OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL

COORDINATOR OFCM FOR METEOROLOGY

FCM-P1-2006

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

Fiscal Year 2007

Tropical Cyclone Research

INTENSITY/STRUCTURE SEA STATE

SURGE SOCIAL SCIENCE

TRACK

PRECIPITATION
THE FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (FCMSSR)

VADM CONRAD C. LAUTENBACHER, JR., USN (RET)

Chairman, Department of Commerce

DR. SHARON L. HAYS

Office of Science and Technology Policy

DR. RAYMOND MOTHA

Department of Agriculture

BGEN DAVID L. JOHNSON, USAF (RET)

Department of Commerce

MR. ALAN SHAFFER

Department of Defense

DR. JERRY ELWOOD

Department of Energy

DR. MAUREEN MCCARTHY

Science and Technology Directorate

Department of Homeland Security

DR. MICHAEL SOUKUP

Department of the Interior

MR. RALPH BRAIBANTI

Department of State

MR. RANDOLPH LYON

Office of Management and Budget

MS. VICTORIA COX

Department of Transportation

MR. DAVID MAURSTAD 

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Department of Homeland Security

DR. MARY L. CLEAVE

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

DR. MARGARET S. LEINEN

National Science Foundation

MR. PAUL MISENCIK

National Transportation Safety Board

MR. JAMES WIGGINS

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

DR. LAWRENCE REITER

Environmental Protection Agency

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON

Federal Coordinator 

MR. JAMES B. HARRISON, Executive Secretary

Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

THE INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (ICMSSR)

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON, Chairman

Federal Coordinator

MR. THOMAS PUTERBAUGH

Department of Agriculture

MR. JOHN E. JONES, JR.

Department of Commerce

RADM FRED BYUS, USN

United States Navy

Department of Defense

BRIG GEN LAWRENCE A. STUTZRIEM, USAF

United States Air Force

Department of Defense

MR. RICKEY PETTY

Department of Energy

VACANT

Science and Technology Directorate

Department of Homeland Security

MR. JOHN VIMONT

Department of the Interior

MR. ANTHONY FURST (Acting)

Federal Highway Administration

Department of Transportation

MR. JAMES H. WILLIAMS

Federal Aviation Administration

Department of Transportation

DR. JONATHAN M. BERKSON

United States Coast Guard

Department of Homeland Security

MR. JEFFREY MACLURE

Department of State

DR. S. T. RAO

Environmental Protection Agency

MR. JOHN GAMBEL

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Department of Homeland Security

DR. RAMESH KAKAR

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

DR. JARVIS MOYERS

National Science Foundation

MR. DONALD E. EICK

National Transportation Safety Board

MS. LETA A. BROWN

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

MS. EMILY WOGLOM

Office of Management and Budget

MR. JAMES B. HARRISON, Executive Secretary

Office of the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

Pictures displayed on the cover.

Intensity/Structure: A NOAA GOES East visible image of Hurricane Rita on September 23, 2005, along with an example of a H*Wind “snapshot” product (Hurricane Rita, 1930 UTC, 23 Sep 2005). (ftp://ftp.aoml.noaa.gov/pub/hrd/hwind/2005/al18.2005/0923/1930/col02deg.png)

Track: Graphic of hurricane tracks for the record-breaking 2005 hurricane season. (NOAA)

Sea State: View of sea state from a ship’s bridge offshore Newfoundland. (http://tv-antenna.com/heavy-seas/3/)

Surge: Storm surge is a rapid rise of sea level that occurs as a hurricane approaches a coastline. (http://www.ihc.fiu.edu/images/storm_surge_2.jpg)

Precipitation: This image shows rain accumulation from Hurricane Katrina for August 30, 2005, based on data from the NASA TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation

Analysis shown in colors ranging from green (less than 30 mm) through red (80 mm or more). Satellite cloud data is overlaid for context.

(http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003200/a003239/index.html)

Social Science: Last minute evacuees flee the hurricane. Can we prevent this situation from happening? (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/science/nature/474296.stm)
The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

FISCAL YEAR 2007

FEDERAL COORDINATOR

FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1500

Silver Spring, MD 20910

301-427-2002

FCM-P1-2006

OCTOBER 2006

WASHINGTON, D.C.

Editors: Frank Estis

Kenneth Barnett

PREFACE iii

PREFACE

Since 1965, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

(OFCM) has developed a Federal Plan that articulates the provision of meteorological services and the support

for meteorological and related research by agencies of the Federal government. OFCM's 2007 Federal Plan

provides Congress and the Executive Branch with a comprehensive compilation of proposed programs for fiscal year (FY) 2007 and a review of agency programs in FY 2006. The Federal Plan's narratives, timelines, and

schedules are current as of August 2006.

The Federal Plan consists of an Executive Summary, three sections, and Appendices. The Executive Summary, which is written as a concise, stand-alone report, provides a high-level view of the Federal resources

dedicated to meteorological programs and the achievements of those programs.

This year's feature article (Section 1) reviews three projects focused on tropical cyclone (TC) research and

development (R&D) to improve the Nation's tropical cyclone forecast and warning service. After briefly

reviewing the three projects, the article provides more details on one of the projects, the development of an

OFCM-sponsored interagency strategic TC research plan. A revolution in the accuracy and utility of weather

forecasts has occurred in the past several decades. This revolution has also improved forecasts and warnings

for tropical cyclones. Nevertheless, further improvements to the Nation's tropical cyclone forecast and warning service are feasible, within reach, and valuable investments for our safety, security, and economic wellbeing. Whether called “hurricanes” (in the North Atlantic and in the Pacific off the coasts of the Americas),

“typhoons” (in the Pacific west of the dateline), or other regional appellations, these severe cyclonic storms are

causing increasing amounts of destruction, death, and injury primarily because both population density and

economic infrastructure in coastal regions continue to increase. Tropical cyclone forecasting has been and

continues to be a challenge. However, the capability to begin gaining skill in forecasting rapid intensity

changes, better predicting hurricane structure, sea state and storm surge, and precipitation is now on the horizon much like improving track was a decade or so ago due to continued improvements in observational capabilities, and recent advancements in numerical weather prediction model physics and data assimilation systems.

Section 2 of the Federal Plan summarizes the resources requested in the President's FY 2007 Budget, compared with the resources appropriated by Congress for FY 2006. Section 3 contains departmental and agency

narratives on programs for providing meteorological services and supporting research and development. It

also describes relevant research funded by the National Science Foundation.

Appendix A describes the OFCM's coordination, program, and planning activities. Appendix B addresses

the World Meteorological Organization's World Weather Program. Appendix C lists the feature articles published in previous Federal Plans. The acronyms and abbreviations used throughout this year's Federal Plan are

defined in Appendix D. The inside front cover lists the current members of the Federal and Interdepartmental

Committees for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, which provide guidance and support for

OFCM activities. The inside back cover diagrams the infrastructure through which the OFCM performs its

coordinating mission.

Samuel P. Williamson

Federal Coordinator for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research

v

THE FEDERAL PLAN FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH, FISCAL YEAR 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

Section 1. ROADMAP FOR TROPICAL CYCLONE RESEARCH TO MEET OPERATIONAL NEEDS . . . .1

Section 2. RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Agency Obligations for Meteorological Operations

and Supporting Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Department of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Department of Homeland Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Department of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

National Aeronautics and Space Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Nuclear Regulatory Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Agency Funding by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Agency Funding by Service Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Interagency Fund Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Section 3. AGENCY METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING 

RESEARCH PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Department of Commerce Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

National Weather Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

National Ocean Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

Department of Defense Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

United States Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

United States Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

Department of Transportation Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

Federal Aviation Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

Federal Highway Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

Federal Railroad Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Department of Agriculture Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171

Department of Energy and National Nuclear Security Administration

Operational and Research Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179

Department of Homeland Security Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199

Department of the Interior Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

Department of State Climate and Atmospheric Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

Environmental Protection Agency Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Weather Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231

APPENDICES

A. FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233

B. WORLD WEATHER PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249

C. LISTING OF PREVIOUS FEATURE ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255

D. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257

LIST OF TABLES 

ES-1 Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations and Supporting

Research, FY 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

2.1 Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

Costs, by Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

2.2 Agency Operational Costs, by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

2.3 Agency Supporting Research Costs, by Budget Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

2.4 Agency Operational Costs, by Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

2.5 Agency Supporting Research Costs, by Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

2.6 Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

2.7 Interagency Fund Transfers for Meteorological 

Operations and Supporting Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

2.8 Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

3.1 Projected Satellite Launch Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

3.2 Trace Gas and Aerosol Products from Operational Polar-Orbiting Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

3.3 GOES-R Bands and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

A.1 Current OFCM Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245

vi
For Fiscal Year (FY) 2007, the President's budget requests over a total of

$3.44 billion for meteorological services and supporting research. Of the

requested total, over $3.03 billion is

designated for operations and over

$413.7 million for supporting research.

Table ES-1 lists a breakout of the FY

2007 budget proposal.

For FY 2007, 92.7 percent of the total

funds requested will go to the Departments of Commerce (DOC), Defense

(DOD), and Transportation (DOT).

The distribution among these three

departments is DOC 59.3 percent,

DOD 17.5 percent, and DOT 15.9 percent. The other Federal agencies will

share the remaining 7.3 percent.

By comparison, the FY 2007 request

represents an increase of 3.9 percent

above the over $3.31 billion appropriated in FY 2006. Within the three

major departments, DOC requests an

increase of 4.2 percent; DOD an

increase of 2.1 percent, and DOT an

increase of 7.3 percent. The DOC

increase is attributable to requests for

increases by NWS, NESDIS, and NOS.

The overall DOD increase is mainly the

result of increases in AF and DMSP

requested funding. DOT's increase is

attributable to an increase in FAA’s

operations requests.

The budget requests for the other

departments are as follows:

• Department of Agriculture

(USDA) a decrease of 14.7 percent,

• Department of the Interior (DOI)

no change,

• Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) no change,

• National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) an increase of

2.2 percent, and

• the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) no change.

Figure ES-1 depicts each agency's

proportion of the requested FY 2007

Federal budget for meteorological

operations and supporting research.

Each agency's portion of the requested

funding for meteorological operations

is shown in Figure ES-2. Of the over

$3.03 billion requested for meteorological operations, DOC, DOD, and DOT

account for 98.6 percent of the funds.

Overall, operational costs increased by

5.6 percent. Figure ES-3 depicts each

agency's portion of the proposed Federal supporting research budget.

Unlike operations, DOC, DOD, and

NASA account for the major share

(83.5 percent) of the supporting

research budget. Overall, supporting

research costs decreased by 7.5 percent.

All agencies project a personnel total

of 13,505 full-time equivalent (FTE) to

be employed in Federal meteorological

operations in FY 2007. This figure represents a decrease of 13.5 percent from

the 15,613 FTE employed in FY 2006,

with the largest share of the decrease

attributed to a reduction in DOT/FAA

personnel due to outsourcing activities.

EXEC SUM vii

THE FEDERAL PLAN FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

FISCAL YEAR 2007

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Table ES-1. Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations and Supporting

Research, FY 2007 (in thousands of dollars)

% of Supporting % of % of

Agency Operations TOTAL Research TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL

Agriculture $19,710 0.7 $31,395 7.6 $51,105 1.5

Commerce 1,954,209 64.5 89,787 21.7 2,043,996 59.3

Defense 514,056 17.0 89,369 21.6 603,425 17.5

Homeland Security 20,110 0.7 0 0.0 20,110 0.6

Interior 2,400 0.1 0 0.0 2,400 0.1

Transportation 518,624 17.1 27,800 6.7 546,424 15.9

EPA 0 0.0 9,000 2.2 9,000 0.3

NASA 2,463 0.1 166,400 40.2 168,863 4.9

NRC 120 0.0 0 0.0 120 0.0

TOTAL $3,031,692 100.0* $413,751 100.0 $3,445,443 100.0*

* Column total does not exactly equal 100 percent due to rounding for several agencies.
viii EXEC SUM

Figure ES-1. Agency Percent of Total Federal Budget for Meteorological Operations

and Supporting Research, FY 2007.

Figure ES-2. Agency Percent of Federal Budget

for Meteorological Operations, FY 2007.

Figure ES-3. Agency Percent of Federal Budget

for Supporting Research, FY 2007.

Total = $3.45 Billion

Total = $3.03 Billion Total = $414 Million
EXEC SUM ix

MAJOR PROGRAMS--DOC, DOD,

and DOT

NEXT GENERATION WEATHER

RADAR (NEXRAD)

The NEXRAD Program, begun in

FY 1981, was responsible for procurement, installation, and operation of the

Weather Surveillance Radar-1988

Doppler (WSR-88D). The first limited

production WSR-88D system was

installed at Norman, Oklahoma, in

May 1990, and commissioned in February 1994. In response to a National

Research Council report, three additional radars were added to the original

program plan, raising the total to 158.

The last system in the basic procurement schedule was installed in December 1996.

By agency, DOC/National Weather

Service commissioned 120 sites, DOD

(USAF) commissioned 26 sites (Continental United States (CONUS) and

overseas), and DOT/FAA commissioned 12 sites. DOC/NWS has two

each systems at the National Reconditioning Center and the NWS Training

Center, in Kansas City, Missouri, and

the Radar Operation Center, Norman,

Oklahoma. DOD has two systems at

Keesler AFB, Mississippi, for training.

AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVING SYSTEM (ASOS)

The ASOS program began in 1983 as

a joint development effort between the

DOC, DOD, and DOT/FAA. ASOS

installation started in 1992. To date,

1009 units have been purchased,

accepted, and commissioned: 313 by

NWS, 572 by FAA (accepted and commissioned by the NWS), 77 by the

Navy, and 47 by the Air Force. The Air

Force Observing System-21st Century

(OS-21) program is providing a stateof-the-art life-cycle replacement for

Air Force observing equipment. OS21 includes five different configurations: fixed, deployable, remote, manual, and upper air. Installation of 110

fixed systems, designated the FMQ-19,

at Air Force bases and Army posts

worldwide began in summer 2002, and

is scheduled for completion in 2007.

The manual version is intended for tactical operations and will continue

upgrades begun under the Manual

Observing System and Tactical Meteorological Observing System modification programs.

In support of operations in Kosovo,

the Air Force purchased commercial

off-the-shelf (COTS) remote miniature

weather sensors to provide accurate

real-time weather information from

forward unmanned locations and has

since deployed remote miniature sensors to Afghanistan and Iraq.

AUTOMATED WEATHER INFORMATION SYSTEMS (AWlS)

The DOC, DOD, and DOT require

AWISs to facilitate the collection, processing, and interpretation of meteorological data. AWISs are being procured to provide an automated, highspeed, user-friendly man/machine

interface to access and process large

volumes of sophisticated meteorological data. AWIS supports timely production of accurate and geographically

precise warnings, forecasts, and specially tailored products while including

a communications capability to facilitate expeditious dissemination.

Major agency systems classified as

AWISs are: NOAA's Advanced

Weather Interactive Processing System

(AWIPS), FAA's Weather and Radar

Processor (WARP), Air Force's Joint

Environmental Toolkit (JET), and the

Navy's Naval Integrated Tactical Environmental Subsystem (NITES).

Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS)

In February 1997, the Secretary of

Commerce approved the limited

deployment of AWIPS at over 40 sites.

On April 9, 1998, the Secretary authorized full-scale production and deployment of AWIPS, through Build 4.2, for

the remaining 95 systems. Installation

of these 95 systems began in September 1998 and was completed in June

1999. An Operational Test and Evaluation of the commissioning software

load (Release 4.2) was successfully

conducted from mid-May through June

1999. AWIPS commissioning began in

January 2000, was completed in

November 2000, with 139 NWS systems commissioned at 122 Weather

Forecast Offices (WFOs), 13 River

Forecast Centers (RFCs), the Spaceflight Meteorology Group (SMG), and

4 National Centers for Environmental

Prediction (NCEP).

The NWS successfully completed

the final development phase release of

AWIPS (Build 5) in early 2003, completed deployment of its first Operational Build (OB1) that summer, completed deployments of OB2 in December 2003, OB3 in August 2004, OB4 in

February 2005, and OB5 in December

2005. Deployment of Operational

Builds continue at about two per year.

The Operational Builds deliver new

functionalities and enhancements in

the areas of warning product generation and warning support, hydrological

product generation, data and imagery

display, communications and infrastructure. Of note within the operational builds of AWIPS, is an evolution

of the architecture to the Linux open

source operating environment which

was started in 2001, and will continue

through to its planned completion in

early 2007.

WARP

The FAA's WARP will greatly

enhance the dissemination of aviation

weather information throughout the

National Airspace System (NAS).

WARP will automatically create

unique regional, WSR-88D-based

mosaic products and send these products, along with other time-critical

weather information, to controllers

through the Advanced Automation

System (AAS), as well as to pilots via

the aeronautical data link.

JET

JET will replace several disparate
x EXEC SUM

legacy weather systems with a single,

integrated means of supporting both

garrison and deployed operations,

including a "first-in" weather forecasting capability. Combining forecasting,

product-tailoring, and mission-impact

capabilities in an interactive, networkcentric, standards-based package; JET

accesses, processes, analyzes, tailors,

and integrates terrestrial and space

weather information into command

and control systems to guide

warfighter decision-making. This

effort will eliminate Air Force Weather

Weapon System (AFWWS) redundancies and inefficiencies, reduce the burden on system administrators, and ultimately extend, consolidate, or replace

the following systems: Operational

Weather Squadron (OWS) Production

System Phase II (OPS II); the NewTactical Forecast System (N-TFS); the

Joint Weather Impacts System (JWIS);

and the Army's Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS) weather toolkit.

NITES

The current series of NITES (I-IV)

were reengineered from the Tactical

Environmental Surveillance System

(TESS) and other legacy systems of

the early 1990's. These NITES systems are fielded through FY 2010 and

have various capabilities to ingest,

process, fuse, display, and disseminate

METOC information and its impact on

tactical operations. In early 2000, the

NITES II application software was

redesigned to align with the Global

Command and Control System

(GCCS) Family of Systems (FoS) 4.x,

provide increased flexibility, enable

operating system/hardware independence, and improve user operability

with a new graphical-user interface

(GUI) for tactical decision aid applications. The NITES II Redesign (N2R)

suite of software is integrated with

both GCCS-Maritime (M) and GCC SJoint (J) 4.x versions.

The Navy is currently reviewing the

requirement to field a follow-on system, called "NITES - Next", to increase

the capabilities for ashore, afloat and

mobile METOC support to naval tactical operations and be interoperable

with the other services. NITES - Next

would have four components including: tactical applications, a forecaster's

toolkit, a data services package, and

the ability to collect METOC information through organic sensors for rapid

environment analyses. NITES - Next

will interface with the data

providers/users using Web services

and take advantage of the future DOD

Global Information Grid (GIG) and

Navy FORCEnet architectures. Navy

is also analyzing how to efficiently and

effectively leverage the Air Force's

Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET)

Program for meteorological and environmental impact support.

NATIONAL POLAR-ORBITING

OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL

SATELLITE SYSTEM (NPOESS)

On October 3, 1994, NOAA, DOD,

and the National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA) combined the nation's military and civilian

environmental satellite programs and

created an Integrated Program Office

(IPO) to develop, manage, acquire, and

operate the national polar-orbiting

meteorological satellite system, subsequently designated the National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite System (NPOESS). The IPO

is organizationally located within

NOAA and is headed by a System Program Director responsible to the

NPOESS Executive Committee. This

committee, which consists of the

Under Secretary of Commerce for

Oceans and Atmosphere, the Under

Secretary of the Air Force, and the

NASA Deputy Administrator serves as

a board of directors to ensure that overall program plans also meet the individual needs of the three participating

agencies.

The IPO concept provides each of

the participating agencies with lead

responsibility for one of three primary

functional areas. NOAA has overall

responsibility for the converged system and is responsible to the IPO for

satellite operations. NOAA is also the

primary interface with the international

and civil user communities. DoD is

responsible to support the IPO for

major systems acquisitions including

launch support. NASA has a primary

responsibility for facilitating the development and incorporation of new costeffective technologies into the converged system. Although each agency

provides certain key personnel in their

lead role, each functional division is

staffed by tri-agency work teams to

maintain the integrated approach.

Pursuant to section 2433 of title 10,

United States Code, Congress was

notified on September 28, 2005 that

NPOESS Program Acquisition Unit

Cost (PAUC) would be exceeded by 15

percent. Since the fall of 2005, the

fundamental management structure of

the management chain at the IPO has

been changed to improve the lines of

communication and reporting. A Program Executive Office (PEO) organization has been added to work interagency and external activities which

allows the System Program Director to

focus on the acquisition process. After

further cost and alternatives were analyzed, a subsequent certification notification went to Congress on January 12,

2006 indicating cost growth of greater

than 25 percent. This notification

begins the Nunn-McCurdy certification process, which requires the Under

Secretary of Defense (USD) for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics

(AT&L) certify to Congress that:

• Such acquisition program is essential to national security;

• There are no alternatives that provide equal or greater military capability at less cost;

• The new estimates of the program

costs are reasonable; and

• The management structure for the

program is adequate to manage and

control costs.
EXEC SUM xi

On June 5, 2006 the Under Secretary

of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, the Administrator of NASA and

the Under Secretary of Defense

(AT&L) agreed to restructure the

NPOESS program. The USD (AT&L)

certifies that with respect to the

restructured NPOESS program that:

• Such acquisition program is essential to the national security;

• There are no alternatives to such

acquisition program which will provide equal or greater military capability at less cost;

• The new estimates of the program

acquisition unit cost or procurement

unit cost for such program are reasonable; and

• The management structure for

such acquisition program is adequate

to manage and control program acquisition unit cost or procurement unit

cost.

As restructured the NPOESS

includes two Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) satellites, with the option in FY 2010, of

exercising a renegotiated procurement

option for two additional NPOESS

satellites. The restructured program

includes the Visible/Infrared

Imager/Radiometer Suite (VIIRS);

Microwave Imager/Sounder; Search

and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking

(SARSAT); Cross-track Infrared

Sounder (CrIS); Advanced Technology

Microwave Sounder (ATMS);

Advanced Data Collection System

(ADCS); Cloud and Earth Radiant

Energy System (CERES) [to be flown

on satellite C-1 only]; Ozone Mapping

and Profile Suite (OMPS) - Nadir; and

the Space Environment Monitor

(SEM). The Conical Scanning

Microwave Imager/Sounder (CMIS) is

terminated while developing a competition for a new Microwave

Imager/Sounder starting with the second EMD satellite.

Funding is not available for the

Aerosol Polarimetry Sensor (APS);

Total Solar Irradiance Sensor (TSIS);

OMPS-Limb; Earth Radiation Budget

Suite (ERBS); Altimeter (Alt); Survivability Sensor (SuS); and the Full

Space Environment Sensors (SESS).

However, the program will plan and

fund for integration of these sensors

onto the NPOESS satellite buses, if the

sensors are provided from outside the

program.

NPOESS is a two-orbit rather than

three-orbit program that uses data from

the European Meteorological Operational (METOP) satellites provided by

the European Organization for the

Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) for the mid-morning orbit, while providing flexibility to

deploy Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites

depending on the health of the constellation in either early-morning or midmorning orbits. The launch schedule

for the restructured program is as follows:

• NPOESS Preparatory Project

(NPP) - January 2010;

• Two EMD satellites (C-1 - January

2013 and C-2 January 2016); and

• An option in FY 2010 for block

upgrade satellites (C-3--January 2018

and C-4--January 2020).

The restructured program provides

for continuity of existing programs,

constellation management flexibility,

and the most capability for the least

cost, while maintaining growth potential to achieve the original capability

envisioned for NPOESS.

OTHER AGENCY PROGRAMS

For FY 2007, the Department of

Agriculture (USDA) requested $51.1

million for meteorological operations

and supporting research. Operationally, the USDA supports specialized weather observation networks and

also conducts an active supporting

research program to ensure an abundance of high-quality agricultural commodities, while minimizing the

adverse effects of agriculture on the

environment. Under supporting

research, USDA focuses on the interactions of weather and climate with

plant and animal production and water

resources management.

The Department of the Interior's (DOI)

FY 2006 request of $2.4 million is primarily to support the Bureau of Land

Management's Remote Automatic

Weather Station (RAWS) program.

The Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) budget request for FY

2007 is $9.0 million, the same amount

as in FY 2006, to provide user-appropriate and scientifically credible airquality and meteorological programs

and models to support regulatory

applications.

NASA’s FY 2007 request is for just

over a total of $168.8 million--over

$2.4 million for operations and over

$166.4 million for supporting research.

These funding levels are composed of

the estimated meteorology share of the

supporting research and analysis programs as well as Earth Observing System (EOS) and Earth Probe instruments, EOS science, and the EOS Data

Information System elements of the

NASA Office of Earth Science budget.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC's) request for $120,000 in

FY 2007 is for operations. The NRC

will dedicate these funds to obtain and

analyze meteorological data and information related to siting new nuclear

power plants and safe operation of

nuclear facilities, to the protection of

public health and safety, and protection

of the environment.

FEDERAL COORDINATION (See

Appendix A for complete details.)

NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION

INTERDEPARTMENTAL HURRICANE CONFERENCE

The OFCM annually hosts the Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference

(IHC) to provide a forum for the

responsible federal agencies, together
xii EXEC SUM

with representatives of the user communities such as emergency management, to review the nation's hurricane

forecast and warning program and to

make recommendations on how to

improve the program. The OFCM

hosted the 60th IHC in Mobile,

Alabama, March 20-24, 2006. The

theme of the 2006 conference was

Hurricane Season 2006: Building on

the Historic 2005 Season. The conference attendance was more than 240;

for the seventh consecutive year, attendance has exceeded 200. VADM Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.),

Under Secretary of Commerce for

Oceans and Atmosphere and Administrator of the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

set the tone for the meeting during his

Monday afternoon keynote addressPower of Partnerships: Prediction and

Protection, noting that the only way to

protect lives, property, and the economic well-being of our citizens is

through partnerships. As a result, the

importance of building partnerships

became the central theme of the conference which the attendees took to

heart. Actions resulting from the conference are: (1) publish the 2006

National Hurricane Operations Plan;

(2) through the Joint Action Group for

Tropical Cyclone Research

(JAG/TCR), further refine the draft

strategic research plan for tropical

cyclones based on the input received

during the 60th IHC workshop; (3)

develop a Strategic Plan for Improved

Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance Systems (ITCRS) (manned, unmanned,

space-based, etc.); (4) facilitate bringing together the Web site owners from

NOAA (e.g., Hurricane Research Division, National Hurricane Center),

Navy, etc., to improve linkages for

supporting research and development;

and (5) adopt recommendations for

action in a comprehensive effort to

improve getting the "right" message to

the customer. In May 2006, the 44th

edition of the National Hurricane

Operations Plan (NHOP), which provides the basis for hurricane reconnaissance for the 2006 season and details

federal agency responsibilities, operations, and procedures; products; aircraft, satellite, radar, and buoy data

collection; and marine weather broadcasts, was published based on the

inputs and discussions from the 60th

IHC.

TROPICAL CYCLONE RESEARCH

AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN

Actions from previous meetings of

the Interdepartmental Committee for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) and Interdepartmental Hurricane Conferences

(IHC) called for the preparation of a

tropical cyclone strategic research

plan. This is being accomplished by

the OFCM Joint Action Group for

Tropical Cyclone Research

(JAG/TCR). OFCM will publish the

Interagency Strategic Research Plan

for Tropical Cyclones: The Way Ahead

in fall 2006. It will then focus on

development of a Strategic Plan for

Improved Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance Systems (manned, unmanned,

space-based, etc.).

NATIONAL HURRICANE CONFERENCE

OFCM participated in the 28th

Annual National Hurricane Conference (NHC) in Orlando, Florida, April

10-14, 2006. On April 11, OFCM conducted a training session in conjunction with the conference. The theme of

the training session was Warning Messages: Improving Response. The training session focused on hurricane messages and communication, and introduced a new proposed communications model that reflects the divergent

information needs of various users.

Approximately 200 conference attendees participated in the training session, which validated the need to

revisit the warning process. It was also

emphasized that the results of social

science research need to be an integral

part of the hurricane forecast and

warning program.

POST-STORM DATA ACQUISITION

The OFCM continued to coordinate,

as required, timely post-storm data

acquisition surveys in response to

Presidentially declared natural disasters and other agency requirements to

evaluate, for example, the impact on

the coastal ecosystems. These natural

disaster reduction efforts contribute to

the determination of the intensity and

magnitude of storms, and, in many

cases, help to determine the extent of

damage for use in Presidential disaster

declarations. In FY 2006, post-storm

surveys were conducted for Hurricane

Rita and after the April 7, 2006, tornado outbreak in central Tennessee.

URBAN METEOROLOGY

NATIONAL WILDLAND FIRE

WEATHER NEEDS ASSESSMENT

An important contribution to urban

meteorology during the period of this

report is related to the National Wildland Fire Weather Needs Assessment

which is being conducted by OFCM.

The formation of the Joint Action

Group for National Wildland Fire

Weather Needs Assessment

(JAG/NWFWNA) and conduct of the

assessment is responsive to ICMSSR

Action Item 2005-1.1 where ICMSSR

"concurred that OFCM should move

forward to form a Joint Action Group

(JAG) under the Committee for Environmental Services, Operations, and

Research Needs (CESORN), to review

the needs and requirements for wildland fire weather information, to

include identifying organizational

responsibilities and addressing the following issues: data collection, fire

weather research, weather forecast

services, data assimilation, air quality,

information dissemination, education

and outreach, and user response." An

abundance of accumulated biomass in
EXEC SUM xiii

forests and rangelands, persistent

drought conditions, and encroaching

urbanization are contributing to larger,

more costly wildland fires; and to

effectively manage and suppress wildland fires, fire managers need timely,

accurate, and detailed fire weather and

climate information. An important

benchmark is the June 2005 Western

Governors' Association (WGA) meeting where they approved Policy Resolution 05-04: National Wildland Fire

Weather Program. Within the policy,

the WGA urged NOAA to have the

OFCM complete a National Needs

Assessment Report of federal, state,

and local fire managers' needs for

weather information in their wildfire

and prescribed fire decision making

processes and a framework to meet

those needs by the National Weather

Service and Predictive Services. The

JAG/NWFWNA was established in

December 2005 and has moved forward to conduct the assessment.

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND

DIFFUSION RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT

OFCM developed an atmospheric

transport and diffusion (ATD) implementation strategy for the recommendations for which OFCM has primary

responsibility in the Federal Research

Needs and Priorities for Atmospheric

Transport and Diffusion Modeling

(September 2004) report. In accordance with this, OFCM formed a Joint

Action Group for the Joint Urban Test

Beds (JAG/JUTB) under the Working

Group for Urban Meteorology

(WG/UM); and this joint action group

is continuing work to develop an operational concept document for multifunctional joint urban test beds to provide services and data to model developers, test and evaluation personnel,

and users.

CLIMATE

OFCM supports the U.S. Climate

Change Science Program (CCSP).

OFCM arranged for Dr. James R.

Mahoney, former Director of the

CCSP, to brief the Federal Committee

for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (FCMSSR) so that

member agencies can stay abreast of

the program and coordinate priorities

for atmospheric requirements through

OFCM for inclusion in CCSP. Further,

OFCM used its infrastructure to reach

out and invite many government, private, and academic individuals to

attend the November 14-16, 2005,

CCSP Climate Science in Support of

Decision Making workshop, and this

resulted in substantially increased

attendance of the workshop; and

OFCM provided interagency funding

support for an evening poster session

of the workshop. OFCM also prepared

results of a Climate Services Survey to

identify new climate products and

services that have been developed and

implemented since the Board on

Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

defined "climate services" in 2001 as

"the timely production and delivery of

useful climate data, information, and

knowledge to decision makers."

OPERATIONAL PROCESSING

OFCM's activities regarding Operational Processing Centers (OPC) continue opportunities to improve processing and backup capabilities of NOAA's

National Centers for Environmental

Prediction and Office of Satellite Data

Processing and Distribution, the Air

Force Weather Agency, and the U.S.

Navy's Fleet Numerical Meteorology

and Oceanography Center and Naval

Oceanographic Office. Efforts continue to improve backup support and

capabilities and to coordinate preparation for the implementation of the

Weather Research and Forecasting

(WRF) modeling system, in accordance with the National Concept of

Operations Framework for the Operational Processing Centers, which is

contained in an April 1, 2004, memorandum of agreement signed by the

directors of the OPC's. Of particular

significance during this period is the

establishment of a National Operational Processing Centers (NOPC) Program Council within the OFCM coordinating infrastructure, to help achieve

national priorities by focusing agency

efforts and leverage resources to gain

the maximum return.

ANNUAL FEDERAL PLAN

In October 2005, the OFCM issued

The Federal Plan for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research-Fiscal Year 2006. The Federal Plan is

congressionally mandated and is a oneof-a-kind document which articulates

the meteorological services provided

and supporting research conducted by

agencies of the federal government.

The Federal Plan helps to reduce overlap and duplication among the agencies. It is a comprehensive publication

that documents proposed programs for

FY 2006 and reviews agency programs

in FY 2005.

WEATHER INFORMATION FOR

SURFACE TRANSPORTATION

Since 1998, OFCM has made

weather services and research and

development (R&D) activities supporting the surface transportation community a priority for the federal meteorological community. In December

2002, OFCM published the comprehensive report, Weather Information

for Surface Transportation-National

Needs Assessment Report, which provides the first ever compilation and

analysis of weather support needs

across six surface transportation sectors (roadway, railway, transit, marine

transportation, pipeline systems, and

airport ground operations). In August

2004, OFCM established the Working

Group for Weather Information for

Surface Transportation (WG/WIST) to

develop both a WIST R&D Plan and a

WIST Implementation Plan. In August

2006, OFCM published the report,

Weather Information for Surface
xiv EXEC SUM

Transportation-Update on Weather

Impacts and WIST Results. This

update focuses on the status of transportation weather issues in the nation

and the results achieved since the first

WIST report in 2002. It also highlights

areas where further steps can be made

in the near term.

AVIATION WEATHER

A project which is underway in the

area of aviation weather support

includes the development of The

National Volcanic Ash Operations

Plan for Aviation and Support of the

International Civil Aviation Organization International Airways Volcano

Watch (NVOPA). This plan, projected

be completed in the fall of 2006, is the

national operations plan in support of

observing, tracking, monitoring, forecasting and reporting volcanic ash in

the atmosphere that affects the safety

of flight operations in the U.S.

National Airspace System (NAS). It

identifies the federal agencies that

implement these actions and describes

their responsibilities, procedures,

actions, and message formats.

The OFCM continues to facilitate

the continuation of interagency funding for the acquisition of automated

meteorological observations from aircraft in partnership with several major

U.S. commercial airlines.

The OFCM continued to implement

the National Aviation Weather Program during FY 2006. The federal

interagency National Aviation Weather

Program has resulted in a major reduction of weather-related accidents. The

program remains on track toward

meeting the established goal to reduce

weather-related accidents by 80 percent by 2007. The OFCM continues to

monitor progress in meeting this goal

by monitoring weather-related aviation

accident events and trends. A National

Aviation Weather Program MidCourse Assessment was completed in

August 2003. OFCM will complete a

final assessment in 2007, the ten year

point of the National Aviation Weather

Program.

SPACE WEATHER

It was noted at the November 16,

2004, and December 1, 2004, meetings

of the Interdepartmental Committee

for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) and Federal Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research

(FCMSSR), respectively, that the

National Space Weather Program

(NSWP) was nearing the end of its 10-

year period to accomplish its overarching goal to achieve an active, synergistic, interagency system; providing

timely, accurate, and reliable space

weather warnings, observations, specifications, and forecasts by 2007. It

was also noted that it was time to perform an interagency assessment to

look at the progress toward meeting its

goals. A National Space Weather Program Assessment Committee was

formed by OFCM to perform the

assessment, which was led by Dr.

Louis J. Lanzerotti, Distinguished

Research Professor, Center for SolarTerrestrial Research, New Jersey Institute of Technology.

In its Report of the Assessment Committee for the National Space Weather

Program (June 2006), the Assessment

Committee concluded that, since the

program's inception in 1995, it has had

a number of noteworthy achievements,

most of which likely would not have

been attained without the program's

existence. The committee also found

shortfalls in the program. Based on the

conclusions of the committee as contained in the report, continuation of the

NSWP is strongly warranted because

of the enormous potential to enhance

the nation's space weather mission

over the next 10 years through

improved operational capabilities,

which capitalize on the transition of

innovative research. The committee

made specific recommendations to further strengthen the NSWP in four key

areas.

It was agreed that the Report of the

Assessment Committee for the

National Space Weather Program

should proceed for consideration by

the National Space Weather Program

Council (NSWPC), and that the Program Council should be the executive

agent for FCMSSR for continuing

activities in this area.

PHASED ARRAY RADAR

The OFCM Joint Action Group for

Phased Array Radar Project

(JAG/PARP) recently completed the

report, Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Phased

Array Radar (June 2006). In the

MPAR national vision, the National

Radar Network will be the critical

observing system supporting public

safety, homeland security, and the

transportation sector for decades to

come; there is a need to replace the

aging fleet of 526 conventional

mechanically scanning radars over the

next 20 years with 300+ MPAR radars;

MPAR can provide simultaneous air

and weather surveillance from a single

radar site; and with the consolidation

of multiple single-mission radars into

MPAR we can reduce the national

radar fleet by more than 40 percent.

The JAG/PARP has determined that

MPAR has the potential to exceed

present radar capabilities and meet

stated user needs; there would be a significant increase in tornado lead times;

there are no serious hardware technical

challenges; and a 7- to 10-year intensive research and development effort

will be required, and the estimated cost

of this is $200 million.

The report Federal Research and

Development Needs and Priorities for

Phased Array Radar estimated needed

research and development funding to

be $215 million over 9 years to meet

the replacement opportunity. This

would support the research needed to

reduce risk, determine the capability of

MPAR to meet multiple user needs
EXEC SUM xv

concurrently, develop a full MPAR

prototype, and perform a cost analysis

to determine system affordability.

ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH AND

DATA ASSIMILATION/DATA

MANAGEMENT

Advances in data assimilation are

key to meeting virtually any forecast

goal relating to model performance. It

was stated in the Strategic Plan for the

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System (April 2005) that "In order to

take the 'pulse of the planet,' we must

establish a valid end-to-end process

that will take us from observations to

user-related products. Scientific needs

for this end-to-end process require that

we ... assimilate the Earth observation

data streams into models (eventually in

real time) ..." and "Data assimilation

may be the most critical path through

which advances in forecasting convective precipitation will be modulated."

At its November 16, 2004, meeting,

the Interdepartmental Committee for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) supported

action to examine gaps in data assimilation and data management capability,

articulate challenges that lie ahead in

meeting future requirements, and propose strategy to address gaps in capability and future challenges.

The data assimilation survey and follow-on strategy was briefed at the July

18, 2006, ICMSSR meeting. It was

noted that the focus of the report which

is being prepared is on data assimilation for the purpose of improving forecast skill of a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model; the scope of

data assimilation is restricted to incorporation of observational data as a

forcing factor in cycles of forward

NWP models; and broader definition

of data assimilation would be

addressed through inclusion of related

activities such as climate reanalysis,

trace constituent monitoring, and air

quality.

Data gathering and data assimilation

activity analysis tasks are essentially

complete; the report framework and

key issues have been defined by the

data assimilation group; and next steps

are being defined. The report, Federal

Meteorological Data Assimilation

Capabilities, will be published in the

fall of 2006.

ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

OFCM has laid out a vision, framework, and methodology which the

office will embrace to systematically

promote and execute environmental

literacy through interdepartmental collaboration within the OFCM coordinating infrastructure. The methodology defines how to determine if an

opportunity to promote environmental

literacy exists. It also describes the

method to be used to determine the target public, private, and/or academic

sector audiences and how to reach

them. The OFCM developed an implementing strategy/action plan to make

environmental literacy a crosscutting

priority within the OFCM coordinating

infrastructure. An Implementing Strategy for Promoting Environmental Literacy as an OFCM Crosscutting Priority was presented to the science community at the American Geophysical

Union (AGU) Fall Meeting, December

5-9, 2005, in San Francisco, California.

FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT

Both international and domestic

spectrum policy are of critical importance to the federal meteorological

community and can significantly

impact our ability to carry out our

assigned duties and responsibilities.

The OFCM Working Group for Frequency (Radio Spectrum) Management (WG/FM) acts as a two-way

clearinghouse for information on environmental use of the radio spectrum. It

fosters cooperation and coordination

among federal agencies for the collection and consolidation of agency needs

and requirements related to frequency

management issues as they affect

meteorological services, and planned

non-environmental spectrum uses that

may affect the environmental community for good or ill. During the first

quarter of FY 2006, OFCM updated its

frequency management issues document to provide the interagency community with background information,

current status of meteorological uses,

potential future technology that could

impact spectrum bandwidth, identification of other new frequency management issues, and recommendations for

agency involvement in the radio spectrum area.

GUIDANCE AND PRACTICES

FOR XML

The recently formed Committee for

Environmental Information Systems

and Communications (CEISC) Joint

Action Group for Extensible Markup

Language and Web Services

(JAG/XMLWS) reviewed the members' current Meteorological and

Oceanographic (METOC) XML

implementations and agreed to use

DOD's Joint METOC Broker Language (JMBL) as a starting point for a

U.S. position. A Report on the use of

XML within the U.S. was presented to

the Expert Team on Data Representation and Codes (ET/DR&C) at its

meeting May 8-12, 2006. ET/DR&C

is currently tasked by World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) Commission for Basic Systems (CBS) to

develop XML guidance, practices, and

any associated WMO standards for the

representation and delivery of meteorological information using XML. The

ET/DR&C recommended that CBS

create a new Expert Team to tackle the

XML standardization issue.

COLLABORATION WITH

NAS/NRC BOARD ON ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AND CLIMATE

The OFCM continued its mutually

beneficial interactions with the
xvi EXEC SUM

National Academy of

Sciences/National Research Council

(NAS/NRC). The NAS/NRC Board

on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

(BASC) conducted a strategic planning

workshop on August 8-9, 2006, in

which the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorology participated.

COLLABORATION WITH THE

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

CENR PRINCIPALS

The Federal Coordinator continued

to be a participant on the CENR, and

continued to assist CENR through

review and concurrence of CENR

reports and materials.

SUBCOMMITTEE ON DISASTER

REDUCTION

The OFCM has been an active participant in the work of the CENR Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction

(SDR). OFCM is committed to working with SDR to provide a forum for

information sharing, development of

collaborative opportunities, and interactive dialogue with the U.S. policy

community to advance informed

strategies for managing risks associated with natural and technological

disasters.

AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY

During FY 2006, the OFCM joined

in supporting the new 2006/2007

American Meteorological Society

(AMS) Freshman Undergraduate

Scholarship Program. The scholarship

program is open to all high school students and designed to encourage study

in the atmospheric and related sciences. The OFCM also supports AMS

endeavors by participating in AMS

conferences and workshops and other

environmental science education and

outreach programs. In addition, an

OFCM staff member is Chairperson of

the AMS Weather Analysis and Forecasting Committee; Cochair of the

2007 AMS Annual Meeting to be held

in San Antonio, Texas; and a member

of the AMS Reichelderfer Award Committee. 

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

During FY 2005, the Federal Coordinator provided a comprehensive briefing on the OFCM and interagency

coordination of federal meteorological

activities to Dr. Xu Xiaofeng and a

delegation of 25 individuals from the

Chinese Meteorological Administration, on May 24, 2005. Then on

August 24, 2005, the Federal Coordinator hosted and briefed Dr. Zheng

Guoguang, Deputy Administrator of

the Chinese Meteorological Administration. Also, news media from Japan

attended and conducted interviews at

the 59th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference in Jacksonville, Florida,

March 7-11, 2005.

PUBLICATIONS AND OFCM'S

WEB SITE

The following publications were prepared in hardcopy form and/or have

been placed on OFCM's Web site

(www.ofcm.gov):

• The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting ResearchFiscal Year 2006

• National Winter Storms Operations Plan

• National Hurricane Operations

Plan

• Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Phased

Array Radar

• Report of the Assessment Committee for the National Space Weather

Program

• Weather Information for Surface

Transportation-Update on Weather

Impacts and WIST Results

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 1-Surface Weather Observations

and Reports

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part A-System Concepts, Responsibilities and Procedures

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part B-Doppler Radar

Theory and Meteorology 

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part D-WSR-88D Unit

Description and Operational Analysis

During FY 2006, the OFCM continued to make substantial progress on its

use of the Internet. In addition to

information about the office, the

OFCM has placed its current publications on its Web site, and keeps the

Web site current with information

regarding workshops and forums being

conducted by the office. The OFCM

will continue to make information

available on the Internet during FY

2007.
SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION

The 2005 hurricane season in the

North Atlantic and Caribbean region

set records for damage to the U.S.

mainland. Although the 2006 hurricane season has not been as active as

the 2005 season, landfalling hurricanes

continue to be a threat to a large segment of our population due to the

increase in density and economic infrastructure in coastal regions and the

potential havoc these severe cyclonic

storms can have inland due to tornadoes and flooding related to the decaying tropical cyclone (TC).

On July 10, 2005, Hurricane Dennis

made landfall near Pensacola, Florida,

with 105-knots winds and 10-foot

storm surges. Florida residents were

not strangers to hurricanes, as this was

the fifth hurricane to hit Florida in less

than a year. On August 25, 2005, Hurricane Katrina killed 14 in southeastern

Florida when it brought heavy rains

and winds to that region. On August

29th-30th, Katrina blasted the

Louisiana and Mississippi coasts, coming onshore just east of New Orleans

(Figure 1-1). Katrina's winds and massive flooding left thousands homeless,

2.3 million without electricity, roads

and bridges destroyed, and communications inoperable. The storm surge

caused by Katrina swamped the Mississippi Gulf Coast, destroying hundreds of homes, roads, and much of the

coastal infrastructure. In Hurricane

Katrina's wake, the estimated direct

fatalities were 1,353, making it the

third deadliest hurricane in the United

States1. In addition to the catastrophic

loss of life, Katrina also caused

approximately $100 billion in losses.

Hurricane Rita struck the Florida

Keys and the Gulf Coast in September

following Katrina. On September 20,

2005, Hurricane Rita dumped heavy

rains on the Florida Keys. It reached

category 5 strength over the central

Gulf of Mexico, but eventually weakened prior to making landfall as a category 3 hurricane at Sabine Pass near

the Texas-Louisiana border. The

strong storm surge and heavy winds

caused major damage in the Louisiana

and Texas coastal areas. Then, from

October 18th to 24th, Hurricane Wilma

ravaged Haiti, Jamaica, Cozumel, Cancun, Playa del Carmen, and eventually

southern Florida. At one point, Wilma

strengthened to category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson intensity scale for TCs,

and on October 19th it became the

deepest (lowest pressure) hurricane on

record in the Atlantic, with a pressure

dropping to 882 millibars. Wilma was

the fourth storm in the 2005 season to

reach category 5.

Operational forecast and warning

capabilities require specialized atmospheric and oceanic observations from

many platforms and sensors-both in

situ and remote (Figure 1-2); specialized numerical weather prediction

(NWP) models; highly trained people

to develop and disseminate forecasts

and warnings; and an active outreach

program. Operational capabilities in

each step of this end-to-end system

have improved significantly since the

inception of TC forecasting. The gains

made over the past several decades in

our understanding and forecasting of

TCs have paralleled the improvements

in observational capabilities, such as

ROADMAP FOR TROPICAL CYCLONE RESEARCH

TO MEET OPERATIONAL NEEDS

SECTION 1 1

Article prepared by Mr. Mark Welshinger, OFCM staff.

1 This estimate as of May 15, 2006, is based on information from affected states' departments of health. The estimate

includes direct fatalities only and does not include out-of-state evacuee fatalities included in some calculations. Fatalities by state: Louisiana 1,097; Mississippi 238; Florida 14; Alabama 2; and Georgia 2.

Figure 1-1. GOES-12 1 km visible imagery of Hurricane Katrina; August 29,

2005; 09:57:10. Credit: NOAA.
2 SECTION 1

U.S. Air Force Reserve Command

(53rd Weather Reconnaissance

Squadron-the Hurricane Hunters) and

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) instrumented

aircraft (e.g., GPS dropwindsondes,

stepped-frequency microwave

radiometers [SFMR], airborne tail

Doppler radar), satellite data, moored

and drifting buoys, subsurface floats,

land-based Doppler radars). The gains

made in forecasting of TCs have also

paralleled improvements in NWP

model physics and the increased use of

observations through more sophisticated data assimilation capabilities to

provide improved initial conditions for

the models. Nevertheless, further

improvement to the Nation's TC forecast and warning service through

focused research and development

(R&D) are feasible, within reach, and

valuable investments for our safety,

security, and economic well-being.

The purpose of this article is to review

three projects regarding TC R&D. The

projects share an ultimate goal which

is to prevent loss of life and injuries

associated with TCs and to reduce the

Nation's vulnerability to these potentially devastating storms. Before

reviewing the projects, a review of the

operational TC forecast and warning

centers is warranted.

OPERATIONAL TC FORECAST

AND WARNING CENTERS

The TC warning service is an interdepartmental effort to provide the U.S.

and designated international recipients

with forecasts, warnings, and assessments concerning tropical and subtropical weather systems. The three centers that cooperate to provide this service are discussed below. Figure 3

shows the areas of responsibility for

TC forecasts and warnings for the

three centers: the Tropical Prediction

Center/National Hurricane Center

(TPC/NHC), the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC), and the Joint

Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC).

TPC/NHC

The TPC is one of the twelve centers

comprising the National Centers for

Environmental Prediction (NCEP), a

component of the NOAA National

Weather Service (NOAA/NWS).

Located at Florida International University in Miami, Florida, the TPC is

the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) designated by the

World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) for the North Atlantic Ocean,

including the Caribbean Sea and Gulf

of Mexico, and the eastern North

Pacific Ocean, east of longitude 140

degrees W. The TPC provides general

weather guidance, as well as specialized products for aviation and marine

interests in the tropics. A substantial

amount of TPC/NHC's NWP model

support comes from NCEP's Environmental Modeling Center. Both the

TPC/NHC and the CPHC take their

mission direction from the National

Hurricane Operations Plan.

One of three major components of

the TPC is the National Hurricane

Center (NHC). The NHC maintains a

continuous watch on TCs from May

15th in the northeastern Pacific and

from June 1st in the north Atlantic

through November 30th.

JTWC

The JTWC is a joint Air Force/Navy

TC forecasting center. Located at

Naval Base Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the

JTWC is the Department of Defense

(DOD) agency responsible for issuing

TC warnings for the Pacific and Indian

Oceans. JTWC support encompasses

more than 110 million square miles of

the north and south Pacific Ocean and

Indian Ocean, reaching from the west

coast of the Americas to the east coast

of Africa. The JTWC takes its mission

direction from the Commander, U.S.

Pacific Command Instruction 3140.1w

(version 1w is the latest in the series).

A substantial amount of JTWC's NWP

model support comes from the Naval

Research Laboratory (NRL) and Fleet

Figure 1-2. This image is made from data received from the NASA Tropical

Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite showing Typhoon Maria closing in on Japan (August 7, 2006). Typhoon Maria subsequently weakened and

passed just south of Tokyo Bay as a minimal tropical storm. Credit: NASA.
Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC), both located

in Monterey, California.

CPHC

CPHC has forecast and warning

responsibility for the central North

Pacific from 140 degrees W longitude

to the International Date Line. The

CPHC is a component of the

NOAA/NWS Weather Service Forecast Office (WFO), Honolulu, Hawaii

(Figure 1-3). The Meteorologist-InCharge, WFO Honolulu, is also the

Director of the CPHC. Because the

WFO Honolulu has no authorized

manpower for the specialized hurricane operations of the CPHC, the center is activated only when a TC crosses

into the area between 140 degrees W

longitude and the International Date

Line. On July 1, 2001, the WFO Honolulu was designated a WMO RSMC.

Most outside support, such as model

and techniques development and aerial

reconnaissance, is provided through

the same infrastructure that supports

the TPC/NHC.

OFCM-SPONSORED PROJECT

The OFCM hosts the annual Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference

(IHC), which provides a forum for the

Federal agencies with operational and

R&D responsibilities related to TCs,

together with emergency managers and

other representatives of the agencies'

user communities, to review the

Nation's TC forecast and warning program and make recommendations on

how to improve the program in the

future. One of the major objectives is

to plan and prepare for the upcoming

hurricane season. New procedures,

procedural changes, and agreements

that are approved at the IHC and are

directly related to providing TC forecast and warning services are then documented for implementation in the

National Hurricane Operations Plan.

The following functional areas have

been routinely included in recent IHC

agendas:

• TC observations and reconnaissance.

• TC modeling and prediction.

• Impacts of TCs (e.g., winds,

storm surge, heavy precipitation/inland

flooding).

• TC research; science

and technology.

• Transitioning TC research to

operations.

• TC decision-making products

and services.

• TC warning system and

response.

One of the action items from the 58th

IHC was to develop a comprehensive

strategy for TC R&D to guide interagency efforts over the next decade.

Subsequently, the Interdepartmental

Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

(ICMSSR) strongly supported this

action. To implement the action, the

Federal Coordinator for Meteorology

formed the Joint Action Group for TC

Research (JAG/TCR). The vision of

the JAG/TCR is to maximize the

potential of the TC community partnerships to improve hurricane prediction, preparedness, and resiliency for

societal benefit by strategically matching research results to operational

requirements. The JAG/TCR members agreed that past research planning

efforts clearly outlined the TC community's priorities, objectives, and strategies, as developed and vetted through

many meetings and workshops.

Therefore, the task of the JAG/TCR

has been to synthesize the previous

exceptional TC work, update information as needed, and develop and

coordinate a comprehensive interagency strategic research plan for

TCs that links research priorities to

operational needs.

