 

cycle with one remaining satellite, NOAA N prime, 

to be launched. The GOES request includes a decrease of $7.0 million for the GOES-N series of satellites, and an increase of $242.2 million for the next 

generation GOES-R series. 

 The converged NOAA and Department of 

Defense (DOD) polar orbiting system (NPOESS) 

will replace the current NOAA series and the DOD 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). 

A total of $288.0 million is included in the budget 

request to maintain basic mission satellite services, 

including maintenance and operation of satellite 

ground facilities; provision of satellite derived products, including hazards support; and conduct of research to improve the use of satellite data.

During the next several years, NOAA will acquire 

data from foreign and other non-NOAA satellites that 

will provide measurement of ocean currents, surface 

winds and waves, subsurface temperature and salinity profiles, ice thickness and flows, and other marine factors. Included in the budget request is $53.6 

million for the NOAA Data Centers and Information 

Services sub-activity base operating funds.

NOAA’s NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE (NOS)

 Funding provided through the FY 2009 budget will allow for additional expansion of the PORTS 

program, including continued implementation of the 
SECTION 2 17

second generation of the NOS CO-OPS advanced 

data quality control program, the Continuous Operational Real-time Monitoring System (CORMS AI), as 

well as the ongoing operation of the Ocean Systems 

Test and Evaluation Program (OSTEP), which is a 

development program for bringing new sensor technology into operations. The FY 2008 budget has 

allowed for sufficient support to operate the National 

Water Level Observation Network (NWLON) and 

for continued growth of the Physical Oceanographic 

Real-Time System (PORTS®). Both the NWLON 

and PORTS programs have subsets of operational 

water level stations with meteorological sensors installed for various partners and users, including the 

NWS.

 In FY 2008, NOS received funding to upgrade 

and enhance as many as 45 NWLON with new meteorological sensors. The NWLON has traditionally 

been an oceanographic observing system; however, 

NWLON technology allows multiple other sensors 

to be added, including meteorological sensors such 

as wind speed/direction/gusts, air temperature, and 

barometric pressure. These observations provide 

a significant data source for improving and verifying marine weather forecasts and warnings. Actual 

verification data for special marine warnings (WFO 

Sterling) shows a 10% increase in the probability of 

detection and a ten minute increase in warning lead 

times, due in part to an increase in marine observations. Navigation data users require a complete 

picture of their operating environment to make the 

best safety and efficiency decisions, and local meteorological data is a part of that picture. Optimization 

of existing observing infrastructure is a cost-effective 

alternative to establishing new platforms. The additional meteorological data will also improve the accuracy of NWS forecasts of storm surge, marine wind 

speed, and marine wave heights for use by both the 

marine navigation and coastal communities when extreme weather events occur. The real-time information can be used by emergency responders to make 

sound decisions based upon which coastal areas 

are flooding, which evacuation routes are still viable, 

and other situations requiring a good understanding 

of the current state of the physical environment.

In FY 2008, NOS received funds to construct additional new NWLON stations to fill critical observation gaps identified by NWS. Initial sites were along 

the Gulf Coast. Also, NOS has been hardening 

additional existing Gulf Coast NWLON stations by 

constructing elevated strengthened platforms and 

relocating equipment to them. 

NOS operational nowcast/forecast modeling activities are expanding and rely upon NWS Eta model 

data streams as hydrodynamic model drivers. NOS, 

in cooperation with NWS and OAR in have developed an operational nowcast/forecast capability for 

the Great Lakes.

NOAA’s OFFICE OF OCEAN AND ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH (OAR)

 Requested FY 2009 funding for Weather 

and Air Quality Research (W&AQR) is $57.5 million—a net increase of $5.5 million or 10.6 percent 

more than the FY 2008 appropriation. Increases of 

$10.4 million consist of funds to: partially cover inflationary cost increases within base programs ($0.8 

million), transfer management of the U.S. Weather 

Research Program from NWS back to OAR ($5.5 

million), enhance NOAA’s new Unmanned Aircraft 

Systems (UAS) Program ($3.0 million), and conduct 

research to improve operational weather forecasts 

($1.0 million). Proposed decreases of $4.9 million 

result from terminating unrequested funding added 

by Congress to W&AQR in FY 2008, including funds 

for: the Northern Gulf Institute ($1.8 million), Science Center for Teaching, Outreach and Research 

on Meteorology (STORM) ($0.6 million), Advanced 

Radar Technologies Feasibility Study ($0.1 million), 

Tornado & Hurricane Operations & Research ($0.8 

million), Wind Hazards Reduction Program ($0.6 million), Coastal & Inland Hurricane Monitoring & Protection Program ($0.6 million), San Joaquin Valley 

Ozone Study ($0.1 million), and Coastal Weather 

Monitoring for Catastrophic Events ($0.3 million). 

NOAA’S OFFICE OF MARINE AND AVIATION OPERATIONS (OMAO)

 OMAO supports meteorological activities by 

collection of related data from ships and aircraft. The 

FY 2009 President’s Budget includes an increase 

of $2.0 million from the FY 2008 appropriation for 

OMAO that are related to aircraft-supported meteorological data collection.
SECTION 2 18

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (DOD)

 The total DOD budget request for FY 2009, 

including NPOESS funding, is $982.7 million which 

represents a funding decrease of 5.4 percent from 

FY 2008. Specific highlights for each of the military 

departments are described below:

U.S. AIR FORCE (USAF)

 USAF resources for meteorological support 

fall into several categories: general operations, investment and research, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), and National Polar-orbiting 

Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) supporting research. The total Air Force operations and research funding for FY 2009, including 

DMSP and NPOESS, is $845.4 million (table 2.1, 

10th column, rows 9 & 10). 

Operations

 The operations support portion of Air Force 

weather’s FY 2009 budget is $348.6 million (table 

2.2, 2nd column, lines 9 & 10) and funds day-to-day 

environmental support to the Department of Defense, 

including DMSP operations, the Active and Reserve 

Components of the Air Force and Army, nine unified 

commands, and other agencies as directed by the 

Chief of Staff of the Air Force. Over 4,100 Active 

and Reserve Component military and civilian personnel (table 2.6) conduct these activities at more than 

275 locations worldwide. Approximately 85 percent 

of personnel specialize in weather; the remainder 

includes communications, computer, administrative, 

and logistics specialists.

 DMSP operations are a critical source of 

space-borne meteorological data for the military services and other high-priority DOD programs. DMSP 

environmental data is also distributed to the National 

Weather Service, National Environmental Satellite, 

Data, and Information Service, the Navy’s Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, the 

Naval Oceanographic Office, and Air Force Weather 

Agency according to interagency agreements.

 The Air Force’s total projected FY 2009 outlays for DMSP are $119.1 million (table 2.1, column 

2). This funding provides for the operations and sustainment of the on-orbit constellation, as well as integration, test, and flight hardware modifications and 

replacement to maximize performance and longevity 

of the satellites that remain to be launched. DMSP 

satellites are acquired and launched by the Air Force 

and funding to operate the satellites on-orbit is transferred by the Air Force to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration each year (Table 2.7).

Supporting Research

 The total AF research budget for FY 2009 

is 336.8 million (table 2.1, column 6) which is comprised of general AF weather and NPOESS funding 

supporting Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDTE) efforts.

 Air Force weather’s FY 2009 budget request 

for general RDTE is $47.3 million (not shown in tables). This amount is an increase in funding over 

FY 2008 as a result of efforts related to NPOESS 

infrastructure needs and other transformational initiatives that recapitalize legacy systems, build robust 

environmental digital data bases, and disseminate 

data streams to DOD and coalition C2 systems in a 

machine-to-machine (M2M)/net-centric era. As part 

of AF Smart Operations 21st Century (AFSO 21), 

Air Force weather is investing in modernized environmental prediction technologies and global information grid technologies that enhance automation and 

save manpower. Also, Air Force weather is investing 

in the following efforts in FY 2009 and beyond: Joint 

Environmental Toolkit (JET), Weather Research and 

Forecast (WRF) model, modernizing space weather 

capabilities, Cloud Depiction and Forecasting System (CDFS) II improvements, advanced MARK IVB 

use, Tactical Decision Aids, Weather Data Analysis 

(WDA), and Ensemble Prediction System (EPS). 

The goals of these efforts are to provide accurate and 

relevant weather information to warfighters at all levels of operations quicker and more consistently than 

ever before, within the decision cycle in a manner 

that facilitates exploiting the current and forecasted 

weather conditions. Specifically, JET will eliminate 

redundancies and/or inefficiencies and ultimately 

extend, consolidate and/or replace the Operational 

Weather Squadron (OWS) Production SystemPhase II (OPS II), the Joint Weather Impacts System 

(JWIS), the New-Tactical Forecast System (N-TFS), 

and the weather effects decision aids portion of the 

Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS). WRF 

advances, such as with the Land Surface Model and 

WRF coupling, will improve forecasting performance 
SECTION 2 19

in the low levels of the atmosphere. This will allow 

AF weather forces to provide better forecasts for 

low-level aircraft operations, the dispersion of aerosol contaminants, and the employment of precisionguided munitions. It also allows for assessment of 

trafficability for ground forces. Collaboration with 

U.S. and Allied government and civilian agencies, 

and modernizing ground-based sensing will result in 

a robust space sensing capability. Improving CDFS 

techniques by doubling the resolution, integrating 

geosynchronous METSATs into the cloud analysis, using a new cloud interpretation scheme, and 

blending numerical weather prediction with forecast 

cloud advection techniques will ensure the AF continues as a center of excellence in cloud forecasting. 

MARK IVB data integration into cloud models will be 

expanded. Tactical Decision Aids (TDAs) provide 

warfighters an automated way to “visualize” environmental impacts on operations. These tools which 

continue to be integrated into C2 systems (e.g., 

mission planning systems) include Target Acquisition Weapons Software (TAWS), Infrared Target 

Scene Simulation (IRTSS), and Tri-Service Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid (T-IWEDA). WDA 

will provide many of the behind-the-scene tools at 

the weather production centers necessary for enabling JET to provide decision-quality products and 

information to warfighters. EPS output will help AF 

weather personnel to provide better forecasts for the 

warfighter with increased confidence, particularly at 

the tactical level. While these all work synergistically 

to provide warfighters a quantum leap in capability, 

JET is the most visible piece to decision-makers. 

JET will exploit data contained in the Virtual Joint 

Meteorological Oceanographic (METOC) Database 

via common-user-communications, integrate with 

joint and coalition command and control and mission planning systems, and provide the machine-tomachine data exchange for assimilating METOC and 

C4ISR data to meet operational and tactical mission 

planning and execution requirements. 

 The FY 2009 DOD R&D budget for NPOESS is $289.5 million (not shown in table) for the 

continued development of system architecture, technology, critical sensors, and algorithms. These dollars are applied to both the NPOESS Preparatory 

Project run by NASA and the NPOESS program being acquired by a tri-agency Integrated Program Office.

U.S. NAVY 

 The U.S. Navy FY 2009 budget total request 

for meteorological programs is $80.6 million (table 

2.1, column 10) made up of $70.9 million for operations and $9.7 million for supporting research. 

Naval Oceanography Program (NOP) 

 NOP remains a unique, world-class program. Focusing support in the environmentally complex coastal/littoral regions around the globe, Naval 

METOC personnel (Navy and Marine Corps) are 

required to provide intelligence preparation of the 

environment (IPE) for operational decisionmakers by 

assessing the impact of atmospheric and ocean phenomena on platforms, sensors and weapon systems. 

Additionally, Navy and Marine Corp METOC personnel provide for safe flight and navigation in support of 

naval, joint, and combined forces operating throughout the world’s oceans. This is done with a cadre 

of highly trained military and civilian personnel, educated in both sciences and warfighting applications. 

By teaming with and leveraging the efforts of other 

agencies and activities, the NOP meets these challenges in a most cost effective manner, providing 

a full spectrum of products and services with only 

a small percentage of the Federal weather budget. 

The NOP is required to provide comprehensive and 

integrated weather and ocean support worldwide. 

The Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy sponsors programs in four closely related disciplines - 

meteorology, oceanography, geospatial information 

services, and precise time and astrometry. All are 

used to protect ships, aircraft, fighting personnel, 

and shore establishments from adverse ocean and 

weather conditions, and to provide a decisive tactical or strategic edge by exploiting the physical environment to optimize the performance and efficiency 

of platforms, sensors, and weapons. 

Littoral Battlespace Sensing, Fusion, and Integration 

(LBSF&I) 

 LBSF&I is the Department of the Navy’s principal Intelligence Preparation of the Environment approach for atmospheric and oceanographic data collection, processing, and data/product dissemination 

to users. LBSF&I will facilitate better tactical decision 

making by enabling a system of networked sensors 

to allow information sharing through interoperability 
SECTION 2 20

with naval and joint networks and information systems. It addresses critical gaps with respect to environmental data fidelity (in time and space) shown to 

play a critical role in force disposition and force posture in current and future naval missions. LBSF&I 

is a critical persistent IPE technology, a key component of the Naval Oceanography Battlespace on 

Demand frame-work, and supports the Battlespace 

Awareness Joint Capability Area through 2025.

Operational Support

 Naval METOC support starts with sensing 

the battlespace without being adversely affected by 

physical environmental and culminates with weapons 

arriving on target and enabling personnel to operate 

in the battlespace without being adversely affected 

by physical environmental phenomena. Operational 

support for the Navy and Marine Corps includes the 

day-to-day provision of METOC products and services. As naval operations in the littoral increase, 

Naval METOC support is directed towards providing 

on-scene capabilities to personnel that directly furnish environmental data for sensor, weapon system, 

and personnel planning and employment. These onscene capabilities are key elements for enabling the 

war-fighters to take advantage of the natural environment as part of battlespace management. Owing to the crucial interrelationship of the ocean and 

the atmosphere, Naval METOC requires various 

oceanographic products to provide the requisite 

meteorological services. In addition to aviation and 

maritime METOC support, Navy and Marine Corps 

METOC teams provide a variety of unique services 

on demand, such as electro-optical, electro-magnetic, and acoustic propagation models and products, 

METOC-sensitive tactical decision aids, and global 

sea ice analyses and forecasts. 

Systems Acquisition

 Naval METOC systems acquisition is accomplished through the Program Executive Office 

for Command, Control, Communication, Computes 

and Intelligence and Space (C4I and Space) in San 

Diego, California. 

Research and Development (R&D) 

 Naval METOC R&D are cooperatively sponsored by the Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy 

and the Chief of Naval Research. Naval R&D efforts typically have applications to meteorological, 

oceanographic, and/or tactical systems. Navy’s 

tabulation of budget data includes R&D funding for 

basic research, applied research, demonstration and 

validation, and engineering and manufacturing development. Projects initiated by the Navy and Marine 

Corps, under sponsorship of the Oceanographer/

Navigator of the Navy, transition from engineering 

development to operational naval systems. Such efforts include advances in Naval METOC forecasting 

capabilities, enhancements to communications and 

data compression techniques, further development 

and improvement of models to better predict METOC parameters in littoral regions, and an improved 

understanding of the impact these parameters have 

on sensors, weapons systems, and platform performance. To realize the opportunities and navigate 

the challenges ahead, the Department of Navy must 

have a clear vision of how they will organize, integrate, and transform. “Sea Power 21” is that vision. 

It will align our efforts, accelerate our progress, and 

realize the potential of our people. Support to naval operations is provided under the direction of the 

Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography 

Command (CNMOC) located at the Stennis Space 

Center, Mississippi and the Marine Corps advocate 

for METOC, the Deputy Commandant for Aviation, 

at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. 

With the addition of the Naval Oceanography Operations Command the NOP optimizes warfighting 

recourses, supports safe operations and enhances 

dominance of the battlespace through superior understanding and exploitation of the environment. The 

Naval METOC community work closely with research 

developers and operational forces to ensure that naval and joint force commanders will always have the 

most accurate, timely, and geo-referenced METOC 

information available for successful operations.

U.S. ARMY

 The U.S. Army estimates a requirement for 

$45.6 million for operational support and $11.1 million for research and development in FY 2009. The 

total amount of money budgeted for weather support 

is estimated because the costs to support USAF 

weather personnel are normally part of the overall 

G-3 or G-2 operating budget at the Army Com-
SECTION 2 21

mands (ACOMs), Army Service Component Commands (ASCCs), Corps, Division, or Brigade level 

and are not assigned a specific program element or 

budget line. Additionally, programs or projects that 

are assigned a budget line are often part of a larger 

project’s budget and the exact amount of monies 

spent on meteorological related activities cannot be 

independently verified. The budget numbers presented in this report represent the best estimate of 

the Army regarding meteorological related spending 

over the period of the report. Operational support 

for FY 2009 is projected to remain approximately 

even with FY 2008 expenditures and research is 

estimated to decrease about $2.7 million from the 

previous year. Staffing levels remain stable for FY 

2009. The $64M supplemental funding for the AN/

TMQ-52 Meteorological Measuring Set – Profiler 

(MMS-P) programmed in last year’s report has not 

materialized, and the budget data have been adjusted appropriately. 

 Army monies for meteorology are spent in 

four main areas: support to U.S. Army Artillery Meteorology Sections (ARTYMET), support to USAF 

weather personnel at Army locations, research and 

development related to the Army mission, and the 

development, production, and maintenance of Army 

meteorological systems.

 ASCCs with Staff Weather Officers and their 

associated weather personnel provide the same support and services to these forces that they normally 

provide to Army personnel. This support includes 

the use of facilities to house weather operations, 

medical support, access to training facilities, office 

supplies, utilities and maintenance for weather facilities, vehicles and tactical equipment, and funding for 

official travel. Eighth U.S. Army, U.S. Army Europe, 

U.S. Army Pacific, Forces Command, and Training 

and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) all provide this 

support to AF weather personnel assigned at the 

ACOM level and below. 

 Major portions of ACOMs and ASCCs meteorological expenditures support Artillery Meteorology Sections, also known as ARTYMET Teams, 

or Met Sections. Wind data are then passed to the 

U.S. Army Artillery units for firing computations. Artillery Met Sections range in size from six personnel 

at a Light Division to twelve personnel at a Heavy 

Division. Eighth U. S. Army, U.S. Army Europe, U.S. 

Army Pacific, Forces Command, and the Army National Guard all support Met Sections. Training and 

Doctrine Command supports twenty-four military and 

civilian personnel at the U.S. Army Artillery School 

(USAFAS) at Fort Sill, OK. These personnel train 

ARTYMET Teams on the use of the AN/TMQ-41 

Meteorological Measuring Set and the AN/TMQ-52 

Meteorological Measuring Set - Profiler. ARTYMET 

team structures will be changing over the next few 

years to support the Army’s new modularity concept. 

No attempt has been made to convert the part-time 

Army National Guard ARTYMET Teams into full time 

equivalents. 

 Headquarters, Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of Staff, G-2 employs two full-time meteorologists for development of meteorological policy; 

coordination of meteorological support within the 

Department of the Army and with other Department 

of Defense and Federal agencies and organizations; 

Department of the Army Policy concerning weather; 

environmental services, and oceanographic support 

to the Army (less those environmental services functions assigned to the Corps of Engineers); and Department of the Army policy concerning peacetime 

weather support. The USAF provides one full time 

Staff Weather Officer to serve as a liaison between 

the AF and the Army Staff.

 Forces Command (FORSCOM) will program 

approximately $300,000 in FY09 for meteorological 

operations support. FORSCOM and subordinate 

units do not budget directly for Air Force Weather 

teams, but provide some support for them on an asneeded basis from general operations and maintenance budgets. FY08 budget numbers for artillery 

were carried forward as an estimate for FY09 as 

artillery budget numbers were not available for this 

report.

 TRADOC programmed approximately $2.6M 

for FY08 for meteorological services and plans to 

fund $3.1M for FY09. The majority of these TRADOC funds, a total of $2.4M, are planned for operations support related to training development, 

instructor/support personnel, logistics (expendable 

supplies), and repair costs on artillery meteorological systems at the USAFAS. 

 As a result of the previous two years (FY06-

07) of investment in creating training development 

products, there were no training development costs 
SECTION 2 22

in FY08. Training development costs will increase 

to approximately $100K in FY09. This cost increase 

is due to a technical manual’s rewrite and a software 

upgrade. Training development cost is estimated 

to increase from $100K FY09 to $300K FY10. 

Expected future cost for training development are 

classroom modernization, equipment upgrade and 

innovative training devices. 

 Instructor/Support personnel costs 

(~$1.71M) in FY08 are the result of USAFAS at Fort 

Sill, OK employing 30 personnel to conduct training 

using the AN/TMQ-41 Meteorological Measuring 

Set (MMS) and the AN/TMQ-52A Meteorological 

Measuring Set-Profiler (MMS-P). Additionally, this 

cost includes the requirement to fund five contract 

instructors to support the increased number of soldiers dictated by the Army’s modular design. This is 

an increase from FY07 by ~$283K due to the addition of three instructors (two contractors and one enlisted soldier). Instructor/Support personnel costs 

are expected to increase to (~$2,2M) in FY09 as 

a result of USAFAS at Fort Sill, OK, employing 31 

personnel to conduct training using the AN/TMQ-41 

Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS) and the AN/

TMQ-52A Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler 

(MMS-P). 

 Logistics/supply costs ($160K) for FY08 are 

a result of the increased number of soldiers trained 

over the year. We expect logistics/supply costs to 

increase to (~$190.5K) in FY 09 due to supplies for 

meteorological sounding equipment to support live 

fire and training at Fort Sill. 

 Repair costs ($260K) in FY08 will decrease 

for AN/TMQ-41 due to the depletion of parts. Costs 

associated with AN/TMQ-52A Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler (MMS-P) will increase due maintaining and operating a second MMS-Profiler system. 

Overall cost is expected to decrease from $260K to 

$160K in FY09.

 TRADOC also programmed $76K in FY08 

to fund a TRADOC Capabilities Manager (TCM) position for the Army’s Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS). This position falls under the TRADOC 

Program Integration Office – All Source Analysis 

System (TPIO-ASAS) at the US Army Intelligence 

Center and School (USAICS) at Ft Huachuca, AZ. 

TPIO-ASAS has programmed $78K for this same 

position in FY09. Additionally, in FY09, Fort Huachuca has programmed an additional $149K to fund 

for a Chief of the Army Weather Proponent Office, a 

newly created office and position at Fort Huachuca. 

 TRADOC transferred $153K in FY08 to Air 

Combat Command for the maintenance and service 

of five Army Automated Surface Observing Sensor 

(ASOS) systems and two Army pole-mounted Tactical Meteorological Observing Systems (TMOS) at 

Fort Rucker, AL. Contract maintenance and service 

costs have been programmed to increase to ~$160K 

in FY09.

 Army Materiel Command (AMC) will fund a 

variety of activities for FY09, most of which fall into 

research and development and systems acquisition. There has been no programmed Integrated 

Meteorological System (IMETS) funding line since 

FY05; however, there have been 3 sources of funding available to the IMETS Project Office - DA restored Other Procurement Army (OPA) funding via 

Program Manager Intelligence Fusion, Distributed 

Common Ground System - Army (DCGS-A) OPA, 

and DCGS-A R&D. FY08 OPA funds were used 

for the continued production, fielding, and support of 

IMETS and new development for DCGS-A Weather 

Services. Northrop Grumman Corporation (Tacoma/

Lakewood, WA) is the primary contractor supporting 

the OPA effort. R&D funding supports the development of new capabilities, the testing & integration 

of IMETS capabilities into the DCGS-A, and to integrate the Air Force Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET) 

software into the IMETS/DCGS-A. The Army Research Laboratory (ARL) and the New Mexico State 

University (NMSU) Physical Sciences Laboratory 

(PSL) partner on IMETS development and technology insertion efforts. IMETS Project Office closed on 

30 September 2007 to become DCGS-A Weather Services. Future funding for DCGS-A Weather 

Services (IMETS) will come from DCGS-A program 

funding. Maintenance and support for the fielded IMETS, until the systems are replaced by DCGS-A, is 

an unresolved issue. Future development of DCGSA Weather Services will include a joint effort with 

PD Digital Topographic Support Systems (DTSS) to 

build a combined weather/terrain spin-out (TWSO) 

system as a risk-reduction step towards the full production DCGS-A Weather Services. The TWSO will 

combine the architecture of DCGS-A Ver 4 with the 

AF joint environmental toolkit (JET) software module 
SECTION 2 23

to provide a net-centric weather capability replacing all Program of Record (POR) IMETS systems by 

FY12. The anticipated $64M supplemental funding 

for the FY08 Profiler Program was not realized as 

of this writing and has been backed out of both the 

FY08 and FY09 budget projections. 

 The FY08 budget for meteorological support 

in Eighth U.S. Army decreased significantly from 

FY07 primarily due to the completed acquisition and 

fielding of 20 automated weather systems (includes 

4-year warranty), using $1.825M in FY07 funds 

(HQDA funded Eighth Army initiative). FY08 budget 

activity of $190,000 provided steady state operational support for meteorological services by Army 

ARTYMET ($322,000) and Air Force ($40,000) 

units. The FY09 Air Force budget is projected to 

increase to $85,000 to account for increased TDY 

costs to support Army units, and a planned computer 

lifecycle upgrade. Meanwhile, the ARTYMET budget 

will increase to $356,000 to account for operating 

costs for an additional Army ARTYMET AN/TMQ-52 

Profiler System that 210th Fires Brigade expects to 

field in FY09.

 The USARPAC budget for Army Meteorological support will slightly increase for FY08/09. The 

25ID(L), supported by the 25th Air Support Operations Squadron (ASOS), received an increased estimate for FY08 IMETS-V and IMETS-L sustainment 

funds. In addition, a new MTOE for USARPAC’s 

Operational Command Post authorizes an IMETS-L 

system for USARPAC—which will require sustainment funding. ARTYMET personnel levels remain 

the same, but costs increased due to the 2.2% pay 

raise for military personnel. 

 Space and Missile Defense Command 

(SMDC) supports several meteorological missions. 

SMDC has funding designated for the operational 

support at the High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility (HELSTF) for contract services to operate and 

maintain the instrumentation, equipment, and facilities to support the atmospheric sciences/meteorological mission. SMDC also operates contract support services to operate the Ronald Reagan Missile 

Defense Test Site for operations support and special 

weather programs.

 For the USARIEM research program in FY08, 

there was an increase in expenditures on weatherrelated research. It is anticipated that FY09 funding for weather-related research efforts at the U.S. 

Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine 

(USARIEM) will decrease relative to the FY 08 Level. 

DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY 

(DHS)

U.S. COAST GUARD (USCG)

 All of USCG’s funding for meteorological programs is for operations support. For FY 2009, the 

requested funding level is $23.1 million. The Coast 

Guard does not have a specific program and budget for meteorology--all meteorological activities are 

accomplished as part of general operations. The 

Coast Guard’s activities include the collection and 

dissemination of meteorological and iceberg warning 

information for the benefit of the marine community. 

The Coast Guard also collects coastal and marine 

observations from its shore stations and cutters, and 

transmits these observations daily to the Navy’s Fleet 

Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center 

and NOAA’s National Weather Service. These observations are used by both the Navy and NOAA in 

generating weather forecasts.

 The Coast Guard also disseminates a variety 

of weather forecast products and warnings to the 

marine community via radio transmissions. Coast 

Guard shore stations often serve as sites for NWS 

automated coastal weather stations, and the National Data Buoy Center provides logistics support in 

deploying and maintaining NOAA offshore weather 

buoys.

 The International Ice Patrol conducts iceberg 

surveillance operations and provides warnings to 

mariners on the presence of icebergs in the North 

Atlantic shipping lanes. Coast Guard efforts in 

meteorological operations and services have not 

changed significantly during recent years.

DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR (DOI)

 The total DOI/BLM weather funding request for FY 2009 is $2.4 million. This amount is 

for meteorological operations and the support of the 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Remote Automatic Weather Station (RAWS) program. An additional $1.1 million is recovered each year through 

reimbursable accounts with participating agencies. 

Normal operations and maintenance of the RAWS 
SECTION 2 24

program is approximately $900,000 yearly. (This includes travel, transportation, utilities, services, supplies, equipment and other non-labor costs.)

 Support of the RAWS program by the BLM 

will continue in FY 2009, as part of the Wildland Fire 

Agencies’ participation in Fire Weather activities and 

the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS). 

In addition to upgrading and maintaining fixed-site 

RAWS, the BLM will address increasing demand for 

the use of mobile units for both fire and non-fire applications. Continued efforts will be made to achieve 

an optimum balance of fixed and mobile RAWS resources and support. Cooperation between DOI 

agencies and the USDA Forest Service regarding 

combined meteorological requirements for the National Wildland Fire support functions is ongoing. Interagency RAWS activity is coordinated at a working 

group level with representation by all participants, 

and will continue to implement NFDRS standards to 

ensure the protection of both life and property from 

wildland fires.

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION (DOT)

 The DOT total budget request for FY2009 is 

$446.3 million by far the most going to the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA). The meteorological 

programs for the FAA and the Federal Highway Administration are described below.

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA)

 For 2009, FAA requested a total $442.1 million for the Aviation Weather Programs including 

acquisition of new systems, operations and support, 

and supporting research.

 The actual funding for aviation weather in 

FY 2008 was $409.5 million. For FY 2009, FAA 

requested $32.6 million more representing an 8 

percent increase in total funding. The changes are 

comprised of:

An increase in systems acquisitions of $31.6 million 

to $123.3 million, reflecting new and increased programs for NextGen (see below);

A decrease in operations support of $1.1 million to 

$279.1 million reflecting a decrease in federal personnel in the automated flight service station operations as a result of the A-76 contract award; and

An increase for aviation weather research of $5.7 

million to a total of $34.1 million (Table 2.5).

 The funding changes reflect major initiatives 

in the aviation weather programs in support of the 

Next Generation (NextGen) National Air Transport 

System to bring increased and enhanced automation to the collection of weather observations from 

remote sensors, to the dissemination of weather 

products, graphics and decision making information 

available for use by the air traffic facilities, pilots, the 

aviation industry and general aviation users.

 The Aviation Weather Research Program will 

continue research into understanding the geophysical phenomena in the atmosphere and around airports that present hazardous conditions for aircraft 

operations. Among these hazards are in-flight icing, 

turbulence, visibility, ceiling, convective activity, tornadoes, etc. Additional work will be done to improve 

models, develop better graphics for decision making 

information, and understanding the impacts of space 

weather on aviation.

FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION (FHWA)

 The total FHWA request for surface transportation weather programs in FY 2009 is $4.2 million, 

all of which will be used for supporting research.

 In 1999, the FHWA began documenting road 

weather data requirements, and this has served as 

the basis for the majority of work and research in this 

area. This work, some of which is described below, 

includes addressing the technical aspects of the 

road transportation system (including environmental 

data collection, processing and dissemination) as 

well as the institutional challenges associated with 

system implementation.

 Addressing these institutional challenges 

has helped foster coordination within state and local Departments of Transportation (DOTs) as well as 

across the transportation and meteorological communities. With regard to technical areas of interest, 

data collection efforts have included increased coverage of atmospheric and road condition observations, as well as incorporation of road weather data 

(e.g., pavement and subsurface observations) into 

broader meteorological observation networks. Better processing includes the application of higher resolution weather models and the development of road 

condition prediction models (e.g., heat balance models) that are needed to develop the appropriate road 

weather information. This road weather information 
SECTION 2 25

will enable more effective decision making, leading 

to a safer and more efficient surface transportation 

system.

 A U.S. DOT initiative entitled Clarus will develop, demonstrate and support deployment of a 

nationwide surface transportation weather observing and forecasting system, and ultimately foster nationwide data sharing capabilities. Clarus will allow 

agencies to share quality-checked environmental 

data, ultimately improving forecasts and value-added 

weather information products, as well as supporting 

anytime, anywhere road weather information for all 

road and transit users and operators.

 A multi-year effort has been undertaken by 

the FHWA in cooperation with six national laboratories to prototype and field test advanced decision 

support tools for winter maintenance managers. The 

Maintenance Decision Support System (MDSS) prototype is a decision support tool that integrates relevant road weather forecasts, coded rules of practice 

for winter maintenance operations, and maintenance 

resource data to provide managers with customized 

road treatment recommendations. The first functional 

MDSS prototype was demonstrated in Iowa in early 

2003 and during the winter season of 2003-2004. 

During the winter season of 2004-2005, the MDSS 

prototype was successfully deployed in a third demonstration in Colorado and in early 2006; this product was declared a “market ready technology.” By 

2007, 21 state transportation agencies were using 

or developing MDSS tools. The current focus of the 

MDSS project is to continue to build on current outreach program activities such as sponsoring annual 

stakeholder meetings, conducting product “Road 

Shows” and Demonstration Showcases, facilitating 

technology transfers to the private sector, providing 

assistance to public agencies in writing request for 

proposals, and participating in informational conferences. The project team also plans to conduct a 

series of benefit/cost analyses to produce “hard” financial data that can be used to support investing in 

such a system and exploring the potential of expanding the functionality of MDSS beyond winter maintenance to include such activities as non-winter road 

maintenance, construction, and traffic management. 

 In 2006, the FHWA completed a study on 

how Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) around 

the country integrate road weather information into 

their operations. The FHWA documented the types 

of road weather information received by TMCs, the 

means of information delivery, how information needs 

change as the severity of a weather event increases, 

and how that information impacts traffic management decisions. Based on the findings of this study, 

the FHWA initiated a project in 2007 to develop a 

self-assessment guide to help TMCs evaluate their 

weather information integration needs and assist 

them in developing weather integration plans. The 

FHWA is also conducting analyses and developing 

models to quantify the impacts of various weather 

events on driver behavior and highway traffic, working to incorporate weather and pavement condition 

data into traffic analysis tools, as well as investigating 

a variety of weather-responsive traffic management 

strategies such as changing traffic signal timing in 

response to weather and posting weather-related 

messages on variable message signs. These efforts 

will help FHWA advance the state-of-the-practice in 

weather-responsive traffic management.

 The efforts described above, as well as future activities captured in the Road Weather Management program plan will be examined within the 

context of two key reports published in early 2004 

and described below.

 In 2002, the FHWA asked the National Research Council (NRC) Board of Atmospheric Sciences & Climate to examine what needs to be done 

from the research, development, and technology 

transfer perspectives to improve the production and 

delivery of weather-related information for the nation’s road-ways. In March 2004, the NRC released 

a report, Where the Weather Meets the Road: A 

Research Agenda for Improving Road Weather 

Services, which recommended the creation of a focused, national road weather research program led 

by FHWA that brings together the transportation 

and meteorological communities, identifies research 

priorities, and implements new scientific and technological advances. The NRC recommendations included making better use of existing road weather 

information and technologies to increase capabilities 

for transportation research, establishing a nationwide 

real-time road weather observing system, developing observing capabilities to assess the accuracy 

of road weather forecasts, improving environmental 

sensor technologies, and developing new means to 
SECTION 2 26

effectively communicate road weather information 

to a wide range of users. Most, if not all of these 

recommendations, have been incorporated into the 

roadmap that is being used to guide the activities of 

the Road Weather Management Program. 

 To strengthen relationships between the meteorological and surface transportation communities, 

the FHWA Road Weather Management Program 

and the American Meteorological Society (AMS) 

co-sponsored a Policy Forum on Weather and Highways in November 2003. The objective was to discuss the provision of weather information to improve 

highway operations, the development of strategies 

to effectively respond to weather information, and 

the policy issues related to effective application of 

weather services to the management of the nation’s 

highway system. The forum brought together nearly 

100 representatives from public, private, and academic sectors at federal, state, and local levels. The 

report resulting from the forum, Weather and Highways: Report of a Policy Forum, contained several 

recommendations including long-term congressional 

funding to develop a national road weather research, 

development, and applications program; close coordination of federal and state DOTs to improve the 

safety and efficiency of highways during adverse 

weather; and establishing a national road weather 

data collection, processing, and dissemination system. Based upon the recommendations that were 

made in the AMS and NRC reports, the FHWA and 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) in July of 2005 to enable the two agencies to work together to achieve shared goals for a 

safer and more efficient surface transportation system. By working together, these two agencies will be 

able to take advantage of each other’s investments 

and expertise, as well as promote improved surface 

transportation weather training, products, and services. A near-term goal of this partnership will be the 

introduction of new products, services and training 

to improve the application of weather information to 

surface transportation operations. 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

(EPA)

 All of the EPA’s funding of meteorological 

and air quality programs is for supporting research. 

The anticipated funding level in FY 2009 for directed 

meteorological research is $9.0 million which is the 

same funding level as in FY 2008.

 Continued attention is being paid to the effects of airborne toxins and fine particulate matter on 

human health, on the effect of climate change on air 

quality, and the impact on ecosystems. In addition, 

to promote excellence in environmental science and 

engineering, EPA established a national fellowship 

program and substantially increased its support for 

investigator-initiated research grants. The funding 

for grants (with reliance on quality science and peer 

review) and for graduate fellowships (to support the 

education and careers of future scientists) will provide for a more balanced, long-term capital investment in improved environmental research and development. The funding for the grants program will 

remain about the same in FY 2009 as in FY 2008.

 This program will fund research in areas including ecological assessment, air quality, environmental fate and treatment of toxins and hazardous 

wastes, effects of global climate change on air quality, and exploratory research. The portion of these 

grants that will be awarded for meteorological research during FY 2009 cannot be foreseen, but it 

is probable that the grant awards will increase the 

base amount of $9.0 million listed above for directed 

meteorological research.

 In collaboration with NOAA, EPA is continuing its development and evaluation of air quality models for air pollutants on all temporal and 

spatial scales as mandated by the Clean Air Act as 

amended in 1990. Research will focus on urban, 

mesoscale, regional, and multimedia models, which 

will be used to develop air pollution control strategies, human and ecosystem exposure assessments, 

and air quality forecasting. There will be increased 

emphasis placed on meteorological research into 

regional and urban formation and transport of air 

contaminants in support of the revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and homeland 

security. Increased efficiency of computation and 

interpretation of results are being made possible by 

means of supercomputing and scientific visualization 

techniques.
SECTION 2 27

AGENCY FUNDING BY BUDGET CATEGORY

 Table 2.2 depicts how the agencies plan to 

obligate their funds for meteorological operations 

broken down by “budget category.” The two major 

categories are “Operations Support” and “Systems 

Acquisition.” To a large degree, these categories 

correspond to non-hardware costs (Operations 

Support) and hardware costs (Systems Acquisition). For agency convenience in identifying small 

components that do not fit into these two major 

categories, a third category is added called “Special Programs.” Programs that provide support 

to several government agencies such as the Air 

Force’s DMSP are listed on a separate line.

 In FY 2009, total Operational Costs requested are $3.19 billion with a total of $1.78 billion for 

Operations Support, $1.37 billion for Systems Acquisition, and $42.1 million for Special Programs.

 Table 2.3 describes how the agencies plan 

to obligate their funds for meteorological supporting 

research also broken down by budget categories. 

The agencies’ supporting research budgets are 

subdivided along similar lines of operational funding--Research and Development (non-hardware), 

Systems Development (hardware), and Special 

Programs (for those items that do not easily fit into 

the two major categories).

 For FY 2009, agencies will obligate a total 

of $1.29 billion in Supporting Research funds in the 

following manner: $589.0 million to research and 

development and $700.4 million to Systems Development.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA)

 For FY 2009, NASA requests a total of almost $740.7 million. Nearly all of NASA funding in 

meteorology is for supporting research. The NASA 

Earth Science Division (ESD) budget consists of 

seven programs: Earth Systematic Missions, Earth 

Science Pathfinder, Research, Applied Sciences, 

Multi-Mission Operations, Technology and Education and Outreach. The funding levels represent 

the estimated meteorology share of the supporting research and analysis programs within the ESD 

budget. The Earth Systematic Missions program 

contributes to the Systems Development line in the 

budget request; the other six programs contribute to 

the Research and Development line.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION 

(NRC)

 The NRC planned expenditure of $500,000 in 

FY 2009 is for meteorological operations to continue 

technical assistance for the analysis of atmospheric 

dispersion for routine and postulated accidental releases from nuclear facilities; for preparation of guidance on meteorological issues in licensing actions; 

and for the review of proposed sites for possible 

construction of new nuclear power plants.

 The meteorological support program in the 

NRC is focused primarily on analyzing and utilizing 

meteorological data in atmospheric transport and 

dispersion models. These models provide insight on 

plume pathways in the near- and far-fields for building 

wake and dispersion characteristics to perform dose 

calculations on postulated releases to the environment. Meteorological information is used as input to 

the probabilistic safety assessment, the assessment 

of the radiological impacts of routine releases from 

normal operations, the assessment of other (non-radiological) hazards that may impact safe operation of 

the facility, and the assessment of design or operational changes proposed for the facility.

 Additionally, after a hiatus of some 25 years, 

the nuclear power industry has expressed an interest 

in seeking approvals for new nuclear power plants. 

Numerous early site permit, combined license, and 

design certification applications have been received 

and are currently under review. These reviews will 

also consider regional climatology and local meteorology. In addition to its internal review activities, the 

NRC may seek assistance from other Federal agencies to support its safety reviews.
SECTION 2 28

TABLE 2.2 AGENCY OPERATIONAL COSTS, BY BUDGET CATEGORY

 (Thousands of Dollars)

 Operations Systems Special % of Support Acquisition Programs Total FY2009

AGENCY FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 %CHG TOTALAgriculture 16077 16335 0 0 0 0 16077 16335 1.6 0.5Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 991717 1003949 843671 1073979 45482 35780 1880870 2113708 12.4 66.1 NWS 790781 810298 67430 79841 35134 26604 893345 916743 2.6 28.7 NESDIS*** 152516 136916 775147 992588 0 0 927663 1129504 21.8 35.3 OAR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 NOS 25668 28314 0 0 0 0 25668 28314 10.3 0.9 OMAO 22752 28421 1094 1550 10348 9176 34194 39147 14.5 1.2Defense(Subtot) 463116 450526 184801 173853 651 666 648568 625045 -3.6 19.6 Air Force*** 328530 329323 54005 60130 0 0 382535 389453 1.8 12.2 DMSP* 17125 19304 115839 99788 0 0 132964 119092 -10.4 3.7 Navy 85623 69472 1747 1418 0 0 87370 70890 -18.9 2.2 Army 31838 32427 13210 12517 651 666 45699 45610 -0.2 1.4Homeland Security (Subtot) 21540 23060 0 0 0 0 21540 23060 7.1 0.7 USCG 21540 23060 0 0 0 0 21540 23060 7.1 0.7Interior/BLM 2400 2400 2400 2400 0.0 0.1Transportation(Subtot) 280170 279089 91738 123308 9278 5636 381186 408033 7.0 12.8 FAA 280170 279089 91738 123308 9278 5636 381186 408033 7.0 12.8 FRA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 FHWA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0EPA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0NASA 7199 7497 0 0 0 0 7199 7497 4.1 0.2NRC 120 500 0 0 0 0 120 500 316.7 0.0TOTAL 1782339 1783356 1120210 1371140 55411 42082 2957960 3196578 8.1 100.0% of FY TOTAL 60.3% 55.8% 37.9% 42.9% 1.9% 1.3% 100.0% 100.0%*DMSP is the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program that supports all DOD Components and other government agencies. It is primarily funded and managed by the Air Force.***NESDIS and Air Force budget numbers also include the DOC and DOD shares of the NPOESS budget, respectively.
SECTION 2 29

TABLE 2.3 AGENCY SUPPORTING RESEARCH COSTS, BY BUDGET CATEGORY

 (Thousands of Dollars)

 Research & Systems Special % of Development Development Programs Total FY2009

AGENCY FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 %CHG TOTALAgriculture 34206 29063 0 0 0 0 34206 29063 -15.0 2.3Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 101826 113086 2869 9212 500 500 105195 122798 16.7 9.5 NWS 15201 17822 1950 8412 0 0 17151 26234 53.0 2.0 NESDIS 26459 28376 0 0 0 0 26459 28376 7.2 2.2 OAR 51099 56715 919 800 0 0 52018 57515 10.6 4.5 NOS 0 0 0 0 500 500 500 500 0.0 0.0 OMAO 9067 10173 0 0 0 0 9067 10173 12.2 0.8Defense(Subtot) 30075 37765 359726 319847 0 0 389801 357612 -8.3 27.7 Air Force*** 13758 16969 359726 319847 0 0 373484 336816 -9.8 26.1 DMSP* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 Navy 2518 9731 0 0 0 0 2518 9731 286.5 0.8 Army 13799 11065 0 0 0 0 13799 11065 -19.8 0.9Homeland Security (Subtot) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 USCG 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0Interior/BLM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0Transportation(Subtot) 32514 38252 0 0 0 0 32514 38252 17.6 3.0 FAA 28314 34052 0 0 0 0 28314 34052 20.3 2.6 FRA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 FHWA 4200 4200 0 0 0 0 4200 4200 0.0 0.3EPA 9000 9000 0 0 0 0 9000 9000 0.0 0.7NASA 326335 361883 322531 371329 0 0 648866 733212 13.0 56.8NRC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0TOTAL 533956 589049 685126 700388 500 500 1219582 1289937 5.8 100.0% of FY TOTAL 43.8% 45.7% 56.2% 54.3% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 100.0%*DMSP is the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program that supports all DOD Components and other government agencies. It is primarily funded and managed by the Air Force.***Air Force budget numbers also include the DOD share of the NPOESS budget
SECTION 2 30

 Table 2.4 summarizes how the agencies 

plan to obligate operational funds for basic and 

specialized meteorological services. Table 2.5 is 

a similar breakout for supporting research funds. 

Table 2.4 reveals the distribution of FY 2009 operational funds: basic meteorology services receiving 

63.1 percent; aviation 14.0 percent; marine 3.9 

percent; agriculture/ forestry 0.6 percent; general 

military services 17.8 percent; and other specialized services accounting for 0.6 percent. 

 Table 2.5 shows the distribution of supporting research funds among the services with 

basic meteorology receiving 10.3 percent, aviation 

2.7 percent, marine 0.8 percent, agriculture and 

forestry 2.3 percent, general military 26.1 percent, 

and the remaining 57.9 percent dedicated to other 

meteorological services. 

 The definitions of specialized and basic services are described below:

 Basic Services. Basic services provide products that meet the common needs of all users and 

include the products needed by the general public 

in their everyday activities and for the protection 

of lives and property. “Basic” services include the 

programs and activities that do not fall under one of 

the specialized services.

 Aviation Services. Those services and facilities established to meet the requirements of general, commercial, and military aviation. 

 Marine Services. Those services and facilities established to meet the requirements of 

the DOC, DOD, and DOT on the high seas, on 

coastal and inland waters, and for boating activities 

in coastal and inland waters. The civil programs 

which are directly related to services solely for 

marine uses and military programs supporting fleet, 

amphibious, and sea-borne units (including carrierbased aviation and fleet missile systems) are included.

 Agriculture and Forestry Services. Those 

services and facilities established to meet the 

requirements of the agricultural industries and 

Federal, state, and local agencies charged with the 

protection and maintenance of the nation’s forests.

 General Military Services. Those services 

and facilities established to meet the requirements 

of military user commands and their component 

elements. Programs and services which are part of 

basic, aviation, marine, or other specialized services 

are not included.

 Other Specialized Services. Those services 

and facilities established to meet meteorological 

requirements that cannot be classified under one 

of the preceding categories; such as, space operations, urban air pollution, global climate change, and 

water management.

AGENCY FUNDING BY SERVICE CATEGORY
SECTION 2 31

 TABLE 2.4 AGENCY OPERATIONAL COSTS, BY SERVICE

 (Thousands of Dollars)

 Basic Agriculture General Meteorology Aviation Marine & Forestry Military Other Total

AGENCY FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009Agriculture 0 0 0 0 0 0 16077 16335 0 0 0 0 16077 16335Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 1772031 2003774 17622 18678 80869 82080 0 0 0 0 10348 9176 1880870 2113708 NWS 821616 845849 16528 17128 55201 53766 0 0 0 0 0 0 893345 916743 NESDIS*** 927663 1129504 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 927663 1129504 OAR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NOS 0 0 0 0 25668 28314 0 0 0 0 0 0 25668 28314 OMAO 22752 28421 1094 1550 0 0 0 0 0 0 10348 9176 34194 39147Defense(Subtot) 14853 12051 26211 21267 25337 20558 0 0 577798 567624 4369 3545 648568 625045 Air Force*** 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 382535 389453 0 0 382535 389453 DMSP* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 132964 119092 0 0 132964 119092 Navy 14853 12051 26211 21267 25337 20558 0 0 16600 13469 4369 3545 87370 70890 Army 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 45699 45610 0 0 45699 45610Homeland Security (Subtot) 0 0 0 0 21540 23060 0 0 0 0 0 0 21540 23060 USCG 0 0 0 0 21540 23060 0 0 0 0 0 0 21540 23060Interior/BLM 0 0 0 0 0 0 2400 2400 0 0 0 0 2400 2400Transportation(Subtot) 0 0 381186 408033 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 381186 408033 FAA 0 0 381186 408033 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 381186 408033 FRA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 FHWA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0EPA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0NASA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7199 7497 7199 7497NRC 120 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 120 500TOTAL 1787004 2016325 425019 447978 127746 125698 18477 18735 577798 567624 21916 20218 2957960 3196578% of FY TOTAL 60.4% 63.1% 14.4% 14.0% 4.3% 3.9% 0.6% 0.6% 19.5% 17.8% 0.7% 0.6% 100.0% 100.0%*DMSP is the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program that supports all DOD Components and other government agencies. It is primarily funded and managed by the Air Force.***NESDIS and Air Force budget numbers also include the DOC and DOD share of the NPOESS budget, respectively.
SECTION 2 32

 TABLE 2.5 AGENCY SUPPORTING RESEARCH COSTS, BY SERVICE

 (Thousands of Dollars)

 Basic Agriculture General Meteorology Aviation Marine & Forestry Military Other Total

AGENCY FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009 FY2008 FY2009Agriculture 0 0 0 0 0 0 34206 29063 0 0 0 0 34206 29063Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 104169 121798 526 500 500 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 105195 122798 NWS 17151 26234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17151 26234 NESDIS 26459 28376 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26459 28376 OAR 51492 57015 526 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 52018 57515 NOS 0 0 0 0 500 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 500 OMAO 9067 10173 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9067 10173.3Defense(Subtot) 13378 10741 0 0 2518 9731 0 0 373905 337140 0 0 389801 357612 Air Force*** 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 373484 336816 0 0 373484 336816 DMSP* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Navy 0 0 0 0 2518 9731 0 0 0 0 0 0 2518 9731 Army 13378 10741 0 0 0 0 0 0 421 324 0 0 13799 11065Homeland Security (Subtot) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 USCG 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Interior/BLM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Transportation(Subtot) 0 0 28314 34052 0 0 0 0 0 0 4200 4200 32514 38252 FAA 0 0 28314 34052 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28314 34052 FRA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 FHWA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4200 4200 4200 4200EPA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9000 9000 9000 9000NASA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 648866 733212 648866 733212NRC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 117547 132539 28840 34552 3018 10231 34206 29063 373905 337140 662066 746412 1219582 1289937% of FY TOTAL 9.6% 10.3% 2.4% 2.7% 0.2% 0.8% 2.8% 2.3% 30.7% 26.1% 54.3% 57.9% 100.0% 100.0%*DMSP is the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program that supports all DOD Components and other government agencies. It is primarily funded and managed by the Air Force.***Air Force budget numbers also include the DOD share of the NPOESS budget
SECTION 2 33

PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

 Table 2.6 depicts agency staff resources in 

meteorological operations. The total agency staff 

resources requested for FY 2009 is 11,286. This 

total represents a decrease of almost one percent from FY 2008. FAA’s significant decrease 

in federal personnel from previous reports reflects 

completion of the phase down of federal flight service briefers as private contract personnel assumed 

briefing duties.

TABLE 2.6 PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

% of FY 2009

AGENCY FY2008 FY 2009 %CHG TOTAL

Agriculture 130 132 1.5 1.2

Commerce/NOAA (sub-total) 5790 5791 0.0 51.3

 NWS 4639 4640 0.0 41.1

 NESDIS (sub-total) 889 889 0.0 7.9

 NESDIS 831 831 0.0 7.4

 Reimbursed 58 58 0.0 0.5

 OAR 32 32 0.0 0.3

 NOS 119 119 0.0 1.1

 OMAO 111 111 0.0 1.0

Defense(Subtotal) 5044 4935 -2.2 43.7

 Air Force(Subtotal) 4261 4171 -2.1 37.0

 AFW 4142 4052 -2.2 35.9

 DMSP 119 119 0.0 1.1

 Navy 413 399 -3.4 3.5

 Army 370 365 -1.4 3.2

Homeland Security-USCG 108 108 0.0 1.0

Interior/BLM(Subtotal) 28 28 0.0 0.2

 Interior 26 26 0.0 0.2

 Reimbursed** 2 2 0.0 0.0

Transportation(Subtotal) 239 248 3.8 2.2

 FHWA 4 4 0.0 0.0

 FAA 235 244 3.8 2.2

EPA 0 0 0.0 0.0

NASA 42.1 42.7 0.0 0.4

NRC 2 2 0.0 0.0

 TOTAL 11383 11286 -0.8 99.0

** "Reimbursed" are personnel funded by other agencies

(Units are Full time Equivalent Staff Years)*
SECTION 2 34

INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS

 Table 2.7 summarizes the reimbursement of 

funds from one agency to another during FY 2008. 

Agencies routinely enter into reimbursable agreements when they determine that one agency can 

provide the activity more effectively than the other. 

While specific amounts may vary from year-to-year, 

the pattern shown is essentially stable and reflects 

a significant level of interagency cooperation.

 FY 2008 Funds ($K)

Estimated or Planned

 Agency Funds Agency Funds Supporting

Transferred from: Transferred to: Operations Research

USDA/Forest Service NOAA 10

DoD/Air Force NOAA (for DMSP) 11500

DOC/NOAA/NWS 200

DOC/NOAA/NWS 5332

DOC/NOAA/NWS 138

DOC/NOAA/NWS 440

DOC/NOAA/NWS 710

OFCM 140

OFCM 30

DOC/NOAA/NESOIS/IPO (for DMSP) 232

USGS (Dept of Interior) 450

NASA 220

DOC/NOAA/SEC 258

NSF/UCAR 772

NSF/NCAR 2526

NSF/NCAR 710

NSF/NCAR 475

NASA 630

OPM 15

GSA 125

NOAA 103

DoD/Army COE (CW) to NWS 570

COE (CW) to USGS 534

Air Combat Command (ACC) 78

Air Combat Command (ACC) 78

ARO to NSF 11

DoD/Navy DOC 81

DOC 189

NASA DoD/USAF/45th Space Wing 1505

DoD/USAF/Edwards AFB 105

DOC/NOAA/NDBC 103

DOC/NOAA/SMG 1807

FAA DOC/NOAA (equipment) 39400

DOC/NOAA (instructors) 1101

TABLE 2.7 INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS FOR METEOROLOGICAL

OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH
SECTION 2 35

FACILITIES/LOCATIONS FOR TAKING METEOROLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS

 Table 2.8 shows the number of facilities/

locations or platforms at which the federal agencies 

carry out or supervise the taking of various types of 

meteorological observations. As of August 2008, 

the Army does not use upper-air rocket sensors 

anymore.

No. of 2008

TYPE OF OBSERVATION by AGENCY Locations

Surface, land

Commerce (all types) 841

Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 162

Navy (U.S. & Overseas) 68

Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 13

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 24

Transportation (FAA Contract Wx Obsg Stn) 133

Transportation (FAA Auto Wx Obsg Stn) 168

Transportation (FAA Auto Sfc Obsg Sys, fielded) 580

Transportation (FHWA-Road Wx Obsg Stn) 2017

Homeland Security (USCG Coastal) 50

Interior 470

Agriculture 1886

NASA (all types) 46

Sub-total 6458

Surface, marine

Commerce (SEAS-equipped ships) 622

Commerce (Coastal-Marine Autom Network) 56

Commerce (NOAA/NOS/PORTS) 18

Commerce (PORTS only meteorological stations 50

Commerce (Buoys--moored) 98

Commerce (Buoys--drifting) 21

Commerce (Buoys--large navigation) 10

Commerce (Water-level gauges) 200

Commerce (Water-level gauges with meteorology sensors 116

Navy (Ships with met personnel) 29

Navy (Ships without met personnel) 251

Homeland Security (USCG Cutters) 252

NASA (Buoys - moored) 2

Sub-total 1725

Upper air, balloon

Commerce (U.S.) 102

Commerce (Foreign, Cooperative) 22

Air Force, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 12

Air Force, Mobile 15

Army, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 18

Army, Mobile (U.S. and Overseas) 85

Navy, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 0

Navy, Mobile(U.S. & Overseas) 10

Navy, Ships 29

Marine Corps, Mobile 10

NASA (U.S. and Overseas) 4

Sub-total 307

Atmospheric Profilers

Air Force (Eastern Range) (915 MHz) 5

Air Force (Eastern Range) (SODARS) 5

Air Force (Western Range) (915 MHz) 5

Air Force (Western Range) (50 MHz) 1

Air Force (Western Range SODARS) 2

Army 9

NASA (50 MHz) 1

Sub-total 28

TABLE 2.8 FACILITIES/LOCATIONS FOR TAKING METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 
SECTION 2 36

No. of 2008

TYPE OF OBSERVATION by AGENCY Locations

Doppler weather radar (WSR-88D) sites

Commerce (NWS) 121

Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 26

Army (US and Overseas) 2

Transportation (Off CONUS) 12

Sub-total 161

Doppler weather radar (Not WSR-88D) sites

Air Force (Fixed) 9

Army 1

Navy (Fixed) 9

Marine Corps (Mobile) 10

Marine Corps (Fixed) 1

Sub-total 30

Airport Terminal Doppler weather radars

Transportation (Commissioned) 47

Army (not airfield--Test Range/USAREUR) 4

Sub-total 51

Conventional radar (non-Doppler) sites

Commerce (NWS) 2

Commerce (at FAA sites) 27

Air Force, Mobile Units 23

Army (U.S. and Overseas) 3

Transportation (FAA (WSP)) 39

Sub-total 94

672

Off-site WSR-88D Principle User Processors (PUPs)

Air Force (OPUPs only) 97

Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 9

Army 1

Transportation 25

NASA (KSC/AMU) 1

Sub-total 133

Weather reconnaissance Aircraft

Commerce (OMAO) 3

Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) 10

Sub-total 13

Geostationary meteorological satellites (No. operating)

Commerce (2 primary, 1 standby, 1 servicing South America) 4

Polar meteorological satellites (No. operating)

Commerce (2 primary - one US; one European, 3 standby) 5

Air Force (2 primary, 3 standby) 5

Navy (WINDSAT and GFO) 2

Sub-total 12

Electric Field Mills (Surface)

NASA (KSC) 31

Stennis 2

Sub-total 33

Lightning Detection Systems

Air Force (Eastern Range) (Cloud - Ground) 1

Air Force (Eastern Range) (National Lightning 1

Total Radars
SECTION 3 USDA 37

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA) WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Nation’s food and fiber products are a critical resource not only to the domestic 

and international economic situation but also to national security and even foreign 

policy. Weather is the most important factor influencing the Nation’s variability in crop 

yields and related production. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

monitors global weather and agricultural developments through the Joint Agricultural 

Weather Facility (JAWF). The JAWF provides critical information to decision-makers 

formulating crop production forecasts, programs that provide natural disaster assistance to U.S. farmers and ranchers, emergency relief programs, and trade policy. USDA operates specialized weather observing networks such as SNOTEL, SCAN, and RAWS that provide vital data and information used to forecast seasonal water supplies in the West, to support national conservation programs, 

and to monitor the health of the Nation’s forests. USDA conducts supporting research that focuses on 

understanding the interactions of weather and climate with plants, animals, forests, and forest ecological 

systems. 

METEOROLOGICAL PROGRAMS

 Numerous agencies within the USDA require 

a range of high quality weather and climatological 

data to carry out their missions. Among these diverse applications, which require accurate, timely, 

and comprehensive data, are crop monitoring and 

weather impact assessment, agricultural yield and 

productivity modeling, natural resource conservation 

planning, forest fire potential monitoring, irrigation 

scheduling, water supply information, reinsurance 

and compliance programs, crop disaster assistance 

and emergency relief programs, integrated pest 

management, crop yield modeling, and agricultural 

research studies. USDA weather- and climate-related activities to support these and other applications 

are discussed below. 

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF ECONOMIST/WORLD 

AGRICULTURAL OUTLOOK BOARD

 The primary objectives of the World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB), which is located 

within the Office of the Chief Economist (OCE), are 

consistency, objectivity, and reliability of outlook and 

situation-related material, including weather information developed within the USDA. It coordinates all 

weather and climate information and monitoring activities within the USDA. The WAOB also manages 

the JAWF, which serves as the USDA focal point 

for weather and climate information and agricultural 

weather impact assessments around the world. 

 JAWF, which was created in 1978 as an operational unit, is jointly managed by the USDA/OCE/

WAOB and the Climate Prediction Center (CPC) 

of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) National Weather Service 

(NWS). The primary mission of the JAWF is to routinely collect global weather data and agricultural information needed to assess the impact of growingseason weather conditions on crops and livestock 

production prospects. JAWF meteorologists work 

as a team, monitoring global weather conditions and 

crop development on a daily basis to prepare realtime agricultural assessments (Figure 3 – USDA 

Figure 3-USDA-1. Office of the Chief Economist Web Site

Section 3
SECTION 3 USDA 38

– 1). These assessments keep USDA commodity analysts, the OCE, the Secretary of Agriculture, 

and other agency leaders informed about worldwide 

weather-related developments and their effects on 

crops and livestock.

 In addition to providing routine assessments, 

USDA agricultural meteorologists at JAWF are frequently requested to prepare special assessments 

when adverse or anomalous weather conditions 

(e.g., droughts, heat waves, freezes, floods, and 

hurricanes) are observed in major crop-producing 

regions. Many of these special assessments are prepared using a geographic information system (GIS) 

to overlay agricultural and weather data; an example 

of such a product is shown in Figure 3 – USDA – 

2. In this example, NOAA National Hurricane Center 

and Mexican crop data were combined to illustrate 

the track and intensity of Hurricane Dean relative 

to Mexican sugarcane areas. When integrated with 

economic analyses and information, these routine 

and special crop-weather assessments and analyses provide critical information to decision-makers 

formulating crop production forecasts, trade policy, 

and disaster relief. They also help identify potential 

agricultural markets for U.S. products around the 

world. Inputs from JAWF are integrated into USDA’s 

monthly foreign crop production estimates. Weekly 

briefings on global weather and crop development 

are provided to USDA top staff. 

 JAWF serves as the USDA focal point for 

weather data received from the Global Observing 

System, a worldwide network of nearly 8,000 meteorological reporting stations managed by the World 

Meteorological Organization (WMO). The WMO 

data are stored and maintained at JAWF in a sophisticated data warehouse that utilizes advanced database technology to make the data readily accessible 

to JAWF and other USDA agencies for a number of 

agricultural applications. JAWF agricultural meteorologists merge these weather data with climatological analyses and global agronomic data to determine 

the weather’s impact on crop development and yield 

potential. A major source of domestic weather and 

climate data often used in special operational crop 

and weather analyses for the United States is the 

NWS Cooperative Observer Network of over 3,500 

daily reporting stations.

 JAWF’s flagship publication is the Weekly 

Weather and Crop Bulletin (WWCB), which is 

jointly produced by WAOB, the USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), and the CPC. 

First published in 1872 as the Weekly Weather 

Chronicle, this publication has evolved over the past 

136 years to become a vital source of information 

on weather, climate, and agricultural development 

worldwide. The publication is a shining example of 

how two major departments (USDA and DOC) within the Federal Government can cooperate, combining meteorology and agriculture to provide a service 

that benefits the economic well being of the Nation. 

The WWCB highlights weekly meteorological and 

agricultural development on a national and international scale, providing written summaries of weather and climate conditions affecting agriculture, as 

well as detailed maps and tables of agrometeorological information appropriate for the season (Figure 3-USDA-3). The WWCB also provides timely 

weather and crop information between the monthly 

Crop Production and World Agricultural Supply and 

Demand Estimates reports, issued by USDA/NASS 

and WAOB, respectively. The WWCB is available 

in electronic form from the OCE web site at http://

www.usda.gov/oce/weather/index.htm.

 Knowledge of historical climate data and agricultural production patterns in agricultural regions 

around the world is critical in JAWF’s assessments 

of weather’s impact on crop yields. In September 

1994, JAWF first published the Major World Crop 

Figure 3-USDA-2. Special Agricultural Assessment-Hurricane 

Dean impacts to Mexican Sugarcane
SECTION 3 USDA 39

Areas and Climatic Profiles (Agricultural Handbook 

No.664). An electronic version of the handbook 

was developed to provide periodic updates to the 

printed version as additional data become available. 

The updates to this seminal reference still provide 

the frame-work for assessing the weather’s impact 

on world crop production by providing information 

on climate and crop data for key producing regions 

and countries. Coverage includes major agricultural regions and crops; among the latter are coarse 

grains, winter and spring wheat, rice, major oilseeds, 

sugar, and cotton. World maps show the normal developmental stage of regional crops by month. The 

electronic version is available from the OCE web site 

at http://www.usda.gov/oce/weather/pubs/Other/

MWCACP/index.htm. 

 Drought is one of the most costly natural disasters affecting the United States. In the summer of 

1999, a monitoring tool known as the U.S. Drought 

Monitor (USDM) was developed to help assess 

drought conditions in the United States. Produced 

weekly, the USDM is a synthesis of multiple indices and impacts depicted on a map and in narrative 

form. It is a collaborative effort of Federal and academic partners, including the University of NebraskaLincoln National Drought Mitigation Center, JAWF, 

NOAA/NWS/CPC, and NOAA’s National Climatic 

Data Center. Approximately ten lead authors rotate 

the responsibility of preparing the weekly issue. The 

National Drought Mitigation Center hosts the USDM 

on its Web site at http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/

monitor.html. The USDM is released each Thursday 

at 8:30 a.m. Eastern time. Because the USDM is prepared in a GIS, it can be overlaid on agricultural data 

to create products that quantify the spatial extent 

of drought affecting various agricultural commodities (Fig-ure 3-USDA-4). These agricultural weather 

products, along with the USDM, serve as the main 

source of information for briefing USDA’s Drought 

Task Force on U.S. drought conditions. 

 The North American Drought Monitor (NADM) 

is a cooperative effort of drought experts in Canada, 

Mexico, and the United States to monitor drought 

across the continent. It was initiated at a workshop 

in April 2002 and is part of a larger effort to improve 

monitoring of North American climate extremes. Issued monthly since March 2003, the NADM is based 

on the end-of-month USDM analysis and input from 

scientists in Canada and Mexico. Major participants 

in the NADM program include the entities involved 

with the production of the USDM, Agriculture and 

Agrifood Canada, the Meteorological Service of 

Canada, and the National Meteorological Service of 

Mexico. The NADM Web site is: http://www.ncdc.

noaa.gov/oa/climate/monitoring/drought/nadm/index.html.

 The National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS) Act of 2006 (Public Law 109-430) was 

signed by the President in 2006. One of the goals of 

NIDIS, which is led by NOAA, is to build upon existing drought monitoring tools and experiences, such 

as the USDM, to develop an early warning system 

that aids in preparing for and mitigating the effects 

of drought. The recommendations for such an early 

warning system were outlined in a 2004 report from 

Figure 3-USDA-3. Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin.
SECTION 3 USDA 40

the Western Governors’ Association (WGA) entitled Creating a Drought Early Warning System for 

the 21st Century: The National Integrated Drought 

Information System. A NIDIS program implementation team drawn from Federal and state agencies, 

academia, and the private sector developed the 

NIDIS implementation plan, which was released 

in June 2007. This document describes the NIDIS 

implementation strategy and governance structure. OCE is one of several USDA agencies with a 

lead role in developing NIDIS, working closely with 

NOAA and the WGA over the years to address the 

specific needs of the agricultural community. One 

of the early NIDIS deliverables is the Drought Portal 

(http://www.drought.gov), which serves as the Government’s multi-agency drought interface.

 USDA’s Chief Meteorologist is currently 

serving on the Management Group of the World 

Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) Commission 

for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM). He continues to lead an effort to enhance the flow of more 

accurate and timely global agricultural weather information through an ongoing project, the World 

AgroMeteorological Information Service (WAMIS). 

WAMIS is a dedicated Internet web server (http://

www.wamis.org) that hosts agrometeorological bulletins and advisories issued by WMO members for 

the global agricultural community. It also provides 

training modules to aid WMO members in improving their agrometeorological products. Currently, 32 

member services contribute advisories and bulletins 

to the WAMIS web server. The Chief Meteorologist 

also serves as CAgM’s focal point to WMO’s Natural Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Program. 

 In October 1998, the JAWF opened a field 

office in Stoneville, Mississippi, co-located with the 

Mississippi State Delta Research and Extension 

Center (DREC) and USDA’s Agricultural Research 

Service (ARS) Mid-South Area Jamie Whitten Delta 

States Research Center. This OCE/JAWF field office was established to build an agricultural weather 

network aimed at linking agricultural weather data 

collection networks already in existence but not part 

of the current NOAA/NWS basic reporting network. 

In partnership with USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Soil Climate Analysis 

Figure 3-USDA-4. Monthly Update of US Beef Cow Areas Experiencing Drought
SECTION 3 USDA 41

Network (SCAN) sites were installed in the Mississippi Delta to enhance the regional network.

FOREST SERVICE

Research

 Air pollution effects (primarily nitrogen deposition and ozone) remain a serious threat to forest 

health in some parts of the United States. Forest 

Service Research (FSR) is documenting long-term 

effects of air pollution on forests of the Sierra Nevada, Colorado, the Northeast, and southwestern 

Wyoming. Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and 

sulfur has been studied for many years in eastern 

forest watersheds, and a recent study has demonstrated that increased nitrogen deposition can affect water quality and ecosystem function in western 

forests as well. In cooperation with the European 

Union (EU) International Co-operative Programme 

on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests and National Forest Systems, FSR 

has been developing a comprehensive approach to 

critical loads in selected forest ecosystems across 

the United States, to learn more about potential nationwide impacts. FSR is also working closely with 

universities to develop measures for critical levels of 

ozone on public lands. During 2006, FSR Southern 

Research Station developed the first critical loads 

map for the entire United States, an important product that will be published after peer review is complete. During 2007, $459K was invested in equipment to establish Level II plots on 20 Forest Service 

Experimental Forest Range and Watershed sites for 

monitoring critical load in accordance with the protocol established by the EU international cooperative 

program. 

 Smoke from forest fires and other biomass 

burning is a growing issue as use of prescribed fire 

in ecosystem management increases. Among the 

concerns are exposure of fire fighters and citizens to 

forest fire smoke, changes in visibility and haze, and 

smoke contributions to regional and local air pollution. FSR is the world leader in developing emissions 

factors from fires and modeling emissions dispersion. It has conducted research on impacts of smoke 

on human health, relationships between on-site meteorology and smoke dispersion, consequences of 

smoke to visibility in Clean Air Act Class I Areas, 

and the potential of smoke to exacerbate ozone episodes. FSR has provided basic research to support 

states’ air regulatory programs and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) development of 

air quality standards. Through five consortia for advanced atmospheric modeling, real-time smoke and 

fire weather research products are supplied to fire 

and air quality managers continuously. These products include forward predictions of impacts out to 

72 hours in the future. 

Forest Service Weather Program

 The Forest Service weather program works 

with the USDA Drought Commission. It provides key 

liaison with the Satellite Telemetry Interagency Working Group (STIWG) on satellite services and with the 

NWS, U.S. Department of Interior (USDI), and National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) on the 

delivery of fire weather forecasting. These activities 

are critical to the safety and effectiveness of wildland 

fire fighting, for flash flood warnings, and for water 

supply forecasts. The weather program oversees the 

standards for approximately 850 remote automated 

weather stations (RAWS) across the country. The 

RAWS network provides the observational basis for 

assessing local fire danger, prepositioning fire fighting resources, and conducting prescribed fire operations to mitigate wildfire risk and preserve ecosystem health. Program costs include contracts for the 

delivery of this information to the agency personnel, 

fire weather forecasters, and state forestry agencies 

that use the data in real-time for critical decisions.

Wildland Fire Management

 This program uses meteorological data and 

interpretation skills to support wildland fire management. The Forest Service State and Private Forestry, 

Fire and Aviation Management program operates a 

network of approximately 850 RAWS, of the total 

2200 RAWS nationwide. The RAWS network provides real-time information to the Weather Information Management System (WIMS), which is used by 

wildland fire management agencies across the country.

 The wildland fire program works closely with 

the STIWG and its associated Technical Working 

Group; NWS; USDI agencies including the Bureau 

of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service 
SECTION 3 USDA 42

(FWS), Bureau of Indian Affairs, and National Park 

Service; State fire protection agencies; and NWCG 

on the delivery of fire weather data and forecasting. 

It oversees the standards for the nationwide RAWS 

network and manages the Interagency RAWS Website (http://www.fs.fed.us/raws). The costs include 

maintenance support contracts, maintenance training sessions, and contracts for delivery of information to the Federal and state agency personnel, fire 

weather forecasters, and foresters who need timely 

data for critical decisions.

 The Forest Service weather program works 

with the National Predictive Services Group at the 

National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) in Boise, 

Idaho, to provide technical support and oversight to 

10 Geographic Coordination Centers. It also works 

closely with Forest Service R&D staff in overseeing the five Fire Consortia for Advanced Modeling 

of Meteorology and Smoke (FCAMMS) locations. 

The FCAMMS effort, in cooperation with NOAA and 

EPA, provides valuable fire weather, smoke forecasting, and air quality information to fire and air quality 

programs. The FCAMMS and Predictive Services 

Group provide critical information for planning wildland fire activities and for operational decision-making during fire events. 

NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE (NRCS)

Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting-Monitoring

 Snowmelt provides approximately 80 percent of the stream flow in the West. The NRCS, in 

partnership with other Federal and state agencies, 

operates the Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Program (SS&WSF) in 12 Western states 

and Alaska. To accurately forecast seasonal water 

supplies, the SS&WSF collects critical snow and 

climate data from high elevation snowpacks in the 

mountainous West. The data collection system includes 1,200 manual snow courses and 750 automated SNOTEL (SNOwpack TELemetry) monitoring 

stations throughout the Western States and Alaska. 

These data, along with information from 756 stream 

gages, 328 major reservoirs, and 3,200 climatological observation stations are merged into a hydroclimatic database that is used to produce real-time 

watershed analyses and water supply forecasts. 

Monitoring is conducted in partnership with Federal, 

state, and local agencies, power companies, irrigation districts, and the Provincial Government of British Columbia. This information is the basis for water 

management decisions under international treaties 

with Canada and Mexico.

 The SNOTEL network plays an important role 

by providing near real-time remote hydrometeorological data required to evaluate snowpacks, potential in-stream water supplies, and drought risk. The 

SNOTEL network can provide hourly precipitation, 

temperature, and snowpack depletion information 

that significantly improves flood stage forecasts and 

the monitoring of other life-threatening snow-related 

events. Approximately 25 percent of the SNOTEL 

sites collect soil moisture and soil temperature measurements. These measurements enable the NRCS 

and partners to make more accurate stream flow 

forecasts and mitigate flood and drought impacts. 

All SNOTEL data are transmitted hourly to the NWS 

to assist in forecasting flood events. SNOTEL information enables emergency management agencies 

to effectively mitigate drought and flood risks. An 

added benefit during the late spring and summer is 

the availability of hourly climate data, which are used 

to monitor and assess forest health and wildfire potential.

 Additionally, the SS&WSF supports research 

to improve monitoring technology, data reliability, 

data quality, water supply forecasting, and water resource modeling.

Water Supply Forecasts

 Monthly water supply forecasts are produced 

from January through June in partnership with the 

NWS. These forecasts: (1) help irrigators make the 

most effective use of limited water supplies for agricultural production needs; (2) assist the Federal 

government in administering international water treaties with Canada and Mexico; (3) assist state governments in managing intrastate streams and interstate water compacts; (4) assist municipalities in 

planning the early management of anticipated water 

supplies and drought mitigation; (5) support operational decisions on reservoir release, to satisfy multiple use demands including hydropower generation; 

(6) aid in mitigating flood damages in levied areas 
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and downstream from reservoirs; and (7) support 

fish and wildlife management activities associated 

with species protection legislation.

 During a typical forecast season, the SS&WSF 

issues over 11,000 seasonal water supply forecasts 

for 750 locations in 12 western states. The water 

supply forecasts are coordinated and peer-reviewed 

by a number of Federal agencies and cooperators to 

ensure the highest quality and accuracy. Major cooperators include the NWS, Bureau of Reclamation, 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Bonneville Power 

Authority, state and local agencies, power utilities, 

irrigation districts, Tribal Nations, the Provincial Government of British Columbia, the Yukon Territory, 

and Mexico. The primary users of this information include agricultural, municipal, industrial, hydropower, 

and recreation managers. Federal legislation related 

to endangered species protection has placed increased emphasis on timely and accurate forecasts.

 The National Water and Climate Center 

(NWCC) web site (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov) 

provides snow data, analyses, GIS maps, and forecasts to approximately 80,000 users. The web site 

logged over 22 million user accesses to data reports and products during the water year 2007.The 

NWCC recently implemented a Daily Water Supply 

Guidance Forecast product for 138 western basins, 

available at http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/wsf/

daily_forecasts.html. The procedure for this product 

uses SNOTEL snowpack and precipitation data to 

calibrate and generate an updated water supply volume forecast every day. It provides water managers 

with intra-month water supply forecast trend analysis 

between the coordinated monthly water supply forecasts. 

Drought Assessment

 The SS&WSF provides a variety of climate 

and water supply products that are used to assess 

drought conditions in the Western States. These 

products include SNOTEL snowpack and precipitation analyses for the mountains, water supply forecasts, and State Surface Water Supply Indexes 

(SWSI). These products are critical to the production of the weekly interagency Drought Monitor, a 

web-based report. A cooperative, nationwide network of approximately 150 Soil Climate Analysis 

Network (SCAN) sites in 39 states monitors soil 

temperatures and soil moisture to support national 

drought monitoring, production agriculture, and climate change research.

Climate Information

 NRCS provides climate data and products 

that directly support agriculture and conservation 

activities nationwide through the NWCC webpage 

and the Agricultural Applied Climate Information 

System (AgACIS), which is accessible through 

the NRCS Electronic Field Office Technical Guide 

webpage. The AgACIS is an Internet-based climate 

data delivery system developed in partnership with 

the six NOAA Regional Climate Centers. It provides 

the NRCS field offices, other USDA agencies and 

offices, and other partners with Internet access to 

thousands of climate datasets collected by scores 

of Federal, state, and county networks. Digital maps 

of monthly and annual precipitation and temperature 

for the United States are available from the NWCC 

webpage. NRCS’s long-range planning is supported 

by the Generation of Weather Elements for Multiple 

Applications Model (GEM), which has been used 

to generate future climate data sets for more than 

250 locations nationwide. GEM is being integrated 

with several NRCS environmental models, as well as 

being used for the NRCS Conservation Effects Assessment Program. Also available from the NWCC 

webpage are monthly precipitation averages and 

growing season length information, which is required 

for wetlands analysis, for more than 6,000 locations 

in the United States, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Wind 

roses, which are useful for agricultural and natural 

resource planning, are available on the NWCC webpage for 237 NWS stations in the United States, 

Guam, and Puerto Rico. A wind rose gives a succinct but informative view of how wind speed and 

direction are typically distributed at a particular location.

 

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

 Variable weather patterns associated with 

global climate change are affecting natural resource 

systems needed for agricultural production and watershed ecosystem services. The increasing importance of these effects is creating a need for new 

knowledge, which in turn requires weather and cli-
SECTION 3 USDA 44

mate-related observation, prediction, and adaptation 

technologies. ARS weather and climate research 

activities focus on how short- and long-term weather 

patterns affect crop and animal production; hydrologic processes; the availability of water from watersheds; the environmental and economic sustainability of food, feed, fiber and bioenergy production; 

and ecosystem services such as clean air and water. The research is conducted to provide risk management tools and reliable decision-making criteria 

to producers, land managers, and policy-makers. 

ARS scientists are developing algorithms and decision support systems with the NRCS, NASA, and 

NOAA to improve prediction of snowpack distribution and timing of snowmelt and water availability in 

the Western United States. The ARS experimental 

watershed program actively participates in the NWS 

effort to modernize the Cooperative Observer Network so that the information needs of agriculture are 

addressed by this national surface observation network. ARS works with scientists at NOAA, NASA, 

JAWF, and in the academic community to improve 

observation, prediction, and impact assessments of 

drought across the United States. ARS is leading 

development of new technology to mitigate the impact of drought via more efficient water management 

strategies and the use of non-potable water (gray 

water) to augment irrigation water supplies during 

times of drought. 

 Another research goal is to identify and collect 

the information needed to develop best-management 

practices for reduction of soil loss and sedimentation and to predict flooding occurrence. Synthesis 

and integration of seasonal weather forecasts, information on extended climate departures from normal, 

the occurrence of extreme weather events, and agroecosystems response to weather and climate variations are being integrated into planning and management tools readily usable by agricultural producers. 

This research is also conducted in collaboration with 

NOAA, NASA, and academic scientists. ARS is developing a combined wind and water erosion model 

for nationwide conservation management practice 

planning. This model incorporates a wind erosion 

model recently transferred to NRCS.

 ARS scientists conduct research to understand the processes of air pollution emissions from 

agricultural systems and the effects of air quality 

upon agriculture. ARS scientists are working with 

agricultural producers, industry, EPA, NASA, NOAA, 

NRCS, the Forest Service, and academic scientists 

to develop and test control measures to reduce gas 

emissions, including greenhouse gases, from a variety of agricultural enterprises.

COOPERATIVE STATE RESEARCH, EDUCATION 

AND EXTENSION SERVICE

 Funding for the Cooperative State Research, 

Education and Extension Service (CSREES) supports research projects that collect, process, and utilize long-term weather and climate data to provide a 

base of information for the projection and prediction 

of climatic trends related to environmental impacts 

of human activities, soils, crops and domestic animals on agro-ecosystems, forests, and rangelands. 

Broader areas of study involve climate dynamics, 

carbon and water cycling, and the role these factors play in global change. Studies on the impact of 

changes in UV and ozone levels also fit in this category of research.