CONCURRENT TC-RELATED

R&D PROJECTS

At the request of the Under Secretary

of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, the NOAA Science Advisory

Board (SAB) formed an external group

to conduct a review of NOAA's hurricane intensity research, development,

and transition to operations. The panel

became known as the NOAA SAB

Hurricane Intensity Research Working

SECTION 1 3

Figure 1-3. Areas of responsibility assigned to national operational forecast and

warning centers. Courtesy of NOAA.
4 SECTION 1

Group (HIRWG). In another hurricane-related project, the National Science Board (NSB), the governing

board of the National Science Foundation (NSF), formed the Task Force on

Hurricane Science and Engineering

(HSE). The task force examined the

"hurricane problem" in a more holistic

manner, considering physical, social,

behavioral, economic, biological, ecological, information technology, and

other appropriate sciences, as well as

engineering (e.g., civil, environmental,

mechanical) disciplines. Two questions incorporated into their review

were:

1. To what extent does the Nation

understand the hurricane as an integrated science and engineering problem?

2. How can such understanding

be used to improve the Nation's ability

to predict, mitigate, and react?

To ensure that these three effortsNOAA/SAB, NSF/NSB, and OFCM's

JAG/TCR-were aware of, and able to

learn from, each other, the OFCM

planned a workshop during the 60th

IHC, held in Mobile, Alabama, entitled

Tropical Cyclone Research: Priorities

for the Next Decade. The workshop

was moderated by Dr. Robert Serafin,

National Center for Atmospheric

Research Director Emeritus and Chair

of the Board on Atmospheric Sciences

and Climate. Dr. Michael Crosby,

Executive Officer for the NSF/NSB,

provided an update on the Task Force

on HSE. Following Dr. Crosby, Dr.

John Snow, College of Geosciences,

University of Oklahoma, presented an

update on activities of the NOAA/SAB

HIRWG. The last item in the research

workshop was a review of an early version of the JAG/TCR's draft interagency strategic research plan for TCs.

Dr. Frank Marks (NOAA/AOML

/HRD) and Ms. Robbie Hood (NASA

Marshall Space Flight Center, Global

Hydrology and Climate Center),

cochairs of OFCM's JAG/TCR, along

with Dr. Naomi Surgi (NOAA/NWS

/NCEP/EMC), led this portion of the

workshop. The workshop was of great

benefit to all three project groups, and

other participants at the workshop

were able to hear about, and interact

concerning, these complementary

ongoing efforts.

MORE DETAILS ON THE

JAG/TCR WORK

In addition to the workshop held at

the IHC (described above), the

JAG/TCR kept abreast of the work of

the two other projects. This section

provides additional details of the work

of the JAG/TCR and their document,

Interagency Strategic Research Plan

for Tropical Cyclones: The Way Ahead.

The plan:

• Illustrates the fundamental

rationale for continuing the effort in

TC R&D that has produced major

improvements in forecasts and warnings in recent years. It introduces the

R&D community that supports the

three operational TC forecast and

warning centers.

• Describes in more detail the

major players in the TC R&D community and how they interact with each

other and with the operational centers.

It also reviews recent and concurrent

planning activities that are significant

for formulating a community strategy.

• Assesses the Nation's current

capability and limitations of the

Nation's TC warning service. These

capabilities constitute a classic end-toend system for environmental observing, modeling and interpretation, communication of products and information, and end-user education and outreach-albeit one focused on the environmental threats posed by TCs. The

capabilities assessment therefore

begins with the key operational

observing systems, progresses to the

operational models and systems for

assimilating data into them, and then

discusses the forecast and warning

information dissemination system,

including current efforts in end-user

education and outreach.

• Uses the same end-to-end system structure to present the JAG/TCR's

perspective on the future capabilities

required to meet both current operational needs and emerging needs identified by the operational centers. The

future capabilities section reviews several potential improvements to the

observational capabilities, including

the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration's Global Precipitation

Measurement Satellite, the Constellation of Observing Satellites for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC) satellites (see Figure 1-4), and

land-based Multifunction Phased

Array Radar (MPAR). The future capabilities section also reviews DOD and

NOAA NWP plans. These future capabilities are translated into a set of

research priorities, around which a

comprehensive R&D strategy for the

next decade can be built.

• Presents the JAG/TCR recommendations for next steps that can be

taken by the cognizant Federal agencies and coordinating entities to begin

implementation of this strategy.

SUMMARY

While tropical cyclone forecasting

has been and continues to be a challenge, as we move forward over the

next decade we can expect continued

improvements in TC forecasting. As

detailed in the Interagency Strategic

Research Plan for Tropical Cyclones:

The Way Ahead, the capability to gain

skill in forecasting intensity and structure, sea state and storm surge, and precipitation is now on the horizon much

The overarching research priorities

established by the JAG/TCR

included tropical cyclone intensity

and structure (wind radii); track;

other landfalling impacts (sea state

and storm surge, precipitation, and

inland flooding); social science

research; and intraseasonal and

inter-annual variability.
SECTION 1 5

like improving track was a decade ago.

The gain in skill is due to continued

improvements in observational capabilities and further advancements inNWP model physics and data assimilation systems.

Figure 1-4. A comparison of the current global coverage of instruments launched via radiosondes each day (in red) with

the expected coverage from the COSMIC satellite network in a 24-hour period (in green). Credit: COSMIC.

SECTION 2 7

SECTION 2

Table 2.1 contains fiscal information,

by agency, for meteorological operations and supporting research. The

table shows the funding level for Fiscal

Year (FY) 2006 based on Congressional appropriations, the budget

request for FY 2007, the percent

change, and the individual agencies'

percent of the total Federal funding for

FY 2006 and FY 2007.

DEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE

(USDA)

The USDA budget request for FY

2007 is $51.1 million for operations

and supporting research, representing a

14.7 percent decrease from FY 2006.

A large portion of this decline was due

to a reduction in funding for supporting research. USDA has requested a

total $31.4 million for research and

development programs, an $8.3 million decrease from 2006. The FY 2007

amount requested for meteorological

operations is $19.7 million, down from

$20.2 million in FY 2006.

Operational activities include specialized weather observing networks

such as the SNOTEL (SNOw pack

TELemetry) system operated by the

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and the remote automated weather stations (RAWS) network managed by the Forest Service.

The SNOTEL and RAWS networks

provide cooperative data for NOAA's

river forecast activities, irrigation

water supply estimates, and Bureau of

Land Management operations. The

Forest Service is also the world leader

in developing emissions factors from

fires and modeling its dispersion. The

USDA and the Department of Commerce (DOC) jointly operate a global

agricultural weather and information

center located in Washington, D.C.

This Joint Agricultural Weather Facility operationally monitors global

weather conditions and assesses the

impacts of growing season weather on

crop and livestock production

prospects. This information keeps

crop and livestock producers, farm

organizations, agribusinesses, state and

national farm policy-makers, government agencies, and foreign buyers of

agricultural products apprised of

worldwide weather-related developments and their effects on crops and

livestock. Furthermore, tracking

weather and crop developments in

countries that are either major

exporters or importers of agricultural

commodities keeps the agricultural

sector informed on potential competitors. USDA is also actively involved

in drought monitoring efforts in concert with the National Drought Mitigation Center.

For supporting research, USDA

funds research projects through the

Cooperative State Research, Education

and Extension Service (CSREES) that

study the impact of climate and

weather on food and fiber production.

The goal of supporting research is to

develop and disseminate information

and techniques to ensure an abundance

of high-quality agricultural commodities and products while minimizing the

adverse effects of agriculture on the

environment. Furthermore, the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) conducts research on how annual variation

in weather adversely effects crop and

animal production, hydrologic

processes, the availability of water

from watersheds, and the environmental and economic sustainability of agricultural enterprises.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(DOC)

All reported DOC meteorological

activities are within the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The NOAA FY 2007

total congressional request of

$2.04 billion for meteorological programs represents an increase of

4.2 percent over the FY 2006 appropriated funds. NOAA's FY 2007 operations and supporting research requests

for major line office activities are

described below:

WEATHER SERVICES

The National Weather Service

(NWS) provides weather, hydrologic,

and climate forecasts and warnings for

the U.S., its territories, adjacent

waters, and ocean areas for the protection of life and property and the

enhancement of the national economy.

RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES

The tables in this section summarize budgetary information of the Federal government for Fiscal Years 2006 and 2007.

The funds shown are those used to provide meteorological services and associated supporting research that has as its

immediate objective the improvement of these services. Fiscal data are current as of the end of August 2006 and are

subject to later changes. The data for FY 2007 do not have legislative approval and do not constitute a commitment by

the United States Government. The budget data are prepared in compliance with Section 304 of Public Law 87-843, in

which Congress directed that an annual horizontal budget be prepared for meteorological programs conducted by the

Federal agencies.

AGENCY OBLIGATIONS FOR METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS 

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH
8 SECTION 2
SECTION 2 9

NWS data and products form a

national information database and

infrastructure which can be used by

other government agencies, the private

sector, the public, and the global community.

The U.S. is one of the most severeweather prone countries on Earth.

Each year, Americans cope with an

average of 10,000 thunderstorms,

5,000 floods, 1,200 tornadoes, as well

as 6 deadly hurricanes. Some 90 percent of all Presidentially-declared disasters are weather related, causing

approximately 500 deaths per year and

$14 billion in damage. According to

the American Meteorological Society,

weather is directly linked to public

safety and about one-third of the U.S.

economy (about $3 trillion) is weather

sensitive.

More and more sectors of the U.S.

economy recognize the impacts of

weather, water, and climate on their

businesses, and are becoming more

sophisticated at using weather, water,

and climate information to make better

decisions. To meet this growing

demand for information and to

improve the timeliness and accuracy of

warnings for all weather related hazards, the NWS will continue to

enhance observing capabilities,

improve data assimilation to effectively use all the relevant data NWS

and others collect, improve collaboration with the research community,

make NWS information available

quickly, efficiently, and in a useful

form (e.g., the National Digital Forecast Database) and include information

on forecast uncertainty to help customers make fully informed decisions.

With about 4,800 employees in 122

weather forecast offices (WFO), 13

river forecast centers, 9 national centers and other support offices around

country, NWS provides a national

infrastructure to gather and process

data worldwide from the land, sea, and

air. This infrastructure enables data

collection using technologies such as

Doppler weather radars, satellites

operated by NOAA's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS), data buoys for

marine observations, surface observing

systems, and instruments for monitoring space weather and air quality.

These data feed sophisticated environmental prediction models running on

high-speed supercomputers. Our

highly trained and skilled workforce

uses powerful workstations to analyze

all of these data to issue climate, public, aviation, marine, fire weather, air

quality, space weather, river and flood

forecasts and warnings around-theclock. A high-speed communications

hub allows for the efficient exchange

of these data and products between

NWS components, partners and customers. NWS forecasts and warnings

are rapidly distributed via a diverse

dissemination infrastructure including

NOAA Weather Radio. Finally, customer outreach, education, and feedback are critical elements to effective

public response and improvements to

NWS services.

The FY 2007 President's Budget

Request supports the funding and program requirements necessary to

address established NOAA strategic

goals and sets NWS on a path to

achieve its vision: Produce and deliver

forecasts that can be trusted; use cutting-edge technologies; provide services in a cost-effective manner; strive

to eliminate weather related fatalities;

and improve the economic value of

weather, water, and climate information.

NOAA requests a total of

$903,996,000 million and 4,606 FTE

to support the continued and enhanced

operations of the National Weather

Service. The total includes

$24,754,000 for Adjustments to Base,

$37,445,000 million for Program

Increases, and $25,597,000 in Terminations.

ADJUSTMENTS TO BASE:

NOAA requests a net increase of

$24,754,000 and 0 FTE to fund adjustments to base across all accounts in the

National Weather Service activities.

With this increase, program totals will

fund the estimated FY 2007 Federal

pay raise of 2.2 percent and annualize

the FY 2006 pay raise of 3.1 percent.

Program totals will provide inflationary increases for non-labor activities,

including service contracts, utilities,

field office lease payments, and rent

charges from the General Services

Administration.

NWS also requests the following

transfers between line offices or appropriations for a net change to NOAA of

zero:

• $2,291,000 is transferred from the

National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation

Program to the Strengthen the U.S.

Tsunami Warning Network Program

Planning Activity (PPA) within the

Local Warnings and Forecasts Line

Item. This transfer has no net effect on

overall NWS or NOAA funding and

was done simply to consolidate all

NWS Tsunami funding into one PPA.

• $3,000,000 is transferred from the

Local Warning and Forecasts line to

benefit the Oceanic and Atmospheric

Research (OAR) Competitive

Research Program.

• $21,500,000 is transferred from

the National Data Buoy Center to the

Local Warnings and Forecasts base and

Alaska Data Buoy PPAs within the

Local Warnings and Forecasts line

item.

• $5,800,000 is transferred from the

National Hurricane Center to the Central Forecasts Guidance PPA within the

Central Forecasts Guidance line item.

NWS - ORF PROGRAM CHANGE

HIGHLIGHTS FOR FY 2007:

NOAA requests a net increase of

$37,445,000 and 9 FTE over the FY

2007 base for a total request of

$783,446,000 and 4,606 FTE. These

changes are summarized at the subac-
10 SECTION 2

tivity level below and to be concise, do

not include descriptions below

$1,000,000. Descriptions of each

request by line item are located in the

NOAA FY 2007 Technical Budget.

Operations and Research

($687,856,000)

A net increase of $28,654,000 and 9

FTE above the base is requested in the

Operations and Research subactivity,

for a total of $687,856,000 and 4,424

FTE.

Local Warnings and Forecasts:

$28,654,000 and 9 FTE in net

increases above the base, for a total of

$636,793,000 and 4,125 FTE, are

requested under the Local Warnings

and Forecasts line item of the Operations and Research subactivity.

• NOAA requests 0 FTEs and

$1,400,000 to operate and maintain the

seven new weather data buoys

funded/deployed under the FY 2005

Hurricane Supplemental Appropriation. These buoys support enhanced

real time hurricane data observations

and storm monitoring in the

Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and the

Atlantic Ocean to support the NOAA

hurricane warning and forecast mission. The FY 2005 Hurricane Supplemental provided one-time funding to

procure and deploy these buoys. This

program adjustment requests the funding required to support the long-term

operation and maintenance of these

platforms. This investment is required

for NOAA's implementation of the

Integrated Ocean Observing System

(IOOS) as the coastal and open ocean

component of the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS).

Combined with other like-identified

IOOS investments across NOAA, it is

part of NOAA's strategy to provide initial benefits of an integrated ocean

observing system, focusing on enhancing key observational capabilities

throughout NOAA, and our ability to

provide customers with enhanced

coastal data and information. The

seven newly installed data buoys, consisting of one 3-meter, two 6-meter,

two 10-meter, and two 12-meter buoys,

require annual maintenance and shoreside operating/infrastructure support to

maintain reliable data output. Funds

will be used to provide: field service

and maintenance; shore-side operation/infrastructure support; and to

maintain spare equipment/buoy to support field maintenance strategy.

• NOAA requests $12,360,000 and 4

FTE to strengthen the U.S. tsunami

warning program. In response to the

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the

Administration proposed expanding

the U.S. Tsunami Warning Program to

protect U.S. lives and property along

all coasts (Pacific, Gulf of Mexico,

Atlantic and the Caribbean). In order

to continue the Administration's commitment to strengthening the U.S.

Tsunami Warning Program and mitigate a similar seismic/tsunami event in

the U.S., NOAA needs to build upon

the foundation laid in FY 2005 and FY

2006 and continue to accelerate and

improve its: (1) Tsunami Hazard

Assessment Programs (including comprehensive coastal U.S. risk assessments/inundation mapping, modeling

and forecasting efforts); (2) Tsunami

Warning Guidance Programs (including 24/7 tsunami detection and warning systems and the dissemination of

accurate and timely tsunami forecasts

and warnings); and (3) Tsunami Mitigation Programs (including community-based emergency response plans)

and public education/awareness

(Tsunami Ready communities and

inundation/evacuation mapping).

Funds will be used to operate and

maintain the newly expanded DART

systems, new sea-level monitoring stations, the upgraded local seismic networks supporting the West Coast

/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center

(WC/ATWC) and the Richard H.

Hagemeyer Pacific Tsunami Warning

Center (PTWC), and to operate both

the WC/ATWC and PTWC as 24/7

Operation Centers.

• NOAA requests $3,500,000 and 5

FTE to transfer the Wind Profilers

from research to operations. Wind

Profilers, vertical looking radars,

installed in 1988, are used for a variety

of analytical forecasting tasks. Wind

profile data are used as input for

numerical (computer) weather models

that predict clouds, precipitation, and

temperature. The data also provide

important indicators of where severe

weather such as tornadoes and winter

storms may form, requiring weather

advisories, watches, or warnings.

Weather forecasters also use wind profiler data for issuing aviation Significant Meteorological (SIGMET) advisories and wildfire predictions. The

NOAA Profiler Network (NPN) must

be upgraded to operate at a different

frequency because of interference with

signals from new search and rescue

(SAR) satellites expected to launch by

the European Space Agency in FY

2006. Currently, the SAR beacons and

the NPN operate at the same frequency. Consequently, the SAR beacon will interfere with NPN wind profiling radars whenever a satellite is

overhead. The NPN wind profile information improves NWS operational

warning and watch performance capability. Performance statistics indicate

that tornado, winter storm, severe

storm, flash flood forecasts and warnings, and aviation weather and fire

weather warnings for NWS WFOs

with wind profilers are more accurate

and are able to provide longer warning

lead-times. In FY 2007 NWS will: initiate engineering design and development contract for new frequency compliant transmitters; coordinate with

data users the development of contingency plans for interference issues that

may arise; and, provide operations and

maintenance support for the current

Profiler network.

• NOAA requests $1,200,000 and 0

FTE to expand the multi-year effort to

improve aviation weather services.

This requested increase will enable
SECTION 2 11

procurement and fielding of 75 additional water vapor sensors as part of an

Integrated Upper Air Observing system, and transition additional products

to a digital environment. Today,

weather accounts for 70 percent of all

air traffic delays within the U.S.

National Airspace System (NAS),

resulting in a $10B impact to the U.S.

economy, $4B of which the Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA) has

determined is preventable. The Aviation Weather program must continue to

implement projects and training opportunities that improve both the accuracy

of weather information and the way in

which weather information is utilized.

Pilots, controllers and flight planners

require products in digital formats to

facilitate and expand their use in the

cockpit and to convey forecast

specifics graphically lending to better,

more informed decision making. The

Aviation Program must be prepared to

enable the NWS to transition and sustain FAA Research and Development

(R&D) efforts in aviation weather that

are valued over $24M/year. In addition, the Aviation Program is supporting the Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) effort to develop

the Next Generation Air Transportation

Systems (NGATS), with the Department of Commerce (DOC) leading a 5-

agency [Department of Defense

(DOD), Department of Transportation

(DOT), Department of Homeland

Security (DHS), National Aeronautics

and Space Administration (NASA),

and DOC] Weather Integrated Process

Team.

• NOAA requests $2,500,000 and 0

FTE for the Air Quality Forecasting

Program. This program provides air

quality forecast guidance with the

implementation of NOAA's Air Quality Forecast capability. This increase

will be used for nationwide deployment of ozone forecasts in FY 2009,

and for initial PM forecast capability in

FY 2012. The air quality forecast

capability for next-day ground-level

ozone, first deployed operationally in

September 2004, over the Northeastern

U.S., and now covering the Eastern

U.S., will be extended through phased

development and testing nationwide in

FY 2009.

• NOAA requests $3,199,000 and 0

FTE for the Space Environment Center. SEC provides real-time monitoring and forecasting of solar and geophysical events, conducts research in

solarterrestrial physics, and develops

techniques for forecasting solar and

geophysical disturbances. SEC provides services to a broad user community of government agencies, industries, public institutions, and private

individuals involved in satellite operation, space exploration, radio navigation, high-altitude polar flights, highfrequency communications, remote

intelligence gathering, long-line power

and data transmissions, and geophysical exploration.

• NOAA requests $890,000 and 0

FTE for the Cooperative Observer Program. This request funds Operations

and Maintenance (O&M) support for

NOAA legacy Cooperative Observer

program. This program provides

observational meteorological data in

near real-time to support forecast,

warning and other public service programs of the NWS. More than 11,000

volunteers take observations on farms,

in urban and suburban areas, national

parks, seashores, and mountaintops

and the data that are collected are truly

representative of where people live,

work and play.

• NOAA requests $2,457,000 and 0

FTE for U.S. Weather Research Program. This request will accelerate hurricane research, air quality research for

particulate matter forecasts, and to

expand The Observing System

Research and Predictability Experiment (THORPEX). The hurricane

research activities include improving

forecasts of hurricane intensity at landfall.

• NOAA requests $1,098,000 and 0

FTE for the Advanced Hydrological

Prediction Services (AHPS). This

funding allows continued nationwide

implementation of AHPS, with deployment at an additional 309 forecast

points in these areas. AHPS information comes from the combined use of

remote sensing, data automation and

advanced computer modeling to analyze river data, and create graphical

displays of flood probability forecasts,

including flood-forecast maps, pinpointing areas where flooding may

occur. The FY 2007 budget also supports extramural partnerships to carry

out operationally-oriented hydrologic

research, deployment of new flashflood forecasting tools, and introduction of more effective river forecasting

models.

Systems Operation & Maintenance

(O&M) $95,590,000

A net increase of $8,791,000 and 0

FTE above the base is requested in the

Systems Operation & Maintenance

subactivity, for a total of $95,590,000

and 182 FTE.

• NOAA requests an increase of

$2,500,000 and 0 FTE, to implement a

telecommunications network solution

that resolves an existing single-pointof-failure associated with the NWS

Telecommunications Gateway Critical

Infrastructure Protection (NWSTGCIP). This investment will ensure

uninterrupted delivery of critical meteorological data necessary for the protection of life and property, and the

economic well being of the Nation.

The NWSTG-CIP is the hub for all

NWS/NOAA weather, water and climate data and information, and has

been identified as an essential government resource in Presidential Decision

Directive - 67 Enduring Constitutional

Government and Continuity of Government Operations. The geographically disparate backup system will be

connected to the NWSTG primary and

user community through a telecommunications network. Funds will be used
12 SECTION 2

for operations and maintenance

(O&M) in FY 2007 which includes

annual recurring telecommunications

costs for switching all NWSTG circuits through a switch located at the

Local Exchange Carrier (LEC) central

office. The Department of Commerce

Chief Information Office (CIO) mandated that the connectivity between the

NWSTG and NWSTG-CIP eliminates

all single-points-of failure. In order for

this to transpire, a network was

designed to bypass the LEC central

office. Without full network connectivity, the NWSTG will remain a single

point of failure, risking the delivery of

critical meteorological data necessary

for the protection of life and property,

vital to the economic well being of the

Nation.

• NOAA requests $3,461,000 and 0

FTE for Advanced Weather Interactive

Processing System (AWIPS). This

request will fund continued operations

and maintenance for the network of

169 fielded systems. AWIPS integrates satellite and NEXRAD Doppler

weather radar data and provides to the

local field forecaster capabilities to

significantly improve forecasts and

warnings.

• NOAA requests $2,830,000 and 0

FTE for NEXRAD. This request will

restore funding necessary for continued operations and maintenance for the

network of 123 NEXRAD systems.

NEXRAD systems are critical for realtime observations and forecasts of

severe weather events, including tornadoes, heavy precipitation, and hurricanes.

SYSTEMS ACQUISITION

($66,611,000)

NOAA requests a decrease of

$2,440,000 and 0 FTE for a total of

$1,030,000 to reflect the planned

reduction in the procurement of program assets that were required to

accelerate the development and

deployment of a national tsunami

warning system in FY 2005 and FY

2006. Funds will be used to procure

the four remaining Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis

(DART) buoy spares.

This budget request is necessary to

complete the foundation laid by the

Administration in FY 2005 and FY

2006 to strengthen the U.S. tsunami

warning program.

• NOAA's Environmental Real Time

Observation Network (NERON) (formerly known as Cooperative Observer

Network Modernization). NOAA is

requesting no change to the $4,234,000

base for NERON, which will provide

the U.S. with a network of accurate,

real-time surface weather data (temperature and precipitation at a minimum) obtained with state-of-the-art

measurement, monitoring, and communication equipment. Quality controlled, higher density, real-time surface data will preserve and enhance the

climate record of the Nation and

improve temperature forecast skill,

river height forecast error, radar estimates of precipitation, drought monitoring resolution, hydrology planning,

and energy optimization for NWS customers. A specific goal of NERON is

to form the infrastructure for the

National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS). Additional sensors from proven commercial off-theshelf technology, including wind data,

can provide timely data for response to

homeland security events or disasters.

The objective of NERON is to deploy,

integrate or upgrade up to 8,000 modernized sites. A part of NERON is the

Historical Climate Network (HCN),

comprised of approximately 1200 stations. Because of its unique purpose as

the long-term network developed to

assist in the detection of regional climate change, it is a high priority of

NWS to ensure 5-6 times the integrity

of its long-term database. Like other

manual NERON sites, the HCN uses

older technology, and the data are not

available in real-time. Real-time

observations are necessary to meet

users' needs and to provide sensor

information for prompt maintenance

actions. The modernization of HCN

sites will mitigate the lack of information from geographical sub-regions

and provide, in real-time, very high

quality surface observations of temperature and precipitation that meets climate, hydrology, and weather and

water forecasting needs. Modernizing

the HCN will reduce the uncertainty in

the measure of regional climate

change.

NOAA Weather Radio

NOAA requests no change to the

$5,594,000 base to complete and to

sustain NOAA Weather Radio (NWR).

Funds will be used to procure all of the

transmitters for the seventeen (17) sites

identified as high risk of severe

weather events and begin installations.

Nine (9) transmitters are planned to be

installed in FY 2006 and the remaining

eight (8) in FY 2007. Additionally,

funds will be used to begin the refurbishment of four hundred (400) stations established in the 1970s, eliminating single points of failure and

improving network reliability.

Weather and Climate Supercomputing

NOAA requests no change to the

$19,092,000 base for Weather and Climate Supercomputing. The cyclical

upgrade of the NWS weather and climate supercomputing capability is

intended to procure the computing and

communications equipment needed to

receive and process the increasing

wealth of environmental data acquired

by modernized observing systems,

process improved and more sophisticated numerical weather prediction

models, and stay current with the

supercomputing technology the market

has to offer. Execution of this program

promotes public safety and the protection of property by providing the

National Center for Environmental

Protection (NCEP) with the computer

systems that are capable of producing

more accurate NWS climate and

numerical weather prediction (NWP)
SECTION 2 13

guidance products for hurricanes,

severe thunderstorms, floods, and winter storms. Additionally, the supercomputing system more accurately

forecasts large-scale weather patterns

in the medium (3 to 10 days) and

extended range (30 days), plus forecasts of major climate events such as

El Niño and La Niña. In addition, the

computer upgrades will improve the

delivery of products to the field and

provide system users with enhanced

productivity. These products and services will lead to significant economic

benefits for users, like the agriculture,

construction, and transportation industries.

Weather and Climate Supercomputing

Backup

NOAA requests no change to the

$7,077,000 base for the Weather and

Climate Supercomputing Backup.

Because of the critical need of the

weather and climate output, it is essential that a backup capability be operational, as part of contingency planning.

Automated Surface Observing System

NOAA requests a decrease of

$700,000 and 0 FTE for a total of

$3,935,000 for the Automated Surface

Observing System (ASOS). This

decrease reflects a planned change in

the implementation strategy for 240 of

the total 377 sites from 40,000 foot

ceilometers to 25,000 foot ceilometers.

Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System

NOAA requests no change to the

$12,764,000 base for the Advanced

Weather Interactive Processing System

(AWIPS)/NOAAPort. AWIPS is the

cornerstone of the modernized NWS.

This system integrates and displays all

hydrometeorological data at NWS

field offices. AWIPS acquires and

processes data from modernized sensors and local sources, provides computational and display functions at

operational sites, provides robust communications system to interconnect

NWS operational sites, and disseminates warnings and forecasts in a rapid,

highly reliable manner. This system

integrates satellite, NEXRAD Doppler

weather radar data, and numerical

weather prediction data enabling field

forecasters to better visualize environmental processes to enable the creation

of timely and accurate forecasts and

warnings. AWIPS provides the only

display for NEXRAD Doppler weather

radar data at NWS Weather Forecast

Offices (WFOs) and River Forecast

Centers (RFCs). The AWIPS NOAAPort satellite broadcast network offers

the communications capability to provide internal and external users with

open access to much of NOAA's realtime environmental data. These funding resources will be used to further

improve AWIPS processing, communications, and software architecture to

support system processing demands

from increases in NEXRAD Doppler

weather radar data, increases in NCEP

model data, and new NESDIS polar

and geostationary satellite imagery.

These pre-planned and ongoing

NOAA investments in modeling, satellite instruments, and radar improvements (NEXRAD Product Improvement) represent NOAA's commitment

to bring forecasters the data and information required to improve forecast

accuracy and warning lead times.

NWS Government Performance and

Results Act goals are based on the

effective use of these technology

investments along with advanced decision assistance tools, forecast preparation and advanced database capabilities. Sustained investment in the

AWIPS hardware, communications,

and software infrastructure is necessary to achieve these performance

goals to further improve NWS Tornado

Warning Lead Time, Flash Flood

Warning Lead Time and Winter Storm

Warning Lead Times. These cyclic

replacements occur every three years

to ensure that NWS stays abreast of

technological changes.

Next Generation Weather Radar

NOAA requests no change to the

$8,376,000 base for the Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD).

NEXRAD is a Doppler weather radar

system that provides automated signal

processing, computerized processing

of data by sophisticated meteorological

software algorithms, and a high-capacity, processor-driven communications

capability. The system is modular in

design, upgradeable, has a long lifecycle expectancy, and provides both

government and commercial sector

weather users with a wide array of

automated weather information that

will increase their capability to meet

their respective operational requirements. For the NWS, the system uses

Doppler technology and hydrometeorological processing to provide significant increases, both in the functional

capability and in performance, compared with previous radars, including

improved tornado and thunderstorm

warnings, increased air safety,

improved flash flood warnings, and

improved water resources management.

NWS Telecommunication Gateway

NOAA requests no change to the

$495,000 for the NWS Telecommunications Gateway (NWSTG) Legacy

Replacement. The NWSTG is the

NWS communications hub for collecting and distributing weather information to its field units and external users.

Replacing the NWSTG system with

up-to-date technology will reduce the

current delays in collecting and disseminating data by reducing transit

time through the NWSTG. The

replacement will ensure reliable delivery of NWS products to users and will

fully capitalize on better observation

data and prediction models to improve

services. In FY 2006, NWS will conclude a three-year effort to replace the

National Weather Service Telecommunications Gateway (NWSTG) switching system and repair and upgrade

NWSTG facilities. In FY 2007, NWS

will execute limited technical refresh

in the second quarter, and implement
14 SECTION 2

NWS Back-up Telecommunications

Gateway (BTG) infrastructure.

Radiosonde Network Replacement

NOAA requests a planned decrease

of $333,000 and 0 FTE for a FY 2007

total of $4,014,000 for the Radiosonde

Replacement Program. This decrease

reflects extending the deployment

schedule by one year so that the network is complete in FY 2009.

CONSTRUCTION

NOAA requests an increase of

$11,000,000 and 0 FTE for a total of

$19,305,000 to prepare the NOAA

Center for Weather and Climate Prediction (NCWCP) for FY 2008 occupancy and operations. This FY 2007

increase is consistent with the planned

NCWCP investment profile to implement mission critical systems overlap

during the transition/move from the

current World Weather Building

(WWB) to the NCWCP. NOAA must

be ready to install systems and equipment during the six-month period prior

to the delivery of space, and in the

months immediately preceding the

phased completion of construction.

Lastly, the funding will be used for

project management tasks supporting

technical oversight of the construction,

occupancy, and mission critical systems relocation processes. Also,

detailed planning and closely coordinated relocation activities are an

absolute requirement to ensure that

critical data products are not interrupted during the relocation of 24x7

mission critical systems. This project

is a key component of the NWS' effort

to improve its weather and climate

modeling performance, to accelerate

the transfer of newly developed scientific information into operations, and

to improve the use of global environmental satellite data. NWS has

demonstrated a direct linkage between

establishing new facilities in the proximity of research organizations, and

improved program performance. The

expiration of the WWB lease dictates

the timing of the NCWCP Project and

affords an outstanding opportunity to

enhance the NWS efforts to protect the

continuity and flow of critical weather

warning, forecasts and data products to

the Public. The award of the lease by

GSA in September 2005, will ensure

occupancy of the new facility in October 2008. FY 2005 funding provided

project management for NOAA, and

allowed NOAA to initiate the planning

and engineering required to support the

mission systems relocation. In FY

2007, construction of the NCWCP will

be completed. Simultaneously, NOAA

will implement procurements to complete all tenant improvements and outfitting such as, but not limited to:

telecommunications cabling (systems

acquisition and installation); interior

design, system furniture acquisition

and installation; and relocation costs.

The FY 2007 effort will also involve

the one-time relocation of mission critical operational systems from the

WWB to the NCWCP. This critical

system relocation funding will ensure

that NOAA will be able to operate its

"mission critical" programs by providing an overlap in system functionality

during the physical relocation from the

WWB to the NCWCP. Funding for

project management includes a project

manager, space planner, a project engineer and technical support, to provide

continued coordination and oversight

among all involved parties including

GSA, users, contractors, and consultants.

• NOAA requests a planned

decrease of $1,000,000 and 0 FTE for

a total of $12,504,000 to reflect the

transfer of $1,000,000 of Weather

Forecast Office (WFO) construction

funding to NOAA facilities to support

NOAA facility planning requirements.

Planned relocation (construction) of

the Office of Atmospheric Research

(OAR) housing currently collected at

the WSO Bairow, will be deferred to

FY 2008. This is a one time deferral.

Construction elements currently ongoing include the upgrade and modernization of Alaska and Pacific Region

Weather Service Offices, Tsunami

Warning Centers, and associated

employee housing units; upgrades of

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conduction (HVAC) systems at approximately

60 WFOs, uninterrupted power supply

(UPS) replacements, and mitigations

of all building and fire code violations.

This construction effort is essential to

bring the NWS into full compliance

with federal law and national and local

building codes.

ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE,

DATA, AND INFORMATION SERVICES

Proposed funding for FY 2007

includes a decrease in the Polar-Orbiting Satellite Program (POES) of $(11.

8) million, a net increase in the Geostationary Satellite Program (GOES)

of $112.4 million, and an increase in

the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite Systems

(NPOESS) of $20.2 million. These

changes allow for continuation of procurements to provide the spacecraft

and instruments, launch services, and

ground systems necessary to assure

continuity of environmental satellite

coverage. The budget request will

maintain a system of polar-orbiting

satellites that obtains global data and a

system of geostationary satellites that

provides near-continuous observations

of the Earth's western hemisphere.

Funding for the POES program is

decreasing as it approaches the end of

its production cycle with one remaining satellite, NOAA N prime, to be

launched. The GOES request includes

a decrease of $8.8 million for the

GOES-N series of satellites, and an

increase of $113.4 million for the next

generation GOES-R series. The FY

2007 GOES-R funding will begin

engineering for several key instruments and continue the imager production begun in FY 2005. Another $20.2

million in funding is included for
SECTION 2 15

NOAA's share of the NPOESS program - the converged NOAA and

Department of Defense (DOD) polarorbiting system that will replace the

current NOAA series and the DOD

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP).

A total of $97.7 million is included in

the budget request to maintain basic

mission satellite services including

maintenance and operation of satellite

ground facilities; provision of satellitederived products, including hazards

support; and conduct of research to

improve the use of satellite data..

Included in the above request is $3.8

million to continue the Ocean Remote

Sensing Program, which began in FY

1995. During the next several years,

NOAA will acquire data from foreign

and other non-NOAA satellites that

will provide measurement of ocean

currents, surface winds and waves,

subsurface temperature and salinity

profiles, ice thickness and flows, and

other marine factors.

Included in the budget request is

$51.9M for the NOAA Data Centers

and Information Services subactivity

base operating funds.

NOAA OCEAN SERVICE (NOS).

NOS operational oceanographic

observing systems are designed to

measure both oceanographic and meteorological parameters in order to meet

user and partner requirements. As a

result, users of the data and information support a broad cross-cut of the

marine transportation sector, the climate change research sector, weather

and water programs, and ecosystems

research community.

Funding provided through the FY

2007 budget will allow the continuation of the second generation of the

NOS CO-OPS advanced data quality

control program, the Continuous Operational Real-time Monitoring System

(CORMS AI), as well as the continued

implementation of the Ocean Systems

Test and Evaluation Program

(OSTEP), which is a development program for bringing new sensor technology into operations. The FY 2006

budget has allowed for sufficient support to operate the National Water

Level Observation Network

(NWLON) and for continued growth

of the Physical Oceanographic RealTime System (PORTS). Both the

NWLON and PORTS programs have

subsets of operational water level stations with meteorological sensors

installed for various partners and users,

including the NWS.

Under the NOAA-Wide Coastal

Storms Program (CSP), targeted stations of existing federal and state tide

station networks have been funded to

be enhanced with new meteorological

sensors. Under a NOAA Ocean Service Partnership Proposal, first funded

in FY 2002, a subset of the NWLON in

the Great Lakes was enhanced with

new meteorological sensors and with

continuous GPS. Previously, special,

water level stations were enhanced

with meteorological sensors in the

Gulf of Mexico with funding from the

NWS Southern Region. In FY 2005,

NOS is using some of the IOOS funding to upgrade and enhance the

NWLON and continues to work cooperatively with the NWS National Data

Buoy Center to establish common collection and quality control procedures

and data streams for meteorological

and water level data from NOS and

NDBC observing systems. Hurricane

Katrina supplemental funds are being

used to harden existing NWLON stations to withstand storm surge and to

equip more stations with meteorological sensors. NOS operational nowcast/forecast modeling activities are

expanding and rely upon NWS Eta

model data streams as hydrodynamic

model drivers. NOS, in cooperation

with NWS and OAR in have developed an operational nowcast/forecast

capability for the Great Lakes.

OFFICE OF ATMOSPHERIC

RESEARCH (OAR).

Requested funding for FY 2007 for

Weather and Air Quality Research

(W&AQR) is $41.2 million--a

decrease of $26.6 million or more than

39 percent from the FY 2006 appropriation. Increases consist of upward

base adjustments of $1.5 million to

partially cover inflationary cost

increases plus a critical $2.4 million

program increase for Regional Air

Quality Assessments and rent increases

stemming from the move to the new

National Weather Center facility in

Norman, OK. Proposed decreases

include $4.3 million from the Weather

& Air Quality Research Laboratories

and Cooperative Institutes line item

($1.3 million of one-time hurricane

supplemental funding and $3.0 million

as the W&AQR share of the new

NOAA Joint Institute for the Northern

Gulf of Mexico) as well as $1.0 million

from Weather & Air Quality Research

Programs (Phased-Array Radar or

PAR). The latter decrease actually

leaves PAR funding at a level of $3.0

million or $2.0 million higher than the

President requested in FY 2006. In

addition, terminations totaling $25.3

million are proposed for: Atmospheric

Investigation Regional Modeling

Analysis and Prediction (AIRMAP)

($4.9 million); New England Air Quality Study ($3.0 million); Targeted

Wind Sensing ($2.0 million); Risk

Reduction in Water Forecasts at Mississippi State University ($2.0 million), New England Center for the

Study of Atmospheric Sciences & Policy ($1.5 million); the "STORM" Program at the University of Northern

Iowa ($0.6 million); Remote Sensing

Research at the Idaho State University/Boise Center Aerospace Laboratory ($0.5 million); East Tennessee

Ozone Study ($0.3 million); Central

California Air Quality Study ($0.4 million), Urbanet ($5.9 million), Great

Plains Center of Atmosphere and

Human Health ($1.0 million), High-
16 SECTION 2

Altitude Air Study ($0.3 million),

Reducing Wind-Induced Damages

from Storms ($1.0 million), and Coordinate NASA-NOAA Severe Storm

R&D ($2.0 million).

NATIONAL POLAR-ORBITING

OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE SYSTEM

(NPOESS).

The FY 2007 DOC/DOD budget

request for NPOESS is $662.6 million.

FY 2007 funds will be used for the

continued development of system

architecture, technology development

efforts, and critical sensor and algorithm development. NPOESS is

planned to be launched in FY 2013.

This system will exploit advanced

hardware and software technologies to

produce a more reliable, longer-lived

spacecraft with greater mission capability. In addition to new products,

NPOESS will also provide a significant reduction (90 minutes to 30 minutes) in the time required to move from

sensed to processed data.

NOAA MARINE AND AVIATION

OPERATIONS (NMAO).

NMAO supports meteorological

activities by collection of related data

from ships and aircraft. The FY 2007

President's Budget does not include

any significant increases or decreases

from the FY 2006 appropriation for

NMAO that are related to meteorological data collection.

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (DOD)

The DOD total budget request for

FY 2007, excluding NPOESS funding,

is $603.4 million which represents a

funding increase of 2.1 percent from

FY 2006. Specific highlights for each

of the military departments are

described below:

U.S. AIR FORCE

United States Air Force (USAF)

resources for meteorological support

fall into several categories: general

operations, investment and research,

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), and National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite System (NPOESS) supporting

research. The total Air Force operations and investment funding for FY

2007, including DMSP and NPOESS,

is $805 million.

General Operations

The operations portion of Air Force

Weather's FY 2007 budget is $317.1

million and funds day-to-day environmental support to the DOD, including

the active and reserve components of

the Air Force and Army, nine unified

commands, and other agencies as

directed by the Chief of Staff of the Air

Force. Just over 4,400 Active and

Reserve Component military and civilian personnel conduct these activities

at more than 290 locations worldwide.

Approximately 85 percent of personnel

specialize in weather; the remainder

includes communications, computer,

administrative, and logistics specialists.

General Supporting Research

Air Force Weather's FY 2007 budget

request for supporting research is

$34.9 million. The increase in funding

over FY 2006 is a result of research

and development efforts related to

NPOESS and other transformational

initiatives that recapitalize legacy systems, build robust environmental digital data bases and disseminate data

streams to DOD and coalition C2 systems in a Machine-to-Machine

(M2M)/net-centric era. As part of AF

Smart Operations 21st Century (AFSO

21), Air Force Weather is investing in

modernized environmental prediction

technologies and global information

grid technologies that enhance automation and save manpower. Air Force

Weather continues their extensive initiative to buildup the strategic center's

information technology infrastructure

for the expected 10-fold increase in

satellite data. Also, Air Force Weather

is investing in the following innovative

software/systems development efforts

in FY 2007 and beyond: Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET), Weather Data

Analysis (WDA) and Ensemble Prediction System (EPS). The goals of

JET, WDA and EPA are to simplify,

standardize, minimize, and automate

weather operations at the operational

and tactical levels. Specifically, JET

will eliminate redundancies/inefficiencies and ultimately extend, consolidate

and/or replace the Operational Weather

Squadron (OWS) Production SystemPhase II (OPS II), the Joint Weather

Impacts System (JWIS), the New-Tactical Forecast System (N-TFS), and the

weather effects decision aids portion of

the Integrated Meteorological System

(IMETS). WDA will provide many of

the behind the scene tools at the

weather production centers necessary

for enabling JET to provide decision

quality products and information to

warfighters. EPS will provide the

foundation to fundamentally change

legacy forecast processes to an AFSO

21 compatible process necessary for

the rapidly changing, net-centric,

machine-to-machine future environment. While JET, WDA and EPS work

synergistically to provide warfighters a

quantum leap in capability, JET is the

most visible piece to decision-makers.

JET will exploit data contained in the

Virtual Joint Meteorological Oceanographic (METOC) Database (VJMDB)

via common-user-communications,

integrate with joint and coalition command and control and mission planning systems, and provide the

machine-to-machine data exchange for

assimilating METOC and C4ISR data

to meet operational and tactical mission planning and execution requirements. The JET contract was awarded

to Raytheon on 28 Mar 20, after a 20-

month source selection process.

DMSP

DMSP operations are a critical
SECTION 2 17

source of space-borne meteorological

data for the military services and other

high-priority DOD programs. DMSP

environmental data is also distributed

to the National Weather Service

(NWS), National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service

(NESDIS), the Navy's Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC), the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO), and

Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA)

according to interagency agreements.

The Air Force's total projected FY

2007 outlays for DMSP are $104.8

million. This funding provides for the

operations and sustainment of the onorbit constellation, as well as integration, test, and flight hardware modifications and replacement to maximize

performance and longevity of the satellites that remain to be launched.

DMSP satellites are acquired and

launched by the Air Force and funding

to operate the satellites on-orbit is

transferred by the Air Force to NOAA

each year.

NPOESS Supporting Research

The FY 2007 DOD R&D budget for

NPOESS is $349.3 million for the continued development of system architecture, technology, critical sensors,

and algorithms. These dollars are

applied to both the NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) run by NASA and

the NPOESS program being which is

being acquired by a tn-agency Integrated Program Office. The NPOESS

program is currently in a NunnMcCurdy breach and is going through

a certification process being led by

OSD/AT&L. A decision on a restructured NPOESS program will be provided to Congress.

U.S. NAVY

The U.S. Navy FY 2007 budget

request for meteorological programs is

$90.4 million. The request includes

$47.8 million for operational programs

and $42.6 million for supporting

research.

The Naval Oceanography Program

(NOP) remains a unique, world-class

program. Focusing support in the

environmentally complex coastal/littoral regions around the globe, Naval

Meteorology and Oceanography

(METOC) personnel (Navy and

Marine Corps) are required to provide

intelligence preparation of the environment (IPE) for operational decisionmakers by assessing the impact of

atmospheric and ocean phenomena on

platforms, sensors and weapon systems. Additionally, Navy and Marine

Corps METOC personnel provide for

safe flight and navigation in support of

naval, joint, and combined forces operating throughout the world's oceans.

This is done with a cadre of highly

trained military and civilian personnel,

educated in both the sciences and

warfighting applications. By teaming

with, and leveraging the efforts of

other agencies and activities, the NOP

meets these challenges in a most costeffective manner, providing a full

spectrum of products and services with

only a small percentage of the Federal

weather budget.

The Naval Oceanography Program is

required to provide comprehensive and

integrated weather and ocean support

worldwide. The Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy sponsors programs

in four closely related disciplines -

meteorology, oceanography, geospatial

information services, and precise time

and astrometry. All are used to protect

ships, aircraft, fighting forces, and

shore establishments from adverse

ocean and weather conditions, and to

provide a decisive tactical or strategic

edge by exploiting the physical environment to optimize the performance

and efficiency of platforms, sensors,

and weapons.

Owing to the crucial interrelationship

of the ocean and the atmosphere, Naval

METOC requires various oceanographic products to provide the requisite meteorological services. In addition to aviation and maritime METOC

support, Navy and Marine Corps

METOC teams provide a variety of

unique services on demand, such as

electro-optical, electro-magnetic and

acoustic propagation models and products, METOC-sensitive tactical decision aids, and global sea ice analyses

and forecasts.

Support to naval operations is provided under the direction of the Commander, Naval Meteorology and

Oceanography Command (CNMOC)

located at the Stennis Space Center,

Mississippi and the Marine Corps

advocate for METOC, the Deputy

Commandant for Aviation, at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington,

DC. Naval METOC support starts

with sensing the battlespace physical

environment and culminates with

weapons arriving on target and

enabling personnel to operate in the

battlespace without being adversely

affected by physical environmental

phenomena. Operational support for

the Navy and Marine Corps includes

the day-to-day provision of meteorological and oceanographic (METOC)

products and services. As naval operations in the littoral increase, Naval

METOC support is directed towards

providing on-scene capabilities to personnel that directly furnish environmental data for sensor, weapon system,

and personnel planning and employment. These on-scene capabilities are

key elements for enabling the

warfighters to take advantage of the

natural environment as part of battlespace management.

Naval METOC systems acquisition

is accomplished through the Program

Executive Office for Command, Control, Communications, Computers and

Intelligence and Space (C41 and

Space) in San Diego, California.

Naval METOC Research and Development (R&D) are cooperatively sponsored by the Oceanographer/Navigator

of the Navy and the Chief of Naval

Research. Naval R&D efforts typically have applications to meteorologi-
18 SECTION 2

cal, oceanographic, and/or tactical systems. Navy's tabulation of budget data

includes R&D funding for basic

research, applied research, demonstration and validation, and engineering

and manufacturing development.

Projects initiated by the Navy and

Marine Corps, under sponsorship of

the Oceanographer/Navigator of the

Navy, transition from engineering

development to operational naval systems. Such efforts include advances in

Naval METOC forecasting capabilities, enhancements to communications

and data compression techniques, further development and improvement of

models to better predict METOC

parameters in littoral regions, and an

improved understanding of the impact

these parameters have on sensors,

weapon systems, and platform performance.

As the Department of the Navy continues a transformation begun under

SEAPOWER 21, increased emphasis

will be placed on making the Navy

combat-ready, forward-deployed, rotational, and surge-capable to contribute

to combined and joint operations in an

era of shifting global threats and challenges. The CNMOC Organization is

also currently transforming for efficiency and effectiveness to meet these

future requirements. The Naval

METOC Community continues to

work closely with research developers

and operational forces to ensure that

naval and joint force commanders will

always have the most accurate, timely,

and geo-referenced METOC information available for successful operations.

U.S. ARMY

The U.S. Army estimates a requirement for $45.3 million for operational

support and $10.9 million in research

and development in FY 2007. The

total amount of money budgeted for

weather support is estimated because

the costs to support U.S. Air Force

(USAF) Battlefield Weather forces are

normally part of the overall G-3 or G2 operating budget at the Army Commands (ACOMs), Army Service Component Commands (ASCCs), Corps,

Division, or Brigade level and are not

assigned their own program element or

budget line. Additionally, programs or

projects that are assigned a budget line

are often part of a larger project's

budget (e.g., IMETS as part of DCGSA) and the exact amount of monies

spent on meteorological related activities cannot be verified. The budget

numbers presented in this report represent the best estimate of the Army on

meteorological related spending over

the period of the report. Operational

support is projected to decrease

approximately $5.9 million over FY

2006 expenditures and research is estimated to decrease about $2.4 million

from the previous year. Staffing will

increase slightly. Decreases in funding

for meteorological related activities

were fairly evenly spread across all

activities for FY 2007. Increases in

staffing are a result of a projected

increase in ARTYMET units within

FORSCOM.

Army monies for meteorology are

spent in four main areas: support to

U.S. Army Artillery Met Sections

(ARTYMET), support to USAF Battlefield Weather forces at Army locations, research and development

related to the Army mission, and the

development, production, and maintenance of Army meteorological systems.

ASCCs with Staff Weather Officers

and their associated Battlefield

Weather forces provide the same support and services to Air Force Weather

(AFW) personnel that they normally

provide to Army personnel. This support includes the use of facilities to

house weather operations, medical

support, access to training facilities,

office supplies, utilities and maintenance for weather facilities, vehicles

and tactical equipment, and funding

for official travel. Eighth U.S. Army,

U.S. Army Europe, U.S. Army Pacific,

Forces Command, and Training and

Doctrine Command all provide this

support to AFW personnel assigned at

the ACOM level and below. The

departure of the First Infantry Division

from United States Army Europe significantly reduced the amount of

weather support required in

USAREUR and resulted in a projected

fifty percent decrease in weather

related expenditures within that ASCC

for FY 2007. USARPAC weather

expenditures increased for FY 2007

due to projected increases in maintenance and operating budgets.

Major portions of MACOM meteorological budgets go to support Artillery

Meteorology Sections, also known as

ARTYMET Teams, or Met Sections.

Wind data are then passed to the U.S.

Army Artillery units for firing computations. Artillery Met Sections range

in size from six personnel at a Light

Division, to twelve personnel at a

Heavy Division. Eighth U. S. Army,

U.S. Army Europe, U.S. Army Pacific,

Forces Command, and the Army

National Guard all support Met Sections. Training and Doctrine Command supports twenty-four military

and civilian personnel at the U.S.

Army Artillery School at Fort Sill,

Oklahoma. These personnel train

ARTYMET Teams on the use of the

AN/TMQ-41 Meteorological Measuring Set. ARTYMET team structures

will be changing over the next few

years to support the Army's new modularity concept. FORSCOM is already

making these changes to its artillery

sections, and other MACOMS will follow as their forces transform to the

new units of action. No attempt has

been made to convert the part time

Army National Guard ARTYMET

Teams into full time equivalents.

Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) supports several meteorological missions. SMDC has funding designated for the operational support at the High Energy Laser Systems
SECTION 2 19

Test Facility (HELSTF) for contract

services to operate and maintain the

instrumentation, equipment, and facilities to support the atmospheric sciences/meteorological mission. SMDC

also operates contract support services

to operate the Ronald Reagan Missile

Defense Test Site for operations support and special weather programs.

Headquarters, Department of the

Army, Deputy Chief of Staff, G-2

employs two full-time meteorologists

for:

• Development of meteorological

policy; 

• Coordination of meteorological

support within the Department of the

Army and with other Department of

Defense and Federal agencies and

organizations; 

• Development of Department of the

Army Policy concerning weather;

environmental services, and oceanographic support to the Army (less those

environmental services functions

assigned to the Corps of Engineers);

and

• Development of Department of the

Army policy concerning peacetime

weather support.

This office also sponsors a company

grade Army liaison officer at the Air

Force Weather Agency (AFWA) in

Omaha, Nebraska, to serve in a consulting role to AFWA. The AFWA

position is currently vacant. The Air

Force provides one full time Staff

Weather Officer to serve as a liaison

between AFW and the Army Staff.

Forces Command (FORSCOM) will

program approximately $13.9 million

in FY 2007 for meteorological operations support. Of the $13.9 million

budgeted, $13.6 million will be used in

support of FORSCOM ARTYMET

operations and $0.3 million will be

spent for supplies, travel and other

contracts for Air Force weather teams

supporting FORSCOM units. This

includes the addition of a new weather

unit at Fort Riley to support the 1st

Infantry Division.