 Historical climate changes are related to 

trends visible from present data-gathering studies, 

enabling prediction of future crop production and 

irrigation needs. CSREES supports studies on the 

impact of climate and weather on food and fiber production and on natural resource protection. These 

studies relate to forest plant growth, rangeland productivity, cropping system selection, livestock production practices, and natural resource management. Human impact on climate systems is also well 

represented in studies of both micro- and macro-climatic change. These studies investigate the climatic 

effects on air quality, water quality, and point/nonpoint pollution related to agricultural practices and 

forest and urban development. Studies on the effects of climate variation on nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration and emission are supported with 

CSREES funds. Other supported research quantifies the impact of climate change on the incidence 

and severity of plant and animal diseases and pests, 

invasive species, and biodiversity. 

 The CSREES National Research Initiative 

(NRI) has funded projects on a variety of weather 

and climate research in collaboration with other Federal agencies. The current focused research areas 

of NRI’s Global and Climate Change Program are 
SECTION 3 USDA 45

carbon cycling, land use dynamics, and invasive 

species. Other NRI areas of weather and climate 

research range from fundamental plant droughttolerance studies to using meteorological data to 

forecast market performance. CSREES funding in 

the FY 2009 President’s Budget for weather and climate studies is expected to be reduced from FY 

2008, due to proposed decreases in the Hatch 

Act, McIntire-Stennis, Evans-Allen, and Animal 

Health formula programs and decreases in Special 

Research Grants and Federal Administration projects.
SECTION 3 USDA 46
SECTION 3 DOC 47

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER PROGRAMS

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is the principal meteorological agency of the Federal government. By law, NOAA is responsible for reporting the weather of the United States, providing weather and flood warnings and forecasts to the general public, developing and furnishing applied weather services, and 

recording the climate of the United States. This mission is carried out within NOAA 

by the National Weather Service (NWS); the National Environmental Satellite, Data, 

and Information Service (NESDIS); the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research 

(OAR); the National Ocean Service (NOS); and the NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations (NMAO).

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE

 The United States is prone to a range of severe weather phenomena. Each year, Americans 

cope with an average of 10,000 thunderstorms, 

5,000 floods, and 1,200 tornadoes, as well as landfalling hurricanes. Some 90 percent of all Presidentially-declared disasters are weather related, causing 

approximately 600 deaths per year and $14 billion in 

damage. According to the American Meteorological 

Society, weather is directly linked to public safety, 

and about one-third of the U.S. economy (about $4 

trillion) is weather sensitive.

 Sectors of the U.S. economy increasingly 

recognize the impacts of weather, water, and climate on their businesses, and are becoming more 

sophisticated at using weather, water, and climate 

information to make better decisions. To meet this 

growing demand for information and to improve the 

timeliness and accuracy of warnings for all weather 

related hazards, the NWS will continue to enhance 

observing capabilities, improve data assimilation to 

effectively use all the relevant data NWS and others 

collect. NWS will also improve collaboration with the 

research community, make NWS information available quickly, efficiently, and in a useful form (e.g., the 

National Digital Forecast Database or NDFD) and 

include information on forecast uncertainty to help 

partners and other users make fully informed decisions.

 With about 4,700 employees, the NWS provides a national infrastructure to gather and process 

data worldwide from the land, sea, and air. This infrastructure enables data collection using technologies such as Doppler weather radars, satellites operated by NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, 

Data, and Information Service (NESDIS), data buoys 

for marine observations, surface observing systems, 

and instruments for monitoring space weather and 

air quality. These data feed sophisticated environmental prediction models running on high-speed 

supercomputers. NWS’ highly trained and skilled 

workforce uses powerful workstations to analyze all 

of these data to issue climate, public, aviation, marine, fire weather, air quality, space weather, tsunami, 

river and flood forecasts and warnings around the 

clock. A high-speed communications hub allows for 

the efficient exchange of these data and products between NWS components, partners, and other users. 

NWS forecasts and warnings are rapidly distributed 

via a diverse dissemination infrastructure including 

NOAA Weather Radio. Finally, outreach, education, 

and feedback are critical elements to effective public 

response and improvements to NWS services.

 The National Weather Service (NWS) provides climate, water, and weather warnings and forecasts for the United States, its territories, adjacent 

waters, and ocean areas to help protect life and 

property and enhance the national economy. NWS 

data and products form a national information data 

base and infrastructure which can be used by other 

governmental agencies, the private sector, the public, and the global community. In support of this mission, NWS:

• Issues warnings and forecasts of weather, flood, 

Great Lakes, coastal, and ocean conditions.

• Observes and reports the weather and the river 

and ocean conditions of the United States and 

its territories.

• Develops and operates national meteorological, 

hydrological, climate, space weather, and oceanic service systems.
SECTION 3 DOC 48

• Performs applied meteorological, hydrological, 

oceanic, space environmental and climate research.

• Assists in developing community awareness and 

educational materials and programs concerning 

weather-related natural disasters.

• Participates in multilateral forums to promote 

international hydrometeorological and space 

weather policy. This includes activities that facilitate the exchange, coding, and monitoring of 

data and forecasts. Operational activities such 

as the installation and repair of hydrometeorological equipment and systems overseas under the 

Voluntary Cooperation Program serve to improve 

the products and services of NWS.

The basic enabling legislation and authority for 

weather services are summarized as follows:

• Organic Act of 1890 created the U.S. Weather 

Bureau in the Department of Agriculture.

• Enabling Act of 1919 allowed the U.S. Weather 

Bureau to enter into cooperative agreements for 

providing agriculture weather services.

• Flood Control Act of 1938 authorized the establishment, operation, and maintenance of the 

Hydroclimatic Network by the Weather Bureau 

for Flood Control; on July 1, 1940, the Weather 

Bureau was transferred from the Department of 

Agriculture to the Department of Commerce.

• Federal Aviation Act of 1958 outlined duties of 

the Secretary of Commerce for providing weather observations and services to aviation.

• Reorganization Plan 2 of 1965 placed the “National Weather Service” in the newly created 

Environmental Science Services Administration 

(ESSA).

• Reorganization Plan 4 of 1970 made the NWS a 

part of the newly created National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

• International Convention for the Safety of Life at 

Sea (SOLAS) agreement to which the United 

States is signatory. This sets international policy 

for safer shipping and cleaner seas. The United 

States implements the convention through Executive Order 12234 of September 3, 1980 -- 

Enforcement of the Convention for the Safety of 

Life at Sea. Among the obligations of the agreement is to provide meteorological warnings and 

forecasts to ships at sea using charts and radio 

messages.

SERVICES AND ORGANIZATION

 NWS provides climate, water, weather, oceanic, and space weather prediction services, including watches, warnings, advisories, and forecasts 24 

hours a day, seven days a week. These services are 

provided through a national network of 122 Weather 

Forecast Offices (WFOs), 13 River Forecast Centers 

(RFCs), and the 9 centers of the National Centers 

for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). These offices 

collect data, prepare local warnings and forecasts, 

and disseminate information to the public, both nationally and internationally, through NOAA Weather 

Radio, satellite-based telecommunication systems, 

radiofacsimile, the media, and the internet. Forecast and warning services prepared at WFOs are 

derived in part from prediction guidance prepared 

by the RFCs and the NCEP centers. These centers 

are the: Hydrometeorological Prediction Center, 

Storm Prediction Center, Aviation Weather Center, 

Environmental Modeling Center, Tropical Prediction 

Center, Climate Prediction Center, Space Weather 

Prediction Center, Ocean Prediction Center, and 

NCEP Central Operations. Continually improving 

the accuracy, timeliness, and accessibility to prediction services is largely a result of research and development both within the NWS and externally from 

universities and private corporations.

PUBLIC WEATHER SERVICES 

 NWS’ Public Weather Service Program provides forecast, warning, and response services to the 

public, private meteorological firms, broadcast meteorologists, and NWS partners who are responsible 

for public safety. These partners include Federal, 

State, and local emergency managers and planners. 

NWS forecasters issue short-duration watches and 

warnings for severe weather, such as tornadoes 

and severe thunderstorms, as well as long-duration 

watches, warnings, and advisories for hazardous 

winter weather conditions, high wind events, dense 

fog, and temperature extremes. NWS forecasters 

support several health related programs such as Air 

Quality, Heat Health, and the Ultraviolet Index (UVI). 

Ground based ozone concentration forecasts and 
SECTION 3 DOC 49

an experimental smoke forecasting tool are now being produced for the continental United States. A 

nationwide air quality forecast capability including 

concentrations of ozone, particulate matter, and 

other pollutants is under development. Heat Health 

Watch Warning Systems (HHWWS) have been developed for select cities to provide advance notice 

of excessive heat events that produce the greatest 

number of weather-related deaths. These guidance 

systems will be expanded to other cities as resources are made available. Also, in partnership with the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a climatologically-based ultraviolet alert is being produced for 

the entire nation. The Public Weather Service 

 Program serves as the primary focal point for 

collaboration with federal transportation agencies 

on weather issues related to surface transportation; 

with federal, media, and private entities on the UVI; 

and with the World Meteorological Organization on 

the provision of public weather services to the international community. Additionally, in partnership with 

the Department of Homeland Security, NWS forecasters provide meteorological support for response 

to terrorist acts and other homeland security concerns, as well as accidental releases/spills of hazardous chemical, biological, or radioactive materials.

 Since 2004, the National Weather Service 

has created, and made readily available, forecasts 

in digital formats. NWS forecasters use their expertise to maintain an up-to-date digital forecast database of sensible weather elements. This information 

is stored in the National Digital Forecast Database 

(NDFD). Output from NDFD is available in the form 

of web graphics on the Internet, in gridded binary 

format (GRIB2) available via anonymous file transfer protocol and hypertext transfer protocol, in XML 

via a Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) service, and in Geographic Markup Language (GML) 

or Keyhole Markup Language (KML) via an experimental Web Feature Service. NDFD data can also 

be converted to a file format that can be used with 

Geographical Information Systems (GIS). NDFD includes the following operational forecast elements: 

Maximum Temperature, Minimum Temperature, 12-

Hour Probability of Precipitation, Temperature, Dew 

Point, Weather, Wind Speed and Direction, Relative Humidity, Apparent Temperature, Significant 

Wave Height, and Probabilistic Tropical Cyclone 

Surface Wind Speeds and Wind Gusts. In addition, the forecast elements Quantitative Precipitation 

Forecast (QPF), Snow Amount, Sky Cover became 

operational on July 8, 2008. Experimental forecast 

elements include Convective Outlook Hazard Probabilities, and Climate Outlooks. For more detailed 

information on NDFD, please see http://www.nws.

noaa.gov/ndfd/.

STORM-BASED WARNINGS

 The NWS previously issued and disseminated warnings for tornado, severe thunderstorm, flood 

and marine hazards using geopolitical boundaries. 

Realizing the continuing need to improve the specificity and accuracy of warnings for tornadoes, severe 

thunderstorms, floods and marine hazards, the NWS 

began implementation of Storm-Based Warnings on 

October 1, 2007. The primary goal of warning by 

storm-based polygon is improved warning service to 

the public by minimizing the alerting of areas not in 

the path of the storm. Storm-Based warning methodology allows the forecaster the opportunity to be 

spatially specific, eliminating large areas needlessly 

warned when compared to warning by county. Using 

GIS software to calculate the size of warned areas, 

it was shown that warning by polygon decreased 

the average area warned by almost 75 percent compared to warning by county. More information on 

Storm-Based Warnings can be found here: http://

www.weather.gov/sbwarnings/.

AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES 

 NWS’ Aviation Weather Services Program 

funds a broad range of initiatives designed to improve the delivery of aviation weather information to 

National Airspace System (NAS) users. These initiatives include the acquisition of aircraft mounted water vapor sensors; development of software, tools, 

and training programs to enhance forecaster effectiveness; and development of products to improve 

weather information availability to the aviation community. The Aviation Weather Program also serves 

as NOAA’s focal point in the development of the Next 

Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen). In 

order to accommodate the projected tripling of demand for air transportation, Congress established 

the Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) 

to develop and implement NextGen. The NextGen 
SECTION 3 DOC 50

plan will increase NAS capacity by relying on four-dimensional (4D) aircraft trajectories for air traffic management. It will rely on highly automated systems to 

route air traffic around areas of hazardous weather. 

These systems, and related decision support tools, 

will require a 4D digital database of aviation relevant 

weather elements that will serve as a single authoritative source of aviation weather data. This 4D Database must be continuously updated, internally consistent, and utilize Network Enabled Operations to 

provide for common situational awareness. The 4D 

Database will give NOAA the ability to provide airspace users with the current and forecast weather 

conditions for any point in space, thereby providing 

for the safe and efficient movement of air traffic. This 

capability is required to have an initial operational capability by 2012 in order to support the planned automated air traffic management systems. 

 In order to operationally support the needs of 

aviation users today, the NWS WFOs prepare Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) four times a day, 

with amendments as needed, for more than 625 

public-use airports in the United States and its territories in the Caribbean and Pacific. These offices 

also produce about 241 individual route-oriented 

forecasts three times a day for the 48 contiguous 

States and over the Pacific 

Ocean.

 NCEP’s Aviation 

Weather Center (AWC), the 

Alaska Region’s Alaska Aviation Weather Unit (AAWU), 

and WFO Honolulu, Hawaii, 

prepare area forecasts three 

or four times daily describing general aviation weather 

conditions over the lower 48 

States, the Gulf of Mexico, 

Caribbean, Alaska, Hawaii 

and coastal waters, respectively. These three specialized offices also issue 

in-flight advisories and warnings of hazardous weather 

conditions associated with 

thunderstorms, icing, turbulence, and strong, low level 

winds. The AWC also prepares forecasts of significant aviation weather over 

the entire globe four times a day (see Figure 3-DOC1).

 NWS Center Weather Service Units located in each of the 21 FAA Air Route Traffic Control 

Centers provide direct meteorological support to 

enroute centers, Terminal Radar Approach Controls, 

airport towers, and Automated Flight Service Stations. These units are operated by NWS, but funded 

through an Interagency Agreement with the FAA. 

 The NWS provides weather warnings, advisories, and forecasts to international aviation as one of 

the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) 

two World Area Forecast Centers. NCEP’s Environmental Modeling Center supplies global gridded 

model data of temperature, winds, and humidity twice 

a day for flight levels from 5,000 to 45,000 feet. The 

AWC prepares forecasts four times a day of globally 

significant thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, severe 

squall lines, moderate or severe turbulence and icing, and cumulonimbus clouds associated with the 

above. The forecast charts also include information 

on volcanoes, radiological releases, jet streams, and 

tropopause heights. This information is transmitted 

by the International Satellite Communications System with coverage in the Americas, Caribbean, AtFigure 3-DOC-1 Aviation Weather Center Global Hazard Product
SECTION 3 DOC 51

lantic, western portions of Europe, the Pacific, and 

Eastern Asia.

 The United States, in agreement with the 

ICAO, operates two Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers 

(VAAC). NESDIS’ Satellite Analysis Branch and 

NWS’ NCEP share management responsibility for 

operating the VAAC in Washington, D.C. Alaska’s 

VAAC is run by NWS’ Alaska Aviation Weather 

Unit. The Washington VAAC area of responsibility 

includes the continental United States and southward through Central America, the Caribbean to 10 

degrees South in South America, and the U.S.-controlled oceanic Flight Information Regions (FIR). The 

VAAC in Anchorage, Alaska, is responsible for the 

Alaska and Anchorage FIRs.

MARINE WEATHER SERVICES 

 NWS’ Marine Weather Program is the lead 

for the Nation’s marine and coastal weather services. Programs include warnings, forecasts, and advisories for coastal waters, offshore, high seas, and 

near-shore and open waters of the Great Lakes. It 

leads programs for tropical cyclone, coastal flood, 

severe convective coastal weather, and coastal 

hazards such as high surf, rip currents, ice, and tsunamis. NWS forecasters at 46 coastal and Great 

Lakes WFOs, in collaboration with NCEP’s Ocean 

Prediction Center and Tropical Prediction Center, 

provide a range of weather services focused on the 

expanding and weather-sensitive U.S. coastal population.

 The Marine Weather Program develops plans, 

policies, and procedures for the delivery of marine 

and coastal weather products and services. It ensures marine and coastal forecast training needs are 

met. The program works with the Office of Science 

and Technology to prioritize tropical, marine, and 

coastal science and technology development. The 

program also works with the Office of Operational 

Systems for the collection of marine and coastal 

observations and the delivery of marine and coastal 

products to users. The program creates internal and 

external partnerships, collects and validates marine 

and coastal service and mission needs, solicits feedback on products and services, and validates whether these needs are met.

 The program works with NESDIS, the U.S. 

Navy, and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to provide ice warning and advisory services through the 

joint National Ice Center. It works with the Navy, the 

USCG, the U.S. Maritime Administration, and the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) to safely operate the Nation’s Marine Transportation System. It 

works with the DOD, FEMA, and COE to provide 

tropical cyclone services; with the USCG, Navy, Air 

Force, and private entities to disseminate weather 

to mariners; NOAA’s National Ocean Service (NOS) 

on the PORTS and TIDES programs; and with the 

World Meteorological Organization to provide services to the international community. It also works 

in cooperation with NOAA’s Office of Response and 

Restoration, DOD, and Department of Homeland 

Security for forecasting services for hazardous material spills, marine area search, rescue, and recovery 

operations, and security needs.

FIRE AND INCIDENT SUPPORT WEATHER SERVICES

 The NWS provides routine pre-suppression 

and wildfire weather support to Federal and State 

land management agencies. NWS forecasters provide routine fire weather forecasts, forecast support 

for the National Fire Danger Rating System, and site 

specific forecasts during the local fire season over 

roughly three-quarters of the Nation. The NWS deploys a national cadre of specially-trained Incident 

Meteorologists (IMET) to provide onsite support for 

large wildfires and other homeland security concerns, 

as well as accidental releases/spills of hazardous 

chemical, biological, or radioactive materials. IMETs 

use weather instrumentation, telecommunications, 

and display equipment to aid in onsite forecast preparation and briefings. In the early morning, NCEP’s 

Storm Prediction Center issues outlooks for days 1, 

2, and 3-8, that highlight areas with critical and extremely critical fire potential based on the state of the 

fuels (trees, brush, grasses), and critical weather parameters. Areas where significant lightning activity, 

accompanied by less than 0.1 inch of precipitation 

(dry lightning), is forecast are also highlighted. Additionally, NWS forecasters provide forecasts in response to hazardous material incidents or Incidents 

of National Significance (such as the space shuttle 

Columbia recovery effort or the Greensburg, Kansas 

Tornado response).
SECTION 3 DOC 52

TSUNAMI WARNINGS

 Tsunami warnings, advisories, watches, and information statements for Hawaii and interim watch 

statements for the Indian Ocean, Caribbean Sea, 

and South China Sea are prepared by the Richard 

H. Hagemeyer Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in 

Ewa Beach, Hawaii. Tsunami warnings, advisories, 

watches, and information statements for the west 

and east coasts of the continental United States and 

Canada, Alaska, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Puerto 

Rico are prepared by the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center in Palmer, Alaska. NWS collects 

and analyzes observational data from an international 

network of seismological observatories, sea-level observing stations, and deep-ocean tsunami detection 

buoys which operate on a cooperative basis. The 

centers use these data to prepare and disseminate 

warnings, advisories, watches, and information statements to WFOs, Federal and State disaster agencies, military organizations, private broadcast media, 

and other agencies involved with warning the public; 

watch guidance is issued to International users.

CLIMATE SERVICES

 Climate prediction products and other services 

relate to time periods from two weeks to one year in 

the future, including seasonal forecasts and hazard 

assessments. NCEP’s Climate Prediction Center 

(CPC) produces a suite of products covering these 

periods. The climate services program provides the 

strategic vision for climate services at NWS, oversees the program including the expanded regional 

and local climate services programs, and serves as 

steward of the climate observing system. It maintains 

strong ties with other countries; across NOAA lines, 

specifically through the NOAA Climate Office; with 

federal agencies; the university community; and the 

private sector. The program encourages collaborative arrangements among Regional Climate Centers 

(managed by NOAA/NESDIS), State Climatologists, 

and NWS WFOs and regional headquarters to tailor 

climate forecasts for local users.

HYDROLOGIC SERVICES

 The 122 WFOs, 13 River Forecast Centers 

(RFCs), and NCEP’s Hydrometeorological Prediction 

Center (HPC) and CPC work as a team to provide 

hydrologic forecast and warning services to minimize 

loss of life and property from flooding, and to meet 

the water service needs of our Nation. RFC hydrologists use a modeling system called the NWS River 

Forecast System (NWSRFS) to forecast river stages 

at approximately 4,000 locations. HPC provides the 

quantitative precipitation forecasts, which serve as 

the primary forecast input for NWSRFS. RFCs also 

provide long-term water supply forecasts used by 

water managers in the western United States, where 

decisions about water allocation and use are particularly critical now, with much of the West still feeling 

the effects of a long-term drought.

 WFOs work collaboratively with the RFCs to monitor hydrologic conditions around the clock. Using 

RFC guidance, advanced Doppler radar (NEXRAD), 

and telemetered rain gauge observations, WFOs 

continuously monitor the threat of flash flooding and 

urban flooding to provide timely flood watches and 

warnings to protect life and property.

 Partnerships with a variety of Federal, State and 

local agencies are critical to the NWS’ Hydrologic 

Services Program. For example, the NWS works 

very closely with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

the COE, the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the Bureau of Reclamation, the Bureau 

of Land Management, and FEMA on water related 

issues including stream gauging, support for flood 

mitigation activities including flood inundation mapping, river and water supply forecasting, and water 

management. River stage observations and stagedischarge relationships provided by the USGS are 

critical to warning and forecast operations for the 

Nation’s rivers. The NRCS furnishes snow measurements that are combined with advanced snow 

modeling and analysis provided by NOAA’s National 

Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center to 

support joint NWS-NRCS water supply forecasting 

in the western United States.

 The NWS is implementing the Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS) to provide hydrologic forecasts with lead times ranging from minutes 

to months. AHPS builds on the existing NWS infrastructure, including AWIPS, NEXRAD, and NWSRFS. AHPS also provides Ensemble Streamflow 

Prediction, a feature that allows the NWS to quantify forecast uncertainty. This lets decision-makers 

apply risk-based analyses as they prepare for and 

respond to flooding, and as they try to balance com-
SECTION 3 DOC 53

peting demands on water supply, especially during 

periods of drought. 

 Flash floods, typically caused by intense, smallscale convection, are the leading cause of flood fatalities. Another AHPS capability, known as Flash 

Flood Monitoring and Prediction (FFMP), combines 

high-resolution radar rainfall observations with GIS 

technology to provide more accurate and much more 

precise flash flood forecasts. The added precision 

provided by FFMP greatly reduces the false alarm 

rate of flash flood forecasts, making them more credible and leading to better public response, which will 

ultimately save lives.

 AHPS services are provided as a suite of Webbased products (http://www.weather.gov/ahps) that 

feature user-friendly menus and maps allowing users 

to zoom in to areas of interest. AHPS also provides 

opportunities to improve NOAA’s analysis and forecast capabilities related to coastal water conditions, 

through joint efforts with other components of NOAA 

(e.g., National Ocean Service, Office of Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Research).

 The Water Resources Forecasting Activity is being implemented to build on AHPS and other NOAA 

services to deliver new services at a higher resolution 

(down to the neighborhood scale) with more information, such as soil moisture, soil temperature, snow 

pack, and surface runoff volume. It enables NOAA 

to provide nationally consistent gridded water quantity and quality condition forecasts via a national digital database which assimilates hydrometeorological 

data, and a community hydrologic modeling system, 

which brings the current state of science to NWS hydrology. The national digital database will integrate 

fresh water resource observations and analysis components such as precipitation estimates, snowpack 

analysis, and soil moisture data. The goal of this database is to increase the amount, type, and accuracy 

of water resources information for use within NOAA 

and by partners and other users.

 The Community Hydrologic Prediction System 

(CHPS) facilitates the sharing of data and models 

between NOAA, other Government agencies, universities, and private sector research groups to advance water prediction science. CHPS will allow 

a new suite of high-resolution forecasts (including 

estimates of uncertainty) to be produced for streamflow, soil moisture, soil temperature, water quality, 

and many other variables directly related to watershed conditions.

OBSERVATIONS

 Observations form the basis for forecasts and 

monitoring the environment. The NWS manages 

programs that produce surface and atmospheric observations in support of a wide range of customers, 

such as the aviation, climate monitoring, modeling, 

and research communities. NWS Headquarters establishes policy and standards for all observations 

and standards and coordinates with other Government agencies and international organizations. The 

NWS approach for improving observations consists 

of several efforts:

• Make better use of data from observing systems 

that currently exist;

• Extend the system life of current observing systems to postpone technical obsolescence;

• Replace obsolete observing systems;

• Implement new observing technologies and communication systems that better meet the data 

needs of the users of our products; and

• Strengthen the link between user requirements 

and technology research and development.

NOAA’S COOPERATIVE WEATHER OBSERVER NETWORK (COOP) 

 COOP is the Nation’s largest and oldest weather network. Modernization of a portion of COOP 

under the Historical Climatology Network Modernization (HCN-M) is consistent with the President’s 

Climate Change Research Initiative, providing a 

richer source of data to improve weather, water, 

and climate forecasting, and to contribute to climate 

change research. The COOP is the primary source 

for monitoring U.S. climate variability over weekly to 

inter-annual time frames. These data are also the 

primary basis for assessments of century-scale climate change. The modernized network will add to 

NOAA’s vision of an-end-to-end monitoring program. 

NATIONAL DATA BUOY CENTER (NCEP) AND 

VOLUNTARY OBSERVERING SHIP (VOS) PROGRAM

 The NDBC designs, develops, operates, and 

maintains a network of data-collecting buoys and 

coastal stations worldwide. The NDBC also imple-
SECTION 3 DOC 54

ments U.S. participation in the VOS program, which 

is an international collaboration under the World 

Weather Watch of the World Meteorological Organization. On any given day, crew members on about 

a thousand ships participating in the VOS program 

around the world observe the weather at their location, encode the observations in a standard format, 

and send the data to World Weather Watch participants via satellite or radio. NWS forecasters use 

the marine observations from the NDBC data buoy 

network and the VOS reports to examine conditions for forecast preparation and to verify forecasts 

after the period of the forecast has passed. Other 

users rely on these observations and forecasts 

for commercial and recreational marine activities.

NATIONAL CENTERS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

PREDICTION (NCEP)

 NCEP delivers to the Nation and the world, analyses, guidance, forecasts, and warnings for phenomena related to weather, the oceans, climate, terrestrial water, and land surface, as well as space weather. 

NCEP provides science-based products and services 

through collaboration with a broad range of partners 

and users to protect life and property, enhance the 

Nation’s economy, and support the Nation’s growing need for environmental information. NCEP is organized into seven science-based, service-oriented 

centers that generate environmental prediction products, and two central support centers. Each service 

center depends on the central support centers for 

observational infrastructure including quality control, 

data assimilation systems, numerical weather, ocean 

and climate modeling functions, and communication 

and product distribution systems in order to produce 

value-added forecast guidance products for NWS 

field offices and other users. 

STORM PREDICTION CENTER

 The Storm Prediction Center (SPC) focuses on 

hazardous weather events, such as severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, extreme winter weather, fire 

weather, and excessive precipitation with emphasis 

on the forecast period that ranges from 2-8 hours to 

the next 6-72 hours. All Tornado and Severe Thunderstorm Watches issued anywhere in the continental United States come from the SPC in collaboration 

with local NWS Forecast Offices. Also, the SPC 

prepares Mesoscale Convective Discussions which 

are technical explanations of developing mesoscale 

features and their impact on hazardous weather. For 

longer time periods, the SPC produces the Convective Outlook which is the one, two, or three day 

forecasts of the probability and intensity of both nonsevere and severe thunderstorms (including tornadoes). A product depicting the forecast between 

days 4-8 for organized severe thunderstorms over 

the contiguous United States is also available on a 

daily basis. The SPC also issues one and two day 

Fire Weather Outlooks for the continental United 

States, defining areas with critical, extremely critical, 

and dry thunderstorm fire conditions and potential 

for defined areas. A 3-8 day Fire Weather Outlook 

is now operational.

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PREDICTION CENTER

 The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (HPC) 

provides forecast, guidance, and analysis products 

and services to support the daily public forecasting 

activities of the NWS and its customers, and to provide tailored support to other government agencies 

in emergency and special situations. As part of this 

mission, HPC prepares Quantitative Precipitation 

Forecasts (QPF) used by the RFCs to develop local river and flood forecasts and by WFOs to develop local rainfall, snow and ice forecasts. The HPC 

provides special QPFs and coordinates with other 

Federal agencies, such as the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA), during major flood 

events. The HPC also provides an array of analyses 

and forecasts out to seven days of frontal systems, 

pressure patterns, temperature, and precipitation for 

use by WFOs and the private weather community. 

A Model Diagnostic Discussion product, which discusses model trends, biases and differences, is issued four times per day. Additionally, HPC serves as 

the backup to the National Hurricane Center. From 

September 15 through May 15, HPC staffs a Winter 

Weather Desk for two shifts per day, issuing probability graphics for snow and freezing rain as well 

as a graphic depicting the position of low pressure 

systems impacting the continental United States in 

12 hour increments out to 72 hours into the future. 

HPC also operates International Desks with the mission of providing visiting scientists meteorological 
SECTION 3 DOC 55

training with an emphasis on the operational use 

and application of numerical model products. In December 2007, HPC began issuing daily products for 

the 4-8 day range from its newly established experimental Alaskan Desk. This Desk is part of NCEP’s 

commitment to providing meteorological support for 

areas outside of the continental United States.

AVIATION WEATHER CENTER

 The Aviation Weather Center (AWC) issues 

warnings, forecasts, and analyses of weather hazardous to aviation. These efforts support the FAA’s 

Air Traffic Control (ATC) responsibility to safely and 

efficiently manage the national airspace. The AWC 

provides wind and flight hazards (e.g., convection, 

icing, turbulence) forecasts for flight planning and 

enroute aircraft operations for the United States, the 

Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic and Pacific routes in the Northern Hemisphere, and some 

routes in the Southern Hemisphere. In addition, 

every two hours, the AWC issues the Collaborative 

Convective Forecast Product (CCFP), a graphical 

representation of expected convective occurrence 

at 2-, 4-, and 6-hours after issuance time. Its purpose is to aid in the reduction of air traffic delays, 

reroutes, and cancellations influenced by significant 

convective events. It is produced March through 

October through a collaborative process involving 

AWC forecasters along with aviation forecasters 

from commercial airlines, Center Weather Service 

Units, and the Meteorological Service of Canada. 

The AWC is a major component of the U.S. World 

Area Forecast Center (WAFC), and is an international Meteorological Watch Office. As such, the AWC 

incurs a mutual backup responsibility with the other 

WAFC in Bracknell, England. Each office covers an 

overlapping two thirds of the globe. The resulting 

products are furnished as an obligation of international treaties.

ENVIRONMENTAL MODELING CENTER 

 The Environmental Modeling Center (EMC) improves NCEP’s numerical climate, water, and weather predictions through data assimilation and computer modeling. To provide mesoscale predictions 

(thunderstorms, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, 

etc.), ocean predictions, and global weather and climate predictions, EMC develops data assimilation 

systems, as well as global, regional and mesoscale 

models of the atmosphere, land surface, and ocean. 

The EMC uses advanced modeling methods developed internally and cooperatively with universities, the international scientific community, NESDIS, 

NOAA laboratories, and other government agencies. 

As an example, EMC is a partner in the NASA/NOAA 

Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA) 

designed to accelerate the use of research and operational satellite data in NCEP operational models. The EMC integrates research and technology 

through collaborative model development projects. 

These interactions serve as an efficient and effective 

interface between NCEP and the scientific community that develop ideas, numerical models, and forecast techniques to implement model improvements 

and improve NWS products. The EMC conducts 

applied research and technology transfers and publishes research results in various media for dissemination to the world meteorological, oceanographic, 

and climate community. EMC also participates in 

ongoing interactive research programs such as NOAA’s Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project (HFIP) 

and the community Weather Research and Forecast 

(WRF) model. Furthermore, EMC is participating in 

the Winter Storm Reconnaissance Program in the 

Pacific through targeted observations aimed at improving forecasts across the country. In addition, 

at NCEP, led by the EMC, the ensemble approach 

has been applied operationally at the short, medium 

and extended range. EMC efforts with collaborative 

development have resulted in improvements to mesoscale and global models, as well as advancements 

in hurricane track forecasts, climate forecasts and air 

quality forecasts.

CLIMATE PREDICTION CENTER

 The Climate Prediction Center (CPC) provides 

operational monitoring and prediction of global and 

regional climate variability, with emphasis on applied 

research and partnerships, to improve understanding of the global climate system. The CPC develops 

and maintains data bases for determining current 

and historical climate anomalies and trends, and provides analyses and assessments of their origins and 

linkages to the global climate system. CPC products and services cover time scales ranging from the 

next week (days 6-10) to seasons out to a year in advance. These products cover land, ocean, and the 
SECTION 3 DOC 56

atmosphere extending into the stratosphere. CPC’s 

products include probabilistic 1-month and 3-month 

outlooks (out to one year) for temperature and precipitation, a U.S. Hazards Assessment, the multi-agency U.S. Drought Monitor, a drought outlook, and El 

Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) discussions and 

outlooks, among many others. WFOs, as well as the 

public, private industry, and the national and international research community, use CPC products and 

climate services. CPC also houses the Climate Test 

Bed (CTB) to accelerate the transfer of research 

and development into improved NOAA operational 

climate forecasts, products, and applications. CTB 

personnel include scientists from NCEP and other 

NOAA and non-NOAA organizations.

SPACE WEATHER PREDICTION CENTER

 The Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) 

provides national and international forecasts, alerts, 

and warnings of extraordinary conditions in the space 

environment, solar radio noise, solar energetic particles, solar X-ray radiation, geomagnetic activity, and 

conditions of stratospheric warming. The SWPC observes, assesses, and predicts activity in the space 

environment to promote public safety and to mitigate 

economic loss that could result from disruption of 

satellite operations, communications, and navigation 

systems, and electric power distribution grids. The 

SWPC issues to the public, its U.S. Air Force partners, and vendors of value-added services specific 

predictions of the space weather activity level for the 

next three days and more general predictions up to 

several weeks in advance, as well as weekly summaries of observed solar terrestrial conditions. SWPC 

serves as the international World Warning Agency 

for the International Space Environment Service 

(ISES). It exchanges international data (solar wind, 

X-ray, sunspot, corona, magnetic, and ionospheric 

measurements) in real-time and issues a consensus 

set of daily forecasts for international use.

OCEAN PREDICTION CENTER 

 The Ocean Prediction Center (OPC) provides atmospheric and oceanographic warning, forecast, and analysis products and services out to five 

days for the North Atlantic (north of 30 °N) and North 

Pacific (north of 31 °N) as part of the NWS mission 

of protecting life and property and enhancing economic opportunity. As part of this responsibility, 

OPC handles U.S. international meteorological obligations to marine interests under the International 

Convention for SOLAS. The OPC provides weather 

and sea state warnings and forecasts for the offshore waters of the United States and the high seas 

of the Northern Hemisphere north of 30 degrees out 

to five days for planning and operational purposes. 

OPC warnings and products go directly to ships and 

are vital for the protection of life and property at sea, 

and enhancement of the economy. The OPC also 

coordinates forecasts with, and provides forecast 

guidance to, WFOs with coastal responsibilities. 

The OPC, the Tropical Prediction Center (TPC), 

HPC, and WFO Honolulu collaborate daily to produce unified and seamless surface weather analyses 

covering from 30 degrees South to the North Pole, 

and from East Asia across the Pacific and Atlantic to 

Western Europe and Africa.

TROPICAL PREDICTION CENTER/NATIONAL 

HURRICANE CENTER 

 The mission of the Tropical Prediction Center 

(TPC)/National Hurricane Center (NHC) is to save 

lives, mitigate property loss, and improve economic 

efficiency by issuing watches, warnings, forecasts, 

and analyses of hazardous tropical weather, and 

by increasing understanding of these hazards. The 

TPC/NHC provides guidance, coordination, and 

tropical weather expertise to WFO forecasters, the 

media, and private industry. TPC/NHC services include public and marine advisories, watches, and 

warnings out to five days for tropical cyclones in the 

North Atlantic and eastern North Pacific hurricane 

basins, including the portions of the coastline threatened by such storms. In addition, TPC forecasters 

provide marine analyses and forecast products for 

the same areas of responsibility, south of 30 degrees north latitude and a portion of the southeast 

Pacific. The TPC is also home to the Joint Hurricane 

Testbed, by which new technology, research results, 

and observational advances are transferred smoothly and rapidly into improved tropical cyclone analysis 

and prediction products.

NCEP CENTRAL OPERATIONS (NCO)

 NCO is responsible for NCEP operations, including access to real time data, and its quality control 
SECTION 3 DOC 57

and use in numerical weather prediction systems, as 

well as the workstations used by NCEP forecasters 

to access model output and other data necessary for 

producing guidance products. The NCO maintains 

and manages the modeling supercomputers and is 

responsible for running the computer applications 

that generate all NCEP model products. The NCO 

provides management, procurement, development, 

installation, maintenance, and operation of all computing and communications related services that 

link individual NCEP activities together. The NCO 

is the focal point for establishing and executing policies, standards, procedures, and documentation for 

computing and communications within the entire 

NCEP organization. The NCO leads the technical 

transition between the research and development 

of numerical weather and climate prediction models 

and their operational use on the NCEP computer 

systems. In addition, NCO provides 24 hour information services and operational support for NCEP 

computing systems, including the network which ties 

together internal NCEP communications, NWS high 

performance computer systems, forecaster workstations, personal computers, and a user service that 

supports all NCEP centers. Since an upgrade to 

NCEP’s main computer systems and facilities in 

1999, and throughout subsequent upgrades, NCO 

has delivered NCEP model forecasts and products 

to its users with a high degree of reliability and timeliness. NCO also manages two supercomputers; one 

located in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and the other in 

Fairmont, West Virginia, as backup. Each day, the 

operational machine processes up to seven billion 

meteorological observations (99.9 percent of which 

are from satellites), and generates more than 14.8 

million model fields.

OTHER NWS OFFICES WITH NATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES

 In addition to the NCEP centers, there are three 

other offices that provide national products. They 

are the Alaska Aviation Weather Unit, the Anchorage WFO, and the WFO Honolulu/Central Pacific 

Hurricane Center. 

 The Alaska Aviation Unit provides wind, temperature, and flight hazards (e.g., icing, turbulence) 

forecasts for flight planning and enroute aircraft operations for Alaska and surrounding areas. The Anchorage WFO prepares offshore marine forecasts 

and warnings for interstate and international marine 

commerce traversing the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. They also prepare ice analyses and forecasts for the Arctic Ocean, the Bering and Chukchi 

Seas, and the Cook Inlet. WFO Honolulu/Central 

Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) provides aviation, 

marine, and tropical cyclone products. In aviation, 

WFO Honolulu provides wind, temperature, and 

flight hazards (e.g., icing, turbulence) forecasts for 

flight planning and enroute aircraft operations for the 

central North Pacific from 140 degrees West to 160 

degrees East longitude, and in the Oakland Flight Information Region south of 30 degrees North latitude 

through ICAO international agreement. The office 

handles international meteorological obligations to 

marine interests under the International Convention 

for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). WFO Honolulu provides weather and sea state warnings and 

forecasts for the high seas of the central North and 

South Pacific south of 30 degrees North latitude. 

CPHC issues tropical cyclone advisories, forecasts, 

watches, and warnings for the central North Pacific 

including Hawaii.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

 The NWS conducts applied research, building 

upon the more basic research conducted by NOAA 

laboratories and the academic community. Applied 

meteorological and hydrological research is integral 

to providing more timely and accurate weather, water, and climate services to the public.

METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH

 The NWS conducts applied research, building upon the more basic research conducted by 

NOAA laboratories and the academic community. 

Applied meteorological and hydrological research 

is integral to providing more timely and accurate 

weather, water, and climate services to the public.

METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH

 The NWS conducts meteorological research 

to develop, test, evaluate, and improve numerical 

models and analysis/forecast techniques for weather and climate prediction including:

• Techniques for predicting mesoscale phenomena (e.g., heavy precipitation, tornadoes, and se-
SECTION 3 DOC 58

vere thunderstorms).

• Models to improve hurricane tracking, hurricane 

probability estimates, and tropical analyses.

• Storm surge models to assist in developing hurricane evacuation plans for additional coastal basins.

• Techniques to improve prediction of seasonal to 

interannual climate variability and their impacts 

on weather variability.

• Techniques to improve incident data retrieval and 

display (with NOAA’s Environmental Systems Research Laboratory’s Global Systems Division).

Hydrologic Research

 The NWS develops, implements, and provides operational support for improved hydrologic, 

hydraulic, and hydrometeorological models. NWS 

also manages hydrologic data, as well as enhanced 

quality control procedures to support national flood 

and water resources forecasting. Research encompasses the following areas:

• Improvements to the Ensemble Streamflow Prediction (ESP) system and its complementary 

models in the NWS River Forecasting System.

• Research, development, and implementation of 

improved ESP procedures which improve forecast accuracy and quantify uncertainty at all time 

scales.

• Specialized flood and flash flood forecasting procedures using linked hydrologic, hydraulic and 

meteorological models. Major research areas include developing distributed hydrologic models 

that use high resolution precipitation data from 

the NWS radar network, improvement of cold 

region processes in watershed models, and assimilation of data to improve model initialization. 

Highly specialized hydraulic models for routing 

river flows will also provide information for generating maps of inundated areas.

• Development of improved multi-sensor precipitation estimates for input into operational hydrologic and atmospheric models. Radar, rain gauge, 

and satellite rainfall estimates are merged to produce optimum rainfall analyses. 

• Development of verification methods to assess 

the added value of new science and technology 

to the product user. 

• Development of the Community Hydrologic Prediction System (CHPS) to facilitate the sharing 

of data and models, and allow for production of a 

new suite of high-resolution forecasts.

Space Weather Research

 Research and development at SWPC emphasizes understanding of the fundamental physical processes governing the regime from the solar 

surface, through the interplanetary medium, into 

the magnetospheric-ionospheric regions, and ending in Earth’s upper atmosphere. These processes 

are manifest in the climatology and disturbances of 

Earth’s magnetic field, the ionosphere, the charged 

particle populations at satellite orbits, and the atmospheric density at high altitudes (including low-Earth 

orbit). This applied research is focused on areas 

where advanced applications can be devised and 

prototyped to improve the specification and forecast 

of conditions in the space environment by developing and implementing models and indices, and by 

obtaining and processing new observations. Activities include:

• Developing the first dynamic, global ionospheric 

model to use ensemble Kalman filter techniques 

to assimilate data every 15 minutes. Disparate 

data from a wide variety of sources will enable 

the model output to be useful to radio communicators, as well as Global Positioning System 

(GPS) and Loran users.

• Developing models to characterize and predict 

geomagnetic storm intensity, both spatially and 

temporally.

Support for Collaborative Research with the Academic Community and Other Partners

 The Collaborative Science, Technology, and 

Applied Research (CSTAR) program was established to bring NWS-supported collaborative activities with the academic community into a structured 

program and to create a cost-effective transition 

from basic and applied research to operations and 

services. The CSTAR Program issues requests for 

proposals through which colleges and universities 

compete for 1-3 years of research funding. CSTAR 

supports shorter-term research activities with colleges and universities through the NWS/Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training (COMET) Outreach Program. 
SECTION 3 DOC 59

The NWS also funds specific applied research 

grants and cooperative agreements directly in support of hydrology and meteorology research needs.

Training

NWS provides training to its workforce to enhance 

the professional and scientific development of its 

staff in support of its mission and strategic goals. 

Training deficiencies and requirements are identified 

and addressed via the National Strategic Training 

and Education Plan (NSTEP) process, described 

in NWS Instruction 20-102 and available at http://

www.nws.noaa.gov/directives/020/pd02001002a.

pdf

 Training is provided through residence classes 

and workshops, distance learning methods, Internet 

modules, teletraining sessions, webcasts, and CDROM based training. The NWS Training Center 

(NWSTC) in Kansas City, Missouri, provides technical, meteorological and hydrologic, and management/leadership training. The Warning Decision 

Training Branch (WDTB) in Norman, Oklahoma, 

conducts situational awareness and remote sensing 

training with modules that integrate data for improving the warning decision process. The Forecast Decision Training Branch (FDTB) in Boulder, Colorado, 

provides scientific and forecast-decision training. 

NWS employees also have direct access to scientific and managerial training materials through the 

Department of Commerce’s Learning Center. NWS 

training is also supported by a partnership with the 

COMET program located in Boulder, Colorado. 

 The NWSTC, in addition to providing scientific 

and technical training, is working to expand its leadership training and development skills through NWS’ 

Leadership Academy. The goal of the Leadership 

Academy is to enable NWS and NOAA employees 

to become world-class leaders. The Academy is 

founded on a sequential and progressive approach 

designed to develop professional skills and capabilities to improve employee performance. From entry 

into the agency to senior career status, employees 

can take advantage of courses and processes that 

are part of a powerful management and leadership 

learning environment. Finally, the NWS is working 

to develop an organized curriculum to supply the 

necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities for all positions.
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INTRODUCTION

 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) National Environmental Satellite, 

Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) oversees 

the daily operations of U.S. civil operational environmental satellite systems as well as NOAA’s data 

centers, which develop global, national, and regional 

da-tabases to support meteorology, oceanography, 

geophysics, and the space environment. 

 NESDIS procures, launches, and operates 

two types of satellites to provide worldwide environmental data and information products and services 

to Federal agencies, state and local governments, 

and private us-ers. These satellite types are the 

Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites 

(POES) and Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES).

POLAR-ORBITING OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES (POES)

 Polar-orbiting satellites circle the Earth in an almost north-south orbit, passing close to both poles. 

These satellites ensure that data for any region of 

the Earth are no more than six hours old. Data from 

POES support global weather forecasting models, 

long-term global climate change research, and hazard detection and mitigation. NESDIS operates six 

polar orbiters. The NOAA-12, NOAA-14, NOAA-15, 

and NOAA-16 satellites continue to transmit data as 

stand-by satellites. MetOp-A, a European environmental satellite with three instruments provided by 

NOAA, is the primary morning satellite; NOAA-17 

serves as the backup morning satellite; and NOAA18 is the primary afternoon satellite. NESDIS also 

manages the command, control, and communications functions of the Department of Defense’s 

(DoD’s) Defense Mete-orological Satellite Program 

(DMSP).

NATIONAL POLAR-ORBITING OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE SYSTEM (NPOESS)

 NPOESS, the next generation of polar-orbiting satellites, will provide standard meteorological, 

oceanographic, environmental, and climatic information as well as space environmental remote sensing 

information. In addition, NPOESS will continue to 

provide surface data collection and search and rescue capability. The first NPOESS satellite will begin 

to collect and disseminate data on Earth’s weather, 

at-mosphere, oceans, land, and near-space environment in 2013. The NPOESS Integrated Program 

Office (IPO), in consultation with the Polar-orbiting 

Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) and 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) 

program offices, is also studying additional potential 

cost effective approaches to maximize user satisfaction during the transition to NPOESS while guaranteeing continued uninterrupted data services. The 

NPOESS program is managed by the Tri-Agency 

IPO, employing per-sonnel from the Department of 

Commerce (DOC), the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA), and DoD. During Fiscal Year (FY) 2009, activities will include, but will not 

be limited to, assembly, integration, and testing of 

sensors on the NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) 

satellite; preparation for NPP launch in 2010; prelaunch calibration and validation for NPP; development and testing of sensor flight units for NPOESS; 

Critical Design Review for NPOESS; expansion of 

the Antarctic Data Relay site; completion of the Interface Data Processing Segment (IDPS) software 

builds; Mission Operational Readiness Review for 

NPP; and NPP Ground Readiness Review. Also 

in FY 2009, NOAA will work to support remanifesting the Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System 

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE, DATA, AND INFORMATION SERVICE

Figure 3-DOC-2. Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental 

Satellite
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(CERES) instrument and the Total Solar Irradiance 

Sensor (TSIS) and to develop infrastructure for data 

records archive, access, and assessment. These 

efforts support the Administration’s commitment to 

restoring high priority climate sensors that were demanifested from NPOESS in 2006. NOAA is also 

working with the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy (OSTP) and the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM) on development and 

assessment of mitigation options to address the loss 

of space environmental sensing capability being demanifested from the planned NPOESS spacecraft 

and potential loss of the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) spacecraft solar wind data.

GEOSTATIONARY OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES (GOES)

 The GOES spacecraft, in contrast to the POES 

spacecraft, circle the Earth in a geosynchronous orbit. This means they orbit the equatorial plane of 

the Earth at a speed matching the Earth’s rotation. 

These satellites provide continuous monitoring necessary for effective, detailed, and extensive near-term 

severe weather monitoring and forecasting and longterm environmental monitoring. Each operational 

satellite continuously views nearly one third of the 

Earth’s surface. GOES-East at 75°W and GOESWest at 135°W provide data on the United States 

and the Western Hemisphere. GOES-East monitors 

North and South America and most of the Atlantic 

Ocean. GOES-West monitors North America and 

the Pacific Ocean basin. GOES-13 is the on-orbit spare at 105°W and is available for operational 

deployment when needed. GOES-10 was retired 

from active service for the United States in December 2006. This satellite is at 60°W and is providing enhanced monitoring for South America through 

the Global Earth Observation System of Systems 

(GEOSS) in the Americas initiative. In FY 2009, 

the next spacecraft in the current GOES series will 

be launched. GOES-O is slated to launch in April 

2009 and will become an on-orbit spare (GOES-14) 

to support the current GOES mission.

GEOSTATIONARY OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE SERIES R (GOES-R)

 Geostationary satellites remain the weather sentinels for NOAA—tracking hurricanes, severe storms, 

clouds, land, and ocean features. The next-generation geostationary satellite series, called GOES-R, 

will scan the Earth nearly five times faster than the 

current GOES, providing users such as meteorologists and government agencies around the world 

with about 60 times the amount of data currently 

provided. GOES-R is a collaborative development 

and acquisition effort between NOAA and NASA; 

their partnering takes advantage of each agency’s 

expertise. In FY 2009, the 

GOES-R Program plans to 

award major contracts for 

the GOES-R Spacecraft 

and Ground Systems.

CENTER FOR SATELLITE 

APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH (STAR)

The Center for Satellite Applications and Research’s 

(STAR’s) mission is to transfer satellite observations of 

the land, atmosphere, ocean, 

and climate from scientific 

research and development 

into routine opera-tions and 

to offer state-of-the-art data, 

Figure 3-DOC-3 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
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products, and services to decision-makers. STAR 

participates in the life cycle of all operational NOAA 

satellites—from defining the initial requirements for a 

satellite mission, through calibration and application 

of the data after the satellite is in orbit, to archiving 

and developing products from the data. STAR also 

works with data from non-NOAA satellites as well 

for research, to transfer capabilities to NOAA, and to 

obtain even more observations of the Earth.

 STAR investigates how to develop satellite 

datasets that can be used to assess conditions on 

the Earth in a timely manner, predict changes, and 

study long-term trends in the environment. STAR 

works to create products that monitor atmospheric, 

oceanic, and environmental hazards; enhance NOAA’s infrastructure for remote sensing; reduce the 

risk of launching new, untested, and very expensive 

satellites and sensors; and expand its support to users.

NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER (NCDC)

 The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) serves 

as a national resource for climate information. This 

data center develops national and global datasets 

that are used by both government and the private 

sec-tor. NCDC’s mission is to describe the climate 

of the United States. This data center also acts as 

the Nation’s scorekeeper regarding the trends and 

anomalies of weather and climate. In addition to archiving a variety of in situ and airborne measurements, 

NCDC provides archive and access to historical satellite data from GOES and POES. NCDC’s climate 

data are used in a variety of disciplines, including agriculture, air quality, construction, education, energy, 

engineering, forestry, health, insurance, landscape 

design, livestock management, manufacturing, recreation and tourism, retail, transportation, and water 

re-sources management. NCDC’s data and products fulfill needs ranging from building code compliance to power plant and space shuttle design.

NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL DATA CENTER 

(NGDC)

 The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) 

provides stewardship, products, and services for 

geophysical data describing the solid earth, marine, 

and solar-terrestrial environments, as well as Earth 

observations from space. NGDC’s data holdings 

contain more than 400 digital and analog databases, 

some of which are very large. As technology advances, so does the search for more efficient ways 

of pre-serving these data. NGDC also maintains the 

archive for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) program, where NOAA provides satellite commanding and data processing support to 

the Air Force DMSP program. NGDC welcomes cooperative projects with other government agencies, 

nonprofit organizations, and universities and encourages data exchange. NGDC datasets are used by 

scientific researchers, the engineering community, 

disaster management planners, and the public for a 

wide variety of applications. This data center continually develops data management programs that reflect 

the changing world of geophysics. In addition, this 

center works closely with contributors of scientific 

data to prepare documented, reliable datasets and 

is continually seeking input on user requirements for 

data and informa-tion products. NGDC’s vision is to 

be the world’s leading provider of geophysical and 

environmental data, information, and products.

OFFICE OF SATELLITE DATA PROCESSING AND 

DISTRIBUTION (OSDPD)

 OSDPD manages and directs the operation of the central ground facilities, which ingest, 

process, and distribute environmental satellite data 

and derived products to domestic and foreign users. 

OSDPD serves as the primary operating level interface with the civil sector users of data from operating 

earth sat-ellites. OSDPD manages the Search and 

Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking (SARSAT) system 

and is re-sponsible for coordinating and implementing the United States activities in the international satellite aided search and rescue program, COSPASSARSAT. OSDPD also evaluates the effectiveness 

of the opera-tional ground facilities and procedures 

in terms of the quality and quantity and assesses the 

timeliness of the products and services provided. It 

maintains an inventory of operational products and 

services and prepares assessments, recommendations, and plans for the initiation of new products and 

services. In addition, OSDPD provides interpretive 

analyses of global satellite data to support domestic 

and interna-tional hazard mitigation activities in the 

fields of tropical storm position and intensity analysis, airborne volcanic ash detection, heavy rain or 
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snowfall estimates, and smoke and fire analysis.

NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA CENTER 

(NODC)

 The National Oceanographic Data Center 

(NODC) is a national repository and dissemination 

facil-ity for global oceanographic data. This data 

center acquires and preserves a historical record of 

the Earth’s changing environment that is used for operational applications and ocean climate research. 

NODC is an organization made up of the Oceanographic Data Center, National Coastal Data Develop-ment Center, World Data Center for Oceanography, and NOAA Central Library. These centers are 

inte-grated to provide access to the world’s most 

comprehensive sources of marine environmental 

data and information. NODC provides end-to-end 

environmental data stewardship by managing the 

acquisition, processing, quality control, access, and 

long-term preservation of oceanographic data. The 

NODC ar-chive holdings include all the observational data acquired in its original form, as well as data 

records from national research projects and oceanographic products.

NOAA COOPERATIVE REMOTE SENSING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER (CREST)

 CREST is a multi-institutional center, led by 

the City University of New York (CUNY). Partner 

insti-tutions include The City College, Lehman College, the CUNY Graduate Center, Bronx Community 

Col-lege, and the New York College of Technology 

in collaboration with four partner institutions, which 

are Hampton University; University of Maryland, Baltimore County; University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez; 

and Bowie State University. CREST programs and 

activities are aligned with the NOAA Strategic Mission of Environmental Assessment, Prediction, and 

Stewardship. They are organized into five thematic 

catego-ries: Science, Outreach, Education, Administration, and Awards and Recognition.

 Dr. John Bates, from the National Climatic 

Data Center (NCDC), led the 2008 External Review 

for CREST and NCDC’s education and outreach 

program. These programs support a number of 

CREST ac-tivities such as student education, training, and career development in NOAA-related sciences, including the CREST Summer High School 

Internship program, the NOAA Educational Partnership Program, and a 2007 NESDIS student summer 

workshop. Additional activities include exploring opportunities to inte-grate new satellite data in education; conducting science and service programs; and 

using new data inte-gration and visualization tools 

and technologies like Science-on-a-Sphere for environmental education and outreach.

SERVICES

OFFICE OF SATELLITE DATA PROCESSING AND 

DISTRIBUTION (OSDPD) 

 OSDPD ingests, processes, and distributes 

many hundreds of satellite products to various users, including NOAA’s NWS. OSDPD manages 

the ground processing system that delivers critical 

satellite data and products to the NWS’ numerical 

weather prediction (NWP) models. OSDPD also delivers near-real-time images from the Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) spacecraft, as well as images from polar-orbiting satellites, 

to the NWS Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) 

through NOAAPORT and to the National Centers 

for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) offices located 

in Camp Springs, Maryland. Satellite data plays a 

critical role in the forecast process. NWP models 

use thousands of global observations from satellites 

to portray an accurate state of the atmosphere, land, 

and ocean surface for the models to initialize in their 

forecast cycles. Imagery from satellites is used in 

the weather forecast and warning process by the 

National Centers and by local WFOs. Satellite data 

over the oceans are usually the only source of environmental information over these data void regions.

NATIONAL ICE CENTER (NIC) 

 The U.S. NIC, sponsored by the U.S. Navy, 

NOAA, and the U.S. Coast Guard, is tasked with 

providing the highest quality operational global, regional, and tactical scale sea ice analyses and forecasts tailored to meet the requirements of U.S. national interests. NIC uses data from polar-orbiting 

satellites to create guidance products and maps.

 Routine NIC ice guidance products include 

regional-scale ice maps, annotated satellite imagery, 

short- and long-term ice forecasts, and legacy ice 

information and ice climatology. Specific sea ice 
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features analyzed include ice edge position, ice concentration, ice thickness, form or floe size, ice motion, areas of compression and heavy surface deformation, and the location/orientation of open water or 

thin ice-covered leads.

JOINT CENTER FOR SATELLITE DATA ASSIMILATION (JCSDA)

 Effective environmental prediction requires 

several elements. One of these is accurate, welldistributed observations of the Earth’s environment 

and numerical models that embody the physical and 

chemical laws governing the behavior of the Earth’s 

land surface, oceans, and atmosphere. Data assimilation is the mortar that binds these elements into 

successful prediction systems for weather, oceans, 

climatology, and ecosystems. JCSDA is a partnership between NOAA, the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA), the U.S. Navy, and 

the U.S. Air Force dedicated to developing and improving our ability to exploit satellite data more effectively in the United States. JCSDA is a collaborative 

effort that allows the work required to assimilate the 

billions of satellite observations available daily to be 

shared by several agencies. This effort would otherwise be duplicated across the agencies. The goals 

of JCSDA are to:

• Reduce the average time for operational implementation of new satellite technology from two 

years to one year

• Increase the use of current satellite data in numerical weather prediction models

• Advance the common numerical models and data 

assimilation infrastructure

• Assess the impacts of data from advanced satellite sensors on weather and climate predictions

NATIONAL INTEGRATED DROUGHT INFORMATION SYSTEM (NIDIS)

 Drought events have far reaching impacts 

on many aspects of our daily lives, from water management to health to energy consumption and conservation. To mitigate these impacts, NOAA, other 

Federal and state agencies, partners, and countries, 

developed the plan for NIDIS. NIDIS is a dynamic 

and accessible drought-risk information system that 

was created in response to extended drought conditions, especially in the Western United States, over 

the past decade. In 2007, NOAA unveiled a new, 

interactive website called the U.S. Drought Portal 

(USDP) that allows the public and civic managers to 

monitor U.S. drought conditions; access forecasts; 

assess the impacts of drought on their communities; 

and learn about possible mitigation measures. This 

website is useful to other countries as nations work 

to coordinate drought preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery activities. In FY 2008, NOAA 

began to institute geographic information system 

mapping capabilities in USDP. For FY 2009, NOAA 

will work to integrate enhanced geographic information system capabilities in USDP. Additionally, communities will be unveiled in the portal, serving as a 

location for subject matter experts to share improvements in drought monitoring, forecasting, and mitigation. These communities will also serve as a coordinating and communications mechanism for NIDIS 

regional pilot projects.

COMPREHENSIVE LARGE ARRAY-DATA STEWARDSHIP SYSTEM (CLASS)

 CLASS stores large volumes of NOAA’s 

complex data and information such as satellite, radar, 

and other data and derived products. This system 

helps NOAA more efficiently preserve the volumes 

and diversity of valuable environmental data and information being acquired by improved observations 

and enhanced data products. CLASS also supports 

convenient access to this data to users worldwide. 

In FY 2009, NOAA will systematically assess environmental datasets for inclusion within CLASS and 

plan for additional integration of legacy Information 

Technology (IT) systems supporting archives. In addition, CLASS will be ready to begin providing secure storage of and access to the National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System 

(NPOESS) Preparatory Project (NPP) satellite data.

CLIMATE DATABASE MODERNIZATION PROGRAM (CDMP)

 Climate data, such as wind speed and direction, precipitation, temperature, and pressure, are 

critical to many disciplines and enterprises, including economic research, engineering, risk management, energy resource management, and agriculture. Decision-makers in these and other sectors 

require easy access to these climate data. CDMP 
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conserves and improves access to environmental 

data by identifying and transcribing these data from 

historical analog sources (i.e., paper, film, or other 

non-digital media) to digital formats. Under CDMP, 

new digital databases of historical environmental 

data and information are created. As a result of this 

program, many existing digital datasets have been 

extended back in time, in many cases by a century 

or more. Additionally, the conversion of analog data 

sources to digital databases and datasets ensures 

that they are preserved efficiently and inexpensively 

over the long-term. There are more than 52 million 

images and over nine terabytes of data now available 

via web-based software to U.S. government employees and their contractors, educational institutions 

doing environmental research, and other researchers 

associated with NOAA projects. In addition, during 

the past few years over four million hourly weather 

records were keyed and integrated into the National 

Climatic Data Center’s (NCDC’s) digital database 

holdings.

 In 2008, CDMP supported over 77 climate 

and environmental data rescue projects within 

NOAA. Most of this data and information was underutilized and unavailable for research and, in some 

cases, in danger of being lost due to poor quality. 

The majority of these NOAA rescue projects are multiyear tasks; many spill over into FY 2009 due to the 

complexity and extent of the imaging, keying, and/

or data conversion. The first year of a new NOAA 

task usually involves a pilot or subset of the entire 

task, allowing CDMP managers to benchmark costs, 

time, and labor. CDMP also provided technical and 

programming support to various systems to help 

modernize software and delivery systems, making 

the data accessible to NOAA users. Some major 

NOAA continuing tasks include: upper air and surface international data rescue projects; geolocation 

of historical maps and charts; shoreline vectorization 

and geo-referencing; aerial photography image conversion; and imaging and keying marine logbooks 

and lightship data, tsunami event gauge records, 

and International Polar Year imaging.

GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM INFORMATION 

CENTER (GOSIC)

 GOSIC provides access to data, metadata, 

and information from the Global Climate Observing 

System (GCOS), the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), and the Global Terrestrial Observing 

System (GTOS). This system provides efficient access to data and information and unique tools for 

searching and accessing data, such as matrices 

and portals. This system allows users to search for 

specific data, such as data located at NCDC and 

other global data centers. GOSIC serves the global 

observing system community and is a great tool for 

coordinating the various climate observing activities across NCDC and NOAA. GOSIC continues 

to play an important role in international and regional data access activities. As a formally registered 

service of the Global Earth Observation System of 

Systems (GEOSS) data access project, this will expand in 2009. GEOSS is a comprehensive effort 

to focus on the societal benefits of earth observations. Furthermore, as the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) moves toward a modernized and 

comprehensive WMO Information Service (WIS), 

GOSIC will play an important role in FY 2009 in the 

overall WIS architecture. From a regional perspective, GOSIC continues to play a significant role in 

aiding various Pacific Island National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in a number of critical 

data access and communication functions related to 

meteorological and climatological data in the region. 

It serves as a capacity building utility by providing 

Internet-based web services in concert with the Asia 

Pacific Data Research Center, which is a NOAA/

NCDC funded activity at the University of Hawaii.

U.S. CLIMATE REFERENCE NETWORK (USCRN)

 USCRN is a network of climate stations being developed to provide future long-term homogeneous observations of temperature and precipitation that can be coupled with long-term historical 

observations to identify and monitor climate change. 

USCRN data are used in climate monitoring activities to place current climate anomalies into historical 

perspective. Data from the fully deployed network of 

114 stations in the conterminous U.S. (planned by 

the end of FY 2008) quantify the variance in surface 

air temperature and precipitation on a national scale. 

The USCRN climate-quality observations avoid many 

of the time-dependent biases typically experienced 

with other surface observing networks. USCRN is 

quickly becoming the Nation’s benchmark network 
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by providing a standard to which satellite, weather 

radar, and other surface system observations can be 

validated and verified. USCRN enhances the quality 

of and confidence in other observations; contributes 

to the rehabilitation of historical datasets; increases 

in the volume of data used to detect climate trends; 

and supports climate monitoring, evaluation, and 

forecasting. In FY 2009, contingent on available 

funding, USCRN will expand to Alaska with an eventual planned network of 29 stations.

 For FY 2009, we plan to add soil moisture, 

soil temperature, and relative humidity sensors at 60 

USCRN sites in support of the National Integrated 

Drought Information System (NIDIS). Measurements of soil moisture and soil temperature are one 

of the most critical parameters for understanding 

the state of drought throughout the country. The 

density of those few observing networks configured 

with soil sensors is woefully inadequate for systematic drought monitoring purposes at either the National or Regional Levels. The deficiency in the area 

of soil moisture and soil temperature observations 

and monitoring has a critical impact most notably on 

agribusiness and silviculture as well as forest fire responsiveness.

NOAA OPERATIONAL MODEL ARCHIVE AND 

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (NOMADS)

 NOMADS is a collaborative approach, spanning multiple Government agencies and academic 

institutions, to address the growing need for remote 

access to high volume global climate model and numerical weather prediction model data. NOMADS 

is a network of data servers using established and 

emerging technologies to access and integrate 

model and other data. NOMADS enables users to 

share and compare model results. The goals of this 

system are to improve access to model data and 

information; improve weather forecasting; develop 

links between the research and operational modeling communities; foster collaboration between the 

climate and weather modeling communities; and 

promote joint product development to study multiple 

Earth systems.

 In FY 2009, NOMADS will have access to increased bandwidth for user access to data, thereby 

allowing customers’ access to download much larger volumes of data and directly supporting multiple 

research projects. Collaboration with national partners will continue and the incoming model data (into 

NCDC’s archives) will continue to be accessible via 

NOMADS in near-real-time. There will be increased 

linkages with the NOAA Virtual Data System (NVDS) 

and its Geographical Information System (GIS) Services, providing access to model data via GIS interfaces.

CRYOSPHERIC RESEARCH

 The National Snow and Ice Data Center 

(NSIDC), a center within the Cooperative Institute 

for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado at Boulder, receives funding 

from NOAA and other Federal agencies. NSIDC’s 

research covers a broad spectrum of climate-cryosphere interactions using a variety of observing 

techniques with special emphasis on Arctic sea ice, 

Antarctic ice shelves, and satellite-borne measurements. NSIDC has a valuable collection of analog 

archives, including many thousands of glacier photographs that are being scanned and made available online through the NOAA Climate Database 

Modernization Program. In addition, algorithms to 

detect snow, frozen ground, and sea ice in passive 

microwave images from the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program (DMSP) and NASA satellites have 

been developed at NSIDC. Current work includes 

“succession planning” or cross-calibration to continue the climate record as the current Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) instrument becomes 

unstable and a new one comes into use. Other work 

at NSIDC includes developing models of the physical and mechanical properties of snow and ice in 

glaciers and the freeze-thaw cycles of soils in Polar 

Regions; the latter is an important component of hydrological modeling. Other areas of special interest and study are the interactions between sea ice, 

the ocean, and the atmosphere and the discipline of 

data management for scientific enterprise.

RESEARCH

ABRUPT CLIMATE CHANGE

During Fiscal Year (FY) 2009, the Paleoclimatology Branch of the National Climatic Data Center 

(NCDC) will conduct several studies on abrupt climate change. Specifically, this branch will produce 
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new records of the Indian summer monsoon and 

conduct research modeling rapid changes in sea ice 

and rapid changes in the meridional overturning circulation in the Atlantic (a potent influence on largescale weather patterns). The goal of this research 

is to create a long-term (multi-century) climate trend 

record, docu-menting natural variability and abrupt 

climate changes. These changes are not represented in existing models used to predict future climate 

change. This research will help scientists understand 

abrupt changes in climate that have occurred in the 

past and will likely occur in the future. The data produced will enable decision-makers and society to examine past abrupt climate changes and use the lessons learned to prepare to adapt to future changes.

SNOWFALL IMPACT SCALES

 NCDC will extend the Northeast Snowfall 

Impact Scale (NESIS) to all climate regions of the 

conti-nental United States. NESIS was originally 

developed for the Northeastern United States to 

characterize and rank the severity of snow storms 

based on snowfall amount and the population of the 

affected area. NESIS uses a five category classification system: Extreme, Crippling, Major, Significant, 

and Notable. This index differs from other meteorological indices because it uses population information in addition to meteorological measurements, 

providing an indication of a storm’s societal impacts. 

This research will benefit decision-makers and society because it will provide rapid assessments of the 

impacts of snow storms on populated areas of the 

United States. This information is useful to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and 

those in commodity markets who need to assess the 

impact of snow events on social and economic centers of the Nation.

 This research work, conducted in cooperation with scientists at Rutgers University’s Global 

Cli-mate Lab, will involve: generating map and tabular data related to the selection of candidate storms; 

populating the Geographical Information Survey 

(GIS) maps with station data; identifying candidate 

snow storms; providing quality control; creating 

event grids; testing an extension of the impact scale 

from the Northeast to other regions; and developing 

automated GIS scripts.

GLOBAL TROPICAL CYCLONE DATABASE DEVELOPMENT

 NCDC will develop and maintain a global 

tropical cyclone best track dataset, which includes 

the intensity and position of tropical cyclones. This 

work will result in a “one stop shop” for a quality 

controlled, homogeneous, annually updated dataset. 

The dataset will benefit decision-makers and society 

by providing a comprehensive list of tropical cyclones 

to improve our understanding of hurricane extremes. 

Knowing where, when, and at what intensity past 

storms occurred, can help enhance hurricane forecasts. In addition, a global best track dataset may 

prove useful for tropical cyclone forecasting through 

a more thorough understanding of their genesis locations and seasonality. Finally, this research will 

help deci-sionmakers assess the coastal impacts of 

tropical cyclones and aid in a better understanding 

of changes in the frequency and intensity of these 

storms, which may lead to more robust or updated 

evacuation plans.

 The global tropical cyclone best track dataset 

will incorporate the 2008 storm year (2007-2008 

Southern Hemisphere) into the database; a continued analysis and comparison of previous seasons; 

and further quality data assessment as needed. The 

project aims to conduct some education and outreach efforts to make the community more aware of 

the dataset and its potential applications. In addition, 

the project will scope out previously undocumented 

tropical cyclone data that may exist at NCDC. Finally, a website for data dissemination will be developed and maintained.

CHANGES IN EXTREME EVENTS

 NCDC will research observed changes in extreme events in the NCDC climate record. This will 

include investigations of changes in droughts, heat 

waves, and heavy precipitation. Observed changes 

will be compared to climate model results in an effort to look at climate change detection and attribution issues. Society recognizes the need to plan 

for the protection of communities and infrastructure 

from extreme events of various kinds and engages 

in risk management. More broadly, responding to 

the threat of climate change is quintessentially a risk 

management problem. Structural measures (such 

as engineering works), governance measures (such 
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as zoning and building codes), financial instruments 

(such as insur-ance and contingency funds), and 

emergency measures practices are all risk management measures that have been used to lessen the 

impacts of historical extremes. To the extent that 

changes in extremes can be anticipated, society can 

engage in additional risk management practices that 

would encourage proac-tive adaptation to limit future impacts. (CCSP 3.3, Chapter 1, www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap3-3 )

NATURAL HAZARDS COASTAL INUNDATION 

MODELING AND MAPPING

 Since 1900, over 200 tsunami events have 

affected the coasts of the United States and its territories causing more than 500 deaths. As such, 

Tsunamis are considered low-frequency but high-impact events that can cause a considerable number 

of fatalities, inflict major damage, and cause significant economic loss to large sections of the Nation’s 

coastline. To improve the tsunami forecast capability and mitigate the impacts of tsunami and other 

coastal flooding hazards, the National Geophysical 

Data Center (NGDC) will continue to develop highresolution coastal digital elevation models (DEMs) 

for inundation modeling and mapping. NGDC is 

also researching how variations in the DEM methodology affect the inundation model results and 

comparing these results to past tsunami event data. 

The purpose of the research is to better understand 

how different data processing methods affect DEM 

development and to use this knowledge to develop 

the most accurate coastal DEM generating inundation results validated by historical data. Emergency 

managers in coastal communities around the United 

States and its territories use DEMs and the inundation results to guide evacuation planning. Improving 

DEMs will result in improved forecasts and improved 

inundation products supporting local community 

emergency managers and planners, thereby saving 

lives and money.

Figure 3-DOC-4 Coastal Digital Elevation Model at 1/3 arc-second for Monterey, California. Used for tsunami forecast and 

inundation mapping.
SECTION 3 DOC 70

GEOMAGNETIC FIELD MODELING FOR IMPROVED NAVIGATION

 The NGDC geomagnetism group develops 

and produces magnetic field models for navigation 

and pointing, which are used in a multitude of defense and civilian applications. Production of the 

World Magnetic Model, the standard magnetic model 

for the Department of Defense (DOD) and the North 

Atlan-tic Treaty Organization (NATO), is sponsored 

by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. The 

geomagnetism group also leads the production and 

distribution of the International Geomagnetic Reference Field. These main magnetic field models represent approximately 90 percent of the magnetic field, 

influencing a compass on or near the surface of the 

Earth. In FY 2009, NGDC will continue research to 

de-velop improved magnetic models addressing the 

additional magnetic influences affecting navigation 

by land, sea, and air. Making use of its extensive holdings of satellite, airborne, and marine magnetic data, 

NGDC is developing new high-resolution magnetic 

field models. Recent products include animations 

of the model results for the change in the magnetic 

field from 1590-2010, a 3-arc-minute World Digital 

Magnetic Anomaly Map and the extended magnetic 

reference model to spherical harmonic degree 720 

as shown in the figure below. The NGDC-720 model corresponds to a 15-arc-minute model resolution.

Hurricane Applications of Lightning Measurements

 The next generation NOAA geostationary 

satellites starting with the Geostationary Operational En-vironmental Satellite Series R (GOES-R) will 

have a new capability to measure total lightning. Although ground-based lightning measurements have 

been available for several years, this will be the first 

time that this data will be available with high time resolution over the open oceans where hurricanes form 

and grow. The improvements in the prediction of 

hurricane genesis and intensification have not kept 

pace with those for track forecasting. The lightning 

observations have the potential to provide a new 

source of information for tropical cyclone forecasting.

 Research in FY 2009 

will focus on the use of a new 

ground-based lightning network that can pro-vide some 

information of lightning activity over the tropical oceans. 

The World Wide Lightning 

Locator Network (WWLLN) 

can provide estimates of only 

about 25 percent of the lightning activity compared to what 

will be available from GOESR, but it will provide a first 

look at the forecast potential 

of this new data source. The 

WWLLN data will be used to 

examine the relationship between lightning distributions 

and hurricane formation and 

intensification in combination 

with other factors known to 

be important such as sea surface temperature and atmoFigure 3-DOC-5. Vertical component of the crustal magnetic field at Earth’s surface as spheric vertical wind shear.

given by the NGDC degree-720 model
SECTION 3 DOC 71

This work has the potential to help improve hurricane 

forecasts. The ability to better forecast how strong 

a storm will be when it reaches the coast will help 

to improve the reliability of hurricane watches and 

warn-ings, which are important for evacuations and 

other mitigation activities.

On the Front Lines of Weather Forecasting: 

Providing New Satellite Tools to Forecasters

 Weather forecasters depend on a robust set 

of tools to do their jobs. The accuracy of a forecast 

is a function not only of the forecaster’s knowledge 

of meteorology and local conditions, but also of their 

skill in interpreting information from numerical weather forecast models and meteorological observations. 

Sat-ellite imagery has been one of the most important observations in the forecasters’ toolbox for more 

than two decades. However, raw satellite imagery 

provides only a very small amount of the information that satellites can provide. The range of satellite products has expanded rapidly over the last decade; these now include detailed characteristics of 

the Earth’s surface (temperature, brightness, snow 

cover, and vegetation type) and atmosphere (vertical 

profiles of temperature and humidity, cloud properties, chemistry, and dynamics).

 How does NESDIS get these advanced satellite products into the hands of the forecasters? 

The first step is interacting with the operational forecasters to find out 

what products will 

be most beneficial 

to them. Second, 

the data providers 

frequently visit the 

National Weather 

Service (NWS) 

forecast offices to 

provide online training on new satellite 

products. Equally 

important is developing a mechanism 

to deliver the satellite products so they can be incorporated into the forecasters’ operational workflow. 

NWS forecasters display their model and observational data with the Advanced Weather Interactive 

Processing System (AWIPS), so getting new satellite products into the forecasters’ hands means getting the information into the AWIPS data stream. Efforts in FY 2009 will focus on the transition of new 

satellite products to the AWIPS environment.

Precipitation Estimation from Satellites

 Precipitation estimation data from satellites 

are vital information that supplement surface information measured by ground radars and rain gauges. 

Research is being performed to improve current satellite precipitation estimation capabilities through a 

wide range of techniques and satellite instruments. 

The range of applications using this information is 

wide and includes disciplines such as weather forecasting and warnings, hydrology, water resources, 

and climate. For example, in applications that need 

rapid time updates and fine scale structure, visible 

and infrared measurements from GOES satellites 

are used. For those applications that require longer 

time scales over larger geographical regions, passive microwave measurements from polar orbiting 

satellites are used.

 In FY 2009, research will focus on merging 

the best properties from all satellite measurements 

Figure 3-DOC-6. 

GOES-12 1 km 

imagery shows Hurricane Dean near the 

Yucatan Peninsula
SECTION 3 DOC 72

(i.e., all of the sensors and satellites) to improve the 

precipitation estimates for the entire range of disciplines. In addition, scientists will use data from 

new sensors on research satellites, such as lightning information and space-borne radars, which 

will help NOAA develop better algorithms for future 

satellite missions. Society greatly benefits from this 

work through the generation of operational satellite 

products used by NOAA forecasters and scientists, 

which deliver advanced warnings to the public and 

longer term predic-tion used by policy makers.
SECTION 3 DOC 73

 Programs within the Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) Laboratories support various National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meteorological and oceanographic 

missions. The activities of OAR laboratories provide 

the innovative ideas needed to improve our understanding of atmospheric, oceanic, and climate science and develop the practical solutions, tools, and 

techniques that form the basis of improved ocean, 

weather, water, and climate services. 

 In an effort to improve national resiliency and 

better protect lives and property, OAR places special emphasis on improving severe and high impact 

weather, flooding, hazardous air quality and hurricane warnings and forecasts and on improving the 

utilization and dissemination of data and information. 

Severe weather events include flash floods, strong 

winds, thunderstorms (including tornadoes, lightning, and hail), heavy snowstorms, extreme cold and 

heat, drought, and geomagnetic storms. OAR also 

places emphasis on enhancing our understanding of 

the global climate system and improving regional decision support tools for climate and weather.

OFFICER OF WEATHER AND AIR QUALITY 

(OWAQ)

 Located at OAR Headquarters, OWAQ is an 

important focal point for facilitating and coordinating weather research in OAR and throughout NOAA. 

OWAQ implements the NOAA’s component of the 

U.S. Weather Research Program (USWRP, http://

www.esrl.noaa.gov/research/uswrp/) and the NOAA 

component of THORPEX: A Global Atmospheric Research Program (http://wwwt.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/

gmb/ens/THORPEX.html, from which one can link 

to the North American and international THORPEX 

websites). OWAQ also does budget planning for 

and assists in prioritization of NOAA’s weather and 

air quality research. 

The United States Weather Research Program (USWRP)

 The USWRP has been an interagency weather 

research and transition of research to application 

program. The member agencies have been NOAA 

(lead), NASA, NSF, the Navy, and the Air Force. 

The interagency component of the USWRP has 

been dormant for the past two years. However, the 

NOAA component of USWRP has been quite active although the funding levels have been flat. The 

USWRP funds return to OWAQ from the National 

Weather Service (NWS) Office of Science and 

Technology (OST) in FY2009. OWAQ helps plan 

NOAA USWRP priorities, implements the program, 

and monitors progress. During the Fiscal Year (FY) 

2008-2009 period, NOAA USWRP provided the 

sole NOAA support for the Developmental Test 

Center (DTC, http://www.dtcenter.org/index.php) 

at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in 

Boulder, CO. The DTC is a test bed for the Weather 

Research and Forecasting (WRF) community model 

(http://wrf-model.org/index.php) and is a cooperative 

venture among NOAA, NSF, the Air Force, and the 

Navy. The USWRP provides most of the support for 

the Collaborative Program on the Societal Impacts 

and Economic Benefits of Weather Information or 

Societal Impacts Program (SIP) for short (http://

www.sip.ucar.edu/). Its mission is to be a clearing 

house for socioeconomic information on weather, to 

increase knowledge among the weather community 

concerning the human and economic impacts of 

weather, to better determine the value of weather information, and to improve our ability to communicate 

weather information to all public and private sectors. 

Major components of the SIP activities include the 

Weather and Society*Integrated Studies (WAS*IS) 

workshops and training sessions that bring social 

science to the meteorological community and vice 

versa. The SIP also provides the bulk of the U.S. 

support for the societal and economic research and 

applications component of THORPEX (see below).

 The NOAA USWRP also provides total support for the Joint Hurricane Testbed (JHT, http://

www.nhc.noaa.gov/jht/index.shtml) which transitions mature research products from the hurricane 

research community into operations through improvements in hurricane landfall decision support 

systems. Recently, the JHT has been emphasizing 

improving forecasts of hurricane intensity at landfall. In addition, NOAA USWRP has invested in research and transition of research to applications to 

improve quantitative precipitation forecasts through 

OFFICE OF OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH LABORATORIES
SECTION 3 DOC 74

NOAA’s Hydrometeorological Testbed (HMT, http://

hmt.noaa.gov/). The HMT seeks to improve regional 

precipitation forecasts, particularly for heavy, flooding rains.

THORPEX: A Global Atmospheric Research Program

 THORPEX is a 10-year international research 

program under the World Meteorological Organization that focuses on accelerating improvements in 

one to 14-day global numerical prediction of high impact weather. THORPEX began in 2004. THORPEX is the weather component of the Global Earth 

Observing Systems of Systems (GEOSS) and provided the regional and global weather support for 

the International Polar Year (IPY, 2007-2008). The 

U.S. representative to the THORPEX international management committee resides in NOAA and 

NOAA is the lead agency in THORPEX, providing 

the U.S. funding contribution to the THORPEX international management. Key U.S. agencies that are 

participating in THORPEX, in addition to NOAA, are 

NSF, NASA, and the Navy. The main thrusts of U.S. 

THORPEX are:

• Understanding global scale atmospheric processes and phenomena;

• Improving the science of prediction;

• Providing socioeconomic research and applications;

• NSF, the Navy, and NASA provide the bulk of 

support for the first bullet. All agencies support 

the second bullet. The NOAA USWRP and the 

National Center for Atmospheric Research support activities within the third bullet. 

 The NOAA/National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) has developed a North American Ensemble Forecasting system (NAEFS, http://

www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/gmb/ens/NAEFS.html) 

which is operational as an experimental product and 

includes the United States, Canada, and Mexico (as 

a user). NAEFS is an important component of the 

THORPEX Interactive Forecast System (GIFS) to 

be available by the end of the THORPEX program 

period. NCEP is one of the ten operational centers 

contributing to the THORPEX Integrated Grand 

Global Ensemble (TIGGE) that provides global ensembles to the weather community. The NOAA 

USWRP-funded SIP (discussed above) provides 

U.S. support for the socioeconomic component of 

THORPEX. In essence, THORPEX underpins all 

ensemble and probabilistic atmospheric modeling 

in NOAA. It is the program in which key advances 

are made in ensemble techniques and atmospheric 

data assimilation with a significant portion of the applied research being done at OAR’s Earth Systems 

Research Laboratory (ESRL). It also provides the 

connection on the weather side to climate prediction 

at the intraseasonal scales that will eventually lead to 

a seamless weather-climate prediction system. 

 A major near-term field activity in which the 

NSF, the Navy, and NOAA are significantly involved 

is the THORPEX Pacific Asian Regional Campaign 

(T-PARC, http://www.ucar.edu/na-thorpex/PARC.

html). It has three phases: summer, extratropical 

transition (ET), and winter – spanning FY2008 and 

FY2009. It is taking place in the Southeast, East, 

and North Pacific and involves an intensive observing campaign. Most of the Pacific Rim countries are 

participating, including the United States and Canada. In addition, there is participation by Germany. 

The summer phase studies the formation, propagation and intensity modulation of West Pacific tropical cyclones. The ET phase studies the transition of 

tropical cyclones into mid-latitude storms that strike 

the Northeast Asian and U.S./Canadian West Coast. 

The winter phase will study the optimum use of targeted observations to improve the forecasts of high 

impact winter storms on the United States, Canada, 

and the Arctic. This phase links to the International 

Polar Year (IPY).

Office of Weather and Air Quality

 In FY2008 and 2009, the funds remaining 

for science support after office operations and staff 

costs has decreased such that the Special Projects 

Initiative had to be terminated, at least for now. It 

supported innovative and competitive research in the 

OAR laboratories in weather and air quality. OWAQ 

is supporting the NOAA share of awards under the 

joint NOAA-NSF Communication of Hurricane Information solicitation. Four awards were made in 

FY2008 for two and three year performance periods 

for a total of over $1.5M OWAQ supports about 

1/3 of the total. OWAQ also provides partial support for the Natural Hazards Center in Boulder, Col-
SECTION 3 DOC 75

orado, the National Academies’ Disasters Roundtable, the Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction of the 

Office of Science and Technology Policy’s Committee for Environment and Natural Resources, and the 

U.S.-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects. The 

OWAQ Director is on the advisory boards for the 

first two activities and a member of subgroups on 

the latter two. In FY2009, the USWRP-THORPEX 

funding moves from the NWS Office of Science and 

Technology to OWAQ. Although the funds were located in NWS, OWAQ administered the funds and 

the USWRP and THORPEX projects and will continue to do so after the funds are transferred.

OBSERVING TECHNOLOGY - ATMOSPHERE

 Meteorological, oceanographic, and climate 

research requires a strong network of observing systems providing data and information and consistent 

advancements to our observational capabilities. In 

support of NOAA’s mission, OAR supports the advancement of our observing technology through the 

development and testing of new observing systems, 

observation techniques, and data ingest and dissemination systems. All OAR observing technology research supports the Global Earth Observing System 

of Systems (GEOSS) and further establishes OAR 

as a preeminent leader in meteorological, oceanographic, and climate research.

 Numerous OAR laboratories and their related 

academic and private sector partners are heavily involved in developing new environmental observing 

system technologies. The ESRL in Boulder, Colorado, takes promising new scientific and engineering technologies from the research arena, helps 

develop them into mature engineering systems, and 

transfers these technologies to NOAA operations 

and the private sector. ESRL also evaluates new 

remote-sensing concepts and systems as they apply 

to specific problems of interest such as the impact 

of atmospheric rivers on severe west coast flood 

events. The research activities in HMT-West this 

year focused on deployment of The National Severe 

Storm Lab’s (NSSL) SMART-R radar system to observe heavy rainfall events over the American River 

Basin near Sacramento, California. Transition of new 

forecast products into NOAA operations is accomplished through regional testbeds such as the HMT 

and the Hazardous Weather Testbed (HWT). Sponsored by the NSSL in Norman, Oklahoma, the HWT 

also assists in the transfer of new remote observing technologies to the NWS. The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) 

in Key Biscayne, Florida, develops, deploys, and 

manages in situ oceanographic observing systems 

across the global oceans. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) manages the deployment and operation 

of the Climate Reference Network for NESDIS and 

operates state-of-the-art chemical deposition measurements in support of model development. This 

environmental research, development and associated transition of products and services directly support the Nation’s forecasting and warning services.

 ESRL is taking a leadership role in implementing the International Earth Observation System 

including the development and testing of Unmanned 

Aircraft Systems (UAS) for providing global weather 

and climate observations. ESRL is one of several 

NOAA Research organizations collaborating with 

NASA and many external partners in support of this 

project. The goal is to evaluate the utilization of UASs 

for improved U.S. and global observing in areas too 

remote or dangerous for lengthy manned flights, e.g. 

the polar regions and hurricanes. High and medium 

altitude, long-endurance UASs (HALE and MALEclass) can fly at remote locations in dangerous flying conditions for long periods. This technology 

provides many scientific benefits such as sustained 

global high quality all-weather profiles of atmospheric 

composition (water vapor, aerosol, cloud water and 

trace gases), and high altitude vertical resolution and 

profiling. It also offers a rapid response platform for 

improved high impact weather forecasts at 1-day to 

2-week lead times, and better climate change detection, attribution, and prediction in support of policy 

decisions. For testing purposes, the HALE-class 

UAS’s integrated sensor package consists of such 

components as an ocean color sensor and passive 

microwave sounder, a gas chromatograph and ozone 

sensor developed by ESRL, a digital camera system 

provided by NASA, and an electro optical infrared 

sensor provided by GA-ASI. ESRL is also developing ultra-lightweight sondes to include in the UAS 

sensor package.

 ESRL’s Global Systems Division (GSD) has 

developed GPS-Meteorology, a ground-based research system (GPS-Met) that uses the Global Po-
SECTION 3 DOC 76

sitioning System (GPS) to measure atmospheric 

water vapor in real-time, increasing the accuracy of 

precipitation forecasts in the hourly-updated numerical weather prediction model used by the National 

Weather Service for high impact weather events. 

This system collects and processes observations 

from over 400 GPS-Met stations, owned and operated by NOAA and other government agencies 

across the United States, and the data is distributed 

by GSD using a web interface. GPS can be used to 

calibrate satellite based observations of total precipitable water in the atmosphere, thereby increasing 

the usefulness of the space-borne sensors. When 

funds are available, this system will be transferred 

to National Weather Service operations so that system reliability and maintainability can be ensured and 

sites expanded for use by NWS forecasters, the research community, and the private sector, as well as 

incorporated into the weather prediction models. In 

addition, the GPS-Met observations for water vapor, 

an important greenhouse gas, are sensor and model 

independent providing the consistency necessary to 

support long term monitoring of water vapor for climate applications and a reproducible climate quality 

data record. The near real-time water vapor measurements from GPS-Met are distributed by the Meteorological Assimilation Data Ingest System (MADIS). 

 MADIS is a data management system developed and operated by GSD which ingests, integrates, quality controls and distributes surface and 

upper-air observational datasets to the meteorological community. Among these datasets are an integrated surface mesonet database containing highfrequency, real-time observations from over 30,000 

surface stations operated by over 150 different organizations, and an integrated profiler database with 

observations from 100 wind and temperature profilers operated by dozens of different agencies. In 

FY09, MADIS operations will begin transitioning to 

the National Weather Service operations to provide 

reliable 24/7 data availability. 

 GSD also continues to move ahead in GOES 

R3 work in the areas of assisting in the transfer of 

product improvements to AWIPS, namely looking at 

current GOES moisture bias and seeing how this 

compares to GOES R synthetic data using MODIS. 

In addition, GSD is working with the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (CIRA) in the 

application of CloudSat data to verify GOES derived 

vertical cloud structure. GSD and AOML also conduct Observing Systems Simulation Experiments 

(OSSEs) and Observing Systems Experiments 

(OSEs), including current collaboration on determining the potential impact of data collected by Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) on the prediction of 

atmospheric phenomena, including hurricanes (discussed below).

 ESRL will continue development of new sensors and innovative techniques for combining observing systems synergistically and economically. Efforts 

include developing tools and techniques to integrate 

the data from surface-based and satellite-borne profiling systems for more effective use of these data 

in forecasts. In support of this effort, ESRL’s Physical Sciences Division (PSD) has an active satellite 

remote sensing group that uses data from various 

environmental satellites to study air-sea interaction 

processes, the global hydrological cycle including 

water vapor and precipitation, and the Earth’s radiation budget.

 In association with the Center for Environmental Technology (CET) at the University of Colorado, PSD is developing an airborne Polarimetric 

Scanning Radiometer (PSR) designed to provide 

higher resolution measurements of sea state quantities including surface winds. PSD/CET is also investigating the possibility of measuring soil moisture 

by L-band radiometers.

 Starting in 2003, PSD and GMD have been 

working together with the Canadian Meteorological 

Service and Canadian Network for the Detection of 

Climate Change (CANDAC) to re-establish a new 

Arctic Atmospheric Observatory at Eureka, Ellesmere Island, Canada, in North East Canada as a 

part of the United States. Studies of Environmental 

Arctic Change (SEARCH) Program. The Canadian 

Observatory is being designed to mirror many of the 

cloud, aerosol and radiation measurements that are 

already made at the GMD Baseline Observatory in 

Barrow, Alaska that has been in continuous operation for 33 years. Since North East Canada and Barrow, Alaska, are in markedly different Arctic regimes, 

the long-term measurements from these sites will 

be complementary in providing information to monitor Arctic atmospheric changes. Long-term data 

from these sites will be used to improve short-term 
SECTION 3 DOC 77

and long-term forecast models, and improve satellite measurement of meteorological phenomena in 

the Arctic regions. Along with the National Science 

Foundation, PSD and GMD are helping to refurbish 

a historic meteorological station and establish an Atmospheric Baseline Observatory at Tiksi, in the Russian Arctic. This would be the first station of this 

type in a region that spans 75% of the Arctic littoral. 

Meteorological data from this newly reinstrumented 

site will continue a century of data collection that had 

deteriorated since the collapse of the Soviet Union, 

and expand measurements to complement those collected at Barrow, Alaska and Eureka, Canada. The 

high quality of the data to be soon forthcoming from 

the Tiksi station should considerably enhance Arctic 

weather prediction and Arctic climate models. 

 PSD is engaging in a comprehensive observation program to improve operational weather forecast 

and planned climate model treatments of boundary 

layer forcing processes. This work centers on development and application of observing technologies 

for surface fluxes and key boundary-layer variables 

(profiles of temperature, humidity, wind, and cloud 

properties). Ship-based measurement systems 

have been developed and are now used routinely 

on NOAA research vessels to investigate model 

accuracies in the marine boundary layer. Recently, 

land-based systems have been developed and deployed. One point of emphasis is linking observed 

cloud properties (obtained with mm-wavelength 

cloud radars and microwave radiometers) to cloud 

effects on surface turbulent and radiative fluxes (this 

approach is termed cloud forcing). Ship-based and 

satellite retrievals of cloud and flux properties are being used. PSD is compiling a large data base to 

allow climatologically-oriented studies of model parameterizations. Future plans include expanding the 

observational capabilities to add scanning mm-radar 

capabilities for investigation of precipitation initiation (a critical issue in triggering deep convection in 

model domains).

 The PSD satellite applications group has developed new techniques for monitoring atmospheric 

properties over the ocean surface including air temperature and specific humidity. Retrievals of these 

quantities were improved through novel use of satellite atmospheric sounders in combination with passive microwave imaging radiometers. The products 

are being applied to improved global estimates of 

the flux of heat between the ocean and atmosphere. 

PSD is also producing a new satellite-derived sea 

surface temperature product through the blending of 

infrared and passive microwave data. The technique 

takes advantage of the complementary strengths of 

the two sensor types. The product has significant 

meteorological applications through its use as an input to numerical weather forecast and climate models.

 NSSL is known for its development of observational capability, both remote and in situ, and in 

particular for its role in the development of the WSR88D NEXRAD radar. NSSL continues to improve the 

WSR-88D software algorithms used by the NWS 

forecasters and is exploring ways to enhance the 

WSR-88D hardware using dual polarization techniques under the NEXRAD Product Improvement 

(NPI) activity. NPI planning, guidance, and funding 

involves NOAA, DOT/FAA, and DOD/Air Force. 

 Most weather radars, including the WSR88D NEXRAD radar, transmit radio wave pulses 

that have a horizontal orientation. Polarimetric radars (also referred to as dual-polarization radars), 

however, transmit radio wave pulses that have both 

horizontal and vertical orientations. The horizontal 

pulses essentially give a measure of the horizontal 

dimension of cloud (cloud water and cloud ice) and 

precipitation (snow, ice pellets, hail, rain) particles 

while the vertical pulses essentially give a measure 

of the vertical dimension. Since the power returned 

to the radar is a complicated function of each particle size, shape, and ice density, this additional information results in improved estimates of rain and 

snow rates, better detection of large hail location in 

summer storms, and improved identification of rain/

snow transition regions in winter storms. The signal processing requirements for dual polarization required an initial step of deploying a new Radar Data 

Acquisition (RDA) unit for the WSR-88D capable of 

processing the polarimetric signals. The new RDA 

deployment was completed in 2006. 

 In 2020, the WSR-88D radars forming this 

NEXRAD network will be over 32 years old. In about 

the same time frame, most of the Nation’s aircraft 

surveillance radars will be nearing the end of their 

design life. Decisions on replacing or repairing and 

upgrading these National radar assets must be made 
SECTION 3 DOC 78

over the next 10 to 15 years. We are now on the 

threshold of a revolution in civilian radar capability, 

enabled by the adaptation of established military radar technology to existing civilian applications, plus 

new capabilities beyond what current systems can 

provide. Historically, civilian radars with large rotating antennas like the NEXRAD weather surveillance 

network and the aircraft surveillance radars used by 

the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) evolved 

from military radar applications. During the past several decades, a new generation of military radars has 

matured. These electronically scanning phased array radars with no moving parts (rotating antennas) 

were originally developed to track multiple airborne 

objects such as aircraft and missiles simultaneously. 

The unique beam agility, increased resolution, and 

faster full-volume scan rate of phased array radar 

can enable a single radar unit to perform multiple 

weather and atmospheric surveillance tasks and, at 

the same time, track multiple airborne craft. 

 Thus, a single network of multifunction 

phased array radar (MPAR) units could provide nextgeneration expansion of our current weather surveillance network, replace the Nation’s aging air traffic 

surveillance radars, and meet homeland security and 

defense requirements for identifying and tracking 

non-cooperative craft operating over the U.S. homeland. MPAR will enable continued improvement of 

the Nation’s severe weather warning system. It can 

provide adaptive sensing for warnings and nowcasts 

related to severe convective storms and the locally 

destructive effects of hurricanes (tropical cyclones) 

after they make landfall. Among the storm phenomena that could be tracked are tornadoes, strong 

wind gusts, hail, and locally heavy rains responsible for flash floods and mudslides. The enhanced 

weather surveillance provided by an MPAR network 

will provide economic benefits to domestic aviation and surface transportation systems. The agility 

and specificity of its multitasking beams will provide 

more detailed weather and atmospheric observations for urban meteorology, air quality nowcasts 

and forecasts, climate variability monitoring and forecasting, wildland fire monitoring and prediction, and 

atmospheric transport and diffusion modeling. The 

non-cooperative aircraft surveillance capability of an 

MPAR network would complement the cooperative 

surveillance strategy planned for the Next Generation Air Traffic System, while also addressing new 

craft tracking requirements of the Departments of 

Defense and Homeland Security. While research at 

NSSL is establishing the proof-of-principle for new 

applications of weather radar in these and other areas, the adaptive flexibility of MPAR will be essential 

in transferring these promising radar techniques to 

operations.

 Because an MPAR network would replace 

multiple existing networks, it offers an affordable 

option to the alternative strategy of continuing with 

the existing civilian radar capability by repairing and 

eventually replacing aging units. Due to technology 

breakthroughs in radio frequency components, fueled by the wireless telephony and digital communications industries, the cost of a key MPAR component—the transmit-receive elements in an MPAR 

antenna—has dropped by orders of magnitude over 

the past 5 years, and this trend should continue. 

For a number of reasons, the operations and maintenance costs for MPAR units appear to be a third 

area of substantial savings relative to continuing to 

repair and replace current radar units as they age. 

 Thus, with respect to both capabilities and cost, 

MPAR is a promising option for meeting the Nation’s 

future domestic radar surveillance needs. Using 

multiple beams and frequencies that are controlled 

electronically, NSSL has demonstrated that phased 

array radar reduces the scan time of severe weather from six minutes for NEXRAD radar to less than 

one minute, producing quicker updates of data and 

thereby potentially increasing the lead time for tornado warnings well beyond the current average of 

13 minutes.

 In support of improved understanding of the 

changing chemical composition of the atmosphere, 

the Field Research Division of ARL has continued to 

refine its constant-level “smart” balloon. The smart 

balloon is intended to serve as a marker of parcels 

of air moving across the countryside and permitting 

samples to be made of the changes occurring in its 

composition. These balloons have been used both 

for air quality studies, such as the 2006 Texas study, 

and for hurricane research. The Field Research Division has also developed an Extreme Turbulence (ET) 

probe for measuring turbulence and surface fluxes in 

hurricanes. ET probes were successfully deployed 

into landfalling hurricanes in 2004. The Oak Ridge 
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Division of ARL continues to lead in the development 

of specialized sensors for measuring atmospheric 

turbulence. Their systems are now widely used for 

measuring the efficiency of coupling between the air 

and the surface, and have recently been selected for 

instrumenting the latest generation of research aircraft, manufactured in Italy.

OBSERVING TECHNOLOGY - OCEAN

 In addition to the many weather related observing systems, OAR also dedicates significant 

time to improving the development, deployment, 

and monitoring of oceanographic related observing 

technologies and related data. As part of this effort, 

AOML manages the deployment of drifting buoys 

around the world, deploying some 900 new drifters 

annually and tracking approximately 1250 as part of 

the Global Drifter Program. Using research ships, 

ships of the Ship of Opportunity Program (SOOP), 

and U.S. Navy aircraft, Global Lagrangian Drifters 

(GLD) are placed in areas of interest. Once verified 

as operational, they are reported to AOML’s Data Assembly Center (DAC). Incoming data from the drifter 

are then placed on the Global Telecommunications 

System (GTS) for distribution in real time to meteorological services everywhere. The primary goal of 

this project is to assemble and provide uniform quality control of sea surface temperature (SST) and surface velocity measurements. These measurements 

are obtained as part of an international program designed to make this data available in an effort to improve climate prediction. Climate prediction models 

require accurate estimates of SST to initialize their 

ocean component. Drifting buoys provide essential 

ground truth SST data for this purpose. The models 

also require validation by comparison with independent data sets. Surface velocity measurements are 

used for this validation.

 In support of Global Climate Observing 

System (GCOS) requirements, OAR, in cooperation with NWS, the Climate Program Office (CPO; 

housed within OAR), AOML, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, maintains a network of approximately 100 meteorological drifting buoys in the 

Southern Hemisphere as part of the Southern Hemisphere Drifting Buoy Program. The buoys measure 

atmospheric pressure at sea-level, air temperature, 

surface sea water temperature, and surface currents. 

Observations are obtained through the ARGOS data 

collection and platform location system on-board the 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites. The buoys are a subset of the Global Drifter Program (see above). 

 NOAA supports measurements from thermosalinographs (TSGs) that are instruments mounted close to the water intake of research and cargo 

ships and that continuously measure the sea surface 

salinity and temperature along the track of the ship. 

AOML currently operates several TSG transects 

from three ships of the SOOP in support of the 

pCO2 Observing System funded by the NOAA Climate Program Office. These TSG data will be used 

to calibrate and validate observations of the upcoming Aquarius NASA sea surface salinity satellite mission.

 NOAA operates and maintains AMVER SEAS 

2K, a Windows based real-time ship and environmental data acquisition and transmission system. The 

AMVER software creates a series of reports that describe point of departure, route, and arrival of a ship. 

The meteorological reports are transmitted using 

Standard-C and include ships in a real-time search 

and rescue database used by the U.S. Coast Guard. 

The SEAS 2K software acquires atmospheric and 

oceanographic data and transmits the data in realtime to the GTS and to operational databases to be 

used by scientists. SEAS 2K is employed on ships of 

the Volunteer Observing System (VOS), SOOP, and 

on NOAA, UNOLS, and U.S. Coast Guard vessels. 

SEAS 2K is now installed on more than 400 ships 

of the VOS and SOOP and over 200,000 AMVER 

SEAS meteorological messages are transmitted per 

year and inserted into the GTS. AOML operates a 

global XBT Program that utilizes approximately 30 

ships of the SOOP and collaborates with international institutions that operate another 30 ships to monitor the global upper ocean thermal structure. This 

includes low and high density deployment modes. 

TSG and XBT data are placed in real-time onto the 

GTS and are being used to initialize weather and climate forecast models.

 Together with NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), Brazil, and France, AOML 

contribute to the Pilot Research Moored Array in the 

Tropical Atlantic (PIRATA), a project designed as an 

extension of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) 

array into the Atlantic. The purpose of PIRATA is to 
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study ocean-atmosphere interactions in the tropical 

Atlantic that are relevant to regional climate variability on seasonal, inter-annual and longer time scales. 

The PIRATA Array consists of 20 ATLAS moorings 

similar to those deployed in the Pacific, including 

moorings established within the hurricane genesis 

region of the Atlantic, which will allow for a better 

understanding of ocean-atmosphere interactions on 

hurricane development and enhanced predictions 

of hurricane formation. Four ATLAS moorings were 

recently deployed as the eastern extension of the PIRATA array. The moorings were built by PMEL and 

are similar to those deployed in the Pacific. Planned 

expansion of the PIRATA array into the hurricane 

genesis region of the Atlantic will allow for a better 

understanding of ocean-atmosphere interactions on 

hurricane development and enhanced predictions of 

hurricane formation.

 In an effort to better understand and forecast 

climate, OAR has been deploying a global array of 

profiling floats since 2000. The broad-scale global 

array of temperature/salinity profiling floats, known 

as Argo, has already grown to be a major component 

of the ocean observing system with a deployment 

of 3000 floats. Argo floats are free-drifting profiling floats that spend most of their life “parked” at 

1,000 or 2,000 meters depth in the ocean, regularly 

surfacing to make temperature and salinity profile 

measurements and providing those observations in 

real-time. As of June 2007, 2856 Argo floats have 

been deployed (95% complete). AOML is the U.S. 

Argo Data Assembly Center and the South Atlantic Argo Regional Center, in charge of all U.S. Argo 

deployments in the Atlantic. The Argo array is part 

of the Global Climate Observing System/Global 

Ocean Observing System (GCOS/ GOOS) and is 

a major contributor to the WCRP’s Climate Variability and Predictability Experiment (CLIVAR) and the 

Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE). Combined with satellites, Argo data provides 

a quantitative description of the changing state of 

the upper ocean and the patterns of ocean climate 

variability from months to decades, including heat 

and freshwater storage and transport.

 The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean/TRIangle 

Trans-Ocean buoy Network (TAO/TRITON) array 

consists of approximately 70 Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition System (ATLAS) and TRITON 

moorings in the tropical Pacific Ocean, telemetering 

oceanographic and meteorological data to shore in 

real-time via the ARGOS satellite system. Designed 

to improve detection, understanding, and prediction 

of El Niño, TAO/TRITON is a major component of 

the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Observing System, the GCOS, and the GOOS. The array is supported by the United States (NOAA) and 

Japan (JAMSTEC), with JAMSTEC responsible for 

the TRITON moorings west of 165oE longitude and 

NOAA responsible for the 59 moorings along and 

east of 165oE. Responsibility for maintaining the 

TAO Array has been transferred to the NWS/National Data Buoy Center, and the PMEL continues 

to be involved by providing the instrumentation for 

the TAO surface moorings. These buoys provide climate researchers, weather prediction centers, and 

scientists around the world with real-time data from 

the tropical Pacific. El Niño (the warm phase of the 

ENSO cycle) is associated with a disruption of the 

ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific and 

has important consequences for weather around the 

globe.

 A third research array, the Indian Ocean 

Moored Buoy Array, was initially established in 2000 

by Japan, and later joined by India, the United States, 

Indonesia, and France. The U.S. contribution to this 

array utilizes PMEL’s ATLAS moorings, similar to 

those in the Pacific TAO and PIRATA Arrays. The Array continues to expand toward its eventual goal of 

47 sites and is designed to conduct research on the 

seasonal monsoonal variability in the Indian Ocean, 

its interactions with ENSO, and the Indian Ocean 

Dipole, an El Niño-like phenomenon in the Indian 

Ocean. 

As part of the backbone for the Integrated 

Ocean Observing System (IOOS), OAR supports 

the national ocean observation backbone through 29 

deployed or planned operational ocean moorings as 

part of the Ocean Reference Station network. The 

operational ocean moorings provide measurements 

of high quality air-sea fluxes of heat, moisture, and 

momentum that will be used to make regional assessments of flux components from numerical weather 

prediction models and satellites. A partnership with 

the National Science Foundation’s ORION program 

will greatly enhance the capacity of the network.

HIGH IMPACT WEATHER RESEARCH
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 In addition to research and development of observing systems and related technology, OAR also focuses on ways to improve our understanding and the predictability of severe weather systems and their associated 

hazards. Several regional testbeds have been created 

to research these hazards including the Hydrometeorological Testbed (HMT) and Hazardous Weather Testbed 

(HWT). PSD, GSD, NSSL and other partners participate 

heavily in these testbeds. Several storm systems were 

observed and unprecedented data sets were collected 

in FY2006 and FY2007. GSD has been a collaborator in 

the HMT from 2005 to the present. This has involved configuring high resolution ensembles, probabilistic quantitative precipitation forecasts, evaluation, and debiasing and 

calibration to better frame the uncertainty in heavy rain 

events. This has applications in warning on forecast and 

integrating into decision aids. Over the last two years 18 

Intensive Observing Periods have been supported and 

forecasts verified. The program has demonstrated the 

ability to produce high resolution probabilities in operationally critical thresholds of 1-2 inches in 6 hours for the 

west slope of the Sierras. 

 NSSL has developed a unique and vibrant collaboration with the operational forecasting community, which 

has recently been formalized with the establishment of 

the HWT. The mutual interests of forecasters from the 

NOAA Storm Prediction Center, researchers from NSSL 

and ESRL, and collocated joint research partners from 

the Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological 

Studies (CIMMS) inspired the formation of the HWT. 

The testbed’s activities have been varied, including activities such as daily map discussions involving imminent 

severe weather, loosely-related research projects involving 2-3 collaborators, and periodic intensive collaboration 

periods with larger groups. But the cornerstone of the 

testbed has been the SPC/NSSL Spring Program, a series of annual experiments that attracts 50-60 researchers and forecasters to Norman each year. 

 The premise of each spring experiment within the 

Spring Program is to provide forecasters with a first-hand 

look at the latest research concepts and products, while 

immersing research scientists in the challenges, needs, 

and constraints of front-line forecasters. In practice, this 

program gives forecasters direct access to the latest 

research developments while imparting scientists with 

the knowledge to formulate research strategies that will 

have practical benefits. The end result is not only better 

severe-weather forecasts, but important contributions to 

the scientific literature as well. Science partners in recent 

spring experiments have included NCAR, NCEP/EMC, 

OU/CAPS, and numerous academic centers.

 The NSSL focuses on research to better understand such hazards as tornadoes, hail, high winds, heavy 

rain and snow, lightning, and ice storms with the goal of 

helping the NWS improve forecasts and warnings. The 

parameters of storm development and intensification are 

identified and studied by incorporating observations from 

Doppler weather radar, satellites, remote-sensing wind 

profilers, instrumented aircraft, and lightning-location 

networks. NSSL continues to focus on research and development of the NWS WSR-88D radar program and 

to develop techniques, in cooperation with the NWS, to 

forecast and warn of weather hazards to aviation and the 

general public. NSSL’s research includes assessment 

and improvement of numerical models to forecast severe 

weather systems.

 NSSL’s vision for the warning decision process 

continues to evolve as scientists and engineers work toward integrating the next generation radar (MPAR) and 

storm-scale numerical models to create a storm-scale 

prediction capability for the NWS. Within the next decade, NSSL envisions operational units using a “Warn on 

Forecast” methodology, e.g., a forecaster will use thunderstorm-resolving computer models for severe weather 

warnings in the same way as he/she does today with the 

current Doppler radar systems. NSSL believes that these 

enhancements to the operational weather capability will 

lead to a more accurate warning system which increases 

lead time and provides probabilistic information that enables the public to take the best reasonable action during 

a severe weather event.

 NSSL works with the FAA Aviation Weather Research Program (AWRP) to develop weather radar applications that enhance the safety and efficiency of the 

aviation community and the National Airspace System. 

Work is focused on both convective weather and winter weather, with special attention to treating all WSR88D radars within the continental United States as a 

single network. Such treatment allows NSSL to produce 

a single, authoritative 3-dimensional grid of radar data. 

Intensive research is also directed to polarimetric radar 

applications unique to aviation needs. Examples include 

winter time quantitative precipitation estimation, detection of icing conditions, and data quality issues unique to 

FAA users.

 The NSSL is collaborating with the NWS Office 

of Hydrologic Development (OHD) and the Office of Climate Weather and Water Services in the development, 

testing, and research-to-operations of a ‘state of the science’ approach to quantitative precipitation estimation 

(QPE) and short-term precipitation forecasts (QPF). The 

goal of this cross agency collaboration is to increase 

warning lead times for the detection and prediction of 

flash floods and river flooding. This effort is part of the 

Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Services (AHPS), which 
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is an essential component of the NWS Office of Climate, 

Water, and Weather Services. The research and development into QPE and QPF is being afforded by FAA and 

NCEP collaboration towards the integration of radar networks into seamless high-resolution three-dimensional 

mosaics for use in aviation safety and atmospheric model 

data assimilation. NSSL has established the infrastructure and techniques for ingesting domestic and international weather surveillance radars, along with integrating 

satellite and surface observations, to facilitate research 

and development toward advance monitoring of the Nation’s fresh water resources. The vision and objectives 

of the research is to improve the capability to effectively 

manage the Nation’s fresh water resources and to mitigate the social and economic impacts of flooding through 

timely and accurate detection and prediction of precipitation. 

 NSSL continues to lead a project called CIFLOW (Coastal-Inland Flood Observation and Warning) that uses NSSL’s multi-sensor rainfall estimates to 

drive an NWS distributed hydrologic model that predicts 

stream flow to help NWS improve flash flood warnings. 

CI-FLOW is the primary component of NOAA’s new Integrated Water Resource Services project called Coastal, 

Estuary Resource Information System (CERIS). In addition to the stream flow prediction, stream flow data from 

predictive models are used to drive three models run by 

academic collaborators at N.C. State University: a water 

quality model, estuarine model, and a storm surge model. 

This system of coupled models, when fully integrated, can 

be used for land-use studies, algal bloom studies, pollution studies, and inundation studies of land-falling tropical 

systems.

 OAR will continue to transfer knowledge of Doppler radar applications, severe weather systems, forecast 

and warning improvements, and heavy rainfall events; 

much of the transfer is through courses at the NWS training center and through the HWT at the new National 

Weather Center in Norman, OK. Visits and interactions 

with NWS centers, regional headquarters, and forecast 

offices continue and NSSL is participating directly in 

training programs, such as COMET in Boulder, Colorado, 

and the WSR-88D Operational Support Facility in Norman, Oklahoma.

 Improvement of short-range (1-12 hour) forecasting will be accomplished by the development and 

evaluation of new local data system technologies and 

techniques, many of which can be incorporated into operational weather forecasting in the near term. GSD develops and evaluates Aviation Impact Variable (such as 

icing, turbulence, ceiling and visibility, convective weather, volcanic ash) algorithms and decision tools for NWS 

forecast offices and FAA traffic management environments, including commercial and civil aviation. Specifically, GSD has and will continue to develop capabilities 

to allow the forecaster to integrate, view, and manipulate 

observations from current and planned meteorological 

sensing systems using computer-assisted data display 

and synthesis techniques. In FY09, GSD will assist the 

NWS in evaluating development of the Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) II system and 

will prototype enhancements for AWIPS II incorporating 

new science such as uncertainty grids for weather parameters. GSD has developed an AWIPS thin client system, FX-Net, which is used extensively by the NWS Incident Meteorologists in the field and agencies responsible 

for wildland fire fighting. In FY09, development will begin 

to couple an atmospheric prediction model with a fire 

spread model in order to address the wildland-urban interface fire spread problem. FX-Collaborate is an AWIPS 

capability developed by GSD that allows forecasters in 

different geographical locations to interact in real-time 

to develop a forecast. FX-Collaborate is being used to 

support decision aids for aviation weather (Volcanic Ash 

Coordination Tool, FAA traffic management units coordination, NWS Center Weather Service Units coordination 

with the FAA) and for weather effects and early warnings 

in response to homeland security events (Geo-Targeted 

Alerting System and UrbaNet). Also, in FY09, GSD will 

continue to provide support to NWS aviation-support facilities in Ft Worth, Anchorage, and Leesburg, VA using 

FX-Collaborate applications. NSSL is collaborating with 

NWS and GSD to integrate some of NSSL’s advanced 

single and multi-radar display capabilities into AWIPS. 

 The NextGen Air Transportation System, supported by the FAA, is helping to develop the capability 

to move relevant observation and forecast information 

into and out of a virtual weather database called the 4DCube. Data quantity, update frequency, timeliness, and 

latency are important performance considerations for this 

capability, called NextGen Network Enabled Weather. In 

addition, a Network Enabled Verification Service will help 

determine the content of a subset of the 4D-Cube data, 

to be called the Single Authoritative Source (SAS). The 

SAS will provide a common weather picture for all aviation decision-makers using weather information.

 GSD will continue efforts toward effective assimilation of diverse observational data into numerical prediction models. Data from the Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) Aircraft Communications, Addressing, 

and Reporting System (ACARS); Tropospheric Aircraft 

Meteorological Data Relay (TAM-DAR), WSR-88D Doppler radars; and weather satellites, especially Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), are frequent and provide unprecedented resolution, either in the 

vertical or the horizontal, or both. 
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 These data are being more fully exploited in the 

Local Analysis and Prediction System (LAPS) which 

employs conventional analysis methods and 3-D variational methods to provide highly detailed analyses and 

coupled numerical models (WRF-NMM and WRF ARW) 

to provide forecasts over areas hundreds of meters on a 

side. Efforts include methods for surface boundary detection and tracking, convective initiation, and heavy rain 

forecasting with a hydrologic emphasis for the HMT and 

HWT. LAPS has been installed for use in the US Space 

Centers for launches, in a DOD program for precision 

airdrops, and many other venues requiring high resolution 

weather predictions. GSD is working with the Department of Homeland Security to implement a high resolution forecast and dispersion system for major urban areas. LAPS is an integral part of an emerging wild fire 

forecasting system that assimilates airborne and ground 

sensor data and make short range predictions of the atmosphere in the vicinity of the fire. In FY09 and beyond, 

LAPS will work to effectively couple fire scale atmospheric models with simple and complex fire behavior models 

to provide critical decision support to incident commanders and land managers. LAPS will be transitioning to a 

more flexible 3-D variational format within the context of 

the Space-Time Mesoscale Analysis System (STMAS) 

that better exploits 4-D databases for optimal resolving of 

important meteorological systems. 

 Coastal meteorology research continues at the 

Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL). Emphasis has shifted from the study of terrain effects on 

West Coast weather to coastal wind and air-sea interaction research in the Gulf of Alaska. Research partners 

include the NWS Forecast Office in Juneau, AK with financial support for the research being provided by NSF 

and NOAA/NOS through the Global Ocean Ecosystem 

Dynamics (GLOBEC) program.

MESOMETEOROLOGY AND PRECIPITATION 

FORECASTING AND WARNING RESEARCH

 In support of NOAA’s goal of protecting lives 

and property, OAR contributes to the development of 

techniques to improve short term forecasters of significant weather events. Through detailed case studies and 

regional climatologies, NSSL and ESRL scientists have 

developed diagnostic tools and aids for operationally 

forecasting thunderstorms, lightning, flash floods, and 

large mesoscale convective storm complexes. Example 

programs whose data have been and continue to be 

analyzed include (1) the Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study (STEPS) in 2000, (2) the 

International H2O Project (IHOP), (3) the Thunderstorm 

Electrification and Lightning Experiment (TELEX) 2003 

and 2004, and (4) the annual collaborative severe storm 

research by NSSL, the NWS/SPC, the Norman Weather 

Forecast Office, and collaborators through the Hazardous Weather Testbed Spring Program. 

 Other NSSL studies underway are focused on 

the precipitation structure of large storm systems (mesoscale convective systems), the interactions between 

meso-convective systems and the larger environment, the 

use of satellites to infer storm development and rainfall, 

short-range ensemble forecasting techniques, and winter storm forecasting procedures. Findings from these 

research activities lead to supporting the forecasting of a 

variety of high impact weather events.

 NSSL will continue to investigate various model 

convective parameterization schemes, along with techniques to improve model initialization through four-dimensional data assimilation. Advances continue in numerical 

simulation and forecasting at mesoscale and stormscale 

resolutions. Current research is using data assimilation 

by ensemble Kalman Filter method, as well as lightning 

data assimilation, to improve forecasting of convection. 

At stormscale, pure simulation is also employed for improving understanding of dynamics, microphysics, and 

lightning. Toward the goal of improving operational mesoscale model and human forecasts of storms and their 

environments, NSSL researchers investigate the convection initiation (CI) process and the types of observations 

required to represent CI and storms in both research and 

operational mesoscale analysis and forecast model systems. 

 The U.S. Southern Great Plains region is an optimal location due to existing experimental and operational 

facilities, strong variability in moisture, and active storms 

and convective systems providing most of the warm season precipitation east of the Rocky Mountains. Recent 

studies report a new method for objectively combining diverse radar and in-situ measurements to obtain internally 

consistent analyses of boundary layer evolution and cloud 

formation with application to cases that illustrate the impact of drylines and cold fronts on the CI process. Given 

sound conceptual models of the CI process, forecasters 

in turn can interpret available observations more precisely 

to improve specificity and accuracy of storm forecasts. 

Another recent study reports the potential improvement 

of mesoscale model initialization via the assimilation of all 

types of real-time total and cloud-to-ground lightning observations to improve representation of ongoing convection and its integrated effects on model initial conditions.

 NSSL has also made advances in the interpretation of lightning data. This information will point to new 

ways for the National Weather Service to use lightning 

observations to improve forecasts and warnings of hazardous weather. NSSL operates state-of-the-science 
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facilities that include the Oklahoma Lightning Mapping 

Array (OK-LMA) and the University of Oklahoma Westheimer Airport radar in Norman, which is a WSR-88D 

radar modified with polarimetric parameters to provide 

information about the particle size and water phase of 

precipitation. The OK-LMA is a network of 11 stations in 

central Oklahoma that continuously maps in high space 

and time resolution the structure of all types of lightning 

in three-dimensions out to a range of 75 km and in twodimensions out to a range of 200 km. All the technology 

advances and research findings are aimed at NSSL’s contribution to advances in forecasting high-impact weather 

events.

 NSSL is working with the NWS Storm Prediction 

Center (SPC) to improve the nation’s ability to forecast 

severe weather and to enhance severe winter weather 

guidance products. A major forecast challenge for SPC 

forecasters is severe weather generated from elevated 

convection. Recent collaborative research shows the 

spatial and temporal distribution of such severe weather 

reports and begins to provide insight into processes that 

would improve our ability to forecast these events.

 The Norman meteorological community consolidated its diverse workforce into a common building in 

2006. Numerous groups are adopting the collaborative 

spirit and innovative approach of the HWT. At the same 

time, the HWT is expanding to embrace these groups 

and provide the framework for development and implementation of new technologies in different areas, particularly those focusing on shorter-timescale forecasting challenges. For example, NSSL’s Severe Weather Warning 

Applications and Technology Transfer (SWAT) team and 

the NWS Norman WFO are stepping into important leadership roles within the HWT. 

 NSSL anticipates that the proof of concept established through the annual NSSL/SPC Spring Program 

and the early years of the HWT will play an important role 

in bringing together the diverse elements of the Norman 

meteorological community and like-minded meteorologists from across the country. Congress provided seed 

funding to help foster a collaboration between the HWT, 

the University of Alabama at Huntsville, and NASA’s 

Short-term Prediction Research and Transition Center 

(SPoRT), a joint center staffed by NASA research meteorologists also located in Huntsville, and the Huntsville 

WFO. The Norman meteorological community in Oklahoma is being referred to as HWT/Norman and the groups 

in Alabama are being referred to as HWT/Huntsville. 

Working together, these groups will strengthen the nation’s collective knowledge and understanding of these 

hazardous convective events.

 Along with NCAR, NCEP, and the university community, GSD has collaborated on the development of the 

Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The 

WRF model has become a community model and a tool 

both for experimental and operational prediction, thus 

paving the way for quick realization of research advances 

in forecast dissemination to the public and industry. GSD 

will replace the Rapid Update Cycle (RUC) model with 

the WRF Rapid Refresh model by 2009, updated hourly 

and extended to Alaska, Puerto Rico, and the Caribbean 

Sea. 

 GSD scientists lead work with other scientists 

from NOAA/ESRL toward development of a new global 

model including use of the adaptive isentropic-sigma hybrid vertical coordinate successful with the RUC model, 

accurate finite-volume horizontal advection, and use of 

an icosahedral horizontal grid. ESRL is collaborating with 

NCEP’s Environmental Modeling Center (EMC) and the 

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) on development of the FIM model (Flow-following Finite-volume 

Icosahedral Model).

 OAR’s Air Research Laboratory (ARL) research 

on the coupling between the air and the surface and 

the surface energy budget provides key information for 

improving numerical models. In addition, ARL serves as 

the provider of the NCEP modeling capability to address 

situations of atmospheric dispersion, such as emissions 

from sources like volcanoes, industrial enterprises, and 

nuclear accidents. In recent work, ARL is adapting a new 

system developed to forecast dispersion of smoke from 

forest fires in a study performed in collaboration with the 

Association of South East Asian Nations, the U.S. Forest 

Service, and The Mediterranean Centre for Environmental 

Studies Foundation. The present program will provide 

interim products to the joint NOAA-EPA Air Quality Forecasting Program to improve smoke dispersion estimates 

in the particulate forecast model.

TROPICAL ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH

 The Tropical Dynamics and Climate Program of 

the Physical Science Division (PSD) is using precipitation 

profilers to study the structure, evolution and variability of 

precipitating cloud systems in the tropics and elsewhere. 

Precipitation measurements can be made with sufficient 

vertical resolution to categorize precipitation in deep and 

shallow convective systems and in stratiform conditions. 

A recent focus of research with profilers has been to 

provide ground validation research in support of satellite 

precipitation measurement missions such as the NASA 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). These 

satellite observations have provided important information on the vertical structure and temporal evolution of 

precipitating cloud systems during TRMM Ground Validation field campaigns. Collaborating with other TRMM 
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researchers, the observations made during the field campaigns use profilers to calibrate scanning radars used for 

TRMM ground validation research and to retrieve dropsize distributions and related precipitation parameters of 

interest to the TRMM Science Team. Validation of dropsize distributions used in algorithms is key to improving 

the retrieval of rainfall estimates from the TRMM satellite 

data. The profiler-based precipitation research described 

above also can be used to provide calibration of NEXRAD 

scanning radars as has recently been demonstrated for 

Melbourne, Florida. In related activities, PSD is carrying 

out hydrometeorological studies in collaboration with the 

NWS in demonstrating the value of hydrome The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory’s 

(AOML) Hurricane Research Division (HRD), together 

with researchers at the GFDL, ESRL, and NESDIS’s Satellite Applications and Research (STAR) division make up 

the NOAA core capability for hurricane research and development and is envisioned to be a major part of the new 

NOAA Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project (HFIP). 

HFIP builds upon and draws much of its NOAA expertise from these core research and development capabilities and is driven by the operational needs of the NWS. 

Within the NWS, the National Hurricane Center (NHC), 

the Central Pacific Hurricane Center, and the hurricanemodeling group at the Environmental Modeling Center 

(EMC) comprise the NOAA core operational hurricane 

capability. 

 The HFIP is a new effort to develop a unified 10-

year plan to improve one to five day tropical cyclone forecasts, with a focus on rapid intensity change. HFIP is 

only feasible because of the core research and development capabilities at HRD, AOML, GFDL, and ESRL. The 

objectives of the HFIP are to coordinate hurricane-related 

research and development within NOAA (such as those 

mentioned above), and to broaden the interaction of the 

outside research community in addressing NOAA’s operational hurricane forecast needs. The goals of the HFIP 

are to improve the accuracy and reliability of hurricane 

forecasts; to extend lead-time for hurricane forecasts 

with increased certainty; and to increase confidence 

in hurricane forecasts. These efforts will require major 

investments in enhanced observational strategies, improved data assimilation, numerical model systems, and 

expanded forecast applications based on the high resolution and ensemble based numerical prediction systems. 

The expected outcomes of the HFIP are high quality information with associated probabilities on high impact 

variables such as wind speed, precipitation, and storm 

surge. This will be achieved by reducing the average errors of hurricane track and intensity forecasts by 50%, 

improving the skill in forecasting rapid intensity changes 

(both increases and decreases), and by improved storm 

surge forecasting. The benefits of HFIP will significantly 

improve NOAA’s forecast services through improved hurricane forecast science and technology. Specific metrics 

include:

• Reduce average track error by 50% for Days 1 

through 5.

• Reduce average intensity error by 50% for Days 1 

through 5. 

• Increase the probability of detection (POD) for rapid 

intensity change to 90% at Day 1 decreasing linearly 

to 60% at Day 5, and decrease the false alarm ratio 

(FAR) for rapid intensity change to 10% for Day 1 

increasing linearly to 30% at Day 5.

• Extend the lead time for hurricane forecasts out to 

Day 7.

 While improving the POD and FAR for rapid intensity change within 1 day of landfall is a high priority, 

given the uncertainty in track forecasts of landfall, these 

improvements are needed at all lead times over the entire 

life span of the storm system.

 NOAA needs to address two other areas to meet 

the HFIP goals: (1) expand the forecast tools and applications to the operational forecasters; and (2) develop 

a capability to evaluate observing strategies in order to 

inform NOAA of significant investments in new observing 

systems. Regarding the development of forecast applications, HRD has developed a number of these applications with support from programs such as the Joint Hurricane Testbed (JHT) intended specifically to improve the 

transition of research to operations. Under the USWRP 

and its participating agencies, OAR, NWS, and NESDIS established the Joint Hurricane Testbed (JHT) at the 

Tropical Prediction Center in Miami, Florida in 1999. This 

testbed is where the hurricane research is evaluated for 

operational use and those research products passing the 

test will be handed off to operations. HFIP envisions 10 

times the current number of projects in order to meet the 

goals and metrics outlined in the plan.

 NOAA is supporting a number of Observing Systems Simulation Exercise (OSSE) studies to provide critical guidance on the optimal composite observing system 

for hurricane monitoring and prediction, including such 

future observing systems as those flying on UAS. The 

idea of an OSSE is to create a simulated atmosphere so 

that observation impact can be directly evaluated against 

the “true atmosphere”. To execute this OSSE, not only 

must the future observations be simulated, but also the 

other operational observing systems, from a “nature run”. 

The hurricane UAS OSSE is utilizing a global Nature Run 

developed by the European Center for Medium-Range 

Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) with ~40 km spatial reso-
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lution. Satellites currently provide most of the observations of a hurricane’s environment, whereas much of the 

inner core observations are produced by the NOAA P-3 

or G-IV aircraft. It is a formidable challenge to develop an 

OSSE, which explains why an international, multi-agency 

working group that includes NCEP/EMC, GSD, NASA, 

the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA), 

and ECMWF are all involved in this effort. The numerical 

prediction model (different from that used to create the 

Nature Run) provides forecasts by assimilating the synthetic observation datasets into the model’s initial state. 

By examining the forecasts made with assimilated synthetic data against the “true” atmosphere, and compare 

the results to forecasts made without such observations, 

the impact from the observations can be evaluated.

 To meet NOAA’s UAS program requirements, 

“Quick-OSSE” and OSE will be performed by GSD in 

collaboration with AOML for assimilating into high-resolution regional hurricane models the actual atmospheric 

data collected in the past by UAS aircraft (such as with 

hurricanes Noel and Ophelia). An OSE allows for the 

systematic impact of each contributing observing system 

to be evaluated by making “data denials” to the model’s 

initial state. Thus, OSE allows determination of the forecast impact after the data is actually collected, as opposed to an OSSE, where an optimum sampling strategy 

can be explored in a controlled environment before aircraft are sent out into the field to take the measurements. 

Clearly, an OSSE permits testing of multiple flight strategies, sampling rates, and payload options to arrive at an 

optimized solution, whereas an OSE can only deal with 

the actual measurements taken from a flight made with a 

given payload. There is a middle ground between these 

two extremes – that being the Quick-OSSE approach, in 

which a very high-resolution regional numerical simulation 

is first made for a given case from the past in which actual 

data are available, but first by withholding the data from 

the model. Then, simulated data are extracted from this 

real-data simulation and assimilated into a lower resolution 

model that is different from the one chosen for the control 

run (e.g., different versions of the WRF model could be 

used for this purpose). A wide variety of sampling and 

payload options can thus be tested. The comparisons allow for some measure of guidance about improvements 

that could be made in the future testbed deployments of 

aircraft and sensor payloads.

 HRD’s capabilities are based on the use of in situ 

and remotely-sensed data collected by aircraft, satellites, 

and buoys, and computer model simulations of the inner 

core of tropical cyclones and their surrounding environment to improve track and intensity forecast guidance. 

These observations are primarily collected during the hurricane season using two NOAA turboprop aircraft and 

a Gulfstream-IV jet operated by NOAA’s Aircraft Operations Center (AOC). The field program is used to carry 

out scientific experiments designed to address the goals 

stated above. Data sets gathered on these flights in all 

stages of the storm’s lifecycle are used to support operational needs and form the cornerstone of research in 

HRD. Because of this extensive field experience, HRD 

scientists are recognized internationally for their knowledge of tropical cyclones, as well as their expertise in 

technological areas such as airborne Doppler radar, 

dropsondes, cloud microphysics, and air-sea interaction, 

to name a few. These assets make HRD unique worldwide capability.

 Much of the research at HRD is going to improve 

forecasts of hurricane intensity change, however HRD 

scientists are also actively engaged with scientists in 

the other AOML divisions in projects related to seasonal 

hurricane forecasts, the impact climate change has on 

hurricanes, and the impacts hurricanes have on life and 

property. HRD also coordinates its programs with other 

NOAA organizations, e.g., AOC, NESDIS, and NCEP, 

in particular with EMC and NHC. A high priority since 

2005 is the NOAA Intensity Forecast Experiment (IFEX) 

developed through a partnership involving HRD, TPC, 

EMC, and NESDIS. The goals of IFEX are the collection 

of data to directly aid the development and evaluation of 

the next generation operational Hurricane Weather Research Forecast (HWRF) model. HRD also maintains active research programs with, and receives funding from 

other governmental agencies, and arranges cooperative 

programs with scientists at NCAR and numerous universities. HRD’s strengths provide NOAA with the capability 

to address the HFIP plan. 

 PSD’s effort is focused on observation and parameterization of air-sea flux processes. Hurricanes are 

driven entirely by surface heat flux and their intensity is 

predominantly determined by friction at the surface (momentum flux to the ocean currents and waver). Recently 

PSD has been working with EMC to transition the PSD 

sea spray/flux parameterizations to HWRF. Historically 

hurricane models have used unrealistic surface flux parameterizations in order to achieve the observed central 

pressure – maximum wind speed relationship. However, as fully coupled (air –ocean –wave) models come 

online, it will be necessary to incorporate more realistic 

and physically based flux parameterizations. PSD is also 

working with ARL and HRD to advance critical observational technologies for research on surface properties, 

fluxes, and atmospheric boundary layer dynamics. This 

includes development of hardened surface-based in situ 

flux and sea spray sensors to mm-wavelength radars and 

GPS reflection systems for use on the NOAA P-3’s and/

or UAS platforms. 
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 Via THORPEX funding (see page 3), PSD scientists have developed an efficient global ensemble Kalman 

filter (EnKF) data assimilation technique that has demonstrated in preliminary experiments the ability to initialize 

hurricanes much more accurately than existing data assimilation techniques used in NOAA. The current operational NOAA technique utilizes 3-dimensional variational 

analysis (3DVAR) and “vortex relocation.” This technique 

has not been able to initialize hurricane vortices with sufficient intensity, and the analyzed vortex is often not preserved in short-term forecasts to the same extent that it is 

preserved under the EnKF, i.e., the forecast is subject to 

much less “spin-up.” PSD is working in cooperation with 

GSD and HRD on further testing of EnKF techniques 

in global and regional models. Other data assimilation 

strategies are also being investigated jointly by GSD and 

HRD, including use of the NCEP version of the Grid-point 

Statistical Interpolation (GSI) for the HWRF model, the 

STMAS 3DVAR technique, and possible hybrid 3DVAREnKF approaches. One of the goals of this research is to 

ensure that the inner hurricane core data collected by the 

NOAA aircraft and other systems are represented properly in the HWRF model initial state.

 GSD participates in a large number of modeling and data assimilation activities relevant to hurricane 

prediction beyond the OSSE and collaborative data assimilation studies mentioned above, including being a 

co-partner with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in the Developmental Testbed Center 

(DTC). The activities of the DTC include testing of select codes from the Weather Research and Forecasting 

(WRF) model for possible elevation to Reference Code, 

maintaining and supporting this Reference Code to the 

community, and testing and evaluating improvements 

made by the community in order to accelerate the infusion of new numerical weather prediction capabilities into 

operations. The DTC has recently begun working closely 

with NCEP in supporting the operational HWRF modeling system to the community. In addition, the DTC has 

extensive interactions with members of the hurricane research community, notably with HRD and PSD, related to 

new NWP technologies that show promise for improving 

hurricane prediction. HWRF consists of the NCEP version of the WRF model, known as the Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model (NMM), coupled to an ocean model (the 

Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model, HYCOM), and a wave 

model used by both NOAA and the Navy (WAVEWATCH 

III). Quite recently, the WRF-NMM model component of 

HWRF as well as the NMM-based Hurricane Research 

System developed by AOML, have been ported to DTC 

supercomputer facilities at GSD and NCAR to enable 

NOAA Research to be able to work as a community with 

these hurricane forecast systems.

 GSD is also participating in an experimental use 

of a very high-resolution ensemble version of its finitevolume, icosahedral global model (FIM) to address the 

need to improve medium-range hurricane track forecasts. 

This is being done to address fundamental issues of environmental predictability of tropical and other high impact 

weather systems under NOAA’s Environmental Modeling Program, and to develop the necessary modeling 

techniques to improve NOAA’s capability to accurately 

predict the evolution of these systems. Significantly improved forecasts of hurricane track and intensity out to 5 

days and beyond would greatly improve the risk-based 

decision making necessary for the protection of life and 

property along the U.S. coastline from intense landfalling 

hurricanes. The purpose of running an ensemble forecast 

system is to attempt to improve both the accuracy and 

reliability of the forecast to greatly reduce the costs and 

disruptions due to emergency response. Large increases 

in NOAA supercomputing capabilities are dictated in significant ways by these needs, resulting in proposed R&D 

and operational computing advances by FY2011.

 Three important activities begun in 2008 under 

the HFIP are the high-resolution modeling workshop and 

test plan coordinated by the DTC and the high-resolution 

predictability research effort utilizing the Texas Advanced 

Computing Center (TACC), and the development of an 

observing strategy analysis capability for the high-resolution regional hurricane model utilizing a number of data 

assimilation and inner core observing system simulation 

techniques.

 The HFIP high-resolution modeling workshop coordinated by the DTC was held at NHC in March 2008, 

and the test plan developed from the workshop brings 

together seven model development teams from OAR 

(AOML, ESRL, GFDL), other Federal agencies (NRL, 

NASA), and academia (NCAR, TAMU, Wisconsin) to 

demonstrate the potential benefits of high-resolution (1 

km horizontal resolution) hurricane models. Each team 

agreed to “freeze” all variables that may contribute to the 

quality of the intensity forecasts except horizontal grid 

resolution, which will be tested at three resolutions: 1-2 

km, 3-5 km and about 9 km. Thus the potential benefit of 

higher grid resolution can be evaluated for each of the 

participating teams by comparing their test runs at varying resolutions. Given the diversity of the model configurations overall, there is an excellent opportunity to create 

a multi-model ensemble metric for evaluation. Each team 

will run their model configuration for 60 cases from 10 

storms selected by the NHC forecasters. “Truth” data 

for verification will come from the operational database 

at NHC including the final operational best track and archived tropical cyclone data. A verification team, made 

up of operational and research scientists, developed an 
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agreed upon set of metrics for all simulations. All teams 

agreed to provide as many simulations as possible between September 2008 and February 2009. The verification results will be tabulated and presented to the teams 

at another workshop in March 2009. As part of this test 

a team from HRD and GSD are working together to develop a hurricane research system based on the WRFNMM version 3 utilizing many of the operational physics 

packages.

 The goal of the high-resolution predictability research at TACC is to make substantial progress on establishing the operational value of higher resolution modeling 

(global and regional - including ensembles) to improving 

overall forecast performance, one of HFIP’s highest priority objectives. Other objectives include:

• Demonstration of the potential of on-demand computing to support operational hurricane forecast operations at NHC. 

• Inform future research and development needs as 

relating to established HFIP goals and objectives 

toward the development and implementation of the 

next-generation hurricane forecast system. 

HRD, with a HFIP high-resolution test team from Texas 

A&M University and GSD with support from the NOAA 

OCIO and NCEP are:

• Porting and establishing baseline performance for a 

version of the Advance Research WRF (ARW) and 

the GSD Finite-Volume Icosahedral Model (FIM) to 

the TACC;

• Demonstrating the capability to ingest operational 

data in real or near-real time;

• Developing global and regional model products for 

this season and delivering these products to NHC for 

evaluation; and

• Setting-up, running, and evaluating global and regional model ensembles (at 15-km horizontal resolution global and 4.5/1.5-km km horizontal resolution 

regional) for track and intensity on several cases from 

the high-resolution model test plan. Inform future ensemble research needs.

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND PREDICTION MODELING

 The ESRL GSD continues to perform research 

and development on a high-frequency updated model/

assimilation system within NOAA’s operational atmospheric models, currently occupied by the Rapid Update Cycle (RUC). The RUC is heavily used by users 

especially within the aviation/transportation and severe 

weather forecaster communities, but also for public 

forecasts, marine, energy, and other applications.

The initial version of the RUC was transitioned by GSD 

(its predecessor organization – PROFS) to NCEP 

(then, NMC) in 1994. Yearly upgrades have been 

made since then, of major proportion in 1998, 2002, 

2005, and 2008.

 GSD also has conducted forecast impact assessments with new observation types to consider 

potential operational use at NCEP including wind profilers, GPS-Meteorology precipitable water, TAM-DAR 

data, and METAR ceiling/visibility, and radar reflectivity, all resulting in operational implementations. The 

model updates every hour, incorporating information 

from virtually all high frequency data sources: hourly 

wind profiles; WSR-88D (Doppler radar) radar reflectivity, velocity azimuth displays; ACARS reports (up to 

65,000 per day); cloud-drift winds and estimates of total precipitable water vapor from the GOES satellites; 

and surface observations.

 Along with NCAR, NCEP, and the university 

community, GSD has collaborated heavily on the development of the WRF model. The WRF model has 

become a community model and a tool both for experimental and operational prediction, thus paving the 

way for quick realization of research advances in forecast dissemination to the public and industry. GSD 

and NCEP are scheduled to replace the RUC with the 

WRF Rapid Refresh model in 2010, updated hourly 

and extended to Alaska, Puerto Rico, and the Caribbean Sea. 

 GSD has also developed a unique hourly-updated, radar-initialized, storm-resolving (3-km) model 

forecast capability, the High-Resolution Rapid Refresh 

(HRRR). The HRRR real-time forecasts have demonstrated utility of 3km for aviation and severe weather 

forecast users, and a likely key role for NOAA’s WarnOn Forecast capability. GSD’s effective method for 

radar reflectivity and lightning assimilation will also be 

applied to tropical storm forecasts within the hourly updated Rapid Refresh model using proxy reflectivity data 

from satellite based estimates or aircraft-measured reflectivity. GSD has demonstrated this in the hourly 

updated 13km RUC and the 3-km High-Resolution 

Rapid Refresh. The goal here will be to improve highfrequency updating of short-range NWP forecasts.

 GSD has developed a fire weather forecast system running at 0.5 km to predict environmental winds 

in and around active fires. Coupled to this are USFS 
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fire behavior models to better predict the movement 

and evolution of fire lines. This model can be nested 

in large scale models like the HRRR above. GSD has 

developed storm resolving initialization methods (hot 

start) for individual storm prediction for warn-on-forecast applications. This would include heavy rain forecasts for flash flood warnings.

 GSD has also led the development of WRFChem, a significant extension of the WRF model with 

a fully coupled chemistry with atmospheric physics. 

WRF-Chem is now used widely for air quality and other air chemistry research and various real-time demonstrations.

 GSD has also pioneered the application of high 

resolution (3 km) ensembles for probabilistic quantitative precipitation forecasts aimed at hydrological prediction. The HMT effort previously described as been 

the catalyst for this effort. Work has focused on optimizing the ensemble by evaluating individual members, 

and debiasing precipitation forecasts and forecast 

probabilities. 

 GSD scientists lead work with other scientists 

from NOAA/ESRL toward development of a new global model including use of the adaptive isentropic-sigma hybrid vertical coordinate successful with the RUC 

model, accurate finite-volume horizontal advection, and 

use of an icosahedral horizontal grid. ESRL is collaborating with NCEP/EMC and GFDL on development of 

the FIM model (Flow-following Finite-volume Icosahedral Model).

 Mesoscale dynamics research at GFDL in 

Princeton, New Jersey, develops and utilizes atmospheric models with limited spatial domains to understand mesoscale phenomena and the interaction of 

these regional scale features with the atmosphere’s 

larger-scale synoptic processes. As part of these research activities, GFDL scientists investigate the practical limits of forecast models to predict the behavior 

of these mesoscale features through model sensitivity 

studies. Current research focuses on extending these 

activities to the global domain through state-of-the-art 

global atmospheric models. High resolution mesoscale 

and regional models provide a key scientific tool to explore, verify, and validate parameterizations of unresolved processes such as convective and stratiform 

precipitation in the global models.

 As part of its weather research activities, GFDL 

conducts long lead-time research to understand the 

predictability of weather on both large and small scales 

and to translate this understanding into improved numerical weather prediction models. Three groups at 

GFDL are engaged in weather research activities: 

Climate Dynamics and Prediction, Weather and Atmospheric Dynamics, and Atmospheric Physics and 

Chemistry.

 The Goal of the Climate Dynamics and Prediction Group is to develop and use computer models of 

the atmosphere-ocean-ice-land system in order to: 

• Identify and elucidate the physical and dynamical 

mechanisms which maintain climate and cause its 

variations on seasonal to centennial time scales

• Assess and understand the predictability of the climate system on seasonal and longer time scales, 

including the El Niño phenomenon

• Evaluate the impact of human activity on the Earth’s 

climate system 

 This group is charged with studying and modeling climate phenomena on seasonal to multi-century 

time scales. The group’s work is highly relevant to key 

elements of the NOAA Strategic Vision, especially 

Mission Goal 2 to “Understand climate variability and 

change to enhance society’s ability to respond”. In addition to examining a wide range of climate time scales, 

various members of the group have expertise spanning 

the expansive set of complex and interconnected parts 

that together constitute the Earth’s physical climate 

system (this includes the atmosphere, ocean, land 

surface and sea ice). Group members participate in 

the development, testing, application, and analysis of 

numerical models of the climate system. Running on 

supercomputers, these models are the research tools 

used by group members to both advance our understanding of the Earth’s climate system and to generate 

products relevant to assessment and policy decision 

support.

 The Weather and Atmospheric Dynamics 

Group at GFDL improves our understanding of atmospheric circulations ranging in scale from hurricanes to 

extratropical storms and the general circulation, with 

an emphasis on extreme weather events and the interplay between weather phenomena and climate variability and change, using high resolution atmospheric 

modeling as the central tool (see figure). This effort is 

augmented by the Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry 

group, which performs research to improve our under-
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standing of the interactive three-dimensional radiativedynamical-chemical-hydrological structure of the climate system from the surface and troposphere to the 

upper stratosphere and mesosphere on various time 

and space scales. This is achieved by employing meteorological observations in conjunction with models 

for diagnostic analyses of atmospheric processes, and 

evaluating and improving parameterizations employed 

in weather and climate models; modeling the interactions between clouds, convection, radiation and largescale dynamics to understand their roles in climate and 

climate change; and modeling the physics, chemistry 

and transport of atmospheric trace gases and aerosols 

to investigate the impact of future emissions on regional and global air quality, and to investigate the regional 

and global climatic effects due to changes in natural 

and anthropogenic radiatively-active species.

 Together, these groups use the models to address problems of critical interest to the Nation. For 

example, there is now a very high degree of confidence 

that anthropogenic effects have already altered the climate system and that this forcing will increase in the 

coming decades. Insurers are raising underwriting 

standards and rates in hurricane-affected markets, and 

some insurers are withdrawing from some markets. 

Nonetheless, infrastructure is still being built or rebuilt 

in areas vulnerable to sea level rise and hurricanes. At 

the same time, sea level rise seems to be accelerating and hurricane activity is relatively high. Water resource management, urban planning, and agricultural 

decisions are being made even as observations and 

models suggest the potential for persistently drier conditions. The trend towards an ice-free Arctic has major social, economic, and policy implications, as well 

as the potential to accelerate global warming. Energy 

technologies that might affect global change need to 

be examined. The Nation must plan for the geopolitical challenges of global warming, because many of 

its most severe effects are expected in regions where 

fragile governments are least capable of responding to 

them. 

 To prepare for and confront these effects, an 

understanding of the regional impacts, the role of extreme events and abrupt change, and their interactions 

with natural variability are being developed so that decisions can be made with the best possible scientific 

information. Over the last half century in general and 

the last few years in particular, NOAA’s Geophysical 

Fluid Dynamics Laboratory has demonstrated world 

leadership in pushing the boundaries of climate prediction. Through direct participation in producing the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 Assessment and the Administration’s Climate Change 

Science Program Synthesis and Assessment Reports, 

GFDL’s premier climate science capacity and recent 

investment in computer model infrastructure allow 

NOAA deliver essential climate forecast information at 

the regional and local level and provide an invaluable 

and unique opportunity for the Nation to make critical 

progress in global change science.

 ARL is also involved in the development of new 

models for operational use by NCEP. The main focus is on mesoscale models and in the development 

of new capabilities for data assimilation. In particular, 

the new generation of mesoscale models (such as the 

WRF model referred to above) will require advanced 

descriptions of the coupling between the air and the 

surface, a matter that is being studied intensively in 

ARL programs involving closely interacting measurement and modeling activities. To this end, ARL continues to work closely with the Chemical Sciences 

Division (CSD) of ESRL to maintain the nation’s surface radiation network (SURFRAD), data from which 

are now routinely employed to test both forecast mesoscale models (such as the Eta model) and satellite 

outputs. ARL conducts research on the surface energy 

balance and on the spatial variability of surface fluxes 

using aircraft. In addition, ARL serves as the provider 

of the NCEP modeling capability to address situations 

of atmospheric dispersion, such as of emissions from 

sources like volcanoes, industrial enterprises, and nuclear accidents. In recent work, ARL is adapting a new 

system developed to forecast dispersion of smoke from 

forest fires, in a study performed in collaboration with 

the Association of South East Asian Nations, the U.S. 

Forest Service, and The Mediterranean Centre for Environmental Studies Foundation. The present program 

will provide interim products to the joint NOAA-EPA Air 

Quality Forecasting Program to improve smoke dispersion estimates in the particulate forecast model.

AIR QUALITY RESEARCH

 The principal mission of ARL is to improve 

the capability to forecast changes in air quality and 

atmospheric deposition. Deposition is the factor 
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that links the pollutant characteristics of the air with 

the terrestrial and aquatic environments. ARL’s research focuses on the lower atmosphere, where the 

atmosphere is in direct contact with other media-- 

aquatic, terrestrial, and biospheric. The core of ARL 

research relates to studies of the atmosphere as a 

component of the total environment. Much of this 

work is in collaboration with other parts of NOAA 

(principally NCEP) and with other agencies such as 

the Environmental Protection Agency, Department 

of Energy and Department of Defense.

 The ARL Headquarters Division in Silver 

Spring, Maryland, develops models for air quality 

prediction to support operational predictions and 

emergency response. The division is researching 

mercury fate and transport through measurement 

and modeling studies.

 The ARL Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division, in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, conducts 

studies to improve understanding of atmospheric 

transport, diffusion, and air-surface exchange processes, and to develop new predictive models. 

Recent efforts have focused on the air-surface exchange of mercury in polar and coastal environments 

and of nitrogen (both oxidized and reduced) over agricultural soils.

 The ARL Field Research Division, in Idaho 

Falls, Idaho, designs and conducts field studies to 

evaluate the performance of transport and dispersion 

models, over local, regional, and continental scales. 

The ARL Special Operations and Research Division 

(SORD) in Las Vegas, Nevada conducts research 

Figure 3-DOC-7. A 42-hour forecast on September 4, 2008 of column-integrated total condensates (cloud water, rain water, 

snow, cloud ice, and graupel) using a prototype global atmospheric model to be used for future studies of climate change.
SECTION 3 DOC 92

on problems of mutual interest to NOAA and DOE 

that relate to the Nevada Test Site, its atmospheric 

environment, and its emergency preparedness and 

emergency response activities. ARL participates 

in two national networks that direct research attention on the needs of the next generation of predictive models. The Atmospheric Integrated Research 

Monitoring Network (AIRMoN) is a nested-network 

with sites of varying complexity addressing evolving scientific issues of wet and dry deposition from 

the atmosphere. A major current item for scientific 

attention is the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen 

compounds and its role in promoting eutrophication of ecosystems, primarily coastal. The ARL-developed Integrated Surface Irradiance Study (ISIS) 

serves as the national array of monitoring stations 

for solar radiation (and ultraviolet-B) with a subset 

of more advanced stations (the SURFRAD array) 

where both incoming and outgoing radiation components are monitored. Many of the SURFRAD stations are augmented with instrumentation to measure fluxes of sensible heat, latent heat, momentum, 

and carbon dioxide. Thus, the SURFRAD program 

is evolving into one of complete energy balance with 

supporting data on carbon dioxide exchange. ISIS 

and SURFRAD are presently operated by Global 

Monitoring Division (GMD) of ESRL. This work forms 

an intersection with the new flux measurement networks in the United States and overseas, referred to 

as “Ameriflux” and “Fluxnet.”

 Much of ARL’s research focus is on expressing air surface exchange processes in numerical 

models. To this end, ARL scientists have been instrumental in developing methods for describing 

an air surface exchange appropriate for use with 

model grid cells of several tens of kilometers on a 

side. ARL also provides forecast support to NOAA’s emergency response systems with emphasis 

on chemical, nuclear, and volcanic events. For this 

application, ARL develops and couples advanced 

dispersion models with the forecast products of the 

NWS to provide a basis for trajectory and dispersion calculations. The models in question are now 

widely accepted. The Hazardous Atmospheric Release Model (HARM) is operationally employed at a 

number of DOE locations. The ARL Hybrid Single 

Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) 

model is now operational in many countries, including China and Australia, as the national dispersion 

forecasting capability. It also serves the NWS in 

this role. Registered users can also access HYSPLIT products via the Internet. HYSPLIT is the major 

product employed in the operations of the Regional 

Specialized Meteorology Center (RSMC) set up 

as a joint undertaking of ARL and NCEP under the 

auspices of the World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO). The WMO/ RSMC is the source of dispersion products in the event that a pollution plume (in 

this case, radioactive) crosses international boundaries.

 The provision of dispersion forecasts by ARL 

scientists extends to two specific areas of special 

relevance - the Nevada Test Site and the Idaho National Laboratory. ARL maintains staffs of dedicated 

dispersion meteorologists at each location, where 

site-specific models are developed and run using 

data generated by dedicated regional networks of 

meteorological sensors. These sites also serve as 

research testbeds for improving ARL’s dispersion 

models, such as the HYSPLIT model.

 The Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) of 

ESRL coordinates the Health of the Atmosphere air 

quality research effort. NOAA’s Health of the Atmosphere research is focused on the atmospheric science that underlies regional and continental air quality, with the goal of improving our ability to predict 

and monitor future changes, leading to improved scientific input to decision-making. CSD, ARL, GMD, 

GSD, PMEL, and PSD participate in the research. 

In summer of 2006 a, major field study was carried 

out to characterize air quality in New East Texas. 

Ground-based measurements, ship and aircraft measurements, forecasting, and modeling analyses were 

applied in the research. Among the processes investigated were the role of nighttime chemistry in the 

formation of ozone and PM pollution, the role of the 

sea-breeze/land-breeze circuit in influencing Houston’s air quality, and the role of the marine boundary layer as a conduit for the movement of pollutants 

throughout the region. The Health of the Atmosphere 

research goals are:

• Characterize regional ozone and particulate matter (PM) episodes

• Characterize the factors that cause poor air quality in regions of the United States where excessive levels of ground-level ozone and fine particle 
SECTION 3 DOC 93

pollution are occurring. 

• Document trends in air quality: Help evaluate 

predicted atmospheric responses to changes in 

emissions (i.e., the ongoing measurements provided by the Atmospheric Investigation, Regional 

Modeling, Analysis and Prediction (AIRMoN) and 

the ozone profiling networks).

• Develop a better understanding of the fundamental science underlying the processes responsible 

for the formation and distribution of fine particles 

in the atmosphere to improve the atmospheric 

predictive capability that links sources of fine 

particles and their precursors to human exposure 

and visibility impairment.

Under the future Health of the Atmosphere research 

umbrella, the OAR Laboratories integrate their meteorological, chemical, and forecasting expertise to 

support an assessment and prediction capability for 

regional air quality that incorporates the influence of 

multiple-timescale meteorology/climatology. While 

the ambient levels of pollutants like ozone and fine 

particles are clearly dependent on pollutant emissions, the variation in those levels is also influenced 

by meteorology, both in the short term and longer 

term. Therefore, assessing both the intended longterm improvements in air quality and the more-episodic variations requires an understanding of pollutant transport, transformation, and loss. Research 

efforts will also focus on an evaluation and improvement of the tools used to forecast future air quality 

and the observing systems needed to evaluate their 

skill. 

 CSD and GMD, working with collaborators 

throughout North America and Europe, are using 

ozonesonde releases to characterize the vertical 

distribution of ozone over North America. Coordinated ozonesonde releases have been conducted 

in conjunction with field intensives in New England 

(2004) and Texas (2006). The data collected has 

provided new insights into the import of ozone from 

Asia, transport aloft and the role of lightning in ozone 

formation in the upper free troposphere.

 CSD conducts laboratory studies of the 

chemical processes that are responsible for ozone 

and fine particle formation and transformation in the 

atmosphere. These studies are designed to elucidate the chemical mechanisms and quantify the 

kinetic and thermodynamic parameters needed to 

properly represent these processes in predictive 

models.

 CSD develops and deploys lidars that are capable of characterizing the vertical structure of ozone 

and aerosols in the atmosphere. These instruments 

are deployed on NOAA research aircraft, ships, and 

at surface sites to characterize the regional distribution of ozone and PM in three dimensions. The 

data collected provides detailed information on the 

regional and inter-regional horizontal transport and 

vertical mixing of ozone and PM pollution.

 CSD develops fast response instrumentation 

for use on mobile platforms (ships and airplanes) that 

are capable of characterizing the atmospheric pollutant mix. These instruments are designed to characterize the chemical composition of the atmosphere, 

as well as the optical (scattering and absorption) and 

physical (e.g. size distribution) properties of ambient 

PM.

 PSD and CSD use their suite of remote sensors, including a mobile profiler network, airborne 

and ground-based ozone Lidars, Doppler Lidar, and 

supporting turbulence instrumentation to understand 

and better model the transport, transformation, and 

fate of primary and secondary pollutants in both rural and urban environments as well as in complex 

orography. These instruments are deployed at surface sites and on NOAA research ships during the 

regional air quality intensives such as the Texas air 

quality study.

 CSD works with GSD and PSD to develop 

and evaluate air quality models. These models are 

used to aid in the interpretation of data collected 

during regional field studies and to produce prototype air quality forecasts. The detailed physical and 

chemical data collected during intensive field studies are used to diagnostically evaluate these models 

and their components.

 The Air Quality Research Subcommittee 

(AQRS) of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) provides interagency collaboration at the U.S. federal level. NOAA co-leads 

the AQRS. On the broader international arena, the 

coordinating body is the North American Research 

Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone (NARSTO), a trilateral public/private partnership focused on ozone 

and particulate matter research in the United States, 
SECTION 3 DOC 94

Canada, and Mexico.

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE EDUCATION AND 

OUTREACH

 Science On a Sphere® is a unique visualization technology that was invented by Dr. Sandy 

MacDonald, Director of the Earth System Research 

Laboratory (ESRL) in Boulder, CO. In August of 

2005, NOAA received a patent for Science On a 

Sphere®. Using computers coupled with video projectors, the system presents NOAA’s global science 

in an engaging three-dimensional representation 

of the Earth’s features as if they were viewed from 

space. By September 2008, there will be 25 installations of NOAA Science On a Sphere in science 

and technology museums and centers, research 

laboratories, aquariums, and technology visitor centers in the United States and overseas, including the 

Smithsonian’s new Oceans Hall, Another 6 museum installations are expected to be funded in FY09 

through the NOAA Office of Education competitive 

grants program. 

 Science On a Sphere® maps directly to 

NOAA’s mission goal to “Serve Society’s Needs 

for Weather and Water Information” and its performance objective of enhancing environmental literacy and improving understanding, value, and use 

of weather and water information and services. This 

innovative technology is intended to educate multigenerational and now international audiences about 

ongoing NOAA research being conducted at many 

laboratories and to inspire students so that they 

might investigate scientific career paths. Over a half 

dozen international installations are planned for Europe, Asia, and possibly Australia. It is estimated that 

over 15 million people will be seeing SOS in FY09 

worldwide.

 ESRL is also developing a NOAA virtual world 

in the rapidly growing online world of Second Life 

and others as they are introduced via the web. Users can learn about NOAA’s leading edge science 

and have experiences in the virtual world they cannot 

have in the physical world such as soaring through a 

hurricane on the wing of a hurricane hunter aircraft. 

The web site offers another way to attract the next 

generation of Earth system scientists. As the technology becomes more sophisticated, scientists may 

also use the site to collaborate on research, hold virtual meetings and give public presentations.
SECTION 3 DOC 95

NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE

 The National Ocean Service (NOS) monitors, 

assesses, and forecasts conditions in the coastal 

and oceanic environment to maintain a healthy, safe, 

and economically productive coastal and oceanic 

en-vironment for present and future generations. 

NOS is the primary civil agency within the federal 

govern-ment responsible for the health and safety 

of our nation’s coastal and oceanic environment. 

Largely through the Tides and Current Program line, 

NOS acquires water levels, currents, winds, and 

other physi-cal oceanographic and meteorological 

data, and distributes these data and circulation predictions as ele-ments of an integrated NOS program 

to provide a comprehensive science-based suite of 

information products required by the marine transportation community to ensure safe and efficient 

marine transporta-tion, including the transport of oil 

and other hazardous materials. NOS also provides 

coastal oceanographic and meteorological products 

required by the National Weather Service (NWS) 

to meet its short-term weather and forecasting responsibilities, including tsunami warnings and storm 

surge forecasts. NOS manages several observing 

systems and programs, however four in particular 

are heavily linked to the capability of NOAA to meet 

weather and water needs of the nation.

National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON). 

 NOS manages the NWLON, which officially 

consists of 200 stations (4 additional stations will 

be-come part of the network by the end of FY09) 

located along the coasts of the United States and 

the Great Lakes, from which water level data as well 

as other oceanographic and meteorological data are 

collected and disseminated. NWLON provides a 

number of NOAA and other federal programs with 

data and supporting information, such as the NOAA 

Nautical Charting Program, NWS Tsunami Warning 

System, NWS storm surge forecast activities, and 

the Climate and Global Change Program. A DCP 

NWLON modification is now operational that allows 

emergency “Tsunami Warning” GOES transmissions 

to NWS a 6-minute intervals and imbedded in those 

data streams are high-rate one-minute averages for 

tsunami use. The 6-minute interval GOES transmission capability also supports the NWS storm surge 

forecast when expected elevations are predicted or 

observed during coastal storms and hurricanes. This 

capability for high–rate data has recently been implemented at almost all NWLON by the introduction 

of 6-minute interval GOES transmissions. Although 

not all NWLON stations are presently equipped with 

meteorological sensors, an increasing number of stations are each year. Water level and meteorological 

data are automatically formatted into bulletin format 

for inclusion into the NOAA AWIPS pipeline.