Training and Doctrine Command

(TRADOC) has programmed approximately $4.2M for FY 2006 for meteorological services. The majority of

these TRADOC funds, a total of

$4.OM, were programmed for operations support related to training development, instructor/support personnel,

logistics (expendable supplies), and

repair costs on artillery meteorological

systems at the US Army Field Artillery

School (USAFAS). Training development costs ($l.74M) in FY 2006 are a

result of initiatives to develop interactive multi-media instructional products

and cost associated with rewrite of the

artillery meteorology field manual. In

FY 2007, these costs are projected to

decrease to $1 .06M as new instructional material and the field manual are

delivered. Instructor/Support personnel costs ($1 .85M) in FY 2006 are the

result of USAFAS at Fort Sill, OK

employing 28 personnel to conduct

training using the AN/TMQ-41 Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS) and

the AN/TMQ-52 Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler (MMS-P). Personnel funding is expected to decrease by

approximately $142K in FY 2007 due

to the elimination of two contracted

instructor positions. Logistics/supply

costs ($141K) in FY 2006 funds supplies for meteorological sounding

equipment to support live fire and

training at Fort Sill. These costs

increased significantly from FY 2005

expenditures ($99K) as a result of

implementing the new Modular Force

design for Army Artillery Meteorology. Under the modular design, the

number of Army Artillery Meteorology

Sections increases from 82 individual

sections to 122 individual sections. In

FY 2007 supply costs are expected to

be approximately $151K. Repair costs

($260K) in FY 2006 on artillery meteorological systems are expected to

decrease by approximately $30K in FY

2007 due to a reduction in the number

of MMS-Profiler Systems that will be

available for training at USAFAS.

TRADOC also programmed $66K in

FY 2006 to fund a TRADOC Systems

Manager (TSM) position for the

Army's Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS). This position falls

under the TRADOC Program Integration Office - All Source Analysis System (TPIO-ASAS) at the US Army

Intelligence Center and School

(USAICS) at Ft Huachuca, AZ. TPIOASAS has programmed $69K for this

same position in FY 2007. TRADOC

transferred $122K to Air Combat

Command for the maintenance and

service of five Automated Surface

Observing Sensor (ASOS) systems and

two pole-mounted Tactical Meteorological Observing Systems (TMOS) at

Fort Rucker, AL. Maintenance and

service costs have been programmed to

increase to $126K in FY 2007.

Army Materiel Command (AMC)

will fund a variety of activities for FY

2007, most of which fall into research

and development and systems acquisition. AMC will fund developmental

and testing costs associated with the

Integrated Meteorological System

(IMETS). The IMETS budget for FY

2005 underwent an $11.9 million

reduction to fund higher priority needs

within the Army. However, the Distributed Common Ground System -

Army (DCGS-A) and the Department

of the Army provided $7.7 million and

$6.1 million in FY 2006 and FY 2007,

respectively, to maintain the capabilities of this program as it transitions

into the DCGS-A. Normal program

life cycle issues reduced the Artillery's

Profiler budget by $2.6 million in FY

2007. One Profiler system is planned

for procurement in FY 2007. Other

activities within AMC include Army

Research Laboratory, Battlefield Environment Division, which will continue

to operate an integrated program of

both basic and applied research. The

Army Research Office will continue

basic research activities with a slight

reduction in budget for FY 2007; there

was a reduction in expenditures on
20 SECTION 2

weather-related research. It is anticipated that FY 2007 funding for

weather-related research efforts at U.S.

Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM) will be

level relative to the FY 2006 Level.

DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND

SECURITY (DHS)

On March 1, 2004, the Department

of Homeland Security (DHS) assumed

primary responsibility for ensuring that

emergency response professionals are

prepared for any situation in the event

of a terrorist attack, natural disaster, or

other large-scale emergency. This

entails providing a coordinated, comprehensive Federal response to any

large-scale crisis and mounting a swift

and effective recovery effort. DHS will

also prioritize the important issue of citizen preparedness, and educating America's families on how best to prepare their

homes for a disaster and tips for citizens

on how to respond in a crisis will be

given special attention at DHS.

U.S. COAST GUARD (USCG).

All of USCG's funding for meteorological programs is for operations support. For FY 2007, the requested funding level is $20.1 million. (The Coast

Guard does not have a specific program and budget for meteorology--all

meteorological activities are accomplished as part of general operations.)

The Coast Guard's activities include

the collection and dissemination of

meteorological and iceberg warning

information for the benefit of the

marine community. The Coast Guard

also collects coastal and marine observations from its shore stations and cutters, and transmits these observations

daily to the Navy's Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography Center and NOAA's National Weather Service. These observations are used by

both the Navy and NOAA in generating weather forecasts.

The Coast Guard also disseminates a

variety of weather forecast products

and warnings to the marine community

via radio transmissions. Coast Guard

shore stations often serve as sites for

NWS automated coastal weather stations, and the National Data Buoy

Center provides logistics support in

deploying and maintaining NOAA offshore weather buoys.

The International Ice Patrol conducts

iceberg surveillance operations and

provides warnings to mariners on the

presence of icebergs in the North

Atlantic shipping lanes. Coast Guard

efforts in meteorological operations

and services have not changed significantly during recent years.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

(DOI)

The total DOI/BLM weather funding

request for FY 2007 is $2.4 million.

This amount is for meteorological

operations and the support of the

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

Remote Automatic Weather Station

(RAWS) program. An additional $1.1

million is recovered each year through

reimbursable accounts with participating

agencies. Normal operations and maintenance of the RAWS program is approximately $900,000 yearly. (This includes

travel, transportation, utilities, services,

supplies, equipment and other non-labor

costs.)

Support of the RAWS program by

the BLM will continue in FY 2007, as

part of the Wildland Fire Agencies'

participation in Fire Weather activities

and the National Fire Danger Rating

System (NFDRS). In addition to

upgrading and maintaining fixed-site

RAWS, the BLM will address increasing demand for the use of mobile units

for both fire and non-fire applications.

Continued efforts will be made to

achieve an optimum balance of fixed

and mobile RAWS resources and support. Cooperation between DOI agencies and the USDA Forest Service

regarding combined meteorological

requirements for the National Wildland

Fire support functions is ongoing.

Interagency RAWS activity is coordinated at a working group level with representation by all participants, and will

continue to implement NFDRS standards to ensure the protection of both life

and property from wildland fires.

DEPARTMENT OF

TRANSPORTATION (DOT)

The DOT total budget request for

FY 2007 is $546.4 million which represents a funding increase of 7.3 percent from FY 2006. The meteorological programs for the Federal Aviation

Administration and the Federal Highway Administration, for FY 2007, are

described below.

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA).

For 2007, FAA has requested a total

$541.9 million for the Aviation

Weather Programs including acquisition of new systems, operations and

support, and supporting research. The

actual funding for aviation weather in

FY 2006 was $504.5 million. The

$39.8 million increase in FY 2007 constitutes a 7.4 percent increase in total

funding. The changes are comprised

of a) increases in acquisitions of $2.0

million to $93 million, as new systems

are required to enhance support of

field operations and the aviation industry; b)increases in operations and support of $33 million to $419 million,

reflecting salary increases throughout

the agency, in associated logistics, and

changes in the automated flight service

station operations as a result of the A76 contract award; and c)an increase

for aviation weather research of $2.1

million to a total of $23.6 million.

The funding changes reflect major

initiatives in the aviation weather programs to bring much automation to the

collection of weather observations

from remote sensors, to the dissemination of weather products, graphics and

decision making information available

for use by the air traffic facilities,

pilots, the aviation industry and gen-
SECTION 2 21

eral aviation users.

The AWRP will continue research

into understanding the geophysical

phenomenon in the atmosphere and

around airports that present hazardous

conditions for aircraft operations.

Among these are in-flight icing, turbulence, visibility, ceiling, convective

activity, tornadoes, etc. Additional

work will be done to improve models,

develop better graphics for decision

making information, and the impacts

of space weather.

FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION (FHWA).

The total FHWA request for surface

transportation weather programs in FY

2007 is $4.2 million, all of which will

be used for supporting research and

special programs.

In 1999, the FHWA began documenting road weather data requirements,

which have served as the basis for the

majority of work and research in this

area. This work, some of which is

described below, includes addressing

the technical aspects of the road transportation system (including environmental data collection, processing and

dissemination) as well as the institutional challenges associated with system implementation.

These institutional challenges

encompass coordination within state

and local Departments of Transportation (DOTs) as well as across the transportation and meteorological communities. With regard to technical areas

of interest, data collection efforts have

included increased coverage of atmospheric and road condition observations, as well as incorporation of road

weather data (e.g., pavement and subsurface observations) into broader

meteorological observation networks.

Better processing includes the application of higher resolution weather models and the development of road condition prediction models (e.g., heat balance models) that are needed to

develop the appropriate road weather

information. This road weather information will enable more effective decision making, leading to a safer and

more efficient surface transportation

system.

A USDOT initiative entitled Clarus

will develop, demonstrate and support

deployment of a nationwide surface

transportation weather observing and

forecasting system, and ultimately foster nationwide data sharing capabilities. Clarus will allow agencies to

share quality-checked environmental

data, ultimately improving forecasts

and value-added weather information

products, as well as supporting anytime, anywhere road weather information for all road and transit users and

operators.

A multi-year effort has been undertaken by the FHWA in cooperation

with six national laboratories to prototype and field test advanced decision

support tools for winter maintenance

managers. The Maintenance Decision

Support System (MDSS) prototype is a

decision support tool that integrates

relevant road weather forecasts, coded

rules of practice for winter maintenance operations, and maintenance

resource data to provide managers with

customized road treatment recommendations. The first functional MDSS

prototype was demonstrated in Iowa in

early 2003, and during winter 2003-

2004. During winter 2004-2005, the

MDSS prototype was successfully

deployed in a third demonstration in

Colorado, and in early 2006, this product was declared a "market ready technology." The current focus of the

MDSS project is to continue to build

on current outreach program activities

such as sponsoring annual stakeholder

meetings, conducting product "Road

Shows," facilitating technology transfers to the private sector, providing

assistance to public agencies in writing

request for proposals, and participating

in informational conferences. The

project team also plans to conduct a

series of cost/benefit analyses to produce "hard" financial data that can be

used to support investing in such a system and exploring the potential of

expanding the functionality of MDSS

beyond winter maintenance to include

such activities as summer maintenance

and traffic management.

The FHWA recently completed a

study on how Traffic Management

Centers (TMCs) around the country

integrate road weather information into

their operations. The FHWA documented the types of road weather

information received by TMCs, the

means of information delivery, how

information needs change as the severity of a weather event increases, and

how that information impacts traffic

management decisions. The FHWA is

also conducting analyses and developing models to quantify the impacts of

various weather events on highway

traffic, as well as investigating a variety of weather-responsive traffic management strategies such as changing

traffic signal timing in response to

weather and posting weather-related

messages on variable message signs.

These efforts will help FHWA advance

the state-of-the-practice in weatherresponsive traffic management.

The efforts described above, as well

as future activities captured in the

Road Weather Management Program

plan should be examined within the

context of two key reports published in

early 2004, and described below.

In 2002, the FHWA asked the

National Research Council (NRC)

Board of Atmospheric Sciences & Climate to examine what needs to be done

from the research, development, and

technology transfer perspectives to

improve the production and delivery of

weather-related information for the

nation's roadways. In March 2004, the

NRC released a report, Where the

Weather Meets the Road: A Research

Agenda for Improving Road Weather

Services, that recommended the creation of a focused, national road

weather research program led by
22 SECTION 2

FHWA that brings together the transportation and meteorological communities, identifies research priorities,

and implements new scientific and

technological advances. NRC recommendations included making better use

of existing road weather information

and technologies to increase capabilities for transportation research, establishing a nationwide real-time road

weather observing system, developing

observing capabilities to assess the

accuracy of road weather forecasts,

improving environmental sensor technologies, and developing new means

to effectively communicate road

weather information to a wide range of

users. Most, if not all of these recommendations, have been incorporated

into the roadmap that is being used to

guide the activities of the Road

Weather Management Program.

To strengthen relationships between

the meteorological and surface transportation communities, the FHWA

Road Weather Management Program

and the American Meteorological

Society (AMS) co-sponsored a Policy

Forum on Weather and Highways in

November 2003. The objective was to

discuss the provision of weather information to improve highway operations, the development of strategies to

effectively respond to weather information, and the policy issues related to

effective application of weather services to the management of the nation's

highway system. The forum brought

together nearly 100 representatives

from public, private, and academic

sectors at federal, state, and local levels. The report resulting from the

forum, Weather and Highways: Report

of a Policy Forum, contained several

recommendations including long-term

congressional funding to develop a

national road weather research, development, and applications program;

close coordination of federal and state

DOTs to improve the safety and efficiency of highways during adverse

weather; and establishing a national

road weather data collection, processing, and dissemination system.

Based upon recommendations in the

AMS and NRC reports, the FHWA and

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) signed a

memorandum of understanding

(MOU) in July of 2005, that will

enable the two agencies to work

together to achieve shared goals for a

safer and more efficient surface transportation system. By working

together, these two agencies can take

advantage of each other's investments

and expertise, as well as promote

improved surface transportation

weather training, products, and services. A near-term goal of the new partnership is the introduction of new

products, services and training to

improve the application of weather

information to surface transportation

operations.

FEDERAL RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION (FRA).

In 2007, the FRA has requested a

total $289 million to support the

Nationwide Differential Global Positioning System (NDGPS). FRA plans

to transfer this funding to NOAA in

support of their NDGPS efforts.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

AGENCY (EPA)

All of the EPA's funding of meteorological and air quality programs is for

supporting research. The anticipated

funding level in FY 2007 for directed

meteorological research is $9.0 million

which is the same funding level as in

FY 2006.

Currently, increased attention is

being paid to the effects of airborne

toxins and fine particulate matter on

human health, on the effect of climate

change on air quality, and the impact

on ecosystems. In addition, to promote

excellence in environmental science

and engineering, EPA established a

national fellowship program and substantially increased its support for

investigator-initiated research grants.

The funding for grants (with reliance

on quality science and peer review)

and for graduate fellowships (to support the education and careers of future

scientists) will provide for a more balanced, long-term capital investment in

improved environmental research and

development. The funding for the

grants program will remain about the

same in FY 2007 as in FY 2006.

This program will fund research in

areas including ecological assessment,

air quality, environmental fate and

treatment of toxins and hazardous

wastes, effects of global climate

change on air quality, and exploratory

research. The portion of these grants

that will be awarded for meteorological research during FY 2007 cannot be

foreseen, but it is probable that the

grant awards will increase the base

amount of $9.0 million listed above for

directed meteorological research.

In collaboration with NOAA, EPA is

continuing its development and evaluation of air quality models for air pollutants on all temporal and spatial

scales as mandated by the Clean Air

Act as amended in 1990. Research

will focus on urban, mesoscale,

regional, and multimedia models,

which will be used to develop air pollution control strategies, human and

ecosystem exposure assessments, and

air quality forecasting. There will be

increased emphasis placed on meteorological research into regional and

urban formation and transport of air

contaminants in support of the revisions to the National Ambient Air

Quality Standards and homeland security. Increased efficiency of computation and interpretation of results are

being made possible by means of

supercomputing and scientific visualization techniques. 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

(NASA)

For FY 2007, NASA requests a total of
SECTION 2 23

$168.8 million. The majority of this

funding ($166.4 million) is for supporting research.

The meteorology supporting

research programs lie within the EarthSun System Division of NASA's Science Mission Directorate (SMD). Due

to recent organizational changes, the

task of extracting meteorology related

funds in the SMD budget has become a

complicated undertaking. The line

items in the Earth-Sun System budget

that support Earth Science are Earth

Systematic Missions, Earth System

Science Pathfinder, Earth-Sun System

Multi-Mission Operations, Earth-Sun

Research, Applied Sciences, Education

and Outreach and Earth-Sun Technology. Estimation of the meteorology

share of this budget was a two step

process. The Earth Science part of the

budget was estimated in the first step

and the meteorology share was estimated, in the second step, to be one

eighth of this sum.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION (NRC)

The NRC planned expenditure of

$120,000 in FY 2007, is for meteorological operations to continue technical

assistance for the analysis of atmospheric dispersion for routine and postulated accidental releases from

nuclear facilities, and the review of

proposed sites for possible construction of new nuclear power plants.

The meteorological support program

in the NRC is focused primarily on

analyzing and utilizing meteorological

data in atmospheric transport and dispersion models. These models provide

insight on plume pathways in the nearand far-fields for building wake and

dispersion characteristics to perform

dose calculations on postulated

releases to the environment. Meteorological information is used as input to

the probabilistic safety assessment, the

assessment of the radiological impacts

of routine releases from normal operations, the assessment of other (nonradiological) hazards that may impact

safe operation of the facility, and the

assessment of design or operational

changes proposed for the facility.

Additionally, after a hiatus of some

25 years, the nuclear power industry

has expressed an interest in seeking

site approvals for new nuclear power

plants. Three early site permit applications have been received and are currently under review. These reviews

will also consider regional climatology

and local meteorology. In addition to

its internal review activities, the NRC

may seek assistance from other Federal

agencies to support its safety reviews.
24 SECTION 2

AGENCY FUNDING BY BUDGET CATEGORY

Table 2.2 depicts how the agencies plan to obligate their funds for

meteorological operations broken

down by "budget category." The

two major categories are "Operations Support" and "Systems

Acquisition." To a large degree,

these categories correspond to

non-hardware costs (Operations

Support) and hardware costs (Systems Acquisition). For agency

convenience in identifying small

components that do not fit into

these two major categories, a third

category is added called "Special

Programs." Programs that provide

support to several government

agencies such as the Air Force's

DMSP are listed on a separate line.

In FY 2007, Operational Costs

requested are $3.03 billion with a

total of $1.80 billion (59.3 percent) for Operations Support,

$1.19 billion (39.3 percent) for

Systems Acquisition, and $40 million (1.3 percent) for Special Programs.

Table 2.3 describes how the

agencies plan to obligate their

funds for meteorological supporting research according to budget

categories. The agencies' supporting research budgets are subdivided along similar lines--

Research and Development (nonhardware), Systems Development

(hardware), and Special Programs

(for those items that do not easily

fit into the two major categories).

For FY 2007, agencies will obligate a total of $414 million in

Supporting Research funds in the

following manner: $331.6 million

(80.2 percent) to research and

development and $82.1 million

(19.8 percent) to Systems Development.

AGENCY FUNDING BY SERVICE CATEGORY

Table 2.4 summarizes how the agencies plan to obligate operational funds

for basic and specialized meteorological services; Table 2.5 is a similar

breakout for supporting research

funds.

Table 2.4 reveals the distribution of

FY 2007 operational funds: basic

meteorology services receiving

59.5 percent; aviation 19.7 percent;

marine 4.3 percent; agriculture/

forestry 0.7 percent; general military

services 15.7 percent; and other specialized services accounting for 0.2

percent. Table 2.5 shows the distribution of supporting research funds

among the services with basic meteorology receiving 23.8 percent, aviation

6.1 percent, marine 10.4 percent, agriculture and forestry 7.6 percent, general military 8.7 percent, and the

remaining 43.4 percent dedicated to

other meteorological services.

The definitions of specialized and

basic services are described below:

Basic Services.

Basic services provide products that

meet the common needs of all users

and include the products needed by

the general public in their everyday

activities and for the protection of

lives and property. "Basic" services

include the programs and activities

that do not fall under one of the specialized services.

Specialized Meteorological Services.

Aviation Services. Those services

and facilities established to meet the

requirements of general, commercial,

and military aviation. 

Marine Services. Those services

and facilities established to meet the

requirements of the DOC, DOD, and

DOT on the high seas, on coastal and

inland waters, and for boating activities in coastal and inland waters. The

civil programs which are directly

related to services solely for marine

uses and military programs supporting fleet, amphibious, and sea-borne

units (including carrier-based aviation

and fleet missile systems) are included.

Agriculture and Forestry Services.

Those services and facilities established to meet the requirements of the

agricultural industries and Federal,

state, and local agencies charged with

the protection and maintenance of the

nation's forests.

General Military Services. Those

services and facilities established to

meet the requirements of military user

commands and their component elements. Programs and services which

are part of basic, aviation, marine, or

other specialized services are not

included.

Other Specialized Services. Those

services and facilities established to

meet meteorological requirements

that cannot be classified under one of

the preceding categories; such as,

space operations, urban air pollution,

global climate change, and water

management.

PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

Table 2.6 depicts agency staff

resources in meteorological operations. The total agency staff resources

requested for FY 2007 is 13,505. This

total represents a decrease of 13.5 percent from FY 2006, with the largest

decreases occurring in Navy and FAA

personnel.
SECTION 2 25
26 SECTION 2
SECTION 2 27
28 SECTION 2
SECTION 2 29

TABLE 2.6 PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS

(Units are Full Time Equivalent Staff Years)*

% of FY 2007

AGENCY FY 2006 FY 2007 % CHANGE TOTAL

Agriculture 271 268 -1.1 2.0

Commerce/NOAA (Subtotal) 5,953 5,963 0.2 44.2

NWS 4,870 4,880 0.2 36.1

NESDIS 890 890 0.0 6.6

OAR 32 32 0.0 0.2

NOS 107 107 0.0 0.8

NMAO 54 54 0.0 0.4

Defense 5665 5516 -2.6 40.8

Air Force (Subtotal) 4,714 4,609 -2.2 34.1

Air Force Weather 4,594 4,490 -2.3 33.2

DMSP 120 119 -0.8 0.9

Navy 617 547 -11.3 4.1

Army 334 360 7.8 2.7

Homeland Security (Subtotal) 108 108 0.0 0.8

USCG 108 108 0.0 0.8

Interior/BLM (Subtotal) 28 28 0.0 0.2

Interior 26 26 0.0 0.2

Reimbursed** 2 2 0.0 0.0

Transportation (Subtotal) 3,695 1,728 -53.2 12.8

FAA 3,550 1,301 -63.4 9.6

FHWA 4 4 0.0 0.0

EPA 0 0 0.0 0.0

NASA 0 0 0.0 0.0

NRC 2 2 0.0 0.0

TOTAL 15,613 13,505 -13.5 100.0*

* Column total does not exactly equal 100 percent due to rounding for several agencies.

** “Reimbursed" are personnel funded by other agencies.
30 SECTION 2

Table 2.7 summarizes the reimbursement of funds from one agency to

another during FY 2006. Agencies routinely enter into reimbursable agreements when they determine that one

agency can provide the service more efficiently and effectively than the other.

While specific amounts may vary from

year-to-year, the pattern shown is essentially stable and reflects a significant

level of interagency cooperation.

Department of Commerce. NESDIS

will transfer a total of $199.3 million to

NASA for procurement and launches

of polar-orbiting ($72.2 million) and

geostationary ($127.1 million) satellites.

Department of Defense. The Air

Force will reimburse DOC a total of

$19.765 million for operations [e.g.,

DMSP operations ($10.807 million),

OFCM support ($140,000), Lightning

Data ($695,000), NCEP operations

($14,000), WSR-88D support

($6,754,000), COMET training development ($225,000), geomagnetic data

($230,000), and IPO support

($216,000)]. In addition, the Air Force

will reimburse NASA $1.414 million

for a variety of data and USGS

$350,000 for the purchase of magnetometer data support.

The Navy will reimburse DOC

$209,000 for basic climatological

analysis and forecasting, and interagency coordination.

The Army reimbursements to

DOC/NOAA include $597,000 from

COE to NWS for maintaining precipitation reporting stations The U.S.

Geological Survey will also be reimbursed $500,000 by the Army’s COE

for operations and maintenance of

hydrologic and precipitation reporting

stations.

Department of Transportation. The

FAA will reimburse NOAA $35.5 million for FY 2007. Included in those

funds are development of enhancements and operational support associated with the WSR-88D, ASOS maintenance, the Center Weather Service

Units at all Air Route Traffic Control

Centers, the World Area Forecast System, meteorology instructors at the

FAA, studies and OFCM support. The

FAA will also reimburse the DOD a

total of $3.4M for supporting research. 

The FRA transferred $141,500 to

NOAA's Global Systems Division

(GSD) of the Earth System Research

Laboratory (ESRL) in 2005, to fund the

purchase of weather sensing equipment

which was installed at the Nationwide

Differential Global Positioning System

(NDGPS) sites constructed in 2005. In

2006, FRA requested an increase in

NDGPS funding to accelerate construction. Thus, FRA plans to transfer approximately $289,000 to GSD in 2006.

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA). The Air

Force will be reimbursed a total of

$1.655 million--$1.500 million for

observations, forecasts, and operations/maintenance of weather infrastructure and replacement of upper air

systems at Trans-Atlantic Abort Landing Sites and $165 million for operation and maintenance of weather towers at Edwards AFB, CA. The UCAR

will receive $15,000 for data analysis

to improve lightning launch commit

criteria. The National Data Buoy Center will receive reimbursements of

$133,000 for the operation of two data

buoys.

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA). NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) will receive $6.7 million

for development, evaluation, and

application of air quality dispersion

models; and for provision of meteorological expertise and guidance for EPA

policy development activities.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC). The NRC enjoys a unique

relationship with the DOE as a result

of the Energy Reorganization Act of

1974. The act realigned the Atomic

Energy Commission into a regulatory

organization-NRC and a research and

promotional organization-ERDA

(which was subsequently absorbed into

DOE). As a result, the NRC has access

to the DOE national laboratories for

technical assistance activities. This

assistance, while not a reimbursable

agreement, results in the transfer of

funds from NRC for specific technical

assistance by DOE laboratories. In

FY 2006, the NRC expects to task

DOE laboratories and the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Climatic Data Center at

a funding level of $120,000.

INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS

FACILITIES/LOCATIONS FOR TAKING METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

Table 2.8 indicates the number of

facilities/locations or platforms at

which the Federal agencies carry out

(or supervise) the taking of various

types of meteorological observations.
SECTION 2 31

TABLE 2.7 INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS FOR METEOROLOGICAL

OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

FY 2006 Funds ($K)

Estimated or Planned

Agency Funds Agency Funds Supporting

Transferred from: Transferred to: Operations Research

Commerce/NOAA NASA (Polar satellite acquisition) 72,274

NASA (Geo satellite acquisition) 127,061

Defense/Air Force

NOAA(DMSP Satellite Operations) 10,807

DOC/NOAA/NWS (NEXRAD) 200

DOC/NOAA/NWS (NEXRAD) 6,754

DOC/NOAA/NWS (ASOS) 138

DOC/NOAA/NWS (ASOS) 705

DOC/NOAA (Shared Processing

Network 105

DOC/NOAA/NWS/NCEP(NCEP

Communication Circuit Support) 14

DOC/NOAA (COMET) 225

DOC/NOAA/NWS (Lightning

Detection System) 695

DOC/NOAAOFCM 140

DOC/NOAA/NESDIS/IPO (DMSP: 

Activation of DOMSAT) 216

USGS (Dept. of Interior) (USGS

Magnetometer) 350

NASA (JPL Tech Data) 210

DOC/NOAA/SEC (ACE 

Radian / Data Geomagnetic) 230

NSF (Universal Center for 

Atmos Research) 43

NSF/UCAR/NCAR (WRF) 3,565

NSF/UCAR (Data Assimilation) 500

DOC/NOAA/ESRL (WRF) 50

NASA (Land Information System) 1,414

Defense/Navy DOC/NOAA/NCDC 44

DOC/NOAA/OFCM 165

Defense/Army DOD/USAF/ACC 122

DOC/NOAA/ETL 40

NSF 44

NSF 53

DOC/NOAA/NWS 50

DOI/USGS 500

DOC/NOAA/NWS 597

DOC/NOAA/OFCM 65
32 SECTION 2

TABLE 2.7 INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS FOR METEOROLOGICAL

OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (Continued)

FY 2006 Funds ($K)

Estimated or Planned

Agency Funds Agency Funds Supporting

Transferred from: Transferred to: Operations Research

Transportation/FAA DOC/NOAA 35,500

DOD/USAF 3,400

DOC/NOAA/OFCM 200

Transportation/FRA DOC/NOAA 289

NASA DOD/USAF/45th SW 1,500

DOD/USAF/Edwards AFB 165

DOC/NOAA/NDBC 133

UCAR 15

EPA DOC/NOAA/OAR 6,700

NRC DOE/PNNL 120
SECTION 2 33

No. of Locations

TYPE OF OBSERVATION/AGENCY (FY 2006)

Surface, land

Commerce (all types) 841

Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 162

Navy (U.S. & Overseas) 68

Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 13

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 47

Transportation (Flight Service Stn) 8

Transportation (Lim Aviation Wx Rptg Stn) 114

Transportation (Contract Wx Obsg Stn) 189

Transportation (Auto Wx Obsg Stn) 198

Transportation (Road Wx Obsg Stn) 2,149

Transportation (Auto Sfc Obsg Sys, fielded) 569

Homeland Security (USCG Coastal) 50

Interior 470

Agriculture 1595

NASA (all types) 46

Surface, marine

Commerce (SEAS-equipped ships) 140

Commerce (Coastal-Marine Autom Network) 65

Commerce (NOAA/NOS/PORTS) 6

Commerce (Buoys--moored) 64

Commerce (Buoys--drifting) 21

Commerce (Buoys--large navigation) 10

Commerce (Water-level gauges) *175

*Number of which have meteorology sensors 59

Navy (Ships with met personnel) 29

Navy (Ships without met personnel 288

Homeland Security (USCG Cutters) 248

NASA (Buoys - moored) 2

Upper air, balloon

Commerce (U.S.) 86

Commerce (Foreign, Cooperative) 22

Air Force, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 12

Air Force, Mobile 15

Army, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 18

Army, Mobile (U.S. and Overseas) 85

Navy, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 11

Navy, Mobile(U.S. & Overseas) 47

Navy, Ships 29

Marine Corps, Mobile 10

NASA (U.S.) 1

Atmospheric Profilers

Air Force (Eastern Range) 5

Air Force (Western Range) 6

Army 9

NASA 1

No. of Locations

TYPE OF OBSERVATION/AGENCY (FY 2006)

Upper air, rocket

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 1

Doppler weather radar (WSR-88D) sites

Commerce (NWS) 123

Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 26

Army (U.S. & Overseas) 2

Transportation (Off CONUS 12

Doppler weather radar (Not WSR-88D) sites

Air Force (Fixed) 9

Army 2

Navy (Fixed) 9

Marine Corps (Mobile) 10

Marine Corps 9Fixed) 1

Off-site WSR-88D Processors (PUPs)

Commerce (NWS) [Part of AWIPS] 0

Air Force (OPUPs only) 97

Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 9

Army 1

Transportation 25

NASA (KSC/AMU) 1

Airport Terminal Doppler weather radars

Transportation (Commissioned) 45

Army (not airfield--Test Range/USAREUR) 2

Conventional radar (non-Doppler) sites

Commerce (NWS) 31

Commerce (at FAA sites) 27

Air Force, Mobile Units 23

Army (U.S. and Overseas) 4

Transportation (FAA (WSP)) 34

Weather reconnaissance (No. of aircraft)

Commerce (NAMO) 3

Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) 10

Geostationary meteorological satellites (No. operating)

Commerce (2 primary, 2 standby, 1 post 

launch checkout) 5

Polar meteorological satellites (No. operating)

Commerce (2 primary, 4 standby) 6

Air Force (2 primary, 3 standby) 5

Navy (WINDSAT AND GFO) 2

Field Mills (Surface)

NASA (KSC) 31

TABLE 2.8 FACILITIES/LOCATIONS FOR TAKING METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

SECTION 3 DOC 35

SECTION 3

NOAA's National Weather Service

(NWS) has the principal responsibility

for planning and operating the basic

climate, hydrologic, and weather services and certain specific applied services. The NWS provides climate,

water, and weather warnings and forecasts for the U.S., it's territories, adjacent waters, and ocean areas to help

protect life and property and enhance

the national economy. NWS data and

products form a national information

data base and infrastructure which can

be used by other governmental agencies, the private sector, the public, and

the global community. In support of

this mission, NWS:

• Issues warnings and forecasts of

weather, flood, Great Lakes, coastal

and ocean conditions.

• Observes and reports the weather

and the river and ocean conditions of

the U.S. and its territories.

• Develops and operates national

meteorological, hydrological, climate,

space weather and oceanic service systems.

• Performs applied meteorological,

hydrological, space environmental and

climate research.

• Assists in developing community

awareness and educational materials

and programs concerning weatherrelated natural disasters.

• Participates in international

hydrometeorological and space

weather activities, including the

exchange, coding and monitoring of

data and forecasts, and also including

the installation and repair of hydrometeorological equipment and systems

overseas under the Voluntary Cooperation Program.

The basic enabling legislation and

authority for weather services are summarized as follows:

• Organic Act of 1890 created the

United States Weather Bureau in the

Department of Agriculture.

• Enabling Act of 1919 allowed the

United States Weather Bureau to enter

into cooperative agreements for providing agriculture weather services.

• Flood Control Act of 1938 authorized the establishment, operation, and

maintenance of the Hydroclimatic Network by the Weather Bureau for Flood

Control; on July 1, 1940, the Weather

Bureau was transferred from the

Department of Agriculture to the

Department of Commerce.

• Federal Aviation Act of 1958 outlined duties of the Secretary of Commerce for providing weather observations and services to aviation.

• Reorganization Plan 2 of 1965

placed the "National Weather Service"

in the newly created Environmental

Science Services Administration

(ESSA).

• Reorganization Plan 4 of 1970

made the NWS a part of the newly created National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

• International Convention for the

Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) agreement to which the U.S. is signatory.

This sets international policy for safer

shipping and cleaner seas. The U.S

implements the convention through

Executive Order 12234 of Sept. 3,

1980 -- Enforcement of the Convention

for SOLAS. Among the obligations of

the agreement is to provide meteorological warnings and forecasts to ships

at sea using charts and radio messages.

SERVICES

NWS provides climate, water,

weather and space weather prediction

services; including watches, warnings,

advisories, and forecasts 24 hours a

day, seven days a week. These services are provided through a national

network of 122 Weather Forecast

Offices (WFOs), 13 River Forecast

Centers (RFCs), and the nine centers

of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). These

offices collect data, prepare local

warnings and forecasts, and disseminate information to the public both

nationally and internationally through

NOAA Weather Radio, satellite-based

telecommunication systems, radiofacsimile, the media and the internet.

Forecast and warning services prepared at WFOs are derived in part from

prediction guidance prepared by the 13

RFCs and the nine NCEP centers.

These centers are: HydrometeorologiDEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER PROGRAMS

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is the principal meteorological agency

of the Federal government. By law, NOAA is responsible for reporting the weather of the United States,

providing weather and flood warnings and forecasts to the general public, developing and furnishing

applied weather services, and recording the climate of the United States. This mission is carried out

within NOAA by the National Weather Service (NWS); the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and

Information Service (NESDIS); the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR); the National

Ocean Service (NOS); and the NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations (NMAO).

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE
36 DOC SECTION 3 

cal Prediction Center, Storm Prediction

Center, Aviation Weather Center, Environmental Modeling Center, Tropical

Prediction Center, Climate Prediction

Center, Space Environment Center,

Ocean Prediction Center, and NCEP

Central Operations.

Continually improving the accuracy,

timeliness, and accessibility to prediction services is largely a result of

research and development both within

the NWS and externally from universities and private corporations.

PUBLIC WEATHER SERVICES

NOAA's NWS Public Weather Service Program provides forecast, warning, and response services to the public, private meteorological firms,

broadcast meteorologists, and NWS

partners who are responsible for public

safety. These partners include Federal,

state, and local emergency managers

and planners. NWS forecasters issue

short-duration watches and warnings

for severe weather, such as tornadoes

and severe thunderstorms, as well as

long-duration watches, warnings, and

advisories for hazardous winter

weather conditions, high wind events,

dense fog, and temperature extremes.

NWS forecasters support several

health related programs such as Air

Quality, Heat Health, and the Ultraviolet Index (UVI). Ground based ozone

concentration forecasts and an experimental smoke forecasting tool are now

being produced for the CONUS. A

nationwide air quality forecast capability including concentrations of

aerosols, particulate matter, and other

pollutants is under development. Heat

Health Watch Warning Systems

(HHWWS) have been developed for

select cities to provide advance notice

of excessive heat events that produce

the greatest number of weather-related

deaths. These guidance systems will

be expanded to other cities as

resources are made available. Also, in

partnership with the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA), a new climatologically based UV alert is being

produced for the entire nation. The

Branch serves as the primary focal

point for collaboration with Federal

transportation agencies on weather

issues related to surface transportation,

with Federal, media, and private entities on the UVI, and with the World

Meteorological Organization on the

provision of public weather services to

the international community. Additionally, NWS forecasters provide

meteorological support both on-site

and from WFOs for terrorist acts and

other homeland security concerns, as

well as accidental releases/spills of

hazardous chemical, biological, or

radioactive materials.

Since 2004, the National Weather

Service has created, and made readily

available, forecasts in digital formats.

NWS forecasters use their expertise to

maintain an up-to-date digital forecast

database of sensible weather elements.

This information is stored in the

National Digital Forecast Database

(NDFD). Output from NDFD is available in the form of web graphics available over the Internet, in gridded

binary format (GRIB2) available via

anonymous file transfer protocol, or in

XML via an experimental web service.

NDFD data can also be converted to a

file format that can be used with Geographical Information Systems (GIS).

NDFD includes the following operational forecast elements: Maximum

Temperature, Minimum Temperature,

12-Hour Probability of Precipitation,

Temperature, Dew Point, Weather,

Wind Speed and Direction and derived

elements Relative Humidity and

Apparent Temperature. Experimental

forecast elements include Quantitative

Precipitation Forecast (QPF), Snow

Amount, Significant Wave Height and

Sky Cover. For more detailed information on NDFD, please see

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/ndfd/.

AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES

The NWS provides a broad range of

services in support of the aviation

community. The WFOs prepare Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)

four times a day, with amendments as

needed, for more than 590 public-use

airports in the U.S. and it's territories in

the Caribbean and Pacific. These

offices also produce about 241 individual route-oriented forecasts three times

a day for the 48 contiguous states and

over the Pacific Ocean.

NCEP's Aviation Weather Center

(AWC) and the Alaska Region's Alaska

Aviation Weather Unit (AAWU), and

WFO Honolulu, HI prepare area forecasts three or four times daily describing general aviation weather conditions over the lower 48 states, the Gulf

of Mexico, Caribbean, Alaska, Hawaii

and coastal waters respectively. These

three specialized offices also issue inflight advisories and warnings of hazardous weather conditions associated

with thunderstorms, icing, turbulence,

and strong, low level winds. The AWC

also prepares forecasts of significant

aviation weather over the continental

U.S. four times a day for flight levels

from the surface to 25,000 feet.

NWS Center Weather Service Units

located in each of the 21 FAA Air

Route Traffic Control Centers provide

direct meteorological support to en

route centers, Terminal Radar

Approach Controls, airport towers, and

Automated Flight Service Stations.

The NWS provides a service to international aviation as one of the International Civil Aviation Organization's

(ICAO's) two World Area Forecast

Centers. NCEP's Environmental Modeling Center supplies global gridded

model data of temperature, winds, and

humidity twice a day for flight levels

from 5,000 to 45,000 feet. The AWC

prepares forecasts four times a day of

globally significant thunderstorms,

tropical cyclones, severe squall lines,

moderate or severe turbulence and

icing, and cumulonimbus cloud associated with the above, from 25,000 to

63,000 feet. The forecast charts also
SECTION 3 DOC 37

include information on volcanoes,

radiological releases, jet streams and

tropopause heights. This information

is transmitted by the International

Satellite Communications System with

coverage in the Americas, Caribbean,

western portions of Europe, the

Pacific, and eastern Asia.

Within the framework of the international airways volcano watch, the

NWS and NCEP share management

responsibility for operating the Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VACC) in

Washington state and Anchorage,

Alaska.

The NWS, working closely with the

FAA's Aviation Weather Research Program, developed new experimental

and operational forecast products

designed to improve aviation hazard

forecast capabilities zero to six hours

into the future (Figure 3-DOC-1).

New icing and turbulence products

for meteorologists and end users

became operational in FY 2004.

Improved software tools to increase

the number of terminal airports covered by a forecast are also under development.

MARINE WEATHER SERVICES

The NWS Marine Weather Program

is the lead for the nation's marine and

coastal weather services. Programs

include warnings, forecasts, and advisories for coastal waters, offshore, high

seas, and near-shore and open waters

of the Great Lakes. It leads programs

for tropical cyclone, coastal flood,

severe convective coastal weather, and

coastal hazards such as high surf, rip

currents, and tsunamis. NWS forecasters at 46 coastal and marine WFOs, in

collaboration with NCEP's Ocean Prediction Center and Tropical Prediction

Center, provide a range of weather

services focused on the expanding and

weather-sensitive U.S. coastal population and those responsible for its

safety.

The program develops plans, policy

and procedures for the delivery of

marine and coastal weather products

and services from the coastal WFOs,

the Ocean Prediction Center, the Tropical Prediction Center, and the Central

Pacific Hurricane Center. It ensures

marine and coastal forecast training

needs are met. The program works

with the Office of Science and Technology to prioritize tropical, marine

and coastal science and technology

development and approve new or

improved product designs, and with

the Office of Operational Systems to

ensure the collection of marine and

coastal observations and the delivery

of marine and coastal products to

users. The program creates internal

and external partnerships, collects and

validates marine and coastal service

and mission needs, solicits feedback

on products and services and validates

whether these needs are met.

The program works with NOAA's

NESDIS, the U.S. Navy and the U.S.

Coast Guard (USCG) to provide ice

warning and advisory services through

the joint National Ice Center; with the

Navy, the USCG, the U.S. Maritime

Administration, and the Corps of Engineers to safely operate the nation's

Marine Transportation System; with

the Department of Defense, Federal

Emergency Management Agency, and

Corps of Engineers to provide tropical

cyclone services; with the USCG,

Navy, Air Force, and private entities to

disseminate weather to mariners; with

NOAA's National Ocean Service

(NOS) on the PORTS and TIDES programs; and with the World Meteorological Organization to provide services to the international community. It

also works in cooperation with

NOAA's Office of Response and

Restoration, the Department of

Defense, and Department of Homeland

Security for forecasting services for

hazardous material spills, marine area

search, rescue, and recovery operations, and security needs.

FIRE/ALL HAZARD WEATHER

SERVICES

NOAA's NWS offices provide rouFigure 3-DOC-1. Current Icing Potential (CIP) Product. The FAA's Aviation

Weather Research Program and the NWS developed this graphical icing product, updated every 3 hours, and available for user selected altitudes across the

contiguous U.S.
38 DOC SECTION 3 

tine pre-suppression and wildfire

weather support to Federal and state

land management agencies. NWS

forecasters provide routine fire

weather forecasts, forecast support for

the National Fire Danger Rating System, and site specific forecasts during

the local fire season over roughly

three-quarters of the nation. The NWS

deploys a national cadre of speciallytrained Incident Meteorologists

(IMETs) to large wildfires and coordination centers for on-site weather support. IMETs use weather instrumentation, telecommunications, and display

equipment to aid in on-site forecast

preparation and briefings. In the early

morning, NOAA's National Centers

for Environmental Prediction's Storm

Prediction Center issues outlooks for

days 1, 2 and 3 to 8, that highlight

areas with critical and extremely critical fire potential based on the state of

the fuels (trees, brush, grasses), and

critical weather parameters. Areas

where significant lightning activity

accompanied by less than 0.1 inch of

precipitation (dry lightning) is forecast

are also highlighted. Additionally,

NWS forecasters provide forecasts in

response to hazardous material incidents or Incidents of National Significance (such as the Columbia Recovery

effort).

TSUNAMI WARNINGS

Tsunami watches, warnings, and

information bulletins for the Pacific

Ocean and Hawaii are prepared by the

Richard H. Hagemeyer Pacific

Tsunami Warning Center in Ewa

Beach, Hawaii, and for west coast of

the continental U.S. and Alaska by the

West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning

Center in Palmer, Alaska. NWS collects and analyzes observational data

from an international network of seismological observatories, sea-level

observing stations, and deep-ocean

tsunami detection buoys which operate

on a cooperative basis. The centers use

these data to prepare and disseminate

watches, warnings, and information

bulletins to international customers,

WFOs, Federal and state disaster agencies, military organizations, private

broadcast media, and other agencies

involved with warning the public.

CLIMATE SERVICES (CS)

Climate prediction products and

other services relate to the period of

week two out to one year, including

seasonal forecasts and hazard assessments. The NWS's Climate Prediction

Center produces a suite of products

covering these periods. The climate

services program provides the strategic

vision for climate services at NWS,

oversees the program including the

expanded regional and local climate

services programs, and serves as steward of the climate observing system. It

maintains strong ties with other countries; across NOAA lines, specifically

through the NOAA Climate Office;

with Federal agencies; the university

community; and the private sector and

encourages collaborative arrangements

among the Regional Climate Centers

(managed by NOAA/NESDIS), the

State Climatologists, and NWS WFOs

and regional headquarters to tailor climate forecasts for local users.

HYDROLOGIC SERVICES

The 122 WFOs, 13 River Forecast

Centers (RFCs), and NCEP's Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (HPC)

work as a team to provide hydrologic

forecast and warning services which

minimize loss of life and property

damage from flooding and to meet the

water service needs of our Nation.

RFC hydrologists use a modeling system called the NWS River Forecast

System (NWSRFS) to produce forecast time series of discharges or river

stages at approximately 4,000 locations along the nation's rivers. HPC

provides the quantitative precipitation

forecasts serving as the primary forecast input for NWSRFS. RFCs also

provide long-term water supply forecasts used by water managers in the

western U.S., where decisions about

water allocation and use are particularly critical now, with much of the

West still feeling the effects of a longterm drought.

WFOs work cooperatively with the

RFCs to monitor the major river systems around the clock. Using RFC

guidance, advanced Doppler radar

(NEXRAD) and telemetered rain

gauge observations, WFOs continuously monitor the threat of flash flooding and urban flooding to provide

timely flood watches and warnings to

protect life and property.

Partnerships with a variety of Federal, state and local agencies are critical to NOAA's NWS Hydrologic Services Program. For example, the NWS

works very closely with the United

States Geological Service (USGS), the

United States Army Corps of Engineers, the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the Bureau of

Reclamation, and the Bureau of Land

Management on a variety of water

related issues including stream gauging, support of flood fighting activities,

river and water supply forecasting, and

water management. River stage observations and stage-discharge relationships provided by the USGS are critical to warning and forecast operations

for the Nation's rivers. The NRCS furnishes snow measurements that are

combined with advanced snow modeling and analysis provided by NOAA's

National Operational Hydrologic

Remote Sensing Center to support

joint NWS-NRCS water supply forecasting in the western U.S.

The NWS is implementing the

Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS) to provide hydrologic

forecasts with lead times ranging from

minutes to months. AHPS builds on

the existing NWS infrastructure,

including AWIPS, NEXRAD, and

NWSRFS. AHPS also provides

Ensemble Streamflow Prediction, a

feature that allows the NWS to quan-
SECTION 3 DOC 39

tify forecast uncertainty. This lets

decision makers apply risk-based

analyses as they respond to flooding,

and as they try to balance competing

demands on water supply, especially

during periods of drought.

Flash floods, typically caused by

intense, small-scale convection, are the

leading cause of flood fatalities.

Another AHPS capability, known as

Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction

(FFMP), combines high-resolution

radar rainfall observations with Geographic Information System (GIS)

technology to provide more accurate

and much more precise flash flood

forecasts. The added precision provided by FFMP greatly reduces the

false alarm rate of flash flood forecasts, making them more credible and

leading to better public response,

which will ultimately save lives.

AHPS services are provided as a

suite of Web-based products

(weather.gov/ahps), that feature userfriendly menus and maps which allow

users to zoom in to areas of interest.

Clicking on an area of interest on the

national map brings the user to a map

of the NWS WFO serving that area

which provides more detailed information on river conditions. AHPS also

opens opportunities to improve

NOAA's analysis and forecast capabilities related to coastal water conditions, through joint efforts with other

components of NOAA (e.g., National

Ocean Service, Office of Oceanic and

Atmospheric Research).

OBSERVATIONS

Observations form the basis for forecasts and the monitoring and evaluation of the environment. Differing

applications and requirements are

associated with each of these functions. Forecast applications associated

with watch and warning functions

must be served immediately, while

real-time availability is not a significant factor for climate monitoring.

The range of differing applications will

dictate how future instrument deployments will be conducted. This poses a

constant challenge to the optimization

of resources placed into in-situ and

remotely sensed observation platforms.

The fundamental application of

observations is to deliver better products and improve services. This

demands the link between improved

services and observing systems be well

defined. We need to determine the

gaps in observations to meet varied

requirements, emphasizing the importance of metadata and sensor calibration continuity. Coordinated efforts

within the Federal community

throughout all aspects of observations

development, dissemination and use

are needed for efficient utilization of

resources.

The NWS approach for improving

observations consists of several

efforts:

• Make better use of data from

observing systems that currently exist;

• Extend the system life of current

observing systems to postpone technical obsolescence;

• Replace obsolete observing systems;

• Implement new observing techFigure 3-DOC-2. Map showing status of river conditions throughout the Nation. This map is included on the primary

AHPS Web page and it provides access to more detailed local information on river conditions, including observations

and forecasts at specific locations along rivers, as well as expected impacts that could result from flooding.
40 DOC SECTION 3 

nologies and communication systems

that better meet the data needs of our

customers; and

• Strengthen the link between user

requirements and technology research

and development.

The NWS manages programs that

produce observations in support of a

wide range of customers, such as the

aviation, climate monitoring and

research communities. As part of its

responsibility, the NWS inspects all

surface weather observing stations and

certifies equipment and observers.

NWS Headquarters establishes policy

for observations and standards and

coordinates with other Government

agencies and international organizations.

NOAA'S COOPERATIVE

WEATHER OBSERVER NETWORK

(COOP)

THE COOP is the Nation's largest

and oldest weather network. Modernization of the COOP under NERON is

consistent with the President's Climate

Change Research Initiative, providing

a richer source of data to improve

weather, water and climate forecasting

and to contribute to climate change

research. The COOP is the primary

source for monitoring U.S. climate

variability over weekly to interannual

time frames. These data are also the

primary basis for assessments of century-scale climate change. The modernized network will add to NOAA's

vision of an-end-to-end monitoring

program that "takes the temperature"

of the earth's systems.

NATIONAL CENTERS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION

NCEP delivers analyses, guidance,

forecasts and warnings for weather,

ocean, climate, water, land surface and

space weather to the nation and world.

NCEP provides science-based products and services through collaboration

with partners and users to protect life

and property, enhance the Nation's

economy and support the Nation's

growing need for environmental information. Each service center depends

on the observational infrastructure, the

data assimilation systems, the numeric

modeling function, and the application

of model output statistics to produce

value added forecast guidance products for NWS field offices and other

users.

NCEP is organized into seven science-based, service-oriented centers

that generate environmental prediction

products and two central support centers that develop and operate numerical

models -- the basis for NWS predictions.

Storm Prediction Center

The Storm Prediction Center (SPC)

focuses on hazardous weather events,

such as severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, extreme winter weather, fire

weather, and excessive precipitation

with emphasis on the forecast period

that ranges from 2-8 hours to the next

6 to 72 hours. All Tornado and Severe

Thunderstorm Watches issued anywhere in the contiguous U.S. come

from the SPC in collaboration with

local NWS Forecast Offices. Also, the

SPC prepares Mesoscale Convective

Discussions which are technical explanations of developing mesoscale features and their impact on hazardous

weather. For longer time periods, the

SPC produces the Convective Outlook

which is the one-, two- or three-day

forecasts of the probability and intensity of both non-severe and severe

thunderstorms (including tornadoes).

The SPC also issues one- and two-day

Fire Weather Outlooks for the contiguous U.S. defining areas with critical,

extremely critical and dry thunderstorm fire conditions and potential for

defined areas.

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

The Hydrometeorological Prediction

Center (HPC) provides forecast, guidance, and analysis products and services (1) to support the daily public

forecasting activities of the NWS and

its customers, and (2) to provide tailored support to other government

agencies in emergency and special situations. As part of this mission, HPC

prepares Quantitative Precipitation

Figure 3-DOC-3. Map showing locations of Cooperative Weather Observer

Network (COOP). Interactive web site can be found at

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/wfo-rfcmap.htm
SECTION 3 DOC 41

Forecasts (QPF) used by the RFCs to

develop local river and flood forecasts

and by WFOs to develop local rainfall,

snow and ice forecasts. The HPC provides special QPFs and coordinates

with other Federal agencies, such as

the Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA), during major flood

events. The HPC also provides an

array of analyses and forecasts out to

seven days of frontal systems, pressure

patterns, temperature, and precipitation

for use by WFOs and the private

weather community. Additionally,

HPC serves as the backup to the

National Hurricane Center.

Aviation Weather Center

The NCEP experts for aviation meteorology are concentrated at the Aviation Weather Center (AWC). The

AWC provides weather warnings,

advisories and forecasts to the aviation

community under an international

agreement through the International

Civil Aviation Organization. The

AWC provides wind, and flight hazards (e.g., icing, turbulence) forecasts

for flight planning and en route aircraft

operations for the U.S., the Gulf of

Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the

Atlantic and Pacific routes in the

Northern Hemisphere and some routes

in the Southern Hemisphere.

Environmental Modeling Center

The Environmental Modeling Center

(EMC) improves NCEP's numerical

climate, water, and weather predictions

through data assimilation and computer modeling. To provide mesoscale

predictions (thunderstorms, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, etc.),

ocean predictions and global weather

and climate predictions, EMC develops, adapts, improves, and monitors

data assimilation systems and global,

regional and mesoscale models of the

atmosphere, land surface, ocean, and

atmosphere/ocean/land systems. The

EMC uses advanced modeling methods developed internally and cooperatively with universities, the international scientific community, NESDIS,

NOAA laboratories, and other government agencies. As an example, EMC

is a partner in the NASA/NOAA Joint

Center for Satellite Data Assimilation

(JCSDA) designed to accelerate the

use of research and operational satellite data in NCEP operational models.

The EMC integrates research and technology through collaborative model

development projects. These interactions serve as an efficient and effective

interface between NCEP and the scientific community that develop ideas,

numerical models, and forecast techniques to implement model improvements and improve NWS products.