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC REAL-TIME 

SYSTEM (PORTS®)

PORTS® is a decision support tool which improves 

the safety and efficiency of maritime commerce and 

coastal resource management through the measurement and integration of real-time environmental 

observations, forecasts, and other geospatial information (Figure 3-DOC-7). PORTS® measures the 

coastal environment and disseminates observations 

and predictions of water levels, currents, salinity, 

bridge air gap and many meteorological parameters, 

e.g. winds, air temperature and barometric pressure, 

needed and requested by the mariner to navigate 

safely. 

 The 18 existing PORTS® systems come 

in a variety of sizes and configurations, each specifically designed to meet local user requirements. 

PORTS® are partnership programs in which local 

operating partners fund the installation and operation of the measurement systems. The largest of 

NOS’ existing installations is composed of over 100 

separate instruments. The smallest consists of a 

single water level gauge and associated oceanographic and meteorological instruments, i.e. winds, 

barometric pressure, etc. Regardless of its size, 

each PORTS® installation provides information that 

allows shippers and port operators to maximize port 

throughput while maintaining an adequate margin of 

safety for the increasingly large vessels visiting U.S. 

ports. In addition, prevention of maritime accidents 

is the most cost effective measure that can be taken 

to protect fragile coastal ecosystems. One major 

oil spill can cost billions of dollars and destroy sensitive marine habitats critical to supporting coastal 
SECTION 3 DOC 96

marine ecosystems. PORTS® provides information 

to make navigation safer, thus reducing the likelihood of a maritime accident, and also provides the 

information necessary to mitigate the damages from 

a spill, should one occur. An exten-sible PORTS® 

can be integrated with other marine transportation 

technologies such as Electronic Chart Display Information Systems (ECDIS) and Vessel Traffic Systems 

(VTS).

National Operational Coastal Modeling Program 

(NOCMP). 

 NOCMP serves a variety of users with oceanographic nowcast forecast products for ports, estuaries and the Great lakes. The integration of PORTS® 

technology and numerical circulation models allows 

nowcasts and predictions of parameters within the 

boundaries of the models even at locations where 

physical measurements are not available. The Chesapeake Bay Oceanographic Forecasting System 

(CBOFS) is an NOS project that provides forecasts 

of total water level within the Bay in addition to the 

astronomical tidal prediction. The New York/New 

Jersey Harbor nowcast/forecast model came on 

line in 2003, followed by a Houston/Galveston Bay 

nowcast/forecast model in 2004. Newer models include the St. Johns River, FL and the Great Lakes. In 

cooperation with OAR and NWWS, the NOS COFigure 3-DOC-8. New York/New Jersey PORTS: Bergen 

Point Composite

OPS now runs 5 models as part of the Great Lakes 

Operational Forecast System (GLOFS) providing 

forecast guidance for water level, wind, currents and 

water temperature. Also, ongoing research will enable PORTS® or similar systems to incorporate biological and chemical sensor systems and forecast 

models as required and integrate the information 

with circulation measurements to provide information on transports of mate-rials in the ecosystem essential for effective marine resource management 

and homeland security.

THE NOS CONTINUOUS REAL-TIME MONITORING SYSTEM (CORMS)

 CORMS was designed to operate on a 

24hour/7 days a week basis to ensure the accuracy 

and working status of tide and current observations 

acquired via the NWLON and PORTS® programs. 

CORMS improves the overall data quality assurance 

of real-time measurements, reduces NOAA’s potential liability from disseminating inadequate data, and 

makes the observations more useful for all applications. CORMS ingests real-time data from all field 

sensors and systems, including the operational nowcast/forecast models, determines data quality, and 

identifies and communicates the presence of invalid 

or suspect data to real-time users/customers who 

rely on the data. CORMS is especially vigilant during storm and tsunami events to ensure the full set 

of products and services is being disseminated in a 

timely fashion. An advanced version 

of this system, CORMS AI, is presently in developmental stages.
SECTION 3 DOC 97

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations

 The NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) operates a fleet of survey ships and 

aircraft to support NOAA mission goals. NOAA’s 

ship fleet includes oceanographic and atmospheric 

re-search vessels. The NOAA aircraft fleet includes 

aircraft that collect environmental and geographic 

data essential to NOAA hurricane and other severe 

weather and atmospheric research; and aircraft 

that con-duct aerial surveys for hydrologic research 

for forecasting flooding potential from snow melt. 

NOAA SHIPS SUPPORTING METEOROLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

 NOAA Ship RONALD H. BROWN, an oceanographic and atmospheric research platform, is the 

largest vessel in the NOAA fleet (274 feet). With its 

instruments and sensors, the BROWN sails worldwide supporting scientific studies to increase our 

understanding of the world’s oceans and climate. 

The BROWN also carries a Doppler radar system to 

support at-sea meteorological observations.

 NOAA Ship KA‘IMIMOANA primarily supports the research programs of NOAA’s Tropical 

Atmos-phere-Ocean (TAO) Project (real-time data 

from moored ocean buoys for improved detection, 

understand-ing and prediction of El Niño and La 

Niña). These research programs are designed to 

improve our understanding of the role of the tropical ocean in the world’s climate. The ship deploys, 

recovers, and services deep sea moorings that measure ocean currents, ocean temperatures, and atmospheric variables, throughout the equatorial Pacific 

Ocean. In addition to data from these moorings, the 

ship measures upper ocean currents, surface salinity, and carbon dioxide content.

 RONALD H. BROWN and KA’IMIMOANA 

annually support the Tropical Atmospheric Ocean 

(TAO) Array by servicing approximately 60 ATLAS 

and current meter moorings in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. In FY2009, the RONALD H. 

BROWN will work in cooperation with the Woods 

Hole Oceanographic Institute to conduct mooring 

recovery and deployment operations of the Stratus 

Ocean Reference Station (the ninth setting) under 

the stratocumulus clouds off Chile and Peru. The 

ship will conduct meteorological and air-sea flux 

observations to document and establish the accuracy of the moored metrological observations, and 

to observe the oceanic and atmospheric variability. This region is of critical importance to climate 

predictability. Additionally, after the Stratus project 

the BROWN will sup-port VOCALS-REx (VAMOS 

Ocean-Cloud-Atmosphere-Land Study – Regional 

Experiment) off the coast of Chile. VOCALS-REx 

will focus on interactions between clouds, aerosols, 

marine boundary layer proc-esses, upper ocean dynamics and thermodynamics, coastal currents and 

upwelling, large-scale subsidence, and regional diurnal circulations, to the west of the Andes mountain 

range. The field experiment is ultimately driven by a 

need for improved model simulations of the coupled 

climate system in both the Southeast Pacific and 

over the wider tropics and subtropics

 RONALD H. BROWN will also conduct the 

Northwest Tropical Atlantic Station (NTAS) project, which investigates surface meteorological forcing and oceanographic response in a region of the 

tropical Atlantic with strong sea surface temperature 

anomalies on decadal time. These issues are addressed through the analysis of surface mooring 

observations from a site near 15° N, 51° W. Following the NTAS project, BROWN will conduct the 

Pirata Northeast Extension (PNE) study to improve 

understanding of the West African monsoon and its 

influence both on the regional environment as well 

as its role in Atlantic Tropical cyclone development. 

OMAO vessels also support the NOAA National 

Data Buoy Center (NDBC) in recovery of buoys 

which have been disabled or gone adrift.

NOAA AIRCRAFT SUPPORTING METEOROLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

 NOAA aircraft support a broad range of meteorological activities and projects with its fleet of 

air-craft based at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, 

Florida. Three of its twelve aircraft are dedicated to 

this purpose throughout the year, providing valuable 

information to NOAA and the nation. 

 Operations of the NOAA G-IV and WP-3D 

aircraft during the hurricane season of 2007 were 

very similar to the 2006 season with an exception 

being that the G-IV flew about half the number of 
SECTION 3 DOC 98

hours in 2007 while the P-3s almost double their 

output over the previous year. All told, these three 

aircraft flew a total of 45 missions and 273 hours in 

the relatively quiet season. 

 The NOAA Gulfstream, G-IV (SP) (N49RF), 

provides scientists with a platform for the investigation of processes in the upper troposphere and lower 

stratosphere. With an operating ceiling of 45,000 ft, 

the G-IV is a critical tool for obtaining the data necessary to improve hurricane and winter storm track 

fore-casts and for research leading to improvements 

in hurricane intensity forecasts. The G-IV is also being used for air chemistry studies where a high altitude capability is required. 

 The NOAA G-IV annually supports Hurricane 

Synoptic Surveillance missions where the aircraft 

flies in the environment surrounding the storm at a 

high altitude releasing GPS dropsondes at pre-selected locations. The data from these vertical atmospheric soundings are transmitted from the aircraft 

to the NCEP computer site where they are incorporated into the hurricane computer models to improve 

hurricane track forecasts. The dropsonde directly 

measures temperature, pressure, and humidity as it 

falls through the atmosphere to the surface, and computes wind speed and wind direction using a full-up 

GPS receiver. Recent estimates of the improvement 

in hurricane track predictions utilizing this aircraft and 

dropsonde are between 20 and 30 percent, resulting in a savings of $10 million or more per hurricane 

in warning and preparedness costs. Because of the 

relatively slow hurricane season in 2007, with few 

storms threatening the United States, the use of the 

NOAA G-IV for hurricane surveillance was limited to 

only eight flights totaling 65 hours. 

 The NOAA G-IV also annually supports the 

Winter Storms Reconnaissance Program in an effort 

to improve forecasts released 24 to 96 hours before 

winter storms in the United States. This aircraft, in 

con-junction with the Air Force Reserve’s WC-130s, 

utilize the GPS dropsondes to collect data on developing severe winter storms over the Pacific Ocean 

that will seriously impact the continental U.S. and 

Alaska. During one month of the two-month season, 

both aircraft operate in tandem, one from Alaska and 

the other from Hawaii, to collect data both north and 

south of the jet stream simultaneously. General improvement in forecast accuracy of up to 20 percent 

has already been seen, and even higher percentage 

improvements on individually targeted events have 

been realized from this program. Typically, during 

the final month of the program, the NOAA G-IV operates alone from either a base in Alaska or Hawaii 

as the case may dictate. Use of the G-IV for the 

2007 Winter Storms Reconnaissance program was 

significantly higher than for the Hurricane program. 

Operating solely from a base in Hawaii, this aircraft 

flew 24 missions for 160 hours during January and 

February. 

 A recently added mission for the G-IV, supporting the Hurricane Research Division’s Saharan 

Air Layer Experiment (SALEX), is still ongoing each 

hurricane season, subject to the availability of atmospheric conditions and flight hours. The outbreaks of 

dry Saharan dust have been shown to have a dampening effect on the development of tropical cyclones 

in the Atlantic, and the G-IV, with its high altitude and 

dropsonde capabilities, is the ideal tool to study this 

phenomenon. Typically the aircraft will operate from 

a forward base in Barbados, as it is the most eastern 

island in the western Atlantic Ocean.

 NOAA’s Chemical Science Division (CSD) of 

the Earth System Research Laboratory, located in 

Boulder, CO, is continuing to use the G-IV for some 

of high altitude air quality studies. CSD in past years 

has used instrumentation to measure ozone, CO and 

VOCs (volatile organic compounds). The Division 

has reaped a harvest of quality data piggy-backing 

on WSR missions and scientists from this organization have either published or presented a significant 

number of publications over the past few years utilizing the data obtained on the G-IV.

 NOAA’s atmospheric and oceanographic 

research, as well as its reconnaissance operations, 

is supported by two WP-3D Lockheed Orion aircraft (N42RF and N43RF) which carry a full array of 

state-of-the-art environmental research instrumentation. The aircraft research and navigation systems 

provide de-tailed spatial and temporal observations 

of a wide range of atmospheric and oceanic parameters. NOAA’s Aircraft Operations Center (AOC) 

develops and calibrates specialized instruments, integrates user-supplied instrumentation into its automated data recording systems, and processes and 

analyzes data sets collected during various field programs.
SECTION 3 DOC 99

 The AOC WP-3D aircraft, while executing 

the complex patterns for hurricane research, also 

pro-vided storm data to the National Hurricane Center (NHC) in real-time, transmitting flight level data, 

GPS dropsonde messages, as well as radar images transmitted via its multiple aircraft-satellite data 

links. With the Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometers (SFMR) now operational, increasing emphasis was placed on utilizing the NOAAWP-3D to 

map the surface wind fields in and around hurricanes 

and tropical storms in 2007. Real-time surface wind 

speed maps are critical to providing more accurate 

forecasts of the extent of hurricane and storm force 

winds. The AOC aircraft also augment the Air Force 

Reserve reconnaissance aircraft during particularly 

active storm periods when tasking requirements exceed their available resources.

 Each year, one of the NOAA WP-3Ds participates in a Hurricane Awareness Tour targeting, 

alternately, the Gulf and East coast regions of the 

U.S., those areas that are most vulnerable to landfalling storms. This educational outreach effort is directed at both middle-grade school children, the age 

group most likely to see, learn and convey a message 

home, as well as the general public. These tours are 

op-erated in concert with the participation of officials 

from NHC, the Red Cross, FEMA and other local 

and state emergency management personnel. This 

is becoming an increasingly more popular and successful venture as coastal populations grow and the 

threat of an increasing number of storms place more 

people in harm’s way.

 During 2007, the two NOAA WP-3Ds supported several major research experiments in support 

of NOAA’s Hurricane Research Division. During 

this past season these aircraft embarked on a new 

en-deavor, to obtain 3-dimensional horizontal wind 

fields in developing tropical systems and hurricanes 

utilizing their tail Doppler radars (TDR). This effort 

is part of a new initiative to obtain data that can be 

assimilated into the HWRF hurricane forecast model for the purpose of improving intensity forecasts. 

As this was a new effort, much of the 2007 flight 

program was spent developing the techniques and 

flight proce-dures to obtain the optimum set of data 

for ingestion into the models. Operating from bases 

in St. Croix, VI and Barbados, the P-3s flew numerous missions on a round-the-clock basis into Tropical Storms, Erin, Ingrid and Karen as well as Hurricane Felix and Tropical Depression #10. One of the 

P-3s also partici-pated in a joint UAS (Aerosonde) 

– aircraft mission into TS Noel in early November. 

Both of these ex-periments have continued through 

the 2008 season and will reoccur in 2009.

 The NOAA WP-3Ds annually support both 

a summer and winter operation of a NESDIS satellite validation program. Operating in regions of high 

winds and heavy precipitation, one of the WP-3Ds, 

equipped with microwave scatterometers and radiometers, provide under-flight validation of NOAA 

QuickScat and WindSat sensed ocean surface wind 

vectors. Traditional venues for these operations are 

Alaska or Newfoundland in the winter and the Atlantic and Caribbean regions during the summer hurricane season.

 A NOAA AC-695A Commander 1000 

(N45RF) and a NOAA AC-500 Shrike (N51RF) are 

used annually to conduct important snow pack surveys in the northern and western continental U.S., 

Alaska, and southern Canada. During these survey 

flights, the gamma radiation sensors aboard these 

aircraft measure the naturally occurring terrestrial 

radiation emitted from the ground to obtain snow 

water–equivalent estimates. This data is transmitted to the National Operational Hydrologic Remote 

Sensing Center (NOHRSC) up to three times a day 

from each aircraft, and after further processing the 

data is dis-tributed to NWS field offices within five 

minutes of receipt from each aircraft. These data 

are used by the NWS to forecast river levels and 

potential flood events resulting from snowmelt water runoff. Hydroelectric power interests and other 

water supply managers also use the data to regulate 

water storage and delivery. 

 In 2007 the Tunable Optical Profiler for Aerosol and Ozone (TOPAZ) LIDAR system was tested 

on a NOAA DeHavilland Twin Otter (DHC-6) aircraft 

for remote sensing of local and regional ozone and 

aerosol distribution. Airborne remote sensing enables tracking of plumes from urban areas and point 

sources, identification of isolated regions and layers 

of high ozone concentration, observations of atmospheric layering as characterized by aerosol structure, 

and investigation of local meteorological effects such 

as sea breezes and urban heat islands on pollution 

transport and mixing. This system was again used 
SECTION 3 DOC 100

effectively during the 2008 field campaign along the 

Colorado Front Range and will reoccur in 2009.

 Inclusion of a remote sensing aircraft also 

provided information on the three-dimensional represen-tativeness of in situ observations made on the 

NOAA WP-3D and other aircraft during those periods when the flight tracks of the two aircraft sample 

the same region.
Section 3 DOD 101

METEOROLOGICAL AND SPACE ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES

 Air Force weather forces provide high-quality, 

mission-tailored terrestrial and space environment 

observations, forecasts, and services to the U.S. 

Air Force (USAF), U.S. Army (USA), and a variety 

of U.S. Government (USG) departments and agencies. AF weather is in the process of transforming 

their support to the USA by integrating forecasting 

tools into Distributed Common Ground System-Army, developing an Army weather concept of operations, and increasing sensing capability in Operation 

IRAQI FREEDOM (OIF) and Operation ENDURING 

FREEDOM (OEF). See Section 3, U.S. Army, for 

details of Air Force weather support to the Army.

AF WEATHER ORGANIZATION

 AF weather is functionally organized under 

the Director of Weather (AF/A3O-W), Directorate of Operations (AF/A3O), Deputy Chief of Staff, 

Operations, Plans, and Requirements (AF/A3/A5), 

Headquarters Air Force. The Director of Weather 

oversees Air Force-wide training, organizing, and 

equipping of AF weather organizations to include the 

following functions:

• Development of doctrine, policies, requirements, 

and standards for weather support

• Evaluation of weather support effectiveness

• Management of weather officer, enlisted, and civilian career fields

• Development and implementation of mid- to 

long-range plans for the organization, equipment, 

manpower, and technology necessary to meet 

future Air Force and Army weather requirements

• Advising Air Staff and subordinate headquarters 

weather functional managers regarding manpower, career field management, personnel utilization, training, operations policy and procedures, 

and technology acquisition

• Advocating and fielding standardized weather 

equipment

 AF weather operations provide a Total Force 

capability employing over 4,100 Active Duty (AD) and 

Reserve Component (RC) military and civilian personnel supporting Air Force and Army conventional 

and Special Operations Forces (SOF) worldwide. 

The majority of AF weather personnel are focused 

on two distinct, yet related functions: characterizing 

the past, current, and future state of the natural environment, and exploiting environmental information to 

provide actionable environmental impacts information directly to decision-makers.

 AF weather is organized in a 3-tier structure 

to maximize capabilities that can be accomplished in 

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE NITED STATES AIR FORCE

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of Defense (DOD) operates military environmental services to 

provide specialized worldwide meteorological, space environmental and oceanographic analysis, and prediction services in support of military forces and joint 

operations. Military environmental services directly support all phases of military 

operations from strategic planning to tactical operations. While the Army and 

Marine Corps each have small weather operations capabilities, the Navy and Air 

Force are the primary sources of military weather products and services. The 

military weather services contribute to the national and international weather observing capability by taking conventional observations on land and at sea where 

there are no other conventional weather observing capabilities and where the observations are most needed to meet military requirements. In addition, DOD maintains specialized observing capabilities, such as 

the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program to meet unique military requirements. Observational data 

are sent through military communications systems to military and civil facilities in the United States and 

overseas.
Section 3 DOD 102

the rear area via reach back technology. This minimizes forward presence on the battlefield, making a 

“light and lean” presence consistent with the overall 

USAF vision for contingency operations in the 21st 

century. For the first time, AF weather is pursuing 

formalized Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures 

(TTPs). TTPs are commonplace throughout the AF, 

and developing these standardized tools will help 

AF weather deliver timely, accurate, relevant, and 

consistent products and support when and where 

needed. AF weather is working with the AF Manpower Agency to complete and implement capabilities-based man-power standards and documenting 

missions and units supported which will further ensure the AF has weather personnel at the right place 

at the right time. Another initiative underway is in the 

area of metrics. The goal is to provide verification 

information on systems, weather warnings, terminal 

forecasts, mission execution forecasts, and model 

performance, that will assist AF weather leadership 

and the AF to make informed decisions concerning 

the Air Force Weather Weapon System (AFWWS), 

including the equipment, software, and various tools 

necessary to deliver the five core processes of collection, analysis, prediction, tailoring, and integration. 

Environmental characterization is typically accomplished in large, centralized units focused primarily 

on global and regional scales of weather, whereas 

support to decision-makers is primarily the realm of 

personnel embedded in operational units. Normally, 

these personnel are assigned to weather flights under the operations support squadron of a flying wing, 

a weather squadron collocated with a supported 

Army unit, or a weather squadron providing a unique 

capability such as space launch support. These 

weather squadrons may include geographically separated detachments and operating locations.

 The centerpiece of global-scale collection 

and production is the Air Force Weather Agency 

(AFWA), Offutt AFB, NE, a field operating agency 

reporting directly to the Air Force Director of Weather. AFWA provides timely, accurate, relevant, and 

consistent terrestrial and space weather products 

necessary to effectively plan and conduct military 

operations at all levels of war. AFWA operates a 

satellite data processing center and a centralized climatology center with the largest military archive of 

meteorological data in the world. The agency runs 

numerical weather prediction models, conducts global cloud and snow analysis, and runs cloud models. 

AFWA also maintains a global database, and provides dedicated support to SOF and the Intelligence 

Community (IC). The agency consists of a functional 

management headquarters; the 1st Weather Group 

(1 WXG) with three subordinate CONUS operational weather squadrons (OWS); the 2nd Weather 

Group (2 WXG), which operates three squadrons, 

two at Offutt and one at Asheville, NC, as well as five 

detachments and operating locations; and, the Air 

Force Combat Weather Center at Hurlburt Field, FL, 

which transitions technology to support tactical-level weather operations while developing operational 

concepts, tactics, techniques, and procedures.

 The 1 WXG commands three operational 

weather squadrons performing CONUS missions: 15 

OWS at Scott AFB, IL, 26 OWS at Barksdale AFB, 

LA, and 25 OWS at Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ. The 2 

WXG, collocated with HQ AFWA at Offutt AFB, NE, 

consists of the 2nd System Operations Squadron (2 

SOS) which provides automated weather characterization on a global scale, the 2nd Weather Squadron 

(2 WS) which provides global coverage of forecaster-in-the-loop products to exploit the weather as well 

a backup for four national weather centers (Space 

Weather Prediction Center, Washington-Volcanic 

Ash Advisory Center, Storm Prediction Center, and 

Aviation Weather Center), and the 14th Weather 

Squadron (14 WS) at Asheville, NC, which provides 

centralized climatological database services, produces specialized weather-impact information for 

the Department of Defense and allied nations, and 

warehouses and distributes atmospheric sciencerelated technical information. Current plans are to 

transfer backup for the Storm Prediction Center and 

Aviation Weather Center from 2 WXG to 1 WXG. 

 Six operational weather squadrons form the 

backbone of regionally focused weather operations, 

providing a variety of weather forecast products and 

support to units assigned to and/or deployed into 

their Area of Responsibility (AOR). These AORs are 

depicted in Figure 3-DOD-1. OWSs produce and 

disseminate terminal aerodrome forecasts, weather 

watches, warnings, and advisories, planning and execution area forecasts, and other products using the 

OWS Production System Phase II (OPS II) until they 

receive the Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET). JET 
Section 3 DOD 103

fielding began in summer 2008 and will be complete 

in the fall of 2009. OWSs also provide theater-scale, 

tailored environmental information to guide development of mission execution forecasts by AC and RC 

weather personnel embedded in operational units. 

Moreover, OWSs provide flight weather briefings to 

aircrews operating within their AOR without home 

station support or as requested by base or post-level 

weather forces.

 At the base and post level, weather forces 

provide and disseminate observations and develop 

tailored mission execution forecasts based on centrally produced guidance. These personnel also act 

as “eyes forward” for their supporting OWS. Weather personnel supporting conventional AF operations 

typically deploy with a New Tactical Forecast System (N-TFS), which is being upgraded to the Joint 

Environmental Toolkit (JET) starting in mid 2008, the 

TMQ-53 tactical observing system for semi-permanent sites, and hand-held Kestrel observing kits. This 

equipment, coupled with robust communications to 

receive weather data including satellite imagery, provides the essential capability required for deployed 

weather forces to meet operational requirements.

 The Reserve Component (RC) is composed 

of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the 

Air National Guard (ANG). AF weather continues to 

integrate these forces to more closely align with Active Duty (AD) weather force operations. Air Force 

RC weather personnel augment the AD at all levels. In 

some cases, the RC provides 

very unique weather related 

services not duplicated in the 

AD force, such as AFRC’s 53d 

Weather Reconnaissance 

Squadron (53 WRS) and the 

ANG’s Weather Readiness 

Training Center (WRTC). 

 To augment OWS operations, AFRC organized two 

operational weather flights 

(OWF), each staffed by AFR 

weather personnel, capable 

of augmenting an OWS either 

in the CONUS or overseas. 

Additional AFR weather personnel serve as individual mobilization augmentees (IMAs) 

assigned to various active AF weather organizations 

at all echelons, typically in staff, forecasting, or scientific roles. There are also AFR weather personnel in 

Air Reserve Technician positions, i.e., combined fulltime Civil Service/AFR military positions, employed 

by the 53d WRS as Airborne Weather Reconnaissance Officers. Lastly, AFRC contract weather personnel provide weather services at AFRC-operated 

bases in the CONUS. 

 The ANG traditional program consists of 27 

numbered weather flights, ranging in size from 13 

to 25 personnel, who meet monthly to train for their 

wartime mission. These flights provide weather support to ANG and Army National Guard units. ACCgained ANG wings also have up to four traditional 

weather positions to provide weather operations for 

each wing’s flying mission. In addition, there are traditional weather positions in two ANG Special Tactics Squadrons (AF Special Operations Command), 

and four ANG UAV units (Predator). The ANG also 

has 7 contract and 4 civil service locations where 

they are responsible for providing peacetime weather 

support to airfield operations. The WRTC at Camp 

Blanding, near Starke, FL, provides weather force 

operations training.

CHARACTERIZE THE ENVIRONMENT

 To characterize the environment across the 

Figure 3-DOD-1. Air Force Operational Weather Squadron (OWS) areas of responsibility 

(AORs) overlaid on geographic combatant commander AORs.
Section 3 DOD 104

globe, AF weather forces continually improve the 

core processes of collection, analysis, and prediction.

Collection

 AF weather forces collect terrestrial and 

space environmental measurements from ground-, 

sea-, air-, and space-based sensors across the globe. 

While openly shared foreign data greatly improves 

the coverage of measurements across the globe, the 

Department of Defense retains an assured global 

weather collection capability. In regions where air, 

space, and land operations are occurring, environmental data may be insufficient; consequently, the 

AF maintains a capability to deploy and establish an 

in-theater environmental data collection network.

 AF weather personnel provide observations 

essential for effective military operations. Weather 

personnel at both Air Force and Army locations (garrison and deployed) oversee automated observations 

and ensure they’re available to local users and transmitted to a centralized database where they are assessable at military and civil locations throughout the 

world for subsequent weather analysis and forecasting. U.S. and foreign rawinsonde reports are primary 

sources of upper air observations. These observations are supplemented with military and civilian pilot 

reports. The Army’s automated and limited observations and their artillery meteorology (ARTYMET) program augment Air Force observations in the tactical 

environment. 

 The Observing System 21st Century (OS-21) 

program is providing a much-needed, state-of-the-art 

life-cycle replacement for Air Force observing equipment. OS-21 includes five different configurations: 

fixed, deployable, remote, manual, and upper air. AF 

weather completed fielding 110 of the original automated fixed-base systems, AN/FMB-19, in FY 2007, 

and will continue fielding the follow-on fixed-base automated observing system, AN/FMB-22, with 30-40 

systems to be initially installed through 2010. These 

automated systems are enabling AF weather personnel to devote more time to tailor and integrate 

weather into war fighter operations.

 The AN/FMB-22 is intended to be installed 

at supplementary aerodromes such as heliports, 

training fields and testing areas, and certain other 

airfields. It has many of the same components as AF 

weather’s deployable automated observing system 

(TM-53), hard-mounted on a pole mast for permanent installations. Government Developmental Test 

and Evaluation (GATE) will began during summer of 

2008; upon completion of testing, AF weather anticipates to begin installations in early FY 2009. 

 AF weather is in the process of procuring 

“Weather Pod” observing systems that will be fielded as the remote expendable OS-21 configuration 

in support of AF and Army operations. They will be 

used to take observations at locations where AF 

weather personnel are deployed as well as at locations where there are typically no weather personnel, such as forward operating bases and forward 

air refueling ports. The Weather Pods may also be 

placed along select flight routes and other locations 

of particular weather interest. As a COTS system, 

the weather pods will undergo a limited operational 

utility evaluation (OUR) during summer 2008, with 

fielding anticipated to begin in either late FY 2008 

or early FY 2009. Components of the weather pod 

system include a primary weather pod sensor that 

senses temperature, dewpoint, wind, and atmospheric pressure, a ceiling pod that senses cloud 

coverage up to 5,000 ft, both coupled with a satellite communications pod that will automatically relay 

weather data to ADWA. In addition, the contractor 

is currently developing a visibility pod enhancement 

that will sense horizontal visibility. The visibility pod 

should be available for OUE in early FY 2009. 

 Weather radar data is vital to the production 

of timely severe weather warnings. DOD, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and Department of 

Commerce (DOC)/National Weather Service (NWS) 

operate and maintain WSR-88Ds within CONUS, 

and the Air Force operates and maintains WSR88Ds overseas. Tactical weather radars (TWRs) 

provide fixed Doppler radar coverage for four major 

overseas installations not covered by the WSR-88D. 

Currently Ellason weather radars (EWRs) provide a 

deployable weather radar capability for worldwide 

military contingency operations. Based on the desire to consolidate the TWR and EWR programs 

and improve the overall capability and deployability 

of fielded weather radars, AFW initiated acquisition 

of a new Portable Doppler Radar (PDR) in early FY 

2008. Following source selection, AF weather anticipates the PDR to undergo OUE in early FY 2009, 
Section 3 DOD 105

and fielding to begin later in FY 2009. Weather radar 

data extracted from air surveillance radars and displayed using the Digital Weather Intelligence Data 

system supplement primary weather radar data, and 

provide data from areas without primary weather radar coverage.

 The AFRC’s 53 WRS, also known as the 

“Hurricane Hunters,” provides another means of collecting vital meteorological data, especially in and 

around tropical cyclones. Their specially equipped 

WC-130J aircraft collect temperature, moisture, 

wind, pressure, and visually observed information 

at the aircraft location as well as vertical profiles 

of the atmosphere collected by dropsondes. Hurricane Hunter aircraft penetrate the eyes of tropical 

cyclones to provide the National Hurricane Center a 

very accurate center fix location as well as other meteorological parameters, including sea level pressure 

(Figure 3-DOD-2). In addition to the tropical cyclone 

reconnaissance, the 53 WRS collects meteorological information to improve wintertime West Coast 

forecasts and to support scientific field programs 

when possible.

 The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), which provides cloud, upper air, and 

space environmental data, is a vital source of global 

weather data used to support combat operations. 

Onboard sensors provide AFWA and the Navy’s 

Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography 

Center with visible, infrared, and microwave imagery, 

temperature and moisture sounding data, electrically 

charged particle fluxes, and other specialized space 

environment data. The DMSP also supplies direct, 

real-time readouts of regional imagery and missionsensor data to DOD land-based and shipboard terminals located worldwide (Figure 3-DOD-3).

 AF Weather plans to expand the integration 

of MARK IVB data into cloud models. In addition, AF 

Weather initiated an effort to expand the MARK IVY 

program, which consists of equipment to download, 

disseminate, and analyze meteorological satellite 

data, to acquire X-band Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data from Terra and 

Aqua satellites in mid FY 2008. Anticipated to take 

approximately 18 months, the X-band upgrade will 

not only provide immediate access to MODIS data, 

it will also prepare AF weather and AFWA for the 

NPOESS era as a first step toward the NPOESS 

Preparatory Project.

 The DMSP satellite constellation uses the 

Operational Linescan System to provide visible and 

infrared imagery to distinguish between clouds, 

ground, snow, and water. The Block 5D-2 series 

spacecraft flies the Special Sensor Microwave Temperature SSM/T-1) and water vapor (SSM/T-2) 

sounders. Processing algorithms convert the sensed 

Figure 3-DOD-2. Aircraft radar shows the eye of Hurricane 

Claudette is 25 nautical miles wide and the wall cloud is 

weakest in the northeast quadrant. (53 WRS Web site)

Figure 3-DOD-3. Aircraft radar shows the eye of Hurricane 

Claudette is 25 nautical miles wide and the wall cloud is 

weakest in the northeast quadrant. (53 WRS Web site)
Section 3 DOD 106

data into vertical temperature, moisture, and height 

profiles of the atmosphere, providing key data for numerical analysis and forecasting. The Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) collects data from 

which rainfall, ocean surface wind speed, cloud and 

soil moisture, ice conditions, and other environmental data can be determined. The Special Sensor for 

Ions, Electrons, and Scintillation (SSIES), Special 

Sensor Magnetometer (SSM), and the Precipitating 

Electron and Ion Spectrometer (SSJ), measure the 

space environment on the topside of the ionosphere 

in situ. The Block 5D-3 series spacecraft and sensor suite began service in 2004 with the launch of 

DMSP Flight 16. These spacecraft add several new 

capabilities: enhanced microwave imaging and atmospheric temperature/moisture sounding through 

the Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder 

(SSMIS); new auroral boundary and electron density measuring capability through the Special Sensor Ultraviolet Spectrographic Imager (SSUSI); and, 

profiles of upper-atmospheric temperature, electron 

content, and species densities through the Special 

Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager (SSULI). These are 

in addition to SSIES, SSM, and SSJ sensors.

 The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) will replace 

the existing DMSP and NOAA polar-orbiting satellite programs beginning in 2013 and is a joint DOD, 

DOC, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) program. The AF also expects to 

gain operational experience as well as benefit from 

the risk reduction planned with the NPOESS Preparatory Program planned for launch in 2010. In 

January 2006, the program was expected to exceed 

its approved program baseline by 25 percent. This 

required the Department of Defense to recertify the 

program to Congress in accordance with the NunnMcCurdy Amendment of the 1982 Defense Authorization Act. AF weather provided information on 

operations and requirements to Integrated Product 

Team 2 (IPT-2). IPT-2 was charged with assessing alternatives for the program. The certification 

resulted in a reduced configuration. One of three 

orbits was eliminated and will be augmented by the 

polar-orbiting constellation of the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). The number of satellites was reduced from six to four. Some non-Key Performance 

Parameter sensors were removed and the Conical 

Microwave Imager/Sounder was terminated and will 

be reworked.

 In addition to DMSP polar-orbiting data, 

AFWA receives stored data from the DOC’s Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellite constellation and real-time high-resolution data from the 

DOC’s Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES) East and West; EUMETSAT’s Meteosat-5, -7, -8, and -9 geostationary satellites; and 

the Japanese Multifunctional Transport Satellite (MTSAT). AFWA currently receives data from NASA’s 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), Quick 

Scatterometer (QuikSCAT), and Aqua Advanced 

Microwave Scanning Radiometer-E (AMSR-E) via 

Direct Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) SystemUnclass (DATMS-U). MODIS data is received via 

the Defense Research Engineering Network (DREN), 

transitioning to DATMS-U in 2008.

 Next generation satellite programs, in particular NPOESS and GOES-R, require that AFWA 

reengineer the way it receives, stores, and processes meteorological satellite (METSAT) data, as well 

as how it exposes and delivers that data to internal 

and external users. AFWA has been partnering with 

Electronic Systems Center (ESC) on the METSAT 

Data Exploitation Capability (MDEC) program. The 

MDEC is the METSAT portion of Weather Data Analysis (WDA). The METSAT database segment, JMSAT, will be delivered in WDA increment 4A, which 

is expected to be on contract in CY 08. The MDEC 

will engineer and implement state-of-the-science 

solutions and define the “to be” enterprise software 

and system architecture for optimal exploitation of 

METSAT data from current and future programmed 

satellites.

 Space environmental information is obtained 

through a combination of ground- and space-based 

systems. For the near-Earth environment, i.e., ionosphere, ground-based systems provide highly accurate point source verification and specification, 

whereas space-based systems enable global coverage and theater-wide situational awareness. For 

solar data, ground-based systems provide reliable 

observations of the sun in optical and radio frequencies, and space-based observations measure 

frequencies unobtainable from the ground. Spacebased systems provide in situ measurements of the 
Section 3 DOD 107

space environment, i.e., solar wind, magnetosphere. 

AF weather has outlined plans to modernize groundbased space sensing in a space weather implementation plan and is collaborating with U.S. and Allied 

government and civilian agencies to achieve a robust 

space sensing capability.

 AFWA operates the Solar Electro-optical Observing Network (SEON), a system of ground-based 

telescopes at Sagamore Hill, MA, Holloman AFB, 

NM, Palehua, HI, San Vito, Italy, and Learmonth, Australia (Figure 3-DOD-4). This network provides 24-

hour observations of solar phenomena at optical and 

radio wavelengths. A worldwide network of groundbased ionosondes and other sensors provide ionospheric data. The AF manages 14 automated Digital 

Ionospheric Sounding Systems (DISS) to measure 

electron density profiles in the ionosphere. AFWA 

funds a 27 International Ionosonde site database at 

the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) in 

Boulder, CO. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory operates a complementary global network of over 125 

sensors deriving ionospheric line-of-sight total electron content from global positioning system (GPS) 

signals and provides these data to AFWA’s 2 WS 

Space Weather Flight. In addition, the U.S. Geological Survey operates a network of ground-based 

magnetometers, primarily in the northern hemisphere, 

which provides the Space Weather Flight with critical measurements of the geomagnetic field and its 

variances. The Air Force Research Laboratory at 

Hanscom AFB, MA, provides ionospheric scintillation data from a global network of 22 UHF and LBand receivers, supporting AF C2 satellite systems 

and strategic long-range radar systems.

 From space, the GOES satellites provide 

real-time solar X-ray, charged energetic particle, and 

geomagnetic data through the Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC). The Solar X-Ray Imager, 

aboard GOES-12, monitors solar emissions in the Xray portions of the solar spectrum and provides near 

real-time display at AFWA and the SWPC. DMSP, 

NOAA, and other DOD satellites provide charged 

energetic particle data in low-Earth and geosynchronous orbits. Additionally, the AF leverages spacebased data from NASA and other agencies. For 

example, NASA’s Advanced Composition Explorer 

satellite provides real-time solar wind data critical for 

forecasting geomagnetic disturbances and their impact to warfighter communications.

Analysis and Prediction

 Effective analysis of collected terrestrial and 

space weather data enables identification of environmental features and conditions that may affect air, 

space, and land operations and thus require subsequent monitoring. From that analysis, detailed forecasts are developed through a combination of computer models and skilled human intervention.

 AFWA’s 2 SOS is the AF’s main automated 

production capability for global space and terrestrial 

weather analyses and forecasts. Worldwide conventional weather data are relayed to 2 SOS and combined with civil and military meteorological satellite 

data to construct an integrated environmental database. Computer programs further process the data 

to construct models of the atmosphere and forecast 

its future behavior.

 The Global Theater Weather Analysis and 

Prediction System (GTWAPS) is the AFWA hardware enclave (IBM Scalable Parallel Computing and 

pSeries® servers) used to run most meteorological 

models at AFWA. The key software component of 

GTWAPS is a theater analysis and forecast model 

which provides fine-scale forecasts (Figure 3-DOD5). AFWA transitioned from Mesoscale Model version 5 (MM5) to the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model as its operational theater scale 

model in 2008. WRF has the ability to interchange 

different microphysics modules within the model. 

AFWA is leveraging this capability to tailor model 

output for different worldwide operational theaters, 

Figure 3-DOD-4. Solar optical and radio telescopes at Learmonth, Australia. (US Air Force Released)
Section 3 DOD 108

while leveraging NCEP’s WRF model output for the 

Alaska and CONUS regions.

 During Operations ENDURING FREEDOM 

and IRAQI FREEDOM, AFWA initiated various model window locations and resolutions as mission requirements dictated. The highly responsive nature of 

the WRF model, and the way AFWA employs it, permitted new contingency windows to be operational 

within hours. Advancements in cloud modeling have 

enabled GTWAPS to produce high-resolution products that have become a mainstay of weather data 

during the continuing Global War on Terror.

 Ongoing modernization initiatives at AFWA 

include the Space Weather Analysis and Forecasting 

System (SWAFS) and the WDA program. SWAFS 

will integrate additional space weather data sources 

and execute next-generation space weather models 

for DOD and IC operations. WDA will continue the 

modernization of AFWA as a key component of the 

AFWWS. The transformed AFWA will provide standardscompliant hardware and software tools, a central 4-D database, and a classified processing environment to modernize the AFWWS communications 

and data processing infrastructure. WDA provides 

a significant increase in the database capability by 

standing up Joint DOD-approved meteorological and 

oceanographic (METOC) database segments, promoting interoperability among data sharers. WDA, 

using the Joint METOC segments and the Joint METOC Broker Language (JMBL) for web services, 

will improve the interoperability with DOD C2 and 

command, control, communications, computer, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) 

systems by providing a common interface to request 

the wide range of weather information. In addition, 

WDA-developed components, including the Consolidated Dissemination Capability (subscription services), are reusable within the OWS. This reusability 

will allow OWS-unique data to become part of the 

overall AFWWS 4-D database.

 Also in the area of analysis and prediction, AF 

weather is modernizing cloud forecasting capabilities to support AF and Army operations and to enable “find, fix, track, target, engage, and assess”, by 

leveraging the Aerospace Corporation, NWS, NCAR 

and ARL. These efforts, combined with those underway to improve the Cloud Depiction and Forecasting 

System (CDFS) II capability, will ensure the AF continues as a center of excellence in cloud forecasting.

 AFWA’s 2 WS METSAT Flight analyzes imagery, produces rapid response, tailored METSAT 

imagery for DOD contingency operations, and generates automated METSAT imagery products for 

web-based distribution to DOD users. The flight 

also serves as the DOD focal point for volcanic ash 

plume detection, advisories, and trajectory forecasts; and provides back up for both Joint Typhoon 

Warning Center (JTWC) satellite operations and the 

DOC’s Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center. 

In addition, the METSAT Flight produces worldwide 

snow and ice cover analyses to update and refine 

the snow depth database and generates customized 

snow depth and dust event analyses for contingency 

areas. The flight also develops new capabilities to 

display and visualize satellite imagery on workstations and infuses state-of-the-art techniques into imFigure 3-DOD-5. Joint Air Force and Army Weather Information Network (JAAWIN) provide reachback capability for deployed weather forces. This 3-hour forecast of surface winds 

over Southwest Asia was generated from AFWA’s 45-km 

WRF (AFWA Web site)
Section 3 DOD 109

proved imagery analysis. Finally, the flight recently 

stood up a cell that focuses on SW Asia, highlighting areas of cloud, dust, and other obscurants. 

 As the sole source of DOD space environmental characterization and forecasting, AFWA’s 

Space Weather Flight partners with NOAA’s Space 

Weather Prediction Center to meet the Nation’s military and civilian space weather needs and provide 

a suite of automated and manually tailored analyses 

and forecasts (including advisories and warnings) of 

space weather phenomena that affect military operations and IC activities. Similarly, forecasts of signal 

fades due to space weather effects on UHF satellite 

communications links provide valuable planning information to improve C2 capabilities. Further examples of model output informational products include 

Single-Frequency GPS Receiver Error maps (Figure 

3-DOD-7), UHF Satellite Communication Scintillation maps (Figure 3-DOD-8), HF Illumination maps 

(Figure 3-DOD-9), and Radar Auroral Clutter maps. 

These products assist warfighters in determining 

and mitigating space weather impacts to their systems as well as in exploiting enemy space weather 

susceptibilities for possible asymmetric advantage.

 The 2 WS Space Weather Flight employs 

a suite of state-of-the-art space weather models to 

specify current solar and global characteristics, extrapolate space weather phenomenon to areas of the 

globe where observations are not currently available, 

and to forecast future conditions. These models use 

available observations and include both climatologybased and physics-based algorithms. Information 

on the more significant models employed is included 

in this paragraph. A Kp analysis and prediction algorithm provides realtime analysis of Kp and 1- and 

4-hour predictions. A Dst prediction algorithm provides a 1-hour Dst forecast. The Global Assimilation 

of Ionospheric Measurements (GAIM) model provides large scale, global ionospheric specification 

every 15 minutes and a 24-hour forecast capability every hour. The climatology-based WIDEBAND 

model provides scintillation forecasts. The flight 

uses the Magnetospheric Specification and Forecast Model to specify and predict (for 3 hours) the 

lower energy particle environment. The Radiation 

Belt Environments model provides specification of 

the higher energy particle environment. The relativistic Electron Prediction model provides a 27-day prediction of relativistic electron behavior at geostationary altitude. For the solar wind, the flight uses the 

Hakamada-Akasofu-Fry solar wind model, capable of 

producing a 96-hour forecast of solar wind parameters, including the tracking of Coronal Mass Ejections. Several other applications are also employed 

to calculate other important space weather related 

parameters.

 The 14 WS fills a critical role in AF weather’s 

core processes of analysis and prediction. The 14 

Figure 3-DOD-7. UHF Satellite Communications Scintillation 

Map (visualization by HQ AFWA)

Figure 3-DOD-6. Single-Frequency GPS Receiver Error Map 

(visualization by HQ AFWA)
Section 3 DOD 110

WS is responsible for the long-term storage and 

exploitation of environmental data in support of defense operations and planning, and has five broad 

mission areas. First, 14 WS collects, quality assures, and stores worldwide surface and upper air 

observations, satellite-derived soundings, numerical model output, land surface and snow analysis, 

Worldwide Merged Cloud Analysis (WWMCA), and 

other specialized en-vironmental data sets. To facilitate cooperation and data exchange, the 14 WS is 

collocated with the Na-tional Climatic Data Center 

(NCDC) and Fleet Numerical and Oceanographic 

Detachment, Asheville (FNMOD-A). Second, 14 

WS exploits its stored data to provide climate analysis and forecasts. Analysts develop tailored products to meet specific user requirements and generate standard climatic summaries of meteorological 

phenomena for points around the globe (e.g., Operational Climatic Data Summaries and Wind Stratified 

Conditional Climatologies). Leveraging research 

from the Naval Postgraduate School and other national and international resources, forecasters produce seasonal outlooks extending to 75 days for Kabul, Afghanistan and Baghdad, Iraq, and continue to 

investigate new methodologies to stretch forecasts 

out to six months. Third, 14 WS exploits modeling 

and simulation technologies, including Advanced 

Climate Modeling and Environmental Simulations 

(ACMES) and the Environmental Scenario Generator (ESG), to produce modeled climate statistics and 

gridded climatologies, and simulated environmental 

scenarios respectively, to support training and exercises. Fourth, 14 WS employs the Point Analysis Intelligence System (PAIS) to produce historical, realtime, and forecast vertical profiles for any location in 

support of the Intelligence Community. Fifth, 14 WS 

oversees the 250,000 documents archived in the Air 

Force Weather’s Technical Library. 

 Also in the area of climatology, AF Weather is 

developing a 6-month forecast capability by leveraging research conducted by AF and Navy officers at 

Monterey, work already accomplished by NATO allies in using climatology, and advances in teleconnections (i.e., El Nino/Southern Oscillation, North 

Atlantic Oscillation, Southern Annular Mode), with a 

goal of providing planners a risk management tool to 

Figure 3-DOD-8. HF Illumination Map (visualization by HQ 

AFWA)

positively impact operations. 

 The Air Force Director of Weather carries out 

the DOD Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation Executive Agent (ASNE MSEA) 

responsibilities of managing, coordinating, and implementing all aspects of modeling and simulation 

relating to the Air and Space Natural Environment 

domain to include, but not limited to, planning, programming, monitoring, and reporting across all DOD 

components in accordance with the Under Secretary 

of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics Memorandum to the Secretary of the Air Force, 

designating the Department of the Air Force as the 

MSEA for air and space natural environment representations. The DOD ASNE MSEA ensures DOD 

communities who use simulations for their training, 

acquisition, testing, planning, experimentation, and 

analysis have the right tools, infrastructure, and databases necessary to represent the air and space 

natural environment and its effects. To do this, the 

DOD ASNE MSEA works closely with both government and industry agencies such as AFWA, National 

Geophysical Data Center, and others to develop and 

provide the needed environmental tools and data. 

The Executive Agent keeps abreast of both current 

and emerging capabilities within the field of meteorology and the space environment, enabling identification of gaps in these capabilities and solutions to 

meet DOD environmental requirements for live, virtual, and constructive simulations. Often, the MSEA is 

required to champion development and transition of 

new technologies at government resource centers 

like those mentioned above. The DOD ASNE MSEA 

also works closely with the Ocean MSEA (Navy, CNMOC) and the Terrain MSEA (National GeospatialIntelligence Agency, NGA) to ensure a consistent, 

integrated natural environment is represented in the 

synthetic environment of a simulation. The ASNE 

MSEA’s Environmental Scenario Generator (ESG) 

facilitates assembling a consistent, integrated natural environment from distributed centers nationwide. 

The core ESG system was transitioned to the 14 

WS for long-term operational support of the DOD, 

with future capabilities being integrated from the National Geophysical Data Center (Boulder, CO), the 

Naval Oceanographic Center (Stennis, LA), and future NGA centers of excellence.

 OWSs are AF weather’s regional/theater 
Section 3 DOD 111

analysis and forecast centers for Air Force and Army 

operations. Each OWS generates a variety of products: hazard charts; drop zone, range, and aerial refueling track forecasts; fine-scale target forecasts; airfield forecasts; and weather warnings, watches, and 

advisories, for Air Force and Army installations within 

its AOR. The current production system, OPS II, is 

a legacy system being replaced by JET Increment 1 

beginning summer 2008. JET will replace this component of the Forecasting System 21st Century (FS21) program, providing necessary computer hardware and software throughout the AFWWS, and 

becoming the OWS’s primary production tool. JET 

will replace a hybrid of software, databases, servers, 

and workstations. Increment 1 will deliver a common 

environmental toolkit across the weather enterprise 

while Increment 2 will focus on weather exploitation 

tools and Common Operational Picture (COP) visualization of data and effects. These developments 

go hand-in-hand with AF weather’s TTP development efforts, and provide an AFWWS standard for 

production and dissemination of weather information 

to supported forces.

Provide Actionable Environmental Impacts Information to Decision-Makers

 To provide actionable environmental impacts, AF weather forces continually improve 

the core processes of tailoring and integration.

Tailoring 

 Once centralized weather units create a depiction of the past, current, and future state of the 

natural environment, AF weather forces directly supporting decision-makers tailor the information to 

identify impacts to operations, personnel, weapons 

and weapons systems, and tactics. These weather 

forces then help decision-makers mitigate these effects through appropriate actions such as routing a 

flight to a new target, selecting a different weapons 

load, or adjusting the time of attack.

 N-TFS, another component of FS-21, to be 

replaced by JET, provides garrison and deployed 

weather forces with the meteorological tools to manipulate and disseminate graphical and alphanumeric products (satellite imagery, graphical forecast 

products, weather forecasts, advisories, briefings, 

observations, etc.) to Army and AF operations, C2, 

and support forces worldwide. Additionally, N-TFS 

ingests data from AF and indigenous observing 

sources, which then are forwarded to OWS/AFWA 

for further dissemination and incorporation into centrally produced model output.

 JET will provide a single workstation that will 

eliminate redundancies and/or inefficiencies and ultimately extend, consolidate and/or replace the OPS 

II, Joint Weather Impact System (JWIS), N-TFS, 

and the weather effects decision-aids portion of the 

Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS). JET 

enhances warfighter awareness of the natural battlespace environment by ensuring accurate, timely, 

relevant, and consistent terrestrial and space weather and weather impacts information is available and 

accessible by appropriate personnel and processes. 

Furthermore, JET enhances the accuracy and utility 

of terrestrial/space weather and oceanographic information and operational impacts by enabling the 

forecaster and/or forecast process to incorporate 

Geographic Information System (GIS) capabilities 

(to include a standard high-resolution topographic 

database), forecasting rules of thumb, and operational thresholds into weather and weather impact 

products. Later spirals of JET will perform its functions by interfacing with information contained in 

the Virtual Joint Meteorological and Oceanographic 

Database via common-user-communications, and 

will integrate with joint and coalition C2 and mission 

planning systems by enabling machine-to-machine 

exchange of METOC and C4ISR data and information to meet operational, planning, and execution 

requirements. Raytheon was awarded the JET contract on 28 March 2006. Fielding of the first JET 

increment is scheduled to begin in summer 2008 

with an expected delivery of all JET capabilities by 

FY 13.

 Tactical Decision Aids (TDAs) provide warfighters an automated way to “visualize” environmental 

impacts on operations. These tools, which continue 

to be integrated into C2 systems (e.g. mission planning systems) include Target Acquisition Weapons 

Software (TAWS) (Figure 3-DOD-6), Infrared Target 

Scene Simulation (IRTSS) and Tri-Service Integrated 

Weather Effects Decision Aid (T-IWEDA). The Air 

Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), the Navy’s Space 
Section 3 DOD 112

and Naval Warfare Systems Command, the Navy 

Research Laboratory (NRL), and the Army Research 

Laboratory (ARL) are developing these modular programs. TAWS provides a joint mission-planning tool 

to combine platform, weapon, target, background, 

and weather impacts to depict three-dimensional 

target acquisition and lock-on range and recognition range versus time. This includes prediction of 

environmental impacts on night vision goggles and 

low light-level systems used by air, naval, and ground 

forces to execute nighttime operations. IRTSS uses 

detailed terrain information and multi-spectral imagery with TAWS weather inputs to generate forecast 

target scene images for mission rehearsal. The TIWEDA uses environmental data with force, mission, 

and/or individual weapons rules of engagement or 

performance parameters to automatically generate 

mission-impact forecasts for large-scale planning efforts such as air tasking order preparation. TAWS, 

IRTSS, and T-IWEDA integrate environmental impacts into the mission execution forecasts for C2 

and mission planning (MP) systems throughout 

the military planning and execution cycle. The 

TDA program 

continues adding 

weapons systems 

and targets at the 

request of users 

from the Services. 

Additional decision aids in development or in coordination include 

the airborne laser 

(ABL) atmospheric decision aid 

to support ABL 

development and 

operations and 

a common radio 

frequency (RF) 

system performance prediction 

capability based 

on U.S. Navy 

software.

 AFWA’s 2 WS Special Support Operations 

Flight generates a myriad of products ranging from 

air refueling forecasts, to detailed mission control 

forecasts, to weather impacts for SOF operations, 

and distributes this information via secure media to 

support worldwide Joint SOF operations. The flight 

also provides tailored meteorological information 

for end-to-end planning at U.S. Special Operations 

Command (USSOCOM), Service component special operations commands, and theater special operations commands. The Special Operations Weather 

Flight (SOWF) is continually involved in global military operations, including OEF and OIF. Additionally, the SOWF includes the American Forces Network Weather Center, which provides worldwide, 

broadcast-quality public weather services and planning forecasts through the American Forces Radio 

and Television Service to over 1,000,000 Department of Defense and Department of State (DOS) 

Figure 3-DOD-9. Target Acquisition Weapon Software (TAWS) integrate meteorological conditions 

and environmental parameters to enhance the mission planning process and increase aircrew situational 

awareness for mission execution. (US Air Force Released)
Section 3 DOD 113

personnel and family members stationed overseas. 

AF Special Operations Command will be standing 

up a squadron to assume support to SOF operations in CY2008-09.

 The 2 WS Intel Flight provides detailed global cloud analyses and forecasts to the IC. The flight 

provides worldwide mission-tailored planning and 

execution forecasts for IC agencies at security levels 

up to Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information (TS/SCI). The flight also serves as the focal 

point for AFWA Special Access Program (SAP) requirements; ensures the IC and other SCI and SAP 

meteorological requirements are integrated into 

AFWA programs; monitors and evaluates accuracy 

and timeliness of centralized weather services to the 

IC; and interfaces with the Department of Defense 

and IC regarding weather services and the exploitation of weather information.

 The Air Force provides meteorological and 

space weather products to the Nation’s space and 

missile programs, including a wide range of weather 

observing services at the Air Force Eastern Range 

and the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The Air 

Force also provides tailored forecasting for NASA’s 

manned and unmanned launches and for commercial launches from KSC. In addition, the Air Force 

provides specialized meteorological information for 

the Air Force Western Range at Vandenberg AFB, 

California; the Pacific Missile Range, which includes 

Point Mugu and San Nicholas Island, CA, and Barking Sands, HI; White Sands Missile Range, NM; 

Kwajalein Missile Range, Republic of the Marshall 

Islands; and other DOD research and test facilities 

as directed.

 The Air Force also provides agro-meteorological support to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s 

Foreign Agricultural Service and other similar users. 

The output includes diagnostic soil hydrology and 

other meteorological information pertinent to crop 

growth and yield estimation as well as to trafficability 

and rudimentary flooding estimations.

Integration

 Tailored environmental information and operational impacts are of little use to decision-makers if 

the information and/or impacts are not integrated into 

the shaping, planning, execution, and sustainment of 

air, space, and land operations. The AF employs a 

blend of information technology (IT), including automated machine-to-machine (M2M) interfaces, and 

personnel embedded at the right echelons with decision-makers, to integrate timely, accurate, relevant, 

and consistent weather and weather impacts information into decision-making processes. Since timeliness is critical to effective integration, AF weather 

operations rely on robust, assured communications 

for dissemination.

 AFWA receives alphanumeric weather data, 

parses it according to data type, eliminates duplicate 

reports from different sources, and creates specially 

tailored bulletins. Some of these bulletins are sent 

to the large processing centers to provide the input data for global, regional, and fine-scale forecast 

models. Other bulletins are redistributed to end-users over dedicated circuits, NIPRNET, and satellite 

broadcast facilities. As AFWA transitions to WDAdeveloped components including the Consolidated 

Dissemination Capability (subscription services), the 

pre-staging of tailored bulletins will be minimal as users will be able to generate their own data sets. 

 High-speed communications between large 

Department of Defense and civilian processing centers facilitate sharing of data, high-resolution satellite 

imagery, and output from numerical weather prediction models. Additional circuits provide a subset of 

these data to OWSs.

 Forecaster-developed products and gridded 

data sets are distributed from AFWA via the Weather Product Management and Distribution System to 

base/post-level weather forces around the globe using the DOD’s NIPRNET and SIPRNET.

 AFWA 2 SOS operates a website on the NIPRNET known as the Joint Air Force-Army Weather 

Information Network (JAAWIN). JAAWIN provides 

worldwide access to numerical model forecasts, satellite imagery, forecaster-in-the-loop products, and 

text bulletins, and includes links to all OWS Web 

sites. Additional products are available to classified 

users via JAAWIN-Secret (JAAWIN-S) and JAAWINSensitive Compartmented Information (JAAWINSCI).

 JET also replaces JWIS, which offers another 

means of making tailored weather information available to DOD users. Currently, JWIS provides a link 

to weather information from both Air Force and Navy 
Section 3 DOD 114

sources for exploitation by C2 systems and applications. 

 Although information technology continues 

to enhance the integration of weather and weather 

impact information into decision-making processes, 

well-trained weather professionals are still essential. 

Designated AF weather personnel serve on the staffs 

of operational Air Force, Army, and Joint force units 

worldwide. In this capacity, they identify weathersensitive areas of the operation and provide expert 

advice to help mitigate weather impacts on personnel, platforms, weapons and weapons systems, and 

tactics. The ultimate goal is to identify opportunities 

for an asymmetric advantage over our foes, i.e., when 

enemy force capabilities are more severely degraded 

by weather than those of friendly forces.

 For AF operations, these weather professionals are normally assigned to a flight under an operations support squadron in a flying wing; however, 

individuals from the weather flight are integrated 

into flying squadron mission planning and execution processes. In this capacity, they infuse critical 

weather information at key points in the decision 

cycle to help aircrews maximize wartime capabilities, 

enhance flight safety, and optimize training effectiveness. Weather experts are also assigned to weather 

specialty teams in air and space operations centers. 

This cross-cutting team integrates all-source actionable environmental information at key decision points 

of air and space operations planning, execution, and 

assessment. Armed with this information, decisionmakers can balance operational risks against mission 

need to optimize timing, tactics, target and weapons 

selection, and other factors affecting air and space 

operations. Finally, AF weather experts are integrated into a variety of other unique mission areas, 

such as space launch support and RDT&E activities. 

In each capacity, these specialists enable the supported organization to minimize or alleviate weather 

impacts to the mission. For instance, to avoid potentially devastating storms, space launch weather personnel may advise decision-makers to adjust launch 

timing, while RDT&E weather personnel may identify 

potential weather sensitivities to system developers 

to ensure a safe, effective design.

 Likewise, Army weather requirements are incorporated into the AF’s overall weather operations 

concept. AF weather forces are integrated with Army 

intelligence staffs. The Army trains and educates Air 

Force personnel on Army organizations, concepts of 

operations, and the weather sensitivities. AF weather 

forces are currently habitually aligned with echelons 

above corps, corps, divisions, separate brigades, 

aviation brigades, armored cavalry regiments, ranger 

regiments, and Special Forces groups (as well as 

subordinate battalions deployed at forward operating bases). Over the next few years, AF weather 

support to the Army will undergo significant transformation as the Army transitions from a divisioncentric force based on large standing organizations 

to a brigade-centric force based on smaller, modular 

organizations.

 Air Force Weather is targeting a net-centric 

architecture by 2011. Employing net-centric concepts ensures the environmental information will be 

readily discoverable and exploitable by all decisionmakers, both anticipated and unanticipated, by making the information visible, accessible, understandable, and interoperable throughout the DOD. Core 

Enterprise Services (CES) will provide the minimal 

set of enterprise web services to enable enterprisewide sharing, reuse, and interoperability of information and processes. Catalogs will be stored in shared 

spaces and use DOD-approved standard formats so 

all users can employ established CES search tools 

to rapidly discover the data and services for potential 

use. 

 JMBL will be the interface that enables users to access information in the Global Information 

Grid. Extensible Markup Language will be the standard and allow different applications from different 

sources to communicate with each other without 

time-consuming custom coding. This will break 

down stovepipes and enable standard application 

interoperability, integrate functionality of disparate 

systems into seamless operations, and be ideal for 

M2M communications.

 AFWA’s Weather Data Analysis Capability 

(WDAC) program, which began the migration to the 

DOD Joint METOC Data Architecture to support 

dynamic, fast-paced M2M operations, was merged 

with the MDEC in early 2008 to form WDA. Combining these two programs allowed AF weather to 

save overhead, and prevent creating duplicative 

capabilities. This architecture provides for authoritative, timely, relevant, accurate, and consistent en-
Section 3 DOD 115

vironmental information, accessible via a common 

web-service interface from anywhere on the Global 

Information Grid. The WDA program modernizes the 

AFWA production center and 14 WS infrastructure, 

providing a centralized net-centric reach-back source 

for worldwide space and atmospheric weather information, to include environmental intelligence data to 

C2, C4ISR, MP, and mission support systems such 

as the Joint Mission Planning System. This vision is 

accomplished through implementation of the JMDB, 

is the common mechanism for users to access the 

JMDB for M2M operations.

 WDA through increment three includes 

JMGRID (gridded analysis and forecast data); 

JMOBS (conventional observation data); JMAN (alphanumeric messages and bulletins); and JMPLAT 

(fixed and mobile weather station platform data); 

Joint METOC Space Environment and Solar Segment (JMSESS) (i.e., space related alphanumeric, 

imagery, and non-METOC data) prototype; a JMIM 

(Joint METOC Imagery) database segment prototype 

in support of non-geolocated objects; Gridded Consolidated Dissemination Component for JMOBS, 

JMAN, non geolocated images, geolocated with an 

intuitive interface and local authentication capability. 

The next WDA increment is scheduled to be on contract in fall 2008.

RESEARCH INITIATIVES

 The overarching objective of the Air Force 

meteorological and space environmental technology transition program is to provide capability designers, operational weather personnel, and weather 

information users the technology and tools to gain 

and maintain the advantage over a potential adversary. Capability needs in the atmospheric and space 

environment sciences are articulated in Air Force 

weather’s Joint Capability Document, Capability Review assessments, the AFW and AFWA Strategic 

Plans, the AFW Operations Functional Concept and 

Enabling Concepts (Characterize the Environment, 

Exploit Environmental Information, and Net-Centric 

Operations), and supporting concept and implementation plans. AF weather also strives toward improvements through cooperative development and testing 

agreements both with other governmental agencies 

and laboratories, as well as for-profit companies. 

Additionally, both AFIT and the Naval Postgraduate 

School offer AF graduate students in the atmospheric and space environmental sciences an opportunity 

to research topics of immediate operational interest 

to the Service. AF weather has recently fielded an 

IOC version of the Utah State University (USU) developed GAIM model. AF weather continues to work 

with USU toward the fielding of a FOC full physics 

version of the GAIM model sometime in FY09-10. In 

addition, AF weather will be working during FY08 to 

fully integrate ultraviolet sensing instruments (SSUSI, 

SSULI, and GUVI) into space weather operations. 

This effort will include model integration, visualization, and validation efforts.

 In applied meteorological R&D, the AF is 

improving CDFS techniques by doubling the resolution, integrating geosynchronous METSATs into 

the cloud analysis, using a new cloud interpretation 

scheme, and blending numerical weather prediction 

with forecast cloud advection techniques. The AF 

has transitioned key advances in tactical decision 

aids into operations, permitting improved forecasting 

of electro-optical system performance and generation of cloud and target scene visualizations for training, system development, and mission rehearsal. In 

addition to internal efforts, AF weather will continue 

to rely on collaboration with, and leveraging efforts 

of, other federal meteorological agencies, research 

labs, and universities to further improve CDFS system performance and meet other research needs.

MODELING FOR AIR FORCE AND ARMY OPERATIONS

 The WRF model is the next generation community model and is another area of AFWA participation in research and development in collaboration 

with NCAR, NOAA’s NCEP, NOAA’ s Earth Systems Research Laboratory (ESRL), the University of 

Oklahoma’s Center for the Analysis and Prediction 

of Storms, and others. AFWA initially implemented 

WRF operationally in 2006 and will continue with 

sponsorship and funding of development at NCAR 

and ESRL, test and evaluation of real-time runs of 

the WRF prototype, and will lead the Land Surface 

Model (LSM) Working Group while participating in 

others. The LSM analyzes the current state of the 

land surface to provide information to DOD and civil-
Section 3 DOD 116

ian agencies, and through coupling with WRF, will 

improve forecasting performance in the low levels of 

the atmosphere. This allows AF weather forces to 

provide better forecasts for low-level aircraft operations, the dispersion of aerosol contaminants, and 

the employment of precision-guided munitions. It 

also allows for assessment of trafficability for ground 

forces.

 AFWA is in the process of identifying a future capability called the Ensemble Prediction System (EPS). EPS output will help AF Weather personnel to provide better forecasts for the warfighter 

with increased confidence, particularly at the tactical 

level. The ongoing Joint Ensemble Forecast System 

(JEFS) prototype effort is laying the groundwork to 

construct an operational EPS and the first non-operational JEFS products are being produced daily at 

AFWA as part of the JEFS test in the U.S. Pacific 

Command (USPACOM) and U.S. Central Command 

(USCENTCOM) AORs. 

 There are two distinct components of EPS, 

with one being coarse-scale global and the other finescale regional. The AF concept calls for leveraging 

NCEP’s and the Navy’s global and CONUS capabilities with NWS and FNMOC running the global models. AFWA and FNMOC are currently conducting a 

1-year proof-of-concept test which includes a global 

and fine-scale prototype, with a 5km, 10 member 

set over Central Command’s Area Of Responsibility 

and Korea. Expected benefits include more objective Operational Risk Management (ORM) decisions 

by warfighters enabled by the additional information 

provided through ensemble forecasts. Dependant 

on the success of JEFS, AFWA will begin operational transition of EF in about 2010.

 In addition, AF weather is partnering with the 

NWS and the Navy in the National Unified Operational Prediction Capability (NUOPC) project. This 

partnership exists to enable a Tri-Agency joint global 

atmospheric ensemble forecast system. NUOPC is 

an integration of ongoing efforts coordinated by a 

Tri-agency management organization. The NUOPC 

vision is a National NWP system with interoperable 

components built on common standards and framework (Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF)) 

with managed operational ensemble diversity and a 

national global NWP research agenda to accelerate 

science and technology infusion.

ATMOSPHERIC OPTICAL TURBULENCE

 Electro-optical (EO) systems are adversely affected by optical distortions caused by thermal or refractive turbulence. As the sophistication of current 

and next-generation military systems grows, the requirement for more detailed knowledge of fine-scale 

(meters or less) atmospheric behavior also grows. 

The Airborne Laser (ABL) program is one such capability whose performance is highly dependent on 

the variations of the meteorological conditions that 

produce optical turbulence. The Air Force program 

in atmospheric optical turbulence measurements 

and modeling seeks to address these needs. Researchers used a balloon-borne turbulence sensor 

mated to a standard radiosonde to obtain measurements, producing data and empirical models that 

are the basis for ABL system specification. Balloonborne measurements were made in conjunction with 

airborne stellar scintillometer measurements to understand the relation between atmospheric structure 

and path-integrated optical effects. The turbulent 

scalar spectrum was also sampled using balloonborne high-bandwidth sensors. As part of an international program, aircraft measurements of temperature and velocity turbulence have been made in 

different locales world-wide. Horizontal measurements by the aircraft augment the vertical profiling by 

balloons to assist in the development of the detailed 

knowledge required to support new EO systems.

UNITED STATES WEATHER RESEARCH PROGRAM (USWRP)

 USWRP’s mission is to accelerate forecast 

improvements for high-impact weather phenomena 

and to facilitate full use of advanced weather information. AF weather first entered into discussions 

with USWRP in 2001 to explore expanded participation in the program. The program currently focuses 

on landfalling hurricanes, heavy precipitation, and 

socio-economic impacts. The AF is eager to leverage future efforts in the areas of observing, assimilation strategies for data-sparse regions, and urban 

forecasting to increase warfighters’ abilities to anticipate and exploit the weather. AF weather is already 

committed to the USWRP-affiliated community de-
Section 3 DOD 117

velopment of the WRF model and will continue its 

USWRP involvement during the coming fiscal year.

AIR FORCE RESEARCH LABORATORY (AFRL)

AFRL supports AFWA by executing research conducted by external agencies and by conducting inhouse research on space weather. AFRL works with 

AFWA to execute the research portion of AFWA’s 

forecasting and modeling program. AFRL coordinates with government agencies (e.g., NASA), Federally Funded Research and Development Centers 

(e.g., NCAR), and private corporations to fund research in support of weather model development. 

In space weather research, AFRL programs focus 

on ionospheric impacts to radio frequency systems, 

charged particle specification and forecasts, solar 

disturbance prediction, and neutral density effects 

on Low-Earth Orbit spacecraft. Working closely 

with the DMSP System Program Office at the Space 

and Missile Systems Center, under a Memorandum 

of Agreement, AFRL supports the development and 

upgrading of operational space weather sensors, 

models, and software products to include: space environment sensors on the DMSP spacecraft; stateof-the-art ground-based scintillation detectors; total 

electron content sensors; DISS/NEXION; SEON; 

and the Operationalized Space Environment Network 

Display suite of web-based products. In addition to 

the AFRL research portfolio, AF weather collaborates with others in the space weather community 

to develop new techniques, models, and systems for 

transition to operational applications. These include 

the Community Coordinated Modeling Center, John 

Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, the Naval Research Laboratory, NASA, NOAA’s Space Weather 

Prediction Center, and the Community for Integrated 

Space Modeling.

 AF weather is also working with AFRL design 

teams on Distributed Mission Operations (DMO). 

They are operationally testing and evaluating weather 

impacts, messages, and feed during DMO exercises 

and test-events as they identify wargame program 

requirements. 

ARMY RESEARCH LAB (ARL)

 AF Weather is leveraging ARL’s nested weather running estimate, also known as nowcast, for the 

0-3 hour forecast through local tailoring of theater 

grids and using fine scale models with 1-km grid resolution. These theater and nested grids will be used 

in decision aid tools such as Tri-Service IWEDA, Aircraft Weather Routing and EO/Infrared tools such as 

TAWS to determine weather impacts/effects at each 

grid point. AF Weather is also researching how to take 

advantage of ARL’s capabilities in battlefield sensing 

and capture, store and use environmental observed 

data from UAS, aircraft LIDAR and Future Combat 

Systems vehicles. Another area where AF Weather is joining forces with ARL is with integrating the 

UAS routing/impacts tool into the operational realm.

NEXT GENERATION AIR TRANSPORTATION 

SYSTEM (NextGen)

 AF weather has taken the lead in DOD weather support to the Next Generation Air Transportation 

System (NextGen) Joint Planning and Development 

Office (JPDO) Weather working Group (WWG). 

The basis of the NextGen Wx CONOPS is a virtual 

4-Dimensional (space and time) weather data base 

that covers the National Airspace System (NAS) 

called the 4-D Wx Data Cube. This cube will contain all the weather data, information and products 

necessary for supporting aviation operations including observations and forecasts from both federal and 

commercial sources. A subset of the 4-D wx data 

cube will be a common, consistent, data set called 

the 4-D Wx Single Authoritative Source (SAS) that is 

used to create a common weather picture for federal 

aviation decision-makers. This SAS will be open and 

available to all NAS users. The 4-D Cube and SAS 

will be net-enabled for machine-to-machine data exchange. This whole concept is called the NextGen 

Net-Enabled Weather (NNEW). AF weather is working closely with the JPDO, NWS and FAA on this 

concept. AF weather is providing net-centric lessons 

learned and technology, such as JMBL, to help this 

program along. In 2007, AF weather participated 

in the development of a JPDO weather policy paper 

and weather functional requirements document. All 

of these endeavors will not only benefit NextGen but 

will also contribute to improving the weather data 

available to integrate into military C2 systems.

 In the area of C2 integration AF weather is 
Section 3 DOD 118

also working with the AF Combat Support Office 

to develop the capability to overlay weather on the 

predator COP. AF Weather has partnered with the 

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency to develop method to present extensible markup language 

tagged weather data into Google Earth format. 

 AF weather submitted a proposal for reutilization of High Performance Computing Modernization 

Program (HPCMP) assets, the Linux Networx Evolocity II Cluster (JVN) or IBM Regatta Power 4+ system (KRACKEN), in June 2008. Under the proposal, 

AFWA will work closely with ARL, NCAR, and NASA 

to make maximum use of this HPCMP equipment to 

further research the cutting edge science of stochastic weather forecasting for operational exploitation. 

AFWA, with its ARL partners, will develop and test 

very high-resolution wind field models to produce 

highly resolved flow patterns in complex battlefield 

terrain to enable improved Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear dispersion forecasts in support of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and AF 

and Army decision-makers. AFWA will test the WRF 

Chemistry model to characterize aerosol and photochemical processes that degrade the combat effectiveness of weapons and defense systems. AFWA, 

with its NASA partners, will develop and test a very 

high-resolution land data assimilation system, called 

Land Information System, and drive cloud characterization capabilities to resolutions on the order of 

1 KM to significantly improve support for AF, Army, 

Special Operations, and IC operations. AFWA will 

work with NCAR to develop Auto Vortex Following 

WRF capabilities for use by the JTWC to improve 

typhoon forecasts. Finally, AFWA will develop, test, 

and integrate full physics GAIM to improve space 

weather situational awareness and support to combat operations.

 In conclusion, through a continuous process 

of review and definition, the Air Force documents its 

requirements for research aimed ultimately at providing timely, accurate, relevant, and consistent weather 

information to the warfighter today and in the future. 

In meteorological R&D, AF weather is committed to 

continued development of the WRF model and collaboration with others to the benefit of the warfighter 

and the nation. Space weather and cloud forecasting research will continue to facilitate the transition of 

required capabilities to operational use at minimum 

expense. 
Section 3 DOD 119

UNITED STATES NAVY NITED STATES NAVY

OVERVIEW

 The U. S. Navy’s Oceanography and Meteorology Program (NOP) provides global meteorology, 

oceanographic, Maritime Geospatial-Environmental 

Information & Services and ocean surveillance critical 

for safe and effective operations of the Navy and Marine Corps and the Department of Defense. Its mission is to protect the Fleet, shape the battlespace and 

maximize warfighting capability. The program in-cludes 

oceanography, bathymetry, 

hydrography, meteorology, 

acoustics, geophysics, astrometry, geospa-tial information and precise time.

 Naval METOC underpins every aspect of naval operations and warfare. 

It provides an affordable 

and sustainable competitive advantage to the Nation 

and protects the substantial 

National investment in both 

afloat and ashore force 

structure. 

 The NOP, which is 

supported by ocean engineering, operational supercomputing and operations 

research, in recent years 

reinvented itself to meet the 

warfighting needs of the operators and the fiscal needs 

of today’s Navy.

 Increasingly, costs 

are leveraged in the Joint, 

interagency and international arenas to deliver capabilities at a shared cost. The NOP is the Department 

of Defense’s global Numerical Weather Forecasting 

Capability and it partners with Air Force weather in 

the areas of flight weather forecasting, Joint operations, information management and acquisition programs. It also has strong relationships with all five 

direc-torates in NOAA.

ORGANIZATION

 The Commander Naval Meteorology and 

Oceanography Command is an Echelon III command 

reporting to the U.S. Fleet Forces Command (USFF). 

Its resource sponsors are OPNAV N4 for Operations 

and Maintenance, Navy (OMN) funding; the Oceanographer of the Navy, N84, for Other Procurement, 

Navy (OPN) funding; OPNAV N87 for Commander 

Undersea Surveillance; OPNAV N1 for Military Personnel Navy (MPN) and Reserve 

Personnel Navy (RPN); and 

OPNAV N85 for Expeditionary 

Warfare re-quirements.

 The Naval Oceanography Program’s operational 

concept is “knowledge-centric” – production is centralized, service delivery is distributed in naval command and 

control centers and the total 

capabilities are brought to 

bear directly on Naval strategic, warfighting and safe operating challenges. 

 Naval Oceanography focuses its services on 

five warfighting capabilities--

antisubmarine warfare, naval 

special warfare, mine warfare 

and countermeasures, fleet 

operations, and intelligence, 

surveillance and reconnaissance--and four strategic and 

enabling capabilities, maritime 

weather forecasting, aviation 

weather forecasting, navigation and charting and precise 

time and astrometry.

 Major activities within the command currently 

include: 

• Naval Oceanography Operations Command, 

Stennis Space Center, MS

• Naval Oceanographic Office, Stennis Space 

Figure 3 – DOD 10. Aerographer’s Mate 1st Class 

William Palmer releases a weather balloon from the 

flight deck aboard the amphibious assault ship USS 

Peleliu (LHA 5). (US Navy Released)
Section 3 DOD 120

Center, MS

• Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography 

Center, Monterey, CA

• U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, DC

• Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Professional Development Center, Gulfport, MS

• Commander Undersea Surveillance (CUS), Dam 

Neck, VA

Additional subordinate commands include:

• Naval Aviation Forecast Center, Norfolk, VA and 

detachments

• Naval Maritime Forecast Center, Pearl Harbor, HI 

(with an activity in Norfolk)

• Strike Group Oceanography Teams in Norfolk, 

San Diego and Fallon, Nevada (with subordinate 

mobile environmental teams)

• Naval Special Warfare Oceanography Center in 

San Diego, CA (with components and detachments in Stuttgart, Germany, Norfolk and Pearl 

Harbor)

• Naval Oceanography ASW Centers in Yokosuka, Japan and Stennis Space Center, MS (with 

subordinate detachments)

• Fleet Survey Team, Stennis Space Center MS

• Naval Ice Center, Suitland, MD

• Naval Ocean Processing Facilities in Dam Neck, 

VA and Whidbey Island, WA (with detachments)

NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHY OPERATIONS COMMAND (NAVOCEANOPSCOM)

 The NAVOCEANOPSCOM, headed by the 

Commander, Oceanographic Operations, serves as 

the principal operational organization of CNMOC and 

coordinates and manages efforts among field activities under the Operational Oceanography Program 

to optimize warfighting resources, support safe operations and enhance dominance of the battlespace 

through superior understanding and exploitation of 

the environment. The Command encompasses the 

nine warfighting and enabling directorates. Each director-ate determines how that directorate’s services 

are delivered globally. Each directorate reports to a 

single Navy Captain who functions as Naval Oceanography’s Chief Operating Officer. 

 The Commander, Oceanographic Operations 

supports the combatant commanders and national 

missions, U.S. interagency and international partners. 

The major NAVMETOCCOM production centers 

(NAVOCEANO, FLENUMETOCCEN, NAVOBSY) 

support the Commander, Oceanographic Operations.

 The command’s operational model is based 

on standardizing services for each directorate, automating everything that can be automated and coupling situational awareness and a small on-scene 

pres-ence, supported by a significant 24/7 reachback production capability at the major production 

centers.

 Dangerous weather and safe navigation are 

the top two Fleet concerns.

Figure 3 – DOD 11. Aerographer’s Mate 2nd Class Kristopher Rodriguez, writes a weather report in the meteorology 

and oceanography center of the aircraft carrier USS Kitty 

Hawk (CV 63). (US Navy Released)
Section 3 DOD 121

Aviation Forecasting

 Many environmental conditions severely impact flight operations and mission accomplishment. 

These include: wind speed and direction, cloud ceiling, precipitation, turbulence, visibility, icing and severe weather such as thunderstorms. An accurate 

forecast is often the deciding factor in mission success and for the safety of the pilot and their aircraft.

 Navy Meteorologists and forecasters analyze 

current physical environmental conditions and use 

state of the art computer models to forecast atmospheric and oceanographic phenomena impacting 

naval flight operations.

 Meteorologists are assigned to Aviation Forecasting hubs in the United States and overseas locations. 

 Core aviation weather services include flight 

route weather briefings via an internet-based flight 

weather briefer, severe weather warnings and advisories for Navy airfields and terminal aerodrome forecasts for Navy airfields.

Fleet Operations

 The Naval Meteorology and Oceanography 

Command is actively engaged with Fleet forces to 

provide valuable physical environmental knowledge 

to aid warfighting decision making. Personnel are integrated with the Fleet, where they provide in situ 

observations, run tactical decision aids and interpret 

envi-ronmental data to provide decision support to 

Fleet commanders.

 The onboard personnel work with reachback 

cells to analyze and forecast environmental conditions from launch point to target and to determine 

optimum Fleet maneuvers, ingress and egress 

routes, am-phibious landing points and times, flight 

operations, weapons load-outs and target selection.

 Deploying personnel are highly trained meteorology and oceanography specialists for support 

planning and operations. Reachback teams work 

with onboard personnel to refine data, develop models, conduct forecast analyses and deliver high-quality information to Fleet commands.

 Tailored Strike Group Oceanography Team 

(SGOT) Detachments train, work-up and deploy 

with carrier and expeditionary strike groups through 

each phase of the Fleet Readiness Training Program 

or Plan or whatever and deployment. Each SGOT 

detachment includes a team who forecast for the 

aircraft carriers, amphibious assault ships and other 

vessels making up the strike group. In addition to 

flight deck weather, they forecast en-route and target area METOC conditions which may vary greatly 

considering the tremendous reach of Naval Aviation 

along the world’s dynamic coastlines.

Maritime Weather Operations

 Navy meteorologists and forecasters are assigned to Maritime 

Forecasting Centers in Hawaii and 

Virginia.

 Core maritime weather services include Optimum Track Ship Routing (OTSR), a weather forecast-ing 

service to support transoceanic voyages and coastal operations. OTSR 

services:

• Provide hazardous ocean and 

weather advisories and divert recommendations to ship Commanding 

Offi-cers and Masters at sea.

• Include sortie recommendaFigure 3 – DOD 12. McMurdo Station, Antarctica, ice floes and treacherous 

weather pose challenges to Military Sealift Command’s annual mission of resupplying the station. (US Navy Released)
Section 3 DOD 122

tions for potentially damaging weather conditions in port.

• Provide preliminary climatologic outlooks for transit and mission planning.

• Routine ship weather forecasts (WEAX) and aviation weather forecasts for ship-based helicopters 

(AVWX) include high wind and seas warnings 

and local area warnings for Fleet Concentration 

Areas.

 The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), 

established by the U.S. Pacific Command, is jointly 

manned with U.S. Air Force personnel. JTWC services include tropical cyclone forecasts, warnings 

and other products for Department of Defense warfighters operating in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 

JTWC, located in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, is an internationally recognized tropical cyclone forecasting center.

FLEET NUMERICAL METEOROLOGY AND 

OCEANOGRAPHY CENTER

 The Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FLENUMETOCCEN) an Echelon IV 

activity reporting to the Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command, is the NOP’s 

production center for meteorology. The center plays 

a significant role in the National capability for operational weather and ocean prediction through its 

operation of sophisticated global and regional meteorological and oceanographic models, extending 

from the top of the atmosphere to the bottom of the 

ocean. Through close collaboration with the Naval 

Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO), FLENUMETOCCEN is a key component in the Navy’s operational weather and ocean prediction program. This 

program provides information that helps give Naval 

forces an asymmetric advantage in speed, access 

and persistence in any combat operation for which 

they may be called upon. 

 FLENUMETOCCEN is well known for its 

long and productive history of implementing, evaluating, operating, maintaining and improving complex 

Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) system specifically to meet the requirements of the U.S. Navy. 

These requirements include the need for a particularly accurate representation of coastal meteorology 

and the air-sea heat fluxes and wind stresses required to drive the Navy’s ocean models. In support 

of this need, FLENUMETOCCEN acquires and processes over six mil-lion observations per day -- creating one of the world’s most comprehensive real-time 

databases of mete-orological and oceanographic 

observations -- for real-time fusion and assimilation 

into its models. In addi-tion, FLENUMETOCCEN is 

designated as the DOD center for global Numerical 

Weather Prediction. FLENUMETOCCEN uniquely 

satisfies the military’s requirement for an operational 

global NWP capability based on software certified to 

DOD information assurance standards and operated 

in a secure classified environment protected from 

outside intrusion by DOD-certified firewalls. This 

requirement is driven by the importance of weather 

and ocean conditions on modern military operations, 

the need to utilize classified weather observations 

to guarantee the very best weather and ocean predictions in theaters of conflict, and the imperative to 

produce and disseminate weather and ocean products to military decision-makers without fear of interruption or compromise as a result of cyber terrorists 

or cyber warfare.

 FLENUMETOCCEN employs four primary 

models: the Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Pre-diction System (NOGAPS), the Coupled 

Ocean/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS), the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics - Navy (GFDN) model, and the WaveWatch III 

model (WW3), along with a number of specialized 

models and related applications. NOGAPS is a hydrostatic, global spectral model that drives nearly all 

other FLENUMETOCCEN models and applications 

in some fashion, and forms the basis for the FLENUMETOCCEN global Ensemble Forecast System 

(EFS). COAMPS is a high-resolution, non-hydrostatic regional model, multiply nested within NOGAPS, 

that has proven to be particu-larly valuable for forecasting weather and ocean conditions in highly complex coastal areas. GFDN is a moving-nest tropical 

cyclone (TC) model, nested within NOGAPS, that 

is used to forecast TC tracks globally. WW3 is a 

spectral ocean wave model that is employed both 

globally (driven by NOGAPS) and regionally (driven 

by COAMPS) in support of a wide variety of naval 
Section 3 DOD 123

operations. Other models support and supplement 

the main models with predictions of ocean thermal 

structure, ocean currents and other data. All of the 

models are configured, scheduled and operated under the central control of FLENUME-TOCCEN Operations. COAMPS, however, can also be configured, scheduled and operated remotely by users in 

the field as an on-demand modeling service. This 

is done over the Web via the FLENUMETOC-CEN 

Centralized Atmospheric Analysis and Prediction 

System (CAAPS). In general, FLENUMETOCCEN 

strives to treat the air-ocean environment as a fully 

integrated system, from the top of the atmosphere to 

the bottom of the ocean, placing special emphasis 

on the air-ocean interface.

 FLENUMETOCCEN’s complex and robust 

operational prediction capability is designed to deliver, in conjunction with NAVOCEANO, 7x24x365 

support organized along the warfare areas. For example, some FLENUMETOCCEN products consist of detailed forecasts of wind stresses and heat 

fluxes to drive very high-resolution ocean models at 

NAVOCEANO that provide ocean thermal structure 

and currents in support of anti-submarine and mine 

warfare operations, or near-shore wind, sea and 

surf forecasts that directly support Fleet Operations 

through ship-to-objective maneuver. In many cases, 

the outputs of the FLENUMETOCCEN models feed 

directly into applications models, tactical decision 

aids and other prod-ucts that provide direct support 

to various weather-sensitive activities associated with 

the warfighting di-rectorates identified above. These 

include optimum path aircraft routing, optimum track 

ship routing, issu-ance of high-winds and high-seas 

warnings, hurricane/typhoon sortie decisions, covert 

ingress/egress of Special Operations Forces, ballistic missile targeting, cruise missile launch and targeting, radar perform-ance prediction in support of ship 

self defense, naval gunfire operations, understanding the threats posed by airborne nuclear/biological/chemical agents, search-and-rescue at sea, and 

many other activities. 

 FLENUMETOCCEN also provides a widerange of meteorological and oceanographic observations and satellite imagery to complement its models 

and applications products. These include on-demand 

extracts from its global observational database, a full 

range of Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP) Special Sensor Microwave/Imager products, ERS and QuikScat scatterometer wind products, a comprehensive view of tropical cyclones via 

the FLENUMETOCCEN TC Web Page, and vari-ous 

experimental satellite products fielded for evaluation 

in conjunction with the Naval Research Lab (e.g., 

satellite imagery that enhances the visualization of 

airborne sand and dust). FLENUMETOCCEN also 

hosts the USGODAE Monterey Data Server in support of the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment. This system serves as a one-stop shop for 

meteorological and oceanographic data and model 

products required to support global ocean modeling 

R&D. It also functions as one of two Argo Global 

Data As-sembly Centers, hosting the complete collection of quality-controlled Argo temperature/salinity profiling float data.

 Many of FLENUMETOCCEN’s products are 

distributed to users over the Web via the PC-based 

METCAST system, and subsequently displayed and 

manipulated on the user’s PC with the Joint METOC 

Viewer (JMV) software. This includes all standard 

meteorological and oceanographic fields, synoptic 

ob-servations, and satellite imagery. For those who 

require only graphical display of model-predicted 

mete-orological or oceanographic fields, FLENUMETOCCEN provides a Web-based capability called 

WxMap (i.e., “Weather Map”). WxMap, requiring 

only a Web browser for access, allows the user to 

select and quickly display predicted meteorological 

and oceanographic fields for any user-defined geographical area.

 All of FLENUMETOCCEN’s production capabilities are fielded on a collection of computer 

hard-ware and software designated as the Primary 

Oceanographic Prediction System (POPS). POPS 

is or-ganized into two subsystems: the Analysis and 

Modeling Subsystem (AMS) and the Applications, 

Trans-actions, and Observations Subsystem (ATOS). 

AMS is a cluster of SGI and IBM supercomputers on 

which the major NWP models run. ATOS is a large 

suite of IBM Linux clusters that ingests, decodes and 

quality-controls data; does satellite data processing; 

hosts many of the applications models and products mentioned above; and supports data distribution via a services oriented architecture and Web 

portal. Note that FLENUMETOCCEN also hosts a 

DOD High Performance Computing Modernization 
Section 3 DOD 124

Program (HPCMP) Distributed Center, which are integrated closely with POPS. 

 In addition to its primary role of focused support to the warfighter, FLENUMETOCCEN also plays 

a key role in the U.S. national program for weather 

prediction. In this regard, FLENUMETOCCEN’s 

tropical cyclone track predictions, widely recognized 

as among the best in the world, have proven to be 

especially valuable, with the National Hurricane Center (NHC) relying on them heavily. 

 FLENUMETOCCEN benefits greatly from 

collocation with its supporting R&D activity, the Marine Meteorology Division of the Naval Research 

Laboratory (NRL/MRY). NRL/MRY is a world-class 

research organization, with focus on weather-related 

support to warfighting. FLENUMETOCCEN and 

NRL/MRY share space, data, software and computer systems, and together with the nearby Naval 

Postgraduate School represent one of the largest 

concentrations of weather-related intellectual capital in the nation. Collocation and close cooperation 

between research and operations, such as exists 

between NRL/MRY and FLENUMETOCCEN, is the 

optimum arrangement for transitioning R&D quickly 

and cost-effectively into new and improved operational weather prediction capabilities.

NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE

 The Naval Oceanographic Office is the NOP’s 

production center for oceanography. 

 Since atmospheric conditions are inherently 

coupled to oceanographic conditions, the Navy’s 

pro-gram in meteorology is closely linked with oceanography , which is the focus of the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO), Stennis Space 

Center, Mississippi. NAVOCEANO primary responsibilities in-clude the collection, processing, and distribution of oceanographic, hydrographic, and other 

geophysical data and products. NAVOCEANO runs 

and disseminates products from the world’s first operational global ocean model, NRL Layered Ocean 

Model (NLOM), as well as a number of regional 

and coastal cir-culation and wave models. NAVOCEANO also runs the Polar Ice Prediction System 

(PIPS) ice model and provides the output to the 

National Ice Center for product generation. A key 

ingredient to ocean model performance is real-time 

data for assimilation and evaluation. NAVOCEANO 

is the Navy’s primary processing facility for NOAA 

polar-orbiting satellite data and is nationally recognized for satellite-derived sea-surface temperature 

and satellite altimeter-derived sea surface topography and wave height. NAVO-CEANO’s global sea 

surface temperature are critically important to successfully running NOGAPS and COAMPS. Additionally, NAVOCEANO houses a DOD Major Shared 

Resource center, enabling transition of the latest research and development models on the most scaleable, supercomputing architecture and facilitating 

transition from R&D to operational use.

Figure 3 – DOD 13. The Nassau Expeditionary Strike Group 

transits the Atlantic Ocean. (US Navy Released)

Figure 3 – DOD 14. Aviation Warfare Systems Operator 2nd 

Class Anthony Chavez, works with a soldier from the Armed 

forces of the Philippines to move relief supplies to a school on 

the Panay Island. (US Navy Released)
Section 3 DOD 125

UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY

 The U.S. Naval Observatory, in Washington, 

D.C., is the production center for precise time and 

as-trometry. It is one of the oldest scientific agencies in the country. Established in 1830 as the Depot 

of Charts and Instruments, the U.S. Naval Observatory today is the preeminent authority in the areas of 

Pre-cise Time and Astrometry and distributes Earth 

Orientation parameters and other astronomical data 

re-quired for accurate navigation and fundamental 

astronomy.

 The U.S. Naval Observatory serves as the official source of time for the Department of Defense 

and the standard of time for the United States. The 

atomic clock timescale of the Observatory is based 

on an ensemble of cesium-beam frequency standards and hydrogen masers.

 The U.S. Naval Observatory performs an 

essential scientific role for the United States, the 

Navy and the Department of Defense. Its mission includes determining the positions and motions of the 

Earth, Sun, Moon, planets, starts and other celestial objects, providing astronomical data; determining precise time; measuring the Earth’s rotation; and 

maintaining the Master Clock for the United States. 

Observatory astronomers formulate the theories and 

conduct the relevant research necessary to improve 

these mission goals. This astronomical and timing 

data, essential for accurate navigation and the support of communica-tion on Earth and in space, is vital 

to the Navy and Department of Defense. It is also 

used extensively by other government agencies and 

the public at large.

EDUCATION/TRAINING

 Navy Officer (meteorologists/oceanographers) are all university graduates in meteorology, 

ocean-ography or other earth sciences, with most 

attaining dual meteorology and oceanography advanced graduate degrees.

 Enlisted forecaster and/or briefers are trained 

in meteorological analysis and forecasting at military 

schools. Enlisted observers receive training at military schools.

 The enlisted Aerographer’s “A” (observer) 

and “C” (forecaster) schools are located at the Naval Technical Training Unit collocated with Air Force 

and Marine weather training at Keesler Air Force 

Base, MS.

 Ongoing professional development for both 

officer and enlisted personnel is offered through the 

Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Professional 

Development Center in Gulfport, MS (with Pacific 

and Atlantic detachments). The center offers directorate training as well as training on oceanographic 

knowl-edge continuum.

THE FUTURE

 The central objective for the Naval Oceanography Program’s future capability is a three-tiered 

con-struct designed to bring the forecast battlespace 

into operational decision making. It hinges on high 

reso-lution modeling and will require extensive sampling and continuous validation. All three tiers, each 

encom-passing a separate knowledge set, will be 

developed simultaneously.

 Tier 1, the “environment layer” will consist of 

developing and using the sampling methods given 

the observed and forecast ocean/atmosphere system and the desired knowledge to be gained. Littoral Bat-tlespace Sensing Fusion & Integration is 

the baseline Program of Record for acquiring Navyunique data and sensors critical to model initialization, verification, validation, skill improvement and 

confidence. In this tier, focus will also be placed on 

Figure 3 – DOD 15. Marines from India Battery, Battalion 

Landing Team 2/5, 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit, fire their 

M777 Howitzer while deployed to Buehring, Kuwait. (USMC 

Released)
Section 3 DOD 126

improving modeling capability in an air/ocean environment at all scales, aligned with a National approach in areas where leverage is possible.

 Tier 2, the “performance layer” revolves 

around transforming understanding of the air-ocean 

envi-ronment into knowledge of that environment will 

impact sensors, platforms and people and communicat-ing inherent opportunities and constraints.

 Tier 3, “the decision layer,” applications will 

quantify strategic and operational risks, provide asset 

allocation recommendations at the operational level 

and sensor settings and predictions at the tactical 

level. As much of this information as possible will be 

provided via the Web and tailored “push” products. 

 Together the three “tiers” will deliver timeresponsive, “on demand” sensing and modeling and 

pre-diction of critical ocean parameters on strategic, 

operational and tactical timelines with tightly coupled 

warfighting applications. 

PROGRAM ALIGNMENT

 The Naval Oceanography Program is changing focus from an acquisition-based program to “in 

stride” technology transition that rapidly transitions 

R&D and influences 

the Navy’s S&T investments. Emerging R&D technologies will be tested in 

computational and 

operational environments and transitioned after an 

appropriate collaborative period.

CONCLUSION

 The Naval 

Oceanography Program has reinvented 

itself into a program 

that emphasizes the 

Navy’s interests – 

and will evolve as 

the Navy’s future 

challenges evolve. 

Ultimately, it delivers an operational Na-val Oceanography Program 

(aligned vertically with the S&T and R&D communities) that protects the Fleet, helps the Nation shape 

the battlespace and maximizes warfighting capability.

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS (USMC)

 The mission of the Marine Corps METOC 

Service is to provide meteorological, oceanographic, 

and space environmental information, products, and 

services required to support Marine Corps and other 

military operations. The Marine Corps METOC support infrastructure is designed to readily deploy and 

operate in austere expeditionary environments. It is 

capable of providing sustained, comprehensive, and 

relevant METOC support to all elements of a Marine 

Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF), as well as bases 

and stations of the supporting establishment.

ORGANIZATION

 The Deputy Commandant for Aviation, Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps (Code ASL-37), is the 

Figure 3 – DOD 16. Landing craft air-cushioned (LCAC) 81, assigned to the “Swift Intruders” of 

Assault Craft Unit (ACU) 5 follows another LCAC into the well deck of the amphibious dock landing 

ship USS Harpers Ferry (LSD 49). (US Navy Released)
Section 3 DOD 127

re-sponsible office for Marine Corps METOC requirements and support. The Marine Corps METOC 

organi-zation consists of two operational chains of 

command, one for supporting establishment METOC units, and the other for the Fleet Marine Force 

(FMF). 

 Supporting establishment METOC units 

are located worldwide at Marine Corp Air Stations 

(MCAS) and Facilities (MCAF). These activities are 

manned and equipped to provide direct aviation METOC support and services to host and tenant units 

at seven major air stations in the continental United 

States, one in Hawaii, and two in Japan. 

 Within the FMF, Marines deploy as scalable, 

tailored, combined-arms teams known as MAGTFs. 

There are three sizes of MAGTFs. They are the Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB), and Marine Expeditionary Force 

(MEF) with the latter being the largest. Additionally, 

Spe-cial Purpose MAGTFs may be formed to support 

operationally unique situations and/or requirements. 

All MAGTFs, regardless of size, share four organizational elements that vary in size and composition 

accord-ing to the mission: Command Element (CE), 

Ground Combat Element (GCE), Aviation Combat 

Element (ACE), and Combat Service Support Element (CSSE). 

 FMF METOC activities are organized, trained, 

and equipped to provide tailored support products 

and services to all combat elements of the MAGTF. 

METOC support is focused towards impacts on expeditionary maneuver warfare operations, particularly operational maneuver from the Sea. FMF METOC 

activities are fully interoperable within joint force operations as part of a Service or functional component 

command. When directed to stand-up as part of a 

Joint Task Force headquarters (JTF HQ), they are capable of planning, coordinating, and leading joint METOC operations. Marine METOC forces can rapidly 

transition from pre-crisis state to full operational capability in a distant theater to provide on-scene support to MAGTF, combined, joint, allied, and coalition 

operations and other military operations as may be 

di-rected. FMF METOC assets are permanently assigned to MEF headquarters, intelligence battalions, 

Ma-rine Wing Support Group (MWSG), and Marine 

Wing Support Squadron (MWSS). There are three 

MEFs strategically positioned for global response. I 

MEF, based in southern California and III MEF, forward based in Okinawa, Mainland Japan, and Hawaii fall under the control of the Commander, Marine 

Forces Pacific. II MEF, located at bases in North and 

South Carolina, falls under the Commander Marine 

Forces Command. MEF METOC personnel serve as 

special staff to the commanding general and are under the direction and cognizance of the intelligence 

division (G-2). 

 The three intelligence battalions in the Marine 

Corps are co-located with respective MEF headquarters. These battalions directly support the MEF G-2 

and serve as MAGTF intelligence centers during operations. METOC is a vital part of the intelligence estimate and is an essential element that supports the 

Marine Corps Rapid Response Planning Process. 

METOC personnel assigned to these commands 

pro-vide expertise, products, and services that directly support the intelligence preparation of the 

battle-space (IPB) process by helping intelligence 

analysts to effectively evaluate, integrate, and synchronize METOC effects for both enemy and friendly 

courses of action. 

 The Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW) conduct 

the complete range of air operations in support of 

Figure 3 – DOD 17. The Meteorological Mobile Facility-Replacement Next Generation Vehicle (USMC Released)
Section 3 DOD 128

the MEF, to include anti-air warfare, offensive air 

support, assault support, aerial reconnaissance, 

electronic warfare, and control of aircraft and missiles. The MAW serves as the principle headquarters 

for the ACE. Most of the MAGTF’s METOC support 

assets reside within the MAW, specifically at the 

MWSG and its subordinate MWSS. These assets 

are organized, structured, and capable of supporting a variety of MAGTF and ACE-specific operations 

as defined by the size, scope, and mission requirements. Dedicated METOC support is available for all 

MAGTF elements from within the MAW/ACE. 

METOC SUPPORT CAPABILITIES

Meteorological Mobile Facility-Replacement (MetMF(R))

 The highest level of METOC support to the 

MAGTF and ACE-specific operations is the deployment of the MetMF(R). The MetMF(R) provides a 

METOC support capability similar to that found in 

garrison METOC facilities. The MetMF(R) is normally 

employed as part of MWSS to a forward operating 

base and is the only realistic option for large-scale 

MAGTF operations. Once established ashore, the 

MWSS may detach small METOC support teams 

with portable ancillary equipment to a forward base 

in support of ACE units that are separated from the 

main airbase. This redeployment also provides the 

MetMF(R) with a forward data collection capability that significantly enhances METOC situational 

awareness and overall support efforts to the entire 

MAGTF. With appropriate Service personnel augmentation, the MetMF(R) is also capable of serving 

as host for an in theater Joint METOC Coordination 

Cell (JMCC) during joint operations and exercises.

The METMF(R) NextGen is a mobile system that will 

provide tactical meteorological support to the Marine 

Air Ground Task Force This system will replace the 

legacy METMF(R) with current and emerging stateof-the-art technologies offering a smaller overall size 

and increased mobility. These advancements will significantly enhance the meteorological capabilities of 

the Marine Corps Expeditionary Forces.

METOC Support Team (MST)

 The MST is task organized and equipped to 

provide a limited level of METOC support to combat 

elements other than the ACE (e.g., CE, GCE, and 

CSSE) and are assigned in support of MEU operations. It is capable of rapidly deploying as part of a 

first-in level of METOC support response to a crisis 

and can be easily integrated into an Air Contingency MAGTF. Additionally, the MST can be assigned 

to augment a JMCC during joint operations. Each 

MWSS within the MAW is structured and organized 

to provide one MST that consist of one METOC 

officer, two forecasters, and two observers. When 

deployed, the MST will normally be assigned to the 

intelligence division/section (G/S-2) of the supported combat element or MEU. The MST deploys 

with rugged, ancillary environmental collection and 

data processing equipment. During operations they 

organically collect METOC products, data, and information from the nearest de-ployed MetMF(R), Navy 

METOC OA Division afloat, host nation, or other METOC support organizations and agencies to satisfy 

METOC information requirements.

SPECIALIZED METOC SUPPORT

 The Marine Corps’ Chemical Biological Incident Response Force was established in 1996, as a 

result of Presidential Decision Directive 39 to manage the consequences of NBC materials or weapons used by terrorists. This national-level asset is 

part of the reactivated 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade - Anti-Terrorism located at Indian Head, MD. It 

is comprised of specially trained and equipped Navy, 

Marine, and civilian personnel who can rapidly be forward deployed and/or respond to a credible threat 

of a CBRNE incident in order to assist local, state, or 

Federal agencies and designated unified combatant 

commanders in the conduct of consequence management operations. Within the S-2, permanently 

as-signed METOC forecasters provide specialized 

NBC dispersion forecast products and services that 

aid mission accomplishment of this organization.
Section 3 DOD 129

 The U.S. Army is undergoing a historical transformation from a division-centered Army, to a smaller, 

brigade-based Army. This transformation will require 

an adjustment on how weather support will be provided to the new modular Army. The Army and Air 

Force are discussing the possibility of weather person-nel being pooled at designated Army locations to 

provide a force pool of personnel ready to accompany deploying Army forces. These force pools will rely 

more on “reach back” capabilities to obtain pertinent 

meteorological data. The Army and Air Force are working together to determine the optimal weather team 

sizing, equipment, and communications capabilities 

required to support the new modular Army forces.

OPERATIONAL EQUIPMENT AND SUPPORT 

MISSIONS

 Although it is transforming to a modular force, 

the existing weather support structure within the U.S. 

Army is a mix of Army and USAF personnel and equipment according to Army-Air Force agreement (Army 

Regulation (AR) 115-10/Air Force Joint Instruction 

(AFJI) 15-157, Weather Support for the U.S. Army, 

30 June 1996). This joint regulation describes the 

Service responsibilities and those of Army Commands and Army Service Component Commands 

(ASCC) within the Army for providing weather support. The U.S. Army provides direct weather support 

to two Army missions: upper air observations for Field 

Artillery fire support, and limited surface weather observations to support Army weapon systems forward 

of Division tactical operations centers. Air Force (AF) 

Major Commands (MAJCOMs) provide op-erational 

weather services to war fighting ASCCs in combat, 

contingencies, and peacetime training. U.S. Army 

Forces Command (FORSCOM), U.S. Army Europe 

(USAREUR), U.S. Army Pacific (USARPAC), U.S. 

Army Special Operations Command (USASOC), 

Eighth U.S. Army (EUSA), and U.S. Army Training 

and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) have AF Weather personnel providing daily installation and tactical 

weather support. Army Artillery Meteorological (ARTYMET) Crews provide direct upper air observation 

support to artillery units in the same ASCC. During 

peacetime training and activation, the Air National 

UNITED STATES ARMY NITED STATES ARMY

Guard (ANG) provides AF operational weather support to the U.S. Army Reserve (USAR) and the Army 

National Guard (ARNG), collectively designated the 

Reserve Component (RC). In addition, during exercises and contingencies, the ANG may augment the 

active Army as weather personnel.

 The Army also provides the operational weather support to Army Research Development, Test and 

Evaluation (RDT&E) ranges, centers, and other research facilities using the Developmental Test Command’s (DTC) Meteorological Teams (MET Teams) 

and U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) contractors. DTC operational support is established under Army Test and Evaluation 

Command. SMDC provides weather support to the 

Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site 

at Kwajalein Atoll through a Meteorological Environmental Test Support contractor.

 The Army provides the tactical field and communications equipment to USAF weather personnel for tactical operations. The Distributed Common 

Ground System – Army (DCGS-A) provides the U.S. 

Army’s tactical weather communication, intelligence, 

and information system providing digital weather 

support to the commanders and staffs of tactical 

units, from Echelons Above Corps (EAC) to aviation 

bat-talions. 

 ARTYMET Crews are assigned to Artillery 

units at Division level, to Field Artillery Brigades, and 

to Separate Brigades with a direct support Artillery 

Battalion. Army soldiers regularly take tactical upper 

air observations to support Field Artillery units during 

tactical training exercises, at permanent Army Artillery Ranges, or during the full range of combat missions. ARTYMET Crews also take limited surface 

observa-tions at tactical locations on an “as needed” 

basis to support artillery operational requirements.

 ARTYMET Crews in the Active Army (AA) and 

RC sections currently use the Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS), AN/TMQ-41, to take upper air observations during tactical operations. It is a mobile, 

upper air sounding system mounted on a High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV). The 

MMS provides upper air data to the Field Artillery 

Tactical Data System for use in adjusting artillery fire 

(Figure 18), to USAF weather personnel, and to the 
Section 3 DOD 130

Chemical Officer for use in smoke and in Nuclear, 

Biological and Chemical (NBC) defense operations. 

The U.S. Army Field Artillery School (USAFAS), Fort 

Sill, OK develops requirement documents and is the 

combat and training developer for meteorological 

equipment used for Field Artillery support.

 Headquarters, Department of the Army, Office 

of the Deputy Chief of Staff, 

G-2, is responsible for Army 

weather support policy. The 

Office of the Deputy Chief 

of Staff, G-3, is responsible 

for validating and prioritizing weather support requirements and programs to meet 

Army requirements. 

ARMY OPERATIONAL SUPPORT PROVIDED BY THE 

AIR FORCE

 Under AR 115-10/

AFJI 15-157, the AF is provides the Army with the necessary manpower and unique 

tactical and fixed weather 

equipment to meet Army tactical and garrison Active Army and reserve component support requirements. 

Army support manpower requirements 

are sourced from AF active, re-serve, and 

ANG weather personnel. While direct 

support of the Field Artillery remains an 

Army responsi-bility, and is supported by 

Army ARTYMET teams, AF Weather personnel provide supplemental informa-tion 

to artillery crews in contingencies for areas beyond direct ARTYMET observation 

capabilities. The AF assigns AF weather 

personnel to the war fighting Army Commands and ASCCs at theater, corps, 

division, armored cavalry regiments, and 

separate brigades to provide direct, onsite weather support. Air Force Special 

Operations Command (AFSOC) Special 

Operations Weather Teams (SOWTs) 

conduct weather operations for USASOC and are 

primarily funded by USSOCOM. AF operational 

weather squadrons (OWSs) and post-level weather 

organizations provide garrison and tactical weather 

warning, observing, forecasting, special support, 

Figure 3-DOD-18. Accurate wind profiles are essential for the Artillery to 

engage their targets. (US Army Released)

Figure 3-DOD-19. Reliable wind forecasts are necessary to ensure safety during flight 

operations. (US Army Released)
Section 3 DOD 131

and staff weather officer (SWO) services to Combat, Combat Support, and Combat Service Support units throughout the peacetime/war continuum. 

Peacetime garrison activities include supporting flying operations at Army Airfields and severe weather 

watch, warning, and advisory services for aircraft and 

post resource protection. Per Army-AF agreement, 

the AF is responsible for in-stallation, operation, and 

maintenance of standard AF meteorological and observing equipment at Army Airfields. Tactically, the 

Army is responsible for vehicles, tactical communications, and weather effects criteria. The Army’s IMETS is fielded for these purposes and is operated 

by AF personnel. The Army also maintains IMETS 

hardware and software, with the AF maintaining AF 

software that performs meteorologi-cal functions 

within IMETS. IMETS uses AF meteorological software, but IMETS is hosted on an Army vehicle, uses 

Army tactical communications and Army weather effects software. IMETS baseline software is hosted 

on Army Common Hardware and is Defense Information Infrastructure Common Operating Envi-ronment 

(DIICOE) and Joint Technical Architecture - Army 

(JTA-A) compliant. The Army provides other tactical 

equipment to AF Personnel through an Army Table 

of Organizations and Equipment (TOE). The following paragraphs describe weather activities within 

Army Commands and Army Service Component 

Commands. 

U.S. ARMY FORCES COMMAND (FORSCOM)

 Weather support to the U.S. Army Forces 

Command is diverse and demanding. FORSCOM, 

the Army’s largest major command, requires and 

uses Army resources to conduct meteorological services in direct support of Army operations. These 

services include collecting and disseminating upper 

air observa-tions for artillery support and collecting 

and disseminating limited surface weather observations to support all tactical units and operations. 

FORSCOM consists of more than 750,000 Active 

Army (AA), U.S. Army Reserve (USAR) and Army 

National Guard (ARNG) soldiers. These soldiers account for more than 80 percent of the Army’s combat 

power. FORSCOM trains, mobilizes, deploys, and 

sustains combat ready forces capable of responding 

rapidly to crises worldwide. The AA component of 

FORSCOM has nearly 200,000 soldiers. Third U.S. 

Army is the Army component of U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM), which is the Joint command 

responsible for Southwest Asia (SWA), the Persian Gulf, and the Horn of Af-rica. U.S. Army South 

(USARSO) serves as the Army component to U.S. 

Southern Command (US-SOUTHCOM). USARSO relocated from Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico, to 

Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in 2003 and became a 

FORSCOM major subordinate command October 

1st, 2003. FORSCOM also commands three Army 

Corps: I Corps at Fort Lewis, Washington, III Corps 

at Fort Hood, Texas, and XVIII Airborne Corps at Fort 

Bragg, North Carolina. Together they include six divisions, two armored cavalry regiments, five separate brigades and a range of other corps combat, 

combat support and combat service support units. 

Two Continental U.S. Armies (CONUSAs), First U.S. 

Army and Fifth U.S. Army, are respon-sible for training, mobilization, and deployment support to Reserve 

Component units in FORSCOM. An-other major 

subordinate command to FORSCOM, the U.S. Army 

Reserve Command (USARC), com-mands all U.S. 

Army Reserve units in the continental United States 

except those assigned to Special Op-erations Command. FORSCOM’s Army Reserve strength stands 

at approximately 196,000 soldiers. USARC units 

are part of the Federal force and make their primary 

contribution to FORSCOM combat power in combat support and combat service support specialties 

such as medical, civil affairs, transporta-tion, maintenance and supply. 

 The ARNG provides FORSCOM a balanced 

force of eight National Guard combat divisions, 15 

enhanced separate brigades, extensive combat support, and combat service support units. The current FORSCOM ARNG strength is approximately 

367,000 soldiers. 

 

 Weather support to FORSCOM’s AA units 

comes from dedicated AF weather personnel 

aligned under three Air Support Operations Groups 

(ASOGs) within Air Combat Command (ACC): 1 

ASOG at Fort Lewis, Washington; 3 ASOG at Fort 

Hood, Texas; and 18 ASOG at Pope AFB, North 

Carolina. A weather squadron under each ASOG 

supports the Corps. Each Army division normally 

has dedicated AF personnel aligned under an Air 
Section 3 DOD 132

Support Operations Squadron (ASOS) or one of the 

weather squadrons, at their respective installations. 

Corps and division weather personnel are authorized personnel and equipment to support a variety 

of missions at the various Army echelons. Weather 

support at each Army echelon is provided according 

to Army Field Manual 34-81. Currently, there are 

nearly 350 authorizations supporting various echelons across FORSCOM. These personnel, enabled 

by an operational weather squadron, provide garrison and tactical weather warning, observing, mission execution forecast, special support, and SWO 

services during peacetime, combat, contingency, exercise, or armistice operations.

 

 ACC weather organizations provide direct, 

on-site support at 11 major Army installations, including the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, California, and the Joint Readiness Training Center at Fort 

Polk, Louisiana and at deployed locations. Support 

is focused on air, ground, special operations, and 

other combat and combat support missions.

 

 FORSCOM provides supporting AF weather 

personnel with a Modified Table of Organization and 

Equipment (MTOE) and operating funds (expendables, maintenance, etc.). ARTYMET requirements 

in FORSCOM increased from 17 to 20 sections in 

FY 2005 due to modularity. These 6-person sections, comprised of Army weather personnel, collect 

upper air observations for direct use by field artillery 

units..

 

 The New Tactical Forecast System (N-TFS) 

is the primary in-garrison and tactical weather equipment for receiving graphics and alphanumeric data. 

Data is received via the Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT), Tactical VSAT (T-VSAT), Non-Secure 

Internet Protocol Router Network, and Secure Internet Pro-tocol Router Network. Nineteen IMETS and 

15 IMETS-Lights, developed by the Army Research 

Labora-tory, have been fielded within FORSCOM. 

FORSCOM has also fielded commercial Automated Weather Observing Systems at Yakima Training 

Center Washington, Fort Campbell, Kentucky, and 

Georgetown Bahamas. 

TRAINING AND DOCTRINE COMMAND (TRADOC)

 Headquarters, TRADOC is responsible for 

development and management of Army weather 

training programs, weather support doctrine (concepts and field manuals), and the establishment of 

Army re-quirement documents for tactical weather 

support. Key mission areas for the next few years 

will be to as-sist the AF to develop and implement 

a new weather support concept to meet the needs 

of the Army’s Modular Force including Brigade 

Combat Teams and Future Combats Systems; to 

update weather sup-port doctrine, policy, organization, concepts, and tactics, techniques, and procedures; to ensure weather effects to Army operations 

are documented and communicated to soldiers and 

AF weather support per-sonnel, and to ensure Army 

weather support processes and procedures are 

trained across the TRADOC schoolhouses. 

 

 The Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS) is a program of record that continues as the 

state-of-the-art Army meteorological decision-aid 

support system. Over the next few years some of its 

capabili-ties will be consolidated into the Air Force’s 

Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET) program. The Army 

will 1) retain research and development efforts related to Army-specific weather support challenges, 

2) be re-sponsible for integrating JET into DCGS-A 

weather services and interfacing JET with Army command and control systems, and 3) will be responsible for fielding IMETS/JET software capabilities 

on common Army hardware systems. In FY08, the 

IMETS Program Office moved under the Program 

Executive Office - Intel-ligence, Electronic Warfare 

& Sensors (PEO-IEW&S) as part of the Distributed 

Common Ground System-Army (DCGS-A) program. 

Initial JET fielding (Terrain/Weather V4.0 Spin-Out) 

is programmed to begin in 1QFY 2010. 

 The U.S. Army Intelligence Center and Fort 

Huachuca (USAIC&FH) is the functional proponent 

for Army tactical weather support. USAIC&FH represents the Army warfighter by collecting weather 

support requirements and developing solutions to 

satisfy those requirements when they are the responsibility of the Army. The key system that provides weather support to the Army is IMETS, which 

is fielded by the Army and operated by AF weather 
Section 3 DOD 133

personnel. The USAIC&FH Weather Team assists 

the IMETS program by advising the Army Research 

Lab, USAIC&FH, DAMI-OPS, and AF/A3O-W on 

Army weather support shortfalls and issues. The 

USAIC&FH Weather Team provides instruction on 

weather support techniques and weather effects to 

Army operations to Army Military Intelligence personnel as well as AF weather per-sonnel supporting 

the Army. The USAIC&FH Weather Team consists 

of two active duty AF weather per-sonnel, one civilian contractor that manages the Battlefield Weather 

Course (BWC), and one Department of the Army 

Civilian that serves as the assistant TRADOC Capabilities Manager (TCM) for IMETS. The USAIC&FH 

Weather Team recently drafted an Army Weather 

Functional Area Analysis for Battlespace Weather Sensing and will continue associated work on 

weather inputs to the Intelligence, Surveillance and 

Reconnaissance Concept Capabilities Plan. The 

team has also authored a plan with HQ TRADOC to 

create an Army Weather Proponent office (AWPO) 

at Fort Huachuca. The purpose of this AWPO would 

be to oversee Army weather concerns, serve as the 

Army’s focal point for weather requirements and will 

lead the Army’s functional efforts in guiding concepts 

and capabilities development, experimenta-tion, 

DOTMLPF, and requirements determination. This 

effort will help coordinate and de-conflict all Army 

weather initiatives and represent Army Intelligence in 

all weather program and development issues. This 

initiative includes the hire of a Department of the 

Army Civilian to serve as AWPO Chief. The TCM 

for IMETS coordinates with DCGS-A to ensure the 

highest level of integration of IMETS into the DCGSA family of systems. The TCM recently participated 

in the DCGS-A Fusion Working Group and provided 

DCGS-A an evaluation of IMETS ability to satisfy the 

DCGS-A requirements. 

 The AF SWO at the Army’s Combined Arms 

Center (CAC) is the primary overseer of the Tables 

of Organization and Equipment (TOE) for AF weather 

teams supporting Army operations. The CAC SWO 

is the AF point of contact for implementing TOE 

structure changes for support to Modular Forces 

in the Transformed Army. The CAC SWO also arranges for or provides environmental data, concepts 

of opera-tion, and weather subject matter expertise 

for programs, projects, documents, and studies conducted by 1) the TRADOC System Manager - Army 

Battle Command System, 2) the Battle Command 

Battle Lab-Leavenworth, 3) the Center for Army Lessons Learned, 4) the Combined Arms Doctrine Directorate, 5) the TRADOC Assistant Deputy Chief 

of Staff for Intelligence –Threats, the Foreign Military 

Studies Office, and 6) the TRADOC Analysis Center-Leavenworth. Other key CAC SWO tasks are 

to develop weather/weather effects scripts and climatology packages to support modeling and simulation efforts of the Battle Command Training Program (BCTP) and the National Simulation Center, to 

make available Army weather support instruction at 

the Command and General Staff College (CGSC), 

to provide climate expertise to all units assigned or 

attached to Fort Leavenworth and to be the Staff 

Weather Officer to the U.S. Army Aviation Warfighting Center (USAAWC) at Fort Rucker, AL. point of 

contact for weather sup-port.

 The U.S. Army Field Artillery School (USAFAS), Fort Sill, OK is the proponent for upper air 

mete-orological support to the Army. The AN/TMQ41 Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS) and AN/

TMQ-52A Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler 

(MMS-P) are utilized to conduct surface and upper 

air obser-vations. The MMS and MMS-P provides 

weather data to the Field Artillery Tactical Data System for ballis-tic calculations; to USAF weather personnel for weather forecasting; and to the Chemical 

Officer for ob-scurant deployment, and Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) defense operations. Efforts 

are ongoing to ensure these surface and upper air observations are sent back to military weather centrals 

where they can be ingested in to our newest numerical meteorological analysis and forecasting models. 

Active unit’s MMSs will eventually be replaced by the 

AN/TMQ-52A Meteorological Measuring Set Profiler (MMS-P). The MMS-P is currently being fielded 

and is scheduled for completion of fielding by FY11. 

The MMS-P is a suite of meteorological sensors and 

associated software/models which will provide the 

Field Artillery with current and/or expected weather 

conditions at a point where the weapon munitions is 

expected to engage a target (Target Area Met). Currently, both the MMS and MMS-P are trained to all 

Advanced Indi-vidual Training soldiers attending the 

Field Artillery Meteorology Course.
Section 3 DOD 134

 The U.S. Army Aviation Warfighting Center 

(USAAWC) at Fort Rucker, AL incorporates weather 

instruction and procedures into rotary-wing training 

programs in their mission areas. The center is the 

proponent for all Army Aviation including Unmanned 

Aerial Vehicle Systems (UAVS). The Center has 

re-quirements for weather observations and USAF 

forecast support at Cairns Army Airfield, Troy Municipal Airport (MAP), Alabama, and Andalusia MAP, 

Alabama. Additionally, Fort Rucker operates observing and communications equipment to relay weather 

intelligence and resource protection advisories to 

numerous Army remote training sites. 

 Back in FY04, Air Combat Command (ACC) 

contracted day-to-day operational weather support 

to aviation operations at Fort Rucker (Cairns Army 

Airfield, Troy Municipal Airport, and Andalusia Municipal Airport) to 3D Research Corporation (3DRC). 

ACC, through the same contract with 3DRC, also 

provides garrison airfield weather services (observing and/or forecasting) at Fort Belvoir, Fort Benning, 

Fort Knox, Fort Leonard Wood, Fort Huachuca, and 

Fort Sill. The current 3DRC contract ends in Aug 08, 

and will then be re-bid to ensure there is no lapse in 

services.

Eighth U.S. Army

 The Eighth U.S. Army uses Army resources 

to measure surface and upper air meteorological 

data for artillery meteorology (ARTYMET) support. 

Second Infantry Division’s (2 ID) First Heavy Brigade 

Com-bat Team (1 HBCT) uses the newly field AN/

TMQ-52 Profiler System, while 2 ID’s 210th Fires 

BDE uses the legacy AN/TMQ-41 Meteorological 

Measuring Set to collect upper air data for direct use 

by field artil-lery units. 

 Air Force weather personnel assigned to the 

607th Weather Squadron (607 WS) provide operational weather support to Eighth Army units. The 

607 WS provides garrison and tactical weather observ-ing, advisories, mission execution forecasts and 

staff weather support during armistice operations, 

exer-cises and contingencies. These personnel use 

knowledge of Army missions to prepare theaterscale and site-specific weather forecasts essential 

to resource protection, operational planning and execution of combat operations. The 607 WS has personnel at five installations to provide direct weather 

support to HQ Eighth Army, HQ 2 ID and the 2nd 

Combat Aviation Brigade (2 CAB). In FY08, the 607 

WS has 65 assigned weather personnel to support 

the Army mission. IAW AR 115-10/AFJI 15-157, 

the Eighth Army provides garrison facilities, tactical 

equipment (MTOE and CTA) and an operating budget.

United States Army Europe 

 U.S. Army Europe (USAREUR) and 7th Army 

(7A) require and use Army resources to provide meteorological services in direct support of Army operations. These services include collecting and disseminating upper air observations for artillery support and 

collecting and disseminating limited surface weather 

observations to support all tactical units and operations.

 The Air Force’s 7th Weather Squadron (7WS) 

provides USAREUR/7th Army in-garrison and tactical weather intelligence and support. This includes 

observing services for in-garrison operations, contingency and exercise operations, staff weather officer 

(SWO) services, and specialized support. The U.S. 

Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) Operational Weather 

Squadron (OWS) at Sembach AB, Germany, provides operational-level forecast products for the European Command Area of Responsibility, to include 

all USAREUR units. Weather teams located at V 

Corps and its aviation assets, 1st Armored Division 

and its aviation brigade, Southern European Task 

Force, and 7th Army Training Command, as well as 

Figure 3-DOD-20. Meteorological Measuring Set – Profiler 

(MMS-P) obtains upper level wind data for artillery fires. (US 

Army Released)
Section 3 DOD 135

7WS sup-porting 7th Army, evaluate and tailor these 

forecast products to enhance 7A Staff situational 

awareness and produce mission execution forecasts 

when needed.

 The 7WS mission, with its 5 detachments 

and operating locations, provides weather operations packages to conform to the Army’s garrison 

and war operations. Additionally, 7WS conducts 

weather operations and planning to meet future Army 

transformation and modularity initiatives. 7WS will 

provide or arrange deploying weather force structure 

to match missions USAREUR, or its subordinate elements, is called upon to execute. 7WS will tailor 

the permanently assigned weather force to meet 

requirements of the 7A structure and utilize “reachback” capabilities to the maximum extent possible to 

minimize the fielded footprint without compromising 

weather operations.

 Three Integrated Meteorological Systems 

(IMETS) and five IMETS Lights are fielded within 

USAREUR (V Corps, two divisions and their aviation brigades, and two separate brigades). IMETS 

is geared to interface as a module of the Army Battlespace Control System to inject decision-quality 

weather products into the common operating picture for Army commanders.

 USAREUR provides supporting USAF weather teams with tactical vehicles, MTOE and Common 

Table of Allowances (CTA) equipment and operating funds (expendables, maintenance, etc.). Four 

artil-lery meteorological (ARTYMET) sections collect 

upper air observations for direct use by field artillery 

units. The Forward Area Limited Observing Program 

(FALOP) consists of Army personnel taking limited 

obser-vations at forward areas in the battlespace. 

USAREUR G2 funds purchases of handheld weather sensors for use in FALOP training and equipping 

Army teams to provide limited weather data at Forward Operat-ing Bases and Forward Arming and 

Refueling Points. This data provides critical information that benefits flight safety as well as the theater 

weather sensing strategy without having to forward 

deploy more people to austere locations.

 7WS also provides combat skills training to 

weather forecasters to increase their ability to be assets in combat, should the need arise. Some training and equipment are supplied by Joint Multinational 

Training Center HHC.

U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)

 Routinely deployed in over three dozen countries, USASOC’s forces have demanding missions 

spanning the globe and all levels of warfare. Special 

Operations Forces (SOF) missions are often carefully managed, high-risk scenarios operating at the 

edge of equipment capabilities, frequently at night 

and in adverse weather; these mission profiles routinely create great demands for precise weather information. SOF meteorological and oceanographic 

(METOC) operations with USASOC forces enable 

commanders to improve efficiency, effectiveness 

and safety of operations. Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) Special Operations 

Weather Teams (SOWTs) and Air National Guard 

(ANG) weather person-nel provide direct support to 

USASOC units and are assigned to AFSOC’s 10th 

Combat Weather Squadron (CWS); 320th Special 

Tactics Squadron (STS); and 321st STS. ANG personnel providing di-rect support to USASOC when 

activated are assigned to the 107th Weather Flight 

(MIANG), 146th Weather Flight (PAANG), and the 

181st Weather Flight (TXANG). These SOWTs employ specialized AFSOC-provided tactical METOC 

kits to conduct environmental reconnaissance and 

provide METOC observations from data-sparse areas in permissive and uncertain environments for 

planning and executing U.S. military operations. At 

the deployed team level, 10th CWS SOWTs collect 

weather data that are used by SOF commanders and 

staffs and forwarded to strategic METOC centers to 

improve meteoro-logical models & forecasts. Additionally, SOWTs operate with the U.S. Army Special 

Forces Command’s seven Special Forces Groups 

(SFG); the 75th Ranger Regiment; the 160th Special 

Operations Aviation Regiment; all SFG and regimental subordinate battalions, and Psychological Operations Groups. AFSOC SOWTs provide the DOD’s 

sole source for high-fidelity METOC environmental 

data collection from aus-tere, denied, hostile, or 

semi-permissive areas of the battlespace. In addition, 

full-spectrum METOC opera-tions include: climatology, solar/lunar illumination and geometry analyses 

and atmospheric effects studies; feasibility analyses, 

courses of action and mission impact assessments; 

surface, upper-air and tactical ra-dar observations; 

weather watch/warnings; highly-resolved mission 
Section 3 DOD 136

execution forecasts that demand fully-integrated and 

highly-qualified SOF METOC forces, including flight 

weather briefings and drop/landing zone forecasts; 

training ARSOF and host nation and indigenous 

forces on conducting limited METOC observations; 

and foreign internal defense analyses, surveys, and 

training. 

 USASOC plans and expends resources 

for some operational and administrative support 

to SOWTs operating with USASOC components. 

USASOC provides funding for office and deployable automation systems and connectivity to local 

networks; operations and 

maintenance/

sustainment 

to sup-port 

USASOC req u i r e m e n t s . 

Additionally, 

USASOC provides for some 

tactical items 

such as NBC 

and some 

communications equipment; electrical 

power, vehicles, life support equipment 

necessary for 

ac-complishing 

AFSOC’s USASOC weather 

operations; and maintenance and supplies for USASOC-provided equipment. USASOC also provides 

funding for facilities, telephones, office space, and 

real property to house supporting special operations 

weather units, as well as secure storage of required 

equipment. 

 USASOC and AFSOC are cooperating to integrate the Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET) into the 

DCGS-A and suite of SOF operational capabilities. 

Two AFSOC meteorological liaison staff from the 

HQ AFSOC/A3W (Operations Weather Division) 

are located at HQ USASOC to coordinate AFSOCUSASOC METOC operations, logistics, and related 

requirements.

United States Army Pacific (USARPAC)

 U.S. Army Pacific (USARPAC) uses Army resources to conduct meteorological services in direct 

support of Army operations. These services include 

collecting and disseminating upper air observations 

for artillery support and collecting and disseminating surface weather observations to support tactical 

units and operations. 

 USARPAC provides supporting USAF units 

with tactical vehicles, MTOE and Common Table of 

Allowances 

(CTA) equipment and operations and 

maintenance 

funds.

 The Int e g r a t e d 

Meteorological System 

(IMETS) and 

New Tactical Forecast System 

(NTFS) have 

been fielded 

within USARPAC as the 

primary meteorological 

e q u i p m e n t 

for deployed 

operations. 

The IMETS and NTFS receive data via Army-provided reachback NIPRNET and SIPRNET conduits.

 The 17th Operational Weather Squadron (17 

OWS) at Hickam AFB, HI, provides HQ USARPAC 

ASCC with garrison and tactical weather warnings, 

forecasts, special support, and Dedicated Support 

(DS) Staff Weather Office (SWO) services. Additional AF personnel provide DS weather support 

to the 25th ID (L), 25th CAB, and the 1-25 SBCT. 

USAF also provides weather support, though not in 

a DS role, to U.S. Army Japan (USARJ), U.S. Army 

Hawaii (USARHAW), 4-25 IBCT, USARPAC’s Early 

Entry Command Post (EECP), and U.S. Army Alaska 

Figure 3-DOD-21. Soldiers and equipment are constantly exposed to the elements, 

as evidenced by this dust covered HMMWV. US Army photo by Sgt. Igor Paustovski. 

(US Army Released)
Section 3 DOD 137

(USARAK). DS AF personnel deploy with their supported operational organizations, providing tailored 

battlefield observations and forecasts. Weather 

reengineer-ing has reduced the requirement for forward-deployed weather personnel, instead leveraging IMETS and other recently fielded technology for 

reachback capability. 17 OWS provides regional 

weather support, allowing forward-deployed AF 

personnel to focus on specific area and target forecasts. 

 There are three subordinate commands 

within USARPAC: U.S. Army, Hawaii (USARHAW), 

U.S. Army, Alaska (USARAK), and U.S. Army, Japan 

(USARJ).

 The 17 OWS provides tactical- and operational-level forecast products for the PACOM AORs, 

to include all USARJ, Korean Theater of Operations, 

and Alaska. This includes specific resource protection support (i.e. weather advisories, warnings, and 

watches), as well as Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts 

for se-lected units.

 The 5th Air Force (5 AF) Liaison serves as USFJ’s Staff Weather Officer (SWO), and also serves 

as the USARJ SWO. Day-to-day support for Camp 

Zama, Japan is provided by an Operating Location 

(OL) under the AF CWT assigned to the 374th Operational Support Squadron at Yokota AB. The OL 

on-site at Camp Zama provides weather observation 

services and produces mission execution forecasts 

ISO support aviation operations.

 The 17OWS provides strategic and theater level weather support and services to all DOD 

units stationed or operating in Alaska. At the tactical-level, the 3 ASOS/WE is collocated with the 

1-25 SCBT at Fort Wainwright, AK. They provide 

weather support for both tactical and garrison operations, observe the atmosphere and evaluate and 

tailor forecast products to produce Mission Execution Forecasts and staff briefings. 3 ASOS/WE also 

supports 1-25 SCBT tactical unmanned aerial vehicle (T-UAV) opera-tions. The Alaska Army National 

Guard operates the Fort Richardson Army Airfield.

Army National Guard (ARNG) Artillery

 In the ARNG Modular Force, there is one 

6-solder team per Fires Battalion in the Brigade 

Combat Team (BCT), providing 34 teams with six 

soldiers each, for 204 soldiers. In the Fires BDE 

there are 3 MET teams required per BDE providing 

21 teams with 6 soldiers each, for a total of 126 soldiers; how-ever, all Fires BDE TABs are authorized 

only one MET team for a total of 48 soldiers. The 

ARNG is au-thorized 252 soldiers in the Artillery Meteorological Teams.

 The ARTY MET sections provide upper air 

observations at least 39 training days each year 

sup-porting artillery live fire during Annual Training 

and monthly Inactive Duty Training. The ARTY MET 

sec-tions support an average of 20 live fire training 

days and annually expend in excess of 100 balloons 

per section. The ARNG’s ARTY MET Teams use 

the Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS), AN/TMQ41A.

Army Corps of Engineers 

 In its civil operational activities, the Corps of 

Engineers (COE) uses a network of about 10,850 

land-based gages. About 55 percent of the sites 

collect meteorological data, 35 percent a combination of hydrologic and meteorological data, and 10 

percent hydrologic or water quality data. The COE 

funds or partially funds 58 percent (6350) of all the 

gages it uses. Meteorological gages commonly measure pre-cipitation and temperature as a minimum. 

Most sites also measure hydrological data. All data 

are used in the regulation of COE dams and other 

water projects used for flood control, navigation, 

hydroelectric power, irrigation, water supply, water 

quality, and recreation. 

 The COE transfers funds to NOAA/National Weather Service (NWS) to collect and maintain 

pre-cipitation information from 877 of meteorological sites. Similarly, COE transfers funds to the U.S. 

Geo-logical Survey to maintain precipitation data 

collection from about 2400 sites, while the COE 

maintains the rest. Seventy-five percent of all COE 

sites provide real-time data via satellite, microwaves, 

meter-bursts, landlines, or radio. Data from COE 

gaging sites are available to other federal, state and 

local agencies. All COE data are made available to 

the National Weather Service. Most of the data are 

also used by other agencies.

United States Army Space and Missile Defense 

Command (USASMDC)

 The High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility (HELSTF), an USASMDC directorate located on 
Section 3 DOD 138

White Sands Missile Range, is an Army element of 

the DOD Major Range and Test Facility Base with 

the mission of high-energy laser (HEL) test and evaluation for future Army and sister Service HEL weapons. In addition to HEL systems test and evaluation, 

extensive use has been made of on-site laser systems to perform damage and vulnerability testing on 

laser-hardened materials, missile and aircraft components, and assorted battlefield equipment. The 

atmospheric sciences/meteorological mission is to 

support HEL testing by providing measurements of 

atmospheric conditions that are extremely important to propagation of any HEL beam thru the atmosphere. Many unique meteorological instruments are 

maintained to sup-port this critical data collection for 

HEL testing. The HELSTF meteorological team also 

supports critical safety analysis of atmospheric dispersion for the very toxic laser fuels used. 

 U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) is a subcommand of USASMDC, which provides operational 

support for the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site (RTS). The RTS meteorological services support contractor provides meteorological 

support for range activities including missile operations within the atoll, remote island missile launches 

including Wake Island, intra-atoll transportation (marine and aircraft), and emergency operations support. 

 A full suite of surface and upper air observing 

equipment is available for support of these operations. Three fixed upper air sounding systems (two 

utilizing GPS radiosondes) are located on Kwajalein 

and Roi-Namur. One portable GPS upper air system 

is available for deployment to remote locations providing upper air soundings. A dual-polarized -Doppler S-band weather radar provides weather surveillance from Kwajalein Island, and Doppler C-band 

weather radar is available for operations at Wake 

Island. Two POES satellite receivers (one mobile) 

both having McIDAS display and management systems, and one geostationary satellite receiver provide access to satellite imagery and data processing 

and analysis. An intra-atoll mesonet and lightning 

detection network round out the sensors available to 

RTS forecasters at Kwajalein. Lightning prediction 

and detection at Wake Island is supported by a thunderstorm sensor and field mill combination. In cooperation with NASA/GSFC, RTS weather continues 

to support global climate studies through the Tropical Rainfall Measurements Mission and the follow-on 

program of Global Precipitation Measurement and a 

smaller program of monitoring the solar-earth radiation flux for NOAA/ERL.

WEATHER SUPPORT FOR RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, TEST, AND EVALUATION (RDT&E)

 

 Under Army-AF agreement, the Army has 

responsibility for weather support for research, develop-ment, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) to support Army ground combat missions as specified in 

AR 115-10/AFJI 15-157. The Corps of Engineers 

(COE), and the Army Materiel Command (AMC) are 

the major contributors to weather research. The 

Medical Research and Development Command 

does research re-lated to soldiers performance in 

the range of weather conditions expected to be encountered in all thea-ters of operations. The Army 

Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC) is responsible for operational mete-orological support to Army 

RDT&E.

Army Corps of Engineers 

 The Corps of Engineers (COE) is responsible 

for reviewing all emerging Army systems for environmental effects, as stated in Army Regulation 70-1. 

The Topographic Engineering Center (TEC), and the 

Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory 

Figure 3-DOD-22. USASMDC is responsible for meteorological support to the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense 

Test Site in the remote Kwajalein Atoll. (US Army Released)
Section 3 DOD 139

(CRREL) of COE’s Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC), develop Tactical Decision 

Aids (TDAs) to interpret the impact of weather on 

terrain to enhance Army operations. TDAs are transitioned to the Digital Topographic Support System 

(DTSS) and the Commercial Joint Mapping Tool Kit 

(CJMTK). Under its military mission, CRREL, Hanover, NH, provides support to Army weapon systems RDTE with all season solutions for mitigating 

adverse environmental effects on Army operations. 

CRREL conducts basic and applied research to investigate energy and mass transfer process at and 

near the terrain surface. Energy propagation and 

interaction across the electromagnetic, acoustic, 

and seismic spectral regions sees special emphasis, particularly with regard to dynamics in propagation caused by properties and processes of materials near the terres-trial surface. CRREL develops 

databases and models for predicting the state of 

the terrain including sur-face temperature, and tactical decision aids supporting mobility analysis and 

sensor performance. In part-nership with TEC, Alexandria, VA, these products transition to various 

research and engineering programs including advanced technology demonstrations and specific 

programs of record such as DTSS and CJMTK.

Army Materiel Command (AMC)

 The Army Materiel Command (AMC) is responsible for the research, design, development, 

test, and evaluation of equipment to satisfy the Army’s requirements for meteorological support. AMC 

provides climatological and meteorological support 

to RDTE projects involving electro-optical sensors, 

atmospheric and obscurant effects on systems and 

their performance. It is also responsible for determining weather impact critical threshold values and 

the environmental sensitivities of battlefield systems, 

including sol-diers. AMC has several Major Subordinate Commands (MSCs) and elements carrying out 

weather re-search and development responsibilities 

including the Research Development and Engineering Command (RDECOM), which has responsibility 

for the Army’s Research Development and Engineering Centers (RDECs) and the Army Research Laboratory (ARL).

 The Army Research Laboratory Battlefield 

Environment (BE) Division has a robust program 

in de-veloping very high spatial and time resolution 

characterizations of the lower atmosphere using 

both meas-urements and numerical models. This 

research is particularly focused on characterizing 

and predicting higher resolution effects caused by 

complex and urban terrain. The focus of RDT&E is 

in the near-surface boundary layer domain that is 

most critical to Army applications. RDT&E includes 

characterizing aerosols and CBRN contaminants in 

the atmosphere and on predicting more general impacts of weather on Army systems, sensors, personnel and operations. Research addresses how to assimilate battlefield meteoro-logical observations into 

diagnostic and prognostic numerical weather models and how to fuse forward area observations into 

these short term forecasts or ‘nowcasts” to correct 

for actual local conditions and improve actionable 

weather information.

 The Battlefield Environment Division of the 

ARL Computational and Information Sciences Director-ate (CISD) has a long history in atmospheric science research and applications. The Division consists of three Branches located at Adelphi, Maryland 

and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. The 

three branches combine basic and applied research 

programs in the areas of: meteorological modeling 

and modeling applications at high space and time 

resolution and the effects of complex terrain; atmospheric sensing of aerosols and contaminants using 

laser scattering, spectral analysis, multi-wavelength 

imagers, and lidars; atmospheric and aerosol propagation including electromagnetic and acoustic signal 

and target effects modeling; meteorological measurements as part of the “develop-verify-improveverify” modeling and measurement cycle; and advanced weather impact decision aids for Command 

and Control and for Intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and target acquisition. The Division also 

provides liaison per-sonnel between Army weather 

R&D and the coupled programs at the Air Force 

Weather Agency and the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) 

IPO. These positions fo-cuses on coordinating technology transitioned from the BE Division into Army 

and Air Force fielded sys-tems.

 The vision of the Battlefield Environment Division is to enhance Warfighter effectiveness through 

environmental knowledge and technology. The mis-
Section 3 DOD 140

sion statement expands on this vision and is “to 

per-form research that solves complex Army-scale 

atmospheric problems and results in joint weather 

intelli-gence and Army-specific products for global 

Warfighter survivability, lethality, mobility, and situational awareness.” The BE program addresses these 

Army needs for both current and future Army operations such as the Future Combat System (FCS), as 

well as providing answers in related areas such as 

home-land security and response to man-made and 

natural disasters.

 BE Division and the Army Project Director- Integrated Meteorological System (PD-IMETS) office 

are partnering with Air Force Weather in new programs such as the development of a common Joint 

Envi-ronmental Toolkit (JET). The Army IMETS Battle 

Command (BC) 6.4 software and several Air Force 

weather system software baselines are to converge 

as a single weather forecasting software tool in the 

DCGS-A Weather Services. The Army will add command and control interfaces and weather effects tactical decision aid products such as the Tri-Service 

Weather Effects Decision Aid (TS-IWEDA). The 

com-bined JET-IMETS software will transition to the 

Distributed Common Ground Station-Army (DCGSA) and Army software Block 2+ to enhance weather 

capabilities for net-centric Army support. POR IMETS/DCGS-A weather products can be accessed 

through a web-browser, client server applications, or 

overlaid on the user’s Common Operational Picture 

(COP) through web services such as publish and 

subscribe (PASS). Current client applications will 

be web-enabled over time. IMETS/DCGS-A Weather Services technologies will continue to provide netcentric weather support to Army Battle Command 

and Future Combat Systems (FCS) as DCGS-A 

Weather Services.

 The Atmospheric Modeling Applications 

Branch addresses the development of the next generation mission execution forecast model (very short 

term forecasts), web-enabled tactical decision aids, 

and avia-tion weather route planners for manned and 

unmanned systems applicable for DOD and DHS 

missions.

 Meteorological forecast model applications 

are focused on the Weather Running EstimateNowcast (WRE-N) and Meso/micro-scale Numerical Weather Prediction development, improvements, 

and evaluation. The WRE-N is a combined analysis 

and “nowcast” model system that will provide the 

DCGS-A with a capability to satisfy the stated nowcasting requirement. The WRE-N system will produce locally-updated high resolution meteorological 

data in 3-hour forecast blocks, tailored for executionlevel planning and decision making applications. As 

battlefield weather conditions change, the WRE-N 

will produce rapid and continuous “local corrections” to regional scale mission planning operational 

forecasts, retain consistency with theater-wide operational forecast guidance from Air Force and joint 

DOD weather cen-ters, and insure effective assimilation and fusion of local battlefield weather observations into each WRE-N modeling cycle. Such finescale battlefield weather modeling work leverages 

the ARL High Perform-ance Computing (HPC) capabilities to facilitate examination of the applicability of new atmospheric pre-diction models for Army 

scales, that is, at horizontal coverage of hundreds of 

kilometers and grid spacing of one kilometer or less, 

and test new boundary layer closures and data assimilation methodologies.

 Warfighter Decision Aids developed in the 

branch utilize meteorological model gridded output 

to provide the commander a tactical advantage with 

validated and verified, web-enabled, tactical decision aids and associated databases that describe 

the impacts expected and the resulting performance 

degra-dation due to weather for both friendly and 

threat systems, allowing for analysis and adjustments 

in tactics and weapon system selection before enemy engagement. Decision aids play an important 

role in the mission planning process associated with 

both man in the loop and autonomous command and 

control systems.

 Work to develop Unmanned System Applications has focused on the Aviation Weather Routing 

Tool (AWRT) as the primary end product. It addresses a major shortfall in providing accurate weather effects information to manned and unmanned aircraft 

mission commanders. The AWRT may be considered as a sophisticated tactical decision aid that will 

generate a highly-intuitive, 4-D graphical “fly through” 

dis-play of adverse weather effects on aircraft systems. Perhaps more significantly the AWRT will 

employ a computationally efficient automated search 

algorithm to identify optimum routes that minimize 
Section 3 DOD 141

adverse weather effects along the flight path. 

 The BE Atmospheric Dynamics Branch addresses basic research, atmospheric measurements, 

numerical modeling and applications focused on the 

near-surface, high resolution dynamics of the boundary layer atmosphere that impact the Soldier and his 

systems. Projects and capabilities in the branch include:

 Efficient and fast-running high resolution (sub 

1 km) atmospheric models are developed that can 

provide a diagnostic 3D picture of wind fields in 

urban domains and over complex terrain. This capability provides a near real time update of average 

urban wind flow around buildings for their effects on 

CBRN, smoke screening, turbulence and wind effects on platforms and sensors.

 Urban meteorology and boundary layer turbulence experiments are undertaken to highly instrument the flow around individual structures and to 

resolve the properties of atmospheric turbulence in 

the re-gimes between 3D isotropic turbulence and 

2D surface layer turbulence for their effects on optical sys-tems and micro platforms. These data extend the basic research into atmospheric turbulence 

and support the verification and development of new 

wind models and optical propagation effects and 

simulation models.

 Research is performed focused on poorly 

understood stable atmospheric boundary layer 

phenom-ena aimed at better characterizing intermittent nocturnal flow features and the capping of the 

boundary layer that can concentrate airborne hazards. Distinct layers in the urban domain include the 

Urban Mixed Layer (UML) well above the buildings, 

the Urban Surface Layer (USL) at the tops of the 

buildings, and the Urban Canopy Layer (UCL) representing the layer below the tops of the buildings and 

down to the street level. The features of these layers 

can be resolved remotely using instrumentation such 

as LIDAR’s and radiometers.

 Modeling applications for the effects of fine 

scale urban meteorology include development of a 

new urban smoke and dust transmission model for 

urban infantry war fighting simulations. The model 

uses the R&D performed for urban boundary layer 

dynamics with the transport, dispersion, and optical 

line of sight transmission to predict the effects on 

target acquisition and sensor performance in urban 

do-mains. 

 Bio-inspired environmental awareness for 

autonomous and semi-autonomous systems uses 

biomi-metic and biologically inspired approaches 

to sense and react to the microscale environment 

of platforms and sensors; and in particular to develop capabilities to automatically sense and avoid 

hazards to their operations, and to improve the reconnaissance, surveillance and search functions of 

small robotic devices.

 The BE Atmospheric Sensing Branch currently has no personnel at WSMR. However, various 

branch personnel have participated in experiments 

and other work at WSMR over the past several years 

and have several proposals for work that would be 

done in part at WSMR locations. The Atmospheric 

Sensing Branch develops sensing technologies for 

scientific and operational sensing of the state of the 

atmosphere, acoustic propagation, and aerosols. 

Recent work has focused on the development of 

ultra-compact Doppler Lidar systems; experimental 

and theoretical developments to better understand 

acoustic propagation in urban environments; and 

aerosol measurement programs.

 The Army Research Office, Research Triangle 

Park, North Carolina, manages the Army’s extramural 

basic research program in the atmospheric sciences. 

These programs are concerned with understanding 

the dynamical and physical processes of the atmospheric boundary layer at scales of interest to the 

Army (millimeters to 10’s of kilometers) through 

measurements, simulations, and theoretical considerations. The basic research program is conducted 

through the peer-reviewed, individual investigator 

program and oc-casional special initiatives. The focus of the research is on the atmospheric processes 

and effects of the atmospheric boundary layer over 

land, where the Army operates. Objectives of the 

research are to de-velop, from first principles, the 

physical basis for understanding the boundary layer 

processes, thereby leading to better understanding, 

modeling, and quantifying of atmospheric effects on 

soldiers, materials, and weapon systems. The research examines dispersion of battlefield materials, 

the effects of heteroge-neous terrain features on airflow, and the development of natural obscurations 
Section 3 DOD 142

throughout the diurnal cy-cle. An essential element 

of the research is the development of instrumentation to measure the volumetric fields of wind velocity, 

temperature, and moisture of the boundary layer at 

turbulence time scales. Special funding areas are 

also managed. The Defense University Research and 

Instrumentation Program (DURIP) provides funds for 

instrumentation needed to support ongoing research 

activities. The Defense Experimental Program to 

Stimulate Competitive Research (DEPSCoR) participation is a competition restricted to universities 

in certain states that compete for additional basic 

research funds. Also basic research under the Small 

Business Innovative Research Program (SBIR) is 

managed for selected topics. The primary research 

focus continues on the analysis and understanding 

of the stable boundary layer, which is augmented by 

external funding as a special program. Activities include transitioning coding for stable boundary layers, based on new theoretical developments to the 

WRF model library for use and test by AFWA and 

academic users. 

 Communications Electronics Command (CECOM), a major subordinate command of AMC, provides support to developing and fielding weather 

programs through the following organizations: Logistics Readiness Center (LRC), Research, Development and Engineering Center (RDEC), Software 

Engineering Center (SEC), and Safety office. The 

CECOM LRC is the level II manager of the Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS) program. 

 RDEC’s Communications-Electronics Research Development Engineering Center (CERDEC), In-telligence and Information Warfare Directorate provides technical management and support 

to the Program Manager, Intelligence and Effects and 

Program Manager, Night Vision/Reconnais-sance, 

Surveillance, and Target Acquisition for the IMETS 

and the MMS-Profiler. A brief description of each of 

these programs shows CECOM’s involvement. 

 Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS), AN/

TMQ-41. The MMS is an upper air meteorological 

data collection, processing and dissemination system that provides data to the field artillery and target 

acquisi-tion users. The system is a non-developmental item (NDI). All active Army units and National 

Guard Bu-reau are equipped with the MMS. 

 The Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler 

(MMS-P) AN/TMQ-52 and AN/TMQ-52A systems. 

The Meteorological Measurement Set-Profiler (MMSP) is a major improvement over the MMS. The Profiler design will support the new generation of artillery weapons. Profiler provides highly accurate MET 

data to adjust artillery fire and achieve first round hits 

and fires for effect. The system provides MET data 

on demand with data staleness of less than 30 minutes. The system will include frequent and update 

meteorological messages that enhances the meteorological validity over a larger battle space than 

the current equipment. The MMS-P uses the MM5 

mesoscale meteorological model to assimilate data 

from a variety of sources to provide the best meteorological messages to the user in a timely fashion. 

The system receives data from ground-based sourcFigure 3-DOD-23. The IMETS Vehicle Mounted Configuration. (US Army Released)
Section 3 DOD 143

es, radiosondes, and satellite-based sources, (such 

as boundary data from communications satellites 

and, in a future program block improvement, polar 

orbiting meteorological satellites) through onboard 

satellite receiving capability. The data affects the operation of the mesoscale meteorological model and 

for post-processing of the data in order to generate meteorological messages. Finally, an operator 

interface, in conjunction with the message generation and formatting software, facilitates communication between the MMS-P and all other systems that 

require interoperability with the MMS-P. The Profiler 

Program successfully executed a development and 

testing program culminating in an Initial Operational 

Test and Evaluation (IOTE) 1Q FY05. Four System 

Design and Develop-ment (SDD) models have been 

converted to a Low Rate Production configuration 

with 13 additional LRIP system produced. Full Rate 

Production (FRP) was approved at a FRP Decision 

in FY05. Thirty Six full rate production systems have 

been programmed through FY09.

Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC)

 The Developmental Test Command (DTC), a 

subordinate command of U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC), is responsible for providing operational meteorological support to Army research, development, test and evaluation (RDT&E). 

Under responsibilities established in AR 115-10/ 

AFJI 15-157, the DTC meteorological units provide 

meteorological data collection and analysis, consultation, and weather forecast and warning services 

to support Army and other DOD RDT&E activities 

at eight Army installations. Because much of the 

operational meteorological support workforce at the 

Army ranges is or soon will be eligible to retire, the 

Program has implemented an intern program to recruit and train entry-level scientists to ensure continuity in specialized meteorological support services 

as senior employees retire. 

 The Army RDT&E Meteorology Program is 

continuing to collaborate with the National Center 

for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) on enhancements to the ATEC Four-Dimensional Weather 

(4DWX) System, which is the backbone of the meteorological support infrastructure at the Army test 

ranges. Major system components include a central 

data archival/retrieval system for all range and external meteorological and model data, a high-resolution 

mesoscale meteorological model, and a variety of 

user-configurable displays. In FY07 the 4DWX program took delivery of a DOD high performance computer (HPC) which enables operational mesoscale 

ensemble forecasts to support major DTC test operations. System enhancements during FY08 include 

completion of an improved meteorological data archival/retrieval system with automated data quality 

control checks. During FY08, the 4DWX program 

also completed its transition from Mesoscale Model 

Version 5 (MM5) to the next-generation Weather 

Research and Forecast (WRF) model. The MM5 

and WRF mesoscale models are used operationally in both predictive and ana-lytic modes to provide detailed information about the past, current, and 

future structure of the atmosphere over the Army’s 

test ranges. For ensemble applications, both MM5 

and WRF are used as members of the ensemble set, 

which typically uses 30 members with varying physics packages, boundary or initial conditions, and 

model type. System enhancements during FY09 will 

include improvements to the WRF model’s capability 

for deterministic numerical weather prediction at the 

test ranges, assimilation of new types of data, development of a prototype next-generation data assimilation approach, and continued development of ensemble and probabilistic techniques. ATEC 4DWX 

modeling capabilities include MM5- or WRF-based 

real-time four-dimensional data assimilation (RT-FDDA) at seven Army test ranges and Global Meteorology on Demand (GMOD), a globally-relocatable mesoscale modeling system to support Army RDT&E 

(including DTC distributed and virtual testing) at locations other than the Army ranges. Output from the 

4DWX mesoscale model forecasts and analyses is 

used as meteorological input to atmospheric dispersion, noise propagation, ballistic trajectory, and other range applications models to simulate many tests 

and their associated impacts. The 4DWX system 

contributes to improved test planning and conduct, 

selection of more representative locations for test 

sensors, inclusion of realistic atmospheric effects in 

virtual testing, and forensic analyses of meteorological effects on test results.

 The Chief of the Meteorology Division at 

Dugway Proving Ground’s West Desert Test Center 

serves as the DTC Program Manager for Meteoro-
Section 3 DOD 144

logical Support to Army RDT&E. Specialized services provided by the Division include: (1) technical 

assistance to the DTC operational meteorological 

teams/branches; (2) atmospheric model verification 

and validation, including algorithm evaluation and 

the generation of validation data sets; and (3) technical assistance to the DOD CB defense modeling 

com-munity in the development of new CB hazard 

assessment models. Division employees also serve 

on various national and international committees addressing issues related to meteorological measurements, atmospheric dispersion modeling, and CB 

hazard assessment.

Army Medical Research and Materiel Command

 The U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM) conducts basic and 

applied research on the effects of heat, cold, high 

terrestrial altitude and nutritional status on the health 

and performance of individual Soldiers and combat 

crews operating Army systems.

 Applied research in thermal physiology and 

biophysical modeling is directed towards improving 

Soldier performance and minimizing health risks in 

climatic extremes. The sensitivity of the Soldier to local weather parameters (primarily ambient temperature, dew point, wind speed, and solar radiation) 

defines an operational envelope for unimpaired human performance. The overall goals of USARIEM 

weather-related research programs are to develop 

methods to effectively monitor and, where possible, 

extend the operational envelope for both training and 

operational scenarios.

 Weather-related research efforts include the 

development and validation of automated methods 

to integrate thermal strain prediction models with 

real-time weather information resources relevant 

to dis-mounted infantry operations. Temporal and 

spatial scales of interest are meters to kilometers 

and minutes to several days. USARIEM is working 

through an MOA with the Army Research Laboratory Battlefield Environment Division to implement 

thermal models on the Distributed Common Ground 

Systems – Army Weather Services. 

 The availability of ground level environmental 

data at high temporal and spatial resolution continues to pose a significant challenge for predictive 

model development and validation. As part of the 

Warfighter Physiological Status-Monitoring (WPSM) 

program, USARIEM is investigating methodologies 

needed to integrate real-time local environmental 

data and warfighter physiological data with predictive model processes. The effective fusion of these 

two real-time data streams will enable near-term environmental strain and performance status predictions for individual warfighters.
SECTION 3 DOE 145

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY 

OPERATIONAL AND RESEARCH WEATHER PROGRAMS

The overarching mission of the Department of Energy (DOE) is to advance the national, 

economic, and energy security of the United States; to promote scientific and technological innovation in support of that mission; and to ensure the environmental cleanup of the 

national nuclear weapons complex. DOE’s weather- and climate-related operational and 

research programs contribute in specific ways to this departmental mission.

OVERVIEW OF DOE OPERATIONAL AND RESEARCH METEOROLOGICAL PROGRAMS

The need for site-specific meteorological services at DOE Federal facilities was first recognized 

in 1944, with the development, fabrication, and testing of atomic weapons and their accompanying national security and nuclear safety issues. In response 

to this need, DOE has established, operated, and 

maintained meteorological programs and undertaken various atmospheric research projects at many of 

its reservations and field offices.

 Operational meteorological program requirements were subsequently augmented by the passage 

of the Clean Air Act and its amendments, reinforced 

by several DOE Orders that specify requirements for 

meteorological services to protect the environment. 

Consequently, a meteorological monitoring program 

has become an essential component of each DOE 

site. The acquisition of quality-assured meteorological data, provision of weather forecasting services, 

and development of site-specific climatology from 

these meteorological programs are important elements of the DOE Integrated Safety Management 

System (ISMS) because these elements contribute 

substantially to the implementation of site-wide personnel safety programs and support the following 

evaluations:

• Protection of facility workers and the public from 

severe weather (e.g., lightning, tornadoes, hurricanes), cold weather exposure, and heat stress, 

sufficient to meet Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration (OSHA) regulations

• Development of nuclear safety and chemical 

safety documentation (e.g., Safety Analysis Reports and Documented Safety Analyses)

• Establishment of diagnostic and prognostic consequence assessment elements of an emergency management response system to meet the requirements of DOE O 151.1C and the principles 

of DOE G 151.1-1

• Preparation of air, surface water, ground water, 

and waste management permits to support environmental protection and compliance activities 

that comply with U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency regulations

• Preparation of impact analyses for construction, 

operation, deactivation, and decommissioning of 

projects and missions requiring National Environmental Protection Act determinations

 The atmospheric sciences contribute to the 

successful implementation of many of DOE’s mission elements. Meteorological data acquisition programs, analytical assessments requiring meteorological information, and weather forecasting operations 

are integral to meeting DOE goals. Understanding 

the nature of the atmospheric domain, with its various dynamic and chemical aspects of energy-related 

phenomena is vital to DOE goals for national energy 

security, scientific discovery and innovation, and environmental responsibility. For instance, an accidental release of a radioactive material, or a chemically 

or biologically toxic material, into the atmosphere can 

potentially have serious acute and chronic health 

effects, as well as long-term environmental consequences. Meteorological transport and diffusion 

processes play a key role in determining the fate of 

radioactive, chemical, or biological agents released 

into the atmosphere; including those resulting from 

malevolent acts. Consequently, a central theme within the DOE community has been to protect public 

health, safety, and the environment on and around 

DOE facilities by accurately measuring and characterizing the important local atmospheric processes 

necessary to establish real-time and projected atmospheric transport and diffusion conditions.

 DOE administers operational meteorological 
SECTION 3 DOE 146

activities through various offices, such as the Office 

of Health Safety and Security, the National Nuclear 

Security Administration (NNSA), and the Office of 

Envi-ronmental Management, that have missions 

linked to the atmospheric sciences. The Office of 

Science (SC) is responsible for managing DOE’s 

climate change research programs. SC Climate 

Change Re-search is described in detail in the interagency report: Our Changing Planet, FY 2009. 

Activities at DOE sites include support to daily operations and national defense programs, all of which 

require fundamentally sound and well-managed meteorological monitoring programs.

WEATHER SUPPORT TO DAILY OPERATIONS

 Operational support programs include dailycustomized weather forecasting services, support 

to national defense projects and homeland security, 

onsite meteorological monitoring programs, climatology services, occupational safety and health program support, and emergency preparedness and 

response program support. Each meteorological 

monitoring program is primarily directed toward the 

support of emergency preparedness and response 

programs and focused on protecting the environment and the safety and health of the onsite work 

force and the public. 

 Operational meteorological programs are conducted at Argonne National Laboratory, Brookhaven 

National Laboratory, Idaho National Laboratory (INL), 

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Nevada Test Site (NTS), 

Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR), Pacific Northwest 

Na-tional Laboratory and Hanford Site, Pantex Plant, 

Sandia National Laboratory—Albuquerque, Savannah River Site (SRS)/Savannah River National Laboratory, and the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant. Some of 

these DOE sites maintain 24-hour weather watches 

for severe weather conditions that have the potential 

to im-pact site operations and construction projects, 

damage property, or threaten lives. For example, 

DOE-wide lightning safety initiatives, which are becoming integral elements of ISMS, are supported by 

DOE operational meteorological programs at such 

sites as NTS, Hanford, SRS, and INL. The Nevada 

Site Of-fice, which manages NTS, has developed a 

site order for implementation of lightning protection 

measures.