The EMC conducts applied research

and technology transfers and publishes

research results in various media for

dissemination to the world meteorological, oceanographic, and climate

community. EMC also participates in

ongoing interactive research programs

such as the USWRP Hurricane at

Landfall project and the community

Weather Research and Forecast (WRF)

model. Furthermore, EMC is participating in the Winter Storm Reconnaissance Program in the Pacific through

targeted observations aimed at improving forecasts across the country. EMC

efforts with collaborative development

have resulted in improvements to

mesoscale and global models, as well

as advancements in hurricane track

forecasts, climate forecasts and air

quality forecasts.

Climate Prediction Center

The Climate Prediction Center

(CPC) provides operational monitoring and prediction of global and

regional climate variability, with

emphasis on applied research and partnerships, to improve understanding of

the global climate system, weather and

climate links, extremes and trends.

CPC develops and maintains data

bases for determining current and historical climate anomalies and trends,

and provides analyses and assessments

of their origins and linkages to the

global climate system. CPC products

and services cover time scales ranging

from next week (days 6-10) to seasons

and out to a year in advance, and cover

land, ocean, and atmosphere extending

into the stratosphere. CPC's products

include probabilistic long range outlooks for temperature and precipitation, the multi-agency U.S. Drought

Monitor (a drought outlook), and El

Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

discussions and outlooks, among many

others. WFOs, as well as the public,

private industry, and the national and

international research community use

CPC products and climate services.

Space Environment Center

The Space Environment Center

(SEC) provides national and international forecasts, alerts, and warnings of

extraordinary conditions in the space

environment, solar radio noise, solar

energetic particles, solar X-ray radiation, geomagnetic activity, and conditions of stratospheric warming. The

SEC observes, assesses, and predicts

activity in the space environment to

promote public safety and to mitigate

economic loss that could result from

disruption of satellite operations, communications and navigation systems,

and electric power distribution grids.

The SEC issues to the public, its U.S.

Air Force partners, and vendors of

value-added services specific predictions of the space weather activity

level for the next three days and more

general predictions up to several weeks

in advance, as well as weekly summaries of observed solar terrestrial

conditions. SEC serves as the international World Warning Agency for the

International Space Environment Service (ISES). It exchanges international

data- solar wind, X-ray, sunspot,

corona, magnetic, and ionospheric

measurements-in real-time and, from

these data, provides and meets additional specific needs of other government agencies. SEC distributes

(receives) data to (from) other countries and issues a consensus set of daily

forecasts for international use.
42 DOC SECTION 3 

Ocean Prediction Center

The Ocean Prediction Center (OPC)

provides atmospheric and oceanographic warning, forecast, and analysis

products and services for the North

Atlantic and North Pacific (north of 30

degrees) as part of the NWS mission of

protecting life and property and

enhancing economic opportunity (Figure 3-DOC-4). As part of this responsibility, OPC handles U.S. international meteorological obligations to

marine interests under the International

Convention for Safety of Life at Sea

(SOLAS). The OPC provides weather

and sea state warnings and forecasts

for the offshore waters of the U.S. and

the high seas of the Northern Hemisphere, north of 30 degrees, for planning and operational purposes. OPC

warnings and products go directly to

ships and are vital for the protection of

life and property at sea, and enhancement of the economy. The OPC also

coordinates forecasts with and provides forecast guidance to WFOs with

coastal responsibilities. The OPC, the

Tropical Prediction Center (TPC),

HPC, and WFO Honolulu, HI collaborate daily to produce unified and seamless surface weather analyses covering

from 30 degrees South to the North

Pole, and from East Asia across the

Pacific and Atlantic to Western Europe

and Africa.

Tropical Prediction Center/National

Hurricane Center

The NCEP experts in the area of

tropical meteorology are concentrated

in the Tropical Prediction Center

(TPC)/National Hurricane Center

(NHC). TPC/NHC services include

public and marine advisories, watches,

and warnings for tropical cyclones in

the North Atlantic and eastern North

Pacific hurricane basins including the

portions of the coastline threatened by

such storms. In addition, TPC forecasters provide marine analyses and

forecast products for the same areas of

responsibility, south of 30 degrees

north latitude and a portion of the

southeast Pacific. TPC warnings and

products go directly to ships and are

vital for the protection of life and

property at sea, and enhancement of

the economy. The TPC/NHC provides

guidance, coordination, and tropical

weather expertise to WFO forecasters,

the media, and private industry.

NCEP Central Operations

The NCEP Central Operations

(NCO) is responsible for NCEP operations, including access to real-time

data, and its quality control and use in

numerical weather prediction systems,

as well as the workstations used by

NCEP forecasters to access model output and other data necessary for producing guidance products. The NCO

provides management, procurement,

development, installation, maintenance, and operation of all computing

and communications related services

that link individual NCEP activities

together. The NCO is the focal point

for establishing and executing policies,

standards, procedures, and documentation for computing and communications within the entire NCEP organization. The NCO maintains and manages

the supercomputer and runs the computer applications that generate all

NCEP model products. The NCO

leads the technical transition between

the research and development of

numerical weather and climate prediction models and their operational use

on the NCEP computer systems. In

addition, NCO provides 24-hour information services and operational support for NCEP computing systems,

including the network which ties

together internal NCEP communications, NWS high performance computer systems, forecaster workstations,

personal computers and a user service

that support all NCEP centers. Since

an upgrade to NCEP's main computer

systems and facilities in 1999, and

throughout subsequent upgrades, NCO

has delivered NCEP model forecasts

and products to its users with a high

degree of reliability and timeliness.

Other NWS Offices with National

Responsibilities

In addition to the NCEP centers,

there are two other offices that provide

National products. They are the Alaska

Aviation Weather Unit and the WFO

Honolulu/Central Pacific Hurricane

Center.

Alaska Aviation Weather Unit. The

Alaska Aviation Unit (AAWU) provides wind, temperature, and flight

hazards (e.g., icing, turbulence) fore- Figure 3-DOC-4. United States High Seas Forecast Areas of Responsibility.
SECTION 3 DOC 43

casts for flight planning and enroute

aircraft operations for Alaska and surrounding areas (Figure 3-DOC-5).

WFO Honolulu/Central Pacific Hurricane Center. WFO Honolulu/Central

Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) provides products in aviation, marine, and

tropical cyclone areas. In aviation,

WFO Honolulu provides wind, temperature, and flight hazards (e.g., icing,

turbulence) forecasts for flight planning and enroute aircraft operations for

the central north Pacific from 140

degrees W to 160 degrees E longitude

and in the Oakland Flight Information

Region south of 30 degrees N latitude

through ICAO international agreement. The office handles international

meteorological obligations to marine

interests under the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea

(SOLAS). WFO Honolulu provides

weather and sea state warnings and

forecasts for the high seas of the central north and south Pacific south of 30

degrees N latitude. CPHC issues tropical cyclone advisories, forecasts,

watches, and warnings for the central

north Pacific including Hawaii.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

The NWS conducts applied research,

building upon the more basic research

conducted by NOAA laboratories and

the academic community. Applied

meteorological and hydrological

research is integral to providing more

timely and accurate weather, water,

and climate services to the public.

METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH

The NWS conducts meteorological

research to develop, test, evaluate, and

improve numerical models and analysis/forecast techniques for weather and

climate prediction including:

• Techniques for predicting

mesoscale phenomena (e.g., heavy

precipitation, tornadoes, and severe

thunderstorms).

• Models to improve hurricane

tracking, hurricane probability estimates, and tropical analyses.

• Storm surge models to assist in

developing hurricane evacuation plans

for additional coastal basins.

• Techniques to improve prediction

of seasonal to interannual climate variability and their impacts on weather

variability.

HYDROLOGIC RESEARCH

The NWS develops, implements and

operationally supports improved

hydrologic, hydraulic and hydrometeorological models and manages hydrologic data and enhanced quality control

procedure to support national flood

and water resources forecasting.

Research encompasses the following

areas:

• Improvements to the Ensemble

Streamflow Prediction (ESP) system

and its complementary models in the

NWS River Forecasting System.

Research, development and implementation of improved ESP procedures

which improve forecast accuracy and

quantify uncertainty at all time scales.

• Specialized flood and flash flood

forecasting procedures using linked

Figure 3-DOC-5. Two products available from the Alaska Aviation Weather

Center are an Aviation Weather Clickable map (top, left) and Forecast Surface map (lower, right).
44 DOC SECTION 3 

hydrologic, hydraulic and meteorological models. Major research areas

include developing distributed hydrologic models that use high resolution

precipitation data from the NWS radar

network, improvement of cold region

processes in watershed models, and

assimilation of data to improve initial

conditions. Highly specialized

hydraulic models for routing river

flows will also provide information for

generating maps of inundated areas.

• Development of improved multisensor precipitation estimates for input

estimates for input into operational

hydrologic and atmospheric models.

Radar, rain gauge and satellite rainfall

estimates are merged to produce optimum rainfall analyses.

• Development of verification methods to assess the added-value of new

science and technology to the customer.

SPACE WEATHER RESEARCH

Research and development at SEC

emphasizes understanding of the fundamental physical processes governing

the regime from the solar surface,

through the interplanetary medium,

into the magnetospheric-ionospheric

regions, and ending in Earth's upper

atmosphere. These processes are manifest in the climatology and disturbances of Earth's magnetic field, the

ionosphere, the charged particle populations at satellite orbits, and the

atmospheric density at high altitudes

(including low-Earth orbit). This

applied research is focused on areas

where advanced applications can be

devised and prototyped to improve the

specification and forecast of conditions

in the space environment by developing and implementing models and

indices, as well as by obtaining and

processing new observations.

• Developing of the first dynamic,

global ionospheric model to use

ensemble Kalman filter techniques to

assimilate data every 15 minutes. Disparate data from widely dispersed

sources will enable the model output to

be useful to radio-communicators and

Global Positioning System (GPS) and

Loran users.

• Developing of models to characterize and predict geomagnetic storm

intensity development, spatially and

temporally.

SUPPORT FOR COLLABORATIVE

RESEARCH WITH THE ACADEMIC COMMUNITY AND OTHER

PARTNERS

The Collaborative Science, Technology, and Applied Research (CSTAR)

program was established to bring

NWS-supported collaborative activities with the academic community into

a structured program and to create a

cost-effective transition from basic and

applied research to operations and

services. The CSTAR Program issues

requests for proposals through which

colleges and universities compete for

1-3 years of research funding. CSTAR

supports shorter-term research activities with colleges and universities

through the NWS/Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology,

Education, and Training (COMET)

Outreach Program. The NWS also

funds specific applied research grants

and cooperative agreements directly in

support of hydrology and meteorology

research needs.

TRAINING

NOAA's NWS provides training to

its workforce to enhance the professional and scientific development of its

staff in support of NOAA's NWS mission and strategic goals. Training deficiencies and requirements are identified and addressed via the National

Strategic Training and Education Plan

(NSTEP) process, described in NWS

Instruction 20-102 and available at

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/directives/020/pd02001002a.pdf.

Training is provided through a variety of in-residence courses and distance learning techniques. Hands-on,

in-residence training can be acquired at

any of the three NOAA's NWS professional training facilities. The NWS

Training Center (NWSTC) in Kansas

City, Missouri, provides technical,

meteorological and hydrologic, and

management/leadership training. The

Warning Decision Training Branch

(WDTB) in Norman, Oklahoma, conducts situational awareness and remote

sensing training with modules that

integrate data for improving the warning decision process. Finally, the

Cooperative Program for Operational

Meteorology, Education and Training

(COMET) in Boulder, Colorado, offers

advanced meteorological and hydrometeorological education to ensure that

NWS employees have access to the latest software and hardware to improve

forecasting techniques. All three facilities also offer distance learning, Internet modules, teletraining, webcasts and

CD-ROM based training. NWS

employees have direct access to scientific and managerial training materials

through the DoC/NOAA Learning

Management System (LMS).

The NWSTC, in addition to providing scientific and technical training, is

working to expand its leadership training and development skills through

NOAA's NWS Leadership Academy.

The goal of the Leadership Academy is

to enable NWS and NOAA employees

to become world-class leaders. The

Academy is founded on a sequential

and progressive approach designed to

develop professional skills and capabilities to improve employee performance. From entry into the agency to

senior career status, employees can

take advantage of courses and

processes that are part of a powerful

management and leadership learning

environment. Finally, NOAA's NWS

is working to develop an organized

curriculum to supply the necessary

knowledge, skills, and abilities for all

positions.
SECTION 3 DOC 45

The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service

(NESDIS), part of the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), manages the U.S. civil

operational environmental satellite

systems, as well as the three NOAA

National Data Centers (NNDCs) that

develop global, national, and regional

databases to support meteorology,

oceanography, geophysics, and the

space environment. From these

sources, NESDIS develops and distributes environmental data and information products and services critical to

the protection of life and property, the

national economy, energy development and distribution, global food supplies, and the development and management of environmental resources.

NESDIS was established as a NOAA

line office on December 1, 1982. The

merger of the former National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS)

and the Environmental Data and Information Service (EDIS) formed NESDIS.

NESDIS procures, launches, and

operates two types of satellites to provide worldwide environmental data

and information products and services

to Federal agencies, state and local

governments, and private users. These

satellite types are the Polar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite

(POES) and Geostationary Operational

Environmental Satellites (GOES).

The POES satellites are circling the

Earth in an almost north-south orbit,

passing close to both poles. These

orbits have an altitude between 830 km

(morning orbit) and 870 km (afternoon

orbit), and are sun synchronous. One

satellite crosses the equator at 10:00

A.M. local time, the other at 2:00 P.M.

local time. Operating as a pair, these

satellites ensure that data for any

region of the Earth are no more than

six hours old. Each satellite orbits the

Earth 14 times per day, collecting

global data for atmospheric and surface measurements in support of shortterm weather forecasting and longterm global climate change research.

NOAA also manages the command,

control, and communications function

of the Department of Defense's

(DOD's) Defense Meteorological

Satellite Program (DMSP) constellations.

Currently NESDIS is operating six

polar orbiters. The newest series of

POES satellites began with the launch

of NOAA-15 in May 1998, followed

by NOAA-16 on September 21, 2000,

NOAA-17 on June 24, 2002, and

finally NOAA-18 on May 20, 2005.

NOAA-17 and NOAA-18 are classified as the primary operational satellites. The NOAA-12, NOAA-14,

NOAA-15, and NOAA-16 satellites

continue to transmit data as stand-by

satellites. NOAA-17 serves as the primary morning satellite and NOAA-18

the primary afternoon satellite.

An agreement with the European

Organization for the Exploitation of

Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) gives EUMETSAT responsibility

for the morning segment of NOAA's

polar environmental mission (circa

9:30 A.M. LST), with U.S.-provided

payload instruments and sensors,

beginning in 2006. Upon inception of

this operational arrangement, NOAA

will operate the afternoon mission

while EUMETSAT will support the

morning mission. Under this joint

mission, upgraded instruments will be

flown that will result in improvements

for the user community. For example,

the HIRS instrument will be upgraded

resulting in improved atmospheric

sounding information. AVHRR global

one-kilometer data will be available

enhancing the usefulness of this data

for fire detection, CoastWatch, and any

other applications that require higher

resolution. It also provides the opportunity to use new sensor data from

EUMETSAT instruments, in preparation for future NPOESS support

The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

(NPOESS), the next generation of

polar-orbiting satellites, will provide

standard meteorological, oceanographic, environmental, and climatic

information as well as space environmental remote sensing information.

NPOESS will also continue to provide

surface data collection and search and

rescue capability. The NPOESS IPO,

in consultation with the POES and

DMSP program offices, is also studying additional potential cost effective

approaches to maximize user satisfaction during the transition to NPOESS

while guaranteeing continued noninterrupted data services. The first

NPOESS launch is planned for 2013.

NESDIS is also responsible for operating two geostationary satellites,

referred to as GOES East and GOES

West, plus an on-orbit spare satellite.

Each satellite views nearly one third of

the Earth's surface. The GOES-12

(East) satellite is positioned at 75

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE, DATA, AND INFORMATION SERVICE
46 DOC SECTION 3 

degrees W longitude and the equator

and monitors North and South America

and most of the Atlantic Ocean.

GOES-11 (West) is positioned at 135

degrees W longitude at the equator and

monitors North America and the

Pacific Ocean basin. These two satellites operate together to provide continuous monitoring necessary for

effective and extensive weather forecasting, prediction, and environmental

monitoring. GOES East and West circle the Earth in a geosynchronous

orbit, which means they orbit the equatorial plane of the Earth at a speed

matching the Earth's rotation. This

allows them to continuously view one

part of the Earth's surface. The geosynchronous orbit is about 35,800 km

(22,300 miles) above the Earth's equator.

On May 24, 2006, GOES-13 was

launched. This spacecraft is the first

spacecraft of the GOES N-P series.

This new series improves NOAA's

coverage during spacecraft eclipse season. After checkout of the satellite,

GOES-13 will be available as a

replacement for GOES East or West in

the event of a failure. With the transition of GOES-11 to GOES West,

GOES-10 will be repositioned to support South America as part of the

Global Earth Observation System of

Systems (GEOSS).

ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE

SERVICES

OFFICE OF SATELLITE OPERATIONS

The Office of Satellite Operations

(OSO) directs the operation of

NOAA's environmental satellites and

the acquisition of remotely sensed

environmental data. It manages the

Satellite Operations Control Center

(SOCC) in Maryland, and two Command and Data Acquisition (CDA) stations (Fairbanks, Alaska, and Wallops,

Virginia), which command, control,

track, and acquire data from environmental satellites. The status of

NOAA's satellites can be found on

OSO's website (http://www.oso.noaa.

gov/).

OSO also performs the command,

control, and communications function

of the Department of Defense's

(DOD's) Defense Meteorological

Satellite Program (DMSP) constellation. The mission of DMSP is to provide meteorological and special sensor

data to users in support of worldwide

DOD missions. DMSP is now operated from the SOCC at Suitland, Maryland. SOCC is the primary center for

normal operations, mission planning,

engineering, launch and early orbit

support, and anomaly resolution.

OFFICE OF SATELLITE DATA PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION

The Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution (OSDPD) is

responsible for the operations of NESDIS central ground data processing

facilities. It processes and distributes

data from NOAA and non-NOAA

environmental satellites and generates

automated and interpretive products

for various government agencies, private industry, and educational institutions. Key customers include NOAA's

National Weather Service (NWS),

DOD, Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA), National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA), worldwide Meteorological Watch Offices,

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), and state environmental protection agencies, foreign meteorological

agencies, U.S. airlines, universities,

and private sector companies. OSDPD

exploits data from NOAA polar and

geostationary environmental satellites,

foreign (European, Japanese, and

Indian) operational satellites, as well

as domestic and foreign research satellites. The latter includes NASA's

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

(TRMM), QuikSCAT, Earth Observing

System satellites (including Aqua,

Terra, and Aura missions), Japan's

ADEOS-II, and DOD's WindSAT mission. OSDPD products are used in

real-time in the production of forecasts

and warnings of severe environmental

events such as tornados, thunderstorms, flash floods, and hurricanes.

Some OSDPD products, such as calibrated radiances from polar-orbiting

sounders, vertical temperature and

moisture profiles, cloud tracked wind

speed and direction, and snow cover,

are routinely integrated into numerical

weather prediction forecast models on

a global scale. These products often

provide key model input parameters

where routine in-situ measurements

are not available.

OSDPD satellite products are distributed to a diverse user community

for a broad range of environmental

applications. The operational satellite

data distribution networks provide user

access to real-time or near, real-time

environmental data and information.

Quality assurance procedures are used

to systematically evaluate and characterize the satellite products and services. This applies to both the fully

automated products such as remapped

GOES channel imagery and geophysical parameters (e.g., vertical wind profiles, bulk moisture and atmospheric

stability indices, etc.) and POESderived parameters (e.g., channel

brightness temperatures, precipitation

estimates, vegetation indices, sea surface temperature, temperature and

moisture profiles, etc.), as well as to

the value-added interpretive or analyzed products used to support disaster

mitigation and warning services for

various Federal agencies and the international community. The latter category includes products such as tropical

storm position and intensity, fire locations and associated smoke extent,

quantitative precipitation estimates for

flash flood warnings, and volcanic ash

plume extent and height. OSDPD

works closely with its partners in the

customer-supplier chain to ensure the

most effective and timely implementa-
SECTION 3 DOC 47

tion of its satellite data products and

services. Working with NESDIS

research organizations, such as the

Office of Research and Applications

(STAR) on the supplier side, and with

government (primarily NWS), educational, and other organizations on the

customer side, new and enhanced

product generation algorithms are

tested, evaluated, and implemented

when deemed sufficiently validated

and operationally useful. In partnership with other agencies and internal

NESDIS organizations, new technologies are investigated and periodically

deployed to satisfy emerging user

requirements.

OSDPD distributes these environmental satellite products to NWS

Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS), National

Centers for Environmental Prediction

(NCEP), Weather Forecast Offices

(WFOs), and other Federal, state, and

private sector organizations. This is

done through dedicated satellite processing and server configurations or

through the NOAAPORT satellite

point-to-multi-point broadcast facility.

The satellite data and products transmitted via NOAAPORT include

remapped imagery, satellite precipitation estimates, high-density wind

direction and speed projections at various atmospheric levels, GOES satellite

imagery, and volcanic ash advisory

messages. Over 100 universities

receive satellite data and products supplied via NOAAPORT. NOAAPORT

also delivers GOES and POES products in near, real-time to the AWIPS.

AWIPS is the NWS display and

analysis workstation used in NWS

national centers and field sites to integrate and display satellite data, model

output, in-situ observations, and radar

and wind profiles used in the production of hydro-meteorological analyses

and forecasts. In addition, OSDPD

serves NCEP as a backup for NOAA

GOES data via the Man Computer

Interactive Data Access System (McIDAS) and as a primary source to

NCEP of NOAA POES and nonNOAA geostationary satellite data.

OSDPD also uses various websites

to disseminate satellite data and products. For example, one site

(http://www.ssd.noaa.gov) provides

information and products on a multitude of OSDPD operational product

areas including: worldwide tropical

cyclone analyses, volcanic ash analyses, heavy precipitation analyses,

snow/ice cover, and smoke and fire

analyses. High quality imagery and

derived products are extremely popular

during hurricane season. Another

OSDPD website (http://www.osei.

noaa.gov) provides satellite imagery of

significant environmental events such

as oil spills, icebergs, hurricanes, and

fires. Satellite data in digital scientific

format are also available at

ftp://gp16.ssd.nesdis.noaa.gov/, and

several data sets are made available in

Geographic Information System (GIS)

format through http://www.gis.ssd.nesdis.noaa.gov/. A variety of geophysical products derived from both NOAA

and non-NOAA polar orbiting platforms can be found at http://

www.osdpd.noaa.gov/PSB/PSB.html.

OSDPD continues to support

COSPAS-SARSAT, the international

search and rescue program through

provision of satellites, ground stations,

and alert data distribution services. In

2005, COSPASSARSAT contributed to the

rescue of 222

people in the

U.S., bringing

the worldwide

total to over

18,500 rescues

since its inception in 1982. In

the COSPASSARSAT program, Russia, the

U.S., India,

France, and

Canada provide the space segment,

and 31 other countries provide ground

systems to relay distress alerts and participate in the management of the program. NESDIS operates and maintains

the U.S. SARSAT Mission Control

Center and 12 Local User Terminals as

ground stations.

The Local User Terminals receive

121.5/243/406 MHz emergency beacon signals directly from the satellites

and process the information to provide

the location of distress transmissions.

COSPAS-SARSAT will terminate

satellite processing of 121.5/243 MHz

signals beginning February 1, 2009.

This decision was made in response to

guidance from the International Civil

Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization due to

problems in this frequency band that

cause poor accuracy and numerous

false alerts, adversely impacting the

effectiveness of lifesaving services.

These two specialized agencies of the

United Nations are respectively

responsible for international aviation

and maritime search and rescue standards. The use of new emergency beacons that can use the Global Positioning System (GPS) to provide an accurate position continues to increase.

NESDIS, working with its partners in

the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Coast Guard,

and NASA, is developing plans to augment the COSPAS-SARSAT System
48 DOC SECTION 3 

with search and rescue instruments on

future Global Positioning System

(GPS) Block III satellites.

NATIONAL ICE CENTER

The U.S. National Ice Center (NIC),

under the sponsorship of the U.S.

Navy, NOAA, and the U.S. Coast

Guard, is tasked with providing the

highest quality operational global,

regional, and tactical scale sea ice

analyses and forecasts tailored to meet

the requirements of U.S. national interests. NIC ice products are produced in

a digital geospatial intelligence environment using data from polar orbiting

satellites, ship/shore station reports,

drifting buoys, meteorological guidance products, ice model predictions,

and data from other government partners including foreign ice services.

Primary remotely sensed data sources

used for global and regional ice mapping include visible and infrared

imagery from the POES imager,

AVHRR (1.1 km spatial resolution),

and the DMSP Operational Linescan

System (0.55 km spatial resolution).

NIC also uses passive microwave sensor data from the Special Sensor

Microwave Imager (SSM/I), the

Advanced Microwave Scanning

Radiometer (AMSR-E), and WindSat

processed using CAL/VAL, NASA

Team 2, and Bootstrap sea ice concentration algorithms. These algorithms

produce 25 km gridded mosaic ice

maps that are instrumental in the production of NIC weekly composite Arctic/Antarctic ice maps, particularly

over areas of extensive cloud cover.

Higher resolution ice analysis products, used to ensure the safety of navigation and protect life and property at

sea, are available from active

microwave sensors such as the SeaWinds scatterometer aboard

QuikSCAT and Synthetic Aperture

Radar (SAR) instruments aboard the

Canadian RADARSAT-1 and the

European Envisat satellites. When

available, SAR data are the source of

choice for sea ice analysis. Most of the

SAR imagery available to NIC is

RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR wide mode

that provides a 500 km wide swath

with 100 m spatial resolution. These

images are processed at four different

ground stations and transferred to NIC

via dedicated communication lines or

via the Internet within six hours of

acquisition. The NIC Science Team,

supported by the NESDIS Center for

Satellite Applications and Research

(STAR), assists in the transition of pertinent scientific research to operations.

This includes the transition of new

real-time passive and active

microwave sea ice products to the NIC

operations floor, conducting an evaluation of current sea ice algorithms, and

the use of satellite and in-situ data for

initializing and evaluating the Polar Ice

Prediction System (PIPS) version 3.0.

Routine NIC ice guidance products

include regional-scale ice maps, annotated satellite imagery, short and longterm ice forecasts, and legacy ice information and ice climatology. Specialized support services include specific

regional support, ship route recommendations, pre-sail ship briefings,

aerial ice reconnaissance, and ship

rider support. Specific sea ice features

analyzed include ice edge position, ice

concentration, ice thickness, form or

floe size, ice motion, areas of compression and heavy surface deformation,

and the location/orientation of open

water or thin ice-covered leads.

Ice products are disseminated via the

Internet (www.natice.noaa.gov) as

simple electronic charts in Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG format),

GeoTiff, and other GIS-compatible

formats consistent with the World

Meteorological Organization (WMO)

digital standard for Sea Ice in GRIDDED (SIGRID-3) format. The date

and time of data acquisition as well as

the percentage of each data type used

in all ice analyses are documented in a

meta-data narrative.

Another NIC responsibility is oversight of the U.S. Interagency Arctic

Buoy Program (USIABP). The USIABP was established in 1992, to provide the management structure and

coordination necessary to maintain a

baseline network of drifting buoys.

Buoys within the array provide sufficient spatial resolution to define surface synoptic scale atmospheric pressure, air temperature, and sea-ice drift

fields. Data are used in real-time for

operational weather and ice forecasting

and for research in the Global Climate

Change Program. The USIABP is a

collaborative program that draws operating funds and services from the collective contributions of government

agencies and/or programs. These

organizations include: the Naval

Oceanographic Office, Office of Naval

Research (ONR), NASA, National Science Foundation (NSF), and NESDIS,

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric

Research (OAR), and the Office of

Global Programs (OGP).

CENTER FOR SATELLITE APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH (STAR)

STAR is the science arm of NESDIS.

The mission of STAR is to transfer

satellite observations of the land,

atmosphere, ocean, and climate from

scientific research and development

into routine operations, and offer stateof-the-art data, products and services

to decision-makers. STAR is an operations-driven research and development center, tuned to the needs of the

nation's users of satellite data products.

STAR conducts diverse research on

satellite remote sensing, including the

study of atmospheric, oceanic, and

land processes. STAR participates in

the life cycle of all operational NOAA

satellites-from defining the initial

requirements for a satellite mission,

through calibration and application of

the data after the satellite is in orbit, to

development of products from the

data, to final archiving and even reprocessing of data. STAR also works with

data from non-NOAA satellites as
SECTION 3 DOC 49

well, for research, to transfer capabilities to NOAA, and to obtain even more

observations of the Earth than what is

available from NOAA satellites.

STAR is a leader in planning future

satellite observing systems to enhance

the nation's ability to remotely monitor

the environment. STAR also calibrates

the Earth-observing instruments of all

NOAA satellites to provide reliable

measurements. STAR investigates

how to develop satellite data sets that

can be used in the following ways:

• Assess the current conditions on

the Earth in a timely manner,

• Predict changes in the current conditions, and

• Study long-term trends in the environment.

NOAA's mission includes providing

information, forecasts, advisories, and

warnings on the earth's atmosphere,

land, and ocean. STAR develops the

techniques to obtain the necessary

information from satellite data. STAR

also supports the NOAA mission by

providing scientific services to the

users of NOAA satellites:

• Planning new satellites and sensors that monitor the environment,

• Collecting and processing data

from environmental satellites,

• Building quality and reliability

into NOAA satellite data, and

• Providing satellite products that

NOAA can use to accomplish its mission.

STAR will create new products for

monitoring atmospheric, oceanic, and

environmental hazards; enhance

NOAA's infrastructure for remote

sensing; reduce the risk of launching

new, untested, and very expensive

satellites and sensors; expand its support to users (for example, expanding

the NOAA CoastWatch Program into a

global OceanWatch); and train users of

STAR products and applications.

THE JOINT CENTER FOR SATELLITE DATA ASSIMILATION

(JCSDA)

The JCSDA is a geographically distributed center operated as a partnership between NOAA, NASA, the U.S.

Navy, and the U.S. Air Force. This

cooperative arrangement allows

NOAA, NASA, and DOD to take

advantage of their combined science

and technology resources in order to

accelerate and optimize the use of

existing and new satellite data for

numerical weather prediction (NWP).

The JCSDA provides a focal point

for cooperative research and development of common modeling and data

assimilation infrastructure among its

partners. As a result of its collaborative nature, the JCSDA will enable

NOAA to improve NWP and climate

prediction through the optimal use of

data from existing satellites and to prepare for a large volume of new data

from advanced satellite instruments,

such as those on NPOESS, that will be

launched during the next five to six

years. These efforts will also help

guide the selection and specification of

future satellite instruments to ensure

that the most effective observing system possible is created.

The JCSDA is tasked with developing new and powerful techniques to

assimilate data into NWP and ocean,

climate, and air quality analyses and

models. This center is also tasked with

reducing the time elapsed from satellite launch to operational data use from

two years to one year. JCSDA activities directly support the missions of

NASA, NOAA, and the DOD as well

as those of organizations who contribute to or rely on NOAA's environmental assessment, prediction, and

stewardship missions. In addition,

through its partnership and coordination with DOD and other agencies, the

JCSDA will enhance efforts to facilitate the transition from research into

operations. Current projects focus on

speeding available satellite data into

operations and developing tools to support future assimilation projects. Six

scientific priorities are being emphasized toward these ends:

• Development of a communitybased radiative transfer model

(CRTM): In the next few years, the

accuracy and capability of the JCSDA

CRTM will be significantly improved

by including additional physical

processes (e.g., atmospheric scattering), more efficient numerical techniques, and better surface emissivity

models to allow more satellite data

which is affected by surface to be properly assimilated.

• Development of data thinning and

configuration technology and methodology: This allows faster and efficient

delivery of advanced satellite data to

major NWP centers globally.

• Advanced techniques to assimilate

satellite data in cloudy and precipitation regions: Improving radiative

transfer models and NWP cloud prediction schemes will significantly

increase the fraction of satellite data

being ingested into the assimilation

systems and increase their impact.

• Improvement of the use of satellite

land products in NWP models: For

example, green vegetation fraction,

snow cover, snow pack parameters,

surface albedo, land, and sea surface

temperature.

• Improvement of the use of satellite

data in ocean data assimilation: This

provides assimilated ocean data sets to
50 DOC SECTION 3 

the community for research purposes

and providing access to and support of

an operational ocean data assimilation

system.

• Assimilate satellite derived

aerosol, ozone, and trace gas product:

This will improve forecasts of visibility and health index with state-of-theart air quality forecast models including chemical and biological process.

The JCSDA has additional long-term

strategic goals. One is to accelerate the

transfer of data assimilation research

into operations by fostering common

data assimilation code components,

including techniques for specifying

observation errors, background error

co-variances, and data selection and

reduction. Another is to foster development of a workforce capable of

meeting the data assimilation challenges of future.

The JCSDA approach is bearing

fruit. Recent accomplishments

include:

• Improved radiative transfer techniques: 

• CRTM was implemented operationally in the Global Data Assimilation System (GDAS).

• Improved microwave surface

emissivity models leads to more

AMSU-A data used over land, snow,

ice.

• Vetted CRTM components are

made available to partners and stakeholders via internet.

• Improved uses of current satellite

data: 

• More AMSU-A data are used

over land, snow, and sea ice due to an

improved surface emissivity model. 

• Advanced data selection and

assimilation techniques for infrared

sounders increase use of AIRS data. 

• NOAA-18 AMSU data is used

operationally in NCEP GDAS.

• OMI Ozone data from TERRA

satellite result in improved global

ozone analysis.

• AIRS data used to predict

NWP effectiveness of proposed

designs for a future GOES-R sounder.

• More new satellite data tested for

use in NCEP operational GDAS and

forecast models: 

• Techniques to assimilate GPS

Radio Occultation data is developed,

has been tested, and will improve

NWP.

• WindSat ocean surface wind

data was tested in the Global Forecast

System with positive impact.

• JASON sea-surface altimetry

data was tested in the Global Ocean

Data Assimilation System. 

POLAR SATELLITE PROGRAM

The primary mission of the Polarorbiting Operational Environmental

Satellite (POES) System is to provide

daily global observations of weather

patterns and environmental measurements of the Earth's atmosphere, its

surface and cloud cover, and the proton

and electron flux at satellite altitude.

Since the beginning of the POES program, environmental data and products

acquired by its satellites have been

provided to users around the globe.

These satellites increase the accuracy

of weather forecasting by providing

quantitative data required for improved

numerical weather forecast models.

Currently, the two primary operational

spacecraft are NOAA-17 and NOAA18.

NOAA polar satellites carry instruments that provide atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles. They

also provide multi-channel images and

carry a data collection and platform

location system and a Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking

(SARSAT) subsystem. The SARSAT

subsystem is used to detect and locate

distress alerts from maritime, aviation,

and land-based users of emergency

beacons operating at 121.5 or 243 or

406 MHz. In addition to taking thermal images of the Earth's surface and

atmosphere, the NOAA polar-orbiting

satellites carry sounder instruments to

provide vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature and moisture.

POES satellites carry four primary

instrument systems: the Advanced

Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR); the TIROS Operational

Vertical Sounder (TOVS); the Space

Environment Monitor (SEM); and the

Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet Instrument (SBUV/2). AVHRR provides

data for real-time transmission to both

Automatic Picture Transmission

(APT) and High Resolution Picture

Transmission (HRPT) users and for

storage on the spacecraft tape

recorders for later playback. The

AVHRR/3 series of instruments, which

began with NOAA-15, measures in six

spectral channels (0.63, 0.86, 1.6, 3.75,

10.8 and 12 μm) with a nominal spatial

resolution of 1.1 km and global resolution of roughly 4 km. Though the

AVHRR/3 measures six channels, only

five are transmitted in the data stream

at any one time; the 1.6 and 3.75 m

channels are time shared. The

AVHRR/3 provides stored and directreadout radiometer data for day and

night cloud cover, sea surface temperatures, vegetation indices, fire detection, and snow and ice mapping.

TOVS is comprised of the High-resolution Infrared Radiometer Sounder

(HIRS) and the Advanced Microwave

Sounding Unit (AMSU).

The HIRS/3 is a discrete-stepping,

line scan instrument designed to measure scene radiance in 20 spectral bands

to permit the calculation of the vertical

temperature profile from Earth's surface to about 40 km. Multi-spectral

data from one visible channel

(0.69μm), seven shortwave channels

(3.7 to 4.6μm), and twelve long wave

channels (6.5 to 15μm) are obtained

from a single telescope and rotating filter wheel containing twenty individual

filters. An elliptical scan mirror provides cross-track scanning of 56 increments of 1.8μm. The mirror steps rapidly (<35 msec), then holds at each

position while the 20 filter segments

are sampled. This action takes place
SECTION 3 DOC 51

every 100 msec. The instantaneous

field of vision (FOV) for each channel

is approximately 1.4 μm in the visible

and shortwave IR and 1.3 μm in the

long wave IR band that, from an altitude of 833 km, encompasses an area

of 20.3 km and 18.9 km in diameter,

respectively, at nadir on the Earth.

Each AMSU-A instrument is composed of two separate units: (1)

AMSU-A2 with two channels at 23.8

and 31.4 GHz and (2) AMSU-A1 with

twelve channels in the range of 50.3 to

57.3 GHz and one channel at 89.0

GHz. The AMSU-B has five channels

with frequencies centered on 89, 150,

183±1, 183±3, and 183±7 GHz,

respectively. AMSU-B, provided by

the United Kingdom Meteorological

Office, produces soundings of humidity from the surface to 200 millibars

(mb). AMSU-A has a nominal FOV of

3.3 degrees (48 km on surface at nadir)

and AMSU-B a field of view of 1.1

degrees (16 km on surface at nadir).

AMSU-A (AMSU-B) samples 30

degrees (90 degrees) Earth views, covering ±48.95 degrees from the subsatellite point. In addition, the specialized 89 GHz channel, with the capability to see through high and mid-level

clouds to low level precipitation producing clouds, is used to determine the

position and structure of tropical

cyclones on a global scale. The

AMSU-A1 uses two antenna systems,

providing observations in the twelve

oxygen band channels (3-14) for

retrieving the atmospheric temperature

profile from the Earth's surface to

about 42 km, or from 1000 to 2 mb.

The remaining three channels (1 and 2

from A2 and 15 from A1) aid the

retrieval of temperature soundings by

correction of surface emissivity,

atmospheric liquid water, and total precipitable water. These window channels also provide information on precipitation, sea ice, and snow coverage. 

The Microwave Humidity Sounder

(MHS) is a new instrument for the

NOAA satellites. It is a five-channel

microwave instrument intended primarily to measure profiles of atmospheric

humidity. It is also sensitive to liquid

water in clouds and so measures cloud

liquid water content. Additionally, it

provides qualitative estimates of the

precipitation rate.

The SEM measures solar proton

flux, alpha particle and electron flux

density, and energy spectrum and total

particulate energy distribution at

spacecraft altitudes. The two sensors

included within this instrument are the

Total Energy Detector (TED) and the

Medium Energy Proton and Electron

Detector (MEPED), in addition to a

common data processing unit. This

instrument augments the measurements made by NOAA's geostationary

satellites.

The NOAA-16, NOAA-17, and

NOAA-18 POES carry the Solar

Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument

(SBUV/2). The SBUV/2 instrument is

a non-scanning (fixed nadir viewing)

spectrometer designed to measure

scene radiance and solar spectral irradiance from 160 nanometers to 400

nanometers. Data obtained from the

instrument are used to compute the

amount and vertical distribution of

ozone in the Earth's atmosphere on the

sunlit side of the Earth. Ozone evaluation, calibration, and validation activities took place for the new Solar

Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument

(SBUV/2) with the launch and successful checkout of NOAA-17 & 18.

A new ozone profile retrieval algorithm (Version 8) is under development

at NASA. As soon as it becomes available, NOAA will begin to incorporate

it in its SBUV/2 processing systems.

Monitoring of global ozone will continue with the SBUV/2 instruments on

NOAA-14, NOAA-16, NOAA-17,

NOAA-18, and with the TOVS instruments on NOAA-14, NOAA-15,

NOAA-16, NOAA-17, and NOAA-18.

Experimental ozone products at high

temporal resolution are also being produced from the GOES-8 sounder channels. Monitoring is limited to North

America. Preliminary results show the

GOES total ozone values are comparable to amounts from the Total Ozone

Mapping Spectrometer and groundbased measurements.

The ground system required to

receive large volumes of digital data

from NOAA satellites consists of two

major subsystems: the Polar Acquisition and Control Subsystem (PACS)

and the Central Environmental Satellite Computer System (CEMSCS).

The PACS includes the Wallops, Virginia, and Fairbanks, Alaska, Command and Data Acquisition (CDA) stations and the SOCC at Suitland, Maryland. All the CEMSCS components

are in the NOAA facility at Suitland.

PACS is used to command and control

the spacecraft, monitor its health via

housekeeping telemetry, and retrieve

and transmit the spacecraft environmental data to the CEMSCS processing and data handling facility. The

delivery of NOAA system data from

the CDA to Suitland is accomplished

by using the General Electric American Communications, Inc. commercial

satellite communications network.

This system, which includes Earth stations at Suitland, Wallops, and Fairbanks, delivers the data to SOCC.

These data are immediately passed to

the CEMSCS for processing. The

CEMSCS ingests the raw satellite data

and pre-processes and stores them

along with appended auxiliary information, such as Earth location, calibration, and quality control parameters.

The data processed by the CEMSCS

are used for environmental products

and operational weather predictions

that are disseminated to users throughout the world.

The Argos Data Collection (and

location) Service (DCS) operates on

the NOAA Polar-orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite (POES) constellation and was established through

a Memorandum of Understanding

(MOU) with France in 1974, and
52 DOC SECTION 3 

renewed in 1986. The lead agencies

for this international cooperative

agreement are NOAA and the Centre

National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)

for France. CNES provides for the

development and delivery of the Argos

DCS instrument. NOAA provides

spacecraft integration/launch services,

downloads stored mission data via

NOAA Command Data Acquisition

facilities, and provides pre-processed

data delivery. Data post-processing

and delivery to customers is the

responsibility of CNES, which through

a subsidiary maintains distribution

centers located in Toulouse, France,

and Largo, Maryland.

The Argos DCS is a space-based,

data telemetry system that provides a

global means to locate and collect

environmental data from fixed and

moving, low-power transmitters; i.e.,

polar ice buoys, ocean floats, birds,

mammals, etc., in near, real-time (15

minutes to 3 hours). The Argos DCS

transmits data for operational and

research related environmental applications, e.g., meteorology, oceanography, and protection of the environment, with the majority of users being

government/non-profit agencies and

researchers. Argos DCS customers are

engaged in over 1,000 programs operating approximately 15,000 data collection platforms in 72 countries.

The Argos DCS program will incorporate Argos instruments on other

international satellite platforms as

opportunities permit, such as the European Organization for Exploration of

Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) to fly Argos DCS on the METOP

satellite series (2006-2020). Future

instrument developments include the

incorporation of a downlink message

capability, scheduled to fly on the

Metop-A, NOAA-N' and the National

Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)

constellation (2013-2026). This new

capability, in response to customer

requirements, will provide the opportunity for new and novel uses of the

Argos DCS and allow the user to communicate with deployed platforms in

the field.

GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE

PROGRAM

Two operational geostationary satellites, GOES-12 (75 degrees W) and

GOES-11 (135 degrees W), provide

coverage of virtually the entire western

hemisphere for operational environmental sensing of the Earth. GOES13, formerly GOES-N, was launched

on May 24, 2006. After a successful

checkout, GOES-13 will be stored in

orbit at 105 degrees W. GOES-10

(formerly GOES West) was replaced

by GOES-11 and, at the conclusion of

GOES-13 checkout, will transition to

serve South America in support of

NOAA, the Comisión Nacional de

Activades Espaciales, and the World

Meteorological Organization (WMO)

agreement. The shift of GOES-10 will

help protect lives and property in

North, Central, and South America by

significantly improving satellite detection of severe storms, floods, drought,

landslides, volcanic ash clouds, and

wildfires. The shift will further

strengthen the WMO's World Weather

Watch Global Observing System. It

will allow for improved prediction,

response and follow-up and expanded

understanding of how our Earth system

works. The projected launch schedule

and associated instruments for geostationary satellites are shown in Table

3.1. It should be noted that current

plans as of mid 2006 call for GOES-13

to be placed in storage once checkout

is completed late 2006. GOES-11

replaced GOES-10 in the west in June

2006 and GOES-12 to remain in the

east. GOES-10 will be moved to 60

degrees West in late 2006, to support

the Earth Observation Partnership of

Americas (EOPA) program which is

part of the GEO program.

The GOES satellites host an imager

capable of detecting atmospheric, sea

surface, and land properties in five

spectral bands including the 3.9 μm

and 13.35 μm wavelengths. Beginning

with GOES-12, the 12.0 μm channel

was replaced with a 13.35 μm channel,

with the goal of achieving more accurate cloud height assignments for midand upper-level atmospheric satellite

wind-velocity estimates. This tradeoff notably impacts the sea-surface

temperature retrievals by eliminating

the capability for daytime split-window retrievals, increasing the rms error

by about 0.5 C. Also, the spatial resolution of the water vapor channel is

improved to 4 km from 8 km.

GOES satellites transmit all five

spectral bands simultaneously, providing the user community with continuous views of atmospheric measurements in various wavelengths, each

with its own atmospheric, land, and

ocean application. GOES spacecraft

were designed for flexible scanning of

the Earth; a variety of scans or sector

coverage can be scheduled. For example, the full-Earth disk is normally

scanned once every 3 hours and

requires about 30 minutes to complete

the entire scan. Depending on requirements to monitor environmental hazards on the Earth's surface or in the

atmosphere, 30-minute periods in

between the full-disk scans may be

scheduled as a mixture of 15-minute

intervals (routine operations) or 7.5-

minute interval (severe storm operations) rapid scans over the contiguous

US. To further support mesoscale and

microscale analyses, 1000 km x 1000

km areas can also be scanned at 1-

minute intervals, to capture rapidly

developing and dynamic environmental phenomena..

For GOES 11, the five channels and

respective resolutions are as follows:

• Channel 1 (Visible, .55 m to .75

m) 1 km.

• Channel 2 (Infrared, 3.8 m to 4.0

m) 4 km.

• Channel 3 (Water Vapor, 6.5 m to

7.0 m) 8 km.
SECTION 3 DOC 53

TABLE 3.1 PROJECTED SATELLITE LAUNCH SCHEDULE

POLAR-ORBITING SYSTEM GEOSTATIONARY SYSTEM

Satellite Designator Planned Launch Date* Satellite Designator Planned Launch Date*

NOAA-N CY 2005 GOES N CY 2006

METOP-2 CY 2010 GOES O CY 2008

NPP CY 2010 GOES P CY 2009

NOAA-N’ CY 2007 GOES Q Cancelled

NPOESS-C1 CY 2013 GOES R CY 2012

METOP-1 CY 2006 GOES S CY 2014

NPOESS-C2 CY 2016 MTSAT-1R CY 2005

NPOESS-C3 CY 2018

METOP-3 CY 2015

NPOESS-C4 CY 2020

*Launch date depends on performance of prior spacecraft and is subject to change.

NOAA Instruments for NOAA Polar-Orbiter and METOP Series

AVHRR - Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

SEM - Space Environment Monitor

SBUV - Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument (NOAA PM mission only)

HIRS - High Resolution Infrared Sounder

DCS ARGOS - Data Collection System

AMSU-A - Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-A

AMSU-B - Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-B

SARP - Search and Rescue Processor

SARR - Search and Rescue Repeater

MHS - Microwave Humidity Sounder (NOAA-N/N' and METOP)

Instruments for NPOESS Series

VIIRS - Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite

Microwave Imager/Sounder (to be determined by new competition for C2)

CrIS - Cross-track Infrared Sounder

ATMS - Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder

OMPS - Ozone Mapper/Profiler Suite -Nadir

A/DCS - Advanced Data Collection System

SARSAT - Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking System

CERES - Cloud and Earth Radiant Energy System (to be flown on C1 only)

SEM - Space Environment Monitor

Instruments for GOES-R+ Series

Advanced baseline Imager (ABI)

Hyperspectral Environmental Suite (HES)

Solar Instrument Suite (SEI)

Space Environment In-Situ Suite (SEISS)

Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM)

EUMETSAT Unique Instruments for METOP Series Satellites

ASCAT - Advanced Scatterometer

GOME - Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment

GRAS - GPS Receiver for Atmospheric Sounding

IASI - Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer
54 DOC SECTION 3

• Channel 4 (Infrared, 10.2 m to

11.2 m) 4 km.

• Channel 5 (Infrared, 11.5 m to

12.5 m) 4 km.

For GOES-12/13, the five channels

and respective resolutions are as follows:

• Channel 1 (Visible, .52 m to .71

m) 1 km.

• Channel 2 (Infrared, 3.73 m to

4.07 m) 4 km.

• Channel 3 (Infrared, 13.0 m to

13.7 m) 8 km (4 km starting with

GOES O-P).

• Channel 4 (Infrared, 10.2 m to

11.2 m) 4 km.

• Channel 5 (Water Vapor, 5.8 m to

7.3 m) 4 km.

The GOES sounder instruments,

consisting of 19 spectral channels, are

used for measurements of atmospheric

temperature and moisture profiles, surface and cloud top temperatures, and

ozone distribution. Products derived

from the sounder include precipitable

water and lifted index - a measurement

of atmospheric stability. Comparable

to the imager, the sounder is capable of

providing various scan coverage, such

as full Earth imagery, sectored

imagery, and local imagery. In routine

operations, GOES-12 and GOES-11

provide hourly sounding coverage.

The GOES Space Environment

Monitor (SEM) collects data for warnings of solar activity. This block of

instruments is more extensive than on

POES. The GOES SEM instruments

include X-ray monitors that detect

solar flares, energetic particle sensors,

and three component vector magnetometers to measure changes in the

ambient magnetic field. Real-time

SEM data are used to support operational NOAA and DOD space environment forecasts and alerts. Data from

GOES SEM sensors are archived by

the National Geophysical Data Center

and provided to retrospective users on

line via Internet and on a variety of

computer media.

Starting with GOES-12, a Solar XRay Instrument (SXI) is being flown

that provides near, real-time X-ray

images of the sun for ionospheric

changes that affect radio communications and mangetospheric variations

that induce currents in electrical power

grids and long distance pipelines.

Also, these conditions can cause navigational errors in magnetic guidance

systems, introduce changes in spacecraft charging, produce high energy

particles that can cause single event

upsets in satellite circuitry, and expose

astronauts to increased radiation. The

SXI will observe solar flares, solar

active regions, and coronal structures.

Images from the SXI will be used by

NOAA and U.S. Air Force forecasters

to monitor solar conditions that affect

space weather conditions, including

the dynamic environment of energetic

particles, solar wind streams, and coronal mass ejections emanating from the

sun.

GOES also carries a Data Collection

System (DCS), which is used to collect

and relay environmental data observed

by a variety of remotely located platforms, such as river and tide gauges,

seismometers, buoys, ships, and automatic weather stations. In support of

NOAA missions, GOES DCS data are

used in weather forecasts and warnings, reservoir control, and flood monitoring. While the GOES DCS is a

critical element for national and international meteorological and hydrological programs, the NWS NEXRAD program relies on the DCS data as a vital

input for calibration and validation.

Tsunami watches and warnings for the

Pacific Ocean are prepared using the

Data Collection Platform data transmitted via GOES DCS. The GOES

DCS program touches all aspects of

our lives in supporting water quality,

air pollution, and global environmental

monitoring.

The GOES Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking (SARSAT) System

is capable of providing an immediate

distress alert, unlike the POES satellite

SARSAT transponders which must

come within line of site of a Local

User Terminal, in order to relay the

distress beacon back to the U.S.

SARSAT Mission Control Center

(USMCC). Newer state of the art

COSPAS-SARSAT distress beacons,

utilizing the Global Positioning System (GPS), now have the capability to

provide location information in the distress message relayed by GOES to the

USMCC.

NESDIS continues to improve user

access to its operational satellite products and services using new communications technologies including the

Internet. One important on-line access

system, managed and operated by

OSD is the Comprehensive LargeArray Data Stewardship System

(CLASS). The CLASS

(www.CLASS.noaa.gov) provides

satellite data access, display, and electronic transfer. Available data types

include AVHRR, ATOVS, DMSP (special sensor), and RADARSAT (authorized subscription users). While developed as an independent system, the

Satellite Active Archive (SAA) serves

as NOAA's initial interoperable interface to NASA's Earth Observing System Data and Information System

(EOSDIS). After the phase out of the

GOES TAP system in 1998, many

users now rely on GOES sectorized

images, mapped to standard AWIPS

grids, available in near, real-time at

www.goes.noaa.gov.

Near-real-time images and interpretive analyses of tropical storms and

hurricanes worldwide, ash from volcanic eruptions within the western

hemisphere, heavy precipitation in the

U.S. which cause flash flooding or

blizzards, wild fires and smoke within

the US, and northern hemisphere snow

boundaries are located at

www.ssd.noaa.gov. Specially

enhanced and annotated imagery and

image loops of environmental events,

such as flooding, hurricanes and other

severe storms, volcanic eruptions,
SECTION 3 DOC 55

fires, and dust storms are available

from www.osei.noaa.gov. This web

site was set up for use by the news

media and general public, and to provide once or twice per day satellite

views of an environmental event for

Federal, state, and international governments and agencies. Also supporting the media, scientific organizations,

and Federal and state agencies is a specially designed web site featuring visualizations of satellite data, found at

www.nnvl.noaa.gov/.

INTERNATIONAL AND INTERAGENCY SUPPORT FOR DISASTER

MANAGEMENT

International Charter

NOAA is a member of the International Charter for Space and Major

Disasters. NOAA is represented on the

Executive Secretariat and the Board of

the International Charter and periodically serves as the lead agency providing secretariat services, policy leadership, and Charter activities coordination.