 Several DOE field offices and their associated sites and facilities cover large areas, called reserva-tions (e.g., INL, ORR, NTS, Hanford, and SRS). 

In addition, several DOE sites are situated in areas 

of complex topography and heterogeneous surface 

characteristics (e.g., land-water interface, mountainvalley morphology) that influence local weather and 

airflow trajectories. The latter are important for their 

influ-ence on atmospheric transport and diffusion. 

For these reasons, and to ensure the protection of 

public health and safety and the environment, onsite 

meteorological monitoring programs are an essential 

part of DOE atmospheric science programs. 

 Some DOE weather monitoring sites enhance 

the spatial resolution of the National Weather Service (NWS) observing network by taking standard 

surface and upper-air observations. Many of these 

sites are in remote areas where NWS and community weather observations would otherwise be sparse 

to non-existent. Weather observations taken at a few 

DOE field sites are entered into the NWS database 

via the NWS meteorological data ingest and display 

system. Some DOE sites use NOAA’s Advanced 

Weather Information Processing System, as well as 

vertical profilers and meteorological monitoring networks.

METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

 Currently, DOE does not support any 

weather-related meteorological research. As stated 

above, SC does support Climate Change Research 

as reported in Our Changing Planet, FY 2009.

DOE METEOROLOGICAL COORDINATING 

COUNCIL (DMCC)

 The DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council (DMCC) was formed in 1994 to coordinate meteorological activities among the field offices to enhance 

cost-effectiveness and productivity and to leverage 

synergistic opportunities. DOE has delegated the 

operation of its site/facility meteorological programs 

to DOC/NOAA and non-Federal for-profit M&O contractors. The DMCC membership is therefore composed of subject matter experts from within the DOE 

complex, representing the three components with 
SECTION 3 DOE 147

operational responsibilities for these programs:

• Department of Commerce (DOC/NOAA) under 

an Interagency Agreement;

• Management & Operating (M&O) contractors 

• Private contractors

 The DMCC operates as a subcommittee of 

the DOE Emergency Management Issues Special 

Interest Group (EMI SIG) and has a web page that 

can be accessed directly or through the web page 

of the Subcommittee for Consequence Assessment 

and Protective Actions. DMCC also issues an annual report as part of its presentation to the EMI SIG 

Steering Committee. 

 A current DMCC project is to improve the 

provision of quality-assured meteorological information and execution of transport and diffusion models 

that meet software quality assurance requirements. 

Products of the DMCC include evaluations of meteorological requirements contained in DOE orders 

and guidance documents, site meteorological program peer reviews (i.e., meteorological program assist visits), and, as needed, customized technical 

assistance. The DMCC developed an Assist Visit 

Guide to enable DOE/NNSA sites to perform their 

own self-assessments.
SECTION 3 DOE 148
SECTION 3 DHS 149

DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has three primary missions: Prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce America’s vulnerability to 

terrorism, and minimize the damage from potential attacks and natural disasters. 

The department’s first priority is to protect the nation against further terrorist attacks. Component agencies will analyze threats and intelligence, guard our borders and airports, protect our critical infrastructure, and coordinate the response 

of our nation for future emergencies. Besides providing a better-coordinated defense of the homeland, DHS is also dedicated to protecting the rights of American citizens and enhancing public services, such as natural disaster assistance 

and citizenship services, by dedicating offices to these important missions. DHS has five major divisions, 

called “Directorates”: Border and Transportation Security (BTS); Emergency Preparedness and Response 

(EPR); Science and Technology (S&T); Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection (IAIP); Management. Besides the five DHS directorates, several other critical agencies were folded into the new department or created when it was formed: Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Coast Guard; U.S. 

Secret Service; Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services; Office of State and Local Government 

Coordination; Office of Private Sector Liaison; and the Office of Inspector General.

 DHS has the primary responsibility for ensuring that emergency response professionals are 

prepared for any situation in the event of a terrorist 

attack, natural disaster, or other large-scale emergency. This entails providing a coordinated, comprehensive Federal response to any large-scale crisis 

and mounting a swift and effective recovery effort. 

DHS will also prioritize the important issue of citizen 

preparedness, and educating America’s families on 

how best to prepare their homes for a disaster and 

tips for citizens on how to respond in a crisis will be 

given special attention at DHS.

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY (FEMA)

 FEMA’s mission is to “reduce the loss of life 

and property and protect the Nation from all hazards, 

including natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and other man-made disasters, by leading and supporting 

the Nation in a risk-based, comprehensive emergency management system of preparedness, protection, 

response, recovery, and mitigation.” In carrying out 

its role, FEMA works with the federal scientific community and agencies to ensure that appropriate risk 

information – for hazards, vulnerabilities and consequences -- is used to execute this mission. As administrator of the National Flood Insurance Program 

(NFIP), FEMA publishes Flood Insurance Rate Maps 

for all flood-prone communities, which serve as the 

official demarcation for flood risk. FEMA administers 

the National Hurricane Program that among many 

things develops hurricane evacuation studies including inundation maps based on surge model simulation results from the National Weather Service’s National Hurricane Center. These studies are used by 

state and local hurricane emergency management 

planners and decision-makers to develop their hurricane evacuations plans.

 FEMA’s main interest with OFCM is identifying, developing and/or utilizing the most appropriate 

meteorological information to calibrate its preparedness, response and recovery activities to build and 

deploy emergency management capability, and to 

design and implement mitigation measures which 

reduce the consequences from emergencies and disasters. These interests extend to national standards 

for geographic information systems (GIS) used for 

delivery of meteorological products and services by 

other agencies. FEMA also actively supports the 

OFCM-sponsored Working Group for Post-Storm 

Data Ac-quisition (WG/PSDA) and the WG/PSDA’s 

efforts to develop a current National Plan for PostStorm Data Acquisition to coordinate and support 

the collection of perishable data after major storms. 

These data have applications in post-disaster mitigation activities, the NFIP flood hazard analysis, the 

FEMA National Hurricane Program hurricane evacu-
SECTION 3 DHS 150

ation studies, and other FEMA risk analysis activities, 

such as the Multi-Hazard Loss Estimation Methodology (HAZUS). The National Hurricane Program division is the principal FEMA contact point for most 

meteorology-related matters while the Risk Analysis 

Division is the primary contact for flood risk analysis.

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD (USCG)

 Although no U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) cutters or shore units are solely dedicated to meteorology, they collectively perform a variety of functions in 

support of the national meteorology program. USCG 

ocean-going cutters and coastal stations provide 

weather observations to the National Weather Service (NWS). Coast Guard communications stations 

broadcast NWS marine forecasts, weather warnings, and weather facsimile charts and, also, collect 

weather observations from commercial shipping for 

the NWS. 

 USCG conducts the International Ice Patrol 

(IIP) under the provisions of the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). The IIP uses 

sensor-equipped aircraft to patrol the Grand Banks 

of Newfoundland to locate and track icebergs which 

pose a hazard to North Atlantic shipping. Direct observations are supplemented and extrapolated using 

a numerical iceberg drift and deterioration model. 

IIP determines the geographic limits of the iceberg 

hazard and, twice daily, broadcasts iceberg warning 

bulletins and ice facsimile charts which define the 

limits of the iceberg threat during the iceberg season 

(spring and summer). IIP annually archives data on 

all confirmed and suspected icebergs, and forwards 

these data to the National Snow and Ice Data Center. These data can be accessed via the IIP web 

page www.uscg.mil/ lantarea/iip/home.html. Archived data contains all iceberg sighting data along 

with the last model-predicted position of each berg.

 The Coast Guard participates with the Navy 

and NOAA in conducting the National Ice Center, a 

multi-agency operational center that produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes, 

and coastal ice conditions.

 The Coast Guard also collaborates with 

NOAA in operating the National Data Buoy Center 

(NDBC) which deploys and maintains NOAA’s automated network of environmental monitoring platforms in the deep ocean and coastal regions. Five 

Coast Guard personnel fill key technical and logistics support positions within NDBC. Coast Guard 

cutters support the deployment and retrieval of data 

buoys, and provide periodic maintenance visits to 

both buoys and coastal stations, expending approximately 180 cutter days annually. Coast Guard aircraft, small boats, and shore facilities also provide 

NDBC support.

 Meteorological activities are coordinated by 

the Ice Operations Division of the Marine Transportation Division at Coast Guard Headquarters. Field 

management of Coast Guard meteorological support services is accomplished at the Coast Guard 

Area and District levels. 
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of the Interior (DOI), is the nation’s principal conservation 

agency, charged with the mission “to protect and provide access to our Nation’s natural and cultural heritage and honor our trust responsibilities to Indian 

tribes and our commitments to island communities.” The following operational 

and research programs contribute to the Federal Meteorological Plan.

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

(USGS)

WATER DATA

 The USGS’s Water Resources Discipline 

(WRD) collects streamflow, precipitation, water 

quality, ground-water level, and other water resources and climatological data as part of a national network and for a number of projects concerning rainfall-runoff, water quality and hydrologic processes. 

Currently, the USGS collects continuous hydrologic 

and meteorological data at about 8,900 surface water sites, 2,700 ground water level sites, and 1,600 

water quality sites. Periodic records are collected at 

approximately 1,500 additional surface water sites, 

20,200 ground water sites, and 10,300 water quality sites. Precipitation records are collected at about 

800 sites.

 Data collected at most continuous-record 

USGS sites are transmitted from remote Data Collection Platforms (DCPs) to Wallops Island, Virginia 

via a Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES). From the Wallops Island facility, data 

are rebroadcast to a domestic communication satellite (DOMSAT). Data are received from the DOMSAT 

by local readout ground stations (LRGS) procured 

by USGS. The USGS currently operates 21 LRGS 

which provide near-real-time data to the USGS’s 

computerized National Water Information System 

(NWIS). Near-real-time streamflow data and ancillary 

information are provided to National Weather Service River Forecast Centers for river forecast points 

(Figure 3-DOI-1). Additional historical and real-time 

water resources data are available from the USGS 

database at NWIS Web (http://waterdata.usgs.gov/

nwis/).

 The USGS also collects precipitation samples 

at a number of sites to determine the atmospheric 

contribution of chemical constituent loads to runoff, 

and for defining the effect of atmospheric deposition 

on water quality and the aquatic environment. 

CLIMATOLOGICAL RESEARCH

 USGS carries out research in climate change, 

regional hydrology, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, and glaciology. The Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program is studying 

processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemical fluxes at five small research watersheds in 

the United States. This program includes research 

on the effects of atmospheric and climatic variables 

on watershed processes. There are also a number of 

Figure 3-DOI-1. Sample USGS Water Watch map of real-time 

streamflow compared to historical streamflow for the day of 

the year. Source: USGS Website (http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch)
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ongoing studies to characterize trends in hydrologic 

data and to relate these trends to climatic variables. 

Researchers are also using global and regional climate models to enhance understanding of the potential effects of climate change and climate variability on U.S. land and water resources. 

 As part of its glaciology program, the USGS 

maintains an observation program on three benchmark glaciers representative of different climatic 

zones of the western United States, one in Washington, one on the south coast of Alaska and one in 

the interior of Alaska. At each glacier, the program 

measures the winter snow accumulation, summer 

snow and ice ablation, air temperature, and runoff in 

the glacier basin. Beginning in 1959, this is the longest such record in North America. Analysis of this 

record is providing a greater understanding of the 

climate variability and its effects on water resources 

of the western United States. The record clearly 

shows the effects of changing winter precipitation 

patterns associated with atmospheric conditions in 

the northeast Pacific Ocean, including El Niño - La 

Niña events and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation.

 To augment its glacier monitoring efforts, the 

USGS is using National Systems data to measure 

fluctuations of glaciers in Alaska, Washington, and 

Montana. Mountain glaciers are ideal subjects for 

these systems because they are remote, have an appropriate space scale, and require infrequent but repetitive observations. The observations have established a baseline of regional glacial conditions. The 

resulting and on-going archive of observations is being used to determine recent trends in glacier size 

and terminus location. In addition, techniques have 

been developed to generate derived products that 

provide critical glacial parameters, including DEMs, 

equilibrium line altitudes, and ablation rates. These 

products are being incorporated into a glacial runoff 

model of the South Cascade Glacier, Washington, 

where they are proving to be a valuable source of 

otherwise unavailable data.

SNOW AND ICE STUDIES

 USGS scientists are cooperating with scientists at the University of Washington, Seattle, to 

improve hydrologic runoff modeling of the snow 

pack in the Pacific Northwest through the application of data assimilation techniques. The assimilation uses passive microwave observations from the 

Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer, AMSRE, and numerical integration of Maxwell’s equations 

constrained by a snow pack model to determine the 

distribution of snow water equivalent across select 

drainage basins. Then the UW Variable Infiltration 

Capacity (VIC) model calculates the subsequent 

runoff, which is compared to USGS discharge measurements. If the calculated runoff is not within a 

specified amount of the measured runoff, the assimilation technique adjusts the snowpack characteristics and another iteration is carried out.

 USGS, in cooperation with BLM, is using a 

variety of remote sensing data to monitor the rapid 

wastage of the piedmont lobe of Bering Glacier, 

Alaska. Landsat, Radarsat, ICESat, and Ikonos observations show that Bering Glacier is retreating rapidly and thinning in an accelerating retreat from an 

advanced position that resulted from a major glacial 

surge in 1993-95. The satellite data and groundbased observations have been combined to determine the surface flow velocities and calving rates 

of the glacier, and to monitor the expansion of Vitus 

Lake and Berg Lake, two large lakes whose boundaries include the glacier terminus. The rapid change 

in glaciation is having a large impact on nearby terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

GEOMAGNETIC DATA

 The Geomagnetism Program (http://geomag.

usgs.gov) of the USGS Central Region Geohazards Team provides real-time, ground-based measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field, which are 

an important contribution to the diagnosis of conditions in the near-Earth space environment of the 

sun, the solar wind, the magnetosphere, the ionosphere, and the thermosphere. During geomagnetic 

storms, brought about by the complex interaction of 

the Earth’s magnetic field with that of the Sun’s, both 

high- and low-frequency radio communications can 

be difficult or impossible, global positioning systems 

(GPS) can be degraded, satellite electronics can be 

damaged, satellite drag can be increased, and astronauts and high-altitude pilots can be subjected to 

enhanced levels of radiation.

 Ground-based geomagnetic observatory data are complementary to those collected by 

space-based satellites; indeed, most of the hazard-
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ous effects on technological systems brought about 

by magnetic storms occur at or near the Earth’s surface. Therefore, the Geomagnetism Group monitors 

the surficial magnetic field by operating 14 magnetic 

observatories in the United States and its Territories. 

The data from these observatories, plus 15 foreign 

observatories, are transmitted to the Group’s headquarters in Golden, Colorado, where they are processed and analyzed. Data are then transmitted to 

the Space Environment Center (SEC) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

and to the U.S. Air Force’s (USAF) Weather Agency 

at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska.

 USGS observatories are operated in cooperation with Intermagnet (www.intermagnet.org), an 

international consortium overseeing the operation of 

nearly 100 geomagnetic observatories distributed 

around the globe. The USGS Geomagnetism Program is also an integral part of the National Space 

Weather Program.

VOLCANOLOGY AND VOLCANIC ASH PLUMES

 Through its Volcanic Hazards Program, the 

USGS is responsible for monitoring volcanoes in the 

United States and issuing eruption forecasts and notifications. The USGS participates in the Working 

Group for Volcanic Ash (WG/VA) of the OFCM. This 

working group has prepared a National Volcanic Ash 

Operating Plan for Aviation. The purpose of the plan 

is to provide operational guidance by documenting 

the required procedures and information products 

of the government agencies responsible for ensuring safety of flight operations when volcanic ash has 

been erupted into the atmosphere. The agencies 

involved are the USGS, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Air Force. 

 The OFCM helps to administer funding from 

the FAA to the USGS to improve aviation safety 

through expanded volcano monitoring in Alaska 

where many historically active volcanoes underlie 

the heavily traveled air routes of the North Pacific 

region. Over the past decade with FAA support, the 

USGS’s Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) has installed seismic networks at approximately two dozen 

volcanoes in the Aleutian Islands, bringing to 31 the 

number of Alaska’s volcanoes under continuous realtime geophysical surveillance. Data and information 

from the AVO monitoring activities are integrated directly into the regional operational activities of the 

FAA, DOD, and NOAA/NWS to provide warnings 

for pilots and aircraft operators in the Alaskan region. 

 The United States. has experienced significant levels of volcanic activity recently. Augustine 

Volcano, located near Anchorage, Alaska, erupted 

from January to April 2006, finally settling back into 

quiescence that summer. AVO mounted a 24/7 

monitoring response to characterize ash-cloud hazards to aviation and worked closely with the National 

Weather Service to provide ash-fall information to 

the public. AVO also has continued to closely monitor Cleveland volcano in Alaska, which has been 

erupting intermittently since 2001. Mount St. Helens, Washington, reawakened in September 2004 

from 18 years of quiescence. The eruption has 

largely consisted of the extrusion of lava with activity 

confined to the summit area. However, occasional 

explosions have erupted ash to heights as great as 

30,000 feet above sea level. USGS, NWS, and 

FAA have worked together to develop procedures 

and protocols to handle an erupting volcano situated 

between two major metropolitan centers.

 Recognizing that many potentially dangerous U.S. volcanoes have inadequate or no groundbased monitoring, the USGS recently evaluated 

U.S. volcano-monitoring capabilities and published 

“An Assessment of Volcanic Threat and Monitoring 

Capabilities in the United States: Framework for a 

National Volcano Early Warning System (NVEWS)” 

(online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1164/). 

Results of the NVEWS volcanic threat and monitoring assessment are being used to guide long-term 

improvements to the national volcano-monitoring 

infrastructure operated by the USGS and affiliated 

groups. The most threatening volcanoes, those 

near communities and transportation infrastructure 

(ground and air) and with a history of frequent and 

violent eruptions, need to be well monitored in real 

time with an extensive suite of instrument types to 

detect the earliest symptoms of unrest and to reliably forecast behavior of the volcano. Waiting until 

unrest escalates to augment monitoring capabilities 

at these high-threat volcanoes puts people (including scientists in the field) and property at undue risk. 

Remote, isolated, or less frequently erupting volca-
SECTION 3 DOI 154

noes that nevertheless can pose hazards to airtraffic 

corridors require sufficient monitoring capability with 

ground-based instruments to detect and track unrest in real-time so that other agencies responsible 

for enroute flight safety can be kept apprised of the 

potential for explosive, ash-cloud-forming eruptions.

 The Volcano Hazards Program has posted 

pages on its website devoted to practical guidance 

for dealing with ash hazards to transportation, communications, agriculture, water supplies, etc. See 

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash.

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT (BLM)

 The BLM is one of five Federal Land Management agencies which have centralized Wildland fire 

weather operations at the National Interagency Fire 

Center (NIFC), in Boise, Idaho. The BLM’s Initial 

Attack Management System (IAMS) was designed 

in the mid-1980’s to provide real-time data access 

and modeling for the fire management organization. 

The IAMS required a considerable dedicated telecommunications network for data distribution. In an 

effort to reduce these inherent telecommunications 

costs, the BLM has moved into a “web server” environment. Many of the capabilities that were centrally 

located in the old IAMS have been moved to other 

web sites.

FIRE WEATHER WEBSITES

 The principal Wildland Fire Management Information System (WFMIS) inputs remain the same 

with Remote Automatic Weather Station (RAWS) 

and National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) 

informa-tion. BLM’s new server system is called the 

BLM Wildland Fire Management Information Site 

(www.nifc.blm.gov). Additional fire management information is summarized and made available at the 

Desert Research Institute (wrcc.dri.edu and cefa.

dri.edu) and the U.S. Forest Service Wildland Fire 

Assessment System (http://www.wfas.net/). Additionally, the BLM has utilized the Desert Research 

Institute’s capabilities to respond quickly for website 

support. 

AUTOMATED WEATHER STATIONS

 The BLM’s RAWS Program primarily collects 

meteorological data for fire weather forecasting. 

However, use of BLM’s RAWS data set by other 

non-fire users has generated sufficient funding to 

permit year-round operation of the entire network. 

The BLM’s Resource Management and Oregon 

O&C (West-Side) also operate RAWS networks 

which are much smaller and have specific program 

requirements that differ from fire management.

LIGHTNING DETECTION

 In 1997, the BLM began contracting with 

a private vendor via the National Weather Service 

for lightning location data. Data are received at 

the NIFC in Boise, Idaho, and placed on the BLM 

WFMIS for qualified user access. Current plans are 

to continue the operation of the Alaska Automatic 

Lightning Detection System as an independent government-owned and operated system.

FIRE WEATHER SUPPORT

 The BLM’s Remote Sensing / Fire Weather 

Support Unit (RSFWSU) at NIFC provides the full 

range of program management, equipment dispatch, 

field and depot maintenance, support and data services for the BLM and numerous other government 

agencies. This interagency-staffed and funded facility performs work under long term agreements with 

those agencies within the government having similar 

equipment and requirements. 

CLIMATE MONITORING

 In addition to the meteorological monitoring 

BLM conducts primarily to support wildland fire management activities, the BLM also conducts site-specific climate monitoring at over 200 manual weather 

station locations on the public lands in the 11 western states and Alaska. The operation of these sites 

ranges from seasonal to annual, taking measurements of precipitation, temperature, soil moisture, 

and other meteorological parameters necessary to 

assess local climatic influences. These data are primarily used for natural resources management and 

planning at the local level.

PORTABLE WEATHER STATIONS

 During the 1999 fire season, the Remote 

Sensing/Fire Weather Support Unit began a 2-year 

“proof of concept” effort with a portable weather station referred to as the Fire RAWS (FRWS). FRWS 

are intended for use on or near a fire line and can 
SECTION 3 DOI 155

be rapidly relocated to points desired by Fire Behavior Analysts for real-time weather data. Due to 

the extreme fire season in both 1999 and 2000, the 

FRWS was used extensively and was found to be a 

valuable asset for firefighter safety and fire weather 

forecasting. Fire managers have also increased the 

use of FRWS to monitor intentionally-initiated prescribed burns. 

 Currently, 42 FRWS systems are cached at 

NIFC. FRWS collect, store, and forward data by interrogated voice radio with new data available every fifteen minutes. Satellite data can be retrieved 

from multiple websites, and hourly satellite data is 

available to Fire Weather Forecasting Staff for spot 

forecasts and fire support from all central locations 

(Geographic Area Coordination Centers, NIFC, etc.). 

Using the personnel and resources available at the 

RSFWSU, the BLM offers a rapid meteorological 

support capability that is unique across the federal 

government.

BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS (BIA)

 The Bureau of Indian Affairs collects atmospheric data to evaluate potentially irrigable Indian 

Trust lands in the Southwest. The Bureau also collects and shares fire weather data with other Federal agencies while participating in fire management 

activities for local and interagency use. Currently, 

BIA operates 69 fire weather RAWS stations (permanent), 5 “manual” weather stations, 13 portable 

RAWS stations used for Prescribed Fire, and 10 

RAWS deployed on emergency stabilization projects.

MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE (MMS)

 The Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

gathers offshore meteorological data for use in the 

management of offshore oil and gas resources and 

sources of alternative energy. The data are used in 

air quality and oil-spill modeling, model development, 

and other research projects. 

 MMS operates a radar wind profiler (RWP) at 

the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium (LUMCON) facility in Cocodrie, Louisiana. Data collected 

at this site may be accessed at http://weather.lumcon.edu/weatherdata/doppler. The data will be applied to regional models for evaluating impacts from 

emission sources on ozone, fine particulate matter, 

and regional haze. The Service, in a cooperative 

agreement with The University of Houston (UH), operates an RWP at the UH Coastal Research Center 

(UHCRC) near Galveston, TX. The profiler will collect data for three years through FY 09.

 The MMS has completed a meteorological 

and air quality modeling analysis in and around the 

Breton National Wilderness Area (NWA), which is a 

PSD Class I area located off southeastern Louisiana. 

MMS is currently sponsoring the operation of a visibility monitoring station near the Breton NWA IMPROVE site. The objective is to study the relationships between visibility, haze, ozone, PM2.5, dew 

point depression, and mixing height and to determine the source region(s) for haze, haze precursors, 

resulting is low visibility conditions near the Breton 

Island NWA. The study will utilize two additional visibility monitors operated by the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) at Louisiana State University (LSU). Satellite data will be collected to measure optical depth 

and to determine source regions of atmospheric pollutants. 

 Other ongoing studies in the Gulf of Mexico 

include (1) an effort to evaluate the effects of ozone 

deposition/chemical mechanism enhancements on 

air quality model performance over the coastal marine environment and (2) a study to evaluate of the 

effects of satellite data assimilation on meteorological/air quality model performance. Copies of all final 

reports in past meteorological and air quality studies 

in the Gulf of Mexico may be found at http://www.

gomr.mms.gov/homepg/regulate/environ/techsumm/rec_pubs.html.

 A meteorological data collection effort was 

conducted by MMS along the Beaufort Sea shoreline 

in Alaska; five meteorological stations collected data 

starting in 2001. Four of these stations operated in 

FY 08 through an interagency cooperative program. 

The Service is analyzing the data gathered by these 

stations and will develop a mesoscale meteorological model for predicting ocean and ice circulation.

 Another ongoing study in Alaska is an effort 

to develop an atmospheric modeling capability for 

the Cook Inlet/Shelikof region suitable for nowcast/

forecast and research purposes. Among the objectives of this project is to develop an understanding 

of the mechanisms which drive low-level wind jets in 

the region, describe the vertical and thermal struc-
SECTION 3 DOI 156

ture of wind jets, and study the cloud fields and precipitation associated with high wind events in the 

region. For more information on the MMS Alaska 

Region Studies Program see http://www.mms.gov/

alaska/ess/index.htm.

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE (NPS) AND FISH 

AND WILDLIFE SERVICE (FWS)

 The National Park Service monitors air quality 

and visibility in a number of national parks and monuments. Gaseous pollutant data are collected on 

continuous and integrated (24-hour to weekly) bases. Surface meteorological data are collected and 

analyzed for hourly averages. Precipitation chemistry is determined on week-long integrated rainfall 

samples. Twenty-four-hour-average particle concentrations (mass, elemental analyses, some chemical 

constituent analyses) are measured every third day. 

Atmospheric light extinction is measured continuously and relayed to a central location for analyses. 

MODELING

 The NPS also conducts and contracts research to develop and test air quality models to assess long-range transport, chemical transformation, 

and deposition of air pollutants. These models are 

used to estimate source contributions to, and to 

identify source regions responsible for, observed 

pollutant loadings.

JOINT MONITORING AND RESEARCH

 The Fish and Wildlife Service Air Quality 

Branch and the NPS Air Resources Division operate 

under an interagency agreement and are located in 

Lakewood, Colorado. Expertise from both agencies 

is pooled to address the air quality issues that are 

the responsibility of the Assistant Secretary of the 

Interior for Fish and Wildlife and Parks.

 The NPS oversees the operation of the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) network and the IMPROVE Protocol network in cooperation with the Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA), the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), the FWS, the BLM, and various State organizations. Currently, the network has 

about 170 sites, mostly funded by the EPA in support of their regional haze regulations and through 

other cooperators. The enhanced network allows a 

better characterization of visibility and fine particle 

concentrations throughout rural and remote areas of 

the country (Figure 3-DOI-2). 

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION 

 The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) activities requiring the collection and use of meteorological data include water supply forecasting, snowpack water equivalent assessment, river system 

management, reservoir operations, irrigation scheduling, drought status assessment, flood hydrology, 

and projects related to hydroelectric energy resources. One example of such an ongoing activity is the 

Watershed and River System Management Program 

(WaRSMP), which is being developed in partnership with the USGS. Information on WaRSMP is at 

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/rivers/ .

 Other key players in this effort include TVA, 

the Corps of Engineers, NOAA, NASA, NRCS, the 

University of Colorado and Colorado State University. This program provides a data-centered framework for science-based water resources decisio 

making. Major components are:

• Hydrologic Database (HDB),

• Modular Modeling System (MMS),

• RiverWare river system modeling framework,

• Stochastic Analysis, Modeling and Simulation 

(SAMS) system, 

• Agricultural WAter Resources Decision Support 

(AWARDS) and

Figure 3-DOI-2. Annual average standard visual range (SVR), 

in kilometers, calculated from IMPROVE particle concentrations and locations of most of the IMPROVE and IMPROVE 

protocol sites. (http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/views/Web/AnnualSummary/ContourMaps.aspx)
SECTION 3 DOI 157

• Evapotranspiration Toolbox (ET Toolbox) system.

HYDROLOGIC MODELING

 The SAMS hydrologic modeling system is being used in WaRSMP to assist water resource managers in developing likely hydrologic scenarios for 

water supplies. It allows users to test various water 

resources management strategies, including extreme 

drought and high-flow scenarios which haven’t been 

encountered in the historical period of record. 

 The RiverWare and HDB data-centered decision support system enables water managers to examine a variety of observed and forecast hydrologic 

scenarios using hourly, daily, or monthly data within 

the legal and physical constraints on operations 

of the river system. This model provides a holistic 

management tool for watershed and river systems, 

in order to meet a variety of competing demands for 

water.

 Each new river system requires considerable 

development work (2-3 years) for RiverWare and 

HDB implementation. However, such a system can 

provide for efficient water operations management, 

and is especially useful during periods of drought 

and surplus - as demonstrated by the “Colorado 

River Interim Surplus Criteria: Final Environmental 

Impact Statement”. Current Reclamation projects 

under WaRSMP include:

• Planning and developing HDB, MMS and RiverWare systems for the Gunnison, San Juan, Rio 

Grande, Yakima, and Truckee river systems;

• Development of expanded capabilities to allow 

HDB to function as the Database of Record 

which will document management decisions and 

the data used to make them for Reclamation’s 

Upper and Lower Colorado regions as well as 

other participating offices.

• SAMS integration and testing for the lower Colorado and Truckee River Basins;

• Implementing AWARDS systems to improve the 

efficiency of water management and irrigation 

scheduling for the Tualatin Project, Upper Columbia project areas, and Lower Colorado area;

• Developing the AWARDS/ET Toolbox system 

in the Middle Rio Grande and providing 24-hour 

water use estimates for input, via the Corps of 

Engineers’ Hydrologic Engineering Center Decision Support System or a new HDB, to the Rio 

Grande RiverWare; and

• Implementing similar AWARDS/ET Toolbox systems with input to local HDBs and RiverWare 

systems in the Upper Columbia, Lower Colorado, and possibly the Truckee-Carson areas.

• Integration and testing of emerging Land Surface 

Modeling Products from NASA’s Global Land 

Data Assimilation Systems for snow mapping, 

surface energy and water budgets and ET analysis and prediction for water operations management.

• Testing and development of weather and climate 

products from the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) for water supply and 

demand forecasting.

INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ACQUISITION

 NEXRAD estimates of precipitation are used 

for water supply and water delivery decision-making. 

Water managers can view the distribution of precipitation over watersheds that supply water to storage 

facilities, and examine the detailed spatial distributions of precipitation over the irrigated areas along 

with estimates of soil moisture, and evapotranspiration from crops and riparian vegetation.

 The Watershed and River Systems Management Program focuses on integrating multi-disciplinary science into decision support systems that enable water managers to make the best deliveries of 

water to stakeholders.

 Currently, Reclamation’s HYDROMET system 

collects data from approximately 400 hydrometeorological data collection platforms (DCPs) which transmit data in real-time through GOES to Reclamation’s 

DRGS in Boise, Idaho. AGRIMET is another network 

of 60 DCPs dedicated to analysis of crop water use 

and water conservation in the Pacific Northwest.

 Data collected and products created in Boise 

are electronically transferred to

other BLM, Federal and state offices. Reclamation’s 

primary real-time hydrometeorological information 

from the NWS, USGS, NASA, and other agencies is 

displayed on the AWARDS / NEXRAD / ET Toolbox 

web site: http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/rivers/awards/

index.html 

 Water supply information from cumulative 

precipitation estimates from radar is also provided 
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in areas where snowfall is an important source of 

water. Links directly to USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service and NOAA/National Centers 

for Environmental Prediction analysis and forecasting web sites are provided to further document the 

latest information.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION

 The National Xeriscape Demonstration Program (NXDP) was initiated by Reclamation to estimate the benefits of water 

conserving landscaping. In 

partnerships with States, 

field demonstration projects 

were conducted in Fargo 

ND, Austin TX, the Colorado Front Range, Phoenix 

AZ, and southern Nevada. 

Water savings ranged from 

18 to over 50 percent in 

the demonstration projects, 

strongly suggesting water 

planners should consider 

this water conservation alternative as a supply development option.

SNOWPACK ASSESSMENT

 Snowmelt represents about 80% of reservoir storage in Colorado 

and is largely responsible 

for spring flooding events 

in the state. Therefore it 

is highly desirable to know 

snowpack characteristics, 

such as its snow water 

equivalent (SWE), its spatial and elevation distribution, and its evolution with 

time during the water year. With support of the Colorado Water Conservation Board (CWCB), Reclamation has adapted the Snow Data Assimilation 

System (SNODAS) for enhanced snowpack assessment in the state of Colorado. The SNODAS was 

developed by the National Operational Hydrologic 

Remote Sensing Center (NOHRSC), a National 

Weather Service unit, and data are acquired through 

the National Snow and Ice Data Center. 

 SNODAS consists of a spatially distributed 

Figure 3-DOI-3. Snow Data Assimilation System (SNOWDAS) 

past 24 hour (28-29 Oct 08) 

Snowpack Temperature (C) in 

Colorado (http://www.usbr.gov/

pmts/rivers/awards/Co/SNODAS/CoSnTavg.gif)
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snow energy and mass balance model, coupled with 

an assimilation of all available SWE, snow depth, 

and snow cover data (from surface, aircraft, radar, 

satellite). Model outputs are at 1 km resolution and 

include SWE, snow depth, snowmelt, pack temperature, and sublimation. Comparison with data 

from Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) sites and satellite 

imagery shows faithful representation of SWE and 

snow cover, respectively. Basin average SWE is 

substantially reduced over that of SNOTEL because 

the former is a basin-wide spatial average instead of 

an arithmetic average of a few high-elevation points. 

This difference is important hydrologically and holds 

the promise of coupling snowmelt with a hydrologic 

model to produce streamflow hydrographs. Such 

hydrographs would be extremely useful to the decision support systems of water management agencies such as the CWCB and Reclamation, with the 

ultimate aim of improved forecasting of water supplies and flooding. Colorado SNODAS products 

have been posted daily at http://www.usbr.gov/

pmts/rivers/awards/SNODAS/index.html since October 2003. Future work will consist of verification 

of SNODAS outputs, improvement of precipitation 

inputs, and coupling to a hydrologic model. 
SECTION 3 DOI 160
SECTION 3 DOS 161

DEPARTMENT OF STATE CLIMATE AND ATMOSPHERIC 

PROGRAMS

The Department of State (DOS) plays an active role in international climate/

meteorological policy making as a result of the growing worldwide concern 

with global environmental issues, including the depletion of the stratospheric 

ozone layer and climate change. The role of DOS has principally revolved 

around preparation and negotiation of the United States position in three 

fora: (1) the Conference of the Parties to the Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, (2) the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); and (3) negotiation under the 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). In addition, over the past few years the DOS has played a central and active role in 

the development and implementation of a number of international science and technology initiatives including the Group on Earth Observations, the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum, the International 

Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy, the Methane-to-Markets Partnership, and Generation IV (a U.S.-

led program working on new fission reactor designs that will be safer, more economical and secure).

 Stratospheric ozone depletion has been 

recognized as a critical health and environmental 

problem for more than two decades. Under DOS 

leadership, the United States worked to negotiate 

international agreements to phase out ozone-depleting substances, which should lead to a recovery 

of the ozone layer in this middle of this century. To 

date, these treaties have been signed and ratified 

by more than 193 countries, including the United 

States. These countries represent 99 percent of the 

world’s production of ozone depleting substances. 

The State Department makes annual contributions 

to the Vienna Convention’s efforts on scientific monitoring of the ozone layer. 

 The IPCC, which was established by the 

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the 

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), held 

its first session in 1988. This organization serves as 

a government forum to assess scientific, technical 

and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potential impacts 

and options for adaptation and mitigation. In doing 

so, the Panel draws on the expertise of thousands 

of scientists and technical experts. The IPCC is currently organized into three working groups, which 

examine (1) the state of the science, (2) impacts and 

adaptation, and (3) mitigation. In addition to preparing assessment reports, the IPCC also contributes 

to international negotiations through preparation and 

review of special reports and development of methodologies requested by the UNFCCC. 

 The UNFCCC was negotiated beginning in 

February 1991 and the Convention was open for 

signature in Rio de Janeiro at the Earth Summit in 

June 1992. As of May 2004, it had been ratified 

by 189 countries, including the U.S.. The ultimate 

objective of the Framework Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions at a level that would 

prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) 

interference with the climate system. It states that 

such a level should be achieved within a timeframe 

sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to 

climate change, to ensure that food production is not 

threatened, and to enable economic development to 

proceed in a sustainable manner.

 In December 2007 at the Conference of the 

Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC, the United States 

agreed to the Bali Action Plan which was the start 

of a two year negotiation toward a new long term climate arrangement for the post 2012 era. As an adjunct to the UN process, the United States and sixteen other major economies responsible for roughly 

80% of the world’s economic activity and 80% of 

the world’s greenhouse gas emissions founded the 

“Major Economies Process on Energy Security and 

Climate Change” (MEM). They have met in Washington, Honolulu, Paris, Seoul, and Lake Toyado, Japan, with more meetings planned for 2009 before 

the Copenhagen COP in December of that year.

 Another multilateral effort is the Asia-Pacific 
SECTION 3 DOS 162

Partnership on Clean Development and Climate 

(APP). The seven countries that make up the Partnership – Australia, Canada, China, India, Republic 

of Korea, Japan, and the United States – are focused 

on clean development projects in partner countries. 

To date over 115 projects have been endorsed by 

the APP since January 2006. The US APP Program 

office in DOS has funded roughly $13 million worth 

of clean development projects in India and China to 

date.

 In the context of meteorological and climate 

monitoring, as well as mitigating greenhouse gases 

and related impacts, DOS together with strong participation from USDA, DOE and other US government (USG) agencies, organized the Washington International Renewable Energy Conference (WIREC) 

in March, 2008. As the third international ministerial-level event on renewable energy, the conference 

drew over 3000 participants, with an additional 6000 

attending the trade show and related events. Notably, the Ministerial Meeting at WIREC brought together 103 ministers representing energy, economic 

and scientific sectors of governments. In response 

to the call issued by the conference organizers, participants submitted over 140 pledge commitments 

related to implementation of renewable energy on 

behalf of organizations ranging from governments to 

civil society to the private sector. USG contributions 

include a total of 31 pledges made by 14 agencies, 

including DOS commitments anchored in the AsiaPacific Partnership initiative. 

 Together these initiatives help our global capability to understand and address issues associated with climate change in a manner that supports 

broader sustainable development goals. In addition 

to its primary role in the fora listed above, DOS is 

active in several relevant interagency processes, 

including the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) of the National Science 

and Technology Council, the Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) and its Interagency Working 

Group on Climate Change Science and Technology 

(IWGCCST). The CENR was established in 1993 to 

coordinate scientific domestic programs. CCSP was 

created in 2001 to “integrate federal research on 

global change and climate change” across thirteen 

federal agencies and is the umbrella to IWGCCST 

which was founded in 2002 and is a sub-Cabinet 

level group that reviews all programs that contribute 

to climate change science and technology.

 In addition to the above, DOS responsibilities 

include, but are not limited to, international aspects 

of food policy, disaster warnings and assistance, 

WMO and UNEP activities, and international meteorological programs.
Section 3 DOT 163

THE NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM (NAS) OF 

THE FUTURE

 To address the growing demands on the 

NAS for the future, the 108th Congress and the 

Bush Administration promulgated and signed into 

law VISION 100 Century of Aviation Reauthorization 

Act (P.L. 108-176). The Vision 100 Act calls for an 

integrated, multi-agency plan to transform the nation’s air transportation system to meet the needs of 

the year 2025, while providing substantial near-term 

benefits. The resulting Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) Initiative will address critical safety and economic needs in civil aviation while 

fully integrating national defense and homeland security improvements into the future NAS.

 Along with the private sector and academic community, the FAA, National Aeronautics and 

Space administration (NASA), and the Departments 

of Commerce, Defense, Homeland Security, and 

Transportation are working together with the Office 

of Science and Technology Policy to design and 

build NextGen. To coordinate this work, VISION 100 

created the Joint Planning and Development Office 

(JPDO), which reports to the Senior Vice President 

for NextGen and Operations Planning within FAA’s 

Air Traffic Organization (ATO). 

 Overseeing the work of the JPDO at the interagency level is a Senior Policy Committee that is 

chaired by the Secretary of Transportation and includes senior representatives from the participating 

departments and agencies, plus the Director of the 

Office of Science and Technology Policy. Among 

its key responsibilities, the Senior Policy Committee 

provides policy guidance and review; makes legislative recommendations; and identifies and aligns resources that will be necessary to develop and implement the Integrated National Plan. 

 Two principal FAA entities that report to the 

Senior Vice President for NextGen and Operations 

Planning are focused upon implementation of NextGen, especially in the near and medium term. They 

are the NextGen Integration and Implementation Office and the Aviation Weather Office. The role of the 

NextGen Integration and Implementation Office is to 

ensure that the plans for the several NextGen strategic thrusts, called solution sets, are coordinated and 

integrated for efficient near- and medium-term implementation across the FAA. One of the solution sets, 

called Reduce Weather Impact (RWI), is a portfolio 

of enhanced weather capabilities to support NextGen. A component of this solution set is NextGen 

Network Enabled Weather, a focused effort to enable and enhance weather data collection and dissemination by all NextGen users.

 The role of the Aviation Weather Office is to 

plan and implement the RWI portfolio. In collaboration with stakeholders across FAA organizations and 

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION EDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the responsibility to provide national and 

international leadership in the optimization of aviation weather systems and services. This 

leadership is manifested through the management of a safe and efficient National Airspace 

System (NAS) and the encouragement of consensus and cooperation between government agencies, private weather services, research organizations, and user groups involved 

in aviation weather. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) manages programs that 

provide Federal financial and technical assistance to the states, promotes safe commercial motor vehicle 

operations, and provides access to and within national forests and parks, Native American reservations, 

and other public lands. Safety, efficiency, and mobility in these programs require the incorporation and 

use of timely weather and road condition information. The Federal Railroad Administration promotes and 

regulates railroad safety. It also sponsors research to enhance railroad safety and efficiency, including support for improved collection, dissemination, and application of weather information to reduce hazards to 

rail operations and railroad employees. The Federal Transit Administration’s mission is to ensure personal 

mobility and America’s economic and community vitality by supporting high quality public transportation 

through leadership, technical assistance, and financial resources.
Section 3 DOT 164

Figure 3-DOT-1. 

The ITWS integrates data from 

FAA and NWS 

sensors and systems to provide a 

suite of weather 

informational products.

the JPDO, the Aviation Weather Office establishes 

aviation weather requirements on behalf of all NAS 

users. It plans and executes the RWI solution set in 

conjunction with the NextGen Integration and Implementation Office. 

 The FAA RWI portfolio provides the solutions 

necessary to achieve NextGen requirements. The 

RWI solutions will provide ready access to accurate 

weather information by all air traffic managers, airline 

operations centers, and flight deck operational decision-makers. It will improve the comprehensiveness 

and accuracy of weather observations and forecasts 

and support the integration of weather information 

into decision support tools for those decision-makers. A key component of RWI is the development and 

implementation of an authoritative source for fourdimensional weather data (4D Weather Data Cube). 

The 4D Weather Data Cube will provide a comprehensive database of quality-assured observed and 

forecasted weather information.

 The FAA NextGen Network Enabled Weather 

(NNEW) program establishes the information management capabilities necessary to quickly collect 

and disseminate needed weather data to NAS users. NNEW will be a net-centric distribution system 

for the 4-D Weather Data cube, which will provide 

uniform access to common weather parameters.

AVIATION WEATHER ACQUISITION AND SERVICES

 One of the primary functions of the FAA ATO 

organization is the development and management of 

requirements for the FAA Capital Investment Plan. 

The ATO Operations Planning Service component 

manages the NAS Requirements Development program to align requirements, priorities, programs, and 

resources and to develop metrics to understand the 

impacts of weather on the NAS. The program develops strategic plans and defines weather requirements, policy, and standards.

 Recent weather projects have focused on 

weather detection and display systems for pilots and 

air traffic controllers to ensure that aircraft avoid hazardous weather. The following paragraphs describe 

many of those projects.

 The Integrated Terminal Weather System 

(ITWS) integrates weather data from sensors in the 

terminal area to provide and display compatible, consistent, real-time products that require no additional 

interpretation by controllers or pilots—the primary users. ITWS uses data from automated surface observing systems, Doppler weather radars, and low-level 

wind-shear alert systems, together with NWS data 

and products, to forecast aviation impact param-
Section 3 DOT 165

eters such as convection, visibility, 

icing, wind shear, 

and down-bursts. 

ITWS has been installed at 26 locations, completing 

ITWS segment 1 

(Figure 3-DOT-1). 

The current long 

range program has 

been limited to 22 

ITWS operational 

and 4 support locations, which will cover about 35 high-activity airports 

that are supported by terminal doppler weather radars.

 The Corridor Integrated Weather System (CIWS) will support advanced weather product generation to help reduce convective and other 

weather delays (Figure 3-DOT-2). The CIWS is expected to integrate information from the WSR88D 

and ASR-9 radars and from other observing sensors 

nationwide to produce weather information products 

focused on current conditions affecting terminal departure, en route, and arrival traffic. It will provide automated forecasts, using high-resolution graphics, 

of convective and winter weather, as well as echo 

tops in the 0-2 hour timeframe. CIWS will provide 

accurate, automated, and timely weather information 

to the traffic managers, area supervisors, and meteorologists in 8 Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 6 

Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities, and the 

Air Traffic Control System Command Center, as well 

as to airline operations center personnel. The CIWS 

demonstration system is undergoing a re-engineering effort to increase performance and maintainability, after which the transition to operational deployment is planned for the William J. Hughes Technical 

Center, for baselining into the NAS.

The Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR) 

program consisted of the development, procurement, and installation of a new terminal weather 

radar based on Doppler techniques. TDWR units 

have been located to optimize the detection of microbursts and wind shear at selected airports with 

high operations and frequent weather impacts. In 

addition, TDWR has the capability to identify areas 

of precipitation and the locations of thunderstorms 

(Figure 3-DOT-3). The FAA has 45 operational and 

2 support TDWR systems. A service life extension 

program is underway to maintain and improve TDWR 

system capability.

Microbursts are weather phenomena that consist of 

an intense downdraft with strong surface wind outflows. They are particularly dangerous to landing or 

departing aircraft. The TDWR scanning strategy is 

optimized for microburst/wind shear detection. The 

radars are located near airport operating areas so 

as to provide the best scan of runways and the approach and departure corridors. System displays are 

located in the tower cab and Terminal Radar Approach Control Facility.

 The Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) provides information on hazardous wind shear 

events that create unsafe conditions for aircraft landFigure 3-DOT-2. 

Corridor Integrated 

Weather System 

(CIWS) Display

Figure 3-DOT-3. FAA Terminal Doppler Weather Radars 

provide supplementary wind and precipitation conditions for 

airport approach and departure.
Section 3 DOT 166

ings and departures. The 116 LLWAS-2 systems 

each consist of a wind sensor located at center field 

and 5 to 32 sensors located around the periphery of 

the airport (Figure 3-DOT-4). A computer processes 

the sensor information and displays wind shear conditions to air traffic controllers as a ribbon display. 

The controllers relay the information to pilots.

An improvement phase, referred to as LLWAS-Relocation/Sustainment (LLWAS-RS), was completed 

in FY 2008. For LLWAS-RS, the network of sensors 

was expanded and improved algorithms were developed for this expanded network. New information/

alert displays enable controllers to provide pilots 

with head wind gain or loss estimates for specific 

runways. These improvements increase the system’s 

wind shear detection capability and reduce false 

alarms. The LLWAS-RS improvements are also expected to reduce maintenance costs.

 The Weather Systems Processor (WSP) program provides an additional radar channel for processing weather returns and de-aliasing returns from 

the other weather channel in the Airport Surveillance 

Radar 9 (ASR-9). The displays of convective weather, microburst, and other wind shear events from the 

WSP provide information for controllers and pilots to 

help aircraft avoid those hazards. All 34 WSP units 

are in place and operating, with an additional 5 support units. A technology refresh program has been 

approved for the WSP to refurbish and restock system parts, in order to extend system operability to 

beyond the year 2020 timeframe.

 The Terminal Weather Information for Pilots 

(TWIP) program provides text message descriptions 

and character graphic depiction of potentially hazardous weather conditions in the terminal area of airports with installed TDWR systems. The TWIP capability, which is incorporated in the TDWR software 

application, provides pilots with information on regions of moderate to heavy precipitation, gust fronts, 

and microburst conditions. Text messages or character graphic depictions are received in the cockpit 

through the Aircraft Communication Addressing and 

Reporting System (ACARS) data link system. The 

TWIP capability is operational at most of the 49 operational, commissioned TDWR sites. Activation of 

TWIP at the remaining sites is dependent on availability of National Airspace Data Interchange Network (NADIN) II connectivity and program funding.

 The FAA has installed Aviation Closed Circuit 

Television (CCTV) Weather Cameras as an aid to 

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) pilots operating in Alaska. 

Through the cameras and the Internet, pilots get a 

current picture of the weather conditions to assist 

them in making flight decisions. There are 84 weather 

CCTV camera sites, with an addition 10 requested 

for FY 2009.

The Juneau Airport Wind System (JAWS) is unique 

to the Juneau, Alaska, airport, which routinely experiences severe turbulence conditions. It is a prototype 

with a long development history. When operational, 

it will enable air traffic controllers to pass turbulence 

alerts to airline pilots and other users via the Automatic Terminal Information System (ATIS) and radio 

transmissions. It is also intended to enable Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) Specialists to provide pertinent wind information to general aviation pilots on request during preflight and in-flight weather 

briefings and radio contacts.

 The FAA has taken responsibility for aviation 

weather observations at many airports across the 

country. To provide the appropriate observational 

service, FAA is using automated systems, human 

Figure 3-DOT-4. LLWAS equipment on an airfield.
Section 3 DOT 167

observers, or a mix of the two. It has been necessary 

to place airports into four categories according to 

the number of operations per year, any special designation for the airport, and the frequency with which 

airport operations are affected by weather.

Level D service is provided by a stand-alone Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS). Level D 

service is available at 439 airports.

Level C service includes the ASOS plus augmentation by tower personnel. Tower personnel add to 

the report their observations of thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, tower visibility, volcanic ash, and virga 

when the tower is in operation. Level C service is 

available at 307 airports.

Level B service includes all of the weather parameters in Level C service plus Runway Visual Range 

(RVR) and the following parameters when observed: 

freezing drizzle versus freezing rain, ice pellets, snow 

depth, snow increasing rapidly remarks, thunderstorm/lightning location remarks, and remarks for 

observed significant weather not at the station. Level 

B service is available at 59 airports.

Level A service includes all of the weather parameters in Level B service plus 10-minute averaged RVR 

for long-line transmission or additional visibility increments of 1/8, 1/16, and 0 miles. Level A service is 

available at 73 airports.

 Automated surface aviation 

weather observing systems will provide aviation-critical weather data 

such as wind velocity, temperature, 

dew point, altimeter setting, cloud 

height, visibility, and precipitation 

type, occurrence, and accumulation. These systems will process 

data and allow dissemination of 

output information to a variety of users, including pilots via computergenerated voice.

AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVING SYSTEM (AWOS) 

 AWOS provides basic aviation weather observations directly 

to pilots approaching the airport. 

The majority of these systems were 

installed at various non-towered airports to enhance 

aviation safety and the efficiency of flight operations 

by providing real-time weather data at airports that 

previously did not have local weather reporting capability. AWOS units are built to the standards of 

quality necessary to ensure the safety of flight operations and are available off-the-shelf as a commercial 

product. 168 AWOSs are fielded.

AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVING SYSTEMS 

(ASOS)

 In a joint program with NOAA NWS, the 

FAA has procured and installed, and now operates, 

ASOS units at airports where the FAA provides observations and at additional non-towered airports 

without weather reporting capabilities in accord with 

the levels of service listed above. Production is complete and the FAA has 580 systems installed and 

commissioned.

AVIATION WEATHER SENSOR SYSTEMS 

(AWSS)

 The AWSS (Figure 3-DOT-5) has capability 

similar to ASOS. However, the AWSS is a direct 

acquisition of the FAA, rather than an acquisition 

through the joint ASOS program. Production and 

deployment of 21 AWSS units was completed in CY 

Figure 3-DOT-5. Aviation Weather Sensor Systems (AWSS) an ASOS like supplement for observations.
Section 3 DOT 168

2005.

AWOS/ASOS DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM 

(ADAS)

 ADAS functions primarily as a message concentrator. It collects weather messages from AWOS 

and ASOS equipment located at controlled and 

non-controlled airports within each Air Route Traffic 

Control Center’s area of responsibility. ADAS distributes minute-by-minute AWOS/ASOS data to the 

Weather and Radar Processor (WARP) within the Air 

Route Traffic Control Center in which it is installed. 

Also, ADAS distributes AWOS data to the NADIN 

which in turn forwards the data to the Weather Message Switching Center Replacement (WMSCR) for 

further distribution. Field implementation of ADAS is 

complete.

AUTOMATED LIGHTNING DETECTION AND REPORTING SYSTEM (ALDARS)

 ALDARS is a system adjunct to the ADAS. 

ALDARS collects lightning strike information from 

the National Lightning Detection Network and disseminates the data to AWOS/ASOS/AWSS for the 

inclusion of thunderstorms (when observed) in the 

METAR or SPECI observations ultimately produced 

by AWOS/ASOS/AWSS. The use of ALDARS 

eliminates the need for manual reporting of thunderstorms and increases the number of airports where 

thunderstorms will be reported. ALDARS is completely operational.

STAND ALONE WEATHER SENSORS (SAWS)

 SAWS are back-up systems for some 

AWOS/ASOS sensors at locations where no other 

back-up capability is available. SAWS capability has 

been demonstrated, and 123 systems have been 

delivered.

AWOS FOR NON-FEDERAL APPLICATIONS

 Under the Airport Improvement Program 

(AIP), state and other local jurisdictions may justify to 

the FAA their need to enhance their airport facilities. 

Upon approval, these improvements may be partially 

funded by the FAA using resources from the Airway 

Trust Fund. The local airport authority becomes responsible for the remainder of the funding necessary 

to complete the procurement, as well as the funding for regular maintenance. Addition of an AWOS is 

one of the improvements that qualify for AIP funding 

assistance. Systems that qualify must meet certain 

standards, which are defined in the FAA Advisory 

Circular on Non-Federal Automated Weather Observing Systems. There are more than 580 non-Federal AWOS locations. Some of these are capable of 

reporting through a geostationary communications 

satellite. These observations will be entered into the 

national network for use in support of the NAS and 

the national weather network.

NEW GENERATION RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE 

(NRVR)

 The NRVR program provides RVR information to controllers and users in support of precision 

landing and take-off operations. This new element 

in the NAS infrastructure incorporates state-of-theart sensor technology and embedded remote maintenance monitoring. The FAA plans to procure and 

install NRVR systems at all new qualifying locations. 

FAA plans also call for the replacement of many existing RVR sensor systems in the NAS inventory. 

 The NRVR provides for near real-time measurement of visibility conditions along a runway (up 

to three points along the runway can be measured: 

touchdown, midpoint, and rollout) and reports these 

visibility conditions to air traffic controllers and other 

users. The system automatically collects and formats 

data from three sensors. Forward scatter meters will 

replace the transmissometers currently in use. A runway light intensity monitor reports on both runway 

edge and center-line lights. An ambient light sensor 

controls computer calculations using a day or night 

algorithm. The data processing unit calculates runway visibility products and distributes the products 

to controllers and other users.

 NRVR visibility sensors will be deployed at 

315 airports. Delivery of the NRVR sensors began 

in November 1998. To date, 249 units have been 

delivered and 232 have been commissioned. At the 

current levels of annual funding, deployment will be 

completed by the end of CY 2009.

OPERATIONAL AND SUPPORTABILITY IMPLEMENTATION SYSTEM (OASIS)

 The FAA procured OASIS to improve weather products, flight information, aeronautical data col-
Section 3 DOT 169

lection, analysis, and timeliness of dissemination, 

thereby enhancing the safety and efficiency of the 

NAS. Seventeen systems have been deployed to 

FAA Flight Service Stations and Automated Flight 

Service Stations in Alaska. OASIS replaced the Model-1 Full Capacity Flight Service Automation System 

and. integrated the Interim Graphic Weather Display System functions. It includes several automated 

flight service data handling capabilities, automated 

special use airspace, and training support. OASIS 

supports flight planning, weather briefings, Notice to 

Airmen (NOTAM) service, search and rescue, and 

pilot access terminal services. OASIS procurement 

ended in FY 2008, but systems in place will continue 

operating beyond the 2012 timeframe.

NEXT GENERATION WEATHER RADAR 

(NEXRAD)

 NEXRAD, known operationally as the Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D), is 

the product of a multi-agency program that defined, 

developed, and implemented this weather radar. Field 

implementation began in 1990 and was completed 

in 1996 with 161 WSR-88D systems deployed. The 

FAA sponsored 12 systems in Alaska, Hawaii, and 

the Caribbean. DOC and DOD WSR-88Ds provide 

coverage over the continental United States.

 The FAA emphasized the development of 

WSR-88D algorithms that take advantage of its improved detection capability for precipitation, wind velocity, and hazardous storms. The FAA also stressed 

that these algorithms provide new or improved 

aviation-oriented products. These improvements in 

detection of hazardous weather continue to reduce 

flight delays and improve flight planning services 

through aviation weather products related to wind, 

wind shear, thunderstorm detection, storm movement prediction, precipitation, hail, frontal activity, 

and mesocyclones and tornadoes. WSR-88D data 

provided to Air Traffic Control through the WARP 

increase aviation safety and fuel efficiency.

 The three NEXRAD funding agencies jointly 

support the field sites through the WSR-88D Radar Operations Center (ROC) at Norman, Oklahoma. The ROC provides software maintenance, operational troubleshooting, configuration control, and 

training. Planned product improvements include a 

shift to an open architecture, new antenna design, 

dual polarization, and the development of more algorithms associated with specific weather events, such 

as hurricanes.

AIR ROUTE SURVEILLANCE RADAR (ARSR-4)

 The ARSR-4 provides the Air Route Traffic 

Control Centers with accurate multiple weather levels out to 200 nautical miles. The ARSR-4, which 

resulted from a project jointly funded by the FAA and 

the U.S. Air Force, was the first en route radar with 

the ability to accurately report targets in weather. The 

ARSR-4 can provide weather information to supplement other sources. Forty joint radar sites were installed during the 1992-1995 period.

WEATHER AND RADAR PROCESSOR (WARP)

 WARP has replaced the Meteorologists 

Weather Processor to provide aviation weather information to the Center Weather Service Units. WARP 

automatically creates unique, regional, WSR-88Dbased, mosaic products and sends these products, 

along with other time-critical weather information, to 

controllers through the Display System Replacement 

and to pilots via Flight Information Services. WARP 

greatly enhances the dissemination of aviation 

weather information throughout the NAS. It underwent operational testing and evaluation in early FY 

2003 and is operationally fielded at the 21 Air Route 

Traffic Control Centers and the Air Traffic Control 

System Command Center. Others systems used for 

enhancements, testing, and software support bring 

the total WARP inventory to 25 systems.

DIRECT USER ACCESS TERMINAL (DUAT)

 The DUAT system has been operational since 

February 1990. Through DUAT, pilots are able to access weather and NOTAMs, as well as file their IFR 

and/or VFR flight plans, from their home or office 

personal computer.

AVIATION WEATHER COMMUNICATIONS

 FAA communications systems are multipurpose. Weather data, products, and information 

constitute a large percentage of the traffic, as do 

NOTAMS, flight plans, and other aeronautical data.

 The National Airspace Data Interchange Net-
Section 3 DOT 170

work (NADIN II) packet-switched network was implemented to serve as the primary inter-facility data 

communications resource for a large community of 

NAS computer subsystems. The network design 

incorporates packet-switching technology into a 

highly connected backbone network that provides 

extremely high data flow capacity and efficiency to 

the network’s users. NADIN II consists of operational 

switching nodes at two network control centers (and 

nodes) at the National Aviation Weather Processing 

Facilities at Salt Lake City, Utah, and Atlanta, Georgia. NADIN II interfaces directly to Weather Message 

Switching Center Replacement (WMSCR), WARP, 

ADAS, TMS, and the Consolidated NOTAM System. 

NADIN II is tentatively planned for decommissioning 

in the 2011 time frame and will be replaced by the 

FAA Telecommunications Interface (FTI).

 The Weather Message Switching Center Replacement (WMSCR) replaced the Weather Message Switching Center (WMSC) located at FAA’s 

National Communications Center (NATCOM), 

Kansas City, Missouri, with state-of-the-art technology. WMSCR is the primary NAS interface with 

the National Weather Service Telecommunications 

Gateway (NWSTG) for the exchange of aviation alphanumeric and limited gridded weather products. 

WMSCR collects, processes, stores, and disseminates aviation weather products to major NAS systems, the airlines, and international and commercial 

users. WMSCR also provides storage and distribution of domestic NOTAM data and retrieval of international NOTAMs through the Consolidated NOTAM 

System. WMSCR currently relies on NADIN II for the 

majority of its communications support and will transition along with NADIN II to FTI. 

 To provide for geographic redundancy, the 

system has nodes in the NADIN buildings in Atlanta 

and Salt Lake City. Each node supports approximately half of the United States and continuously 

exchanges information with the other node to ensure 

that both nodes have identical national databases. 

In the event of a nodal failure, the surviving node assumes responsibility for dissemination to the entire 

network.

 Currently, specifications for an upgrade 

or replacement for the WMSCR are being formulated. WMSCR functionality will eventually be subsumed into System Wide Information Management 

(SWIM).

 The World Area Forecast System (WAFS), 

compliant with ICAO Annex 3, produces flight planning products used in international air carrier operations. This system is composed of product generation 

and satellite distribution functions. The information 

and products are prepared at two World Area Forecast Centers (WAFC) designated as WAFC Washington, and WAFC London. The distribution is accomplished through three geosynchronous satellite 

broadcasts operated by the two WAFCs. Two of the 

three satellites are funded by the United States. The 

first is located over the western Atlantic with a footprint covering western Africa and Europe, the Atlantic 

Ocean, South America, and North America (except 

for the West Coast and Alaska). The second U.S.-

funded satellite is positioned over the Pacific and 

covers the U.S. West Coast and Alaska, the Pacific 

Ocean, and the Pacific rim of Asia. A third satellite, 

operated by the United Kingdom, is stationed over 

the western Indian Ocean and covers the remaining 

areas of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The data available 

via WAFS include flight winds, observations, forecasts, SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and hazards to aviation 

including volcanic ash clouds.

 The System Wide Information Management 

(SWIM) is a new concept developed in conjunction 

with NextGen to support NAS operations starting in 

2011 and eventually supporting the full deployment 

of NextGen. For NextGen, all weather data will be 

resident in a 4-D Weather Data Cube, which will be 

accessible to all users. Having this single authoritative data source will ensure that collaborative decision making in air traffic management will benefit 

from sharing a common situational awareness of current and forecast weather conditions.

AVIATION WEATHER RESEARCH PROGRAM

 The Aviation Weather Research Program 

(AWRP) helps achieve FAA’s strategic goal of increasing aviation safety by reducing the number of 

accidents associated with hazardous weather conditions. The AWRP strives to increase capacity by 

reducing the impacts of adverse weather events on 

the operational capacity of the NAS. This research 

program also supports FAA Flight Plan goals for 

greater capacity. The AWRP is performing the re-
Section 3 DOT 171

search necessary to meet the requirements of the 

NextGen Integrated Work Plan. FAA collaborations 

with the NWS and NASA increase FAA’s ability to 

provide improved short-term and mid-term forecasts 

of naturally occurring atmospheric hazards such as 

turbulence, severe convective activity, icing, and restricted visibility. Improved forecasts enhance flight 

safety, reduce air traffic controller and pilot workload, 

enable better flight planning, increase productivity, 

and enhance common situational awareness.

IN-FLIGHT ICING

 This research is aimed at developing improvements to in-flight icing diagnosis, which includes detection and forecasting. The efforts support the NextGen Integrated Work Plan as well as icing forecast 

improvements as described in the FAA Aircraft Icing 

Plan. The current icing potential (CIP) and forecast 

icing potential (FIP) products have been developed 

to provide hourly updates of current and forecast 

conditions out to 12 hours. These products include 

severity and probability of icing conditions and supercooled liquid droplet potential. Planned efforts include expanding CIP and FIP to Alaska and globally 

(oceanic routes).

CONVECTIVE WEATHER

 Research efforts for convective weather are 

targeted to developing an advanced storm prediction algorithm that enhances the production and capability of legacy storm products. These efforts will 

help mitigate convective weather delay and improve 

safety near thunderstorms. Fuzzy logic forecast technology, coupled with numerical weather predictions 

and climatology, is utilized to produce a blended 0-6 

hour and beyond forecast. These forecasts will also 

enhance capability to predict growth, areal extent, 

movement, and type of precipitation. Probabilistic 

forecasts are also being developed to enable more 

effective traffic flow planning and more efficient use 

of the NAS.

MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND ENHANCEMENT

 This research is targeted at developing or 

improving models to better characterize the state 

of the atmosphere, with the aim of providing superior aviation weather products to end users. A new 

higher-resolution (mesoscale) modeling system—the 

Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF)—

has been under development to account for smaller-scale processes that are important to aviation 

weather but can only be approximated in the current 

Meso Eta and RUC models. WRF provides researchto-operations benefits: it offers operational forecasting a model that is flexible and efficient computationally, with advances in numerical weather prediction 

modeling contributed by the research community. 

The development of WRF has been a collaborative 

partnership of the FAA, NOAA, the National Center 

for Atmospheric Research, the Center for the Analysis and Prediction of Storms, the Air Force Weather 

Agency, and the Naval Research Laboratory.

TURBULENCE

 This research has focused on producing a 

system for real-time turbulence nowcasts and 1-12 

hour probabilistic forecasts of turbulence. The method utilized in meeting these objectives is a turbulence 

forecasting task in conjunction with two supporting 

sensor tasks, one for in-situ detection of turbulence, 

the second for remote sensing of turbulence. Research efforts to date have resulted in the Graphical 

Turbulence Guidance (GTG), the current version of 

which provides clear-air turbulence forecasts out to 

12 hours for Flight Level 20,000 and above. GTG-2, 

the next version, will extend the forecasts down to 

Flight Level 10,000. GTG-2 forecasts are also more 

accurate due to the inclusion of objective turbulence 

measurements from an on-board algorithm. The remote sensing task has targeted the use of data from 

the NEXRAD radar network. Data from the NEXRAD 

Turbulence Detection Algorithm, currently operational on NEXRAD units, will be used to provide a 

GTG nowcast (GTG-N). In addition, GTG will be 

expanded to include all flight levels as well as other 

sources of turbulence such as mountain wave and 

convective turbulence. It will also provide probabilistic forecasts.

NATIONAL CEILING AND VISIBILITY

 This research targets the use of observations, numerical modeling, and computer automation 

to solve key problems related to low ceilings and 

visibility. Capabilities are being developed that will 

display areas with low ceilings and visibilities and 

depict “flight categories” where weather that is hazardous can be expected. The new capabilities will 
Section 3 DOT 172

include gridded analysis of current ceiling, visibility, and flight category conditions updated every 5 

minutes and gridded 1-12 hour forecasts of ceiling, 

visibility, and flight category updated hourly. These 

capabilities, which are currently under development 

for the continental United States and are planned for 

Alaska, will reduce general aviation accidents and 

enhance terminal flow planning.

VOLCANIC ASH DISPERSION FORECASTS

 Research efforts in this area target enhanced 

forecasts of volcanic ash dispersion for the FAA. The 

forecasting approach will employ automated satellitebased detection of volcanic ash plumes, with development of volcanic ash injection model parameters 

based on the use of satellite algorithms. The resultant forecast model, updated every 6 hours, will be 

transitioned to the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and 

Oceanography Center for operational implementation. Results will be disseminated as a decision support tool for air traffic controllers on the DOTS and 

ATOP systems.

QUALITY ASSESSMENT

 This research team conducts verification and 

assessment activities to support all AWRP algorithm 

development activities and NextGen implementation. 

Quality Assessment evaluations of weather research 

capabilities use the Real-Time Verification System 

(RTVS). This system supports real-time forecast operations, development, and case study assessments. 

RTVS provides a mechanism for monitoring and 

tracking improvements to weather forecast products 

with an independent assessment of forecast quality. 

Its outputs are thus valuable as support for decisions 

on whether to move weather products into operations. 

 The Network-Enabled Verification Service 

(NEVS) is under development to replace the RTVS 

and support the NextGen initial operating capability. 

NEVS will provide an automated network-enabled 

web-based verification capability that is compatible 

with SWIM and NNEW architectures and with NextGen information delivery mechanisms.

ADVANCED WEATHER RADAR TECHNIQUES 

 This research is aimed at developing techniques for using weather radar data to improve 

weather forecasting. Information developed by these 

efforts is used by the other AWRP weather research 

teams to improve their forecast and nowcast products. 

WEATHER TECHNOLOGY IN THE COCKPIT 

(WTIC)

 The Weather Technology in the Cockpit 

(WTIC) program is a NextGen Research and Development program. Its objective is to ensure the adoption of cockpit, ground, and communication technologies, practices, and procedures that will provide 

pilots with shared and relevant weather information. 

Thus, it will enhance common situational awareness; 

provide airborne tools to exploit the common weather picture; and enable the use of “aircraft as a node” 

functions, through which aircraft autonomously exchange weather information with surrounding aircraft 

and ground systems. WTIC will facilitate integration 

of weather information into cockpit NextGen capabilities (e.g. Trajectory Based Operations), while also 

supporting certification, standards development, and 

operational approvals.
Section 3 DOT 173

THE ROAD WEATHER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

 The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) 

coordinates a number of activities aimed at improving 

safety, mobility, productivity, environmental quality, 

and national security on the nation’s highways during 

weather threats. These activities include identification of weather impacts on the roadway environment 

and traffic flow, and the operational decisions that 

are made because of them. It includes research to 

advance the state of the art concerning road weather management tools, as well as documentation and 

promotion of the best practices. The FHWA supports these activities through the Federal-Aid Highway program and by initiating national coordination 

efforts since it operates neither the highway system 

nor road weather observing systems that serve state 

and local highway operators, private road users, and 

the traveling public. The FHWA activities are conducted as partnerships with other public agencies, 

the private sector, and universities.

 As of 1997, coordination of the FHWA’s 

weather-related activities has been centered in the 

Road Weather Management Program (RWMP) within the Office of Transportation Operations. From the 

beginning, an important goal of this program has 

been to help promote road weather research and development. This objective and its associated roadmap were further defined in 2005 by the passage of 

the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). 

Title V, Subtitle C - Intelligent Transportation System 

Research, Section 5308 of this bill contains specific 

reference to a “Road Weather Research and Development Program,” the scope of which includes: maximizing the use of available road weather information 

and technologies; expanding road weather research 

and development efforts to enhance roadway safety, 

capacity, and efficiency; minimizing environmental 

impacts; and promoting technology transfer of effective road weather scientific and technological advances. The bill directs the Secretary of the U.S. 

DOT to carry out research and development called 

for in the National Research Council’s (NRC) report 

FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION EDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

entitled, Where the Weather Meets the Road, A Research Agenda for Improving Road Weather Services. This effort includes: integrating existing observational networks and data management systems 

for road weather applications; improving weather 

modeling capabilities and forecast tools, such as the 

road surface and atmospheric interface; enhancing 

mechanisms for communicating road weather information to users, such as transportation officials 

and the public; and integrating road weather technologies into an information infrastructure. The bill 

also includes three guiding principles which are to: 

enable efficient technology transfer; improve education and training of road weather information users, 

such as State and local transportation officials and 

private sector transportation contractors; and coordinate with transportation weather research program 

in other modes, such as aviation. 

 Funding authorized for Section 5308 is $5 

million per year for the years 2006 to 2009, and 

the Secretary was directed to give preference to 

applications with significant matching funds from 

non-Federal sources. The FHWA Road Weather 

Management team is responsible for executing the 

program in coordination with the ITS Joint Program 

Office. The goals and objectives of the RWMP and 

its associated roadmap have been modified to align 

with the legislation, though such modification was 

minimal since the existing program already aligned 

very closely with the NRC report. Numerous efforts 

and initiatives within the RWMP are satisfying the requirements in the bill, including the Maintenance Decision Support System (MDSS), the Clarus initiative, 

and the Memorandum of Understanding between 

the FHWA and NOAA. 

 Some of the activities occurring within the 

RWMP include: 

The Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)

 Congress established the Strategic Highway 

Research Program (SHRP) under the 1987 Surface 

Transportation Act. SHRP examined a number of 

different subject areas including winter maintenance 

operations on the nation’s highways. The research 

program was active until 1993, producing specifica-
Section 3 DOT 174

tions, testing methods, equipment, and advanced 

technologies. Following the success of the five-year 

effort, the FHWA coordinated a national program, 

entitled SHRP Implementation, to work with state 

and local highway agencies to implement and evaluate the products. The American Association of State 

Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 

and the Transportation Research Board (TRB) administered this program in coordination with FHWA. 

The SHRP Implementation web site (www4.trb.org 

/trb/dive.nsf/web/shrp_implementation) contains information on the SHRP Lead States Program, SHRP 

products under evaluation and implementation, and 

SHRP in general.

The Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Program

 The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 established the ITS Program, 

including its research program that funds the FHWA 

Road Weather Management Program activities. This 

program is overseen by the ITS Joint Program Office 

(ITS-JPO), which is a cross-modal office hosted in the 

Research and Innovative Technology Administration. 

While ITS initially focused on automated highways 

and metropolitan areas, a rural focus was initiated 

in 1996. The rural ITS program identified maintenance and weather as additional ITS focus areas, 

and recognized the need for total integration of the 

maintenance, traffic, and emergency management 

functions across wide areas and between states. 

The following research activities are examples that 

fall within this overall weather-across-ITS strategy: 

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) Initiative

 This initiative (www.its.dot.gov /vii/index.htm) 

is exploring the potential of creating a data sharing 

communication system that can support vehicle-tovehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications. The system, once implemented, will be able 

to provide real-time travel and weather information 

to both the public sector and private industry by 

using vehicle-based sensors to gather a variety of 

data system-wide. This resulting communications 

network would allow weather, traffic, and other information to be transmitted to transportation operators, providing a real-time view of the conditions on 

every major road within the transportation network. 

Such concepts will be explored as the initiative matures. Preliminary documentation describes some of 

the weather-related data items that could be directly 

measured or inferred from vehicle sensor systems 

including precipitation detection, ambient air temperature, fog or visibility information, and road traction state or mobility. The RWMP has sponsored a 

feasibility study to explore and assess the utility of 

using data from vehicles to improve surface transportation weather observations and predictions. As 

the functional architecture and requirements for VII 

are developed, the RWMP ensures that surface 

transportation weather applications are considered. 

As VII operational tests take place (e.g., in Michigan, California and New York), the RWMP will utilize data collected during these demonstrations to 

address technical issues and challenges related 

to the use of vehicle data, and provide recommendations that will help ensure successful exploitation of vehicle probe data in weather applications.

National ITS Architecture and ITS Standards 

 Intelligent Transportation Systems use open 

system principles and are based upon the National 

ITS Architecture - a modularly defined set of information processes with known protocols for exchanging 

information between modules. While road weather 

information was not an original focus of the National 

ITS Architecture, it has since been captured through 

the Maintenance and Construction Operations 

(MCO) user service. MCO development included 

the definition of a Road Weather Information Service terminator designed to complement the existing 

Weather Service terminator. Together, these represent the division of responsibility for road weather 

information, provided largely by private vendors and 

based on ESS observations, and weather information in general. The interfaces between the two 

types of services are then defined as being outside 

of the ITS, although the FHWA continues to maintain 

an active interest in their development. 

 It is hoped that further detailing of weather 

applications in traffic and emergency management 

will lead to further architecture developments in the 

years ahead. As the interface between the ITS and 

evolving national weather information systems becomes better defined, the National ITS Architecture 

and standards will provide a technical basis for in-
Section 3 DOT 175

tegration and promotion of open system principles. 

Version 6.0 of the National ITS Architecture can be 

found at http://www.iteris.com/itsarch/.

Road Weather Observing Systems

 Road weather observing systems are known 

as Environmental Sensor Stations (ESS). Nearly 

2,500 ESS are owned by state transportation agencies in the United States as shown in Figure 3-DOT8. More than 2,000 of these ESS are field components of Road Weather Information Systems. Most 

of the ESS that are placed in the field are fixed and 

tend to include in situ sensors for the most common atmospheric weather variables as well as pavement and subsurface temperature probes, pavement 

chemical concentration and/or pavement freezing 

point. A growing trend is the use of mobile environmental sensors that are being deployed to observe 

weather and pavement conditions from vehicles. An 

important application of the mobile (and potentially 

remote) sensing is thermal mapping of road segments. This technique provides snapshots of complete pavement temperature profiles which can then 

be used to select fixed optimal ESS sites and to spatially predict temperatures based on time series predictors at the fixed stations. Research funded by the 

FHWA has also investigating the potential to extract 

surface weather and road condition data from standard traffic camera imagery. The potential value of 

this research is significant considering the fact that 

in 2006, there were over 7,000 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) traffic cameras deployed nationwide. 

 At present, ESS data from across the United 

States has never been collected, formatted and quality checked in a uniform manner at the national level. 

Nor has it then been made, available to all users from 

a “one-stop-shop” location so that it can be more 

effectively utilized by members of both the weather 

enterprise and the transportation community. A U.S. 

DOT-sponsored initiative entitled Clarus aims to correct this shortfall by designing and demonstrating an 

integrated road weather observational network, and 

establishing a partnership to facilitate operation of 

a nationwide surface transportation weather observing system. The long-term vision of Clarus is that all 

data from State DOT ESS will be routinely collected, 

quality-checked, 

and translated 

into an open 

standard format. 

Quality checking 

algorithms and direct feedback to 

state DOT points 

of contact will 

improve agency 

awareness of sensor status. Access 

to robust and calibrated data will be 

provided through 

an open Internet 

data portal. The 

Clarus Concept 

of Operations and 

the Clarus system 

design has been 

completed. A 

Proof-of-Concept 

demonstration occurred in 2006, Figure 3-DOT-2. Census of Deployed Environmental Sensor Station (ESS) Units.
Section 3 DOT 176

and regional demonstrations were initiated in 2007. 

In phase one of the Clarus Multi-state Regional 

Demonstrations, three teams of state and provincial 

DOTs identified their needs for new products, tools 

and services in Concepts of Operations documents. 

Phase two is a Connection Incentive Program that 

provides grants to public transportation agencies to 

assist them in connecting to the Clarus System. The 

third phase of the demonstrations will begin in fall 

2008 and focus on development, deployment, and 

evaluation of Clarus-enabled services based on the 

needs documented in the phase one Concepts of 

Operations. The RWMP has worked closely with 

NOAA to ensure that the experimental Clarus System can be transitioned into the National Weather 

Service at the conclusion of the Clarus Multi-state 

Regional Demonstrations.

 In order to address some of the issues related to surface weather observations, the FHWA 

is participating in several OFCM projects including 

the WIST Working Group, the Phased Array Radar 

(PAR) Joint Action Group, the Joint Action Group for 

Joint Urban Test Beds (JAG/JUTB), the Fire-Weather Joint Action Group, the Joint Action Group for 

Severe Local Storm Operations (JAG/SLSO), the 

Ground Deicing Weather Subcommittee, the Committee on Environmental Information Systems and 

Communication, and the Committee for Environmental Services, Operations, and Research Needs (CESORN). The FHWA is also participating in NOAA 

efforts to explore the modernization of the cooperative observer network and development of a national 

surface weather observing system. 

 From 2001 to 2003, the FHWA sponsored 

five research projects, under the Cooperative Program for Meteorological Education and Training 

(COMET) (www.comet.ucar.edu), which became the 

first to add state DOTs to the traditional partnerships 

of NWS forecast offices and universities. The COMET projects in Iowa, Nevada, New York, Pennsylvania, and Utah fostered the sharing of environmental 

data and facilitated advanced meteorological modeling to enhance road weather forecasts. Ultimately, 

these efforts will contribute to the development of 

decision support tools for winter maintenance managers, traffic managers, and the traveling public. Lessons learned from these projects can help all state 

DOTs better manage RWIS networks and achieve 

maximum utility from RWIS data. 

 In order to enhance observation capabilities 

and define requirements for road weather observing 

systems, the Road Weather Management Program 

worked with the Aurora Pooled Fund Program and 

the AASHTO Snow and Ice Cooperative Program 

to produce the Road Weather Information System 

ESS Siting Guidelines (http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/

publications/e ss05/). The guidelines, published in 

2005, provide a set of recommendations to support 

uniform siting of ESS that collect road and weather observations for RWIS, and are intended to improve the usefulness of road weather information 

derived from these observations. In 2006, the Road 

Weather Management Program initiated a project to 

implement and evaluate the guidelines in a field environment to ensure that the recommendations are 

realistic and that the guide is useful to State DOT 

deployers. The results of this study will be used to 

refine the guidelines as necessary. 

Decision Support 

 Transportation system managers and users 

identify three critical surface weather information requirements as the trinity of “relevance, accuracy and 

timeliness”. Although significant progress continues 

to be made by both the public and private sectors in 

providing new technologies to meet these requirements, a significant gap has developed between 

the amount of increasingly good and plentiful surface weather information, and the amount of support 

available for effective operational decision making. 

Assisting and supporting the research and development of techniques to overcome this gap has become an important initiative within the FHWA. 

 Decision support is where surface weather 

data needs to be customized since each operational 

decision is specific to a type of road weather management strategy, a particular place and time, and 

the characteristics of the decision-maker (their expertise, their location, their information processing 

equipment). Road weather management strategies 

mitigate weather impacts by advising motorists of 

prevailing and predicted conditions (e.g., traveler 

information), controlling traffic flow and roadway capacity (e.g., weather-responsive traffic signal timing, 

road closure), and/or treating roads to minimize or 

eliminate weather threats (e.g., plowing, anti-icing/
Section 3 DOT 177

deicing). 

 In 1999 and 2000, decision support requirements, first generally and then specifically for winter road maintenance, were studied in the Surface 

Transportation Weather Decision Support Requirements (STWDSR) project. This project used weather 

threat scenarios to identify specific decisions made 

in winter road maintenance, their timing, and the expected confidence of the decisions at various time 

horizons. General requirements for emergency managers, traffic managers, and road users were also 

defined. The STWDSR project became an important contributor to the OFCM’s Weather Information 

for Surface Transportation (WIST) needs analysis, 

the National ITS Architecture modifications, and to 

the Maintenance Decision Support System (MDSS) 

prototype project. 

 Along with the Maintenance Decision Support System described below, in 2006, the FHWA 

and the Missouri DOT developed and tested a prototype Weather Response System (WRS) for transportation system operations. The WRS used road 

weather information from the NWS, and other sources to support transportation control, maintenance 

and operations decision making. The results of the 

prototype testing and evaluation are being used 

to develop the concept of operations for a Maintenance and Operations Decision-Support System 

(MODSS) that expands the capabilities of MDSS for 

road maintenance beyond snow and ice control as 

well as into traffic management decision making. 

Support for Maintenance Managers 

 The Maintenance Decision Support System 

(MDSS) project is a multiyear, FHWA-sponsored 

effort that was envisioned to assist transportation 

managers and operators improve roadway levels of 

service during winter weather events while minimizing road treatment costs (e.g., by optimizing use of 

labor, materials, and equipment). This data management tool has an ensemble of advanced weather 

prediction and road condition prediction capabilities, 

including air and pavement temperatures, precipitation start/stop times, precipitation types and accumulation amounts. These predictions are fused with 

customized winter road maintenance rules of practice to generate route-specific treatment recommendations (i.e., strategy, timing, and material application rates). 

 In the spring of 2003, the first functional MDSS 

prototype was demonstrated and evaluated by three 

Iowa DOT maintenance garages. The main display 

of the demonstration prototype, shown in Figure 

3-DOT-9, includes predicted weather and road conditions, a weather parameter selection menu, a map 

of roads and weather alerts, as well as forecast animation controls. During the winter of 2004-2005, the 

demonstration domain was moved to Colorado to 

assess prototype capabilities over more complex terrain. Based on lessons learned from the preliminary 

demonstration in Iowa, the subsequent releases of 

Versions 2.0 and 3.0 in 2003 and 2004 respectively, 

and the Colorado demonstration, Version 4.0 was 

made available in November 2005. Lessons learned, 

recommended enhancements and the future directions of the program were addressed and discussed 

during the 8th and 9th annual stakeholder meetings 

in August 2006 and September 2007, and Version 

5.0 was released in 2007. 

 In recognition of the progress being made in 

the development of a MDSS, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 

(AASHTO) Technology Implementation Group (TIG) 

proclaimed it to be a “2006 ready-to-implement technology” (AASHTO Journal 4/7/2006), and receiving 

this important designation facilitated increased deployment of this tool. In addition, the FHWA and 

its partners have worked together to ensure that 

the MDSS project evolves from prototype development to proactive outreach, deployment assistance, 

technology transfer, and expansion of functionality to 

other applications, such as non-winter road maintenance and traffic management, and even other surface transportation sectors. This change is consistent with the FHWA’s original deployment strategy, 

which included creating an environment that enables 

the private sector to build end-to-end products using 

core MDSS prototype functionality/technology as 

their foundation. These products will be procured 

by public agencies (e.g., state DOTs), enabling both 

the private and public sectors to benefit from millions of dollars of high-risk research. One example of 

technology transfer is the MDSS Pooled Fund Study 

project led by the South Dakota DOT. Other participants include the state DOTs in California, Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Minnesota, Ne-
Section 3 DOT 178

braska, New Hampshire, New York, North Dakota, 

Virginia, and Wyoming as well as Aurora (a pooled 

fund research program), a private vendor, and the 

FHWA. The objective of the project has been to 

build, evaluate, and deploy an operational MDSS by 

refining model components and conducting extensive field tests. 

 An example of proactive outreach has been 

the development and deployment of the “MDSS 

RoadShow” by the FHWA Resource Center. This 

free seminar, which includes both an Executive Briefing and a Shop Session, is available to transportation 

managers, maintenance engineers and operators. 

The presentation describes the functions of MDSS, 

its capabilities, and its limitations. It also provides a 

level of detail that helps public agencies make more 

informed decisions about investing in such a tool. In 

addition to the RoadShows, the FHWA has worked 

with partners to develop a free MDSS Product Demonstration Showcase. The Showcase will provide 

a neutral information exchange environment that 

provides an opportunity for transportation agency 

decision-makers to gain practical, unbiased, wellrounded, hands-on experience with new and proven products and services. The first of three MDSS 

Showcases took place in Omaha, Nebraska in May 

2008.

 Other recent FHWA-sponsored support activities included: updating several components of the 

MDSS core system; overseeing the release of an enhanced version of the software; conducting several 

benefit/cost analyses to generate quantitative results 

that can be used by the transportation community to 

justify investments in MDSS, and furthering the expansion of MDSS to MODSS (Maintenance and Operations Decision Support System) to include nonwinter road maintenance and traffic management 

modules. Results of two stakeholders meetings that 

were held in February of 2007 will be used to initiate 

the development of these modules. Additional information on the MDSS project, the RoadShow, and 

the Product Demonstration Showcase can be found 

at www.rap.ucar.edu /projects/rdwx_mdss, at http://

ops.fhwa.dot.gov/Weather/index.asp, and at http://

www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/mitigating_impacts/

mdss/showcase/index.htm; respectively.

Support for Traffic Managers

 In 2006, the Road Weather Management 

Program developed a five-year roadmap for Weather-Responsive Traffic Management. The roadmap 

identifies the goals and activities that FHWA will 

pursue in three major program areas: data collection 

and integration, impacts of weather on traffic flow, 

and traffic management strategies. The roadmap 

also serves as the basis for future work to identify, 

develop, test, and evaluate a variety of weather-responsive traffic management strategies. 

 Empirical studies of traffic flow in inclement 

weather were completed in early 2007. This study 

developed adjustment factors for traffic parameters 

including speed and capacity as a function of precipitation and visibility. A follow-up research project 

on driver behavior in inclement weather was initiated in late 2007. This research will improve the 

understanding of how traffic flow and driver behavior change under adverse weather conditions. Once 

these factors are better understood, the information 

can be incorporated into traffic simulation models 

and, ultimately, traffic information and control tools. 

Also in 2007, the RWMP began a project to develop 

weather-sensitive traffic prediction and estimation 

models, and incorporate them into existing Traffic Estimation and Prediction Systems. Significant 

improvements in traffic estimation/prediction capabilities and overall utilities of these systems for traffic control and management can be achieved by upgrading or adjusting them to account for the impacts 

of weather. 

511 - The National Traveler Information Telephone 

Number 

 Based on the concept that a standardized 

number for travel information would be beneficial to 

the traveling public, a broad coalition of ITS interests 

worked together to allocate a national 511 traveler 

information telephone number. In 2002, the FHWA 

sponsored a number of grants to plan for state deployment of 511 services, and guidelines were issued on service content. A survey on traveler information conducted by ITS America indicated that 

weather and road condition information were highest 

in demand by travelers, and therefore, this type of 

information is considered a key component of 511 

services. The means of delivering this information 

through 511 continue to be developed, including 
Section 3 DOT 179

ways to serve peak demands for emergency evacuation information, as part of the homeland defense, or 

other threat response capabilities. 

 In June 2003, the 511 Deployment Coalition 

released a Deployment Assistance Report, Weather 

and Environmental Content on 511 Systems, to recommend basic content and provide for consistency 

in 511 systems as they are deployed across the 

country. Since these systems are still relatively new, 

gaps exist in defining the types of road weather information travelers’ desire, appropriate data formats, 

and the frequency and detail needed for travelers to 

make safe and effective decisions. 

 The Road Weather Management Program 

has participated in several 511 Deployment conferences and it continues its efforts to help establish 

road weather data requirements that can help to 

close these gaps. The 511 program is also exploring various ways to complement the NOAA Weather 

Radio broadcasts, and incorporate the NWS’s official watches and warning information. The deployment of the 511 system is just one more way in which 

ITS is becoming a significant means for disseminating road weather information. In 2008, 511 services 

will be accessible to approximately 65 percent of our 

nation’s population (Figure 3-DOT-10). More information can be obtained on the 511 system and the 

status of its deployment by visiting http://www.deploy511.org. 

Weather Impacts on Roadway Safety, Mobility & 

Productivity 

 While the impacts and associated costs of 

adverse weather on surface transportation are considered to be immense, it has been difficult to quantify specific costs related to these impacts. This is 

also true of the benefits (as avoidable costs) that are 

achieved through better information that helps support more effective responses and/or mitigation strategies. It is likely that the costs to mobility, in terms of 

delay due to weather, are the most significant part of 

this economic picture. For example, initial estimates 

of the economic impact of weather-related delay to 

trucking companies ranges from 2.2 billion dollars 

to 3.5 billion dollars annually. The estimated cost of 

weather-related delay to trucking companies ranges 

from 2.2 billion dollars to 3.5 billion dollars annually. 

It has been estimated that 23 percent of the nonrecurrent delay on highways across the nation is due 

to snow, ice, and fog. This amounts to an estimated 

544 million vehicle-hours of delay per year. Rain—

which occurs more frequently than snow, ice, and 

fog—leads to greater delay.

 In an attempt to get a better understanding on 

the relationship between adverse weather and traffic 

delays, the FHWA sponsored a series of analyses 

that were conducted for the Seattle, Washington 

and Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas. These 

analyses combined surface weather observations 

with traffic speed data, both empirical and modeled. The results were consistent in showing about 

a 12 percent increase in travel time averaged over 

a wide range of weather events. A second analysis 

of delay effects in Washington, D.C. was conducted 

with archived Doppler radar data for more precise 

and more dynamic inference of road weather conditions. Analysis results indicated that during peak 

travel periods, travel time increased by roughly 24 

percent when precipitation was present. It is the FHWA’s belief, that achieving a better understanding of 

weather-traffic interactions, will lead to an improved 

ability to mitigate the impact of weather-related delays through traffic management practices, including speed management, access control (e.g., road 

closure), motorist warning systems, and weatherresponsive signal timing. 

Road Weather Management Program Outreach and 

Training 

 The Road Weather Management Program 

web site (www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather) contains 

a wealth of information on the program. This includes 

details on objectives and initiatives, weather impacts, benefits of road weather management strategies, technologies to help mitigate weather impacts, 

training, upcoming events, a listing of over 600 road 

weather related publications, and 30 case studies 

highlighting road weather management best practices. Each case study describes has six sections including a general description of the system, system 

components, operational procedures, benefits (i.e., 

improved safety, mobility and/or productivity), implementation issues, as well as contact information and 

references. 

 A key outreach activity of the program is the 
Section 3 DOT 180

annual “Eastern Snow Show” (formerly known as the 

Snow Expo). Over the past thirteen years, the FHWA 

has partnered with state agencies to host the Eastern Snow Show, which provides a forum for sharing 

information and technologies used to counter the effects of winter weather. AASHTO is now the lead 

sponsor, with the FHWA supporting this event as a 

co-sponsor. More information on the 2008 Eastern 

Snow Show can be found at www.transportation.

org/meetings/178.aspx. 

 The FHWA sponsors training programs and 

conducts outreach to promote Road Weather Management Program products and activities. In 2005, 

a one-day training course on “Principles and Tools 

for Road Weather Management” became available 

through the National Highway Institute (NHI course 

No. 137030A). The course is aimed at helping 

those involved in highway maintenance and operations develop techniques and strategies for tackling 

road weather problems. The course provides basic 

knowledge of meteorology and addresses the technological resources available to support highway 

personnel in making effective road weather management decisions. The course was already delivered 

three times, and web-based versions were developed (additional details are listed on National Highway Institute web site (www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov)).

 The U.S. DOT, in coordination with ITS America, develop a complementary course entitled, Road 

Weather Information Systems Equipment and Operations. This course provides field and management 

staff with the basic knowledge and skills necessary 

for RWIS design, deployment, and operations. This 

course is available through the Rocky Mountain 

chapter of ITS America (http://www.itsrm.org).

 In 2008, two new computer-based training 

courses were developed. The first course was developed by the Cooperative Program for Operational 

Meteorology, Education and Training (COMET), and 

it instructs public transportation managers and operators about NWS products and services, enabling 

them to make the best use of the extensive resources 

available. The second course is the converse, teaching forecasters at the NWS forecast offices about 

the needs and challenges of public transportation 

agencies (e.g., State DOTs). Arrangements to access these courses are in process.

 The computer-based Anti-Icing/RWIS Training Program is a comprehensive, interactive training 

program for winter operations that was jointly developed by AASHTO, with support from the FHWA and 

Aurora. The training program covers an introduction 

to anti-icing and winter maintenance, winter road 

maintenance management, winter roadway hazards 

and principles of overcoming them, weather basics, 

weather and roadway monitoring for anti-icing decisions, computer access to road weather information, 

and anti-icing practice in winter maintenance operations. Additional details can be found on the American Public Works Association web site (http://www.

apwa.net/bookstore/detail.asp?PC=PB.X407).
Section 3 DOT 181

 The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) 

supports improving the collection, dissemination, 

and application of weather data to enhance railroad 

safety through the Intelligent Weather Systems project, as part of the Intelligent Railroad Systems and 

Railroad System Safety research programs. These 

programs address safety issues for freight, commuter, intercity passenger, and high-speed passenger 

railroads. Intelligent weather systems for railroad operations consist of networks of local weather sensors 

and instrumentation - both wayside and on-board 

locomotives- combined with national, regional, and 

local forecast data to alert train control centers, train 

crews, and maintenance crews of actual or potential 

hazardous weather conditions.

 Intelligent weather systems will provide advance warning of weather caused hazards such as 

flooding; track washouts; snow, mud, or rock slides; 

high winds; fog; high track-buckling risk; or other 

conditions which require adjustment to train operations or action by maintenance personnel. 

 Weather data collected on the railroad could 

also be forwarded to weather forecasting centers to 

augment their other data sources. The installation 

of the digital data link communications network is a 

prerequisite for this activity. FRA intends to examine 

ways that weather data can be collected on railroads 

and moved to forecasters, and ways that forecasts 

and current weather information can be moved to 

railroad control centers and train and maintenance 

crews to avoid potential accident situations. This is 

one of the partnership initiatives identified in the National Science and Technology Council’s National 

Transportation Technology Plan.

WEATHER FORECASTING ENHANCED BY 

NATIONWIDE DIFFERENTIAL GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (NDGPS)

 NDGPS is a system of reference stations that 

monitors GPS and broadcasts corrections, which 

can be used by the GPS receiver to improve the 

accuracy, integrity and availability of the GPS position. The NDGPS program was transferred from 

FRA to DOT’s Research and Innovative Technology 

Administration in Oct 07 and planning continues for 

FEDERAL RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION EDERAL RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION

expansion of the network as of August 2008. DOT’s 

sites are operated and maintained by the US Coast 

Guard. NDPS is used in a myriad of applications 

including: maritime navigation, positive train control, 

precision farming, dredging, graphic information systems and surveying. Several agencies participate in 

the NDGPS project including the U.S. Air Force, the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Federal Highway 

Administration, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 

 The Global Systems Division (GSD) of the 

Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) of NOAA 

developed a unique meteorological application, 

which very accurately measures the amount of water 

vapor in the atmosphere by taking advantage of the 

dual-frequencies, reference station receivers at the 

NDGPS sites and a suite of weather sensors added to each reference station. The weather sensors 

measure temperature, relative humidity and barometric pressure. The GPS satellites broadcast on two 

frequencies, L1 and L2. GSD uses these two frequencies to correct for the ionospheric delay that is 

caused by changes in the refractive index associated 

with the concentration of free electrons in the upper 

atmosphere. The ionospheric delay is usually about 

6-10 times greater than the signal delay caused by 

the neutral, non-electrically conducting, atmosphere. 

GSD can than estimate the signal delays caused by 

the neutral atmosphere by comparing the errors in 

position between sites that are over 500 km apart 

by viewing the same satellites for about 30 minutes. 

Most of the delay in the troposphere (lower atmosphere) is caused by the mass of the atmosphere, or 

the hydrostatic component, while the induced dipole 

moment of the water vapor molecules in the atmosphere is responsible for the rest of the delay. 

 The GSD can accurately estimate the hydrostatic delay by putting a pressure sensor at the 

NDGPS site and mapping the surface pressure into 

signal delay using well-known physical relationships. 

Subtracting the hydrostatic delay from the observed 

tropospheric delay gives the wet signal delay caused 

by water vapor in the atmosphere. Then, the wet delay is mapped into the quantity of water vapor responsible for the delay using information about the 

temperature of the atmosphere and the characteris-
Section 3 DOT 182

tics of the air at microwave frequencies. 

 This results in the equivalent height of a column of water that would form if all of the water vapor 

in the atmosphere were to fall or precipitate. The total 

precipitable water vapor content is a direct measure 

of how much raw material is in the atmosphere in 

the form of rain, snow, hail and clouds. As the water 

vapor changes state from gas to liquid to solid and 

back again, it releases or absorbs energy associated 

with the latent heat bound-up in the molecules. This 

energy release and absorption is the primary energy 

responsible for weather. The reason that water vapor is hard to measure is that it only manifests itself 

when it changes state, and most instruments that 

can observe water in its gaseous state do not work 

well under all weather conditions. However, NDGPS 

works remarkably well in all weather conditions. 

Water vapor is the most important component of 

weather and the least observed. In June 2005, the 

research and development program to evaluate the 

use of NDGPS data became an operational program 

feeding near-real time date into NOAA’s operational models. The addition of this data has greatly improved the model and short-term weather forecasts, 

especially during periods of active weather such as 

fronts, hurricanes or tornadoes. 

Figure 3-DOT-3. National Differential Global Positioning Systems (NDGPS)
SECTION 3 EPA 183

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY WEATHER PROGRAMS

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for working with state, local, 

and other Federal government agencies to provide user-appropriate and scientificallycredible air quality and meteorological programs to support regulatory applications. 

Applied research and meteorological support are furnished primarily by EPA’s National Exposure Research Laboratory and EPA’s Office of Air Quality Planning and 

Standards, both located in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. This activity is 

provided through interagency agreements with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA), which assigns approximately 50 research meteorologists to the EPA. 

 Meteorological support to EPA’s Office of 

Research and Development, EPA’s Office of Air and 

Radiation, EPA Regional Offices, and to state and 

local agencies includes:

• Development and application of multi-scale and 

multipollutant air quality models for pollution control, direct and indirect exposure assessments, 

and emission control strategy assessment;

• Preparation and performance of dispersion studies and air quality model evaluations;

• Review of meteorological aspects of environmental impact statements, state implementation 

plans, and pollution variance reques; 

• Understanding the interactions of global climate 

change and air quality; and

• Emergency response planning in support of 

homeland security.

 Meteorological expertise and guidance are 

also provided for the national air quality standards, 

modeling guideline, and policy development activities of the EPA.

 In light of the 1990 Amendments to the Clean 

Air Act and the recent national rules, air quality models and the manner in which they are used are expected to continue to grow over the next few years. 

In the area of pollutant deposition, the evaluation of 

nitrogen, oxidant, sulfur and aerosol chemistries will 

help to clarify the roles of model formulation, cloud 

processes, aerosols, radiative transfer, and air/surface exchanges in air quality model predictions, leading to a better understanding of model predictions 

relative to control strategy assessments. Further 

development and evaluation of existing air quality 

models will take place to accommodate the interpollutant effects resulting from the variety of control 

programs that are now or may be in place, such as 

the new National Ambient Air Quality Standards for 

ozone and particulate pollution. These inter-pollutant 

effects include trade-offs among controls on ozone, 

sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic 

compounds, as well as developing predictable methods of forecasting the impacts on various measures 

of air quality.

 With respect to the fine particulate model development, air quality models are being enhanced to 

accurately predict aerosol growth from precursors 

over local and regional-scale transport distances. To 

assist in the evaluation of the contribution of various 

sources to regional air degradation, inert tracer and 

tagged species numerical models have been developed. These models will introduce separate calculations for inert or reactive chemical species emitted 

from a particular source or region. The calculations 

will proceed to simulate transport and transformation 

to a receptor point, where the contribution of emission sources can be discerned.

 Atmospheric research is the area of the effects of climate change on regional air quality involves both analytical and statistical climatology as 

well as linking global climate models with regional 

chemical transport models, and the development of 

coupled models to better simulate the interactions 

between meteorlogy and atmospheric chemistry.

 Research in human exposure modeling includes micro-environmental monitoring and modeling, and development of exposure assessment tools. 

This research entails linking air quality models to 

exposure models to understand the relationships 

between air quality and human health. Micro-environmental algorithms are being developed based on 

field data to predict air quality in buildings, attached 
SECTION 3 EPA 184

garages, and street canyons. These improved algorithms are then incorporated into micro-environmental simulation models for conducting human exposure assessments within enclosed spaces in which 

specific human activities occur.

 In addition to the above major areas, dispersion models for inert, reactive and toxic pollutants 

are under development and evaluation on all temporal and spatial scales, e.g., indoor, urban, complex 

terrain, mesoscale, regional, and global. Other efforts include modeling nutrient deposition to Chesapeake Bay and mercury deposition to the Florida 

Everglades; and determination of meteorological effects on air quality. Atmospheric flow and dispersion experimental data obtained from wind tunnel 

and convection tank experiments in the EPA Fluid 

Modeling Facility will be used to continue development and evaluation of these models along with providing researchers with insight into the basic physical processes that affect pollutant dispersion around 

natural and man-made obstacles. For example, the 

transport and dispersion of airborne agents in the 

Manhattan, New York area were simulated in the 

wind tunnel to evaluate Computational Fluid Dynamics modeling systems in an effort to help build confidence in modeling assessment source-receptor 

relationships for horrific events such as the one that 

occurred on September 11, 2001. A similar study 

was conducted for the Pentagon and will be conducted for the Washington, DC area. The impacts 

of noise barriers and vegetation on air quality near 

roadways are being assessed and improvements are 

being made to better simulate the transport and dispersion of pollutants released from roadways.

 Over the past twenty-five years, numerous 

air quality simulation models have been developed 

to estimate reductions in ambient air pollutant concentrations resulting from potential emission control 

strategies. Separate models were developed, for 

example, for tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog, for acid deposition, and for fine particles. 

Distinct models also existed for addressing urban 

scale problems and the larger regional scale problems. It has been recognized, however, that the various pollutant regimes are closely linked chemically, 

spatially/temporally in the atmosphere. The principal 

purpose of the Community Multi-scale Air Quality 

(CMAQ) modeling project was to develop a “one atmosphere” flexible environmental modeling tool that 

integrates the major atmospheric pollution regimes in 

a multi-scale, multi-pollutant modeling system. This 

system will enable high-level computational access 

to both scientific and air quality management users 

for socio-economic applications in community health 

assessments and ecosystem sustainability studies.

 After seven years of development, the CMAQ 

model was first released in June 1998, and is being 

updated periodically, reflecting the state-of-science, 

for use by Federal and state agencies, industry, and 

academia. The latest version of CMAQ, which includes science enhancements and computational 

efficiencies, will be released in September 2008. It 

is also intended to serve as a community framework 

for continual advancement and use of environmental 

assessment tools. CMAQ, configured for the Windows-NT computer system, is available on tapes from 

the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). It 

is accompanied by an Installation and Operations 

Manual, a User Manual, a Science Document, and a 

tutorial providing step by step instructions for use of 

the modeling capabilities. Additional information is 

available at the Division web site at http://www.epa.

gov/asmdnerl/models3/. 

 In FY 2005, EPA worked closely with the 

National Center for Environmental Prediction of the 

National Weather Service (NWS) in the continued 

development, evaluation, and use of a coupled meteorological-chemical transport model (WRF-CMAQ) 

for predicting ambient air quality over the Continental United States. This capability is built on years of 

research in air quality, exemplified by the NOAA-led 

New England Pilot Air Quality Study in 2002 and 

2004. In the first phase of the forecasting project, 

NWS implemented the Eta-CMAQ modeling system, 

to provide daily forecast guidance for ozone for the 

northeastern United States starting from September 

2004. In 2007, the forecast system for ozone was 

deployed nationwide. In the next few years, the operational forecast capability is projected to be able 

to forecast fine particulate matter. State and local air 

quality management agencies will continue to forecast local air quality, assisted in their efforts by the 

addition of national forecast guidance for the concentrations of ozone and fine particles.

 EPA participation in the interagency Information Technology Research and Development (IT 
SECTION 3 EPA 185

R&D) Program is developing a modeling framework 

that supports integration of diverse models (e.g, atmospheric, land surface, and watershed). EPA’s IT 

R&D work also enables increased efficiency in air 

quality-meteorological modeling through research 

on parallel implementation of the CMAQ modeling 

system. The evolving research seeks to improve 

the environmental management community’s ability 

to evaluate the impact of air quality and watershed 

management practices, at multiple scales, on stream 

and estuarine conditions. Toward this goal the primary objectives include:

• Developing a prototype multiscale integrated 

modeling system with predictive meteorological 

capability for transport and fate of nutrients and 

chemical stressors;

• Enabling the use of remotely sensed meteorological data; and

• Developing a computer-based problem solving 

environment with ready access to data, models, 

and integrated visualization and analysis tools for 

water and air quality management, local and regional development planning, and exposure-risk 

assessments. A variety of research areas are being pursued such as the integration of the National Weather Service Next Generation Radar 

(NEXRAD) Stage IV data into watershed modeling applications; enhanced atmospheric dry deposition models; multi-scale and spatially-explicit 

watershed modeling tools; and model-coupling 

technology for integrating media and scale-specific models.

 EPA also maintains good working relationships with foreign countries to facilitate exchange 

of research meteorologists and research results 

pertaining to meteorological aspects of air pollution. 

For example, agreements are currently in place with 

Canada, UK, Greece, Japan, Korea, China, India, and 

Mexico, and with several European countries under 

the NATO Committee for Science for Peace (SPS).
SECTION 3 EPA 186
SECTION 3 NASA 187

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

WEATHER PROGRAMS

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) supports weather operations through the Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD), weather and climate 

research through the Science Mission Directorate’s (SMD) Earth Science Division, 

and space weather research through SMD’s Heliophysics Division. The SOMD objective is weather-related safety of manned spacecraft, satellites, scientific instruments, 

and launch vehicles. The greatest challenge is to accurately measure and forecast 

mesoscale weather events that strongly impact ground processing, launch, and landing operations. The SMD objective is to improve accuracy of operational numerical weather prediction of 

severe storms through understanding of severe storm formation and subsequent trajectory and intensity. 

The greatest challenge is to observe the continuum of weather-to-climate processes and produce models 

verifiable with observations. The SMD objective in space weather research is to develop the scientific 

foundation that will enable space weather forecasters to predict the extreme and dynamic conditions in 

space in order to maximize the safety and productivity of human and robotic explorers. 

OPERATIONS

Kennedy Space Center Weather Office

The SOMD Weather Office at NASA Kennedy Space 

Center (KSCWO) has oversight responsibility for 

operation and maintenance of the weather information infrastructure required for NASA’s Space Shuttle, Constellation, and Expendable Launch Vehicles 

(ELV) programs. The infrastructure is a multi-agency partnership of KSCWO, NASA Marshall Space 

Flight Center (MSFC), Department of Defense (DoD) 

U.S. (US) Air Force (USAF) 45th Space Wing, and 

Department of Commerce (DoC) National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National 

Weather Service (NWS) Spaceflight Meteorology 

Group (SMG). 

Manned flights launch and land at the Kennedy 

Space Center (KSC) adjacent to USAF Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida and 

also land at USAF Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB) 

in California. KSCWO provides daily staff meteorological support to KSC and the Space Shuttle and 

Constellation programs. 

The ELV program operates from many locations, including CCAFS, USAF Vandenberg Air Force Base 

in California, NASA Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, 

and the U.S. Army Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile 

Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Island. KSCWO ensures that DoD weather support at DoD sites meets 

NASA requirements through training, technology, 

and tools. 

KSCWO is the NASA lead for the joint NASA and 

USAF Lightning Advisory Panel (LAP), which provides independent scientific assessments of changes to the lightning launch commit criteria (LLCC) 

and technical guidance about lightning-related issues on facilities and ground operations. The U.S. 

Department of Transportation (DoT) Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) utilizes the same LLCC at commercial spaceports.

In FY 2008, the KSCWO: 

• Supported four Space Shuttle missions: STS120, STS-122, STS-123 and STS-124; 

• Helped develop and deploy a new system to detect lightning at KSC Launch Complex-39;

• Supported the Constellation program through 

infrastructure and requirements concept studies 

of Ares 1 and Ares 1-X rockets and Orion Crew 

Exploration Vehicle (CEV);

• Prepared first draft of a weather operations plan 

for Constellation Ground Operations;

• Developed an analytical tool to provide the probability of exceeding operational peak wind thresholds of hurricanes and tropical storms at landfall.
SECTION 3 NASA 188

In FY 2009, the KSCWO will: 

• Support the Space Shuttle and ELV programs;

• Expand its support for the Constellation program 

through increased meteorological activities for 

the Ares 1-X test flight in 2009 and for planning 

Ares and Orion programs;

• Prepare and recommend LLCC revisions to the 

LAP to improve launch operation;

• Increase capability of the hurricane peak wind 

analysis tool.

Applied Meteorology Unit

The Applied Meteorology Unit (AMU) is a joint venture of KSCWO, USAF 45th Space Wing, and 

NOAA NWS. The AMU is co-located with the 45th 

Weather Squadron located at CCAFS. The AMU 

develops, evaluates, and transitions weather technology into operations.

In FY 2008, the AMU:

• Completed an objective cost-benefit analysis of 

the impact on forecast skill of local numerical 

weather prediction models through elimination of 

selected weather towers at CCAFS and one of 

the daily radiosonde soundings from CCAFS;

• Developed optimal scan strategies for the new 

5-cm Doppler dual-polarization weather radar, 

which will be deployed for use at CCAFS in 

2009;

• Updated its Anvil Forecast Tool for the SMG-operated Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) to improve evaluation of the 

threat from natural and triggered lightning during 

a returning Space Shuttle in the presence of an 

anvil cloud;

• Created composite soundings to display in 

AWIPS so that they could be overlaid on current observed soundings allowing forecasters 

to compare the current state of the atmosphere 

with climatology;

• Developed a tool to help the 45th Space Wing 

forecast the average wind speed and the speed 

and timing of the daily peak wind from the surface to 300 feet at KSC and CCAFS for the cool 

season October – April and provide the probability of the expected peak wind speed equal to 

or greater than each of the wind warning thresholds;

• Supported launch operations for four Space 

Shuttle, three Atlas V, three Delta II and one Delta IV.

In 2009, the AMU will: 

• Conduct cost-benefit analysis of automating the 

calculation of the Volume Averaged Height Integrated Radar Reflectivity (VAHIRR), which is 

used in LLCC;

• Complete statistical wind guidance tool for 

Space Shuttle landings at Edwards Air Force 

Base (EAFB), which displays monthly-mean wind 

speed and probabilities of exceeding peak wind 

thresholds at EAFB;

• Determine the skill of different high-resolution 

Weather Research and Forecasting numerical weather prediction model configurations in 

forecasting wind cycling at EAFB to help SMG 

forecasters support Space Shuttle landings at 

EAFB;

• Update the probabilities of lightning climatologies for nine airfields in the NWS Melbourne 

County Warning Area using individual lightning 

strike data to improve the accuracy of the climatologies to support Space Shuttle landings and 

daily ground operations;

• Configure the Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian 

Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model to provide guidance to SMG and NWS Melbourne in 

the event of incidents involving the significant release of harmful chemicals, radiation, and smoke 

from fires;

• Support Space Shuttle landings with HYSPLIT 

to track cumulus cloud development and visibility 

from smoke;

• Migrate the capabilities of the AMU-developed 

Severe Weather Tool and 45th Space Wingdeveloped Weak Waterspout Checklist into the 

45th Space Wing Meteorological Interactive 

Data Display System (MIDDS) to support warm 

season May – September daily and launch operations at KSC and CCAFS.

Spaceflight Meteorology Group

Spaceflight Meteorology Group (SMG) is located at 

NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC).
SECTION 3 NASA 189

In FY 2008, the SMG: 

• Supported four Space Shuttle missions: STS120 (23 October – 7 November 2007), STS122 (7 – 20 February 2008), STS-123 (11 - 26 

March 2008) and STS-124 (31 May – 14 June 

2008);

• Provided an average of 32 unscheduled in-person weather briefings per Space Shuttle flight, in 

addition to normal activities;

• Coordinated with NWS and the Spanish and 

French weather services for weather radar data 

support to improve SMG assessments of Space 

Shuttle transoceanic abort landing site weather 

at Istres Air Base in France and Zaragoza or Moron air bases in Spain;

• Supported the Constellation Program with 

weather requirements for landing and recovery 

of the new Orion spacecraft and its crew;

• Provided extensive meteorological support to 

JSC during Tropical Storm Edouard and Hurricanes Gustav and Ike, including continued support from SMG staff members’ homes after JSC 

had been evacuated;

• Hosted the 7th NASA Weather Users Forum in 

June 2008;

• Collaborated with AMU on technology development;

• Upgraded AWIPS workstation;

• Supported several educational outreach events.

In FY 2009, the SMG will: 

• Support Space Shuttle mission;

• Support Constellation program, including upper 

air wind forecasts for the Ares 1-X launch scheduled for late summer 2009;

• Host the Range Commanders Council meeting 

in May 2009;

• Enable final agreement with the French weather 

service for access to real-time radar, lightning, 

wind and other observations.

Marshall Space Flight Center

The Natural Environments Branch (NEB) develops 

and implements weather support requirements for 

the Space Shuttle and Constellation programs, including development and evaluation of launch constraints. 

In FY 2008, the NEB:

• Supported four Space Shuttle missions: STS120 (23 October – 7 November 2007), STS122 (7 – 20 February 2008), STS-123 (11 - 26 

March 2008) and STS-124 (31 May – 14 June 

2008);

• Performed day-of-launch analyses of upper air 

winds for evaluation of vehicle ascent loads;

• Developed or improved wind climatological data 

sets for safety margin analyses and day-of-launch 

procedures relating to upper air wind requirements;

• Prepared Program Requirements Document for 

the Ares 1-X test flight in 2009.

In FY 2009, MSFC will:

• Support the Space Shuttle program;

• Develop weather support architecture for Constellation program.

The Earth Sciences Branch in FY 2008 developed 

scan strategies and operations concepts for the 

new Doppler, dual polarization 5-cm weather radar 

at CCAFS. This work will continue in FY 2009.

RESEARCH

Earth Science Division

 NASA’s Science Mission Directorate Earth 

Science Division (ESD) conducts a program of 

breakthrough research to advance fundamental 

knowledge on the most important scientific questions on the global and regional integrated Earth 

system. ESD research encompasses the global atmosphere; the global oceans including sea ice; land 

surfaces including snow and ice; ecosystems; and 

interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land, 

and ecosystems, including humans. ESD’s vision is 

to understand the changing climate, including weather, and, in association with national and international 

partners, apply this understanding for the well-being 

of society.

 In FY 2008, NASA operated fifteen on-orbit 

satellites: ACRIMSAT, Aqua, Aura, CALIPSO, CloudSat, EO, GRACE, ICESat, Jason, Landsat-7, OSTM, 

QuikSCAT, SORCE, Terra, and TRMM. Acronyms 

are defined in at the end of the section, which lists 
SECTION 3 NASA 190

primary weather and climate themes of on-orbit missions. On 24 February 2009, NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) satellite did not reach orbit 

when the launch vehicle malfunctioned. NASA has 

six missions in development for launch in FY 2010 

and later (refer to listing at the end of the section). 

 For missions beyond those currently in formulation and development, the principal determinant 

of the priority of NASA’s Earth Science satellite science missions is described in the National Research 

Council report, entitled “Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the 

Next Decade and Beyond,” which was released in 

2007. Many Decadal Survey missions will contribute to weather and climate research, such as the 3-D 

Winds mission to measure the three-dimensional 

tropospheric wind vector profile to improve weather 

prediction capability. The Decadal Survey recommended six satellite missions to develop longer-term 

reliable weather forecasts.

 NASA aircraft- and surface-based instruments are used to calibrate and enhance interpretation of high accuracy, climate quality, and stable 

satellite measurements. NASA supports state-ofthe-art computing capability and capacity for extensive global integrated Earth system modeling. NASA, 

in recording approximately 4 terabytes of data every 

day, maintains the world’s largest scientific data and 

information system for collecting, processing, archiving, and distributing Earth system data to worldwide users.

 Weather and climate are part of a continuum 

spanning all time and space scales. A core objective of ESD is to improve severe weather forecast 

duration and climate projection through analyses of 

global observations from satellites, process studies 

combining orbital and suborbital measurements, and 

assimilation of satellite measurements into research 

and operational weather and climate models. NASA 

is working on climate change models with spatial 

and temporal resolutions to contain severe weather 

phenomena.

 The NASA Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite directly measures rainfall with 

a Japanese Precipitation Radar (PR), an active microwave instrument and the only such instrument in 

space; and indirectly with the NASA TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI), a passive microwave instrument. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the US Navy utilize TMI data in their 

weather forecasts. In addition to operational utility 

of TRMM data to improve weather forecasts, ongoing research studies illustrate the complexity of the 

dynamics and thermodynamics of rainfall because of 

the strong influence of aerosols. The lack of knowledge about the interaction of clouds and aerosols 

represent a large uncertainty in climate models. Two 

examples show this research finding.

 Bell et al. (Journal of Geophysical Research, 

vol. 113, D02209, doi:10.1029/2007JD008623, 

2008) used TRMM to show that rainfall over the 

southeast US was significantly higher during the 

middle of the week than on weekends. Afternoon 

storms intensified in the midweek. Apparently, air 

pollution, which is more extensive during the week 

than on weekends, suppresses cloud-drop coalescence and early rainout from clouds, allowing more 

cloud liquid water to be carried aloft to produce an 

overall increase in rainfall.

 Berg et al. (Journal of Geophysical Research, 

vol. 113, D14S23, doi: 10.1029/2007/JD009649, 

2008) showed that rainfall estimated from the PR, 

an active instrument, and TMI, a passive instrument, 

exhibited large differences off the coast of China 

and extending east across the North Pacific storm 

track. The area is rich in sulfate aerosols, which produce high liquid water content clouds with either no 

precipitation or light rain or drizzle with small drops 

that were not detected by the PR because of the 

PR’s lack of sensitivity. Measurements from NASA’s 

Cloudsat helped solve the mystery. 

 In-situ measurements at island and continental stations have demonstrated conclusively that 

rainfall has a diurnal-period oscillation, especially 

in the tropics where most rainfall occurs over the 

Earth. The geographical distribution of the time of 

day of maximum rainfall remained a mystery until 

sustained high accuracy well calibrated tropical rainfall data were acquired by satellite. Liu and Zipser 

(Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 35, L04819, 

doi:10.1029/2007GL032437, 2008) used TRMM 

measurements to describe diurnal-period oscillations of surface rainfall, vertical structure of precipitation, and deep intense convection reaching the top 

of the troposphere. This breakthrough study could 

be achieved only with the TRMM PR instrument and 
SECTION 3 NASA 191

will guide the sampling strategy for the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission in development for launch in 2013.

 Assimilation of satellite data in models is an 

important theme throughout ESD’s programs. Investigations are primarily supported through annual 

solicitations of competitive peer-refereed proposals. Institutionally, ESD supports the NASA Global 

Modeling and Analysis Office (GMAO), located at 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, and the interagency Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation 

(JCSDA), located at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) World Weather 

Building. Several years ago, JCSDA demonstrated 

an increase in NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) global weather forecast 

skill produced by the assimilation of measurements 

recorded by NASA’s Atmospheric Infrared Sounder 

(AIRS) instrument on NASA’s Aqua satellite. In FY 

2009, the JCSDA Management Oversight Board 

decided to adopt the overarching short-term goal 

to contribute to making the forecast skill of the operational numerical weather prediction systems of 

the JCSDA partners internationally competitive by 

assimilating the largest possible number of satellite 

observations in the most effective way.

 NASA airborne campaigns improve understanding of atmospheric processes and provide 

calibration and validation instruments for NASA satellites. The series of CAMEX airborne campaigns 

(CAMEX-3, 1998; CAMEX-4, 2001; Tropical Cloud 

Systems and Processes (TCSP), 2005; NASA African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analyses (NAMMA), 

2006) provided a wealth of new research findings 

into the genesis, intensity change, and three-dimensional multi-scale structure of tropical cyclones in the 

Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and eastern Pacific 

Ocean. In addition, the CAMEX airborne campaigns 

were a test-bed for new remote sensing technologies for satellite and aircraft platforms, retrieval algorithms, and predictive models. The recent scientific 

focus on tropical storm intensity change is particularly timely with the recent strengthened cyclone intensity in the Atlantic Ocean storm activity and the 

continuing challenge of accurately forecasting tropical cyclone intensity. As part of the NASA annual 

omnibus solicitation, called Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Science (ROSES), in 2008 

NASA selected a science team to use NASA satellite and field campaign data on problems related to 

the formation and intensification of hurricanes.

 NASA is planning the Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP) airborne campaign 

for summer 2010 to better understand how tropical storms form and develop into major hurricanes. 

NASA plans to use the DC-8 aircraft and the Global 

Hawk Unmanned Airborne System (UAS) and is 

soliciting proposals through ROSES 2009 for instrument teams that can achieve the required measurements. GRIP deployment is planned in Miami, 

Florida, for the DC-8, and Edwards, California (or 

Wallops Island, Virginia), for the Global Hawk. The 

Global Hawk will fly in the upper troposphere and 

stratosphere, and, with 30-hour flight duration, can 

easily reach all regions of the Atlantic, Caribbean, 

and Gulf of Mexico. It is anticipated that the NOAA 

Hurricane Research Division will participate and deploy one or two low-altitude P3 turboprops and possibly a Gulfstream IV jet for the upper troposphere. 

 The global water cycle represents the transport and transformation of water within the Earth 

system, and, as such, distributes fresh water over 

the Earth’s surface. The water cycle operates on a 

continuum of time and space scales and exchanges 

large amounts of energy as water undergoes phase 

changes and is moved from one part of the Earth 

system to another. Through latent heat release from 

condensation and sublimation, the water cycle is a 

major driving agent of global atmospheric circulation. Clouds play a critical role in modulating the 

flow of energy into and out of the Earth system, while 

at the same time modulating the continuous supply 

of solar energy that keeps the water cycle in motion. So while the water cycle delivers the hydrologic consequences of climate changes, the global 

water cycle is both a consequence of, and influence 

on, the global energy cycle. Weather and the global 

water and energy cycles are intimately entwined. 

Inherent to the topic of storm formation and intensification are questions related to the structure and 

evolution of clouds and precipitation and their links 

to the kinematic and thermodynamic characteristics 

of the initial disturbance, the more mature wind system, and the surrounding environment. Of particular 

relevance to NASA are remotely sensed estimates 

of wind, temperature, and water (in all of its phases) 
SECTION 3 NASA 192

and their validation via direct measurements of their 

distributions. 

Heliophysics Division

 The Earth, our home planet, in embedded in 

the outer atmosphere of a magnetic variable star, our 

Sun. As a consequence the Earth, and the planets 

of the solar system, are constantly influenced by the 

magnetic evolution of the Sun that produces a dynamic environment.

 The Heliophysics Division of the SMD is organized to discover and communicate new scientific 

knowledge concerning the magnetic variability of the 

Sun, the effect of this variability on the planets of the 

solar system including the Earth, and the dynamic 

structure of the particle and field configuration of interplanetary space. The three areas of concentration in the Heliophysics Division’s research program 

are theory, data, and modeling. 

 To support the effort of collection of data 

that characterizes the heliophysical environment, the 

Division operates a fleet of 15 missions involving 

26 spacecraft. The region of space characterized 

is huge, extending from the Sun itself to the outer 

edges of the solar system and the heliosphere. To 

extend the research effort, new missions are under 

development, including the first two missions of the 

NASA Living with a Star program, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and the Radiation Belt Storm 

Probes (RBSP). 

 Currently three NASA research missions contribute data to the national space weather community. This is done by either direct broadcast from the 

satellite to a combination of NASA and non-NASA 

ground stations, or by near real-time level zero data 

processing from the satellite and rapid, periodic updates of NASA data bases that are accessible to the 

public or other governmental agencies via internet. 

The Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) spacecraft, an Explorer program research activity in extended mission status, provides data on the condition of 

the solar wind outside of the Earth’s magnetic field. 

The ongoing success of the use of ACE data concerning the characteristics of the solar wind flowing 

toward the Earth has made this research mission a 

vital resource for the nation. Other such missions are 

Solar and Heliophysics Observatory (SOHO), a joint 

program with the European Space Agency, and the 

Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO), a 

Solar Terrestrial Probes Program mission. The successful use of the direct broadcast modes of ACE 

and STEREO has lead to the inclusion of this type of 

mode into the RBSP project. SDO has a separate, 

high speed, data link that will make near real-time 

solar data from this mission available to interested 

users with a few minutes delay between collection 

and delivery to Internet customers.

 NASA also supports the development of 

models and new theories both with the research and 

analysis program and the Targeted Research and 

Technology portion of the Living with a Star Program. 

As a quality assurance activity to validate the national research community model development, the 

agency operates the Combined Community Modeling Center, an interagency collaborative activity involving the NSF, NOAA, and DOD, which is located 

at the Goddard Space Flight Center. The output 

of standard and requested computations using community provided models is available in near real-time 

via the Internet. A yearly conference entitled R2O 

(Research to Operations) is held to ensure the effective utilization of the supported models within the 

broad range of national space weather activities.

 Brief summary of the correlation of NASA 

operating satellite missions with OFCM themes. 

Acronyms: ACE, Advanced Composition Explorer; 

ACRIMSAT, Activity Cavity Radiometer Irradiance 

Monitor SATellite; CALIPSO, Cloud-Aerosol Lidar 

and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation; CloudSat, Cloud Satellite; EO, Earth Observer; GRACE, 

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment; ICESat, 

Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite; OSTM, 

Ocean Surface Topography Mission; QuikSCAT, 

Quick Scatterometer; SORCE, Solar Radiation and 

Climate Experiment; STEREO, Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory; TRMM, Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission.

Satellite L a u n c h 

Date

 Themes

ACE Aug 1997 Solar wind composition

ACRIMSAT Dec 1999 Climate variability and 

change
SECTION 3 NASA 193

Aqua May 2002 Air quality; carbon cycle; 

climate variability and 

change; ecosystems; 

water cycle; weather

Aura Jul 2004 Air quality

CALIPSO Apr 2006 Atmospheric composition; water cycle

CloudSat Apr 2006 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle; 

weather

EO Nov 2000 Carbon cycle; ecosystems

GRACE Mar 2002 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle

ICESat Jan 2003 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle

Jason Dec 2001 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle

Landsat-7 Apr 1999 Carbon cycle; ecosystems

OSTM Jun 2008 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle

QuikSCAT Jun 1999 Climate variability and 

change; weather

SORCE Jan 2003 Climate variability and 

change

STEREO Oct 2006 Solar coronal mass ejections

Terra Dec 1999 Air quality; carbon cycle; 

climate variability and 

change; ecosystems; 

water cycle

TRMM Nov 1997 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle

 Brief summary of the correlation of NASA 

missions in development with OFCM themes. 

Acronyms: LRD is launch readiness date. Acronyms 

are: NPP, National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) Preparatory 

Project; LDCM, Landsat Data Continuity Mission; 

RBSP; Radiation Belt Storm Probes; SDO, Solar 

Dynamics Observatory; SMAP, Soil Moisture Active 

and Passive; GPM, Global Precipitation Measurement.

Satellite P l a n n e d 

Launch

Theme

SDO Nov 2009 Solar interior and atmospheric processes

Glory Dec 2009 Air quality

Aquarius May 2010 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle

NPP Jan 2011 Climate variability and 

change; ecosystems

LDCM Dec 2012 Carbon cycle; ecosystems

RBSP May 2012 Solar influence on Earth 

and near-Earth space

SMAP Mar 2013 Climate variability and 

change; water cycle; 

weather

GPM Jul 2013 Climate variability and 

change
SECTION 3 NASA 194
SECTION 3 NSF 195

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency of the Federal Government established to promote and advance scientific and engineering progress. The 

NSF sponsors and funds scientific and engineering research and education projects and 

supports cooperative research to gain new understanding of the behavior of the Earth’s 

atmosphere and oceans. NSF does not itself conduct research but funds research performed by scientists at universities and other entities. In addition, NSF provides support 

for the maintenance and operation of the National Center for Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR) which is devoted to large-scale atmospheric research projects conducted in cooperation with 

universities and other Federal, state and/or local organizations.

 The Division of Atmospheric Sciences manages NSF’s basic atmospheric research support. 

This research focuses on new and fundamental 

knowledge needed to better understand the atmosphere and related sciences and to manage atmospheric science programs including natural disaster 

reduction, space weather, global change, and air 

quality.

NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION 

 NSF supports fundamental and applied research on weather phenomena that are either life 

threatening or economically disruptive. Focus areas 

include:

• Better understanding and forecasting of hurricane track and intensity;

• Better quantitative precipitation forecasting and 

estimation;

• Optimal use of observations in numerical models; and

• The societal/economic impacts of improved 

weather information.

 The total research support for FY 2008 was 

approximately 14 million and this funding level is expected to remain at the same in FY 2009. It is anticipated that a major study focused on tornadic storms 

will begin in FY 2009.

 NSF supports research under the National 

Space Weather Program (NSWP). The objective of 

the NSWP is to perform the research and technology transfer needed to improve the specification and 

forecasts of space weather events that can cause 

disruption and failure of space borne and ground 

based technological systems and can endanger 

human health. Examples of NSF support of space 

weather include conducting a highly successful competition for space weather research grants and providing support for the Center for Integrated Space 

Weather Modeling (CISM), a multi-institutional effort 

led by Boston University and dedicated to providing 

advance warning of potentially harmful space weather events. NSF NSWP support in FY 2008 is about 

$14 million and is expected to be about the same in 

FY 2009.

GLOBAL CHANGE

 Under the U.S. Climate Change Research 

Program, NSF supports research and related activities that advance fundamental understanding of 

dynamic, physical, geochemical, biological, and socioeconomic systems as well as interactions among 

those systems. In addition to research on Earth system processes and the consequences of changes 

in those systems, NSF facilitates data acquisition 

and data management activities necessary for basic 

research on global change, promotes the enhancement of modeling designed to improve representations of Earth system interactions, and develops 

advanced analytic methods to facilitate fundamental 

research. NSF also supports fundamental social and 

economic research on the general processes used 

by governments and other organizations to identify 

and evaluate different types of policies for mitigation, 

adaptation, and other responses to changing global 

environmental conditions. The total NSF FY 2008 

funding for this area of research was about $205 

million; in FY 2009 the funding level is expected to 

be about $221 million and support is anticipated to 

remain at this level after FY 2009.
SECTION 3 NSF 196

AIR QUALITY

 NSF supported fundamental research in 

the area of air quality helps develop improved understanding of the sources, formation, atmospheric 

processing and fates of ambient air pollutants. Atmospheric oxidant species (and their precursors), 

sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, 

fine particles (and their precursors), and acids are 

important atmospheric constituents that influence air 

quality, and in turn habitability, human health and climate. Field experiments, laboratory studies, instrument development, new methods of chemical analysis, and improved models of atmospheric chemical 

reaction mechanisms, transport and depositional 

phenomena are examples of air quality research supported by NSF. These categories provide scientific 

and technical input for management and control of 

atmospheric pollutant gases and particles. 

NOTE: NSF budget data is not captured in Tables 

2.1-2.5.
SECTION 3 NRC 197

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION WEATHER PROGRAMS

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses and regulates all 

nuclear facilities subject to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 as amended. The licensing 

and operation of these nuclear facilities require the identification of meteorological 

and climatological conditions that can affect the safe operation of the facility, and that 

provide input to the assessment of the radiological impacts of any airborne releases 

from the facility.

 Within the NRC, the Offices of Nuclear Reactor Regulation and New Reactors conduct reviews 

of nuclear power plant siting, design, construction, 

and operation while the Offices of Nuclear Material 

Safety and Safeguards and Federal and State Materials and Environmental Management Programs conduct similar reviews of materials and waste facilities. 

These reviews include consideration of meteorological factors. The offices also conduct rulemaking to 

establish regulatory requirements. 

 The NRC Regional Offices assure that NRC 

licensees comply with the regulatory requirements. 

Together with the NRC Office of Nuclear Security 

and Incident Response, they also carry out NRC responses to nuclear facility emergencies. The NRC 

Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response 

has been evaluating performance of large scale 

(greater than 1000 people) evacuations due to 

natural and man-made causes in the contiguous 48 

states. This is documented in NUREG/CR-6864, 

“Identification and Analysis of Factors 

Affecting Emergency Evacuations”. An 

additional study continues to analyze 

the large evacuations of 2005.

 The Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research (RES) plans, recommends, 

and implements a program of nuclear 

regulatory research for nuclear power 

plants and other facilities regulated by 

the NRC. RES provides technical support, technical tools, and information 

to identify and resolve safety issues for 

current and new designs and technologies through testing, data development, 

analysis and national and international 

collaboration. RES also develops regulatory guidance and participates in the 

development of criteria and consensus 

standards related to the protection of the public 

health and safety and the environment.

 At the present time, the NRC is a user of meteorological information rather than a performer of research in this field. Meteorological data will be used 

to assess radiological impacts of routine airborne 

releases from facilities and to evaluate the impact 

of proposed changes in plant design or operation 

on unplanned releases. Further, the NRC will use 

current meteorological information and climatological predictions of long-term (100 years) extreme meteorological events to evaluate new reactor designs 

and sites. Information of this type is also important 

for developing scenarios of climatological impacts 

on the isolation of long-lived nuclear wastes. The 

NRC also maintains an interest in the transport and 

dispersion of airborne, hazardous, nonradioactive 

materials, and the effects of extreme meteorological 

events on the safe operation of nuclear facilities.

Figure 3-NRC-1. Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant, California. (Pacific Gas 

& Electric photo)
SECTION 3 NRC 198
APPENDIX A 199

BASIS FOR FEDERAL COORDINATION PROCESS

In 1963, Congress and the Executive Office of the President expressed concern about the adequacy of coordination of Federal meteorological activities. In response, Congress directed in Section 304 of Public Law 87-843—the 

Appropriations Act for State, Justice, Commerce, and Related Agencies—that the Bureau of the Budget prepare 

an annual horizontal budget for all meteorological programs in the Federal agencies. 

The Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget) issued a report entitled “Survey of Federal 

Meteorological Activities” (1963). The report described each agency’s program in some detail, particularly its 

operational services, and detailed the relationship between the programs of the various agencies. The report 

revealed close cooperation but little evidence of systematic coordination. Based on this study, the Bureau of the 

Budget issued a set of ground rules to be followed in the coordination process. It established a permanent general 

philosophy for assignment and assessment of agency roles in the field of meteorology and set certain goals to be 

achieved by the coordination process. The Bureau of the Budget tasked the Department of Commerce (DOC) to 

establish the coordinating mechanism in concert with the other Federal agencies. It also reaffirmed the concept of 

having a central agency—the DOC—responsible for providing common meteorological facilities and services and 

clarified the responsibilities of other agencies for providing meteorological services specific to their own needs.

The implementation of these directives by DOC led to the creation of the Office of the Federal Coordinator for 

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM) which operates with policy guidance from the Federal 

Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. The principal work in the coordination of meteorological activities and in the preparation and maintenance of Federal plans is accomplished by the OFCM staff 

with the advice and assistance of the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting 

Research, and over 30 program councils, committees, working groups, and joint action groups.

MISSION OF THE OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGY (OFCM)

 The mission of the OFCM is to ensure the 

effective use of Federal meteorological resources by 

leading the systematic coordination of operational 

weather requirements, services, and supporting research, among the Federal agencies. The high level 

focus and output as a result of carrying out this mission includes needs and requirements; issues and 

problems; studies, reports, plans, and handbooks; 

and crosscut reviews, assessments, and analyses.

OFCM’s objectives in carrying out its mission include:

• Documenting agency programs and activities in 

a series of national plans and reports that enable 

agencies to revise/adjust their individual ongoing 

programs and provide a means for communicating new ideas and approaches to fulfill requirements.

• Providing structure and programs to promote 

continuity in the development and coordination 

of interagency plans and procedures for meteorological services and supporting research activities.

• Preparing analyses, summaries, or evaluations of 

agency meteorological programs and plans that 

provide a factual basis for the Executive and Legislative branches to make appropriate decisions 

related to the allocation of funds.

• Reviewing Federal weather programs and Federal requirements for meteorological services and 

supporting research. This review may suggest 

additions or revisions to current or proposed 

programs, or identify opportunities for improved 

efficiency, reliability, or cost avoidance through 

coordinated actions or integrated programs. 

 As detailed in the report which follows, this 

APPENDIX A

FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING
APPENDIX A 200

has been an excellent year for OFCM in carrying out 

its interagency activities. The accomplishments of 

FY 2008 were substantial and meaningful for the nation, and the foundation has been laid for a similarly 

productive FY 2009.

FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL 

SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

 The Federal Committee for Meteorological 

Services and Supporting Research (FCMSSR), established in 1964, provides policy-level agency representation and guidance to the Federal Coordinator 

to address agency priorities, requirements, and issues related to services, operations, and supporting 

research, and also resolves agency differences that 

arise during the coordination of meteorological activities and the preparation of Federal plans. The Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, who is also the Administrator of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

serves as the FCMSSR Chairperson. 

 The 15 Federal agencies that engage in meteorological activities or have a need for meteorological services are represented on FCMSSR. The 

FCMSSR membership includes: the Departments 

of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, the Interior, State and Transportation, 

and the Environmental Protection Agency, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, National 

Science Foundation, National Transportation Safety 

Board, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Office 

of Science and Technology Policy and the Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB).

HIGHLIGHTS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2008

AND PLANS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2009

NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION

INTERDEPARTMENTAL HURRICANE CONFERENCE

 The OFCM annually hosts the Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (IHC) to provide a forum for the responsible Federal agencies, together 

with representatives of the user communities such 

as emergency management, to review the nation’s 

hurricane forecast and warning program and to 

make recommendations on how to improve the program. The OFCM hosted the 62nd IHC in Charleston, South Carolina, March 3-7, 2008. The theme 

of the conference was Tropical Cyclone Operations 

and Research: Priorities for the Future. With strong 

partnerships and alliances built over many years, 

the conference was attended by approximately 200 

people for the ninth consecutive year, including 

representatives from nine Federal agencies: DOC/

NOAA, DOD (Navy, Air Force, and Army Corps of 

Engineers), NASA, NSF, DHS/FEMA, DOT/FHWA, 

DOI/USGS, USDA and DOE. Ms. Mary Glackin, 

Deputy Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans 

and Atmosphere, set the tone for the meeting during her Monday afternoon keynote address. She 

emphasized the importance of collaborative partnerships for the nation’s hurricane forecast and warning program, especially in the areas of data collection, modeling, research activities, and transition of 

research results to operations. She highlighted the 

ultimate purpose in the partnerships is to further improve capabilities in forecasting track and intensity, 

storm surge, rainfall/flooding, storm structure, and 

sea state (waves)—all supported by improved observations from new and traditional sensors and sensor 

systems. 

 Objectives of the 2008 IHC included the 

following: (1) review the Nation’s tropical cyclone 

forecast and warning program from end-to-end; (2) 

update the National Hurricane Operations Plan for 

2008; (3) review the 2007 Joint Hurricane Testbed 

(JHT) projects, and identify candidates that may be 

successfully transitioned into operations; (4) examine how hazard risk reduction improvements can be 

made through stronger local partnerships and alliances; and (5) as recommended in the Interagency 

Strategic Research Plan for Tropical Cyclones: The 

Way Ahead, begin developing an interagency implementation strategy for the tropical cyclone research 

priorities. 

 It was clear from the first workshop, Interagency Priorities for Tropical Cyclone Research, that 

all agencies are doing important, relevant research 

against the research priorities outlined in Chapter 5 

of the Strategic Research Plan. The partnerships required to tackle all the priorities are well accepted, 

with normal agency concerns remaining regarding 

control and funding. Some potential gaps and deficiencies were highlighted during the workshop: (1) 
APPENDIX A 201

the United States is not producing enough new personnel with the education and training required for 

improving tropical cyclone forecasts via advanced 

data assimilation and numerical modeling systems; 

(2) there is slow progress on wind lidar (global 3D 

wind solution); (3) we need increased emphasis in 

the area of operationalizing data; (4) we need improved calibration, validation and quality control; (5) 

we need Observing System Simulation Experiments 

for impact definition; and (6) civil agencies lack targeted funding for transition of research to operations 

(such as DoD’s 6.4 funding). The workshop, in conjunction with all of the other sessions conducted at 

the 62nd IHC, provided a baseline of research activities to track against the research priorities outlined in 

Table 5.1 of the Strategic Research Plan. 

 The workshop, Strong Local Partnerships: 

The Keys to Success, which related to Section 5.3 

(Research Needs in the Social Sciences) in the 

Strategic Research Plan, provided some key take 

away points. All emergencies are local, with local 

emergency managers (EMs) charged to lead hazard 

preparation, response and recovery. In this regard, 

it’s important that EMs: (1) convene pre-hurricane 

public talks designed to define actions; (2) prepare 

citizens to act in advance of hazards (e.g., develop 

Community Emergency Response Teams); and (3) 

sequester local elected leaders and ensure that they 

understand the plan of action. To be successfully 

prepared, local partnerships are vital (e.g., with local NWS WFO; local, state, regional and Federal 

officials; neighborhood associations; and media). 

Additionally, the workshop highlighted that current 

decision support systems (e.g., television overrides, 

Connect-CTY, WebEOC) and those in development—like the Integrated Public Alert and Warning 

System (IPAWS)—have the potential to further improve hazard preparation, response and recovery by 

enabling the dissemination of critical information to 

all citizens of communities, including citizens with 

language barriers, disabilities, economic constraints, 

and those with literacy challenges. 

 Actions resulting from the conference included: (1) Update and execute the National Hurricane 

Operations Plan for the 2008 hurricane season; (2) 

Analyze tropical cyclone research activities presented at the 62nd IHC and other subsequent forums 

with respect to the priorities established in Table 

5.1 of the interagency strategic research plan; (3) 

Identify overlaps, gaps, areas for collaboration and 

leveraging opportunities; and (4) Establish the next 

steps needed to fill the gaps. The IHC was extremely 

successful in bringing the operational and research 

communities together to further improve the tropical 

cyclone forecast and warning program. It was also 

successful in addressing the needs of the Federal 

agencies and user communities that have a stake 

in the nation’s tropical cyclone program. Finally, the 

conference provided a baseline of research activities 

that will enable the development of an interagency 

implementation strategy for the tropical cyclone research priorities, which can be reviewed at subsequent IHCs. The 2009 IHC is being planned for St. 

Petersburg, Florida.

TROPICAL CYCLONE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN

 The tropical cyclone forecast and warning 

program is an interdepartmental collaboration to provide the United States and designated international 

recipients with forecasts, warnings, and assessments 

concerning tropical and subtropical weather systems. Previously mentioned in Section 3, the three 

centers that cooperate to provide the operational 

forecast and warning services are NWS’s Tropical 

Prediction Center/National Hurricane Center (TPC/

NHC), NWS’s Central Pacific Hurricane Center 

(CPHC), and DoD’s the Joint Typhoon Warning 

Center (JTWC). The Interagency Strategic Research 

Plan for Tropical Cyclones: The Way Ahead (Feb 

07) provides a strategy for continuing to improve the 

effectiveness of operational forecasts and warnings 

through strategic coordination and increased collaboration among the major players in the operational 

and research and development (R&D) communities. 

The plan notes that vast improvements in tropical cyclone prediction are attainable with focused research 

efforts, enhanced transition of research to operations capabilities, strong interagency partnerships, 

coordination, and planning, and most importantly, 

sufficient resources—both human and infrastructure. 

This strategic plan has become the underpinning of 

NOAA’s Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program 

and provides a foundation for Navy and NASA research as well as supporting NSF’s related activities. 

In response to direction from the Interdepartmental 
APPENDIX A 202

Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR), the OFCM formed the 

Working Group for Tropical Cyclone Research with 

cochairs from NOAA and the Navy. In FY 2009, the 

Working Group will be developing an implementation strategy for the research objectives outlined in 

the strategic research plan. The ultimate goal is to 

prevent loss of life and injuries and to reduce the 

nation’s vulnerability to these potentially devastating 

storms. 

POST-STORM DATA ACQUISITION

 The OFCM continued to coordinate, as required, timely post-storm data acquisition surveys in 

response to Presidentially declared natural disasters 

and other agency requirements to evaluate, for example, the impact on coastal ecosystems. These 

natural disaster reduction efforts contribute to the 

determination of the intensity and magnitude of 

storms, and, in many cases, help to determine the 

extent of damage for use in Presidential disaster 

declarations. The additional data collected after 

hurricane landfall is also used in validating modeling 

efforts with both emergency management models 

(e.g., FEMA’s HAZUS) and hurricane storm-surge 

models (e.g., NOAA’s SLOSH). These models are 

used in real time to assist decisionmakers in evacuation decisions and procedures. Post-storm data 

are also used to update FEMA Flood Insurance Rate 

Maps. Under the 5-year Umbrella Agreement and 

an FY 2008 funding agreement between OFCM and 

the U.S. Air Force for up to $22,000 in reimbursable 

support, the Civil Air Patrol flew 17 missions in support of tornado and hurricane damage assessments, 

flood assessment, survey of potential dam breaks, 

glacial lake damming in Alaska, and a pre-storm hydrology survey in Hawaii. This support will continue 

in FY 2009 at a planned level of $25,000 set aside 

for these missions.

URBAN METEOROLOGY

NATIONAL WILDLAND FIRE WEATHER NEEDS 

ASSESSMENT

 An important contribution to urban meteorology is the National Wildland Fire Weather Needs 

Assessment which is being conducted by OFCM in 

concert with the agencies and stakeholders. Wildland fires from 2004 to 2007 set records for acreage burned and the number of fires have trended upwards more than 100 percent since the mid-1980s. 

Fire at the Wildland Urban Interface is a serious 

problem, with increasing intrusion into the urban 

landscape and loss of homes and other structures. 

In June 2005, the Western Governors’ Association (WGA) urged NOAA to have the OFCM complete a national assessment of Federal, state, and 

local fire managers’ needs for weather information 

in their wildfire and prescribed fire decisionmaking 

processes and develop a framework to meet those 

needs. The needs assessment has been completed, 

capabilities information has been gathered, and an 

initial gap analysis has been completed. The needs 

assessment identified 47 specific needs in nine 

functional areas and the initial gap analysis indicates 

just two of these needs may have no activity against 

them but, conversely, none of the needs may be considered fully met at this time. The OFCM briefed 

the results of the needs assessment and provided 

a copy of the summary report to the NOAA Science 

Advisory Board’s Working Group on Fire Weather 

Research as part of their kickoff activities in October 2007. The results of the NOAA SAB’s working 

group study have been incorporated into the draft 

final report. The OFCM also briefed the needs assessment results to the Committee for Climate Analysis, Monitoring and Services in the fall of 2007. For 

FY 2009, the OFCM will form the Working Group 

for Wildland Fire Weather to complete the final report which will outline the needs, capabilities, gaps, 

and a framework to address the needs, to be completed in the spring of 2009.

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION 

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

 The OFCM developed an atmospheric transport and diffusion (ATD) implementation strategy for 

the recommendations for which OFCM has primary 

responsibility in the Federal Research Needs and 

Priorities for Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion 

Modeling (September 2004) report. The implementation strategy has three parts: (1) working with the 

agencies to identify and improve a baseline set of 

national ATD modeling capabilities; (2) helping the 

agencies implement a common framework for model 

development and evaluation; and (3) recommending 
APPENDIX A 203

criteria for multifunctional joint urban test beds [“urban” describes a metropolitan area and its interfaces 

with surrounding areas]. In accordance with this, 

OFCM formed a Joint Action Group for Joint Urban 

Test Beds (JAG/JUTB) under the Working Group for 

Urban Meteorology (WG/UM); and this joint action 

group has met frequently, and is continuing work to 

develop an operational concept document for multifunctional joint urban test beds to provide services 

and data to model developers, test and evaluation 

personnel, and users. The operational concept document will include capabilities and benefits, management structure, infrastructure requirements, selection process, implementation framework, definitions, 

and characteristics of urban scales. The joint urban 

test beds will support the following functional areas: 

severe weather (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes, heat 

waves and cold spells, drought, and wildland fires), 

homeland security (dispersion of hazardous materials), climate, air quality (e.g., particulate matter aerosols), and water quality (e.g., deposition of airborne 

contaminants on water sources and waterborne 

transport of contaminants). JAG/JUTB is currently 

planning to pursue implementation of a JUTB over 

the National Capital Region first; this JUTB would 

be the proof of concept and our experience with it 

would allow for the improved development of an operational concept document. 

GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION MODELING 

CONFERENCE

 George Mason University (GMU), Fairfax, 

Virginia, conducted its 12th Annual Conference on 

Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Modeling in 

July, 2008. The OFCM cosponsored the event, together with the Joint Science and Technology Office for Chemical and Biological Defense, Defense 

Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA); the Naval Surface 

Warfare Center, Dahlgren Division (NSW-CDD); 

and GMU. Themes for the conference were: improve understanding of atmospheric transport and 

diffusion processes; support homeland security requirements; and share experience across different 

sectors. Participants included representatives from 

DOD, EPA, DOE, NOAA, universities, private companies and other agencies doing related research, 

as well as scientists from other countries. Technical 

topics of interest for the conference were: new developments in basic theories of boundary layer models and transport and diffusion models; urban-scale 

meteorological and dispersion experiments and models; computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model theory and applications; field experiments and laboratory 

experiments concerned with boundary layer studies 

and turbulence and dispersion studies; mesoscale 

meteorological modeling for input to transport and 

dispersion models; the use of remote sensing technology in boundary layer and transport and dispersion studies; model evaluation methods, uncertainty/

sensitivity analyses, and risk assessments; improvements in model inputs (e.g., land-use data, 3-D building data) and output visualizations; and methods and 

criteria for emergency response and decision making. The OFCM conducted a special session related 

to the OFCM’s ongoing work with other members 

of the Federal meteorological community to implement the recommendations in the report, Federal 

Research Needs and Priorities for Atmospheric 

Transport and Diffusion Modeling. The special session provided much information on benefits of joint 

urban test beds; it was chaired by Dr. Walter Bach, 

Jr., Program Manager of the Environmental Sciences 

Division of the U.S. Army Research Office. 

CLIMATE

 The OFCM supports the U.S. Climate Change 

Science Program (CCSP) and participated in extensive reviews of the Synthesis and Assessment 

Products produced in FY 2008, offering substantive 

comments accepted into the transportation product, 

in particular. The Federal Coordinator, through his 

participation on the Committee on Environment and 

Natural Resources (CENR), will continue to review 

and provide concurrence on CCSP Synthesis and 

Assessment Products. 

OPERATIONAL PROCESSING

 OFCM’s activities regarding Operational 

Processing Centers (OPC) continue to improve processing and backup capabilities of NOAA’s National 

Centers for Environmental Prediction and Office of 

Satellite Data Processing and Distribution, the Air 

Force Weather Agency, and the U.S. Navy’s Fleet 

Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center 

and Naval Oceanographic Office. During FY 2008 
APPENDIX A 204

in response to a request from the National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System 

(NPOESS) Senior Users Advisory Group (SUAG), 

COPC fostered the synergistic coordination, program development, and implementation of NPOESS 

data exploitation strategies. Also in FY 2008, the 

agencies signed the Data Acquisition, Processing, 

and Exchange (DAPE) Memorandum of Agreement 

to update and formalize these activities among the 

operational processing centers. The Environmental Satellite Data Acquisition (ESDA) annex to the 

DAPE MOA is in final coordination and will be completed in FY 2009. This annex will replace the expiring Shared Processing Program (SPP) agreement 

which provides for funding to support the exchange 

of extensive volumes of data.

ANNUAL FEDERAL PLAN

 In October 2007, the OFCM issued The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research—Fiscal Year 2008. The Federal Plan 

is congressionally mandated and is a one-of-a-kind 

document which articulates the meteorological services provided and supporting research conducted 

by agencies of the Federal government. The Federal 

Plan helps to reduce overlap and duplication among 

the agencies. It is a comprehensive publication that 

documents proposed programs for FY 2008, and reviews agency programs for FY 2007. The feature article for the FY 2008 Annual Federal Plan describes 

a crosscutting assessment of Federal agency hydrometeorological products, services, and supporting 

research. The feature article for the FY 2009 Annual 

Federal Plan focuses on natural disasters in the urban environment.

WEATHER INFORMATION FOR SURFACE 

TRANSPORTATION

 Since 1998, OFCM has made weather services and research and development (R&D) activities 

supporting the surface transportation community a 

priority for the Federal meteorological community. In 

June 2008, the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology 

provided a keynote address at the Fourth National 

Symposium on Surface Transportation Weather in 

Indianapolis, Indiana. As this area of weather products, services, and supporting research continues 

to grow, the expansion across international borders 

continues as well. At the invitation of the U.S. Embassy in Austria, the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology provided a keynote address at the Safety in 

Mobility conference held in Velden, Austria, in July 

2008. The conference brought together experts and 

stakeholders from across the European continent to 

discuss issues and move forward in this important 

area. In addition, the Federal Coordinator made a 

presentation at the Intelligent Transportation Systems World Congress held in New York City from 

16-20 November 2008. The OFCM will continue to 

work with the agencies to advance weather information for surface transportation throughout FY 2009, 

focusing on areas such as: current and emerging 

capabilities; transition of research to operations to 

improve products and services; getting the right 

message out and the need for social science involvement; education and outreach; the need for metrics 

to measure success and guide resource allocation; 

identifying gaps and setting research priorities; and 

exploiting the opportunity for a near-term intermodal 

initiative to develop and demonstrate emerging capabilities. 

AVIATION WEATHER

 The OFCM continued to participate in the 

Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) Weather Working Group Executive Committee and the Friends/Partners in Aviation Weather 

(FPAW). We attended the FPAW meeting at the 

National Business Aviation Association annual gathering in Orlando, Florida, in October, 2008, and presented results of the 10-year effort to reduce weather-related aviation accidents. The OFCM completed 

the analysis of National Transportation Safety Board 

accident information now finalized through 2006 

to assess performance toward the goal of reducing weather-related fatal aviation accidents by 80 

percent over the 10-year period from 1997 through 

2006. Although the National Aviation Weather Program achieved significant progress over this period, particularly in the area of general aviation, the 

second five years of the 10-year period showed a 

marked slow down in the decline of accident rates 

and the ambitious 80 percent reduction goal was not 

achieved. The analysis of the accident data raised a 

number of questions and the cause of the slow down 

is not readily apparent. It is likely a combination of 
APPENDIX A 205

a number of factors and the OFCM will be working 

with the NTSB and others in FY 2009 to develop an 

understanding of the change in the trend lines, how 

the program can sustain the progress which has already been made, and how to jump start additional 

progress toward the overall 80 percent reduction. 

The final report assessing this goal will be published 

in FY 2009. The OFCM continues to implement the 

National Aviation Weather Program, and is working 

with the agencies to advance meteorological standards, improve products, enhance services, and 

participate in research that contributes to the overall 

goal of providing the best state-of-the-art information 

to aviation end users where and when they need it. 

The OFCM has monitored the development of the 

Next Generation Air Transportation System concept 

of operations and functional requirements for the 

network-enabled weather capability envisioned for 

NextGen, with special emphasis on complementary 

development of a broader environmental data cloud. 

OFCM’s coordinating infrastructure will continue to 

contribute the collaboration in the aviation community.

SPACE WEATHER

 The Committee for Space Weather continued 

to move forward to address the recommendations of 

the 2006 independent assessment of the National 

Space Weather Program (NSWP), including development of a new strategic plan for the NSWP. The 

new NSWP Strategic Plan is in final clearance within 

the Executive Office of the President, and OFCM expects to publish it in FY 2010, with a follow-on effort 

to craft an updated NSWP Implementation Plan. In a 

complementary effort, the Committee prepared and 

submitted a Space Weather Implementation Plan 

(SWxIP) as requested by the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) Subcommittee 

for Disaster Reduction (SDR). Space weather was 

identified as one of the SDR’s Grand Challenges 

for Disaster Reduction and SDR requested that the 

OFCM spearhead an effort, through the NSWP, to 

develop the SWxIP. Another significant NSWP effort in FY 2008 was the completion of the report Impacts of NPOESS Nunn-McCurdy Certification and 

Potential Loss of ACE Spacecraft Solar Wind Data 

on National Space Environmental Monitoring Capabilities, documenting the results of a study requested by the Office of Science and Technology Policy 

(OSTP). The report was submitted to OSTP in January 2008 following high-level coordination in each of 

the stakeholding agencies, and the interagency study 

team briefed the results to staff from both OSTP and 

OMB in February. The report identifies a number of 

significant impacts resulting from the expected loss 

of space environmental sensing capability and the 

report is marked For Official Use Only. The OFCM 

received a follow-on request from OSTP to conduct 

a mitigation study in FY 2009.

PHASED ARRAY RADAR

 The Working Group for Multifunction Phased 

Array Radar (WG/MPAR), cochaired by NOAA/

OAR, FAA, DHS, and DOD/Air Force, continued to 

move forward with a coordinated approach to risk 

reduction for applying phased array radar to concurrent air and weather surveillance. The OFCM, in 

conjunction with OSTP’s Committee on Environment 

and Natural Resources, Subcommittee on Disaster 

Reduction (SDR), hosted a symposium on MPAR 

in Norman, OK, in October 2007 with the theme 

Leveraging Technology to Build a Next Generation 

National Radar System. More than 180 people attended the symposium, representing Federal agencies, academia, military laboratories, and the radar 

industry. The fundamental message/outcome from 

the symposium was that now is the time to begin the 

evaluation of MPAR, and a risk-reduction implementation strategy was needed. 

 Items driving the urgency to begin the evaluation of MPAR are: (1) legacy weather and aircraft 

surveillance radars are nearing the end of their lifecycles; (2) society demands greater protection of 

life and property, more timely warnings of hazardous 

weather events, and increased accuracy, spatial resolution and lead times for severe weather warnings; 

(3) the need for enhanced capability to track non-cooperative aircraft and other airborne threats to safety 

and security is paramount; (4) the multifunction capability of MPAR leads to reduced lifecycle costs; 

and (5) a risk-reduction implementation strategy will 

reduce uncertainties and produce cost-effective alternatives, which will lead to a sound business case. 

The WG/MPAR developed a coordinated implementation strategy in early 2008, which formed the 

anchor point for ongoing planning and coordinated 
APPENDIX A 206

action across NOAA, DOD, DHS, and the FAA. In 

late FY 2008, the OFCM and WG/MPAR completed a service improvement assessment for weather 

surveillance which mapped the linkages from basic 

capabilities expected of a PAR system, to derived 

capabilities, and subsequently to anticipated service 

improvements. A similar analysis is underway for air 

surveillance and should be completed in FY 2009. 

Several WG/MPAR members also participated in 

the Interagency Surveillance Summit in June 2008 

and the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology is expected to participate in the summit to be held in December 2008. 

 Also in late FY 2008, the National Academies’ Board on Atmospheric Science and Climate 

(BASC) Committee on the Evaluation of the MPAR 

Planning Process delivered their report. Their overarching recommendation was to continue the MPAR 

research and development, and they noted the need 

to develop a detailed set of requirements and that 

the cost estimates were “promising, but embryonic.” 

The WG/MPAR is working on defining requirements 

and drafting an operations concept for MPAR. The 

committee’s principal findings were: (1) phased 

array technology can offer some significant technical advantages; (2) significant technical questions 

for weather surveillance need to be answered (i.e., 

dual polarization); (3) implementation of a network 

of about 350 MPAR systems could replace existing 

NWS and FAA radars; (4) replacement of existing 

systems alone cannot meet all agency mission requirements with the main issue of low-level coverage of weather and non-cooperative aircraft; and 

(5) cost-benefit considerations are embryonic at this 

time and a series of trade studies are needed.

 Over the last year, DHS supported targeted 

research using the National Weather Radar Testbed 

at the National Severe Storms Laboratory in Norman, 

OK, and additional future funds were programmed 

for phased array radar work in NOAA. At its meeting 

on September 29, 2008, the ICMSSR supported the 

creation of a senior policy council for MPAR within 

the Federal meteorological coordinating infrastructure. This council would begin addressing policy 

issues among the key stakeholding agencies as anticipated funding increases materialize in the years 

ahead. Finally, the WG/MPAR will be planning for a 

second MPAR Symposium expected to held in early 

FY 2010.

CROSSCUTTING HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL 

ASSESSMENT

 The OFCM hosted a one-day hydrometeorology mini-workshop in September 2008 to bring 

together the relevant Federal agencies to initiate discussion in the following areas: (1) programs and 

initiatives in the agencies; (2) product suites and services, both current and experimental; (3) needs and 

requirements; (4) potential benefits from improved 

products and services; (5) challenges and gaps in 

products and services; (6) research underway, opportunities, and plans to meet identified gaps; (7) 

processes for transitioning research into operational 

applications; and (8) related education and outreach 

activities. The workshop spurred interest among 

the participants to see what others are working on 

and to continue gathering needs and requirements 

and identifying priorities and gaps. Although lacking some details at this stage, the participants were 

appreciative of this first step to bring the community 

together to begin addressing these issues. Attendees identified additional future participants and the 

OFCM will conduct a follow-on mini-workshop on 

hydrometeorological products, services, and supporting research in December 2008. 

CRITICAL SKILL SHORTAGES

 In 2007, the Interagency Strategic Research 

Plan for Tropical Cyclones: The Way Ahead, identified an important example of a deficiency in workforce 

development when it noted the insufficient production of new personnel with the education and training 

required for improving tropical cyclone forecasts via 

advanced data assimilation and numerical modeling 

systems. The Data Assimilation Education Forum at 

the 88th Annual Meeting of the American Meteorological Society in January 2008, co-sponsored by 

the OFCM, corroborated this shortage and revealed 

the lack of personnel with programming and computational skills for high-end computers. Anecdotal 

evidence indicates additional potential shortages 

in the areas of probability, radar meteorology, and 

tropical meteorology. At its meeting on September 

29, 2008, the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) agreed to establish the Joint Action Group 
APPENDIX A 207

for Critical Skill Shortages to identify other critical 

areas, collect information, and conduct an analysis 

of the Federal sector’s current and projected critical skill shortages. The group will then make recommendations to address the skill shortages identified. 