The International Charter aims at

providing a unified system of space

data acquisition and delivery to those

affected by natural or man-made disasters through authorized users. Each

member agency (the European Space

Agency, France's Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, the Indian Space

Research Organisation (ISRO),

NOAA, Argentina's Comisión

Nacional de Actividades Espaciales,

the Japan Aerospace Exploration

Agency (JAXA), USGS, and DMC

International Imaging) has committed

resources to support the provisions of

the Charter and thus is helping to mitigate the effects of disasters on human

life and property. An authorized user

can call a single number to request the

mobilization of the space and associated ground resources of the six space

agencies to obtain data and information on a disaster occurrence.

U.S. Interagency Collaboration

NOAA is a member of the U.S. Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction

(SDR), which provides a unique Federal forum for information sharing;

development of collaborative opportunities; formulation of science and technology based guidance for policy makers; and dialogue with the U.S. policy

community to advance informed

strategies for managing disaster risks.

Last year, the SDR, through the President's National Science and Technology Council, released a report entitled

"Grand Challenges for Disaster

Reduction." This report identifies six

grand challenges for disaster reduction

and provides a framework for prioritizing related Federal investments in science and technology. In December

2005, the SDR released a joint report

with the U.S. Group on Earth Observations, "Tsunami Risk Reduction for the

U.S.: A Framework for Action." The

plan places the President's initiative to

improve domestic warning capabilities

in the context of a broad national

tsunami risk reduction effort and U.S.

participation in international efforts to

reduce tsunami risk worldwide.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS

Recent advances in numerical

weather prediction (NWP) models,

both at NOAA's NCEP and other

major International NWP Centers,

require higher quality satellite-derived

winds, particularly over the traditionally data void oceanic regions of the

globe. The NESDIS GOES East and

West wind processing suites are totally

automated and use a series of geostationary satellite images to derive wind

estimates. The automated winds algorithm uses an objective pattern matching technique to estimate velocity, and

satellite water vapor and infrared

brightness temperature data to assign

heights to these derived wind estimates. The automated quality control

of image registration is also an important component of the NESDIS GOESEast and West winds processing suite.

Approximately 20,000 cloud-drift

and water vapor motion wind vectors

are derived from both satellites for

each cycle and distributed to EMC and

to the Global Telecommunications

System (GTS). EMC uses these operational NESDIS wind products in their

global and regional data assimilation/numerical forecast systems. NESDIS recently completed the effort to

reformat the winds in WMO-sanctioned BUFR format. Current work

involves the investigation of a slow

bias seen in water vapor winds.

The newest satellite wind products

include the low-level high-density visible satellite winds. During the daylight hours, visible channel data can be

used to track cloud motions. The

GOES visible imagery offers high horizontal resolution (1 km) and frequent

image sampling (15-30 minutes nominally; higher in special rapid scan

modes). The visible channel can

depict lower tropospheric cumuliform

tracers in areas not covered by opaque

cirrus. In terms of tropical cyclones,

visible winds can depict the low level

flow in the outer storm vortex region,

which is an important area in assessing

storm motion. The GOES satellites

have an atmospheric sounder that

includes two water vapor channels

centered at 7.0 μm and 7.3 μm. These

sounder channels can be employed as

surrogate imagers to track water vapor

features radiating from the lower layers of the troposphere. The weighting

function of the 7.0 μm channel peaks

around 450 mb and the weighting

function of the 7.3 μm channel peaks

around 550 mb. Water vapor winds

generated from these two channels will

compliment the imager-based clouddrift and water vapor winds, resulting

in an improved three-dimensional

depiction of the wind field. The implementation of these new algorithms and

the visible wind products into the operational environment at NESDIS began

in 1999.
56 DOC SECTION 3 

AVIATION

Aviation applications research

focuses on detection and mitigation of

hazards such as volcanic ash, in-flight

icing, and fog and low ceilings. An

encounter with an airborne volcanic

ash cloud can result in millions of dollars in damage to jet engines and the

airframe, as well as the risk of engine

stalls. Therefore, avoiding these hazards is critical. Remote sensing is the

primary means of identifying and

tracking volcanic ash clouds. In-flight

icing causes significant aerodynamic

drag and 5-10 percent of all fatal air

crashes for smaller, general aviation

and commuter class aircraft. Fog and

low ceilings are a major reason for aviation delays, resulting in >$2B annual

economic loss, and account for about

25 percent of fatal aviation and maritime accidents.

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND

STABILITY PRODUCTS

Research continues to improve the

atmospheric moisture and stability

products from the GOES East and

GOES West sounder instruments. Precipitable water for three layers of the

atmosphere (surface to 900 hPa; 900-

700 hPa; and 700-300 hPa) are computed from the soundings. Total precipitable water (TPW) for the entire

atmospheric column, from the Earth's

surface to the top of the atmosphere, is

also computed. These precipitable

water products are particularly valuable for the short-term forecasting of

precipitation-locating those environments favorable for heavy precipitation and flash floods, thunderstorms,

and fog. Hourly updates of this data

provide useful information for the

EMC regional data assimilation systems and for weather forecasters in the

field. EMC currently uses the GOES

precipitable water retrievals as input to

Eta Data Assimilation System

(EDAS), which provides the initialization for the Eta forecast model. NESDIS is currently aiding EMC with running global and regional model impact

analyses to improve and optimize the

use of the GOES derived products in

numerical weather prediction schemes. 

As of July 8, 2003, the hourly cloud

top information from the GOES

sounder data is being assimilated into

the operational National Centers for

Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Eta

Data Assimilation System (EDAS).

The regional Eta model and the Rapid

Update Cycle (RUC) model both

assimilate GOES sounder cloud information to help improve the initial

moisture and cloud field. In addition

to the moisture products, numerous

atmospheric stability indices can be

computed from measurements made

by the GOES sounder instrument. Two

stability indices, the lifted index (LI)

and CAPE index, are computed on a

routine basis. Since these indices are

produced hourly, sequential images of

these derived quantities clearly show

the diurnal and dynamic changes associated with weather events.

So, in addition to providing these

data to EMC for use in numerical

weather prediction models, the graphical representation of these products

allows for the looping of the products

in time. This capability aids NWS

forecasters in the field to understand

the time evolution of severe storms.

For example, several (lifted index,

total precipitable water, and cloud-top

information, etc.) of these derived

images are operational and sent to the

NWS AWIPS (Advanced Weather

Interactive Processing System) for

forecaster use.

Because channel noise has improved

with each successive sounder instrument, the GOES sounder moisture and

stability products moved from a horizontal resolution of approximately 50

km to be approximately 10 km. The

increased horizontal resolution offers

exciting possibilities for enhanced use

of these products in mesoscale forecasting. For example, the finer resolution improves the depiction of gradients in the retrieved products, such as

moisture and atmospheric stability,

which focuses attention to a local area

of interest. These products can be

viewed at http://www.orbit.

nesdis.noaa.gov/smcd/opdb/goes/soun

dings/index.html#products and

cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/realtime. In

addition, these products are available

from GOES computer servers within

OSDPD or at http://www.ssd.noaa.

gov/PS/PCPN/pcpn-na.html#SNDR.

TROPICAL CYCLONE MONITORING

NESDIS continues to improve upon

satellite-based techniques for estimating tropical cyclone positions and

intensities, and for describing the internal structure of these storms. Recent

sensors, such as AMSU and TRMM,

among others, are being incorporated

into the NESDIS operational tropical

program, which supports the NWS and

DOD hurricane programs. Real-time

imagery and NESDIS tropical text

messages can be viewed at

www.ssd.noaa.gov/SSD/ML/realtime.html. Research is also being performed to improve the forecasts of

tropical cyclone formation and intensity change by making better use of

satellite observations.

PRECIPITATION ESTIMATES

Estimates of precipitation from satellites provide a valuable supplement to

information from radar and rain

gauges. This information is particularly useful for such phenomena as

tropical systems that are still outside

the radar umbrella. For monitoring of

short-term rainfall events, the primary

operational algorithm is the HydroEstimator (H-E), which provides estimates of instantaneous rain rate from

GOES infrared data every 15 minutes

over the CONUS and experimentally

produces estimates worldwide. The HE adjusts its computed rain rates for

moisture availability, sub-cloud evaporation, orographic uplift, and other fac-
SECTION 3 DOC 57

tors using data from operational

numerical weather prediction models

run at NCEP. Another algorithm

approaching operational status is the

GOES Multi-Spectral Rainfall Algorithm (GMSRA), which uses four of

the five GOES Imager channels for

more precise identification of raining

areas. An experimental algorithm

called the Self-Calibrating Multivariate Precipitation Retrieval (SCaMPR)

attempts to combine the relative

strengths of infrared-based and

microwave-based precipitation algorithms to produce a more accurate

result than could be achieved using

GOES data alone. Real-time graphics

of these and other algorithms plus realtime validation statistics are available

at http://www.orbit.nesdis.noaa.gov

/smcd/emb/ff/; in addition, the H-E is

available to NWS field forecasters

once per hour via AWIPS. In the near

future, both the H-E and GMSRA will

be available on AWIPS every 15 minutes, and coverage will be expanded to

Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

In addition to short-term rainfall

monitoring, longer-term precipitation

analyses are created using microwave

data from an improved AMSU-B/MHS

algorithm and the AMSR-E. The

AMSU-B/MHS products, which also

include cloud properties and other

related information, can be obtained at

http://www.osdpd.noaa.gov/PSB/IMA

GES/MSPPS_day2.html. These

include estimates of equivalent snow

water content and discrimination of

falling rain from falling snow. Rainfall

estimates from the DMSP SSM/I

instrument also continue to be produced in cooperation with the U.S. Air

Force and U.S. Navy and can be

accessed at http://www.osdpd.

noaa.gov/PSB/SHARED_PROCESSING/SHARED_PROCESSING.html.

These rainfall products are also used

in direct forecasting applications. The

Hydro-Nowcaster (H-N) extrapolates

H-E estimates forward in time up to 3

hours based on storm cell movement,

and the resulting 0-3 hour nowcasts are

available at http://www.orbit.

nesdis.noaa.gov/smcd/emb/ff/hn.html.

Meanwhile, forecasts for 24-hour rainfall from tropical systems that are

about to make landfall are produced

operationally for the entire globe by

extrapolating microwave-based estimates of rainfall from the (SSM/I,

AMSU-B/MHS, or TRMM

Microwave Imager) along the predicted storm track. These estimates are

available at http://www.ssd.noaa.

gov/PS/TROP/trap-img.html. Efforts

are underway to produce an ensemble

version of TRaP to enhance its accuracy and utility to forecasters.

MICROBURST PRODUCTS

Convective storms can pose serious

threats to life and property. Of great

concern are those storms that produce

downbursts, defined as strong convective downdrafts that result in an outburst of damaging winds on or near the

Earth's surface. In addition, downbursts are a hazard to aircraft in flight,

especially during takeoff and landing

phases. In order to assist the operational forecaster in the prediction of

Figure 3-DOC-6. GOES-12 retrieved total precipitable water products at

approximately 50 km resolution (top) and approximately 10 km resolution (bottom)
58 DOC SECTION 3

this type of hazardous weather event,

GOES sounder-derived microburst

products have been developed and

implemented. These sounder-derived

products include the Wind Index

(WINDEX) for estimating the magnitude of convective wind gusts, a Dry

Microburst Index (DMI) for dry

microburst potential, and Wet

Microburst Severity Index (WMSI) for

wet microburst potential.

The newest product of the suite, the

Hybrid Microburst Index (HMI), indicates the potential for convective

downbursts that develop in an intermediate environment between a wet type,

associated with heavy precipitation,

and a dry type associated with convection in which very little to no precipitation is observed at the surface. For

more information visit

http://www.orbit.nesdis.noaa.gov/star/

Pryor_K.php. 

AIRCRAFT ICING

Several upgrades to the GOES aircraft icing product have been implemented. New thresholds for the Band

2-4 (3.9-10.7 micrometer) brightness

temperature difference versus visible

brightness count corrected for solar

zenith angle were employed in September 2003, followed by inclusion of

cloud top heights from the GOES

Sounder Cloud Top Product in February 2004. The latter combination,

referred to as ICECAP (Icing

Enhanced Cloud-top Altitude Product),

was made available on the Web in February 2004. Finally, a correction to

reduce the over-detection of icing

caused by thin cirrus was employed in

September 2004, based on a technique

that uses Bands 4-6 (10.7-13.3

micrometers). Probability of detection

(determined from the NOAA Forecast

Systems Laboratory's Real-Time Verification System) is now consistently in

the 55-70 percent range for the Continental U.S.

FOG AND LOW CLOUDS

GOES-12 visible and IR data for a

case of sea fog over the northeast U.S.

in June 2003, was analyzed to determine if the fog could be discriminated

objectively from other cloud types.

The results were provided to the NWS

Meteorological Development Laboratory, which is developing objective sea

fog forecasting techniques using surface, model, and satellite data.

Figure 3-DOC-7. Tropical Rainfall Potential (TRaP) forecast for Hurricane Katrina (top) and corresponding Stage IV radar/rain gauge estimates (bottom) for the

24 hours ending 0000 UTC 30 August 2005. Data over the western portion of

the Stage IV image are missing due to storm-related communications outages at

the Lower Mississippi River Forecast Center (LMRFC) where that region's Stage

IV estimates were produced.
SECTION 3 DOC 59

GEOSTATIONARY SEA SURFACE

TEMPERATURES

GOES-12 and GOES-11 are capable

of producing sea surface temperatures

(SST) over most of the Western Hemisphere nearly continuously. The accuracy and spatial resolution achieved

with the GOES measurements are

close to that achieved from the polar

orbiting platforms, and GOES has a

unique advantage of high temporal

sampling frequency. Unfortunately,

the trade-off of replacing the 12.0 μm

channel with a 13.3 μm channel

notably impacts the SST retrievals by

eliminating the capability for daytime

split-window retrievals, increasing the

rms error by about 0.5 C. For the SST

determination, the frequent sampling

by GOES makes a more complete map

of SST possible after clouds have

moved on. Additionally, a change in

scene temperature over a short period

of time may indicate the presence of

clouds, thereby enhancing cloud detection.

The abundance of GOES observations helps to maintain a balance

between high-quality, cloud-free

observations and good geographical

coverage of SST estimates. GOES is

enabling quantification of the diurnal

variation of a radiometrically determined SST over large areas and long

time periods. This quantification may

have important implications in both

numerical weather prediction and climate monitoring. NESDIS has been

producing the GOES SST hourly in an

experimental configuration since

December 1998, from both GOES East

and GOES West. A global SST product is produced every three hours;

regional SST products are generated

every hour. These products were

recently implemented operationally

and can be accessed as digital files

from the GOES computer servers

within OSDPD.

VOLCANIC ASH

A new technique has been developed

to mitigate the loss of the 12 μm IR

band on GOES-12 to help track hazardous volcanic ash clouds. The technique uses IR channels centered at

10.7, 13.3, and 3.9 μm. Several recent

eruptions of Soufriere Hill's volcano

on Montserrat Island in the eastern

Caribbean have shown that this new

product is helpful in monitoring ash

cloud emissions even at night. GOES12 ash product can be viewed for several volcanically active regions at

http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/. The

analysis of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data

from the NASA Terra and Aqua spacecraft has also yielded valuable information about optimum detection of

volcanic ash using several spectral

bands. A three-channel combination

product based on the 8.6, 11, and 12

μm bands has been developed that provides effective discrimination of ash or

sulfur dioxide gas with minimal false

alarms. This algorithm could be

applied to future products from

NPOESS and GOES-R, which will

have similar spectral bands. Volcanic

Figure 3-DOC-8. An Example of the GOES HMI Product.

Figure 3-DOC-9. Comparison of GOES Sounder Band 9 minus Band 10 (left)

versus the SO2 Index from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)

instrument (right) on July 13, 2003 are shown for the indicated times. The SO2

cloud was emitted from an eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat

(located shown in bottom of right hand image) that began around 0600 UTC,

July 13, 2003.
60 DOC SECTION 3 

Ash Advisories (VAA) with associated

Volcanic Ash Graphics (VAG) and ash

forecasts are provided by NESDIS to

the aviation community. The region of

coverage is the continental U.S., Central America, northern South America

to 10 degrees S, the Caribbean region,

the Pacific Ocean south of Alaska and

the Aleutians Islands, and, to the east

of Japan, the Marianas Islands. The

Volcanic Ash Advisory Center

(VAAC) is located in Camp Spring,

Maryland. GOES infrared and visible

images, aerosol and sulfur dioxide

products from NASA's Total Ozone

Mapping Spectrometer (when applicable), and operational volcanic ash

products for the Washington VAAC

area of responsibility can be found at

http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/washington.html.

In addition to current operational

products for volcanic ash, research into

new and improved ways to detect volcanic ash are ongoing. Relevant bands

from experimental multi-spectral and

hyper-spectral satellite instruments,

especially those spectral bands scheduled to be on future operational satellites, are being probed in the development of new products for the detection

of volcanic ash. That is in addition to

the improved spatial, temporal, and

radiometric resolution offered by nextgeneration satellites.

FIRE MONITORING

Geostationary and polar-orbiting

meteorological and environmental

research satellites have been used to

detect and monitor large active wildfires for over 20 years. Early work

using the NOAA-6 AVHRR demonstrated how the different brightness

temperature responses between the

shortwave infrared (SWIR at 3.74 μm)

and the long wave infrared window

(LWIR at 10.8 μm) bands can be used

to locate fires and estimate fire characteristics (e.g., instantaneous sub-pixel

fire size and temperature). Since then

algorithms have been developed at

NOAA, NASA, and the Cooperative

Institutes (UW-Madison - CIMSS,

Colorado State University - CIRA) to

utilize NOAA operational satellites

(GOES Imager, POES AVHRR),

research satellites (EOS MODIS,

TRMM, ATSR, etc.), and defense

satellites (DMSP OLS) to identify and

monitor fires in near, real-time. In the

mid-latitudes polar orbiting instruments (EOS-MODIS, POES AVHRR)

provide several observations of a given

region each day with more frequent

observations near the poles. In routine

mode the GOES Imager allows for fire

monitoring every 15 minutes over

CONUS and half-hourly throughout

the rest of North, Central, and South

America. Plans are underway to provide GOES Rapid Scan fire data every

few minutes when available.

Since 2002, the NOAA NESDIS

Satellite Service Division has provided

fire products on-line via the Hazard

Mapping System (HMS)

(http://www.firedetect.noaa.gov). The

HMS is an operational interactive processing system that integrates fire

products from seven different sensors

on NOAA (POES AVHRR, GOES

Imager, DMSP OLS) and NASA (EOS

MODIS) satellites to produce fire and

smoke product analyses for the U.S.

and parts of Canada and Mexico.

Automated algorithms including the

MODIS Fire and Thermal Anomalies

team algorithm, the GOES Wildfire

Automated Biomass Burning Algorithm (WF_ABBA), the AVHRR Fire

Identification Mapping and Monitoring Algorithm (FIMMA), and the

DMSP OLS algorithm are used to generate the fire products while smoke is

delineated by an image analyst. Analyses are quality controlled by an analyst

who inspects all available imagery and

Figure 3-DOC-10. Example of an Icing Enhanced Cloud-top Altitude Product

(ICECAP) image is shown, valid at 1700 UTC, on February 17, 2004. Areas of

potential icing are color-coded in intervals of 6,000 ft to show maximum cloud

top altitude. Pilot reports of icing are superimposed showing: numerical icing

intensity (0 to 5), aircraft type, and altitude in feet. Severe icing (code 5) at 8,000

ft was reported in eastern Tennessee within two hours of the GOES product.

Some icing (such as that shown in northwest U. S.) is obscured by high cloud

layers and cannot be detected.
SECTION 3 DOC 61

automated fire detects, deleting suspected false detects and adding fires

that the automated routines miss.

Graphical, text, and GIS compatible

analyses are posted to the HMS web

site. All products are archived at

NOAA's National Geophysical Data

Center (http://map.ngdc.noaa.gov/

website/firedetects).

Over the past 10 years, the use of

these satellite derived fire products has

grown appreciably with applications in

hazards monitoring, fire weather forecasting, climate change, emissions

monitoring, aerosol and trace gas

transport modeling, air quality, and

land-use and land-cover change detection. The user community includes

government agencies (such as NOAA,

NASA, EPA, and USFS), resource and

emergency managers, fire managers,

international policy and decision makers, educational institutions, and the

general public. At NOAA's National

Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL)

Storm Prediction Center (SPC) GOES

WF_ABBA fire products provided by

UW-Madison CIMSS are used in fire

weather forecasting. The SPC Fire

Weather Analysis Page

(http://www.spc.noaa.gov/exper/firecom) integrates the GOES WF_ABBA

fire product with other meteorological

data and fire weather and danger

indices (Haines, SPC LASI, Fosberg

Index, etc.) to provide an overview of

existing fires and fire danger in the

continental U.S.. Since 2000, the

Naval Research Laboratory in Monterey (NRL - Monterey) has been

assimilating the GOES WF_ABBA

and MODIS fire products (as of 2003)

into the NRL Aerosol Analysis and

Prediction System (NAAPS) in near,

real-time to both monitor and predict

aerosol loading and subsequent transport around the world

(http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/flambe/in

dex.html). In Brazil, INPE/CPTEC

has been assimilating the data into

their air quality/transport models in

real-time for several years

(http://tucupi.cptec.inpe.br/meio_ambi

ente/).

Current research includes the development and implementation of a near,,

real-time operational global geostationary fire monitoring network to

monitor fires as they occur and capture

the diurnal signature around the globe.

Initially the GOES WF_ABBA is

being adapted to Meteosat-8 and

MTSAT-1R. Plans are underway to

eventually adapt the WF_ABBA to

FY-2C SVISSR (China), INSAT-3D

(India), and the GOMS Electro N2

(Russia). This suite of geostationary

sensors will enable nearly global geostationary fire monitoring with significant regions of overlap in Asia. Future

activities include better utilization of

current systems and long-term plans

that ensure the capability to derive

similar or improved and enhanced fire

products with next generation operational polar-orbiting (NPOESS,

Metop) and geostationary (GOES-R,

MTG) series.

AIR QUALITY PRODUCTS

Since their inception, NOAA operational satellites have been monitoring

the Earth's environment (e.g., Antarctic

ozone hole) and climate (e.g., stratospheric ozone trends). While the need

for this information continues to be

met, NOAA's mission has expanded to

include monitoring and forecasting air

quality. Continuing detrimental

impacts of air pollution (ozone and

PM2.5) on human health and the economy led the U.S. Congress to issue

various mandates to the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) and NOAA

to combat and mitigate pollution (e.g.,

H.R.4. Energy Policy Act of 2002,

Senate Amendment). To meet the

mandates, NOAA and EPA signed a

Memorandum of Understanding

(MOU) and a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) in 2003.

The MOU calls for developing and

deploying an operational air quality

forecast system capable of issuing

nationwide hourly air quality forecasts

of ozone by 2007, and PM2.5 (particles smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter)

by 2014. The NOAA/NWS has begun

issuing operational ozone forecasts and

experimental PM2.5 forecasts in the

northeast in 2004, using the EtaCMAQ (Community Multiscale Air

Quality Modeling) system.

The MOA calls for cooperation in air

quality research between NOAA and

EPA by developing methods for using

observations to improve predictions of

air quality. NESDIS has begun supporting the MOA by providing

near,real-time data such as ozone and

aerosols to the NWS for operational air

quality and UV Index forecasting

applications.

The assimilation of satellite measurements of physical parameters (e.g.,

observations of temperature and moisture) into numerical weather prediction

models to improve weather forecasts

has grown tremendously in the last two

decades and has proven to have a positive impact on weather forecasts.

Satellite chemical data assimilation, on

the other hand, is still in its infancy,

especially since both operational air

quality forecast systems and satellite

sensor technology capable of measuring boundary layer pollutants are still

evolving. While the ability to measure

various tropospheric pollutants at the

desired spatial resolution, temporal

resolution, and accuracy remains a

challenge, the need to exploit the

measurements from current and soonto-be launched sensors to monitor and

improve air quality forecasting is

imminent. NOAA/NESDIS is actively

involved in using research satellite

data (e.g., EOS Aura OMI and

Aqua/Terra MODIS) to demonstrate

the capabilities of enhanced sensors

and prepare NOAA and its users for

IJPS, NPOESS, and GOES-R datasets. 

EUMETSAT is launching the GOME2 and IASI instruments, which are

capable of measuring trace gases and

aerosols, into a polar orbit with 9:30
62 DOC SECTION 3 

A.M. equator crossing time. Products

from these instruments are available to

NOAA. NPOESS will have OMPS

and CrIS sensors with similar capabilities and will fly with a 1:30 P.M. equator crossing time. The IJPS (~2006

and beyond) and NPP/NPOESS

(~2009 and beyond) systems are

expected to provide continuous monitoring of trace gases and aerosols into

the 2020s.

Together, these sensors will have a

capability to measure tropospheric column amounts of trace gases (ozone,

nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde, sulfur

dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc.) in

addition to aerosol products at spatial

resolutions similar to forecast models.

Routine observations on such high spatial and temporal scales cannot be

matched by any ground observations

and are critical for monitoring and

assimilation applications.

NOAA/NESDIS is currently developing GOME-2 ozone products for

near,real-time dissemination to users

(Table 3.2).

The ABI and the HES instruments on

the next generation Geostationary

Environmental Operational Satellite

(GOES), Series R, will provide

unprecedented information on air quality. Plans are currently underway to

develop various air quality products

for the Americas at temporal resolution

ranging from 5 to 60 minutes for the

imager and sounder respectively.

These products are expected to become

operational after the launch of GOESR in 2013 (Table 3.3).

CURRENT PRODUCTS AND

APPLICATIONS

Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD). Satellite measured AOD has been shown to

be a good proxy for pollution monitoring especially when long-range transport is involved. NESDIS/STAR has

been providing to its users GOES AOD

product in near, real-time since 2003.

This product is available at 30-minute

intervals and 4 km × 4 km spatial resolution during the sunlit portion of the

day. EPA and NWS have been using

the product for monitoring and forecasting applications.

Emissions. Emissions from both natural and anthropogenic sources contribute to poor air quality. Biomass

burning (prescribed and wild fires)

release huge amounts of smoke (primary particulates dominated by black

carbon) and trace gases into the atmosphere. Power plants, oil refineries, and

other industrial sources release NO2

(nitrogen dioxide), H2CO (formaldehyde), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), and other

organic compounds leading to poor air

quality as well. The EPA compiles a

National Emissions Inventory (NEI)

every year for a number of critical

environmental management and policy

activities such as tracking the Clean

Air Act and Clean Air Interstate Rule.

Emissions data are used to determine

trends over time as well as to initialize

air quality forecast models. One of the

primary sources of uncertainty in air

Figure 3-DOC-11. Shows mean bias between satellite measured aerosol optical

depth and NWS experimental forecast during July 15 - August 15, 2004.

Figure 3-DOC-12. Annual PM2.5 emissions for 2003 from biomass burning

events as observed by GOES-12 Imager
SECTION 3 DOC 63

TABLE 3.2 TRACE GAS AND AEROSOL PRODUCTS FROM

OPERATIONAL POLAR-ORBITING SATELLITES
64 DOC SECTION 3 

TABLE 3.3 GOES-R BANDS AND PRODUCTS
SECTION 3 DOC 65

quality forecasts comes from the

uncertainties in these emissions. NESDIS/STAR developed algorithms to

derive emissions of PM2.5 and trace

gases from biomass burning. These

products will be provided to NWS in

near, real-time for assimilation into air

quality forecasting models.

3D Air Quality Mapping System.

Satellite data have been very useful in

diagnosing long range transport, primarily because this occurs in free troposphere and is more easily detected

by satellites. NOAA is interested in

the issue of entrainment of pollutants

transported from long distances into

the boundary layer and the impact on

local air quality. NASA launched

CALIPSO in April 2006, which has a

Lidar on board that can detect tropospheric vertical profiles of aerosol

backscatter ratio. These measurements

combined with column aerosol optical

depth retrievals will become very valuable in providing a three-dimensional

look at pollution plumes. Additionally,

integrating data from multiple sensors

will optimize the information on

aerosol type, location in space (horizontal and vertical scale), and time

(GOES aerosol observations have a

refresh rate of 30 minutes). Satellite

Meteorology and Climatology Division (SMCD) scientists are co-investigators of the NASA funded 3D Air

Quality System project which will

investigate combining information

from various sensors to build 3D air

quality measures that can be applied to

studying linkages between human

health and air quality.

Numerical Modeling. The NWS has

already begun issuing ozone forecasts

for the northeast and conducting experimental PM2.5 forecasts. They currently use the Eta-CMAQ modeling

system and will soon migrate to the

WRF (Weather and Research Forecast)

model with integrated meteorology

and chemistry. Primary sources of

uncertainties in model forecasts are

from uncertainties in initial/boundary

conditions and emissions. Satellite

data, when assimilated into the models,

have the potential to improve forecasts

by providing initial/boundary conditions and constraining emissions. In

situ data collected during field campaigns will be very useful in verifying

the forecasts and diagnosing various

sources of uncertainties in both models

and satellite data. Chemical data

assimilation is in its infancy; only

ozone has been successfully assimilated and demonstrated to have an

impact on surface ozone. Methodologies to assimilate other trace gases

(e.g., NO2) and aerosols in an operational forecast mode are yet to be

developed.

Other Applications. Measurements of

trace gases and aerosols from a geostationary platform bring about unique

applications due to their high temporal

sampling. For example, a total ozone

product available at an hourly refresh

rate from GOES-R will be a very useful product for the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) to monitor clear

air turbulence. Similarly, an ability to

monitor signatures of dust loading,

type, and vertical location provides

unprecedented information for air

quality and climate applications. The

ability to distinguish between different

aerosol types is extremely important

for air quality monitoring and forecasting applications. GOES-R trace gas

retrievals such as O3, CO, CH4, CO2

are expected to serve the needs of air

quality, climate, and health community

from a monitoring and modeling perspective.

While the currently used ozone data

in the models and monitoring come

from polar-orbiting satellite sensors,

the capability of geostationary satellites to provide synoptic ozone measurements on similar time and spatial

scales as existing operational air quality models and surface networks is

essential for proper characterization of

ozone in the troposphere. Specifically

there is a need for this data from geostationary satellites because hourly

measurements:

• Provide more cloud-free data

which are necessary for providing constraints on tropospheric ozone and are

essential for the EPA to understand

relationship between tropospheric column ozone and observed surface ozone

from ground monitors under varying

meteorological conditions.

• Reduce aliasing of synoptic scale

transport patterns relative to polarorbiting sensors, which is essential for

capturing upper tropospheric ozone

variations associated with folding

events.

• Are essential for the EPA to monitor diurnal changes.

• Are needed for surface energy flux

algorithms, photolysis rate calculations

in air quality models, and other similar

applications (specifically total ozone

measurements).

Atmospheric Winds. Atmospheric

motion vectors (AMVs) derived from a

sequence of satellite images are an

important source of global wind information, particularly over the world's

oceans and more remote continental

areas where conventional weather

observations are lacking in time and

space. These data are routinely used

by the major Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) centers in the world and

assimilated into regional and global

NWP prediction models. These data

are also made available to NWS forecasters responsible for providing the

public with day-to-day weather forecasts. In addition, these products are

distributed over the Global Telecommunication System (GTS) and the

NWS Advanced Weather Interactive

Processing System (AWIPS).

AMVs are typically derived from the

GOES imagery providing coverage

from approximately 60 degrees S to 60

degrees N. The current operational

GOES wind products include infrared

(IR) cloud-drift winds, water vapor

(WV) motion winds, and visible (VIS)

cloud-drift winds. Figure 3-DOC-12
66 DOC SECTION 3 

shows an example of GOES-12 clouddrift and water vapor winds around

Hurricane Ivan at 18Z on September

13, 2004.

The capability to derive AMVs from

measurements made by the Moderate

Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

(MODIS) instruments aboard the

polar-orbiting Terra and Aqua satellites

was first developed at the Cooperative

Institute for Meteorological Satellite

Studies (CIMSS) and is based upon

established methodologies and algorithms used to derive wind observations from the GOES series of satellites. MODIS cloud-drift and water

vapor wind observations from Terra

and Aqua provide unprecedented coverage in the polar regions of the globe,

areas where wind observations are

sorely lacking. Figure 3-DOC-13

shows an example of the MODIS

water vapor motion wind products in

the Northern Hemisphere polar region. 

In 2004, the MODIS winds capability was integrated within the existing

operational NESDIS winds processing

system. Significant modifications

made to the algorithms included targeting from the middle image in the

image triplet and using the National

Centers for Environmental Prediction's

(NCEP's) global forecast model grids

as the first guess in the MODIS winds

processing scheme. Targeting from the

middle image in the image sequence

had a significant impact on the pattern

recognition/feature tracking process,

which significantly improved the quality of the MODIS wind products.

Experimental, near, real-time production of MODIS winds from Terra and

Aqua was established at NESDIS and

product datasets made available to the

NWP user community. Near, real-time

experimental MODIS wind products

from Aqua and Terra were generated,

distributed, and archived in support of

two MODIS Winds Special Acquisition Periods (MOWSAPs) aimed at

providing MODIS wind products to

numerous NWP centers for subsequent

model impact studies. MOWSAP-I

covered November 5, 2003, to December 31, 2003, and MOWSAP-II covered July 5, 2004, to August 23, 2004. 

NWP centers involved in assessing

the MODIS winds during MOWSAP

included: NWS/NCEP, European Center for Medium Range Weather ForeFigure 3-DOC-13. GOES-12 cloud-drift and water vapor winds around Hurricane Ivan at 18Z on September 13, 2004 overlaid on composite, true color image

generated from multiple GOES imager channels.

Figure 3-DOC-14. MODIS water vapor motion winds over the Northern Hemisphere polar region.
SECTION 3 DOC 67

casting (ECMWF), United Kingdom

Meteorological (UKMET) Office,

Canadien Meteorological Center

(CMC), the German Weather Service,

and NASA's Global Modeling Assimilation Office (GMAO). Forecast

impact results from all NWP centers

involved in the MOWSAP test periods

showed that the MODIS wind products

have a significant positive impact on

forecast accuracy in the Arctic and

Antarctic, as well as in the extra-tropics of both the Northern and Southern

Hemispheres. Given the positive forecast impact results, the MODIS winds

capability was transitioned to

OSDPD/Satellite Services Division

(SSD) where they routinely provide

MODIS AMVs to the NESDIS user

community.

Areas of active AMV research

include: upgrades to the MODIS AMV

processing, improved quality control

of AMVs, investigating optical flow

approaches to the problem of feature

tracking, and the derivation of AMVs

from rapid scan GOES imagery.

In the U.S., GOES has been used in

operational forecasting for quite some

time. Forecasters recognize the additional detail that can be captured from

more frequent imaging in events associated with rapidly changing cloud

structures. The value of more frequent

imaging is demonstrated by the inclusion of a 15-minute update cycle over

the Continental United States

(CONUS) sector in the current GOES

schedule and by the multitude of special NWS operational requests for

more frequent sampling at 7.5 minute

intervals (Rapid-Scan Operations,

RISOP). On occasion, special periods

of Super-Rapid-Scan Operations

(SRSO) have been requested by the

research community. The SRSO allow

limited-area coverage of one-minute

interval sampling over meteorological

events of interest.

Recently, special GOES RISOP periods have been collected during several

field programs and research initiatives

designed to maximize observational

abilities in regions of high-impact

weather events. Some examples

include the NASA Tropical Cloud Systems Program (TCSP), the Atlantic

Thorpex Regional Campaign

(ATReC), and the TROpical Predictability EXperiment (TROPEX). In

ATReC and TCSP, the datasets were

used in real-time in mission planning

and/or directing aircraft to targets of

opportunity. In TROPEX, the datasets

will be used in targeted observing

strategy experiments run by modelers

at the Naval Research Laboratory. In

all three cases, the enhanced datasets

are expected to be employed in case

study analyses and numerical model

impact studies.

Integrated Cal/Val Enterprise System.

The users of numerical weather predictions require accurate calibration of

satellite measurements. For satellite

measurements having anomalies in

radiances and/or large systematic

biases, the data will be rejected during

the data assimilation stage. It is also

very difficult to use the satellite observations that are not quantified for their

measurement precision. For climate

studies, satellite instruments must be

capable of measuring Earth system

variables at high accuracy and stability

over decadal (and ultimately, centennial) time scales. During a calibration

workshop organized by NIST, NOAA,

NPOESS-IPO, and NASA in November 2002, accuracy and long-term stability objectives for satellite measurement were established. The final

report of the workshop defines the

required absolute accuracies and longterm stabilities of global climate data

sets, and it translates the data set accuracies and stabilities into the required

satellite instrument accuracies and stabilities (e.g., for troposphere atmospheric temperatures, the measurement

accuracy is 0.5 K and stability is 0.04

K/decade; for surface albedo measurement, the accuracy is 0.01 and stability

is 0.002 K/decade). Those requirements pose tremendous challenges to

the post launch calibration of satellite

sensors.

NESDIS/STAR has an excellent

track-record in supporting the operational calibration of radiometers on

polar-orbiting environmental satellites,

transferring research results to operations and performing advanced

research in satellite instrument calibration. In addition to our heritage in onboard and vicarious calibration, in

recent years we have developed many

additional components such as intersatellite calibration, on-orbit and

prelaunch instrument characterization,

and the incorporation of radiative

transfer model calculations.

STAR also plays an important role in

re-calibrating historical data to support

climate studies, through the scientific

data stewardship program. In recent

years, STAR has developed comprehensive calibration/validation capabilities which are being incorporated into

the Integrated Calibration and Validation enterprise System (ICVS). The

vital components of the ICVS include

prelaunch and on-orbit quantification

of satellite instrument noise and online performance monitoring; linear

and non-linear thermal calibration; onboard ultra-violet (UV), vicarious visible and near-infrared calibration; independent verification of radiances

through inter- and intra-satellite calibration; and radiative transfer calculations to isolate biases and anomalous

contributors to the biases. Today, we

can quantify the on-orbit instrument

noise and biases with little ambiguity,

significantly reducing the uncertainties

for the data users in direct radiance

assimilation in numerical weather prediction, physical retrievals, and climate

monitoring and reanalysis.

With the ICVS framework, STAR is

now in an excellent position for leading and coordinating the WMO Global

Space-based Intercalibration Calibration System (GSICS). The GSICS is to

integrate observations and products
68 DOC SECTION 3 

from different satellite systems

through intercalibration. The intercalibration can quantitatively relate the

radiances from different sensors viewing the same target and allow consistent measurements to be taken over the

globe by all elements of the spacebased observing system. Without

inter-calibration of the space-based

component of the World Weather

Watch (WWW) Global Observing System and of GEOSS, the full benefit of

the observations will not be realized

for the environmental data stewardship.

During the 2005 hurricane season,

the ICVS was first applied for NOAA18 on-orbit verification and led to an

early delivery (45 days after NOAA-18

launch) of high quality satellite observations for uses in NOAA computerized models that significantly improve

the accuracy and extend the range of

weather prediction for severe storms

such as hurricane track, wind damage,

and surface flooding. This results in an

overall savings equivalent to 2.5 percent of the total cost of the satellite

with a lifespan of 5 years (~200 million dollars) or ~5 million dollars.

With the ICVS, STAR scientists are

able to provide an accurate analysis of

the root cause of the NOAA-18

HIRS/4 anomaly and provide mitigation strategies for containing the noise

and reducing the risk for future

Figure 3-DOC-15. NOAA’s Integrated Satellite Instrument Calibration/Validation System.

Figure 3-DOC-16. ICVS was first applied for NOAA-18 on-orbit verification.
SECTION 3 DOC 69

launches (see Figures 11 and 12).

The ICVS is also providing a rootcause analysis and diagnostics for

DMSP Special Sensor Microwave

Imager and Sounder (SSMIS) radiance

anomalies. The SSMIS is the first conically-scanning microwave instrument

that measures the Earth's radiation

from 19 to 183 GHz and presumably

provides improved atmospheric temperature and water vapor sounding

under all weather conditions. It is a

key sensor for NPOESS risk reduction

studies. Unfortunately, the main

reflector from the SSMIS antenna subsystem emits some radiation and contaminates the Earth scene signals. In

addition, the warm calibration target is

intruded by direct solar radiation and

other stray lights, producing anomalous calibration counts in several latitudinal zones. These contamination

sources cause anomalies in SSMIS

radiances in Temperature Data

Records (TDR) and Sensor Data

Records (SDR), which change with

latitude and season. As part of the

ICVS, the SSMIS anomaly distributions (locations and magnitudes) are

detected and corrected during the calibration process. Therefore, the SSMIS

data after the NOAA recalibration and

processing is of improved quality for

operational applications in weather and

climate models (see Figure 3-DOC17).

NPP/NPOESS Sensor Calibration,

Product Developments, Enhancement,

and Validation. STAR scientists continue to play an important role in the

evaluation of NPOESS contractor sensor design and retrieval methods. This

group provides the end-to-end support

to NPOESS program from instrument

calibration to product validation and

applications. STAR scientists have

also been participating in NPOESS

operational algorithm teams (OAT)

and all phases of the NPOESS sensor

calibration process to assure that radiometric performance of NPP/NPOESS

instruments will meet the scientific

needs of NOAA and other agencies.

STAR scientists have also been providing significant technical support to

the prelaunch calibration of major

NPOESS instruments in the last few

years. As early as 2001, STAR scientists contributed to the technical design

of the several major NPOESS instruments and supported the investigation

of prelaunch calibration issues using

comparisons with current POES instruments and evaluating how they affect

the calibration traceability between

POES and NPOESS. Currently, STAR

is providing technical examination of

the calibration accuracy, NE T, and

nonlinearity for several instruments

such as ATMS.

In the NPOESS post-launch calibration, STAR will focus on the characterization of on-orbit instrument noise

and biases of all NPOESS instruments

using the STAR integrated cal/val

enterprise system and develop an online instrument performance trending

system that monitors a selected number of key parameters.

It is critical to the NPOESS program

and to the scientific community at

large that the contractor scientific algorithms are assessed independently during the pre-launch phase so that potential corrective measures are taken

early, avoiding sub-optimal results

later in the process and/or delays in

delivering the real-time data to weather

centers and other customers after

launch has occurred. STAR scientists

have proposed a vigorous assessment

of radiometric and geophysical performances of NPP/NPOESS instruments, in both pre-launch and postlaunch stages. Further assessments

will be made to check the robustness

and the timing requirements for an

operational use.

The contractor algorithms are being

extensively compared in simulation

and with real data, with operational

products developed by STAR from

EOS, POES and DMSP platforms.

STAR is a center with various proxy

data sets and testbeds through simulations and real measurements for

NPOESS instruments. NPOESS contractor algorithms are now being run at

the STAR systems and assessed with

the proxy data. Since the STAR team

have dual experience with both the

contractor algorithms and in the operational algorithms running at NOAA,

there have been rapid advances in the

assessment of the contractor's algorithms performances.

NPOESS "test bed" data sets. STAR

scientists continue to play an important

role in the evaluation of proposed contractor sensor design and retrieval

Figure 3-DOC-17. SSMIS anomaly distributions (locations and magnitudes)

are detected and corrected during the calibration process.
70 DOC SECTION 3 

methods during the ongoing selection

process for NPOESS. STAR scientists

have created a variety of test bed data

sets that are being used in the algorithm evaluation process. This is

accomplished through participation in

operational algorithm teams with the

long-term goals of assuring capability

to meet the requirements of all Environmental Data Records. Ozone evaluation, calibration, and validation

activities took place for the new Solar

Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument

(SBUV/2) with the launch and successful checkout of NOAA-17. A new

ozone profile retrieval algorithm has

been developed by NASA and is now

incorporated into SBUV/2 processing

systems. Monitoring of global ozone

will continue with the SBUV/2 instruments on NOAA-14, NOAA-16

NOAA-17, and NOAA-18 and with

the TOVS instruments on NOAA-14,

NOAA-15, NOAA-16, NOAA-17 and

NOAA-18. Experimental high temporal ozone products are also being produced from the GOES-12 sounder

channels. Monitoring is limited to

North America. Preliminary results

show the GOES values are comparable

to amounts from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer and ground-based

measurements.

Land Surface Parameters for Use in

Weather Forecast Models. Satellitederived fields of land surface characteristics are being produced operationally for use in NWP models. These

include radiation products delivered in

near, real-time as forcing variables;

surface characteristics, such as fractional green vegetation and albedo,

that specify model lower boundary

conditions; and validation quantities,

such as surface temperature. These

products are meant to help the NWP

models maintain better soil moisture

fields which in turn results in better

near surface temperature and humidity

forecasts, and better precipitation forecasts. These fields now include POESbased (SSM/I and AMSU) estimates of

surface emissivity, snow cover, sea-ice

extent and concentration, land surface

skin temperature, and soil wetness.

Development of snow depth is underway. Plans are in the making to

develop the AMSU-A Snow Water

Equivalent (SWE) product for operational use. Forward models for surface

emissivity at various microwave frequencies have been developed and are

being tested in the forecast models.

Algorithms to determine clear sky ice

surface temperatures have been developed and delivered to Atmospheric

Environment Service, Canada for evaluation. New techniques such as automatic edge detection and incorporation

of new sensors such as AMSU and

NASA's MODIS are in development to

improve operational production of

daily snow and ice extent products.

These products are delivered as digital

files to NWP models and to the NWS

Climate Prediction Center and other

users. Graphical imagery of operational northern hemispheric snow

cover can be found on the Internet at

www.ssd.noaa.gov/SSD/ML/realtime.html #SNOW.

Clouds from AVHRR. Within STAR,

methods to derive information on

cloudiness have been developed and

applied to data from the AVHRR. The

Clouds from AVHRR Extended

(CLAVR-x) system runs within NESDIS and provides information on cloud

detection, cloud thermodynamic type,

cloud height, cloud opacity and cloud

particle size. These products are made

at the native AVHRR resolution (1 or 4

km) and are also produced on a global

map with a resolution of 55 km. The

cloud products from AVHRR have

been demonstrated to be consistent

with those from more advanced

imagers such as MODIS. The AVHRR

cloud products are used to verify NWP

cloud parameterizations and the

AVHRR cloud detection results are

used by AVHRR applications that

require cloud-free data.

Given its long record (1981-2006)

and uniform set of observations, the

AVHRR provides a unique data-set for

satellite climate studies. In recognition

of this, STAR has embarked on a project to generate a new cloud climatology from the AVHRR. The AVHRR

Pathfinder Atmospheres Extended

(PATMOS-x) is the successor to the

PATMOS project. Unlike PATMOS,

PATMOS-x will provide a full suite of

cloud properties and include data from

the AVHRR in the morning orbits and

include data from the NOAA-klm

satellites. Similar to PATMOS, PATMOS-x will also provide non-cloud

products such as aerosol optical thickness and outgoing long wave radiation.

This data is being used to study the

multi-decal climate variability in the

atmospheric parameters within PATMOS-x. The goal of PATMOS-x is to

complement the view of clouds provided by other satellite cloud climatologies.

Aerosols. STAR scientists are conducting research that aims at combining historical, current and future satellite-derived aerosol optical depth

(AOD) data for identification of possible trends and fingerprints of human

influence. The historic AOD data are

those derived from AVHRR at NESDIS and are available for the past

twenty years. More recent aerosol data

are available from the multi-channel

MODIS instrument on the current

NASA Earth Observing System (EOS)

satellites (Terra and Aqua). These

aerosol data are retrieved using

approaches that are significantly different from the one used operationally

at NESDIS. Aerosol properties in

NPOESS will be derived from an

instrument similar to MODIS and the

retrieval will use an algorithm similar

to that used with MODIS. In order to

infer possible long-term trends and

characterize seasonal and interannual

variations the new aerosol data sets

must be merged with the historic

AVHHR record. To facilitate such

merging the aerosol data in the Clouds
SECTION 3 DOC 71

and the Earth's Radiant Energy System

(CERES), Single Satellite Footprint

(SSF) data set are being analyzed. The

latter data set includes aerosol optical

thicknesses obtained by the NASA

MODIS algorithm and those retrieved

by the NESDIS single-channel

retrieval algorithm applied to

MODIS/SSF radiances. The analysis

has shown that the multi-channel and

single-channel retrievals correlate well

and yield similar global AOD values

when both are available. In both products, a correlation is observed between

the retrieved aerosol parameters and

ambient cloud amount. The agreement

between the two products improves

when cloud and surface effects are

minimized.

The differences between multi-channel and single-channel aerosol

retrievals are also being investigated

by applying the NESDIS single-channel aerosol algorithm to the 10-km

MODIS reflectances in the MODIS

Atmosphere Parameters Subset Statistics (MAPSS) data set, and by comparing the retrieved aerosol optical thickness with those from the MODIS algorithm. This provides a more direct

comparison of the two aerosol algorithms over ocean since in this case the

radiances used in both algorithms are

exactly the same. We find that the single-channel AOD retrievals at the

longer wavelength channel are similar

to the multi-channel AODs, while the

single-channel AODs tend to be larger

then the multi-channel ones at the

shorter wavelength. The difference

seems to depend on the scattering

angle.

STAR scientists are participating in

the Aerosol Working Group (AWG) of

the Global Energy and Water Cycle

Experiment (GEWEX) Radiation

Panel. One of the goals of AWG is to

study various long-term global aerosol

products for identifying and quantifying possible trends. So far, five such

data sets have been compiled (three

from AVHRR, one from Total Ozone

Mapping Spectrometer [TOMS], and

one from ISCCP-D1 data), and a preliminary comparison of them was conducted.

Aerosol optical depth data are also

produced at NESDIS from the geostationary satellites and they are available

in the now operational GOES Aerosol

and Smoke Product (GASP). Currently, GASP is mainly used for monitoring air quality. The users include

universities, and other government

agencies (NASA and EPA). GASP

supported the New England Air Quality Study (NEAQS) Field Campaign in

July 2004. GASP has been updated to

use radiances from GOES-12. An

extensive evaluation and improvement

of GASP is currently underway. Algorithms for aerosol retrieval from the

Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI)

onboard the future GOES-R satellite

are also being developed. The algorithm builds on heritages from the current GOES and MODIS algorithms.

Current activities include establishing

the relationship between visible and

near-infrared surface albedos using

atmospherically corrected hyperspectral (Hyperion) observations, and

adaptation of time and space dependent aerosol models to supply information needed for a successful retrieval.

Long-term Monitoring of NOAA-15

Advanced Microwave Sounding UnitA (AMSU-A) Performance. Since the

launch of the NOAA-15 satellite, the

AMSU-A level 1B data have been captured from the Central Environmental

Satellite Computer System (CEMSCS)

and stored on optical disks. These data

are used for off-line characterization of

the instrument radiometric performance on orbit. Over 20 important

radiometric parameters are extracted or

calculated from the AMSU-A 1B data.

NESDIS has already demonstrated that

the noise in the observations in all

channels is lower (better) than that

required by the specifications and, in

some channels, it is lower than estimates based on pre-launch test results.

NOAA will continue compiling longterm trends of all the parameters to

provide a better understanding of the

instrument performance. The PCbased software developed for evaluating these data will be improved for better efficiency in processing the data.

Calibration of the Visible and NearInfrared Channels of the AVHRR. It is

very important to characterize and document the in-orbit performance of the

AVHRR flown on the polar orbiters.

Toward this end, a very comprehensive

program of post-launch calibration and

characterization of the AVHRR has

been implemented to ensure the accuracy, continuity, and viability of the

various AVHRR-derived geophysical

products, with particular attention paid

to the visible and near-infrared channels which do not have any onboard

calibration devices. The major program elements are:

•Development of an optimal vicarious post-launch calibration technique,

utilizing radiometrically stable calibration sites, model simulations of the

radiation measured by the sensors, and

simultaneous radiation measurements

by the AVHRR and by calibrated spectrometers onboard aircraft;

• Enhancement of available vicarious calibration techniques to improve

attainable radiometric calibration accuracies beyond ±5 percent;

• Evaluation of the feasibility of

using the International Space Station

(ISS) as a platform to calibrate satellite

sensors, in general, using radiometers

on the ISS traceable to the National

Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST);

• Establishment of the AVHRR as a

traveling calibration standard to monitor the performance of sensors, such as

the imager on the GOES, the visible

channel of the HIRS, the Moderateresolution Imaging Spectrometer

(MODIS), and various sensors to be

flown on ENVISAT; and

• Design of optimal onboard and

vicarious calibration techniques for the
72 DOC SECTION 3 

visible and near-infrared sensors

planned under NPOESS.

The relevance and importance of

these activities has been recognized by

the national and international user

community, as evidenced by the appreciation and endorsement of the Working Group on Calibration and Validation (WGCV) and the Global Observing Systems Space Panel (GOSSP).

To ensure global access to the results

of the AVHRR calibration program,

and recognizing the importance of the

AVHRR-derived products to national

and international programs, such as the

International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), the International

Geosphere Biosphere Programme

(IGBP), the Global Climate, Ocean,

and Terrestrial Observing Systems, and

to benefit from sensor calibration

research elsewhere, active liaison, and

collaboration in some instances, has

been established with researchers in

NASA, NIST, EUMETSAT, China

Meteorological Administration, Beijing, China; Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, United Kingdom; National

Space Development Agency, Japan;

the NOAA/NASA Pathfinder Program; several space agencies and

remote sensing laboratories outside the

US, and academia both in the U.S. and

abroad.

Calibration of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Instruments. The GOES ground-system calibration processing was modified to

accommodate the changes in spectral

locations and field-of-view sizes of the

Imager channels that became effective

with GOES-12. Additional processing

changes are being developed to accommodate the further changes that will be

made to the Imager on GOES-N. The

most notable of these is a tenfold

increase in the time the Imager spends

viewing its blackbody for calibrating

its infrared channels. The increase is

intended to improve calibration precision.

On November 24, 2003, the operational calibration processing in the

GOES Imager's infrared channels was

modified to deal with artificial depressions in measured brightness temperatures that occurred in the hours near

local midnight. These depressions,

reaching a maximum of approximately

1K (for a scene at 300 K), were most

pronounced in the infrared channels at

the shortest wavelengths. We believe

they were caused by effects of solar

heating in the calibration measurements. The processing modification,

which invokes a statistical technique to

calculate the calibration coefficients

near midnight, succeeded in minimizing the artificial brightness-temperature depressions. In addition to calibration, the product processing algorithms for several products will have

been modified to accommodate the

new channel configuration.