An interim report is expected in late FY 2009 and a 

final report in FY 2010.

ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

 The OFCM has laid out a vision, framework, 

and methodology which the office will embrace 

to systematically promote environmental literacy 

through interdepartmental collaboration within the 

OFCM coordinating infrastructure. The methodology defines how to determine if an opportunity to 

promote environmental literacy exists. It also describes the method to be used to determine the target public, private, and/or academic sector audiences and how to reach them. Determining the target 

audiences’ needs and a means for assessing how 

those needs are being met is incorporated into the 

methodology as well. Executing this methodology 

will result in a nation better able to understand the 

linkages between weather and climate and personal 

and professional choices and build a national capacity to solve problems and respond to change. It will 

provide for a more environmentally literate citizenry. 

In this regard, the OFCM developed an implementing strategy/action plan to make environmental literacy a crosscutting priority within the OFCM coordinating infrastructure. The OFCM is also continuing 

its support of an American Meteorological Society 

undergraduate scholarship in the atmospheric and 

related oceanic and hydrologic sciences. 

GUIDANCE AND PRACTICES FOR XML

 In 2007, the charter for the Committee for 

Environmental Information Systems and Communications (CEISC) Joint Action Group for Extensible 

Markup Language and Web Services (JAG/XMLWS) was enhanced so that this group would serve 

as the primary national collaboration forum to work 

on three primary objectives. The objectives are: (1) 

Establish agreed national standards (develop by 

JAG/XMLWS or obtained from national or international standards bodies) and common services and 

components for common weather information exchange in a net-centric operations environment; (2) 

Serve as the national working body to develop the 

U.S. position and candidate standards for adoption 

consideration for the newly formed World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Expert Team on the 

Assessment of Data Representation Systems; and 

(3) Support the development of a specialty subset 

of national standards specifically related to aviation 

weather. This is needed both in support of the Next 

Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) 

and to support the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) engagement with EUROCONTROL on a similar need for equivalent aviation system modernization. The desired intent is to develop common standards to be used both by EUROCONTROL and by 

NextGen. The group developed the U.S. position 

and supported both WMO and ICAO meeting in FY 

2008 and the ultimate outcome remains in development. 

COLLABORATION WITH NAS/NRC BOARD ON 

ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AND CLIMATE

 The OFCM continued its mutually beneficial 

interactions with the National Academies National Research Council (NRC). The Federal Coordinator for 

Meteorology continued to participate in NRC Board 

on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (BASC) strategic planning workshops and regularly scheduled 

meetings and is expected to continue participation 

throughout FY 2009. In FY 2008, BASC’s Committee on the Evaluation of the Multifunction Phased 

Array Radar Planning Process completed its study, 

originally performed at the request of the OFCM.

COLLABORATION WITH THE COMMITTEE ON 

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

CENR PRINCIPALS

 The Federal Coordinator continued to be a 

participant on the CENR, and continued to assist 

CENR through review and concurrence of CENR reports and materials. This activity will continue in FY 

2009.

SUBCOMMITTEE ON DISASTER REDUCTION

 The OFCM has been an active participant 

in the work of the CENR Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction (SDR). SDR has developed Grand 

Challenges implementation plans to improve the na-
APPENDIX A 208

tion’s capacity to prevent and recover from disasters. The implementation plans include such topics 

as assessing disaster resilience, understanding the 

natural processes that produce hazards, and promoting risk-wise behavior. As mentioned earlier, 

space weather was identified as one of the SDR’s 

Grand Challenges for Disaster Reduction. OFCM is 

committed to working with SDR to provide a forum 

for information sharing, development of collaborative 

opportunities, and interactive dialogue with the U.S. 

policy community to advance informed strategies for 

managing risks associated with natural and technological disasters.

AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY

 The OFCM supports AMS endeavors by participating in AMS conferences and workshops and 

other environmental science education and outreach 

programs, including for example the January 2008, 

88th AMS Annual Meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana. As part of the annual meeting, OFCM cosponsored the Forum on Education in Data Assimilation. 

The Federal Coordinator continues to serve as a 

member of the AMS Commission on the Weather 

and Climate Enterprise (CWCE).

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

 At the invitation of the U.S. Embassy in Austria, the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology provided a keynote address on Weather Information for 

Surface Transportation (WIST) at the European conference on Safety in Mobility, held in Velden, Austria, 

in July 2008. In addition, the Federal Coordinator 

made a presentation at the Intelligent Transportation Systems World Congress held in New York City 

from 16-20 November 2008.

PUBLICATIONS

 The following publications were prepared 

in hard copy and/or have been placed on OFCM’s 

Web site (www.ofcm.gov) during FY 2008:

- The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and 

Supporting Research-Fiscal Year 2008

- National Hurricane Operations Plan

- Impacts of NPOESS Nunn-McCurdy Certification 

and Potential Loss of ACE Spacecraft Solar Wind 

Data on National Space Environmental Monitoring 

Capabilities (For Official Use Only)

- Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 11 - Doppler Radar Meteorological Observations (WSR88D) Part A - System Concepts, Responsibilities, 

and Procedures

- MPAR Service Improvement Assessment

- DRAFT -- National Post-Storm Data Acquisition 

Plan 

- DRAFT -- National Severe Local Storms Operations Plan 

- DRAFT -- Federal Lightning Capability Requirements 

Please see www.ofcm.gov for a complete listing of 

all available OFCM publications.
APPENDIX B 209

WORLD WEATHER WATCH PROGRAM

The Department of Commerce (DOC) was designated by the President, following Senate Concurrent Resolution 

67 (1968), to be the lead agency for coordinating United States participation in the World Weather Watch 

(WWW) program. Until 1983, DOC published a separate report on WWW plans. Beginning with the 1983 edition of the Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, a section on the WWW has been 

included, obviating the need for a separate report. The last segment of this narrative includes information on bilateral and regional international cooperative activities which are not under the WWW.

BACKGROUND

 The World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO), with 182 member states and 6 member territories, is an intergovernmental organization affiliated with the UN to facilitate international cooperation 

in the fields of meteorology, climate, and operational 

hydrology. The United States became a Member 

of the WMO in 1951. The purpose of the WMO is 

to coordinate the collection and distribution of meteorological data for weather forecasts for national 

interests as well as global aviation and maritime activities.

 Development of the technology and the systems to obtain meteorological observations, especially over the oceans, presents formidable problems. The collective use of satellites, aircraft, ships, 

radar, anchored and drifting buoys, and balloons can 

help provide comprehensive data about the atmosphere over the entire globe. However, this system 

is too complex and expensive to be implemented by 

a single nation - a fact clearly recognized by the leaders of many nations whose international cooperation 

in meteorology has been a tradition for more than a 

century through WMO’s predecessor, the International Meteorological Organization.

 This continuing need to advance the science 

of meteorology through international cooperation 

prompted the President of the United States in 1961 

to propose to the United Nations (UN) the establishment of an international effort in weather prediction. 

The UN responded by calling upon the WMO and 

the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) 

to develop measures to improve weather forecasting 

capabilities and to advance the knowledge of the basic atmosphere dynamics that govern weather. The 

WMO responded to the UN request in 1963 with the 

concept of the World Weather Watch (WWW) and 

a Global Atmosphere Research Program (GARP). 

The WWW is an operational system to coordinate 

the rapid collection and exchange of weather data 

among all WMO Members as well as for the dissemination of weather forecast products from centralized 

processing centers.

GOALS AND ORGANIZATION 

 On January 1, 2008 the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Secretariat located in Geneva, Switzerland, reorganized. The reorganization 

was in response to the fifteenth WMO Congress 

(May 2007) approval for a new framework for the 

Results-based Management of the Organization. The 

Secretariat is now divided into departments aligned 

according to strategic themes. The WWW Program 

is located in two departments. The Observing and 

Information Systems Department (OBS) is responsible for managing the WWW Global Observing 

(GOS) Program, the WWW Global Telecommunication System (GTS), the WWW Data Management 

(WDM), the WWW System Support Activity, and the 

WWW Instruments and Methods of Observations 

(IMOP). The Weather and Disaster Risk Reduction 

Services Department includes the Global Data Processing and Forecasting System (GDPFS) Program 

and Emergency Response Activities.

 The WWW is the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) core activity and backbone to 

coordinate a global observing network and movement 

of observations around the world in real time through 

the GTS. The OBS with its WWW elements supports WMO top-level objectives; 1) to produce more 

accurate, timely and reliable forecasts and warnings 

of weather, climate, water and related environmental 

APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B 210

elements; and, 2) to improve the delivery of weather, 

climate, water, and related environmental information 

and services to services to the public, governments 

and other users.

INTEGRATED GLOBAL OBSERVATIONS

 The ability of the United States and other nations to use their existing scientific capability to understand the climate and to increase their weather 

predicting skills is limited to a certain extent by the 

lack of global weather data. Available weather data 

are inadequately observed over a significant portion 

of the Earth’s surface, especially over isolated areas 

including the oceans. 

 The WMO is working through its Members to 

improve elements of the WWW such as the Global 

Climate Observing System (GCOS), the Regional 

Basic Synoptic Network (RBSN) and environmental 

meteorological satellite coverage. However, most 

data collection platforms represent stand-alone systems and do not benefit from the synergistic effects 

of integration. Under WMO’s OBS Department the 

WWW GOS will evolve to a WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS) which will integrate 

various meteorological observing systems. The 

components of WIGOS (surface and space-based) 

include: weather observing networks traditionally 

part of GOS, atmosphere composition networks including the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW), marine meteorological networks and arrays including 

buoys and voluntary observing ships, hydrological 

observing networks, and the climate components of 

various atmospheric, oceanographic and terrestrial 

observing systems contributing to GCOS. 

As part of the WIGOS evolution the OBS Department is developing the WMO Information System 

(WIS) which will modernize the GTS through new 

communication technology and concepts. WIS is 

the pillar of WMO strategy for managing and moving 

weather, water and climate information in the 21st 

century. WIS provides an integrated approach for 

routine collection and automated dissemination of 

observed data and products as well as data discovery, access and retrieval services for all weather, climate, water and related data produced by Members. 

It is being built on the GTS and the WWW. WIS 

will encompass three types of centers: Global Information System Centers (GISC) for collection and 

distribution of routine data; Data Collection or Production Centers (DCPC) for generation of sets of 

data, forecast products, processed or value-added 

information and archives; and National Centers.

The responsibilities of U.S. Federal agencies in the 

WWW are as follows:

• Department of Commerce (DOC). Represents 

the United States at WMO and, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), provides the focal point to coordinate 

our Nation’s efforts in these international programs, implements those service improvements 

in the existing international weather system for 

which the United States accepts responsibility, and develops new technology. The United 

States is one of three (Russia and Australia are 

the other two) World Meteorological Centers, 

which include World Data Centers and the principal telecommunication gateway for the WMO’s 

Global Telecommunication System (GTS).

• Department of State (DOS). The DOS Bureau 

for International Organizations is the principal 

source for U.S.-appropriated funds to the WMO. 

The DOS maintains relations with developing nations and, through NOAA and the WMO, assists 

developing nations through the Voluntary Cooperation Program (VCP) to improve their national 

weather services. DOS also develops appropriate multilateral and bilateral arrangements to further international participation.

• National Science Foundation (NSF). The NSF 

stimulates and supports basic and applied research by scientists primarily in academia on 

atmospheric and ocean circulation and models. 

It also promotes the education and training of 

atmospheric and ocean scientists at universities.

• Department of Defense (DOD). Although the 

mission of DOD weather services is basically 

internal, the nature of the DOD’s operations is 

global. As such, the observation, telecommunications, and data-processing programs of the 

DOD weather services provide significant indirect support to the WWW through DOD’s interface with NOAA’s National Weather Service 

(NWS). Information from the research and development activities of these services is exchanged 

routinely with other similar national agencies and 

is often presented at national forums. DOD also 
APPENDIX B 211

operates a polar-orbiting meteorological satellite 

program.

• Department of Transportation (DOT). DOT’s 

Federal Aviation Administration’s terminal aerodrome meteorological observations and air traffic 

telecommunication network provides an important source of data to the WWW.

• Department of Homeland Security (DHS). 

Through the U.S. Coast Guard, DHS provides 

personnel to support NOAA’s National Data 

Buoy Center (NDBC) in developing, deploying, 

operating, and evaluating data buoy systems.

• National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA). NASA performs research, develops 

aerospace technology required for an effective 

global weather system, and provides data from 

R&D satellites to the WWW. NASA launches 

for NOAA both polar- orbiting and geostationary 

satellites.

• Department of the Interior (DOI). DOI’s U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is an important source of 

hydrologic data used in flood forecasting. The 

USGS, in addition to its advisory role on water issues in the WMO, will assume a greater functional role in the WMO’s emerging water program.

• Department of Agriculture (USDA). USDA is a 

valuable resource for surface climatological meteorological data from cooperating observers. 

The department’s World Climate Observing 

Board is responsible for monitoring the impact 

of climate and extreme weather on both national 

and international commercial crops. USDA is on 

the WMO technical commission that works on 

agrometeorological issues

THE WORLD WEATHER WATCH (WWW)

 The WWW is an integrated member-operated 

observing system linked by the GTS and it functions 

on three levels -- global, regional, and national. The 

WWW is divided into three essential elements that 

are closely linked and interdependent - the Global 

Data Processing System (GDPS), Global Telecommunication System (GTS), and the Global Observing System (GOS). These elements are coordinated 

and closely integrated through three WWW support 

functions:

• The data management function coordinates, monitors, and manages the flow of data and products 

within the WWW system to assure their quality 

and timely delivery. It also includes the definition 

and use of code forms for data exchange.

• The systems support activity provides guidance, 

technical and scientific information, and training 

to those involved in the planning, development, 

and operation of WWW components.

• The implementation and coordination function 

assures the timely completion of the WWW implementation and effective support and maintenance of the WWW system.

Global Observing System (GOS)

 The GOS is a coordinated observing system, 

employing standardized techniques for making meteorological and marine surface observations on a 

worldwide scale. It is a composite system, containing surface-based (national networks), airborne (civil 

aviation), and space-based (satellite) subsystems. 

The main elements of the network and airborne subsystems include:

• The Regional Basic Synoptic Network (RBSN), 

staffed and automated, for both surface and upper-air observations.

• Fixed observing stations at sea, composed of 

fixed and anchored platform stations, and island 

and coastal stations.

• Mobile sea stations, including moving ships.

• Moored and drifting buoys.

• Aircraft meteorological stations, including automated aircraft reporting systems.

Airborne Observations

 The WWW has pursued a class of automated airborne reporting systems such as the Automated Meteorological Data and Reporting (AMDAR) 

systems. Over 3000 aircraft now provide reports of 

pressure, winds, and temperature during flight. The 

amount of data from aircraft has increased dramatically during recent years -- from 78,000 reports in 

2000 to over 200,000 reports in 2007. These systems are making a major contribution to the upper-air 

component of the GOS in regions where there is 

little or no radiosonde data.

 The U.S. AMDAR program began in the early 

1980’s as a cooperative effort among ARINC (Aeronautical Radio, Inc.), the NWS, and the FAA. Over 

150,000 reports of wind and temperature are sent 
APPENDIX B 212

every day in the Binary Universal Form for Representation of Meteorological Data (BUFR) code. These 

reports are provided by seven airlines: American, 

Delta, Federal Express (FedEx), Northwest, Southwest, United, and United Parcel Service (UPS). 

Global cooperation on AMDAR is facilitated by the 

WMO AMDAR Panel established in 1998 by a number of WMO members operating or intending to operate AMDAR programs. Australia, Canada, China, 

EUMETNET/E-AMDAR, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, 

and the United States have AMDAR programs. A 

number of new countries have directly indicated interest in the past year in developing AMDAR including Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Malaysia, Kenya, 

and Mauritius, who have also appointed focal points, 

and Singapore has recommenced exploring possibilities of using targeted data. Specific information and 

guidance has been provided to all countries. Additionally, Bulgaria and Croatia have begun exploring 

the potential of using AMDAR in their own national 

programs.

 In addition to wind and temperature data collection, the U.S. program is expanding the operational parameters collected to also include water vapor 

and turbulence. Water vapor observations from over 

75 aircraft, from two different sensors have been routinely available for assessment since early 2005. A 

new turbulence algorithm, developed by the National 

Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) derives 

an objective, aircraft-independent measure of turbulence (eddy dissipation rate (EDR)) from aircraft 

vertical acceleration. The EDR algorithm is currently 

installed on 400 United Airlines aircraft, is available 

through the AirDat TAMDAR sensor, and will be added to several additional Southwest Airlines aircraft in 

the next year as well. EDR reports are being experimentally ingested into the FAA Graphic Turbulence 

Guidance (GTG) and as an initialization parameter.

Surface-based Observations

 GOS employs both marine and land surfacebased observing systems. Approximately 11,000 

stations on land take observations at least once every three hours and often hourly of thermodynamic 

and wind-field parameters of the atmosphere. About 

4,000 of the world’s surface stations comprise the 

RBSN. Data from these stations are exchanged 

globally in real time. A subset of these surface stations are used in the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Surface Network (GSN). The United 

States operates 87 surface stations as part of the 

GCOS network. Many countries, including the 

United States, have available additional surface data 

from specialized mesoscale networks, such as Oklahoma’s Mesonet, used for research, water management, and transportation needs. The United States 

operates about 73 surface stations on the Antarctic 

continent. Twenty are U.S. government sponsored 

of which only 4 report regular observations. The 

other 53 sites are sponsored through university programs.

 The lower atmosphere is vertically profiled 

using a land-based global array of about 900 upperair stations which deploy at least once per day a 

balloon-borne radiosonde capable of providing insitu measurements of basic state parameters. Approximately 15 specially outfitted commercial ships 

provide upper-air observations over sparsely instrumented oceanic regions. The NWS operates 92 upper-air stations and supports 15 additional sites in 

the Caribbean and Pacific. For all U.S. activities (including DOD and other agencies), we have reported 

to WMO a total of 132 sites. The United States has 

also implemented experimental or quasi-operational 

networks or single sites of ground-based Doppler radars called wind profilers to provide nearly continuous wind soundings. A network of 32 tropospheric 

wind profilers is being operated quasi-operationally 

at 404 MHZ, primarily in the central part of the United States.

Marine Observations

 Over the oceanic regions, the global observing system relies on ships, moored and drifting buoys, 

profiling floats, and stationary platforms, in addition 

to derived data from satellite observations. The Volunteer Observing Ship fleet is comprised of some 

5,000 commercial ships. About 900 ships report 

marine meteorology observations at least 25 times 

per month. A subset of the volunteer ships routinely 

deploys expendable bathythermograph probes to 

measure upper-ocean temperatures to a depth of 

750 meters; about 20,000 probes are deployed annually. An array of 1250 surface drifting buoys provides 30,000 sea surface temperature and surface 
APPENDIX B 213

air pressure reports per day. Surface currents are 

derived by tracking the drifter movements. A network 

of 375 moored buoys provides about 9000 reports 

of surface marine observations per day. The moored 

buoys are located offshore of several maritime nations and also span the tropical Pacific and Atlantic 

Oceans. Implementation of a tropical Indian Ocean 

moored array is now underway. The Indian Ocean 

array is planned to be completed by about 2012. Argo--a global array of profiling floats--provides profiles 

of ocean temperature and salinity to depths of 2000 

meters. Each float reports via satellite once every 

10 days. As of December 2007 the Argo floats program was reaching its design goal of 3000 floats.

Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)

 The United States has been involved with 

GCOS since its inception. NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) in Asheville, North Carolina, supports a number of GCOS data management 

activities and hosts the U.S. GCOS Program Office 

based in Silver Spring, Maryland [see http://www.

ncdc. noaa.gov/oa/usgcos/index.htm]. This support 

fits in with a proactive process approach for GCOS 

implementation planning with the goal of obtaining 

a sustainable and robust GCOS observing network 

for international atmospheric, oceanographic, and 

terrestrial climate observing. The U.S. national program has taken a three-tiered approach to fostering 

the GCOS program. This approach involves providing support:

• Internationally to improve and enhance monitoring 

stations in developing nations which require assistance as identified by the international GCOS 

Atmospheric Observations Panel for Climate.

• Regionally for workshops and projects such as 

those in the Pacific Ocean region for ensuring 

a robust and sustainable GCOS observing program; and

• On a bilateral basis with nations that have entered into agreements with the United States 

on improving climate observing activities.

 Meteorological surface-based networks, utilized for climate purposes, make observations of 

important climate factors; atmospheric profiles; and 

pollutant emissions, aerosols, and ozone. These surface-based networks are intended to provide the basic observational set needed to define the status and 

trends in climate of the world, and also to calibrate 

and validate satellite-based observations. NOAA’s 

U.S. GCOS Program Office has committed to leading the way, in partnership with the GCOS Secretariat at the WMO, to facilitate improvements in the 

management and operation of GCOS and GCOSrelated networks.

 In general, GCOS performance measures 

used by NOAA in managing its international support 

are intended to gradually increase the quality and 

quantity of data from the GCOS Surface Network 

(GSN) and GCOS Upper-Air Network (GUAN) over 

the next several years. The performance measures 

focus on observing system improvements in developing nations in Africa, South America, and the Pacific Islands. The support for developing nations has 

primarily been for retrofitting surface and upper-air 

observing stations that have up-to-now been silent, 

but yet are key to global climate monitoring activities. Countries that have received new equipment 

and expendables over the past three years include: 

Argentina, Armenia, Congo, Cook Islands, Costa 

Rica, Ecuador, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Maldives, Namibia, the Philippines, and Zimbabwe. The U.S. State 

Department has been instrumental in aiding in the 

establishment of regional GCOS maintenance facilities which have been established in the Pacific and 

the Caribbean. Another one is being planned for 

Southern and Eastern Africa in order to further the 

sustainability of the GCOS network in the developing nations of that region.

 Additionally, for the GSN, the performance 

measure is the percent explained variance in mean 

annual temperature in the developing world. The 

long-term goal is 90 percent explained variance with 

a network of 75 stations. This will be accomplished 

by deploying new observing stations that meet the 

same stringent requirements as those in the U.S. Climate Reference Network. For the GUAN, the longterm objective is to increase the percent of GUAN 

sites in the developing world that meet GCOS reporting requirements (i.e., two soundings per day 

for 25 days in the month, each sounding with temperature/wind data up to 5 hPa and humidity data 

up to the tropopause). This will be accomplished 

by modernizing 75 existing GUAN stations. The 

long-term goal is to have 90 percent of the GUAN 
APPENDIX B 214

stations in the developing world meeting GCOS requirements. The U.S. GCOS Program, in conjunction with the GCOS Secretariat and other elements 

in NOAA, is working towards the development of a 

high-quality GCOS Atmospheric Reference Observations Network (GARON). Finally, support for the 

chemical constituent portion of GCOS, the Global 

Atmosphere Watch (GAW) program is part of the 

integrated GCOS support provided.

Global Data Processing and Forecasting System 

(GDPFS)

 The purpose of GDPFS is to make available 

all processed information required for both real-time 

and non-real-time applications. GDPFS provides 

products and processed information, based on recent advances in atmospheric science, using powerful numerical computer methods. Members have 

real-time, unrestricted access through the GTS to 

GDPFS products which allow all countries to benefit 

from their participation in the WWW.

 The GDPFS is organized as a three-level 

system. It consists of World Meteorological Centers (WMC), Regional/Specialized Meteorological 

Centers (RSMC), and National Meteorological Centers (NMC). Products of RSMCs can be used by 

members at the national level for further processing 

or interpretation to provide assistance or service to 

users. NMCs carry out GDPFS functions at the national level. 

 In general, real-time functions of the system 

involve preprocessing of data to include real-time 

quality control, analysis, and prognosis, and the 

derivation of appropriate meteorological parameters. 

The non-real-time functions include data collection 

and archival and additional quality control, storage, 

and retrieval, to include cataloging observational 

data and processed information for operational and 

special applications and for research. WMCs are located in Melbourne, Moscow, and Washington, and 

they provide guidance products used for general 

short-, medium-, and long-range weather forecasts 

on a global scale. Melbourne specializes in forecast 

products for the Southern Hemisphere.

 RSMCs with geographical specialization include Algiers, Beijing, Bracknell, Brazilia, Buenos 

Aires, Cairo, Dakar, Darwin, Jeddah, Khabarovsk, 

Melbourne, Miami, Montreal, Moscow, Nairobi, New 

Delhi, Novosibirsk, Offenbach, Pretoria, Rome, Tashkent, Tokyo, Tunic/Casablanca, Washington and 

Wellington. RSMCs with specialization for tropical 

cyclone forecasting are: Miami - Hurricane Center, 

Nadi - Tropical Cyclone Center, New Delhi - Tropical 

Cyclone Center, Saint Denis, La ReUnion - Tropical 

Cyclone Center, Tokyo - western Pacific Typhoon 

Center, and Honolulu - central Pacific Typhoon 

Center. The European Center for Medium-Range 

Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) is an RSMC operated by the European community out of Bracknell, UK. 

The regional centers at Bracknell, Honolulu, Miami, 

Montreal, New Delhi, and Tokyo also have dual geographical and activity specialization responsibilities. 

These centers provide regional products used for 

short- and medium-range forecasting of small, mesoscale, and large-scale meteorological systems by 

WMCs. The RSMCs located at Beijing, Bracknell, 

Melbourne, Montreal, Obninsk, Tokyo, Toulouse, 

and Washington provide, upon request, atmosphere 

aerosol and chemical transport model products for 

environmental emergency responses.

 Other WMO-designated specialized centers 

serve emerging development needs: African Center of Meteorological Applications for Development 

(ACMAD) - Niamey, Niger; ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Center (ASMC) - Singapore; Drought 

Monitoring Centers (DMC) - Nairobi, Kenya, and 

Harare, Zimbabwe; National Institute of Space Research - Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting - New Delhi.

International Satellite Communication System 

(ISCS)

 The World Area Forecast System (WAFS) 

has two centers (Washington and London) which 

are designated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as World Area Forecast Centers 

(WAFC). The dissemination of aeronautical information via global satellite broadcast began in 1995, 

through the International Satellite Communication 

System (ISCS). The United States provides the links 

to two of the three satellites specified in the system. 

The WAFS issue upper-level wind and temperature 

forecasts with global coverage and forecasts of 

weather elements defined by ICAO as significant.

 The United States continues to support ten 

ISCS/WAFS workstations of the Regional Meteorological Telecommunication Network in the Caribbean 
APPENDIX B 215

and also supports the Caribbean weather website 

(www.caribweather.net).

Global Telecommunication System

 The GTS provides communication services 

for the collection, exchange, and distribution of observational data and processed information among 

the WMCs, RSMCs, and NMCs of the WWW to 

meet the member needs for real-time or quasi-realtime exchange of information for both operational 

and research purposes. The GTS also supports other WMO programs, joint programs with other international organizations, and environmental programs 

as decided by the WMO and is organized on three 

levels:

• The Main Telecommunication Network (MTN).

• The Regional Meteorological Telecommunication 

Networks (RMTN).

• The National Meteorological Telecommunication 

Networks (NMTN).

 The GTS is supported by the telecommunications functions of the WMCs, Regional Telecommunications Hubs (RTH), RSMCs, and NMCs. 

The MTN links the WMCs at Melbourne, Moscow, 

and Washington with the RTHs at Algiers; Beijing; 

Bracknell; Brasilia; Buenos Aires; Cairo; Dakar; 

Jeddah; Maracay, Venezuela; Nairobi; New Delhi; 

Norrköping, Sweden; Offenbach; Prague; Rome; 

Sofia; Tokyo; Toulouse; and Wellington. It ensures 

the rapid and reliable exchange of observational data 

and processed information required by the members.

 The RMTNs consist of an integrated system of 

links which interconnects RTHs, NMCs, and RSMCs 

to WMCs. The RMTNs provide for the collection of 

observational data and the selective distribution of 

meteorological information to member nations.

 In summary, the GTS enables the NMCs to 

receive and distribute observational data and meteorological information to meet the requirements of 

members. Ongoing WWW activities include:

• GTS network redesign, referred to as the WMO 

Information System (WIS), to take into consideration new technical opportunities, such as Internet-like services.

• Improvement of the capacity of MTN links and 

inclusion of graphics (e.g., Washington-Brasilia, 

Washington-Buenos Aires, Washington-Tokyo).

• Upgrade of the GTS in the Indian Ocean Basin 

to facilitate real-time movement of tsunami and 

natural hazard warnings.

• Continued implementation of satellite-serviced 

data collection platforms to enhance the collection of meteorological data from upper-air and 

surface-observing sites.

• Continued implementation of satellite directreadout stations that are compatible with polarorbiting satellites and the weather facsimile (WEFAX) component of the geostationary satellites. 

Planning is underway for eventual conversion 

of WEFAX to Low-Rate Information Transmission (LRIT) and Automatic Picture Transmission 

(APT) to Low Rate Picture Transmission (LRPT) 

formats with the advent of a new generation of 

satellites.

Voluntary Cooperation Program (VCP)

 The WMO Voluntary Cooperation Program 

(VCP) is a technical cooperation program, managed by the WMO, focused on meeting the needs 

of member countries to implement WMO scientific 

and technical programs. The VCP endeavors to 

complement activities being implemented through 

national meteorological services and WMO trustfund arrangements, and through other UN organizations such as United Nations Development Program 

(UNDP).

 The United States participates in the WMO 

VCP with coordination assistance provided by NOAA’s National Weather Service. Each year, the United States contributes nearly $2 million dollars to the 

VCP to support education and training for developing countries to strengthen their capacity in the sciences of meteorology and hydrology.

 U.S. VCP funds provided assistance to developing countries to help develop and improve their 

WMO telecommunications infrastructure for tsunami 

and natural disaster warning networks. Through the 

NWS’ National Centers for Environmental Prediction 

(NCEP), the U.S. VCP supports weather forecast 

training for the Americas and the Caribbean countries and climate prediction training for Africa. Additionally, in the Pacific, NCEP provides forecaster 

training for islanders, and new funding is now dedicated to working with regional associations to en-
APPENDIX B 216

hance communications by upgrading of Low-Rate 

Users Stations in the Island Developing States to 

provide access to meteorological satellite images 

in LRIT format for 17 Pacific Island countries and 

territories. The U.S. VCP will also support training 

programs in the Americas to advance satellite data 

applications and build capacity as part of the Earth 

Observations Partnerships of the Americas (EOPA) 

initiative.
APPENDIX C 217

APPENDIX C

PREVIOUS FEATURE ARTICLES

 2007 FY 2008 Hydrometeorology Products and Services: Mr. Donell Woods, OFCM

 A Partnership in Public Safety Mr. Robert Dumont, OFCM

 2006 FY 2007 Roadmap for Tropical Cyclone Research Mr. Mark Welshinger, OFCM

 to Meet Operational Needs

 2005 FY 2006 Living With Wildland Fire in the Urban Ms. Mary M. Cairns, OFCM

 Environment

 2004 FY 2005 The Rewards of Managing Weather-Related Mr. Samuel P. Williamson, OFCM

 Risks

 2003 FY 2004 Weather and The Urban Environment: Ms. Margaret R. McCalla, OFCM

 Meeting The Needs of Urban Communities

 2002 FY 2003 The Need For Weather Information For Ms. Mary M. Cairns, OFCM

 Surface Transportation: Keeping The

 Country Safe and On The Move

 2001 FY 2002 Research to Operations: Bridging the Mr. Robert Dumont, OFCM

 Valley of Death

 2000 FY 2001 The Legacy of Hurricane Floyd--Inland Mr. Robert Dumont, OFCM

 Flooding and a Massive Evacuation

 1999 FY 2000 Natural Disaster Reduction--Reducing the OFCM Staff in collaboration with

 Impacts of Natural Hazards Dr. William Hooke, OAR, and

 Ms. Keli Tarp, NOAA Public Affairs

 1998 FY 1999 Aviation Weather: Taking A Leadership Role FAA's Aviation Weather 

 Policy Division

 (ARW-100) Staff

 1997 FY 1998 Owning The Weather--An Army Force Mr. Richard J. Szymber, Army

 Multiplier

 1996 FY 1997 Space Weather - A New Challenge for Col Jud Stailey, USAF

 Meteorologists

 1995 FY 1996 The Role of Federal Agencies in International Mr. Blaine K. Tsugawa, OFCM

 Aviation Meteorology

 1994 FY 1995 Data Continuity in the Climatological Record Dr. Nathaniel B. Guttman, NCDC

 Mr. Andrew H. Horvitz, NWS

 Mr. Arthur L. Booth, NOAA-EOSDIS

Year Edition Title Author Year Edition Title Author
APPENDIX C 218

 1993 FY 1994 Training and Professional Development in Mr. Eli Jacks, NWS

 the Modernized Weather Services Mr. LeRoy Spayd, NWS

 1992 FY 1993 Mesoscale Meteorology Mr. Floyd F. Hauth, OFCM

 1991 FY 1992 Some Recent Developments in Lightning Dr. Donald R. MacGorman, NOAA

 Mapping Systems Dr. Frederick R. Mosher, NOAA

 Ms. Jan S. Lewis, NOAA

 

 1990 FY 1991 The Next Generation Weather Radar - Mr. E. Don Sarreals, NEXRAD JSPO 

 A System for Locating and Tracking

 Severe Weather

 1989 FY 1990 Strategic Plan for the Modernization and Verbatim reproduction of a plan

 Associated Restructuring of the required by Congress and submitted

 National Weather Service by DOC and OMB

 1988 FY 1989 Supercomputers for Meteorological Services (Source or author unknown)

 and Supporting Research

Year Edition Title Author Year Edition Title Author
APPENDIX D 219

 3D-VAR Three Dimensional VARiational (DOD)

 4DWX Four Dimensional Weather (DOD)

 AA Active Army

 AAO Amarillo Area Office (DOE)

 AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (FHWA)

 AAU Alaskan Aviation Unit (NOAA/NCEP)

 AB Authorization Basis

 ABCS Army Battle Command System (DOD)

 ABFM Airborne Field Mill (NASA)

 ABL Airborne Laser (DOD)

 ABLE Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (DOE)

 AC Active Component (DOD)

 AC&A Atmospheric Chemistry and Aerosols (DOE)

 ACARS ARINC Communication Addressing and Reporting System

 ACD Atmospheric Chemistry Division (DOE)

 ACE Aviation Combat Element (DOD)

 ACE-IDS ASOS Controller Equipment - Information Display System (FAA)

 ACIS Applied Climate Information System (USDA)

 ACP Atmospheric Chemistry Program (DOE)

 ACSG Atmospheric and Climate Sciences Group (DOE)

 ADA Atmospheric Decision Aid (DOD)

 ADAPT Atmospheric Data Assimilation and Parameterization Tool (DOE)

 ADAS AWOS/ASOS Data Acquisition System (FAA)

 ADEOS Advanced Earth Observing System (NASA)

 AEC Atomic Energy Commission (DOE)

 AEP Atmospheric Emergency Preparedness (DOE)

 AESS Allied Environmental Support System (DOD)

 AF Air Force

 AFB Air Force Base 

 AFCCC Air Force Combat Climatology Center

 AFCWC Air Force Combat Weather Center 

 AFFSA Air Force Flight Standards Agency

 AFGS Aviation Forecast Gridded System

 AFJI Air Force Joint Instruction

 AFR Air Force Reserve

 AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

 AFSOC Air Force Special Operations Command

 AFTAC Air Force Technical Applications Center

 AFW Air Force Weather

 AFWA Air Force Weather Agency

 AFWIN Air Force Weather Information Network

 AFWWS Air Force Weather Weapon System

 AF/XOO Air Force Director of Operations and Training (DOD)

 AF/XO Air and Space Deputy Chief of Staff for Air and Space Operations (DOD)

 AF/XOO-W Air Force Director of Weather

 AGFS Aviation Gridded Forecast System (FAA)

 AGRIMET A conjunction of the words “agricultural” and “meteorology”, is a satellite-based network of 

 automated agricultural weather stations operated and maintained by the U.S. Bureau of 

 Reclamation (DOI)

 AHPS Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Services (NOAA/NWS)

 AI Aircraft Icing (NASA)

 AIP Airport Improvement Program (FAA)

APPENDIX D

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIX D 220

AIRMAP Atmospheric Investigation Regional Modeling, Analysis, and Prediction (NOAA/OAR)

AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network (NOAA/OAR)

AIRS Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (NASA)

AL Aeronomy Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

ALDARS Automated Lightning Detection and Reporting System (FAA)

ALOHA Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres (a transport and dispersion code)

ALOO Albuquerque Operations Office

AMC Army Materiel Command 

AMDAR Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (WWP)

AMIS Automated Meteorological Information System (DOD)

AMPS Automated Meteorological Profiling System (NASA)

AMOS Automated Meteorological Observing System (DOD)

AMS Acquisition Management System (FAA)

 American Meteorological Society

AMSR-E Advanced Microwave Sounding Radiometer 

AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit

AMU Applied Meteorology Unit (NASA)

ANG Air National Guard (DOD)

ANL Argonne National Laboratory (DOE) 

AOC Aircraft Operations Center (NOAA)

 Air and Space Operations Center (DOD)

AOML Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

AOR Area of Responsibility (DOD)

AOT Aerosol Optical Thickness (NOAA/NESDIS)

APGEMS Air Pollutant Graphical Environmental Monitoring System

APS Aerosol Polarimetry Sensor (APS)

APT Automatic Picture Transmission (NOAA/NESDIS)

AQG Air Quality Group (DOE)

AR Army Regulation

ARAC Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability (DOE)

ARCS Atmospheric Radiation CART Sites (NOAA/OAR)

ARG Accident Response Group (DOE)

ARGO Global Array of Profiling Floats (NOAA/OAR)

ARGOS French Satellite Data Collection System 

ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated

ARL Army Research Laboratory 

 Air Resources Laboratory (NOAA and DOE)

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Monitoring (DOE)

ARNG Army National Guard

ARO Army Research Office

ARS Agricultural Research Service (USDA)

 Air Traffic System Requirements Service (FAA)

 Atmospheric Research Section (DOE)

ARSL Atmospheric Remote Sensing Laboratory

ARSPACE Army Space Command

ARSR Air Route Surveillance Radar (FAA)

ARSST Army Space Support Team 

ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Center (FAA)

ARTYMET Artillery Meteorological (DOD)

ARW Aviation Weather Directorate (FAA)

ASCAT Advanced Scatterometer 

ASD Atmospheric Sciences Division (DOE)

ASDAR Aircraft to Satellite Data Relay

ASNE MSEA Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation Executive Agent (DOD)

ASOG Air Support Operations Group (DOD)

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System

 Air Support Operations Squadron (DOD)

ASP Atmospheric Science Program (DOE)
APPENDIX D 221

ASR Airport Surveillance Radar (FAA)

ATC Air Traffic Control (FAA)

ATCCS Army Tactical Command and Control System

ATD Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion 

ATDD Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division (NOAA/ARL) 

ATEC Army Test and Evaluation Command

ATG Atmospheric Technologies Group (DOE)

ATLAS Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition System (NOAA/OAR)

ATMS Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder

ATO Air Traffic Organization (FAA)

 Air Tasking Order (DOD)

ATOS Appalachian Tropospheric Ozone Study (NOAA/AOC)

ATWIS Advanced Transportation Weather Information System (FHWA)

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA)

AVO Alaskan Volcano Observatory (DOI/USGS)

AVP Advanced Vehicle Technologies Program (FTA)

AWARDS Agricultural Water Resources Decision Support (DOI/BUREC)

AWC Aviation Weather Center (NOAA/NCEP)

AWIPS Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (NOAA)

AWIS Automated Weather Information System

AWN Automated Weather Network (DOD)

AWOS Automated Weather Observing System (FAA)

AWR Aviation Weather Research (FAA)

AWSS Aviation Weather Sensor System (FAA)

AWTT Aviation Weather Technology Transfer (FAA)

BAMP Breton Aerometric Monitoring Program (DOI)

BASC Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

BCTP Battle Command Training Program (DOD)

BE Battlefield Environment (DOD)

BER Biological and Environmental Research (DOE)

BFA Battlefield Functional Areas (DOD)

BIO Basis for Interim Operations (DOE)

BLM Bureau of Land Management (DOI)

BMDO Ballistic Missile Defense Office (DOD)

BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory (DOE)

BUFR Binary Universal Form for the Representation of Meteorological Data

BUREC Bureau of Reclamation (DOI)

C2 Command and Control (DOD)

C4I Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (DOD)

CAAM Computer Assisted Artillery Meteorology (DOD)

CAC Combined Arms Center (DOD)

CAIB Columbia Accident Investigation Board

CALJET California Land-falling Jets Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

CAMEO Computer Aided Management of Emergency Operations

CAMEX Convective and Moisture Experiment (NASA)

CAO Carlsbad Area Office

CAP Civil Air Patrol

CAP88-PC Clean Air Act Assessment Package-1988 - Personal Computer (DOE)

CAPARS Computer-Assisted Protective Action Recommendation System (DOE)

CARDS Comprehensive Aerological Reference Data Set (NOAA/NCDC)

CARS Condition Acquisition and Reporting System (FHWA)

CART Clouds and Radiation Testbed (DOE) 

CASPER Computer Aided System For Planning Efficient Routes (FHWA)

CAST Commercial Aviation Safety Team (FAA)

CAT Clear Air Turbulence

CAWIS Committee for Automated Weather Information Systems (OFCM)
APPENDIX D 222

CBFO Carlsbad Field Office

CBIRF Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (DOD)

CBAP Catastrophic Backup Action Plan 

CBNP Chemical Biological Non-Proliferation Program (DOE)

 Chemical Biological National Security Program (DOE) 

CBOFS Chesapeake Bay Oceanographic Forecasting System (NOAA/NOS)

CBRNE Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, or High-Yield Explosive (DOD)

CBS Commission on Basic Services (WWP)

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

CCCM Climate and Carbon Cycle Modeling (DOE)

CCM Community Climate Model used at LANL (DOE)

CCMC Community Coordinated Modeling Center (DOD)

CCMS Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (EPA)

CDA Command and Data Acquisition 

CDF Cloud Depiction and Forecasting (DOD)

CDFS Cloud Depiction and Forecast System (DOD)

CDPHE Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (DOE)

CECOM Communications and Electronics Command (DOD)

CEMSCS Central Environmental Satellite Computer System (NOAA/NESDIS)

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (NOAA/NESDIS)

CERES Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (NASA)

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics 

CFIT Controlled Flight Into Terrain (NASA)

CFR Code of Federal Regulations (DOE)

CGSC Command and General Staff College (DOD)

CHAMMP Computer Hardware Advanced Mathematics and Model Physics (DOE)

CHARM An Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Model

CIASTA Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Studies and Terrestrial Applications (NOAA/OAR)

CICE Sea Ice Code at LANL

CIDE Communications Interfaces and Data Exchange (OFCM)

CIOS Committee for Integrated Observing Systems (OFCM)

CIRES Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences 

CIWS Corridor Integrated Weather System (FAA)

CLASS Comprehensive Large Array-Data Stewardship System (NOAA/NESDIS)

CLIVAR-GEWEX Climate Variability and Predictability - Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment

CLIVAR-VAMOS Climate Variability and Predictability - Variability and Predictability of the American 

 Monsoon System 

C-MAN Coastal-Marine Automated Network

CMAQ Community Multi-scale Air Quality (EPA)

CMDL Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

CME Coronal Mass Ejection

CMFC Coordinating METOC Forecast Center (DOD)

CMIS Conical Scanning Microwave Imager Sounder

CMR Central Monitoring Room

CMS Central Monitoring System

COADS Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (NOAA/NCDC) 

COAMPS Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System 

COARE Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment

COE Corps of Engineers (DOD)

COMET Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education and Training

CONUS Continental United States (DOD)

CONUSA Continental United States Armies (DOD)

COPC Committee for Operational Processing Centers (OFCM)

COOP Cooperative Observer Program (NOAA/NWS)

CORMS Continuous Real-time Monitoring System (NOAA/NOS)

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (DOD)

COTS Commercial Off-the-Shelf
APPENDIX D 223

CPC Climate Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

CPHC Central Pacific Hurricane Center (NOAA/NCEP)

CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement

CrIS Cross-track Infrared Sounder 

CRN Climate Reference Network (NOAA)

CRREL Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (DOD)

CS Climate Services 

CSD Climate Services Division (NOAA/NWS)

CSEPP Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (DOE)

CSRA Central Savannah River Area (DOE)

CSREES Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA)

CSW Committee for Space Weather (OFCM)

CTA Common Table of Allowances (DOD)

CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (DOE)

CWS Combat Weather Squadron (DOD)

CWSU Center Weather Service Unit (FAA)

CWT Combat Weather Team (DOD)

CXD Combined X-ray Dosimeter (DOE)

CY Calendar Year

DAC Data Assembly Center (NOAA/OAR)

DAMPS Distributed Atmospheric Modeling Prediction System (DOD)

DAT Department of Advanced Technology (DOE)

DCO Data Collection Office (NOAA/NWS)

DCP Data Collection Package

 Data Collection Platform (DOI)

DCS Data Collection System (NOAA/NESDIS)

DEPSCoR Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (DOD)

DGPS Differential Global Positioning System (USGS)

DHS Department of Homeland Security 

DIS Decision and Information Sciences (DOE)

DISS Digital Ionospheric Sounding System (DOD)

DMCC DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council (DOE)

DMS Dynamic Message Sign (FHWA)

DMSO Defense Modeling and Simulation Office (DOD)

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DOD)

DNT Dinitrotoluene (DOE)

DOA Department of Agriculture

DOC Department of Commerce 

DOCS DOE Center for Research on Ocean Carbon Sequestration

DOD Department of Defense 

DOE Department of Energy 

DOI Department of the Interior 

DOMSAT Domestic Communications Satellite (DOI)

DOS Department of State 

DOT Department of Transportation

DRA Desert Rock Meteorological Observatory at NTS (DOE)

DREC Delta Research Extension Center (USDA)

DRGS Direct Readout Ground Stations (DOI)

DRI Desert Research Institute (DOE)

DRWP Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (NASA)

DSA Documented Safety Analysis

DSTL Defense Science and Technology Laboratory

DTC Developmental Test Command (DOD)

DTED Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DOD)

DTRA Defense Threat Reduction Agency 

DTSS Digital Topographic Support System (DOD)

DUAT Direct User Access Terminal (FAA)
APPENDIX D 224

DURIP Defense University Research Instrumentation Program (DOD)

EAC Echelon Above Corps (DOD)

EAD Environmental Assessment Division (DOE)

EBID Environmental Biology and Instrumentation Division (DOE)

ECDIS Electronic Chart Display Information System (NOAA/NOS)

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting

EDAS Eta Data Assimilation System (NOAA/NESDIS)

EDIS Environmental Data and Information Service (NOAA)

EED Energy and Environment Division

EERE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (DOE)

EH Environmental Health

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle (NASA)

EM Office of Environmental Management (DOE)

EMC Environmental Modeling Center (NOAA/NCEP)

 European Modeling Center (NOAA/NCEP)

EM&H Environmental Monitoring & Hydrology

EMI SIG Emergency Management Issues Special Interest Group

EMP Environmental Meteorology Program (DOE)

EMS Environmental Monitoring Section (DOE)

EMSL Environemtal and Molecular Sciences Labratory

ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation

EO Electro-optical

 Earth Observation (NASA)

EOC Emergency Operations Center

EOS Earth Observing System (NASA)

EOSDIS EOS Data and Information System (NASA)

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

EPD Environmental Protection Department (DOE)

EPIC Equatorial Pacific Investigation of Climate (NOAA/AOC)

EPR Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate (FEMA)

E-PIREPS Electronic Pilot Reports (FAA)

EP/RD Environmental Protection/Restoration Department (DOE)

EPZ Emergency Planning Zone (DOE) 

ER Eastern Range (NASA)

 Environmental Research (DOE)

ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (NASA)

ERC Extended Research Checkout

ERDA Energy Research and Development Administration (DOE)

ERDAS Eastern Range Dispersion Assessment System (NASA)

ERDC Engineering Research and Development Center (DOD)

ERL Environmental Research Laboratories (NOAA)

ESC Environmental Systems Corporation

ESD/IPC Environmental Satellite Distribution/Interactive Processing Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

ESE Earth Science Enterprise (NASA)

ESP Energy Spectrometer for Particles (DOE)

 Ensemble Streamflow Prediction (NWS)

ESS Environmental Sensor Station (FHWA)

ESSP Earth System Science Pathfinders (NASA)

ETIS Evacuation Traffic Information System (FHWA)

ETL Environmental Technology Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

ETOS East Tennessee Ozone Study (NOAA/OAR)

ETTP East Tennessee Technology Park (DOE)

ET Toolbox Evapotranspiration Toolbox (DOI)

EUMETSAT European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

EUSA Eighth U.S. Army

EUV Extreme Ultraviolet

EWR Ellason Weather Radar (DOD)
APPENDIX D 225

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FALOP Forward Area Limited Observing Program (DOD)

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA)

FBA Fire Behavior Analysts (DOI)

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change (DOS)

FCMSSR Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM)

FCS Future Combat System (DOD)

FDD First Digitized Division (DOD)

FDIC Force Development and Integration Center (DOD)

FEM3MP LLNL finite element model (DOE)

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

FIRETEC Fire Code at LANL (DOE)

FIRST FAA Icing Remote Sensor Testbed (NOAA/OAR)

FIS Flight Information System (FAA)

FITL Forecaster-in-the-Loop (DOD)

FLENUMMETOCCEN Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Monterey, California

FMF Fleet Marine Force

FMH Federal Meteorological Handbook (OFCM)

FNMOC Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (DOD)

FOA Field Operating Agency (DOD)

FORSCOM U.S. Army Forces Command

FOV Field of vision

FR Flight Rules

FRA Federal Railroad Administration

FRD Field Research Division (NOAA/ARL)

FRERP Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (DOE)

FRMAC Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (DOE)

FRWS Fire RAWS (DOI)

FS-21 Forecasting System 21st Century (DOD)

FS Forest Service (USDA)

FSA Farm Services Agency (USDA)

FSL Forecast Systems Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

FSR Forest Service Research (USDA)

FTA Federal Transit Administration

FTE Full-time Equivalent

FTP File Transfer Protocol

FU Forecast Unit

FWS Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI)

FY Fiscal year 

G-IV Gulfstream IV (NOAA)

GAA GOES Active Archive (NOAA/NESDIS)

GAC Global Area Coverage

GACC Geographic Areas Coordination Center (DOI)

GACP Global Aerosol Climatology Project (NASA)

GAIM Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurements (DOD)

GAPP GEWEX Applications Prediction Program (DOI/BUREC)

GAO General Accounting Office

GCCR Global Climate Change Research (DOE)

GCCS Global Command and Control System (DOD)

GCIP GEWEX Continental-scale International Project (DOI)

GCM Global Climate Models (DOE)

GCOS Global Climate Observing System (WWP)

GCPS Global Climate Perspectives System

GCRP Global Change Research Program
APPENDIX D 226

GDPC Global Data Processing Centers (WWP)

GDPFS Global Data Processing and Forecast System (WWP)

GEM Generation of weather Elements for Multiple (USDA)

GEOSAR Geostationary Earth Orbit Search and Rescue (NOAA/NESDIS)

GEOSS Global Earth Observation Systems of Systems (WWP)

GEWEX Global Energy and Water-Balance Experiment

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

GHCN Global Historical Climatology Network

G-IPPA Government-Industry Project Performance Agreement (FAA)

GIN Geomagnetic Information Nodes (DOI)

GIS Geographic Information System

GLD Global Lagrangian Drifters (NOAA/OAR)

GLOFS Great Lakes Operational Forecast System

GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System (NOAA/NESDIS)

GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite-Japan (WWP)

GMSRA GOES Multi-Spectral Rainfall Algorithms (NOAA/NESDIS)

GMU George Mason University 

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System

GOS Global Observing System (WWP)

GOSSP Global Observing Systems Space Panel (NOAA/NESDIS)

GPCP Global Precipitation Climatology Program

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS/MET GPS for Meteorology

GRIB Gridded Binary (FM 92-X Ext.)

GRIDS Ground-based Remote Icing Detection System (NOAA/OAR)

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)

GSN GCOS Surface Network (WWP)

GTS Global Telecommunications System (WWP)

GTSPP Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Project

GTWAPS Global Theater Weather Analysis and Prediction System (DOD)

GUAN GCOS Upper Air Network (WWP)

HAF Headquarters Air Force (DOD)

HaL Hurricanes at Landfall (NOAA/OAR)

HAR Highway Advisory Radio (FHWA)

HARM Hazardous Atmospheric Release Model (NOAA/OAR)

HAZMET Hazardous Material (FHWA)

HCRS Highway Closure and Restriction System (FHWA)

HDB Hydrologic DataBase (DOI)

HELSTF High Energy Laser System Test Facility (DOD)

HF High Frequency 

HFRB High Frequency Regional Broadcast 

HIGRAD Transport and Dispersion Model at LANL (DOE)

HIRS/3 High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

HMI Hydrologic Modeling Inventory (DOI)

HMSC Hazardous Materials Spill Center (DOE)

HMMWV High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle (DOD)

HPC Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

HPCC High Performance Computing and Communications

HRAP Hydrologic Rainfall Analysis Project (DOI)

HRD Hurricane Research Division (NOAA/ERL)

HRPT High Resolution Picture Transmission (NOAA/NESDIS)

HS Health Safety and Security

HSA Hydrologic Service Area (NOAA/NWS)

HSM Heat Stress Monitor (DOD)

HYDROMET A network of automated hydrologic and meteorologic monitoring stations 

 located throughout the Pacific Northwest (DOI)
APPENDIX D 227

HYSPLIT Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (NOAA/OAR)

HUD Head-up display (NASA)

IA Interagency Agreement

IAMS Initial Attack Management System (DOI)

IAS International Airspace System (NOAA/NWS)

IAV Interim Armored Vehicle (DOD)

IBCT Interim Brigade Combat Teams (DOD)

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

LCC Launch Commit Criteria

ICMSSR Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM)

ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions

IDCS International Data Collection System (WWP) 

IEW Intelligence and Electronic Warfare (DOD)

IFEX Intensity Forecast Experiment

IFFA Interactive Flash Flood Analyzer (NOAA/NESDIS)

IGBP International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (WWP)

IHC Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (OFCM)

IIP International Ice Patrol (USCG)

IMA Individual Mobilization Augmentee (DOD)

IMAAC Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center 

IMDES Interdepartmental Meteorological Data Exchange System 

IMETS Integrated Meteorological System (DOD)

 Incident Meteorologists (NOAA/NWS)

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (DOI)

INEEL Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (DOE)

INL Idaho National Laboratory

INS Incidents of National Significance

INSAT India’s National Satellite (WWP)

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (WWP)

IPB Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace (DOD)

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (WWP/DOS)

IPEX Intermountain Precipitation Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

IPO Integrated Program Office

IR Infrared

IRCCSI Institue for research on Climate Change & Its Societal Impacts

IRTSS Infrared Target Scene Simulation Software (DOD)

ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Program (NOAA/NESDIS)

ISES International Space Environment Service (NOAA/OAR)

ISIS Integrated Solar Irradiance Study (NOAA/OAR)

ISMS Integrated Safety Management System (DOE)

ISS International Space Station

ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (FHWA)

IT Information Technology

ITCT Intercontinental Transport and Chemical Transformation (NOAA/OAR)

ITCZ Inter-tropical convergence zone

ITS Intelligent Transportation System (FHWA)

ITS-JPO ITS Joint Program Office (FHWA)

IT-RD Information Technology Research and Development (EPA)

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System (FAA)

IWEDA Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid (DOD)

IWGCCST Interagency Working Group on Climate Change Science and Technology (DOS)

IWRS Improved Weather Reconnaissance System (OFCM)

IWRPC Improved Weather Reconnaissance System Program Council (OFCM)

JAAWIN Joint Air Force-Army Weather Information Network (DOD)

JAG Joint Action Group

JAG/OCM Joint Action Group for Operational Community Modeling 
APPENDIX D 228

JASL Joint Archive for Sea Level

JAWF Joint Agricultural Weather Facility (USDA)

JCOMM Joint Commission for Oceanographic and Marine Meteorology (WWP)

JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff (DOD)

JCSDA Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (NOAA/NCEP)

JET Joint Environmental Toolkit (DOD)

JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

JHT Joint Hurricane Testbed (NOAA/OAR)

JMDB Joint METOC Database (DOD)

JMFU Joint METOC Forecast Unit (DOD)

JMIB Joint METOC Interoperability Board (DOD)

JMIST Joint METSAT Imagery, Software, and Terminals (DOD)

JMV Joint METOC Viewer (DOD)

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA)

JSAT Joint Safety Analysis Team (FAA)

JSIT Joint Safety Implementation Team (FAA)

JSC Johnson Space Center (NASA)

JSCP Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan (DOD)

JTWC Joint Typhoon Warning Center (DOD)

JWIS Joint Weather Impacts System (DOD)

KAO Kirtland Area Office

KDFOC LLNL Fallout Model

KLC Kodiak Launch Center (NASA)

KM Kilometer

KSC Kennedy Space Center (NASA)

KVERT Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (DOI)

LAAS Local Area Augmentation System (FAA)

LAC Local Area Coverage

LAN Local Area Network

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory (DOE)

LAPS Local Analysis and Prediction System (NOAA/FSL)

LBNL Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory

LDAR Lightning Detection and Ranging

LDCM Landsat Data Continuity Mission (NASA)

LDIS Local Data Integration System (NASA)

LEO Low Earth Orbit

LLCC Lightning Launch Commit Criteria (NASA)

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (DOE)

LLWAS Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (FAA)

LLWAS-RS LLWAS-Relocation/Sustainment (FAA)

LODI Transport and Dispersion Model at LLNL (DOE)

LRGS Local Readout Ground Stations (DOI)

LSD Laboratory Services Division

LSM Land Surface Model (DOD)

LV Launch Vehicle

LWS Living With A Star (NASA)

M2M Machine-to-Machine

MACOM Major Army Command

MAGTF Marine Air Ground Task Force

MAJCOM Major Command (DOD)

MAW Marine Aircraft Wing

MB Millibars

MC Meteorological Codes

MCAF Marine Corps Air Facilities

MCAS Marine Corps Air Station
APPENDIX D 229

MCCDC Marine Corps Combat Development Command (DOD)

MCD Mesoscale Discussions (NOAA/NWS)

MCO Maintenance and Construction Operations (FHWA)

MCS Mesoscale Convective System (NOAA/OAR)

MCSP Meteorological and Climate Services Project 

MCWP Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (DOD)

MDIFF Transport and Dispersion Code at INEEL (DOE)

MDCRS Meteorological Data Communications and Reporting System (WWP)

MDSS Maintenance Decision Support System (FHWA)

MeaPRS MCS Electrification and Polarimetric Radar Study (NOAA/OAR)

MEDA Meteorological Data System

MEF Mission Execution Forecast (DOD)

MEPED Medium Energy Proton and Electron Detector (NOAA/NESDIS)

MES Marine Environmental Services (OFCM)

MET Mobile Environmental Teams (DOD)

 Meteorological Teams (DOD)

METMF Meteorological Mobile Facility (DOD)

METOC Meteorological and Oceanographic (DOD)

METSAT Meteorological Satellite

MHS Microwave Humidity Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

MHz Megahertz

MIMS Multimedia Integrated Modeling System (EPA)

MM5 Mesoscale Meteorological Model-Version 5.0 (DOD)

MME Mobile Meteorological Equipment (OFCM)

MMS Meteorological Measuring System (DOD)

 Mineral Management Service (DOI)

 Modular Modeling System (DOI)

MMS-P Meteorological Measuring System-Profiler (DOD)

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOBY Marine Optical Buoy (NOAA/NESDIS)

MOCE Marine Optical Characterization Experiment (NOAA/NESDIS)

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (NASA)

MOS Model Output Statistics 

MP Mission Planning (DOD)

MPA Magnetospheric Plasma Analyzer (DOE)

MPC Marine Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

MS Monitoring the Stratosphere (OFCM)

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA)

MSL Mean Sea Level

MSS Meteorological Sounding System (NASA)

MST Meteorological Support Teams (DOD)

MSU Microwave Sounding Unit (NOAA/NESDIS)

MTI Multi-spectal Thermal Imager

MTN Main Telecommunications Network (WWP)

MTOE Modified Table of Organization and Equipment (DOD)

MTPE Mission to Planet Earth (NASA)

MTSAT Multi-functional Transport Satellite

MWSS Marine Wing Support Squadron

MW Microwave

N511 National 511-Traveler Information Service (FHWA)

NADIN National Airspace Data Interchange Network (FAA)

NAF Numbered Air Force

NAME North American Monsoon Experiment 

NAMIS NATO Automated Meteorological Information System (DOD)

NMAO NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations 

NAP Non-insured Crop Disaster Assistance Program (USDA)
APPENDIX D 230

NAPP National Aerial Photography Program (USDA)

NAOS North American Atmospheric Observing System (NOAA)

NARAC National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (DOE)

NARSTO North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone (EPA)

NAS National Airspace System (FAA)

 National Academy of Sciences

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASDA National Space Development Agency of Japan 

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA)

NATCOM National Communications Center (FAA)

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (DOD, EPA)

NAVICECEN Naval Ice Center

NAVOCEANO Naval Oceanographic Office 

NAVLANTMETOCCEN Naval Atlantic Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Norfolk, Virginia

NAVMETOCCOM Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

NAVPACMETOCCEN Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

NAWPC National Aviation Weather Program Council (OFCM)

NBC Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (DOD)

NC NOAA Corps 

NCA National Command Authority (DOD)

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research 

NCAS NOAA Center for Atmospheric Sciences 

NCDC National Climatic Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NOAA/NWS)

NCO NCEP Central Operations (NOAA/NCEP)

 Non-commissioned officer (DOD)

NDBC National Data Buoy Center (NOAA/NWS)

NDGPS Nationwide Differiental Global Positioning System

NDI Non-developmental item

NDOP National Digital Orthoquad Program (USDA)

NDRI Natural Disaster Reduction Initiative (NOAA)

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NOAA/NESDIS)

NEAQS New England Air Quality Study 

NEMP Non-radiological Environmental Monitoring Program

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act 

NERON NOAA’s Environmental Real-Time Observation Network 

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NOAA)

NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (DOE)

NESS National Environmental Satellite Service (NOAA)

NEST Nuclear Emergency Search Team (DOE)

NETRAD Networked Radars 

NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar (WSR-88D)

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA)

NFDRS National Fire Danger Rating System (DOI/BLM)

NGDC National Geophysical Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NGIC National Geomagnetic Information Center (DOI)

NGST Northrup Grumman Space Technology 

NHC National Hurricane Center (NOAA/NCEP)

NHI National Highway Institute (FHWA)

NHOP National Hurricane Operations Plan (OFCM)

NIC National Ice Center (DOT/USCG)

 National Intelligence Community (DOD)

NIFC National Interagency Fire Center (DOI)

NIPRNET Non-secure Internet Protocol Router Network (DOD)

NIRT Nuclear Incident Response Team

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology (DOC)

NITES Navy Integrated Tactical Environmental Subsystem

NLDN National Lightning Detection Network (FAA)
APPENDIX D 231

NMC National Meteorological Center(s) (WWP)

NMHS National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (WWP)

NMOC Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

NMP New Millennium Program (NASA)

NMS National Military Strategy (DOD)

NMTN National Meteorological Telecommunications Network (WWP)

NNDC NOAA National Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration (DOE)

NNSA/NSO National Nuclear Security Administration/Nevada Site Office (DOE)

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOCMP National Operational Coastal Modeling Program 

NODC National Oceanographic Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NODDS Navy Oceanographic Data Distribution System

NOGAPS Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System

NOHRSC National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center 

NOS National Ocean Service (NOAA) 

NOTAMS Notices to Airmen (FAA)

NOWS NVG Operations Weather Software (DOD)

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (DOE)

NPN NOAA Profiler Network (NOAA/OAR)

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NPP NPOESS Preparatory Program (NASA)

NPS National Park Service (DOI)

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA)

NRI National Research Initiative (USDA)

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NRO National Reconnaissance Office (DOD)

NRP National Response Plan

NRVR New Generation Runway Visual Range (FAA)

NSC National Security Complex

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center (NOAA)

NSO Nevada Site Office (DOE)

NSS National Security Strategy (DOD)

NSSE National Special Security Events 

NSSL National Severe Storms Laboratory (NOAA)

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NSTEP National Strategic Training and Education Plan (NOAA/NWS)

NSWP National Space Weather Program (OFCM)

NTCIP National Transportation Communications for ITS Protocol (FHWA)

N-TFS New Tactical Forecast System (DOD)

NTIS National Technical Information Service

NTS Nevada Test Site (DOE)

NTSB National Transportation Safety Board 

NV Nevada Operations Office (DOE)

NVG Night Vision Goggles (DOD)

NVOO Nevada Operations Office

NWA National Wilderness Area (DOI)

NWCC National Water & Climate Center (USDA)

NWCG National Wildfire Coordinating Group (USDA)

NWIS National Water Information System (DOI)

NWLON National Water-Level Observation Network (NOAA/NOS)

NWP Numerical Weather Prediction

NWS National Weather Service

NWSRFS National Weather Service River Forecast Service (NOAA/NWS)

NWSTC National Weather Service Training Center (NOAA/NWS)

NXDP National Xeriscape Demonstration Program (DOI)
APPENDIX D 232

O&C Oregon and California Railroad Land Grants (DOI)

OAR Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (NOAA)

OASIS Operational and Supportability Implementation System (FAA)

OB Operational Build

OCAP Operating Consortium of ASDAR Participants (WWP)

OCE Office of the Chief Economist (USDA)

OCRWM Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management

OCWWS Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services (NOAA/NWS)

OEH Office of Emergancy Management

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology 

OGP Office of Global Programs (NOAA)

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OMEGA Operational Medicine Environmental Grid Application (DOD)

OMPS Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite

ONR Office of Naval Research

OOR Object Oriented Redesign

OPAREA Fleet Operational Area (DOD)

OPARS Optimum Path Aircraft Routing System (DOD)

OPC Operational Processing Centers 

OPS-II Operational Weather Squadron Production System, Phase II

OPUP Open Principal User Processor

OR&F Operations, Research, and Facilities (NOAA/NWS)

ORA Office of Research and Applications (NOAA/NESDIS)

ORAU Oak Ridge Associated Universities (DOE)

ORD Operational Requirements Documents (DOD)

ORISE Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (DOE)

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory (DOE)

OROO Oak Ridge Operations Office (DOE)

ORPG Open Systems Radar Product Generator (NOAA/OAR)

ORR Oak Ridge Reservation (DOE)

ORS Optical Remote Sensing

OS Office of Science, South Carolina

OS-21 Observing System 21st Century (DOD)

OSC On-Scene Commander (DOE)

OSDPD Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSE Observing System Experiments (WWP)

OSEI Operational Significant Event Imagery (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration 

OSO Office of Satellite Operations (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSSE Observing System Simulation Experiments (WWP)

OSTEP Ocean Systems Test and Evaluation Program (NOAA/NOS)

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy

OTC Operational Test Centers 

OTH Over the horizon (NOAA/OAR)

OTSR Optimum Track Ship Routing (DOD)

OWF Operational Weather Flight (DOD)

OWS Operational Weather Squadron (DOD)

OWSE Operational World Weather Watch Systems Evaluation (WWP)

PAA Precipitation Accumulation Algorithm (DOI)

PAC Procurement, Acquisition, and Construction (NOAA/NWS)

PACS Polar Acquisition and Control Subsystem (NOAA/NESDIS)

PAR Phased Array Radar 

PATMOS Pathfinder Atmosphere (NOAA/NESDIS)

PAWRP Phased Array Weather Radar Project 

PBL Planetary Boundary Layer (DOE)

PC Program Council (OFCM)
APPENDIX D 233

 Personal Computer (DOE)

PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl 

PCMDI Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (DOE)

PD Program Director (DOD)

PDD Presidential Decision Directive

PDT Product Development Team

PECAD Production Estimates and Crop Assessment Division (USDA)

PIBAL Pilot Balloon

PIPS Polar Ice Prediction System (NOAA/NESDIS)

PIRATA Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic (NOAA/OAR)

PIREP Pilot Report

PMC Project Management Coordinator (DOE)

PMEL Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (DOE)

PNT Position, Navigation, and Timing (USCG)

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)

POP Parallel Ocean Program (DOE)

POPS Primary Oceanographic Prediction System (DOD)

PORTS Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System (NOAA/NOS)

ppm Part per Million (DOE)

PSDA Post-Storm Data Acquisition (OFCM)

PSR Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer (NOAA/OAR)

PSS Plant Shift Superintendent

PUP Principal User Processor

QPF Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (NOAA/NCEP)

QuikSCAT Quick Scatterometer

R&A Research and Analysis

R&D Research and Development 

RAFC Regional Area Forecast Center (WWP)

RAMS Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (DOE)

RAMSDIS RAMM Branch Advanced Meteorological Satellite Demonstration and 

 Interpretation System (NOAA/NESDIS)

RAP Radiological Assistance Program (DOE)

 Remedial Action Plan (DOE)

RARC Regional Atmospheric Response Center (DOE)

RASS Radio Acoustic Sounding System (NOAA/OAR and DOE)

RATS Radio Automatic Theodolite System (NASA)

RAWS Remote Automatic Weather Station (USDA/DOI)

RBCN Regional Basic Climate Network (WWP)

RC Reserve Component (DOD)

RCC Regional Climate Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

RCTM Road Condition and Treatment Module (FHWA)

RDA Radar Data Acquisition

RDEC Research Development and Engineering Center (DOD)

RDTE Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (DOD)

REIP Reengineered Enterprise Infrastructure Program (DOD)

RF Radio Frequency

RFETS Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (DOE)

RFO Rocky Flats Office (DOE)

RFC River Forecast Center (NOAA/NWS)

RMTN Regional Meteorological Telecommunications Network (WWP)

ROC Radar Operations Center (NOAA/NWS)

RPC Rapid Prototype Center (NOAA/SEC)

RSA Range Standardization and Automation (NASA)

RSAC Transport and Dispersion Code at INEEL (DOE)

RSFWSU Remote Sensing/Fire Weather Support Unit (DOI)
APPENDIX D 234

RSL Remote Sensing Laboratory

RSMC Regional/Specialized Meteorological Centers (WWP)

RSS Receiving Set Satellite (DOD)

RTH Regional Telecommunications Hub (WWP)

RUC Rapid Update Cycle (NOAA/OAR)

RVR Runway Visual Range (FAA)

RWIS Road Weather Information System (FHWA)

SAA Satellite Active Archive

 Snow Accumulation Algorithm (DOI/BLM)

SAFETEA Safe, Accountable, Flexible, and Efficient Transportation Equity Act of 2003 (FHWA)

SALEX Saharan Air Layer Experiment 

SAMS Stochastic Analysis, Modeling, and Simulation (DOI)

SAP Special Access Program

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar (NOAA/NESDIS)

SARSAT Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking

SATCOM Satellite Communications

SATS Small Aircraft Transportation System (NASA)

SAWS Stand Alone Weather Sensor (FAA)

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research Program 

SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultra-violet Instrument (NOAA/NESDIS)

SCAN Soil Climate Analysis Network (USDA)

SCAPA Subcommittee for Consequence Assessment and Protective Actions

SCI Sensitive Compartmented Information (DOD)

SDHS Satellite Data Handling System (DOD)

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field Scanner (NASA)

SEC Space Environment Center (NOAA/NCEP)

 Sun Earth Connection (NASA)

SEM Space Environment Monitor (NOAA)

SEMSIM Southeastern Michigan Snow and Ice Management (FHWA)

SEON Solar Electro-optical Observing Network (DOD)

SESS Space Environmental Sensor Suite 

SFMR Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometer

SGP Southern Great Plains (DOE)

SHEBA Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (DOE)

SHEP State Highway Emergency Patrol (FHWA)

SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program (FHWA)

SIGRID Sea Ice in Gridded Format (NOAA/NESDIS)

SLF Shuttle Landing Facility

SLRS-C Spacelift Range System Contract (NASA)

SMC Space and Missile Systems Center (DOD)

SMDC Space and Missile Defense Command (DOE)

SMG Spaceflight Meteorology Group (NASA)

SNDR Subcommittee on Natural Disaster Reduction

SNL Sandia National Laboratory (DOE)

SNODEP SNOw DEPth

SNOTEL Snow Pack Telemetry (USDA)

SOCC Satellite Operations Control Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

SODAR Sound Detection and Ranging (DOE)

SODAR/RASS Sound Detection and Ranging/Radio Acoustic Sounding System (DOE)

SOF Special Operations Forces (DOD)

SOLAS International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (NOAA/NCEP, DHS/USCG)

SOPA Synchronous Orbit Plasma Analyzer (DOE)

SORD Special Operations and Research Division (NOAA/ARL)

SPLASH Hydrologic Code at LANL (DOE)

SPAWARSYSCOM Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command

SPC Storm Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

SPO System Program Office (DOD)
APPENDIX D 235

SPP Shared Processing Program

SQA Software Quality Assurance

SR Savannah River (DOE)

SRB Solid Rocket Booster

SRNL Savannah River National Laboratory (DOE)

SROO Savannah River Operations Office

SRS Savannah River Site

SRTC Savannah River Technology Center (DOE)

SS&WSF Snow Survey & Water Supply Forecasting (USDA)

SSIES Special Sensor for Ions and Electrons (DOD)

SSJ Special Sensor Precipitating Elecron and Ion Spectrometer (DOD)

SSM Special Sensor Magnetometer (DOD)

SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (DOC, DOD, DOI)

SSM/T Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature (DOD)

SSOB Special Support Operations Branch (DOD)

SST Sea Surface Temperature

SSU Stratospheric Sounding Unit (NOAA)

SSUSI Special Sensor Ultraviolet Spectrographic Imager (DOD)

STAR Weather Data Format used at Pantex (DOE)

STIWG Satellite Telemetry Interagency Working Group (OFCM)

STP Solar-Terrestrial Physics

STS Special Tactics Squadron (DOD)

STWDSR Surface Transportation Weather Decision Support Requirements (FHWA)

SURFRAD Surface Radiation Budget Station at NTS (DOE)

SVS Synthetic Vision System (NASA)

SWA Southwest Asia (DOD)

SWAFS Space Weather Analysis and Forecasting System (DOD)

SWE Snow Water Equivalent (DOI/BUREC)

SWO Staff Weather Officer (DOD)

 Space Weather Operations (NOAA/OAR)

SWR Supplemental Weather Radar (DOD)

SWSI Surface Water Supply Index (USDA)

SXI Solar X-Ray Imager (DOD)

T2 Technology transfer

TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast

TAL Transatlantic Abort Landing (NASA)

TAMDAR Troposphere Airborne Meteorological Data Reports (WWP)

TAO Tropical Atmosphere Ocean

TAWS Target Acquisition Weather Software (DOD)

TCP Transformation Campaign Plan (DOD)

TDA Tactical Decision Aid (DOD)

TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (FAA)

TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (FHWA)

TEC Topographic Engineering Center (DOD)

 Total Electron Content (DOE)

TED Total Energy Detector (NOAA/NESDIS)

TEDS Tactical Environmental Data Server (DOD)

TESS Tactical Environmental Support System (DOD)

THORPEX The Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment (WWP)

TIMEX Thunderstorm Initiation Mobile Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

TIROS Television Infrared Observation Satellite (NOAA/NESDIS)

TOC Tactical Operations Center (DOD)

TOE Table of Organization and Equipment (DOD)

TOGA Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere 

TOVS TIROS-N Operational Vertical Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

TNT Trinitrotoluene (DOE)
APPENDIX D 236

TPAWS Turbulence Prediction and Warning System

TPC Tropical Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

TPW Total Precipitable Water (NOAA/NESDIS)

TRACON Terminal Radar Approach Control (FAA)

TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command (DOD)

TRB Transportation Research Board (FHWA)

TRITON Triangle Trans-Ocean buoy Network (NOAA/OAR)

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (NASA)

TRU Transuric (DOE)

TSIS Total Solar Irradiance Sensor 

TUAN Tactical Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (DOD)

TWC The Weather Channel 

TWIP Terminal Weather Information for Pilots (FAA)

TWP Tropical Western Pacific (DOE)

TWR Tactical Weather Radar (DOD)

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (DOD)

UC University of Chicago or California 

UCAN Unified Climate Access Network (USDA)

UCAR University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

UHF Ultra High Frequency 

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations 

UNEP United Nations Environment Program 

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (WWP)

UNLV University of Nevada at Las Vegas (DOE)

UPOS University Partnering for Operational Support (DOD)

USA U.S. Army

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAES U.S. Army Engineer School

USAF U.S. Air Force 

USAFE U.S. Air Forces in Europe

USAFAS U.S. Army Field Artillery School

USAIC&FH U.S. Army Intelligence Center and Fort Huachuca

USAR U.S. Army Reserve

USARAK U.S. Army Alaska

USARC U.S. Army Reserve Command

USAREUR U.S. Army Europe

USARHAW U.S. Army Hawaii

USARIEM U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine

USARJ U.S. Army Japan

USARPAC U.S. Army Pacific

USASMDC U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command

USASOC U.S. Army Special Operations Command

USCENTCOM U.S. Central Command

USCG U.S. Coast Guard 

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program

USFS U.S. Forest Service 

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

USHCN U.S. Historical Climatology Network

USIABP U.S. Interagency Arctic Buoy Program (NOAA/NESDIS)

USMC U.S. Marine Corps

USMCC U.S. SARSAT Mission Control Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

USN U.S. Navy

USSOCOM U.S. Special Operations Command (DOD)

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program

UT University of Tennessee
APPENDIX D 237

UTC Universal Time Coordinated (Zulu)

UV Ultra-violet

VA Volcanic Ash 

VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

VAS VISSR Atmospheric Sounder 

VCP Voluntary Cooperation Program (WWP)

VII Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (FHWA)

VIIRS Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite

VIN Vegetative Index Number (USDA)

VIRS Visible and Infrared Scanner (NASA)

VISSR Visible and Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer 

VOC Volatile organic compound 

VISTAS Visibility Improvement State and Tribal Association of the Southeast (DOI)

VORTEX Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

VOS Voluntary Observing Ship (WWP)

VPR Vertical Profile of Reflectivity (DOI)

VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal (DOD)

VSL Variable Speed Limit (FHWA)

VTMX Vertical Transport and Mixing Experiment (DOE)

VTS Vessel Traffic System (NOAA/NOS)

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System (FAA)

WAFC World Area Forecast Center (WWP)

WAFS World Area Forecast System (WWP) 

WAMIS World Agrometeorological Information Service (USDA)

WAOB World Agricultural Outlook Board (USDA)

WARP Weather and Radar Processor (FAA)

WaRSMP Watershed and River System Management Program (DOI)

WCT Wind Chill Temperature (OFCM)

WDA Weather Data Analysis (DOD)

WEFAX Weather Facsimile (WWP)

WETM Weather Team (DOD)

WFAS Wildland Fire Assessment System (DOI)

WFMIS Wildland Fire Management Information Site (DOI)

WFO Weather Forecast Office (NOAA/NWS)

WG Working Group

WG/VA Working Group for Volcanic Ash (DOI)

WG/PSDA Working Group for Post-Storm Data Acquisition (FEMA)

WGCV Working Group on Calibration and Validation (NOAA/NESDIS)

WINCOM Weather Information Communications (NASA)

WIMS Weather Information Management System (USDA)

WIND Weather Information and Display (DOE)

WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (DOE)

WIS WMO Information System(WWP)

WIST Weather Information for Surface Transportation

WMC World Meteorological Center(s) (WWP)

WMO World Meteorological Organization 

WMSCR Weather Message Switching Center-Replacement (FAA)

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment 

WPDN Wind Profile Demonstration Network (NOAA)

WPSM Warfighter Physiological Status Monitoring (DOD)

WRD Water Resources Division (DOI/USGS)

WRF Weather Research and Forecast (DOC, DOD)

WRS Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (DOD)

WRTC Weather Readiness Training Center (DOD)

WSDDM Weather Support to Deicing Decision Making (FAA)
APPENDIX D 238

WSP Weather Systems Processor (FAA)

WSR-88D Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (NEXRAD)

WSRC Westinghouse Savannah River Company (DOE)

WSSRAP Weldon Springs Site Remedial Action Project (DOE)

WST Weather Specialty Team (DOD)

WTS Washington TURU Solutions

WWCB Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin (USDA)

WWP World Weather Program 

WWW World Weather Watch (WMO)

 World Wide Web

XOW Air Force Director of Weather (DOD)

YMP Yucca Mountain Project (DOE)
FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGY

FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL

SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (FCMSSR)

INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL

SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (ICMSSR)

PROGRAM COUNCILS

STANDING COMMITTEES

October 2008 LEGEND: Designates a Working Group

Designates a Joint Action Group

Designates a Council or Group

that is to be formed

NATIONAL SPACE

WEATHER

COMMITTEE FOR SPACE

WEATHER

ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES,

OPERATIONS AND

RESEARCH NEEDS

Products and Services

Innovations

5D Environmental Data Cloud

Research Results to

Operations

National Wildland Fire Weather

NATIONAL AVIATION

WEATHER

COMMITTEE FOR AVIATION

SERVICES AND RESEARCH

Volcanic Ash

COMMITTEE FOR

OPERATIONAL PROCESSING

CENTERS

Cooperative Support and

Backup

Centralized Communications

Management

Operational Data Acquisition

for Assimilation

Operational Community

Modeling

NATIONAL OPERATIONAL

PROCESSING CENTERS

FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL

COORDINATING INFRASTRUCTURE

INTEGRATED

OBSERVING SYSTEMS

Atmospheric Observing Systems

CLIMATE ANALYSIS,

MONITORING AND SERVICES

Climate Services and

Information Products

XML and Web Services

ENVIRONMENTAL

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

AND COMMUNICATIONS

Meteorological Codes

Communications Interfaces

and Data Exchange

Frequency Management

Joint Model Development

and Evaluation

Joint Urban Test Beds

Urban Meteorology

Natural Disaster Reduction /

Post-Storm Data Acquisition

Hurricane and Winter Storms

Operations

Hydromet Assessment

Lightning Detection Systems

Severe Local Storms

Operations

Satellite Telemetry

Critical Skill Shortages Weather Information for

Surface Transportation

Social Sciences Research

Customer Decision Support

Systems

Tropical Cyclone Research

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Multifunction Phased Array

Radar

MULTIFUNCTION

PHASED

ARRAY RADAR