FY 2004 saw considerable progress

in the on-orbit calibration of the

Imager's visible channel. This channel, lacking an on-board calibration

device, can only be calibrated vicariously, i.e., with targets external to the

satellite. Here we report results from

two such targets. From eight years of

observations of a stable Earth target

(the Grand Desert in Sonora, Mexico),

we estimated that the responsivity of

the GOES-8 Imager's visible channel

degraded an average of 5.8 percent per

year. From routine observations of

approximately 60 stars, we estimated

visible-channel responsivity degradation of 4.86 0.08 percent for the

GOES-8 Imager (from 10/19/95 to

4/1/03) and 5.56 0.18 percent for the

GOES-10 Imager (from 1/4/01 to

11/6/03). The difference between the

GOES-8 degradation rates from the

two methods is a topic of current

research.

More information on GOES calibration topics, including the GOES-12

Imager channel changes, the correction

for the midnight infrared-channel calibration errors, and the star- and desertbased vicarious calibrations of the visible channel, can be viewed at

http://www.oso.noaa.gov/goes/goescalibration/index.htm 

Ocean Surface Winds. Calibration and

validation studies are performed by

STAR for all new operational ocean

surface wind data streams. Product

refinement and development activities

are currently underway to improve

ocean wind vector retrievals in the

high wind speed regime, as well as precipitation regimes, where current

retrieval algorithms underestimate the

wind speeds. There are several satellite-based active and passive

microwave sensors planned for launch

in the near future from which NOAA

would have the opportunity to obtain

near,real-time data streams. One of

these sensors will be the first demonstration of the passive polarimetric

technique, which is being relied on in

the NPOESS design to meet the

nation's ocean surface wind vector

requirements.

High-Resolution Coastal Winds and

Storm Signatures from Synthetic Aperture Radar. STAR scientists have

developed techniques for deriving high

resolution (1 km or less) winds from

synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

imagery, and are using these derived

winds to study ocean surface wind signatures of coastal wind phenomena of

atmospheric fronts, hurricanes, and

other storms. By sensing variations in

ocean surface roughness on the centimeter scale, SAR sensors can image

storms, atmospheric waves (such as

mountain lee waves), island and mountain wakes and vortex streets, gap

flows, atmospheric fronts, and barrier

jets. Application demonstrations are

currently underway to provide highresolution winds, imagery, and other

SAR-derived products to operational

agencies for evaluation. Demonstrations included near,real-time winds for

Alaska coastal waters, and SARderived hurricane winds. By the year

2007, there will be as many as four

wide-swath SAR satellites. If data
SECTION 3 DOC 73

acquisition and sharing arrangements

can be established to obtain access to

SAR imagery from these new sources,

frequent routine SAR coverage of U.S.

coastal areas will be possible. This

increased coverage will allow use of

SAR-derived marine and atmospheric

products for operational purposes.

Ocean Color. Several programs at

STAR are involved in satellite ocean

color research. The Marine Optical

Buoy (MOBY) Project develops,

deploys, and maintains the MOBY off

of the coast of Lanai, Hawaii, to measure visible and near,infrared radiation

entering and emanating from the

ocean. The resulting measurements

support the initialization and vicarious

calibration of international and

national ocean color sensors, such as

the Ocean Color and Temperature Sensor, the Sea-Viewing Wide-Field-ofView Sensor, and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.

The Marine Optical Characterization

Experiment (MOCE), MOBY's sister

project, involves the collection from

ship of in-situ measurements of these

and other parameters relevant to ocean

color in the surrounding region. Data

from both sampling platforms furnish

time-series of bio-optical measurements that is employed to track sensor

drift, define bio-optical relationships,

validate satellite-derived products, and

develop ocean color algorithms. In

addition to MOBY and MOCE, programs exist at STAR to routinely evaluate the accuracy of NESDIS operational ocean color products and to

develop algorithms for remotely

detecting and predicting the presence

of noxious marine biota, such as harmful algal blooms.

Coral Reef Watch. Like the rest of the

world, most of the U.S. coral reef systems are threatened due to pollution,

over-fishing, and thermal bleaching.

This threat includes almost all of

Florida and Puerto Rico reefs, nearly

half of Hawaii's reefs, and an

unknown, but significant, fraction of

reefs in the U.S. Pacific Territories.

The widely distributed and isolated

locations of many coral reefs preclude

normal monitoring practices. Since

1998, NESDIS has used POES satellites to monitor the thermal bleaching

stress that leads to coral reef bleaching.

Research into the relationship between

thermal stress and bleaching resulted

in operational web-based products.

These include night-time only SSTs

and anomalies, and the Coral Reef

HotSpot anomaly product (operational

in 2002), the Degree Heating Week

accumulated heat stress product and

Tropical Indices webpage (operational

in 2003), and the Satellite Bleaching

Alert e-mail system (operational in

2005). Image products have been

available to users via the Internet since

the program began. Starting in 2006,

gridded data products in HDF and

Google Earth formats are available via

ftp and OPeNDAP servers. This suite

of remarkably accurate tools for monitoring potential coral bleaching events

has been highly acclaimed by the user

community. Operational supports for

these coral bleaching products are provided at NESDIS on a 24-hour, sevenday basis. In addition, the Coral Reef

Watch (CRW) program provided support to NOAA's Coral Reef Conservation Program as a key player in the

emerging global Coral Reef Ecosystems Integrated Observing System

(CREIOS) and continues to provide

support and solid scientific basis for

the development of future monitoring

and assessment products and/or capabilities. The Coral Reef Watch alerts

proved invaluable to researchers and

managers who were able to mobilize

resources to assess the record-breaking

2005 Caribbean bleaching event.

NOAA Coral Reef Watch is leading an

international effort to fully document

the extent and severity of this recordbreaking event as well as its climatic

context.

CoastWatch. NESDIS has responsibility for CoastWatch Program Management. This program is managed in

conjunction with other NOAA Line

Offices and makes satellite data products and in-situ data from NOAA environmental buoys available to Federal,

state, and local marine scientists and

coastal resource managers. Data from

the Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR) on NOAA's

polar orbiting spacecraft are collected

at Wallops Island, Virginia, and at Fairbanks, Alaska. These data are

processed on NOAA computers in

Suitland, Maryland, using a set of

NOAA-developed multi-channel

atmospherically corrected algorithms

for determination of sea surface temperature. Data are then mapped (Mercator Projection) and sectored to predefined coordinates specified for each

of the CoastWatch regions. Digital,

high-resolution data products (1 km/4

km in a CoastWatch Binary Format)

are then passed daily to CoastWatch

Regional Nodes in the eastern U.S.

(i.e., Southeast, Great Lakes, Northeast, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean).

For Regional Nodes in the Pacific

region, CoastWatch local data acquisition and processing capabilities are in

La Jolla, California; Anchorage,

Alaska; and Honolulu, Hawaii. The

Internet is used as the primary

telecommunications pathway for digital data distribution. Once products

are delivered to the CoastWatch

Regional Nodes they become immediately available for local use. An evergrowing number of Federal, state, and

local organizations are establishing a

formal relationship with local CoastWatch Regional Nodes for routine

timely access to CoastWatch image

products. More information about

CoastWatch is available on the Internet

at coastwatch.noaa.gov/ COASTWATCH/.

Finally, The Coast Watch AVHRR

products are have undergone a modernization effort. These products are

now in a new format (HDF) and use

new processing software which has
74 DOC SECTION 3 

improved the Earth locations of the

products. CoastWatch has recently

expanded, making available ocean

color and ocean surface winds, as well

as microwave sea-surface temperature,

data and products.

NOAA NATIONAL DATA CENTERS (NNDC)

NESDIS is responsible for the management of the NOAA National Data

Centers (NNDC). The NNDCs consist

of three data centers: the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) located in

Asheville, North Carolina, the

National Geophysical Data Center

(NGDC) located in Boulder, Colorado,

and the National Oceanographic Data

Center (NODC) located in Silver

Spring, Maryland (www.nndc.noaa.

gov).

The NNDCs were established to be

the Nation's primary repository for

NOAA data. Since their inception, the

role of the NNDCs has expanded in

response to the introduction of new

technologies useful to the NNDCs and

available to the users. Originally

designed to archive only NOAA data,

the NNDCs now hold environmental

data from a variety of sources, to

include other U.S. government agencies, such as Department of Defense

(DOD) and NASA, foreign governments, universities and cooperatives,

and numerous commercial research

programs.

The three NNDCs are responsible

for the scientific stewardship of the

Nation's environmental data and the

development and operation of the associated ingest, monitoring, quality control processing, access, archive, analysis and assessment, creation of climate

data records (CDRs), and other product generation systems in support of

their national and international commitments and users. The NNDCs

archive and provide access to numerous types of data. Each type of data

provides a unique perspective for use

in climate, oceanographic, space

weather, and other geophysical

research. It is often the combination of

many of these data sets that lead to

new discoveries and products that support activities, such as weather forecasting, risk (hazards-public safety and

economic) mitigation, weather impact

assessments, and climate assessments

and predictions.

Data sets are typically divided into

the method of collection: Remote

(Satellites), Airborne, and in-situ (surface: land and ocean). In-situ includes

radar, radiosonde, manual and automated surface observing systems,

fixed and drifting buoys, etc. Observational data must be accompanied by

comprehensive and complete station

history data, referred to as metadata, as

well as other ancillary and auxiliary

documentation describing the data processing procedures (quality control and

assurance) used prior to and after

archiving the data.

Climate monitoring, evaluation, and

prediction are critical to economic sustainability and environmental stewardship. The challenge facing the NNDCs

is not only ingesting and processing

very large volumes of new data, but

also the convenient and timely access

to the data and information. Millions

of paper pages and thousands of feet of

microfilm/microfiche of recorded

instrument measurements and other

information dating back hundreds of

years are currently under the stewardship of the NNDCs. Over the past 50

plus years, many observations have

been stored in digital form. There is

now in place a program to convert analog records to digital form. The

process will take many years to complete.

The development of a new generation of satellites over the next ten years

(NASA's Earth Observing System

[EOS], the next generation GOES, and

NPOESS), the Initial Joint Polar System (IJPS)/Metop, and the enhancement of the operational Next Generation weather Radars (NEXRAD) (dual

polarization) present major data management (stewardship and customer

access) challenges to the NNDCs.

To meet these challenges, NESDIS

has developed the Comprehensive

Large Array-data Stewardship System

(CLASS) program that will provide a

significant portion, but not all, of the

funding resources required to improve

and maintain the information technology (IT) infrastructure required to support the mandated scientific data stewardship responsibilities for these

incredibly large volumes of data.

Figure 3-DOC-18. The last Hurricane Katrina image from the New Orleans

radar before it lost power.
SECTION 3 DOC 75

NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER (NCDC)

The National Climatic Data Center

(NCDC) is a designated Federal

Records Center. It is the officially designated national archive for weather

and climate data and information and

is the world's largest archive of climate

data. NCDC produces and maintains

numerous data sets, products, and

assessments and services many thousands of customers with data and products worldwide. In addition, NCDC

operates World Data Centers for both

meteorology and paleoclimatology.

National and global data sets and

assessments are produced that support

economic and environmental decisions

and plans affected by climate variations and change. NCDC describes the

climate of the U.S. through monthly

and annual State of the Climate

reports. NCDC is collocated with the

U.S. Air Force Combat Climatology

Center and the U.S. Navy Fleet

Numerical Oceanography and Meteorology Detachment. These three

organizations make up the Federal Climate Complex, fulfilling much of the

Nation's climatological requests.

The Vision of the NCDC is: To be the

most comprehensive and accessible

source of quality climate and

weather related

data and information services

and to be an

objective

authority on climate monitoring.

The Mission

of the NCDC is:

To provide stewardship and

access to the

Nation's

resource of

global climate

and weather

related data and

information,

and assess and

monitor climate

variation and

change.

The basic

functions performed by the NCDC

necessary to achieve the mission

include: Acquisition (ingesting observations and data) and Quality Assurance Processing, providing Access for

new and historical (archived) data,

Archiving data and information (longterm data stewardship), and Assessments (climate monitoring).

NCDC is the Nation's “Scorekeeper”

in terms of addressing severe weather

events in their historical perspective.

As part of its responsibility for monitoring and assessing the climate,

NCDC tracks and evaluates climate

events in the U.S. and globally that

have significant economic and societal

impacts. Events include drought, hurricanes, tornados, severe storms, flooding, and wildfires.

NCDC is frequently called upon to

provide summaries of global and U.S.

temperature and precipitation trends,

extremes, and comparisons in their historical perspective. Numerous web

Figure 3-DOC-19. Katrina was one of the strongest storms to impact the coast

of the U.S. during the past 100 years.

Figure 3-DOC-20. Billion Dollar Climate and Weather Disasters 1980-2005
76 DOC SECTION 3 

pages and reports are available dealing

with these events and with the state of

the climate in general. (See

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes.ht

ml and http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov

/oa/climate/research/monitoring.html).

The U.S. sustained 67 weatherrelated disasters during the 1980-2005

period in which overall damages and

costs reached or exceeded $1 billion at

the time of the event. These disasters

do not include any events that had

unadjusted damages/losses less than $1

billion dollars, but subsequently may

have reached $1 billion after applying

the Gross National Product (GNP)

inflation/wealth index. Fifty-eight of

these disasters occurred since 1988,

with total unadjusted damages/costs of

nearly $380 billion. Seven events

occurred in 1998 alone, the most for

any year in the summary period,

though other years have recorded

higher damage totals. (See

http://www.ncdc.noaa.

gov/oa/reports/billionz.html).

The NCDC developed visualization

tools that are used with NEXRAD

level II data and NEXRAD level III

products. The NCDC NEXRAD Interactive Viewer and Data Exporter load

NEXRAD volume scan data and

derived products into an OPEN GIS

compliant environment. The applications are launched via Java Web Start

and run on the client machine while

accessing the data remotely from the

archive at the NCDC. The NEXRAD

Interactive Viewer provides tools for

custom data overlays, animations, and

basic queries. The export of images

and movies is provided in multiple formats. The NEXRAD Data Exporter

allows for data export in both vector

polygon (Shapefile, GML, WellKnown Text) and raster (GeoTIFF,

ESRI Grid, HDF, NetCDF, GrADS)

formats. The visualization tools are

now part of university course curriculums, have assisted in Space Shuttle

upper atmospheric electron distribution studies, are used by the National

Transportation Safety Board aircraft

accident investigations, are routinely

used by government and university

researchers, and are being used by

other countries.

Operational Programs.

The NCDC operational programs

include:

• Long-term stewardship (archive

and access) of the Nation's weather and

climate data, as part of the Federal

Records Retention System. The

NCDC is an approved Agency Records

Center and operates under the National

Archives and Records Administration

Federal Records Center guidelines and

policies for managing weather and climate data records and information.

• Scientific Data Stewardship functions inherent to the mission of the legislatively designated Nation's Climate

Data Center. These include developing

and operating the associated ingest,

monitoring, quality assessment processing, access, archive, analysis and

assessment, creation of climate data

records, and other product generation

systems in support of national and

international commitments.

• National partnerships with Federal

agencies (such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,

Department of Defense, Environmental Protection Agency, Department of

Agriculture, Department of Energy,

Department of State, National Science

Foundation, U.S. Geological Survey,

U.S. Global Climate Research Panel),

many state agencies, all NOAA Line

Offices, Regional Climate Centers,

State Climatologists, universities, and

many others. These partnerships contribute to the collection, quality assurance processing, and access to regional

and national observing networks, to

climate monitoring, to the national climate assessments, and to a National

Climate Services Program.

• International partnerships with the

World Meteorological Organization,

International Council of Scientific

Unions, World Data Centers, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,

UNESCO, and other nations through

bilateral and multilateral agreements.

Examples are the World Data Center

for Meteorology (archiving the data

collected by internationally sponsored

research programs and actively

exchanging climate data with foreign

countries to support research and other

activities) and the World Data Center

for Paleoclimatology (assembling,

archiving, and providing access to

global paleoclimatic data derived from

worldwide tree-rings, stalactites and

stalagmites, coral samples, pollen and

macro-fossils, lake and bog sediments,

marine sediments, ice cores, and other

geological and biological sources).

• Maintaining and updating national

and global baseline data sets and climate data records that are used for

monitoring, evaluation, analyses, and

assessments of climate variation and

change on global and regional scales.

Examples of these data sets include the

Global Historical Climatology Network, the U.S. Historical Climatology

Network, the U.S. Climate Reference

Network, the Comprehensive OceanAtmosphere Data Set, the Comprehensive Aerological Reference Data Set,

and the Monthly Climate Data of the

World.

• Customer Service. Customers can

access data, information, and products

through a variety of means, such as

real-time and near,real-time digital

access and retrieval of new and

archived historical observations

through E-Commerce web enabled

capabilities (Internet), as well as

through traditional methods, i.e., telephone, e-mail, , facsimile, and traditional post. Digital access, retrieval,

and delivery of data on-line and in a

robotic storage system via the Internet

is the primary and preferred customer

service capability. Data and information can also be delivered on magnetic

media (tape and disk), hard copy

(paper and microfilm), electronic

downloads, and staged for FTP trans-
SECTION 3 DOC 77

fers. Many of the NCDC assessments,

peer reviewed journal articles, published papers, and conference reports

are also available on-line.

• Climate Data On-line (CDO) System. The CDO system is NOAA's primary means for distributing and providing access to in-situ climate data.

CDO includes both recent and historical data, useful for studies of particular

weather events and for historical

analysis of data for statistical and other

research purposes. The general types

of data currently included in the system, which continues to be populated,

are surface hourly, daily, and monthly

data, hourly precipitation data, and 15-

minute precipitation data. As data

integration efforts continue, the system

will be greatly expanded to include

numerous additional stations and data

types. There are two methods to

access climate data within CDO:

• The CDO homepage

(http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov). This provides numerous search and retrieval

mechanisms, such as by region, country, state, climate division, county, and

station; for any required times series.

• The GIS interface

(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov). Click on

"search by map" on the left-hand side

bar. The GIS tool-set provides an array

of methods to select regions and locations of interest, to overlay various layers of information, etc.

Supporting Research.

The NCDC engages in an active

research program to support the operational programs.

• Scientific Data Stewardship Program. This program provides an

approach to maximizing the performance, quality, and utility of climate

observing systems, data, and information so that the scientific integrity and

long term utility of climate records for

a broad range of users will be ensured.

Five fundamental principles provide

the framework for this program:

• Ensure Observing System

quality during the design phase and

real-time monitoring of performance;

• Develop an end-to end Climate Processing System that includes

the timely ingest, quality assurance

processing, immediate access to new

and long-term access to historical

records, and the long-term safeguarding of the climate records for future

generations;

• Provide basic Information

Technology (IT) support;

• Document Earth System Variability through monitoring and evaluation of present, future, and past observations; and

• Enable and facilitate future

research through

periodic analysis

and assessment of

new and historical

records.

• Digital Health

of the Network

Monitoring

(Observing System

Performance Indicators). The purpose of the network monitoring

process is to

improve the quality of new observations and the

fidelity of the historical archives by providing real-time

information on the health and status of

NOAA's observing networks. The

fully developed system will continually monitor and assess the state of

these networks with the intent of providing feedback that could either lead

to improvements in the network or

changes in analysis techniques to

account for problems in the network.

Anomalies and systematic performance problems are evaluated and

reported to the network manager. The

outcome will be improved observing

system performance and higher quality

data records. In most cases, these data

quality issues can be identified and

corrected before the data are incorporated into the historical archives and

associated databases. The COOP

Observing Network, the U.S. Climate

Reference Network (USCRN), the

Automated Surface Observing System

(ASOS), and the Global Climate

Observing System Surface Network

(GSN) and Global Climate Observing

System Upper Air Network (GUAN)

are regularly monitored and the plan is

to add other networks. The USCRN

program has a more rigorous operational daily monitoring system of

hourly performance (see

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/hofn/glo

bal-insitu.html ).

• Assessments and Reports. A series

of regular reports are released regarding several key climate issues of concern to the nation. For example, the

NCDC releases a monthly and annual

State of the Climate for the U.S. and

the North American Drought Monitoring Report which is a collaborative

effort between Canada, Mexico, and

the U.S. (See http://www.ncdc.

noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/monitoring.html ). Continuing study of the

identification and blending of key

parameters from satellite, radar an insitu observing systems will lead to a

new generation of quality climate data

records. Understanding and knowledge, as well as new products and servFigure 3-DOC-21. Current Climate Reference Network Site

Locations
78 DOC SECTION 3 

ices for research and practical economic and environmental uses, will be

derived from this progressive approach

to maximizing the true value of observations.

• U.S. Climate Reference Network

(USCRN). The Ten Climate Monitoring Principles described in the

National Research Council Report,

Adequacy of Climate Observing Systems (1999), are being used to guide

the design, deployment, and life cycle

management of the USCRN. The

USCRN is the first U.S. observing system built with the primary purpose of

providing climate-quality measurements. Data from the fully deployed

network of approximately 110 stations

will quantify the variance in surface air

temperature and precipitation on a

national scale.

The USCRN climate-quality observations avoid the time-dependent

biases typically experienced with other

surface observing networks. The

USCRN is becoming the nation's

benchmark network, by providing a

standard to which satellite, weather

radar, and other surface systems (e.g.,

Automated Surface Observing System

[ASOS], COOP, mesonets, etc.) observations can be validated and verified.

In essence, the USCRN is providing

the means to enhance the quality and

confidence in other observations, as

well as contribute to rehabilitating

existing historical databases and data

sets. This will produce a significant

increase in the volume of climate quality data and information that can be

used in assessing past climate

trends and change, as well as

contribute to the present and

future climate monitoring,

evaluation, and forecast tasks.

(See http://www.ncdc.

noaa.gov/crn.html )

• NOAA Operational Model

Archive and Distribution System (NOMADS). NOMADS

is a collaborative approach to

provide access and data analysis capabilities for model and

other data. The NCDC, in

partnership with the National

Centers for Environmental

Prediction and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, initiated this project to

address a growing need for

remote access to high volume

Global Climate Model and

Numerical Weather Prediction

model data. The NOMADS

team has partnered with existing and development activities

including CLASS, National Oceanographic Partnership Program's,

National Virtual Ocean Data System,

the Department of Energy's Earth System Grid, and the Thematic Real-time

Environmental Data Distributed Services developed through the National

Science Foundation. NOMADS uses a

distributed client-server framework of

data servers together with emerging

technologies to access data stored in

heterogeneous formats at geographically distributed repositories.

NOMADS provides, for the first time,

long-term stewardship of numerical

and climate model runs and provides

the regional modeling community with

the data necessary to initialize local

models. NOMADS also provides the

tools necessary to inter-compare model

and observational data sets from

around the world. (See

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/model

/model-resources.html )

• Climate Database Modernization

Program (CDMP). Digital databases

of wind speed and direction, precipitaFigure 3-DOC-22. USCRN Stations in FY 2008

Figure 3-DOC-23. NOAA Operational Model

Archive & Distribution System provides visualization and access to model Data.
SECTION 3 DOC 79

tion, temperature, and pressure are far

more useful than paper and microfilm

records. These databases support

many disciplines, including economic

research, engineering, risk management, and passive (solar, wind) energy

enterprises. The CDMP addresses

access and utilization issues. The Program's goal is to make non-digital

(paper/film) historical climate data

digitally accessible and retrievable online via the Internet. The conversion of

paper and microfilm records to digital

databases and data sets will provide

access to either optically scanned

images of records or data manually

keyed into digital databases. Many of

these records are being merged with

the more recent digital databases

extending the digitally accessible and

retrievable time series to many

decades, as well as hundreds of years

in some cases. Forty million documents have been imaged and many

thousands of observations manually

keyed or digitized from the merchant

and military ship records, America's

military forts, U.S. cities, lighthouses,

weather ships, and other sources. The

sixth year of the CDMP expanded into

all NOAA operational line offices.

The CDMP provides an unprecedented

and unique opportunity to rescue valuable climate and environmental data

dating back into the 1700s that are in

jeopardy of permanent loss due to the

deterioration of the paper and microfilm media (See

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/cdmp/cdmp.html ).

• NOAA Paleoclimatology Program. Paleoclimatic data is an important segment of documenting and

reconstructing annual to century scale

records leading to climate records dating back 10s and 100s of millennia.

The incorporation of this program into

the functions and activities of the

NCDC enhances the identification and

understanding of climate change and

variation. The NCDC Paleoclimatology Branch cooperates with many

countries in research projects that combine the global paleoclimate database

with the instrumental record to extend

the climate record back in time for climate model verification and climate

change studies. Objectives of the program are to cooperate with researchers

in academia, NOAA and other agencies to: conduct original research to

describe the global patterns of annualto-millennial scale climate change,

understand the causes of climate

change, separate man-induced climate

change from natural variability, and

validate the models that are used to

predict future climates. (See http://

www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/paleo.html)

• Comprehensive Large Array-data

Stewardship System (CLASS).

CLASS is the NOAA implementation

program for an improved architecture

for archiving and servicing large-volume data. Advances in technology,

including faster network access, webbased interfaces, and emerging discovery and analysis tools, will provide a

one-stop capability to access the

NOAA large array data sets. The

CLASS objective is to establish a webenabled browse, order, and retrieval

delivery system that will enhance and

increase the availability and accessibility of satellite, radar, and other data

and derived products to customers

worldwide. The CLASS integrated

storage and web-based access and

servicing system design incorporates

many of the features and capabilities of

the current Satellite Active Archive

system built for the POES data stored

on a robotic system located in Suitland, MD. The CLASS program has

established dual sites, one in Asheville,

NC, and another in Suitland, MD.

There are plans to move the Suitland

site to Boulder, CO. A third CLASS

site is also slated for Fairmont, WV.

NOAA Polar-orbiting Environmental

Satellite (POES) and Geostationary

Orbiting Environmental Satellite

(GOES) data are currently available

via the CLASS interface. CLASS data

and product enhancements will be

implemented in phases called campaigns. New major campaigns

planned include NEXRAD, National

Polar-orbiting Environmental Satellite

System Preparatory Program (NPP),

National Polar-orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite System, Earth

Observing System Long Term Archive,

and the European Meteorological

Operational Satellite Program (see

http://www.class.noaa.gov ).

• Air Quality Forecasts. NCDC

archives NOAA's Air Quality ForeFigure 3-DOC-24. NOAA tasks supported by the Climate Database Modernization Program
80 DOC SECTION 3 

casts. The Air Quality Forecasts are

forecast guidance of one-hour and

eight-hour averaged ground-level (surface) ozone concentration. The guidance is produced twice a day, for

hourly intervals through midnight on

the following day (48 model hours),

seven days a week for the northeastern

U.S. initially, and then gradually will

include the entire U.S. by 2009. NWS

provides the data. These data provide

ground-level ozone forecast guidance

for state and local air quality forecasters and help the public limit adverse

effects from poor air quality. This

forecast guidance helps meet a congressionally directed national air quality forecast capability. These data will

have received a high measure of quality control through computer and manual edits.

NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC

DATA CENTER 

The National Oceanographic Data

Center (NODC) (www.nodc.noaa.gov)

manages the world's largest collection

of publicly available oceanographic

data. NODC holdings include in-situ

and remotely sensed physical, chemical, and biological oceanographic data

from coastal and deep ocean areas.

NODC customers reuse this data to

answer questions about climate, ocean,

and coastal phenomena.

NODC also operates NOAA's Central and Regional Libraries. These

libraries provide environmental references services that support NOAA

research and other technical information retrieval services to NOAA staff;

and maintain the official archives for

NOAA documents.

Internationally, NODC hosts the

World Data Center for Oceanography,

Silver Spring under the auspices of the

International Council of Scientific

Unions and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences.

NODC supports ecosystem stewardship through the National Coastal Data

Development Center (NCDDC) in

Stennis, Mississippi by providing

access to the nation's coastal data

resources. NCDDC achieves this

capability through the integration of

diverse coastal data distributed in multiple repositories and provides these

data to users via the Internet using

established and emerging technologies. They provide a searchable metadata catalog of coastal data, developing gateways to data repositories and

using middleware technology that provides data in user specified formats.

Specifically, NODC data archive and

access responsibilities support climate

research and operational ocean observing system activities. NODC performs

ocean profile data management for

internationally coordinated global

ocean observing systems such as the

Argo Ocean Profiling Network and the

Global Temperature-Salinity Profile

Program (GTSPP) in cooperation with

applicable JCOMM committees.

NODC's objectives are 

• To safeguard versions of the Argo

and GTSPP near,real-time and retrospective data and information, and

• To provide high quality data to a

wide variety of users in a timely and

useful manner. 

The Argo and GTSPP data system

present an excellent opportunity to

improve ocean and climate forecasting, with consequent benefits for the

protection of life and property and

effective planning for the effects of

seasonal to inter-annual climate variability.

NODC produces regular updates of

the World Ocean Database and World

Ocean Atlas. The most recent version,

2001, includes over seven million profiles of scientifically quality controlled

ocean temperature, salinity, oxygen,

plankton, pigment, and nutrient data.

The Atlas presents statistics and objectively analyzed fields for one-degree

and five-degree squares generated

from World Ocean Database 2001,

observed and standard level flagged

data. The ocean variables included in

the atlas are: in-situ temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, apparent oxygen

utilization, percent oxygen saturation,

dissolved inorganic nutrients (phosphate, nitrate, and silicate), chlorophyll

at standard depth levels, and plankton

biomass sampled from 0 - 200 meters

depth. Further information on both

products is available at: www.nodc.

noaa.gov/OC5/indprod.html.

The NOAA Marine Environmental

Buoy Database (http://www.nodc

.noaa.gov/BUOY/buoy.html) is one of

the largest and most frequently used

data archives maintained by the

NODC. This database holds wind,

wave, and other marine data collected

by the NOAA National Data Buoy

Center (NDBC) from moored buoys

and C-MAN (Coastal-Marine Automated Network) stations. Parameters

reported by both buoys and C-MAN

stations include air temperature and

pressure, wind speed and direction,

wind gust, and sea surface temperature.

NODC is developing a capability to

provide public access to consistentlyprocessed, climate-capable satellite

datasets and applying them to various

scientific problems. The first products

provided in 2003, were Pathfinder

reprocessed 9 km and 4 km sea surface

temperatures. For further information

see www.nodc.noaa.gov/sog/.

The National Coastal Data Development Center (NCDDC) manages the

Coastal Data Development (CDD) program. The focus of NCDDC is to

improve the quality of web-based

search and access tools and implement

web-based access to priority data sets

from Federal, state, and local repositories. Geospatial display capabilities

have been added that allow the user to

link the data to coastal imagery, charts,

bathymetry to obtain a complete data

picture of the ecosystem of interest.

To identify priority data sets,

NCDDC coordinates with Federal,

state, and local agencies, academic

institutions, non-profit organizations
SECTION 3 DOC 81

and the private sector to create a unified, long term database of coastal data

sets available from a variety of

sources. The NCDDC develops and

maintains a catalog of available coastal

data, builds gateways to these sources,

ensures the equality of the metadata,

populates and updates the databases,

and provides on-line search and access

and geospatial display for the coastal

user community.

The CDD program supports NOAA's

Ecosystem strategic goal which aims

to build the capacity of Federal, state,

local, and international managers to

make decisions that protect, restore,

and use coastal ecosystem services.

The Earth's coastal ecosystems are

home to a wealth of natural resources,

and the lives and livelihoods of people

are linked to these national treasures.

Sustainable growth of our coastal

regions is critical to our economy by

supporting commercial and recreational fishing, waterborne commerce,

home construction, and tourism. Base

activities aim to advance understanding and predict changes in the Earth's

environment to meet the economic,

social, and environmental needs of the

U.S.. This supports the strategic goal

of the Department of Commerce to,

"Observe, protect, and manage the

Earth's resources to promote environmental needs."

NOAA/NODC Library

NODC houses the NOAA Central

Library (www.lib.noaa.gov/ ) which

supports weather and climate research

programs by providing a variety of

information services, including:

• Access to print and electronic versions of American Meteorological

Society journals.

• Access to Meteorological and

Geoastrophysical Abstracts (desktop

access at the Silver Spring campus). 

• Desktop access to Web of Science

at several NOAA sites.

• Assistance in obtaining site

licenses for 169 National Weather Service field sites for electronic access to

Monthly Weather Review and Weather

and Forecasting.

• Archival of historic collections of

the Weather Bureau.

• Data rescue of hundreds of volumes of meteorological data publications in danger of loss.

NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL DATA

CENTER 

National Geophysical Data Center

(NGDC) (www.ngdc.noaa.gov) staff

archive, assess, and provide access to

satellite and ground-based observatory

data from national and international

programs supporting research in meteorology, climatology, and space

weather as well as solar-terrestrial

physics, snow and ice, marine geology

and geophysics, and solid Earth geophysics. The National Snow and Ice

Data Center (NSIDC), at the University of Colorado, is an affiliated partner

with NGDC. World Data Centers for

Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Marine

Geology and Geophysics, Glaciology,

and Solid Earth Geophysics under the

auspices of the International Council

of Scientific Unions are operated by

the two national centers. Research

activities focus on satellite remote

sensing to assess the long-term

changes of the land surface, the space

environment, snow cover and sea ice.

Long-term archive responsibilities

for the nation are provided by NGDC

activities. NGDC maintains the

nation's archive for global tsunami and

related hazard events. This includes

tsunami events, triggers, run-up locations and heights, damage descriptions

and photographs. This information is

essential for researchers focusing

activity on at-risk areas. As part of

NOAA's effort to improve tsunami

research and warning, NGDC has

established a long-term archive for

ocean bottom pressure and Deep-ocean

Assessment and Reporting of

Tsunamis (DART) data. NGDC also

manages the sole archive of space

weather data from GOES, POES and

DMSP satellites. NGDC maintains the

only archive of raw data records and

visible and near-infrared imagery collected on DMSP satellites for meteorological, oceanographic and Earth surface studies. The space weather

ground-based archives focus on data

used in NOAA's space weather forecasts, warnings and alerts. NSIDC

manages cryospheric data from both

ground-based and satellite instruments.

These data stewardship and scientific

stewardship activities for satellite and

ground-based data include processing,

management, analysis and quality

assessments.

Online WWW-based access services

to these large databases continue to

evolve at NGDC. Data discovery,

browsing, and delivery are fairly

mature functions. Data directories are

managed by relational database management systems available to most

search engines. Almost all of the data

sets reside in robotic libraries and are

accessible online, however some data

sets are easier to browse, display and

use than others. NGDC uses Web

map-based access to the integrated

hazards databases. Users can select

events either through a geo-referenced

map interface or via traditional search

and retrieve engine. NGDC has several projects as part of the NESDIS

program to digitize and make accessible the most important records in the

huge historical archive. Interactive

displays of multi-disciplinary data sets

and data mining are under development and NGDC has embarked on an

environmental scenario generator project to mine information from the

archives and to use the mined information to launch numerical simulations of

the atmospheric and space environments.

The DMSP activity prepares calibrated and geo-referenced records

from the raw data records recorded by

the scientific instruments on DMSP

satellites. Data sets include visible,

infrared and microwave imagery,
82 DOC SECTION 3 

microwave soundings and in-situ

measurements of the space environment. User services are provided

through the Space Physics Interactive

Data Resource (spidr.ngdc.

noaa.gov/spidr/). Research activities

focus on the use of the nighttime visible and infrared imagery from the

DMSP Operational Linescan System

(OLS). The nighttime lights product

has been used to assess changes in

power consumption both regionally

and globally over the period 1992 to

present. Nighttime lights have been

used to support humanitarian relief

services after natural disasters such as

Hurricanes Wilma and Katrina.

GOES, POES and DMSP satellite

data of solar activity and the near Earth

space environment managed by NGDC

provide the long-term monitoring of

space weather conditions. These data

record the Earth's magnetic field, the

electrically charged environment, and

solar x-rays from geosynchronous and

polar sun-synchronous altitudes. Data

from ground-based observatories

recording solar activity, ionospheric

characteristics and geomagnetic variations complement, enhance and provide ground truth for the satellite

measurements. The Solar Geophysical

Data bulletin containing solar and

space weather data is published

monthly. The space weather program

at NGDC archives measurements of

total solar and solar spectral irradiance

for use in climate studies

(http://spidr.ngdc.noaa.gov/spidr/).

Tabular listing of ionospheric parameters and ancient solar images are part

of the digitizing and access program.

National Snow and Ice Data Center

The National Snow and Ice Data

Center (NSIDC) at the University of

Colorado, which is affiliated with

NGDC, manages several cryosphericrelated data archives of interest to

meteorology and climatology. These

data sets include a collection of historical photographs of glaciers, temperature, pressure and position data from

drifting buoys placed on the central

Arctic pack ice and data from the

NOAA snow cover and DOD-NOAA

sea ice chart digitizing projects.

NSIDC provides data management

services for a variety of cryospheric

research programs sponsored by

NASA and NSF. In addition, NSIDC

has developed gridded sea ice products

(sea ice concentrations and multi-year

ice fraction) based on passive

microwave data collected by NASA

and DMSP satellites (see Figure 3-

DOC-24). NSIDC is acquiring snow

cover, glacier and sea ice records from

the former Soviet Union. Online services are available at www.nsidc.colorado.edu.

Supporting Research

Natural Hazards Reduction. Severe

tsunami events are

relatively rare and frequently the first reaction to a serious event

such as the 26

December 2004,

Indian Ocean tsunami

is to clean-up the

damage. A global

database of past

tsunami events, runup heights, death and

damage descriptions,

and photographs is an

essential research tool

when identifying at

risk areas and likely

damage from modeled events. NGDC

maintains the nation's

global tsunami event

database. In FY 2006

NGDC reviewed and

documented 60 percent of events with the

global tsunami database classified as significant, including the

locations and magnitudes of the source

events, maximum

runups and total

effects. As an associated activity, NGDC in FY 2006 established a web-accessible archive of

tsunami program Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami

(DART) Buoy and Bottom Pressure

Recorder (BPR) historical data. These

historical records provide the baseline

against which real-time measurements

can be compared to assess the threat

posed by tsunamis (see Figure 3-DOC25 and http://ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/hazard/DARTData.shtml)

Environmental Remote Sensing.

Operational meteorological satellite

systems provide a unique opportunity

to monitor features on or near the

Earth's surface, sometimes on a nightly

basis. The DMSP nighttime imagery

are used to locate sources of visible

Figure 3-DOC-25. This image, from the NSIDC Sea Ice

Index, shows the extent of Arctic ice in March (grey

area) relative to the normal position (based on a reference period of 1979 to 2000), shown by the pink line.

March is the month of greatest Arctic ice extent. While

scientists have known of the decline in summertime ice

extent for years, the statistically significant negative

trend in winter ice extent is a new phenomenon. Scientists and the interested public can tract ice trends at

nsidc.org/noaa/seaice_index/.
SECTION 3 DOC 83

and infrared emissions including city

lights, lightning, wildfires, flaring gas,

and fishing boats. Research projects

use the city lights to infer such diverse

parameters as population density, economic vitality, and carbon dioxide

emissions. More information is available at dmsp. noaa.gov/ dmsp.html.

Wildfires Monitored from Space.

DMSP OLS imagery offers a unique

opportunity to monitor wildfires

because each satellite records nighttime visible emissions covering the

entire globe each day. Instruments

designed to detect clouds also see

wildfires--many of which burn in very

remote areas. NGDC has developed a

unique capability to capture the nighttime emissions from both large and

small wildfires. The system has been

used to assist the NOAA Operational

Significant Event Imagery team and by

firefighters in developing countries.

More information is available at

dmsp.noaa.gov/dmsp.html.

Space Weather. The Space Weather

program at NGDC is dedicated to the

long-term archive and analysis of

NOAA's space weather data. This

year marks the completion of a 15-year

space weather climatology, covering

the ionosphere, thermosphere and

inner-magnetosphere. The project,

which is designed similarly to the

NCEP/NCAR re-analysis project, provides the user community with a uniform view of key space weather

domains. In the coming years, analysis

of this data will allow for tracking of

changes observed in the near-Earth

space environment (see Figure 3-

DOC-26).

Cryospheric Research at NSIDC.

NSIDC's research interests cover a

broad spectrum of climate-cryosphere

interactions using a variety of observing techniques with special

emphasis on arctic regions

and satellite-borne instruments. Research projects

within NSIDC study the

long-term record of snow

and ice in polar and mountainous regions, as well as

the hydrology of the southwestern US. Algorithms to

detect snow, frozen ground

and sea ice in passive

microwave images from

DMSP and NASA satellites

have been developed at

NSIDC.

Other research

includes developing models

of the physical and mechanical properties of snow and ice in glaciers and the

freeze-thaw cycles of soils in polar

regions (the latter is an important component of hydrological modeling).

Another area of special interest and

study is the interaction between sea ice

and the ocean and atmosphere. More

information is available at

http://nsidc.org/.

Figure 3-DOC-26. Global distribution of significant tsunami events occurring between 1410

and 2004.

Figure 3-DOC-27. 15-year record of the near-Earth space environment obtained

by coupling observational space weather data with physics-based numerical

models.

SECTION 3 DOC 85

OFFICE OF OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH

Programs within the Oceanic and

Atmospheric Research (OAR) Laboratories support various National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meteorological and

oceanographic missions. The activities of OAR laboratories provide the

innovative ideas needed to improve

our understanding of atmospheric,

oceanic, and climate science and

develop the practical solutions, tools,

and techniques that form the basis of

improved ocean, weather, water, and

climate services. In an effort to make

OAR's meteorological, oceanographic,

and climate research more extensible,

OAR recently re-organized its laboratories in Boulder, Colorado. The new

Earth System Research Laboratory

(ESRL) consists of four Divisions:

Chemical Sciences Division (CSD),

Global Monitoring Division (GMD),

Global Systems Division (GSD), and

the Physical Sciences Division. These

divisions were formed in the consolidation of the former Aeronomy Laboratory, Climate Diagnostics Center,

Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics

Laboratory, Forecast Systems Laboratory, and the Environmental Technology Laboratory. A portion of the former Environmental Technology Laboratory has now transferred to the University of Colorado as the Center for

Environmental Technology (CET).

In an effort to improve national

resiliency and better protect lives and

property, OAR places special emphasis

on improving severe weather, flood,

and hurricane warnings and forecasts

and on improving the utilization and

dissemination of data and information.

Severe weather events include flash

floods, strong winds, thunderstorms

(including tornadoes, lightning, and

hail), heavy snowstorms, extreme cold

and heat, drought, and geomagnetic

storms. OAR also places emphasis on

enhancing our understanding of the

global climate system and improving

regional decision support tools for climate and weather.

Key contributions to improved hurricane forecasts fall under the "Hurricanes at Landfall" (HL) focus of the

U.S. Weather Research Program

(USWRP), the funding for which

resides in NOAA's National Weather

Service (NWS), and the implementation of which is in OAR. They include

more accurate prediction of track,

intensity, surface winds, rainfall,

improved communication of hurricane

forecast information, and improved

understanding of human impacts.

Improving flood forecasts fall under

the component of USWRP labeled

"Improving Quantitative Precipitation

Forecasting." In pursuit of improved

utilization and dissemination of data,

the OAR laboratories conduct both inhouse and cooperative research with

other NOAA organizations, government agencies, joint institutes, universities, and the private sector. In addition, OAR laboratories conduct

research to improve routine weather

forecasts and improve the ability to

forecast regional air quality and atmospheric deposition.

A significant focus of OAR in the

weather and air quality area is the

development of operational testbeds

under the auspices of the USWRP.

These testbeds are the mechanism

through which research is transitioned

to operations. It is recognized by the

USWRP that since NOAA is one of the

forecast mission agencies in the program, and the program goals are predominantly operational ones, its most

significant role in the USWRP is to

provide the infrastructure and capabilities to efficiently and effectively test

research products in an operational

environment. The testbeds are the

Joint Hurricane Testbed, the Developmental Test Center (http://www.dtcenter.org/), and the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (http://

www.jcsda.noaa.gov/). These testbeds

are operated in partnership with other

USWRP agencies. OAR's role is to

provide directed research and operational testing, in partnership with the

NWS. In addition, the Weather

Research and Forecasting (WRF) community model (http://www.wrfmodel.org/index.php), also under the

auspices of the USWRP, provides a

common modeling structure to be

shared by most of the testbeds and

between the research and operations

communities. Several OAR laboratories are involved in the WRF development in partnership with the NWS and

other USWRP agencies.

In 2004, the USWRP established the

Collaborative Program on the Societal

Impacts and Economic Benefits of

Weather Information or Societal

Impacts Program (SIP) for short

(http://www.sip.ucar.edu/). Its mission

is to be a clearing house for socioeconomic information on weather, to

increase knowledge among the

weather community concerning the

human and economic impacts of

weather, to better determine the value

of weather information, and to

improve our ability to communicate

weather information to all public and

private sectors. Within the SIP is a

Hurricane Working Group, consisting

of the top social scientists, economists,

and meteorologists in the U.S. who

have worked in the area of hurricanes.

They have developed an agenda for
86 DOC SECTION 3 

social science research for hurricane

forecasts and warnings (http://

www.sip.ucar.edu/hurricane.jsp).

In 2004, the World Meteorological

Organization established THORPEX:

A Global Atmospheric Research Program (http:// www.mmm.ucar.edu

/uswrp/programs/nathorpex.html, from

which one can link to the international

THORPEX website). Currently

twelve countries are participating. In

the U.S., NOAA is the lead agency and

participating agencies include NASA,

NSF, and the Navy. THORPEX is a

10-year international global numerical

weather prediction program to accelerate improvements in one to 14-day

forecasts of high impact weather. In

NOAA, OAR, NWS, and NESDIS

participate in THORPEX with the

Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation as a key component. In NOAA,

the THORPEX program is developing

global ensembles of model predictions

and ensembles of ensembles such as

the North America Ensemble Forecasting System (NAEFS) in collaboration

with Canada and Mexico, which is

now being operationally tested at

NWS's National Centers for Environmental Prediction's Environmental

Modeling Center. The THORPEX

funding in NOAA resides in the NWS

and is administered by OAR.

OBSERVING TECHNOLOGY

Meteorological, oceanographic, and

climate research requires a strong network of observing systems providing

data and information and consistent

advancements to our observational

capabilities. In support of NOAA's

mission, OAR supports the advancement of our observing technology

through the development and testing of

new observing systems, observation

techniques, and data ingest and dissemination systems. All OAR observing technology research supports the

Global Earth Observing System of

Systems (GEOSS) and further establishes OAR as a preeminent leader in

meteorological, oceanographic, and

climate research.

Numerous OAR laboratories and

their related academic and private sector partners are heavily involved in

developing new environmental observing system technologies. The Global

Systems Division (GSD) of the Earth

System Research Laboratory (ESRL)

in Boulder, Colorado, takes promising

new scientific and engineering technologies from the research arena, helps

develop them into mature engineering

systems, and transfers these technologies to NOAA operations and the private sector. The Physical Sciences

Division (PSD) of ESRL applies and

evaluates new remote-sensing concepts and systems. The National

Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) in

Norman, Oklahoma, both develops

new remote sensing systems and

assists in the transfer of these technologies to the NWS. The Atlantic

Oceanographic and Meteorological

Laboratory (AOML) in Key Biscayne,

Florida, develops, deploys, and manages in-situ oceanographic observing

systems across the global oceans. This

environmental research, development

and associated transition of products

and services directly support the

Nation's forecasting and warning services.

GSD is investigating the use of

superpressure balloons in the stratosphere as a platform for monitoring

and observing the environment.

Among the balloons' capabilities

would be atmospheric soundings. The

trajectory of the balloons could be controlled to some extent by adjusting

their altitude so as to take advantage of

the vertical shear. The balloons would

carry compact, lightweight sondes

whose locations could be tracked as

they fell toward the surface. The balloons would comprise a moderately

priced global system.

A number of engineering tests have

already been performed at altitude by

piggybacking on a zero-pressure balloon launched by the Physical Science

Laboratory at New Mexico State University and with launches near the Oregon coast. Telemetry was received

line-of-sight from a distance of over

200 miles, the storage batteries were

charged by solar panels, the proper

thermal environment was maintained

during the daytime heating cycle, and

the instrument package was successfully recovered after descent by parachute.

GSD is also taking a leadership role

in implementing the International

Earth Observation System includes the

development and testing of Unmanned

Aircraft Systems (UAS, formerly

referred to as UAVs) for providing

global weather and climate observations. The GSD is one of several

NOAA Research laboratories collaborating with NASA in support of this

project. The goal of these missions is

to evaluate the utilization of UASs for

improved U.S. and global observing.

The Altair's integrated sensor package

consists of such components as an

ocean color sensor and passive

microwave sounder developed by the

NOAA's PSD, a gas chromatograph

and ozone sensor developed by GMD,

a digital camera system provided by

NASA, and an electro optical infrared

sensor provided by GA-ASI. High and

medium altitude, long-duration UASs

can fly at remote locations in dangerous flying conditions for long periods.

This technology provides many scientific benefits such as sustained global

high quality all-weather profiles of

atmospheric composition (water vapor,

Figure 3-DOC-28. Altair UAS.
SECTION 3 DOC 87

aerosol, cloud water and trace gases),

and high altitude vertical resolution

and profiling. It also offers a rapid

response platform for improved high

impact weather forecasts at 1-day to 2-

week lead times, and better climate

change detection, attribution, and prediction in support of policy decisions.

PSD and GSD will continue development of new sensors and innovative

techniques for combining observing

systems synergistically and economically. Efforts include developing tools

and techniques to integrate the data

from surface-based and satellite-borne

profiling systems for more effective

use of these data in forecasts. In support of this effort, PSD has an active

satellite remote sensing group that uses

data from various environmental satellites to study air-sea interaction

processes, the global hydrological

cycle including water vapor and precipitation, and the Earth's radiation

budget.

Icing is a weather hazard that occasionally causes aviation disasters,

especially in winter. In-flight icing

forms on wings and other exposed surfaces as an aircraft flies through clouds

that contain super-cooled liquid water

droplets. Leveraging earlier work with

polarization-sensitive cloud radars,

PSD designed a new ground-based

cloud radar and radiometer system to

monitor clouds in the vicinity of airports and to provide automated warnings of icing conditions aloft. This

instrument is the Ground-based

Remote Icing Detection System

(GRIDS). In addition, GSD continues

to perform research and analysis to

improve aviation forecasts. 

PSD, in association with the Center

for Environmental Technology (CET)

at the University of Colorado is developing an airborne Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer (PSR) designed to

provide higher resolution measurements of sea state quantities, including

surface winds. PSD/CET is also investigating the possibility of measuring

soil moisture by L-band radiometers.

Starting in 2003, PSD and GMD

have been working together with the

Canadian Meteorological Service and

Canadian Network for the Detection of

Climate Change (CANDAC) to reestablish a new Arctic Atmospheric

Observatory at Eureka, Ellesmere

Island, Canada, in North East Canada

as a part of the U.S. Studies of Environmental Arctic Change Program

(SEARCH). The Canadian Observatory is being designed to mirror many

of the cloud, aerosol and radiation

measurements that are already made at

the GMD Baseline Observatory in

Barrow, Alaska, that has been in continuous operation for 33 years. . Since

North East Canada and Barrow, Alaska

are in markedly different Arctic

regimes the long-term measurements

from these sites will be complementary in providing information to monitor Arctic atmospheric changes. Longterm data from these sites will be used

to improve short-term and long-term

forecast models, and improve satellite

measurement of meteorological phenomena in the Arctic regions. Along

with the National Science Foundation,

PSD and GMD are helping to refurbish

a historic meteorological station and

establish an Atmospheric Baseline

Observatory at Tiksi, in the Russian

Arctic. This would be the first station

of this type in a region that spans 75

percent of the Arctic littoral. Meteorological data from this newly re-instrumented site will continue a century of

data collection that had deteriorated

since the collapse of the Soviet Union,

and expand measurements to complement those collected at Barrow, Alaska

and Eureka, Canada. The high quality

of the data to be soon forthcoming

from the Tiksi station should considerably enhance Arctic weather prediction

and Arctic climate models.

PSD is engaging in a comprehensive

observation program to improve operational weather forecast and planned

climate model treatments of boundary

layer forcing processes. This work

centers on development and application of observing technologies for surface fluxes and key boundary-layer

variables (profiles of temperature,

humidity, wind, and cloud properties).

Ship-based measurement systems have

been developed and are now used routinely on NOAA research vessels to

investigate model accuracies in the

marine boundary layer. Recently,

land-based systems have been developed and deployed. One point of

emphasis is linking observed cloud

properties (obtained with mm-wavelength cloud radars and microwave

radiometers) to cloud effects on surface turbulent and radiative fluxes (this

approach is termed cloud forcing).

Ship-based and satellite retrievals of

cloud and flux properties are being

used. PSD is compiling a large data

base to allow climatologically-oriented

studies of model parameterizations.

Future plans include expanding the

observational capabilities to add scanning mm-radar capabilities for investigation of precipitation initiation (a critical issue in triggering deep convection

in model domains).

The PSD satellite applications group

has developed new techniques for

monitoring atmospheric properties

over the ocean surface including air

temperature and specific humidity.

Retrievals of these quantities were

improved through a novel use of satellite atmospheric sounders in combination with passive microwave imaging

radiometers. The products are being

applied to improved global estimates

of the flux of heat between the ocean

and atmosphere. PSD is also producing a new satellite-derived sea surface

temperature product through the

blending of infrared and passive

microwave data. The technique takes

advantage of the complementary

strengths of the two sensor types. The

product has significant meteorological

applications through its use as an input

to numerical weather forecast and cli-
88 DOC SECTION 3 

mate models.

The NSSL is known for its development of observational capability, both

remote and in-situ, and in particular for

its role in the development of the

WSR-88D NEXRAD radar. NSSL

continues to improve the WSR-88D

software algorithms used by the NWS

forecasters and is exploring ways to

enhance the WSR-88D hardware using

dual polarization techniques under the

NEXRAD Product Improvement

(NPI) activity. NPI planning, guidance, and funding involves NOAA,

DOT/FAA, and DOD/Air Force.

Most weather radars, including the

WSR-88D NEXRAD radar, transmit

radio wave pulses that have a horizontal orientation. Polarimetric radars

(also referred to as dual-polarization

radars), however, transmit radio wave

pulses that have both horizontal and

vertical orientations. The horizontal

pulses essentially give a measure of the

horizontal dimension of cloud (cloud

water and cloud ice) and precipitation

(snow, ice pellets, hail, rain) particles

while the vertical pulses essentially

give a measure of the vertical dimension. Since the power returned to the

radar is a complicated function of each

particle size, shape, and ice density,

this additional information results in

improved estimates of rain and snow

rates, better detection of large hail

location in summer storms, and

improved identification of rain/snow

transition regions in winter storms.

The signal processing requirements for

dual polarization requires an initial

step of deploying a new Radar Data

Acquisition (RDA) unit for the WSR88D that is capable of processing the

polarimetric signals. The new RDA

deployment is underway and is currently scheduled for completion of the

U.S. network the week of September

25, 2006.

In 2020, the WSR-88D radars forming this NEXRAD network will be

over 23 years old. In about the same

time frame, most of the Nation's aircraft surveillance radars will be nearing the end of their design life. Decisions on replacing or repairing and

upgrading these National radar assets

must be made over the next 10 to 15

years. We are now on the threshold of

a revolution in civilian radar capability,

enabled by the adaptation of established military radar technology to

existing civilian applications, plus new

capabilities beyond what current systems can provide. Historically, civilian

radars with large rotating antennas like

the NEXRAD weather surveillance

network and the aircraft surveillance

radars used by the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) evolved from

military radar applications. During the

past several decades, a new generation

of military radars has matured. These

electronically scanning phased array

radars with no moving parts (rotating

antennas) were originally developed to

track multiple airborne objects such as

aircraft and missiles simultaneously.

The unique beam agility, increased resolution, and faster full-volume scan

rate of phased array radar can enable a

single radar unit to perform multiple

weather and atmospheric surveillance

tasks and, at the same time, track multiple airborne craft.

Thus, a single network of multifunction phased array radar (MPAR) units

could provide next-generation expansion of our current weather surveillance network, replace the Nation's

aging air traffic surveillance radars,

and meet homeland security and

defense requirements for identifying

and tracking non-cooperative craft

operating over the U.S. homeland.

MPAR will enable continued improvement of the Nation's severe weather

warning system. It can provide adaptive sensing for warnings and nowcasts

related to severe convective storms and

the locally destructive effects of hurricanes (tropical cyclones) after they

make landfall. Among the storm phenomena that could be tracked are tornadoes, strong wind gusts, hail, and

locally heavy rains responsible for

flash floods and mudslides. The

enhanced weather surveillance provided by an MPAR network will provide economic benefits to domestic

aviation and surface transportation systems. The agility and specificity of its

multitasking beams will provide more

detailed weather and atmospheric

observations for urban meteorology,

air quality nowcasts and forecasts, climate variability monitoring and forecasting, wildland fire monitoring and

prediction, and atmospheric transport

Figure 3-DOC-29. The rapid scanning ability of phased array radar has the

potential to significantly increase the average lead times of tornado warnings.
SECTION 3 DOC 89

and diffusion modeling. The noncooperative aircraft surveillance capability of an MPAR network would

complement the cooperative surveillance strategy planned for the Next

Generation Air Traffic System

(NGATS), while also addressing new

craft tracking requirements of the

Departments of Defense and Homeland Security. While research at NSSL

is establishing the proof-of-principle

for new applications of weather radar

in these and other areas, the adaptive

flexibility of MPAR will be essential in

transferring these promising radar

techniques to operations.

Because an MPAR network would

replace multiple existing networks, it

offers an affordable option to the alternative strategy of continuing with the

existing civilian radar capability by

repairing and eventually replacing

aging units. Due to technology breakthroughs in radio frequency components, fueled by the wireless telephony

and digital communications industries,

the cost of a key MPAR component-the

transmit-receive elements in an MPAR

antenna-has dropped by orders of magnitude over the past 5 years, and this

trend should continue. For a number

of reasons, the operations and maintenance costs for MPAR units appear to

be a third area of substantial savings

relative to continuing to repair and

replace current radar

units as

they age. 

Thus,

with respect

to both

capabilities

and cost,

MPAR is a

promising

option for

meeting the

Nation's

future

domestic

radar surveillance needs. Using multiple beams

and frequencies that are controlled

electronically, NSSL has demonstrated

phased array radar reduces the scan

time of severe weather from six minutes for the NEXRAD radar to less

than one minute, producing quicker

updates of data and thereby potentially

increasing the lead time for tornado

warnings well beyond the current average of 13 minutes.

In support of improved understanding of the changing chemical composition of the atmosphere, the Field

Research Division of the Air

Resources Laboratory (ARL) has continued to refine its constant-level

"smart" balloon. The smart balloon is

intended to serve as a marker of

parcels of air moving across the countryside and permitting samples to be

made of the changes occurring in its

composition. These balloons are being

used both for air quality studies, such

as the 2006 Texas study, and for hurricane research. The Field Research

Division has also developed an

Extreme Turbulence (ET) probe for

measuring turbulence and surface

fluxes in hurricanes. ET probes were

successfully deployed into landfalling

hurricanes in 2004, and plans are in

place to eventually deploy them on

moored NOAA buoys. The Oak Ridge

Division of ARL continues to lead in

the development of specialized sensors

for measuring atmospheric turbulence.

Their systems are now widely used for

measuring the efficiency of coupling

between the air and the surface, and

have recently been selected for instrumenting the latest generation of

research aircraft, manufactured in

Italy.

In addition to the many weather

related observing systems, OAR also

dedicates significant time to improving

the development, deployment, and

monitoring of oceanographic related

observing technologies and related

data. As part of this effort, AOML

manages the deployment of drifting

buoys around the world, deploying

some 300 new drifters annually and

tracking nearly 700 as part of the

Global Drifter Program. Using

research ships, VOS, and U.S. Navy

aircraft, Global Lagrangian Drifters

(GLD) are placed in areas of interest.

Once verified as operational, they are

reported to AOML's Data Assembly

Center (DAC). Incoming data from

the drifter are then placed on the

Global Telecommunications System

(GTS) for distribution to meteorological services everywhere. The primary

goal of this project is to assemble and

provide uniform quality control of SST

and surface velocity measurements.

These measurements are obtained as

part of an international program

designed to make this data available in

an effort to improve climate prediction.

Climate prediction models require

accurate estimates of SST to initialize

their ocean component. Drifting buoys

provide essential ground truth SST

data for this purpose. The models also

require validation by comparison with

independent data sets. Surface velocity measurements are used for this validation.

In support of Global Climate

Observing System (GCOS) requirements, OAR, in cooperation with

NWS, the Office of Global Programs

(OGP; housed within OAR), AOML,

Figure 3-DOC-30. Electronically scanning phased array radars

with no moving parts enable a single radar unit to perform multiple weather and atmospheric surveillance tasks and, at the same

time, track multiple airborne craft.
90 DOC SECTION 3 

and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, maintains a network of approximately 100 meteorological drifting

buoys in the Southern Hemisphere as

part of the Southern Hemisphere Drifting Buoy Program. The buoys measure atmospheric pressure at sea-level,

air temperature, surface sea water temperature, and surface currents. Observations are obtained through the

ARGOS data collection and platform

location system on-board the NOAA

polar-orbiting satellites. The buoys are

a subset of the Global Drifter Program.

The Tropical Atmosphere

Ocean/TRIangle Trans-Ocean buoy

Network (TAO/TRITON) array consists of approximately 70 Autonomous

Temperature Line Acquisition System

(ATLAS) and TRITON moorings in

the tropical Pacific Ocean, telemetering oceanographic and meteorological

data to shore in real-time via the

ARGOS satellite system. Designed to

improve detection, understanding, and

prediction of El Niño, TAO/TRITON

is a major component of the El

Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

Observing System, the Global Climate

Observing System (GCOS), and the

Global Ocean Observing System

(GOOS). The array is supported primarily by the U.S. (NOAA) and Japan

(JAMSTEC) with contributions from

France (IRD) and Taiwan (NTU). The

mooring array is maintained by the

TAO Project Office located at the

Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) in Seattle, Washington.

PMEL has responsibility for project

management and logistics. The mooring array operations have recently been

transferred to NWS. These buoys provide climate researchers, weather prediction centers, and scientists around

the world with real-time data from the

tropical Pacific. El Niño (the warm

phase of the ENSO cycle) is associated

with a disruption of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific and

has important consequences for

weather around the globe.

The Pilot Research Moored Array in

the Tropical Atlantic (PIRATA) is a

project designed as an extension of the

TAO array into the Atlantic. The purpose of PIRATA is to study oceanatmosphere interactions in the tropical

Atlantic that are relevant to regional

climate variability on seasonal, interannual and longer time scales. It consists of an array of 12 ATLAS moorings similar to those deployed in the

Pacific. Planned expansion of the

PIRATA array into the hurricane genesis region of the Atlantic will allow for

a better understanding of ocean-atmosphere interactions on hurricane development and enhanced predictions of

hurricane formation.

In an effort to better understand and

forecast climate, OAR has been

deploying a global array of profiling

floats since 2000. The broad-scale

global array of temperature/salinity

profiling floats, known as Argo, has

already grown to be a major component of the ocean observing system

with an intended deployment of 3000

floats. Argo floats are free-drifting

profiling floats that spend most of their

life "parked" at 1,000 or 2,000 meters

depth in the ocean, regularly surfacing

to make temperature and salinity profile measurements and providing those

observations in real-time. As of

August 2006, 2485 Argo floats have

been deployed. The Argo array is part

of the Global Climate Observing System/Global Ocean Observing System

GCOS/ GOOS) and is a major contributor to the WCRP's Climate Variability

and Predictability Experiment ( CLIVAR) and the Global Ocean Data

Assimilation Experiment (GODAE).

Along with satellites, Argo provides a

quantitative description of the changing state of the upper ocean and the

patterns of ocean climate variability

from months to decades, including

heat and freshwater storage and transport.

As part of the backbone for the Integrated Ocean Observing System

(IOOS), OAR supports the national

ocean observation backbone through

29 deployed or planned operational

ocean moorings as part of the Ocean

Reference Station network. The operational ocean moorings provide measurements of high quality air-sea fluxes

of heat, moisture, and momentum that

will be used to make regional assessments of flux components from numerical weather prediction models and

satellites. A partnership with the

National Science Foundation's ORION

program will greatly enhance the

capacity of the network.

HIGH IMPACT WEATHER

RESEARCH

In addition to research and development of observing systems and related

technology, OAR also focuses on ways

to improve our understanding and the

predictability of severe weather systems and their associated hazards. Providing significant national leadership

in this area, the National Severe

Storms Laboratory (NSSL) focuses on

research to better understand such hazards as tornadoes, hail, high winds,

heavy rain and snow, lightning, and ice

storms with the goal of helping the

National Weather Service (NWS)

improve forecasts and warnings. The

parameters of storm development and

intensification are identified and studied by incorporating observations from

Doppler weather radar, satellites,

remote-sensing wind profilers, instruFigure 3-DOC-31. One of approximately 70 Autonomous Temperature

Line Acquisition System (ATLAS) and

TRITON moorings in the tropical

Pacific Ocean.
SECTION 3 DOC 91

mented aircraft, and lightning-location

networks. NSSL's research includes

assessment and improvement of

numerical models to forecast severe

weather systems.

NSSL provides significant technical

and scientific support, with a focus on

research and development, for the

NWS WSR-88D radar program. In

2006, NSSL continued to develop

techniques, in cooperation with the

NWS, to forecast and warn of weather

hazards to aviation and the general

public.

NSSL's vision for the warning decision process continues to evolve as our

scientists and engineers work toward

integrating the next generation radar

(MPAR) and storm-scale numerical

models to create a storm-scale prediction capability for our National

Weather Service partners. While it is

not possible today, within the next

decade we envision operational units

using a "Warn on Forecast" methodology, e.g., a forecaster will use thunderstorm-resolving computer models for

severe weather warnings in the same

way as he/she does today with our current Doppler radar systems. It is

believed that these enhancements to

our operational weather capability will

lead to a more accurate warning system which increases lead time and provides probabilistic information that

enables the public to take the best reasonable action during a severe weather

event.

During the spring and summer of

2006, NSSL conducted the Severe Hail

Verification Experiment (SHAVE)

with the goal of testing new technologies that will vastly improve the verification of severe weather events as well

as the climate record of those events.

SHAVE researchers documented hail

swaths from severe thunderstorms at a

high spatial and temporal resolution by

integrating real-time meteorological

data into Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This integration permitted

the SHAVE team (NSSL/CIMMS scientists and University of Oklahoma

students) to make verification phone

calls to very specific locations. Rather

than an average of 1-2 hail reports collected from each storm, SHAVE collected anywhere from 10-100 reports

along the storm's paths at a much

higher spatial resolution and with

fewer time and space errors than in the

official storm climate record (the

Storm Data publication). Better verification data such as these are vital to

future improvements to the warning

process. These high-resolution data

sets enable: (1) validation of new probabilistic warning techniques that would

not otherwise be possible given the

typically coarse spatial resolution of

the severe event reports in Storm Data,

(2) enhanced, independent verification

of warnings issued by the National

Weather Service, and (3) validation of

high-spatial and temporal resolution

hail detection tools.

NSSL works with the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Aviation

Weather Research Program (AWRP) to

develop weather radar applications that

enhance the safety and efficiency of

the aviation community and the

National Airspace System. Work is

focused on both convective weather

and winter weather, with special attention to treating all WSR-88D radars

within the continental U.S. as a single

network. Such treatment allows NSSL

to produce a single, authoritative 3-

dimensional grid of radar data. Intensive research is also directed to polarimetric radar applications unique to aviation needs. Examples include winter

time quantitative precipitation estimation, detection of icing conditions, and

data quality issues unique to FAA

users.

The NSSL is collaborating with the

NWS Office of Hydrologic Development (OHD) and the Office of Climate

Weather and Water Services in the

development, testing, and research-tooperations of a 'state of the science'

approach to quantitative precipitation

estimation (QPE) and short-term precipitation forecasts (QPF). The goal of

this cross agency collaboration is to

increase warning lead times for the

detection and prediction of flash floods

and river flooding. This effort is part

of the Advanced Hydrologic Prediction

Services (AHPS), which is an essential

component of the NWS Climate,

Water, and Weather Services. The

Figure 3-DOC-32. Photo taken May 11, 1982, by NSSL storm intercept team in

the hail core of a supercell thunderstorm that later produced an F2 tornado.
92 DOC SECTION 3 

research and development into QPE

and QPF is being afforded by a Federal

Aviation Administration and National

Centers for Environmental Prediction

collaboration towards the integration

of radar networks into seamless highresolution three-dimensional mosaics

for use in aviation safety and atmospheric model data assimilation. NSSL

has established the infrastructure and

techniques for ingesting domestic and

international weather surveillance

radars, along with integrating satellite

and surface observations, to facilitate

research and development toward

advance monitoring of the Nation's

fresh water resources. The vision and

objectives of the research is to improve

the capability to effectively manage

the Nation's fresh water resources and

to mitigate the social and economic

impacts of flooding through timely and

accurate detection and prediction of

precipitation.

NSSL continues to lead a project

called CI-FLOW (Coastal-Inland

Flood Observation and Warning) that

uses NSSL's multi-sensor rainfall estimates to drive an NWS distributed

hydrologic model that predicts streamflow to help NWS improve flash flood

warnings. In addition, the streamflow

information is used to drive three models run by our partners at N.C. State

University, a water quality model,

estuary model, and storm surge model.

This system of coupled models, when

fully integrated, can be used for landuse studies, algal bloom studies, pollution studies, inundation studies of

landfalling tropical systems, for example.

NSSL is participating in NOAA's

Hydrometeorological Testbed or HMT.

The HMT is a NOAA-led research

activity with several external partners

(e.g., universities, water management

groups, etc.). The objective of the

overall HMT program, of which HMTWest is the first full-scale deployment,

is to accelerate the infusion of new

technologies, models, and scientific

results from the research community

into daily forecasting operations of the

National Weather Service and its River

Forecast Centers. The research activities in HMT-West this year focused on

deployment of NSSL's SMART-R

radar system to observe heavy rainfall

events over the American River Basin

near Sacramento, California. Twelve

storm systems were observed and

unprecedented data sets were collected

in FY 2006.

NSSL has been working with U.S.

Geological Survey (USGS) and NWS

scientists to improve the debris flow

warnings for Southern California.

Recent fires in the foothills can lead to

devastating debris flows (mudslides)

when subsequent storms deposit relatively modest rains on those foothills.

The USGS instrumented a recent burn

area (the Harvard fire region near Burbank California) for high resolution

studies in order to refine the warnings

thresholds. NSSL contributed a

mobile radar to make high-resolution

radar estimates of precipitation over

the Harvard burn area this last winter.

Five rainstorms were observed, of

which 2 produced moderate debris

flows.

Improvement of short-range (1-12

hour) forecasting will be accomplished

by the development and evaluation of

new local data system technologies

and techniques, many of which can be

incorporated into operational weather

forecasting in the near term. GSD

develops and evaluates state-of-the-art

workstations for forecast office environments. Specifically, GSD has and

will continue to develop capabilities to

allow the forecaster to integrate, view,

and manipulate observations from current and planned meteorological sensing systems using computer-assisted

data display and synthesis techniques.

NSSL is collaborating with NWS and

GSD to integrate some of NSSL's

advanced single and multi-radar display capabilities into AWIPS.

GSD will continue efforts toward

effective assimilation of diverse observational data into numerical prediction

models. Data from the Aeronautical

Radio Incorporated (ARINC) Aircraft

Communications, Addressing, and

Reporting System (ACARS); WSR88D Doppler radars; and weather satellites, especially Geostationary Operational Environ-mental Satellite

(GOES), are frequent and provide

unprecedented resolution, either in the

vertical or the horizontal, or both.

These data are being more fully

exploited in the Local Analysis and

Prediction System which provides

highly detailed analyses and forecasts

over areas hundreds of kilometers on a

side, and the Mesoscale Analysis and

Prediction System, the basis for operational and frequent short-term forecasts for the lower 48 states. The system has been incorporated into the

AWIPS system and is being used by a

number of other agencies, not only for

various regions of the U.S., but for a

number of regions throughout the

world.

OAR will continue to transfer

knowledge of Doppler radar applications, severe weather systems, and

heavy rainfall events; much of the

transfer is through courses at the NWS

training center. Visits and interactions

with NWS centers, regional headquarters, and forecast offices continue and

NSSL is participating directly in training programs, such as COMET in

Boulder, Colorado, and the WSR-88D

Operational Support Facility in Norman, Oklahoma.

A multi-year program of coastal

meteorology research continues at the

Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL). This program also

involves ESRL and NSSL, the Seattle

NWS Forecast Office, the National

Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR), and the University of Washington. Support for the program is also

being provided by the Office of Naval

Research. This research improves

understanding of the effects of promi-
SECTION 3 DOC 93

nent terrain on West Coast weather,

with the ultimate goal of providing

improved forecasts of coastal winds,

precipitation, sea state, and storm

surges. The emphasis is on the

upstream effects of the coastal terrain

in the storm environment when the

background forcing is strong and the

coastal forecasts are most critical. The

approach involves special field observations and diagnostic studies using

experimental numerical simulations.

Field work featuring a NOAA WP-3

research aircraft in the 1990s, for

example, has yielded meteorological

data for the Pacific Northwest coast

with low-level winds of up to 85 knots,

in the vicinity of strong fronts and, in

one case, an intense, landfalling low

pressure system. The case studies

from this work provide immediate

insights on the influences of the coastal

terrain on landfalling storms, and high

quality data sets for numerical model

initialization and validation. Followup field programs in FY 2004 and FY

2005 focused on cloud and precipitation processes using special observations from research aircraft and landbased radars. The results are providing

information on how to improve forecasts of storms in the Western U.S..

This activity is also coordinated with

the NWS Office of Hydrologic Development and NCEP's Climate Prediction Center for support to hydrologic

resource forecasting to help better

forecast floods and droughts.

MESOMETEOROLOGY AND PRECIPITATION FORECASTING AND

WARNING RESEARCH

In support of NOAA's goal of protecting lives and property, OAR contributes to the development of techniques to improve short term forecasters of significant weather events.

Through detailed case studies and

regional climatologies, National

Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) scientists have developed diagnostic tools

and aids for operationally forecasting

thunderstorms, lightning, flash floods,

and large mesoscale convective storm

complexes. Field programs were carried out and followed by extensive

analyses were conducted to improve

the science behind technology

advances. Example programs whose

data have been and continue to be analyzed include (1) the Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation

Study (STEPS) in 2000, (2) the International H2O Project (IHOP), (3) the

Thunderstorm Electrification and

Lightning Experiment (TELEX) 2003

and 2004, and (4) the annual collaborative severe storm research by NSSL,

the NWS/SPC, and collaborators.

Other NSSL studies underway are

focused on the precipitation structure

of large storm systems (mesoscale convective systems), the interactions

between meso-convective systems and

the larger environment, the use of

satellites to infer storm development

and rainfall, short-range ensemble

forecasting techniques, and winter

storm forecasting procedures. Findings from these research activities lead

to supporting the forecasting of a variety of high impact weather events.

NSSL will continue to investigate

various model convective parameterization schemes, along with techniques

to improve model initialization

through four-dimensional data assimilation. Advances continue in numerical simulation and forecasting at

mesoscale and stormscale resolutions.

Current research is using data assimilation by ensemble Kalman Filter

method, as well as lightning data

assimilation, to improve forecasting of

convection. At stormscale, pure simulation is also employed for improving

understanding of dynamics, microphysics, and lightning. Toward the

goal of improving operational

mesoscale model and human forecasts

of storms and their environments,

NSSL researchers investigate the convection initiation (CI) process and the

types of observations required to represent CI and storms in both research and

operational mesoscale analysis and

forecast model systems.

In 2002, NSSL contributed expertise

and ground-based mobile radar, mobile

mesonets, and mobile sounding observations during the International H2O

Project (IHOP) conducted on the U.S.

Southern Great Plains (SGP). The

chief aim of the 2002 IHOP campaign

is improved characterization of the

four-dimensional (4-D) evolution of

water vapor and boundary layer (BL)

structure with application toward

improving the prediction of convective

storms. The SGP region is an optimal

location due to existing experimental

and operational facilities, strong variability in moisture, and active storms

and convective systems providing

most of the warm season precipitation

east of the Rocky Mountains. Recent

studies report a new method for objectively combining diverse radar and insitu measurements to obtain internally

consistent analyses of BL evolution

and cloud formation with application

to cases that illustrate the impact of

drylines and cold fronts on the CI

process. Given sound conceptual

models of the CI process, forecasters

in turn can interpret available observations more precisely to improve specificity and accuracy of storm forecasts.

Another recent study reports the potential improvement of mesoscale model

initialization via the assimilation of all

types of real-time total and cloud-toground lightning observations to

improve representation of ongoing

convection and its integrated effects on

model initial conditions.

NSSL has also made advances in

interpreting lightning data in forecasting. This information will point to new

ways for the National Weather Service

to use lightning observations to

improve forecasts and warnings of

hazardous weather. NSSL operates

state-of-the-science facilities that

include the KOUN radar in Norman,

which is a WSR-88D radar modified
94 DOC SECTION 3 

with polarimetric parameters to provide information about the particle size

and water phase of precipitation and

the Oklahoma Lightning Mapping

Array (LMA). The OK-LMA is a network of 11 stations in central Oklahoma that continuously maps in high

space and time resolution the structure

of all types of lightning in threedimensions out to a range of 75 km and

in two-dimensions out to a range of

200 km. All the technology advances

and research findings are aimed at

NSSL's contribution to advances in

forecasting high-impact weather

events.

NSSL is working with the NWS

Storm Prediction Center (SPC) to

improve the nation's ability to forecast

severe weather and to enhance severe

winter weather guidance products.

Data collected during the IPEX campaign held in 2001 should help. The

data are being analyzed by NSSL, SPC

and University of Utah scientists. The

IPEX field and research program was

designed to improve the understanding, analysis, and prediction of precipitation and precipitation processes in

complex terrain. Data analysis of

IPEX continue in 2005. In addition,

the SPC/NSSL collaboration has led to

improvements in the way we understand convection initiated near the dryline and tornadoes spawned by hurricanes. A major forecast challenge for

SPC forecasters is severe weather from

elevated convection. Recent collaborative research shows the spatial and

temporal distribution of such severe

weather reports and begins to provide

insight into processes that would

improve our ability to forecast these

events.

NSSL has developed a unique and

vibrant collaboration with the operational forecasting community, which

has recently been formalized with the

establishment of the NOAA Hazardous

Weather Testbed (HWT). The mutual

interests of forecasters from the

NOAA Storm Prediction Center,

researchers from NSSL, and collocated

joint research partners from the Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies (CIMMS) inspired

the formation of the HWT. The testbed's activities have been varied,

including activities such as daily map

discussions involving imminent severe

weather, loosely-related research projects involving 2-3 collaborators, and

periodic intensive collaboration periods with larger groups. But the cornerstone of the testbed has been the

SPC/NSSL Spring Program, a series of

annual experiments that attracts 50-60

researchers and forecasters to Norman

each year.

The premise of each Spring Experiment is to provide forecasters with a

first-hand look at the latest research

concepts and products, while immersing research scientists in the challenges, needs, and constraints of frontline forecasters. In practice, this program gives forecasters direct access to

the latest research developments while

imparting scientists with the knowledge to formulate research strategies

that will have practical benefits. The

end result is not only better severeweather forecasts, but important contributions to the scientific literature as

well. Science partners in recent Spring

Experiments have included NCAR,

NCEP/EMC, OU/CAPS, and numerous academic centers.

As the Norman meteorological community consolidates its diverse workforce in a common building, numerous

groups are adopting the collaborative

spirit and innovative approach of the

HWT. At the same time, the HWT is

expanding to embrace these groups

and provide the framework for development and implementation of new

technologies in different areas, particularly those focusing on shortertimescale forecasting challenges. For

example, NSSL's Severe Weather

Warning Applications and Technology

Transfer (SWAT) team and the NWS

Norman WFO are stepping into important leadership roles within the HWT.

NSSL anticipates that the proof of

concept established through the annual

NSSL/SPC Spring Experiment and the

early years of the HWT will play an

important role in bringing together the

diverse elements of the Norman meteorological community and like-minded

meteorologists from across the country. In fact, Congress recently provided seed funding to help foster a collaboration between the HWT, the University of Alabama at Huntsville, and

NASA's Short-term Prediction

Research and Transition Center

(SPoRT), a joint center staffed by

NASA research meteorologists also

located in Huntsville, and the

Huntsville WFO. The group in Oklahoma is being referred to as

HWT/Norman and the groups in

Alabama are being referred to as

HWT/Huntsville. The HWT/Norman

has decades of experience on severe

weather and tornadoes characteristic of

the central plains (long-lived supercell

thunderstorms, for example), while the

HWT/Huntsville has experience with

the severe weather and tornadoes that

are characteristic of the southeast U.S.

(especially those spawned by landfalling tropical systems). Working

together, we believe these groups will

strengthen the nation's collective

knowledge and understanding of these

hazardous convective events, leading

to significant contributions to the science and improved severe-thunderstorm and tornado watches and warnings for the public.

Figure 3-DOC-33. The OU Doppleron-Wheels and the NSSL mobile laboratory take measurements of a snowstorm in Idaho during IPEX.
SECTION 3 DOC 95

NSSL has been on the forefront of

short-range ensemble forecasting and

exploring the use of ensembles for

forecasts of severe weather. During

the summers of 2002 through 2004,

NSSL was a partner in the New England High-Resolution Temperature

Program. The role of NSSL was to

provide several model forecasts and

collect forecast data from NCEP and

FSL and develop post-processing techniques to improve upon Model Output

Statistics. A simple yet powerful bias

correction approach was developed in

which the past 12 days of model data

and observations are used to bias correct today's forecasts. Results indicate

that the bias-corrected ensemble forecasts improve upon MOS and also provide reliable probabilistic forecast

information. In addition, a novel

approach to providing reliable probabilistic quantitative precipitation forecasts was developed and tested. In

2003, NSSL in partnership with the

SPC embarked on an experiment to

test the value of human forecasters in

creating ensemble initial condition perturbations. Results indicate that

human-generated ensemble perturbations can contribute positively to

ensemble skill for severe weather

events, indicating that the knowledge

and experience of forecasters needs to

be put to better use as we learn how to

design ensembles for a variety of end

users. With ensembles a regular part of

the NCEP operational suite,

approaches such as bias correction and

human-generated ensemble perturbations as crucial to making best use of

the model forecast data for both routine and severe weather forecasts.

Mesoscale dynamics research at the

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) in Princeton, New Jersey,

develops and utilizes atmospheric

models with limited spatial domains to

understand mesoscale phenomena and

the interaction of these regional scale

features with the atmosphere's largerscale synoptic processes. As part of

these research activities, GFDL scientists investigate the practical limits of

forecast models to predict the behavior

of these mesoscale features through

model sensitivity studies. (Figure 3-

DOC-20). Current research focuses on

extending these activities to the global

domain through state-of-the-art global

atmospheric models.

In 1994, the Global Systems Division (GSD) of ESRL implemented a

Rapid Update Cycle (RUC) model at

the NWS National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and continues to provide periodic follow up

upgrades. The RUC provides a new

analysis of surface and atmospheric

conditions every three hours as well as

short-range predictions for the next 12

hours. This information is useful to

forecasters at local NWS offices

around the country and also supports

commercial and general aviation.

A higher-resolution, higher-frequency version of the RUC was implemented at NCEP in 2005. The 13-km

version of NOAA's Rapid Update

Cycle (RUC13) model became operational at 1200 UTC Tuesday 28 June

2005, at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). This is

a major milestone for improving the

RUC high-frequency short-range forecasts for NOAA and external users,

especially for aviation and severe

weather forecasting. The main

changes include higher horizontal resolution (from 20 km to 13 km),

improved data assimilation especially

for moisture/cloud fields, and

improved cloud/precipitation physics.

Most notable improvements are in surface and cloud/precipitation forecasts,

resulting in part from assimilation of

new observation types in the RUC13.

The model updates every hour, incorporating information from virtually all

high frequency data sources: hourly

wind profiles; WSR-88D (Doppler

radar) velocity azimuth displays;

ACARS reports (up to 65,000 per

day); cloud-drift winds and estimates

of total precipitable water vapor from

the GOES satellites; and surface obserFigure 3-DOC-34. GFDL’s 3-D model depiction of Hurricane Floyd.
96 DOC SECTION 3 

vations. The new RUC also includes

explicit forecasts of cloud droplets, ice

crystals, raindrops, snowflakes, and

graupel (snow pellets). This improves

forecasts of precipitation type. The

RUC exploits a new, multi-level soil

and vegetation model to improve forecasts at and near the earth's surface.

Along with NCAR, NCEP, and the

university community, GSD is collaborating on the development of a new

mesoscale model, the Weather

Research and Forecast (WRF) model.

The goal is to have the WRF model

become a community model and a tool

both for experimental and operational

prediction, thus paving the way for

quick realization of research advances

in forecast dissemination to the public

and industry.

The Air Resources Laboratory

(ARL) is also involved in the development of new models for operational

use by NCEP. The main focus is on

mesoscale models and in the development of new capabilities for data

assimilation. In particular, the new

generation of mesoscale models (such

as the WRF model referred to above)

will require advanced descriptions of

the coupling between the air and the

surface, a matter that is being studied

intensively in ARL programs involving

closely interacting measurement and

modeling activities. To this end, ARL

continues to work closely with the

Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) of

ESRL to maintain the nation's surface

radiation network (SURFRAD), data

from which are now routinely

employed to test both forecast

mesoscale models (such as the Eta

model) and satellite outputs. ARL conducts research on the surface energy

balance and on the spatial variability of

surface fluxes using aircraft. In addition, ARL serves as the provider of the

NCEP modeling capability to address

situations of atmospheric dispersion,

such as of emissions from sources like

volcanos, industrial enterprises, and

nuclear accidents. In recent work,

ARL is adapting a new system developed to forecast dispersion of smoke

from forest fires, in a study performed

in collaboration with the Association

of South East Asian Nations, the U.S.

Forest Service, and The Mediterranean

Centre for Environmental Studies

Foundation. The present program will

provide interim products to the joint

NOAA-EPA Air Quality Forecasting

Program to improve smoke dispersion

estimates in the particulate forecast

model.

TROPICAL ATMOSPHERIC

RESEARCH

The Tropical Dynamics and Climate

Program of the ESRL Physical Sciences Division (PSD) is using precipitation profilers to study the structure,

evolution and variability of precipitating cloud systems in the tropics and

elsewhere. Precipitation measurements can be made with sufficient vertical resolution to categorize precipitation in deep and shallow convective

systems and in stratiform conditions.

A recent focus of research with profilers has been to provide ground validation research in support of satellite precipitation measurement missions such

as the NASA Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). These

observations have provided important

information on the vertical structure

and temporal evolution of precipitating

cloud systems during TRMM Ground

Validation field campaigns. The observations made during the field campaigns are the subject of collaborative

research with other TRMM researchers

with an emphasis on the use of profilers to calibrate scanning radars used

for TRMM ground validation research

and the use of profilers to retrieve

drop-size distributions and related precipitation parameters of interest to the

TRMM Science Team. Validation of

drop-size distributions used in algorithms is key to improving the retrieval

of rainfall estimates from the TRMM

satellite data. The profiler-based precipitation research described above

also can be used to provide calibration

of NEXRAD scanning radars as has

recently been demonstrated for Melbourne, Florida. In related activities

PSD is carrying out hydrometeorological studies in collaboration with the

NWS in demonstrating the value of

hydrometeorological testbeds as a

means of improving the transition of

scientific advances to operations.

HURRICANE ANALYSIS AND PREDICTION RESEARCH

The Atlantic Oceanographic and

Meteorological Laboratory's Hurricane

Research Division (HRD) mission is to

advance the understanding and prediction of hurricanes and other tropical

weather. HRD's research is based on a

combination of models, theories, and

observations, with particular emphasis

on data obtained with research aircraft.

The goals of this research are to:

• Advance the prediction of tropical

cyclone intensity change by improving

understanding of the processes that

modulate internal storm dynamics and

storm interactions with the atmosphere

and ocean;

• Improve the prediction of tropical

cyclone tracks by enhancing understanding of the interactions between a

tropical cyclone and its environment

through an optimal analysis of field

observations;

• Improve the understanding of and

ability to predict tropical cyclone frequency and intensity on intraseasonal,

interannual, decadal and longer time

scales; and

• Enhance the ability to diagnose

and predict the impact of tropical

cyclones on life and property through

wind, rain, waves, and storm surge.

These goals are accomplished by:

• Designing and conducting

research experiments in the hurricane

to collect and provide data for research

and applications; 

• Analyzing these data sets and publishing the research in the refereed lit-
SECTION 3 DOC 97

erature; 

• Developing new technology and

applications based on this research to

improve NOAA's products; and 

• Providing outreach to the public

through the WWW, conferences, presentations, and other means.

Much of HRD's research is based on

the in-situ and remotely-sensed observations in the inner core of tropical

cyclones and their surrounding environment. These observations are primarily collected in our annual field

program using the two NOAA turboprop aircraft and jet operated by the

NOAA Aircraft Operations Center

(AOC). The field program is used to

carry out scientific experiments

designed to address the goals stated

above. Data sets gathered by these

experiments, combined with dynamical and statistical models and theoretical development, range from global to

microscale, forming the cornerstone of

research in HRD. Because of this

extensive field experience, HRD scientists are recognized internationally for

their knowledge of tropical cyclones as

well as their expertise in technological

areas such as airborne Doppler radar,

dropsondes, cloud microphysics, and

air-sea interaction, to name a few.

These assets make HRD unique worldwide, and provide NOAA a unique

capability.

In 2005, NOAA's HRD began a

multi-year experiment called the Intensity Forecasting Experiment (IFEX).

Developed in partnership with

NOAA's Environmental Modeling

Center (EMC), National Hurricane

Center (NHC), Aircraft Operations

Center (AOC), and National Environmental Satellite Data Information Service (NESDIS), IFEX is intended to

improve the prediction of hurricane

intensity change by:

1. collecting observations that span

the tropical cyclone lifecycle in a variety of environments;

2. developing and refining measurement technologies that provide

improved real-time monitoring of tropical cyclone intensity, structure, and

environment; and

3. improving our understanding and

prediction of the physical processes

important in intensity change for a

tropical cyclone at all stages of its lifecycle.

Observations are collected in a variety of tropical cyclones at different

stages in their lifecycle, from formation and early organization to peak

intensity and subsequent landfall,

decay over open water, or extratropical

transition. These observations also aid

in the improvement of operational

models and the development of the

next-generation operational hurricane

model, the Hurricane Weather

Research and Forecasting (HWRF)

model system. There are several

unique aspects of IFEX in 2006, that

will help improve our understanding

and prediction of hurricane intensity

change. Some examples are provided

below:

• Hurricane genesis experiment -

Take data to improve our knowledge of

the evolution of tropical waves to tropical storms.

• Impact of Saharan air on intensity

forecast models - Recent research has

shown that very dry air originating

from the African continent, called the

Saharan Air Layer (SAL), may be an

important factor in hurricane intensity

change.

• Doppler Radar - Mapping of the

center wind field from airborne tail

Doppler radar and its transmission to

EMC and NHC in real-time.

• The 2006 international African

Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis

(AMMA) and NASA AMMA

(NAMMA) field campaigns are concurrent research efforts that will compliment NOAA's IFEX research goal

to observe and describe intensity

change in storms developing off the

African coast. Much of NOAA's tropical cyclone research will be coordinated with AMMA and NAMMA in

2006 with a focus on investigating the

SAL, and how it interacts with developing hurricanes.

HRD coordinates its programs with

other NOAA organizations, e.g., AOC,

NESDIS, and NCEP, in particular with

EMC and NHC. HRD maintains

active research programs with, and

receives funding from other governmental agencies, in particular, the

Department of the Navy's Office of

Naval Research (ONR) and the

National Aeronautics and Space

Agency (NASA).

In program areas where it is beneficial to NOAA, HRD arranges cooperative programs with scientists at the

National Center for Atmospheric

Research, and at a number of universities. For example in 2004, HRD partFigure 3-DOC-35. This August 9, 2006 infrared satellite image from NOAA’s

GOES satellite shows a Saharan Air Layer (SAL) outbreak (yellow to red shading) spanning nearly 4,000 miles across the North Atlantic. A tropical disturbance is indicated along the southern periphery of the SAL and was likely

being suppressed by the SAL’s dry dusty air and strong mid-level winds.
98 DOC SECTION 3 

nered with ONR-sponsored university

and Federal scientists on the Coordinated Boundary Layer Air-Sea Transfer (CBLAST) experiment focused on

improving numerical model parameterization of the air-sea transfer of

energy that fuels the storms. HRD also

integrated two recent NASA Convective and Moisture Experiments

(CAMEX-3, 4) in 1998, 2001. Finally,

in 2005, HRD partnered with the

NASA-sponsored Tropical Cloud Systems and Processes (TCSP) experiment and the NSF-sponsored Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change

Experiment (RAINEX) to compliment

NOAA's IFEX research goals.

Under the USWRP and its participating agencies, OAR, NWS, and the

National Environmental Satellite Data

Information Service (NESDIS) established a Joint Hurricane Testbed (JHT)

at the Tropical Prediction Center in

Miami, Florida, in 1999

(http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/jht/index.sh

tml). This testbed is where the hurricane research is evaluated for operational use and those research products

passing the test will be handed off to

operations.

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND

PREDICTION MODELING

As part of its weather research activities, GFDL conducts long lead-time

research to understand the predictability of weather on both large and small

scales and to translate this understanding into improved numerical weather

prediction models. Three groups at

GFDL are engaged in weather research

activities: Climate Dynamics and Prediction, Weather and Atmospheric

Dynamics, and Atmospheric Physics

and Chemistry.

The Goal of the Climate Dynamics

and Prediction Group is to develop and

use computer models of the atmosphere-ocean- ice-land system in order

to:

• Identify and elucidate the physical

and dynamical mechanisms which

maintain climate and cause its variations on seasonal to centennial time

scales;

• Assess and understand the predictability of the climate system on

seasonal and longer time scales,

including the El Niño phenomenon;

and

• Evaluate the impact of human

activity on the Earth's climate system

This group is charged with studying

and modeling climate phenomena on

seasonal to multi-century time scales.

The group's work is highly relevant to

key elements of the NOAA Strategic

Vision, especially Mission Goal 2 to

"Understand climate variability and

change to enhance society's ability to

respond". In addition to examining a

wide range of climate time scales, various members of the group have

expertise spanning the expansive set of

complex and interconnected parts that

together constitute the Earth's physical

climate system (this includes the

atmosphere, ocean, land surface and

sea ice). Group members participate in

the development, testing, application,

and analysis of numerical models of

the climate system. Running on supercomputers, these models are the

research tools used by group members

to both advance our understanding of

the Earth's climate system and to generate products relevant to assessment

and policy decision support.

The Weather and Atmospheric

Dynamics Group at GFDL improves

our understanding of atmospheric circulations ranging in scale from hurricanes to extratropical storms and the

general circulation, with an emphasis

on extreme weather events and the

interplay between weather phenomena

and climate variability and change,

using high resolution atmospheric

modeling as the central tool. This

effort is augmented by the Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry group,

which performs research to improve

our understanding of the interactive

three-dimensional radiative-dynamical-chemical-hydrological structure of

the climate system from the surface

and troposphere to the upper stratosphere and mesosphere on various time

and space scales. This is achieved by

employing meteorological observations in conjunction with models for

diagnostic analyses of atmospheric

processes, and evaluating and improving parameterizations employed in

weather and climate models; modeling

the interactions between clouds, convection, radiation and large-scale

dynamics to understand their roles in

climate and climate change; and modeling the physics, chemistry and transport of atmospheric trace gases and

aerosols to investigate the impact of

future emissions on regional and

global air quality, and to investigate the

regional and global climatic effects

due to changes in natural and anthropogenic radiatively-active species.

AIR QUALITY RESEARCH

The principal mission of the Air

Resources Laboratory (ARL) is to

improve the capability to forecast

changes in air quality and atmospheric

deposition. Deposition is the factor

that links the pollutant characteristics

of the air with the terrestrial and

aquatic environments. ARL's research

focuses on the lower atmosphere,

where the atmosphere is in direct contact with other media-- aquatic, terrestrial, and biospheric. The core of ARL

research relates to studies of the

atmosphere as a component of the total

environment. Much of this work is in

collaboration with other parts of

NOAA (principally NCEP) and with

other agencies, such as EPA, DOE, and

the DoD.

The ARL Headquarters Division in

Silver Spring, Maryland, develops

models for air quality prediction, for

use in special forecasting (both

weather and air quality) programs, and

in emergency response. The Atmospheric Sciences Modeling Division, in

Research Triangle Park, North Car-
SECTION 3 DOC 99

olina, develops predictive models on

local, regional, and global scales for

assessing changes in air quality and air

pollution exposure as affected by

ecosystem management and regulations. This work is primarily to provide technical guidance to the EPA on

air pollution control strategies for

attainment and maintenance of ambient air quality standards, and for the

provision of ozone and particulate matter forecasts in support of the joint

NOAA-EPA Air Quality Forecasting

program.

The ARL Atmospheric Turbulence

and Diffusion Division, in Oak Ridge,

Tennessee, conducts studies to

improve understanding of atmospheric

transport, diffusion, and air-surface

exchange processes, and to develop

new predictive models.

The ARL Field Research Division, in

Idaho Falls, Idaho, designs and conducts field studies to evaluate the performance of transport and dispersion

models, over local, regional, and continental scales. The ARL Special Operations and Research Division (SORD)

in Las Vegas, Nevada conducts

research on problems of mutual interest to NOAA and DOE that relate to

the Nevada Test Site, its atmospheric

environment, and its emergency preparedness and emergency response

activities. SORD also serves as the

main NOAA facility working with the

Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric

Studies and Terrestrial Applications

(CIASTA) of the University of Nevada

system.

ARL participates in two national networks that direct research attention on

the needs of the next generation of predictive models. The Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network

(AIRMoN) is a nested-network with

sites of varying complexity addressing

evolving scientific issues of wet and

dry deposition from the atmosphere. A

major current item for scientific attention is the atmospheric deposition of

nitrogen compounds and its role in

promoting eutrophication of ecosystems, primarily coastal. The ARLdeveloped Integrated Surface Irradiance Study (ISIS) serves as the

national array of monitoring stations

for solar radiation (and ultraviolet-B)

with a subset of more advanced stations (the SURFRAD array) where

both incoming and outgoing radiation

components are monitored. Many of

the SURFRAD stations are augmented

with instrumentation to measure fluxes

of sensible heat, latent heat, momentum, and carbon dioxide. Thus, the

SURFRAD program is evolving into

one of complete energy balance with

supporting data on carbon dioxide

exchange. ISIS and SURFRAD are

presently operated by Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) of ESRL. This

work forms an intersection with the

new flux measurement networks in the

U.S. and overseas, referred to as

"Ameriflux" and "Fluxnet." All of this

work is coupled with ARL research on

atmospheric aerosols and with the

development of new automatic methods for measuring cloud cover.

Much of ARL's research focus is on

expressing air surface exchange

processes in numerical models. To this

end, ARL scientists have been instrumental in developing methods for

describing an air surface exchange

appropriate for use with model grid

cells of several tens of kilometers on a

side. To test the aerial integration

capabilities, ARL has instrumented an

aircraft of the NOAA fleet (a DeHavilland Twin Otter) to measure all of the

eddy fluxes as well as a number of

trace gas exchange rates. This instrumented aircraft has been used in several field experiments and has already

demonstrated that considerable error

can result when local values are inappropriately taken to represent larger

areas.

ARL also provides forecast support

to NOAA's emergency response systems with emphasis on chemical,

nuclear, and volcanic events. For this

application, ARL develops and couples

advanced dispersion models with the

forecast products of the NWS to provide a basis for trajectory and dispersion calculations. The models in question are now widely accepted. The

Hazardous Atmospheric Release

Model (HARM) is operationally

employed at a number of DOE locations. The ARL Hybrid Single Particle

Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory

(HYSPLIT) model is now operational

in many countries, including China

and Australia, as the national dispersion forecasting capability. It also

serves the NWS in this role. Registered users can also access HYSPLIT

products via the Internet. HYSPLIT is

the major product employed in the

operations of the Regional Specialized

Meteorology Center (RSMC) set up as

a joint undertaking of ARL and NCEP

under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The

WMO/ RSMC is the source of dispersion products in the event that a pollution plume (in this case, radioactive)

crosses international boundaries.

The provision of dispersion forecasts

by ARL scientists extends to two specific areas of special relevance - the

Nevada Test Site and the Idaho

National Laboratory. ARL maintains

staffs of dedicated dispersion meteorologists at each location, where sitespecific models are developed and run

using data generated by dedicated

regional networks of meteorological

sensors. These sites also serve as

research testbeds for improving ARL's

dispersion models, such as the HYSPLIT model.

Each of ARL's divisions also partici-
100 DOC SECTION 3 

pates in a cooperative agreement

designed to explore the synergy that

can be accomplished by collaboration

between the government and private

industry. The focus is the use of private sector data to address homeland

security threats and potential local

accidental events, as well as protection

of the general population through the

provision of better data in response to

weather and climate related events.

The intent of the program is to address

threats where most of the population

lives - in cities - exploring the use of

the large non-government database

that is available to most cities for use

in the next generation of computer

models.

The Chemical Sciences Division

(CSD) of ESRL coordinates the Health

of the Atmosphere air quality research

effort. NOAA's Health of the Atmosphere research is focused on the atmospheric science that underlies regional

and continental air quality, with the

goal of improving our ability to predict

and monitor future changes, leading to

improved scientific input to decisionmaking. CSD, ARL, GMD, GSD,

PMEL, and PSD participate in the

research. The Health of the Atmosphere research goals are:

• Characterize regional ozone

episodes: Characterize the factors that

cause poor air quality in regions of the

U.S. where excessive levels of groundlevel ozone and fine particle pollution

are occurring. In the summers of 2002

and 2004, two major field investigations were carried out to characterize

air quality in the New England region.

Ground-based measurements, ship and

aircraft measurements, forecasting,

and modeling analyses were applied in

the research. Among the processes

investigated were the role of nighttime

chemistry in the formation of ozone

pollution, the role of the seabreeze/land-breeze circuit in influencing New England's air quality, and the

role of the marine boundary layer as a

conduit for the movement of pollutants

throughout the region.

• Document trends in air quality:

Help evaluate predicted atmospheric

responses to changes in emissions (i.e.,

the ongoing measurements provided

by the Atmospheric Investigation,

Regional Modeling, Analysis and Prediction (AIRMoN) and the ozone profiling networks).

• Develop a better understanding of

the fundamental science underlying the

processes responsible for the formation

and distribution of fine particles in the

atmosphere to improve the atmospheric predictive capability that links

sources of fine particles and their precursors to human exposure and visibility impairment.

Under the future Health of the

Atmosphere research umbrella, the

OAR Laboratories integrate their

meteorological, chemical, and forecasting expertise to support an assessment and prediction capability for

regional air quality that incorporates

the influence of multiple-timescale

meteorology/climatology. While the

ambient levels of pollutants like ozone

and fine particles are clearly dependent

on pollutant emissions, the variation in

those levels is also driven by meteorology, both in the short term and longer

term. Therefore, assessing both the

intended long-term improvements in

air quality and the more-episodic variations requires an understanding, not

only the atmospheric linkages between

emissions and concentrations, but also

in understanding the coupled chemical

and meteorological processes.

Research efforts will also focus on an

evaluation and improvement of the

tools used to forecast future air quality

and the observing systems needed to

evaluate their skill.

This approach was used in the summer 2004 New England Air Quality

Study (NEAQS), which built on the

groundwork laid by the scoping study

done as NEAQS 2002. In 2004,

NEAQS was conducted in cooperation

with other agencies' complementary

field studies as the International Consortium for Atmospheric Research on

Transport and Transformation

(ICARTT). Observations were made

from an array of platforms that

includes a dozen aircraft, the NOAA

research vessel Ronald H. Brown, and

several ground sites in New England,

Canada and Europe. NEAQS will help

provide the scientific understanding

required to underpin the region's future

efforts to improve air quality for its citizens and required to develop

advanced air quality forecast capabilities.

NOAA is leading a similar effort in

East Texas during the Summer/Fall of

2006. Two NOAA aircraft and the

research vessel Ronald H. Brown are

being deployed to East Texas and the

Gulf of Mexico in a joint air qualityclimate study. NOAA is working with

the local air-regulatory agency, the

Texas Commission on Environmental

Quality (TCEQ), university

researchers, and scientists from sister

Federal agencies (NASA, EPA and

DOE) to better understand the causes

of, and potential solutions for, poor air

quality in the region. The extensive

data set collected will also be

employed to evaluate and improve air

quality forecast models.

The Air Quality Research Subcommittee (AQRS) of the Committee on

Environment and Natural Resources

(CENR) provides interagency collaboration at the U.S. Federal level.

NOAA co-leads the AQRS. On the

broader international arena, the coordiFigure 3-DOC-36. The research vessel, Ronald H. Brown.
SECTION 3 DOC 101

nating body is the North American

Research Strategy for Tropospheric

Ozone (NARSTO), a tri-lateral public/private partnership focused on

ozone and particulate matter research

in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. 

PSD and CSD use their suite of remote

sensors, including a mobile profiler

network, airborne and ground-based

ozone Lidars, Doppler Lidar, and supporting turbulence instrumentation to

understand and better model the transport, transformation, and fate of primary and secondary pollutants in both

rural and urban environments as well

as in complex orography. PSD and

CSD participated in field programs in

FY 2002 designed to develop a deeper

understanding of climate variability

and source pollutants in the New England region, and to investigate the

composition of air masses along the

Pacific coast of North America as part

of the Intercontinental Transport and

Chemical Transformation (ITCT) program. ITCT is a coordinated international research program designed to

address the question, "How does the

transport of chemicals from one continent influence the air quality in other

continents, as well as regional and

global climate?" PSD and CSD will be

deploying a number of lidar systems

and wind profiler radars in support of

these programs. In 2005, GMD added

high resolution ozone profile measurements to seven light aircraft instrument

packages that are flown on weekly/biweekly greenhouse gas sampling profiles across the continental U.S.

Within two years ozone instruments

will be added to an additional 14 profiling aircraft. This data will be evaluated for possible integration into air

quality and ozone forecast models.

SECTION 3 DOC 103

The National Ocean Service (NOS)

monitors, assesses, and forecasts conditions in the coastal and oceanic environment to maintain a healthy, safe, and

economically productive coastal and

oceanic environment for present and

future generations. NOS is the primary

civil agency within the Federal government responsible for the health and

safety of our nation's coastal and

oceanic environment. Largely through

the Tides and Current Program line,

NOS acquires water levels, currents,

winds, and other physical oceanographic and meteorological data, and

distributes these data and circulation

predictions as elements of an integrated

NOS program to provide a comprehensive science-based suite of information

products required by the marine transportation community to ensure safe and

efficient marine transportation, including the transport of oil and other hazardous materials. NOS also provides

coastal oceanographic and meteorological products required by the National

Weather Service (NWS) to meet its

short-term weather and forecasting

responsibilities, including tsunami and

storm surge warnings. NOS manages

several observing systems and programs, however four in particular are

heavily linked to the capability of

NOAA to meet weather and water

needs of the nation.

NATIONAL WATER LEVEL

OBSERVATION NETWORK

(NWLON)

NOS manages the NWLON, 200 stations located along the coasts of the

U.S. and the Great Lakes, from which

water level data, as well as other

oceanographic and meteorological

data, are collected and disseminated.

NWLON provides a number of NOAA

and other Federal programs with data

and supporting information, such as the

NOAA Nautical Charting Program,

NWS Tsunami Warning System, NWS

storm surge warning/forecast activities,

and the Climate and Global Change

Program. An event triggered or manually triggered NWLON modification is

now operational that allows emergency

"Tsunami Warning" GOES transmissions to NWS when the water level

exceeds a specified high/low limit or

when the rate of change between the

standard 6-minute water level values

exceeds a specified value. A similar

event triggered modification is also

operated for the NWS storm surge

warning program when expected elevations are predicted or observed during

coastal storms and hurricanes.

This capability for high-rate data has

recently been enhanced at many stations by the introduction of 6-minute

interval GOES transmissions.

Although not all NWLON stations are

presently equipped with meteorological

sensors, an increasing number of stations are each year. Water level and

meteorological data are automatically

formatted into bulletin format for inclusion into the NOAA AWIPS pipeline.

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC

REAL-TIME SYSTEM (PORTS®)

PORTS® is a decision support tool

which improves the safety and efficiency of maritime commerce and

coastal resource management through

the integration of real-time environmental observations, forecasts, and

other geospatial information. PORTS®

measures and disseminates observations and predictions of water levels,

currents, salinity, and many meteorological parameters, e.g. winds, barometric pressure, and visibility, needed

and requested by the mariner to navigate safely. Highway and railroad

bridge mounted "Air Gap" sensors for

water level detection are presently

being developed and are included in

future plans for PORTS®.

The 13 existing PORTS® systems

come in a variety of sizes and configurations, each specifically designed to

meet local user requirements.

PORTS® are partnership programs in

which local operating partners fund the

installation and operation of the measurement systems. The largest of NOS's

existing installations is comprised of

over 26 separate instruments. The

smallest consists of a single water level

gauge and associated oceanographic

and meteorological instruments, i.e.

winds, barometric pressure, etc. (Figure

3-DOC-37).

Regardless of its size, each PORTS®

installation provides information that

allows shippers and port operators to

maximize port throughput while maintaining an adequate margin of safety for

the increasingly large vessels visiting

U.S. ports. In addition, prevention of

maritime accidents is the most cost

effective measure that can be taken to

protect fragile coastal ecosystems. One

major oil spill, e.g. EXXON VALDEZ,

can cost billions of dollars and destroy

sensitive marine habitats critical to supporting coastal marine ecosystems.

PORTS® provides information to

make navigation safer, thus reducing

the likelihood of a maritime accident,

and also provides the information necessary to mitigate the damages from a

spill, should one occur. An extensible

PORTS® can be integrated with other

marine transportation technologies

such as Electronic Chart Display Information Systems (ECDIS) and Vessel

Traffic Systems (VTS).

NATIONAL OPERATIONAL

COASTAL MODELING PROGRAM (NOCMP)

NOCMP serves a variety of users

with oceanographic nowcast forecast

products for ports, estuaries and the

Great lakes. The integration of

PORTS® technology and numerical

circulation models allows nowcasts and

predictions of parameters within the

boundaries of the models even at locations where physical measurements are

not available. The Chesapeake Bay

Oceanographic Forecasting System

NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE
104 DOC SECTION 3

(CBOFS) is an NOS project that provides forecasts of total water level

within the Bay in addition to the astronomical tidal prediction. The New

York/New Jersey Harbor nowcast/forecast model came on line in 2003, followed by a Houston/Galveston Bay

nowcast/forecast model in 2004.

Newer models include the St. Johns

River, FL and the Great Lakes. In

cooperation with OAR and NWS, the

NOS CO-OPS now runs 5 models as

part of the Great Lakes Operational

Forecast System (GLOFS) providing

forecast guidance for water level, wind,

currents and water temperature. Also,

ongoing research will enable PORTS®

or similar systems to incorporate biological and chemical sensor systems

and forecast models as required and

integrate the information with circulation measurements to provide information on transports of materials in the

ecosystem essential for effective

marine resource management and

homeland security.

NOS CONTINUOUS REAL-TIME

MONITORING SYSTEM

(CORMS)

CORMS was designed to operate on

a 24hour/7 days a week basis to ensure

the accuracy and working status of tide

and current observations acquired via

the NWLON and PORTS® programs.

CORMS improves the overall data

quality assurance of real-time measurements, reduces NOAA's potential liability from disseminating inadequate

data, and makes the observations more

useful for all applications. CORMS

ingests real-time data from all field sensors and systems, including the operational nowcast/forecast models, determines data quality, and identifies and

communicates the presence of invalid

or suspect data to real-time users/customers who rely on the data (Figure 3-

DOC-38). CORMS is especially vigilant during storm and tsunami events to

ensure the full set of products and services is being disseminated in a timely

fashion. An advanced version of this

system, CORMS AI, is presently in

developmental stages.

Figure 3-DOC-37. New York/New Jersey PORTS: Bergen Point Composite.
SECTION 3 DOC 105

Figure 3-DOC-38. PORTS sites in the New York and

New Jersey linked by CORMS.

SECTION 3 DOC 107

NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations (NMAO) operates a wide variety

of specialized ships and aircraft to support NOAA mission goals. NOAA's

ship fleet includes oceanographic and

atmospheric research vessels.

NOAA's aircraft fleet includes aircraft

that collect environmental and geographic data essential to NOAA hurricane and other severe weather and

atmospheric research; and aircraft that

conduct aerial surveys for hydrologic

research for forecasting flooding

potential from snow melt.

NOAA SHIPS SUPPORTING

METEOROLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

NOAA Ship RONALD H. BROWN

(Figure 3-DOC-39), an oceanographic

and atmospheric research platform, is

the largest vessel in the NOAA fleet

(274 feet). With its instruments and

sensors, RONALD H. BROWN travels

worldwide supporting scientific studies to increase our understanding of the

world's oceans and climate. An

advanced meteorological scientific

Doppler radar makes the ship a unique

attribute to the research fleet.

NOAA Ship KA'IMIMOANA (Figure

3-DOC-40) primarily supports the

research programs of NOAA's Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) Project

(real-time data from moored ocean

buoys for improved detection, understanding and prediction of El Niño and

La Niña). These research programs are

designed to improve our understanding

of the role of the tropical ocean in the

world's climate. The ship deploys,

recovers, and services deep sea moorings that measure ocean currents,

ocean temperatures, and atmospheric

variables, throughout the equatorial

Pacific Ocean. In addition to data from

these moorings, the ship measures

upper ocean currents, surface salinity,

carbon dioxide content, and takes

upper air atmospheric soundings while

underway.

The RONALD H. BROWN and

KA'IMIMOANA annually support the

Tropical Atmospheric Ocean (TAO)

Array by servicing approximately 60

ATLAS and current meter moorings in

the central and eastern equatorial

Pacific.

In FY 2007, the RONALD H.

BROWN will work in cooperation with

the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute to conduct mooring recovery and

deployment operations of the Stratus

Ocean Reference Station (the sixth setting) under the stratocumulus clouds

off Chile and Peru. The ship will conduct meteorological and air-sea flux

observations to document and establish

the accuracy of the moored metrological observations, and to observe the

oceanic and atmospheric variability.

This region is of critical importance to

climate predictability. Additionally,

during the project the RONALD H.

BROWN will support the Chilean Navy

in the recovery and deployment of a

DART (Tsunami) mooring.

The RONALD H. BROWN will again

conduct the African Monsoon MultiNOAA Marine and Aviation Operations

Figure 3-DOC-39. NOAA Ship RONALD H. BROWN

Figure 3-DOC-40. NOAA Ship KA'IMIMOANA
108 DOC SECTION 3 

disciplinary Analysis study in FY 2007

to improve understanding of the West

African monsoon and its influence

both on the regional environment as

well as its role in Atlantic Tropical

cyclone development. In addition, the

ship will be conducting a CO2 tracer

study along the East Coast of the U.S..

In FY 2007, the RONALD H.

BROWN will work with the Woods

Hole Oceanographic Institute to conduct mooring deployment (seventh setting) and recovery operations of the

Northwest Tropical Atlantic Station

located approximately 500NM southwest of Barbados. Data will be simultaneously logged between the sixth and

seventh mooring and the ships meteorological suite during several hour long

inter-comparison periods.

NMAO supports the National Data

Buoy Center (NDBC) on an as-needed

basis in the recovery of meteorological

and environmental monitoring buoys

that have been disabled or become

adrift. In FY 2005, NMAO diverted

four ships for a total of 20 sea days in

support of NDBC buoy recoveries. In

FY 2006, NMAO will continue to provide support to NDBC for recovery of

buoys that come adrift as necessary

when ship schedules permit.

NOAA AIRCRAFT SUPPORTING

METEOROLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

NOAA aircraft support a broad range

of meteorological activities and projects with its fleet of aircraft based at

MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa,

Florida. Three of its eleven aircraft are

dedicated to this purpose throughout

the year, providing valuable information to NOAA and the nation.

For these three aircraft, the 2005 hurricane season was the busiest on

record. Operating from bases in

Florida, Georgia, Costa Rica, the U.S.

Virgin Islands and Barbados, the

NOAA Gulfstream G-IV (SP) and two

WP-3D Lockheed Orion aircraft flew

123 missions for a total of 897 hours.

The data collected and transmitted

from these aircraft during the season

made a significant positive impact on

hurricane forecasts and warnings during Hurricane Dennis, Emily, Katrina,

Ophelia, Rita and Wilma.

The NOAA Gulfstream, G-IV (SP)

(N49RF), provides scientists with a

platform for the investigation of

processes in the upper troposphere and

lower stratosphere (Figure 3-DOC-41).

With an operating ceiling of 45,000 ft,

the G-IV (SP) is a critical tool for

obtaining the data necessary to

improve hurricane and winter storm

track forecasts and for research leading

to improvements in hurricane intensity

forecasts. The G-IV (SP) is also being

used for air chemistry studies where a

high altitude capability is required. In

2006, researchers studying the role of

Saharan dust on tropical storm development and intensity also used this aircraft.

The NOAA G-IV (SP) annually supports Hurricane Synoptic Surveillance

missions where the aircraft flies in the

environment surrounding the storm at

a high altitude releasing GPS dropsondes at pre-selected locations (Figure 3-

DOC-42). The data from these vertical

atmospheric soundings are transmitted

from the aircraft to the NCEP computer site where they are incorporated

into the hurricane computer models to

improve hurricane track forecasts. The

dropsonde directly measures temperature, pressure, and humidity as it falls

through the atmosphere to the surface,

and computes wind speed and wind

direction using a full-up GPS receiver.

Recent estimates of the improvement

in hurricane track predictions utilizing

this aircraft and dropsonde are between

20 and 30 percent, resulting in a savings of $10 million or more per hurricane in warning and preparedness

costs. In 2005, the 48-hour improvement in track forecasts for Hurricanes

Katrina and Rita were 40 and 30 percent respectively.

The NOAA G-IV (SP) also annually

supports the Winter Storms Reconnaissance Program in an effort to improve

forecasts released 24 to 96 hours

before winter storms in the U.S.. This

aircraft, in conjunction with the Air

Force Reserve's WC-130s, utilize the

GPS dropsondes to collect data on

developing severe winter storms over

the Pacific Ocean that will seriously

impact the continental U.S. and

Alaska. During one month of the twomonth season, both aircraft operate in

tandem, one from Alaska and the other

from Hawaii, to collect data both north

and south of the jet stream simultaneously. General improvement in forecast accuracy of up to 20 percent has

already been seen, and even higher

percentage improvements on individually targeted events have been realized

from this program. Typically, during

the final month of the program, the

NOAA G-IV (SP) operates independently from either the base in Alaska or

Hawaii as the case may dictate.

A recent additional mission for the

G-IV (SP) was the support of the Saharan Air Layer Experiment (SALEX).

The outbreaks of dry Saharan dust has

been shown to have a dampening

effect on the development of tropical

cyclones in the Atlantic, and the G-IV

(SP), with its high altitude and dropsonde capabilities, is the ideal tool to

study this phenomenon. Operating

from Barbados, the most easterly

island in the western Atlantic, this aircraft flew four missions in 2005 on an

initial study of the dust outbreaks, and

Figure 3-DOC-41. NOAA Gulfstream G-IV (SP) 
SECTION 3 DOC 109

it returned to Barbados in 2006, along

with a NOAA WP-3D aircraft, to continue this important work.

NOAA's Aeronomy Lab, located in

Boulder, CO, is presently expanding its

air chemistry capabilities on the G-IV

(SP) beyond just ozone measurements

with the addition of a proton transfer

reaction mass spectrometer

(PTR_MS). The PTR_MS provides

in-situ measurements of volatile

organic compounds (VOCs). A second

instrument, which measure carbon

monoxide (CO), is also being tested

aboard the aircraft. Beyond just their

dedicated research, lab scientists also

hope to piggyback on missions during

the 2006 hurricane season.

NOAA's atmospheric and oceanographic research, as well as its reconnaissance operations, is supported by

two WP-3D Lockheed Orion aircraft

(N42RF and N43RF) which carry a

full array of state-of-the-art environmental research instrumentation (Figure 3-DOC-43). The aircraft research

and navigation systems provide

detailed spatial and temporal observations of a wide range of atmospheric

and oceanic parameters. NOAA's Aircraft Operations Center (AOC) develops and calibrates specialized instruments, integrates user-supplied instrumentation into its automated data

recording systems, and processes and

analyzes data sets collected during various field programs.

The AOC WP-3D aircraft, while

executing the complex patterns for

hurricane research, also provided

storm data to the National Hurricane

Center (NHC) in near, real-time, transmitting flight level data, GPS dropsonde messages, as well as radar

images via its multiple aircraft-satellite

data links. With the Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometers

(SFMR) coming online operationally

during FY 2005, increasing emphasis

has been placed on utilizing the NOAA

WP-3Ds to map the surface wind fields

in and around hurricanes and tropical

storms. Real-time surface wind speed

maps are critical to providing more

accurate forecasts of the extent of hurricane and storm force winds.

The AOC aircraft also augment the

Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft during particularly active storm

periods when tasking requirements

exceed their available resources.

Each year, one of the NOAA WP3Ds participates in a Hurricane Awareness Tour targeting, alternately, the

Gulf and East coast regions of the U.S.,

those areas that are most vulnerable to

land-falling storms. This educational

outreach effort is directed at both middle-grade school children, the age

group most likely to see, learn and

convey a message home, as well as the

general public. These tours are operated in concert with the participation of

officials from the NHC, the Red Cross,

FEMA and other local and state emergency management personnel. This is

becoming an increasingly more popular and successful venture as coastal

populations grow and the threat of an

increasing number of storms place

more people in harm's way.

During the 2005 season, the two

NOAA WP-3Ds supported three major

research experiments. In support of

NOAA's Hurricane Research Division,

these aircraft participated in the Intensity Forecast Experiment (IFEX), a

multi-year endeavor to study the life

cycle of hurricanes from pre-depression to mature land-falling stage in

order to better characterize their structure and dynamics with the objective

of improving intensity forecasts. During the 2005 season, the NOAA

research team was fortunate to obtain

complete life cycle data sets on five

hurricanes, Dennis, Emily Katrina,

Ophelia and Rita. While some effort

will be made during the 2006 season to

continue these observations, the major

emphasis will be shifted to a study of

the impact of Saharan dust on the

development of tropical storms.

In collaboration with NASA and its

ER-2 aircraft, NOAA utilized the two

WP-3Ds in support of the Tropical

Cloud Systems and Processes (TCSP)

study. In an experiment that focused

mostly on the genesis of tropical

storms, the two aircraft were based for

a three-week period in Costa Rica, flying missions in the Caribbean, Gulf of

Mexico and eastern Pacific in concert

with the ER-2 aircraft.

Following TCSP, NOAA scientists

used the two WP-3Ds in collaboration

with scientists from NSF's National

Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR) and the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) in a second major hurricane research experiment in August

and September. The Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment

(RAINEX) was a project focusing on

the role that rainbands play in changes

to storm intensity. The uniqueness of

this experiment, which utilized the Tail

Figure 3-DOC-42. GPS dropsonde

Figure 3-DOC-43. NOAA WP-3

Orion
110 DOC SECTION 3 

Doppler radars from the two NOAA

WP-3Ds and the ELDRA Tail Doppler

radar on the NRL P-3, was the satisfactory fulfillment of the requirement

to provide flight track data and lower

fuselage radar imagery from the two

NOAA aircraft to the NRL P-3 at a frequency of at least once every 15 minutes.

Pilots on the NRL P-3 aircraft, which

was operating with only forward-looking nose radar, required this information in order to safely and effectively

operate in the hurricane environment

with the NOAA aircraft. This was

accomplished utilizing high-speed

satellite communications to stream

radar imagery and flight level data

from the NOAA aircraft to ground

computers where it was reformatted

and transmitted to the NRL aircraft.

Because of the success of this effort,

valuable data sets were obtained in

Hurricanes Katrina, Ophelia and Rita.

Tropical to extra-tropical transition

was the focus in Hurricane Ophelia as

one of the NOAA WP-3Ds flew several missions into that storm as it

moved northward over the cooler

waters of the north Atlantic during the

middle of September, 2005. Operating

initially from MacDill AFB in Tampa,

FL, and later from Pease Air Base in

Portsmouth, NH, N42RF flew several

missions as far north as Canadian airspace east of Nova Scotia collecting

data for one of HRD's research objectives, that being the decay of tropical

systems to an extra-tropical state over

cooler water.

The NOAA WP-3Ds annually support both a summer and winter operation in support of a NESDIS satellite

validation program. Operating in

regions of high winds and heavy precipitation, one of the WP-3Ds,

equipped with microwave scatterometers and radiometers, provide flight

validation of NOAA QuickScat and

WindSat sensed ocean surface wind

vectors. Traditional venues for these

operations are Alaska or Newfoundland in the winter and the Atlantic and

Caribbean regions during the summer

hurricane season.

Every other year, one of the NOAA

WP-3Ds participates in an intensive air

chemistry program, usually in concert

with a number of other Federal agencies and universities. During July

2004, N42RF participated in the New

England Air Quality Study (NEAQS)

along with a number of other aircraft,

ground stations, and the NOAA Ship

RONALD H. BROWN. During the

summer of 2006, N43RF is scheduled

to join several other aircraft operating

in the Houston area and the RONALD

H. BROWN operating in the Gulf of

Mexico in the Texas Air Quality Study.

Packed completely with an impressive

array of in-situ chemical samplers and

three instrument pods mounted

beneath its wings, the aircraft will take

measurements of a wide range of

chemical constituents at low altitudes

over the urban and rural landmass as

well as the marine boundary layer.

Additionally, atmospheric profiles

were made from the surface to the

maximum altitude capability of the aircraft (~25,000 ft).

During FY 2006, one of the NOAA

WP-3Ds completed the Atmospheric

Rivers Project over the Pacific northeast of the Hawaiian Islands. As part

of the NOAA's weather-climate program, this project focused on documenting the flow of moisture moving

is a northeasterly direction toward the

U.S. mainland - measurements that are

critical to both the global water cycle

and to storm prediction.

A NOAA AC-695A Commander

1000 (N45RF) and a NOAA AC-500

Shrike (N51RF) are used annually to

conduct important snow pack surveys

in the northern and western continental

U.S., Alaska, and southern Canada

(Figure 3-DOC-44). During these survey flights, the gamma radiation sensors aboard these aircraft measure the

naturally occurring terrestrial radiation

emitted from the ground to obtain

snow water-equivalent estimates. This

data is transmitted to the National

Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center (NOHRSC) up to three

times a day from each aircraft, and

after further processing the data is distributed to NWS field offices within

five minutes of receipt from each aircraft. These data are used by the NWS

to forecast river levels and potential

flood events resulting from snowmelt

water runoff. Hydroelectric power

interests and other water supply managers also use the data to regulate

water storage and delivery.

Figure 3-DOC-44. NOAA JetProp

Commander - N45RF.
SECTION 3

SECTION 3 DOD 111

METEOROLOGICAL AND

SPACE ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES

Air Force Weather (AFW) forces

provide high-quality, mission-tailored

terrestrial and space environment

observations, forecasts, and services to

the United States Air Force (USAF),

United States Army (USA), and a variety of United States Government

(USG) departments and

agencies. See Section 3,

United States Army, for

details of AFW support

to the Army.

AIR FORCE

WEATHER (AFW)

ORGANIZATION

AFW is functionally

organized under the

Director of Weather

(AF/A3O-W), Directorate of Current Operations and Training

(AF/A3O), Deputy Chief

of Staff for Air, Space, and Information Operations, Plans and Requirements (AF/A3/A5), Headquarters Air

Force (HAF). The Director of Weather

oversees AF-wide training, organizing,

and equipping of AF weather organizations to include the following functions:

• Development of doctrine, policies,

requirements, and standards for

weather support,

• Evaluation of weather support

effectiveness,

• Management of weather officer,

enlisted, and civilian career fields,

• Development and implementation

of mid- to long-range plans for the

organization, equipment, manpower,

and technology necessary to meet

future AF and Army weather requirements,

• Advising Air Staff and subordinate

headquarters weather functional managers regarding manpower, career field

management, personnel utilization,

training, operations policy and procedures, and technology acquisition,

6. Advocating and fielding standardized weather equipment.

AFW oversees operations that provide a Total Force capability employing over 4,200 Active and Reserve

Component (AC and RC) military and

civilian personnel supporting AF and

Army conventional and special operations forces (SOF) worldwide. The

majority of AF weather

personnel are focused

on two distinct, yet

related functions: characterizing the past, current, and future state of

the natural environment

and exploiting environmental information to

provide actionable environmental impacts

information directly to

decision-makers.

Environmental characterization is typically

accomplished in large,

centralized units focused primarily on

global and regional scales of weather,

whereas support to decision-makers is

primarily the realm of personnel

embedded in operational units. Normally, these personnel are assigned to

weather flights under the operations

support squadron of a flying wing, a

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of Defense (DOD) operates military environmental services to provide specialized

worldwide meteorological, space environmental and oceanographic analysis and prediction services in

support of military forces and joint operations. Military environmental services directly support all

phases of military operations from strategic planning to tactical operations. While the Army and

Marine Corps each have a small weather operations capability, the Navy and Air Force are the primary

sources of military weather products and services. The military weather services contribute to the

national and international weather observing capability by taking conventional observations on land

and at sea, where there are no other conventional weather observing capabilities and where the observations are most

needed to meet military requirements. In addition, DOD maintains specialized observing capabilities, such as the

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program to meet unique military requirements. Observational data are sent through

military communications systems to military and civil facilities in the United States and overseas.

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE
112 DOD SECTION 3

weather squadron collocated with a

supported Army unit, or a weather

squadron providing a unique capability

such as space launch support. These

weather squadrons may include geographically separated detachments and

operating locations.

The centerpiece of global-scale collection and production is the Air Force

Weather Agency (AFWA), Offutt AFB,

Nebraska, a field operating agency

(FOA) reporting directly to the AF

Director of Weather. AFWA provides

timely, accurate, relevant, and consistent terrestrial and space weather products necessary to effectively plan and

conduct military operations at all levels of war. AFWA also provides dedicated support to SOF and the Intelligence Community (IC). The agency

consists of a global processing center

collocated with a functional management headquarters, the 1st Weather

Group (1 WXG) with four subordinate

CONUS Operational Weather

Squadrons (OWS), two subordinate

centers (the Air Force Combat Climatology Center (AFCCC) and the Air

Force Combat Weather Center

(AFCWC)), and 11 detachments and

operating locations. AFWA also provides backup support to five national

weather centers.

The 1 WXG commands four OWSs

performing CONUS missions: 15

OWS at Scott AFB, IL; 26 OWS at

Barksdale AFB, LA; 25 OWS at

Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ; and 9 OWS

at Shaw AFB, SC. AFCCC, Asheville,

North Carolina, provides centralized

climatological database services, produces specialized weather-impact

information for DOD and allied

nations, and warehouses and distributes atmospheric science-related technical information. From Hurlburt

Field, Florida, AFCWC transitions

technology to support tactical-level

weather operations while developing

operational concepts, tactics, techniques, and procedures.

Eight OWSs form the backbone of

regionally focused weather operations,

providing a variety of weather forecast

products and support to units assigned

and/or deployed into their area of

responsibility (AOR). These AORs are

currently under revision to better align

with the recently activated 1 WXG.

The A3O-W proposed AORs are

depicted in Figure 3-DOD-1. OWSs

produce and disseminate terminal

aerodrome forecasts (TAFs), weather

watches, warnings, and advisories,

planning and execution area forecasts,

and other products using the OWS ProFigure 3-DOD-1. Areas of responsibility (AOR) for AF Weather's operational weather squadrons (OWS) overlaid on

geographic combatant commander AORs.
SECTION 3 DOD 113

duction System Phase II (OPS II).

OWSs also provide theater-scale, tailored environmental information to

guide development of mission execution forecasts (MEF) by AC and RC

weather personnel embedded in operational units. Moreover, OWSs provide

flight weather briefings to aircrews

operating within their AOR without

home station support or as requested

by base or post-level weather forces.

At base and post level, AFW forces

take and disseminate local observations and develop tailored MEFs based

on centrally produced guidance. These

personnel also act as "eyes forward"

for OWSs. Weather personnel supporting conventional AF operations

typically deploy with a New Tactical

Forecast System (N-TFS), hand-held

Kestrel observing kits, and the TMQ53 semi-automated observing system

for semi-permanent sites. This equipment, coupled with adequate communications to receive weather data,

including satellite imagery, provide the

essential capability required for

deployed weather forces to meet operational requirements.

The RC is composed of the Air Force

Reserve (AFR) and the Air National

Guard (ANG), and AFW continues to

reengineer these forces to more closely

align with AC weather operations. AF

reservists augment the AC at all levels.

To augment OWSs, AF Reserve Command recently organized two operational weather flights (OWF), each

with just over 20 traditional reserve

positions. The OWF traditional

reservists perform at least one weekend of drill monthly and 2 weeks of

duty each year, unless mobilized to the

active force. Approximately 50 additional weather personnel serve as AFR

individual mobilization augmentees

(IMAs) assigned to various active

AFW organizations at all echelons,

typically in staff or scientific roles.

IMAs normally train 1 day each month

and for an additional 2 weeks each

year.

The ANG traditional program consists of 27 weather flights, ranging in

size from 13 to 25 personnel, who meet

monthly to train for their wartime mission. These flights provide weather

information to Army National Guard

and U.S. Army Reserve units. Many

ANG flying wings also have up to five

personnel to provide weather support

for each wing's flying mission. The

ANG also provides peacetime weather

support at locations where the ANG is

responsible for airfield support. The

Weather Readiness Training Center

(WRTC) at Camp Blanding, near

Starke, Florida, is also operated by the

ANG to provide weather support operations training.

CHARACTERIZE THE ENVIRONMENT

To characterize the environment

across the globe, AFW forces continually improve the core processes of collection, analysis, and prediction.

Collection

AFW forces collect terrestrial and

space environmental measurements

from ground-, sea-, air-, and spacebased sensors across the globe. While

openly shared foreign data greatly

improves the coverage of measurements across the globe, the Department of Defense retains an assured

global weather collection capability.

In regions where air, space, and land

operations are occurring, indigenous

environmental data may be insufficient; consequently, the AF maintains a

capability to deploy in-theater to establish an environmental data collection

network.

AFW personnel take observations

essential for effective military operations and for weather analysis and

forecasting. Weather personnel at both

AF and Army locations (garrison and

deployed) make observations available

to local users and transmit them to military and civil locations throughout the

world. U.S. and foreign rawinsonde

reports are primary sources of upper

air observations and are supplemented

with military and civilian pilot reports.

The Army's Forward Area Limited

Observing Program (FALOP) and the

Army artillery meteorology

(ARTYMET) program augment AF

observations in the tactical environment. Weather data is also received

from DOD-operated HF radio receiver

sites strategically positioned around

the globe to intercept weather broadcasts. These broadcasts originate from

nations that do not routinely make data

available through World Meteorological Organization (WMO) channels.

The Observing System 21st Century

(OS-21) program will provide a muchneeded, state-of-the-art life-cycle

replacement for AF observing equipment. OS-21 includes five different

configurations: fixed, deployable,

remote, manual, and upper air. The

manual configuration is intended for

tactical operations and continues the

improvements begun under the AFW

Manual Observing System and Tactical Meteorological Observing System

Modification programs. AFW began

fielding the fixed-base automated

observing system and will continue to

do so through 2007. The remaining

configurations will be upgraded or

replaced after fielding of fixed-base

automated systems nears completion.

Weather radar data is vital to the production of timely severe weather warnings. DOD, the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA), and Department of Commerce (DOC)/National

Weather Service (NWS) operate and

maintain WSR-88Ds within the Continental United States (CONUS), and the

AF operates and maintains several

WSR-88Ds overseas. The AF transitioned to the open architecture Open

Principal User Processors (OPUPs) at

installations with stand-alone legacy

PUPs and at all CONUS and PACAF

OWSs, allowing these regional forecasting centers real-time access to

WSR-88D radar data at locations for

which they have remote forecasting
114 DOD SECTION 3

responsibility. Tactical weather radars

(TWR) provide fixed Doppler radar

coverage for major overseas installations not covered by the WSR-88D.

Ellason weather radars (EWR) provide

a deployable weather radar capability

for worldwide military contingency

operations. Weather radar data

extracted from air surveillance radars

(ASR) and displayed using the Digital

Weather Intelligence Data (DWID)

system supplement primary weather

radar data and provide data from areas

without primary weather radar coverage.

The AF Reserve Command's 53d

Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (53

WRS), also known as the "Hurricane

Hunters," provides another means of

collecting vital meteorological data,

especially in and around tropical

cyclones. Their specially equipped

WC-130 aircraft collect temperature,

moisture, wind, pressure, and visually

observed information at the aircraft

location as well as vertical profiles of

the atmosphere collected by dropsondes. Hurricane Hunter aircraft penetrate the eyes of tropical cyclones to

provide the NWS’s National Hurricane

Center a very accurate center fix location as well as other meteorological

parameters, including sea level pressure (Figure 3-DOD-2). In addition to

the tropical cyclone reconnaissance,

the 53 WRS collects meteorological

information to improve wintertime

West Coast forecasts and to support

scientific field programs when possible.

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), which provides

cloud, upper air, and space environmental data, is a vital source of global

weather data used to support combat

operations. On-board sensors provide

AFWA and the Navy's Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC) with visible, infrared,

and microwave imagery, temperature

and moisture sounding data, electrically charged particle fluxes, and other

specialized space environment data.

The DMSP also supplies direct, realtime readout of regional imagery and

mission-sensor data to DOD landbased and shipboard terminals located

worldwide (Figure 3-DOD-3).

The DMSP satellite constellation

uses the Operational Linescan System

(OLS) to provide visible and infrared

imagery to distinguish between clouds,

ground, snow, and water. The Block

5D-2 series spacecraft flies the Special

Sensor Microwave Temperature

(SSM/T-1) and water vapor (SSM/T-2)

sounders. Processing algorithms convert the sensed data into vertical temperature, moisture, and height profiles

of the atmosphere, providing key data

for numerical analysis and forecasting.

The Special Sensor Microwave Imager

(SSM/I) collects data from which rainfall, ocean surface wind speed, cloud

and soil moisture, ice conditions, and

other environmental data can be determined. The Special Sensor for Ions

and Electrons (SSIES), Special Sensor

Magnetometer (SSM), and the Precipitating Electron and Ion Spectrometer

(SSJ), measure the space environment

on the topside of the ionosphere in situ.

The Block 5D-3 series spacecraft and

sensor suite began service in 2004,

with the launch of DMSP Flight 16.

These spacecraft add several new

capabilities: enhanced microwave

imaging and atmospheric temperature/moisture sounding through the

Special Sensor Microwave

Imager/Sounder (SSMIS); new auroral

boundary and electron density measuring capability through the Special Sensor Ultraviolet Spectrographic Imager

(SSUSI); and profiles of upper-atmospheric temperature, electron content,

and species densities through the Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager

(SSULI). These are in addition to

SSIES, SSM, and SSJ sensors.

The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

(NPOESS) will replace the existing

DMSP and NOAA polar-orbiting satellite programs beginning in 2013, and is

a joint DOD, DOC, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA) program. The AF also

expects to gain operational experience

as well as benefit from the risk reduction planned with the NPOESS

Preparatory Program planned for

launch in 2010. (Note: In January

2006, the program was expected to

exceed its approved program baseline

by 25 percent. This required the DOD

to recertify the program to Congress in

accordance with the Nunn-McCurdy

Amendment of the 1982 Defense

Figure 3-DOD-2. Aircraft radar

shows the eye of Hurricane Claudette

is 25 nautical miles wide and the wall

cloud is weakest in the northeast

quadrant (53 WRS website)

Figure 3-DOD-3. DMSP captures

Aurora Borealis, over the midwest; the

aurora was pushed toward the equator

by a November 4, 2003 geomagnetic

storm. (AF Weather website)
SECTION 3 DOD 115

Authorization Act. AFWA hosted and

provided information on operations

and requirements to Integrated Product

Team 2 (IPT-2). IPT-2 is charged with

assessing alternatives for the program.

The final program configuration,

including the number of platforms and

sensors, is yet to be determined.)

In addition to DMSP polar-orbiting

data, AFWA receives stored data from

the DOC's Polar-orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite constellation

and real-time high-resolution data

from the DOC's Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)

East and West; the European Union's

Meteosat-5, -7, -8 and -9 geostationary

satellites; and the Japanese Multi-functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT).

AFWA currently receives data from

NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring

Mission (TRMM), Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT), and AQUAAdvanced

Microwave Scanning Radiometer-E

(AMSR-E) via Direct Asynchronous

Transfer Mode (ATM) System-Unclass

(DATMS-U). Moderate Resolution

Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)

data is currently received via the

Defense Research Engineering Network (DREN).

AFW implemented the Joint METSAT Imagery, Software, and Terminals

(JMIST) capability to receive real-time

visible, infrared, and microwave

imagery and other non-imagery

weather data from both polar-orbiting

and geostationary satellites. JMIST

employs network and satellite communications, MARK NB and Receiving

Set Satellite (RSS) direct read-out terminals, and client applications to provide ready access and manipulation

capabilities for advanced low-orbiting

satellite imagery to numerous agencies, to include the U.S. Air Force,

U.S. Navy, U.S. Army, U.S. Marines,

NOAA and NASA. JMIST also provides a stand-alone geostationary

METSAT Direct Readout Terminal

(DRT) and a Direct Readout Satellite

Receiver (DRSR) for mobile units with

insufficient network communications

to employ reach-back methods.

Next generation satellite programs,

in particular NPOESS and GOES-R,

require AFWA to reengineer the way it

receives, stores, and processes METSAT data, as well as how it exposes

and delivers that data to internal and

external users. AFWA is partnering

with Electronic Systems Command

(ESC) in 2006, to initiate the NPOESS

Data Exploitation Study. The primary

outputs of the study will include a way

ahead for processing and storing

NPOESS data at AFWA, a way ahead

for exposing and delivering METSAT

data including NPOESS to command

and control (C2) and other users, an

analysis of alternatives for the "to be"

enterprise software and system architecture for exploitation of data from

current and programmed satellites, and

a recommended phased approach necessary for AFWA to modify systems to

meet the "to be" software and system

architecture for exploitation of data

from current and programmed satellites. The study is scheduled to begin

in the summer of 2006, and last for

nine months.

Space environmental information is

obtained through a combination of

ground- and space-based systems. For

the near-Earth environment, groundbased systems provide highly accurate

point source verification and specification, whereas space-based systems

enable global coverage and theaterwide situational awareness.

AFWA operates the Solar Electrooptical Observing

Network (SEON),

a system of

ground-based telescopes at Sagamore Hill, Massachusetts; Holloman AFB, New

Mexico; Palehua,

Hawaii; San Vito,

Italy; and Learmonth, Australia

(Figure 3-DOD-4). This network provides 24-hour observations of solar

phenomena at optical and radio wavelengths. A worldwide (primarily

Northern Hemisphere) network of

ground-based ionosondes and other

sensors provide ionospheric data. The

AF manages 16 automated Digital

Ionospheric Sounding Systems (DISS)

to measure electron density profiles in

the ionosphere. NASA's Jet Propulsion

Laboratory (JPL) operates a complementary global network of over 125

sensors deriving ionospheric line-ofsight Total Electron Content (TEC)

from GPS signals and provides these

data to AFWA's Space Weather

Branch. In addition, the United States

Geological Survey (USGS) operates a

network of ground-based magnetometers, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere, which provides the Space

Weather Branch with critical measurements of the geomagnetic field and its

variances. AF Research Laboratory at

Hanscom AFB, MA, provides ionospheric scintillation data from a global

network of 15 UHF and L-Band

receivers, supporting AF command

and control satellite systems and strategic long-range radar systems.

From space, the GOES satellites provide real-time solar X-ray, charged

energetic particle, and geomagnetic

data through NOAA’s Space Environment Center (SEC). The Solar X-Ray

Imager (SXI), which became operational January 30, 2003, aboard

GOES-12, monitors solar emissions in

the X-ray portions of the solar specFigure 3-DOD-4. Solar optical and radio telescopes at Learmonth, Australia.
116 DOD SECTION 3

trum and provides near real-time display at AFWA and the SEC. DMSP,

NOAA, and other DOD geostationary

satellites provide charged energetic

particle data in low-Earth and geosynchronous orbits. Additionally, the AF

leverages space-based data from

NASA and other agencies. For example, NASA's Advanced Composition

Explorer (ACE) satellite provides realtime solar wind data critical for forecasting geomagnetic disturbances and

their impact to warfighter communications.

Analysis and Prediction

Effective analysis of collected terrestrial and space weather data enables

identification of environmental features and conditions that may affect air,

space, and land operations and thus

require subsequent monitoring. From

that analysis, detailed forecasts are

developed through a combination of

computer models and skilled human

intervention.

AFWA's Global Weather Center

Division is the AF's main production

capability for global space and terrestrial weather analyses and forecasts.

Worldwide conventional weather data

are relayed to AFWA and combined

with civil and military meteorological

satellite data to construct a real-time,

integrated environmental database.

Computer programs further process the

data to construct models of the atmosphere and forecast its future behavior.

The Satellite Data Handling System

(SDHS) facilitates the interaction

between forecaster and machine.

The Division's Meteorological Satellite (METSAT) Applications Branch

analyzes imagery, develops techniques, inserts technology, and recommends improvements to METSAT

products. The branch produces rapid

response, tailored METSAT imagery

and evaluation for DOD contingency

operations and generates automated

METSAT imagery products for webbased distribution to DOD users. The

branch also tracks and classifies tropical cyclones for the DOD Joint

Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and

NOAA’s National Hurricane Center;

serves as the DOD focal point for volcanic ash plume detection, advisories,

and trajectory forecasts; and provides

back up for both JTWC satellite operations and the DOC's Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center. In addition, the METSAT Applications

Branch produces worldwide snow and

ice cover analyses to update and refine

the snow depth database and generates

customized snow depth and dust event

analyses for contingency areas. During Operation IRAQI FREEDOM,

branch imagery specialists provided

high-resolution analyses of oil fire initiation points for smoke plume dispersion forecast model products. These

smoke plumes impacted both air and

land operations. Advance notice

allowed mission planners to modify

operations to maximize mission effectiveness. The branch also develops

new capabilities to display and visualize satellite imagery on workstations

and infuses state-of-the-art techniques

into improved imagery analysis.

The Division's Space Weather

Branch employs a suite of state-of-theart space weather models to specify

current solar and global characteristics,

extrapolate space weather phenomenon to areas of the globe where observations are not currently available, and

to forecast future conditions. These

models use available observations and

include both climatology-based and

physics-based algorithms. Some of the

more significant models employed

include the following:

• A Kp analysis and prediction algorithm provides real-time analysis of Kp

and a one and four hour prediction.

• A Dust prediction algorithm provides a one hour Dust forecast.

• The newly implemented Global

Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurements (GAIM) model provides large

scale, global ionospheric specification

every 15 minutes, and a 24 hour forecast capability every hour.

• Scintillation forecasts are provided

by the climatology-based WIDEBAND model.

• The Magnetospheric Specification

and Forecast Model specifys and predicts (for 3 hours) the lower energy

particle environment.

• The newly implemented Radiation

Belt Environments (RBE) model provides specification of the higher

energy particle environment.

• A 27 day prediction of relativistic

electron behavior at geostationary altitude is provided by the relativistic

Electron Prediction (REP) model.

• For the solar wind, the branch uses

the Hakamada-Akasofu-Fry solar wind

model, capable of producing a 96 hour

forecast of solar wind parameters,

including the tracking of Coronal Mass

Ejections (CME's).

• Several other applications are also

employed to calculate other important

space weather related parameters.

The Global Theater Weather Analysis and Prediction System (GTWAPS)

is the hardware enclave (IBM Scalable

Parallel Computing and pSeries®

servers) used to run most meteorological models at AFWA. The key software component of GTWAPS is a theater analysis and forecast model,

Mesoscale Model version 5 (MM5),

which provides fine-scale forecasts

(Figure 3-DOD-5 on next page). During Operations ENDURING FREEDOM and IRAQI FREEDOM, AFWA

initiated various model window locations and resolutions as mission

requirements dictated. The highly

responsive nature of the MM5, and the

way AFWA employs it, permitted new

contingency windows to be operational

within hours. Advancements in cloud

modeling have enabled GTWAPS to

produce high-resolution products that

became a mainstay of weather data

during the continuing global war on

terrorism. MM5 is routinely provided

by AFWA to NOAA’s National Centers

for Environmental Prediction (NCEP),
SECTION 3 DOD 117

where it is a backup to their Eta model.

The future replacement of MM5 will

be the Weather Research and Forecast

(WRF) model. WRF will possess the

responsiveness of MM5 but also has

the ability to interchange different

microphysics modules within the

model. AFWA will leverage this capability to tailor model output for different theaters. AFWA will decommission MM5 windows and replace them

with WRF model output. Additionally,

AFWA will leverage NCEP's WRF

model output for North American

regions and run WRF over other areas

of the world.

On-going modernization initiatives

at AFWA include the Space Weather

Analysis and Forecasting System

(SWAFS) and the Weather Data Analysis Capabilities (WDAC) program.

SWAFS will integrate additional space

weather data sources and execute nextgeneration space weather models for

DOD and IC operations. WDAC will

continue the modernization of AFWA

as a key component of the Air Force

Weather Weapon System (AFWWS).

The reengineered AFWA will provide

standards-compliant hardware and

software tools, a central 4-D database,

and a classified processing environment to modernize the AFWWS communications and data processing infrastructure. WDAC provides a significant increase in the database capability

by standing up Joint DOD-approved

METOC database segments, promoting interoperability among data sharers. WDAC, through the use of the

Joint METOC segments and the Joint

METOC Broker Language (JMBL) for

web services, will improve the interoperability with DOD command and control (C2) and command, control, communications, computer, intelligence,

surveillance, and reconnaissance

(C4ISR) systems by providing a common interface to request the wide

range of weather information. In addition, WDAC-developed components,

including the Consolidated Dissemination Capability (subscription services),

are reusable within the OWS. This

reusability will allow OWS-unique

data to become part of the overall

AFWWS 4-D database.

The Air Force Combat Climatology

Center (AFCCC) is collocated with

NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center to facilitate cooperation and data

exchange. AFCCC collects, quality

assures, and assesses worldwide surface and upper air observations, satellite-derived soundings, numerical

model output such as global gridded

surface and upper air model data, a

global 3-dimensional cloud analysis

(worldwide merged cloud analysis), a

global analysis of snow cover, and

other specialized environmental data

sets. AFCCC exploits these data to

generate standard climatic summaries

of meteorological phenomena for

points around the globe, such as Operational Climatic Data Summaries and

Wind Stratified Conditional Climatologies. Modeled climatologies are

produced using the Advanced Climate

Modeling and Environmental Simulations (ACMES) model. Analysts are

available to develop tailored products

to meet new requirements. AFCCC

employs the Point Analysis Intelligence System (PAlS) to produce vertical profiles for any point on Earth for

any time from 1985 to the present.

The AF Director of Weather is the

DOD Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation Executive Agent (ASNE MSEA). The Director executes this responsibility through

the ASNE MSEA office, a division

within AFCCC (AFCCC/SM). The

executive agent is responsible for

ensuring modeling and simulation

developers and users have the tools,

infrastructure, and databases necessary

to represent the air and space natural

environment. AFCCC/SM sponsors

research and development and fields

technology at AFCCC, the designated

center providing tailored atmospheric

data for modeling and simulation.

AFCCC fielded the Environmental

Scenario Generator (ESG) capability

Figure 3-DOD-5. Joint Air Force and Army Weather Information Network

(JAAWIN) provide reachback capability for deployed weather forces. This 3-

hour forecast of surface winds over Southwest Asia was generated from

AFWA’s 45-km MM5 (AFWA Website)
118 DOD SECTION 3

in 2005, to support modeling and simulation. In cooperation with the

National Geophysical Data Center

(NGDC) and the Defense Modeling

and Simulation Office (DMSO),

AFCCC/SM also sponsors ongoing

research to develop a similar capability

to provide tailored on-demand representations of the space environment.

AFW’s OWSs are regional/theater

analysis and forecast centers for AF

and Army operations. OWSs generate

a variety of products: hazard charts;

drop zone, range, and aerial refueling

track forecasts; fine-scale target forecasts; airfield forecasts; and weather

warnings, watches, and advisories for

AF and Army installations within their

AOR. OPS II, a component of the

Forecasting System 21st Century (FS21i) program to provide necessary

computer hardware and software

throughout the AFWWS, is the OWS's

primary production tool. A hybrid of

software, databases, servers, and workstations, OPS II facilitates production

and dissemination of weather information to supported forces.

Provide Actionable Environmental

Impacts Information to Decision Makers

To provide actionable environmental

impacts, AF weather forces continually

improve the core processes of tailoring

and integration.

Tailoring. Once centralized

weather units create a depiction of the

past, current, and future state of the

natural environment, AFW forces

directly supporting decision-makers

tailor the information to identify

impacts to operations, personnel,

weapons and weapons systems, and

tactics. These weather forces then help

decision makers mitigate these effects

through appropriate actions such as

routing a flight to a new target, selecting a different weapons load, or adjusting the time of attack.

N-TFS, another component of FS-21,

provides garrison and deployed

weather forces with the meteorological

tools to manipulate and disseminate

graphical and alphanumeric products

(satellite imagery, graphical forecast

products, weather forecasts, advisories, briefings, observations, etc.) to

Army and AF operational, C2, and

support forces worldwide. Additionally, N-TFS ingests data from AF and

indigenous observing sources, which

then are forwarded to OWSs/AFWA

for further dissemination and incorporation into centrally produced models.

AFW is currently working toward a

single workstation that will eliminate

redundancies/inefficiencies and ultimately extend, consolidate and/or

replace the OPS II, JWIS, N-TFS, and

the weather effects decision-aids portion of the Integrated Meteorological

System (IMETS). The Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET) is expected to

enhance warfighter awareness of the

natural battlespace environment by

ensuring accurate, timely, relevant, and

consistent terrestrial and space weather

and weather impacts information is

available and accessible by appropriate

personnel and processes. JET will perform its functions by interfacing with

information contained in the Virtual

Joint Meteorological Oceanographic

(METOC) Database (VJMDB) via

common-user-communications. Additionally, JET will integrate with joint

and coalition command and control

and mission planning systems by

enabling machine-to-machine

exchange of METOC and C4ISR data

and information to meet operational,

planning and execution requirements.

Furthermore, JET enhances the accuracy and utility of terrestrial/space

weather and oceanographic information and operational impacts by

enabling the forecaster and/or forecast

process to incorporate Geographic

Information System (GIS) capabilities

(to include a standard high-resolution

topographic database), forecasting

rules of thumb, and operational thresholds into weather and weather impact

products. In July 2004, two contractors were selected for a fly-off. The

JET contract was awarded to Raytheon

on 28 Mar 2006, after a 20 month

source selection process. Fielding of

the first increment is expected to begin

in Jan 2007, with an expected delivery

of all JET capabilities by FY 2013.

Tactical Decision Aids (TDAs) provide warfighters an automated way to

"visualize" environmental impacts on

operations. These tools, which continue to be integrated into command

and control systems (e.g., mission

planning systems), include Target

Acquisition Weapon Software (TAWS)

(Figure 3-DOD-6 on next page),

Infrared Target Scene Simulation

(IRTSS), and Tn-Service Integrated

Weather Effects Decision Aid (TSIWEDA). The Air Force Research

Laboratory (AFRL), the Navy's Space

and Naval Warfare Systems Command, the Navy Research Laboratory

(NRL), and the Army Research Laboratory (ARL) are developing these

modular programs. TAWS provides a

joint mission-planning tool to combine

platform, weapon, target, background,

and weather impacts to depict threedimensional target acquisition and

lock-on range and recognition range

versus time. This includes prediction

of environmental impacts on night

vision goggles and low light-level systems used by air, naval, and ground

forces to execute nighttime operations.

IRTSS uses detailed terrain information and multispectral imagery with

TAWS weather inputs to generate forecast target scene images for mission

rehearsal. The TS-IWEDA uses environmental data with force, mission,

and/or individual weapons rules of

engagement or performance parameters to automatically generate missionimpact forecasts for large-scale planning efforts such as Air Tasking Order

preparation. TAWS, IRTSS, and TSIWEDA integrate environmental

impacts into the mission execution

forecasts for C2 and MP systems

throughout the military planning and
SECTION 3 DOD 119

execution cycle. The TDA program

continues adding weapons systems and

targets at the request of users from the

Services. Additional decision aids in

development or in coordination

include the Airborne Laser (ABL)

Atmospheric Decision Aid (ADA) to

support ABL development and operations and a common radio frequency

(RF) system performance prediction

capability based on U.S. Navy software.

AFWA's Special Support Operations

Branch (SSOB) generates a myriad of

products ranging from air refueling

forecasts, to detailed mission control

forecasts, to weather impacts for SOF

operations, and distributes this information via secure media to support

worldwide Joint SOF operations. The

branch also provides tailored meteorological information for end-to-end

planning at U.S. Special Operations

Command (USSOCOM), Service

component special operations commands, and theater special operations

commands. The SSOB is continually

involved in global military operations,

including Operations ENDURING

FREEDOM and IRAQI FREEDOM.

Additionally, the SSOB includes the

American Forces Network Weather

Center, which provides worldwide,

broadcast-quality public weather services and planning forecasts through the

American Forces Radio and Television

Service to over 1,000,000 Department

of Defense (DOD) and Department of

State personnel and family members

stationed overseas.

AFWA's IC Weather Branch provides detailed global cloud analyses

and forecasts to the intelligence community. The branch provides worldwide mission-tailored planning and

execution forecasts for IC agencies at

security levels up to Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information

(TS/SCI). The branch also serves as

the focal point for AFWA Special

Access Program (SAP) requirements;

ensures the IC and other SCI and SAP

meteorological requirements are integrated into AFWA programs; monitors

and evaluates accuracy and timeliness

of centralized weather services to the

IC, and interfaces with the DOD and

IC regarding weather services and the

exploitation of weather information.

As the sole source of DOD space

Figure 3-DOD-6. Target Acquisition Weapon Software (TAWS) integrate

meteorological conditions and environmental parameters to enhance the mission planning process and increase aircrew situational awareness for mission

execution.

Figure 3-DOD-7. Single-Frequency GPS Receiver Error Map (visualized by

HQ AFWA) 
120 DOD SECTION 3

environmental information, AFWA

partners with NOAA's Space Environment Center to meet the nation's military and civilian space weather needs.

AFWA's Space Weather Branch provides a suite of automated and manually tailored analyses and forecasts

(including advisories and warnings) of

space weather phenomena that affect

military operations and IC activities.

Similarly, signal fades due to space

weather effects on UHF satellite communications (SATCOM) links provide

valuable planning information to

improve command and control capabilities. Further examples of model

output informational products include

Single-Frequency GPS Receiver Error

maps (Figure 3-DOD-7 on previous

page), UHF Satellite Communication

Scintillation maps (Figure 3-DOD-8),

HF Illumination maps (Figure 3-DOD9), and Radar Auroral Clutter maps.

These products assist warfighters in

determining and mitigating space

weather impacts to their systems as

well as in exploiting enemy space

weather susceptibilities for possible

asymmetric advantage.

The AF provides meteorological and

space weather products to the nation's

space and missile programs, including

a wide range of weather observing

services at the AF Eastern Range and

the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The

AF also provides tailored forecasting

for NASA's manned and unmanned

launches and for commercial launches

from KSC. In addition, the AF provides specialized meteorological information for the AF Western Range at

Vandenberg AFB, California; the

Pacific Missile Range, which includes

Point Mugu and San Nicholas Island,

California, and Barking Sands,

Hawaii; White Sands Missile Range,

New Mexico; Kwajalein Missile

Range, Republic of the Marshall

Islands; and other DOD research and

test facilities as directed.

The AF also provides agro-meteorological support to the U.S. Department

of Agriculture's Foreign Agricultural

Service and other similar users. The

output includes diagnostic soil hydrology and other meteorological information pertinent to crop growth and yield

estimation as well as to trafficability

and rudimentary flooding estimations.

Integration. Tailored environmental

information and operational impacts

are of little use to decision-makers if

Figure 3-DOD-9. HF Illumination Map (visualized by HQ AFWA).

Figure 3-DOD-8. UHF Satellite Communications Scintillation Map (visualization by HQ AFWA)
SECTION 3 DOD 121

the information/impacts are not integrated into the shaping, planning, execution, and sustainment of air, space

and land operations. The AF employs

a blend of information technology

(IT), including automated machine-tomachine interfaces, and personnel

embedded at the right echelons with

decision-makers, to integrate accurate,

relevant, and consistent weather and

weather impacts information into decision-making processes. Since timeliness is critical to effective integration;

AFW operations rely on robust,

assured communications for dissemination.

AFWA receives alphanumeric

weather data, parses it according to

data type, eliminates duplicate reports

from different sources, and creates specially tailored bulletins. Some of these

bulletins are sent to the large processing centers to provide the input data for

global, regional, and fine-scale forecast models. Other bulletins are redistributed to end-users over dedicated

circuits, NIPRNET, and satellite

broadcast facilities.

High-speed communications

between large DOD and civilian processing centers facilitate sharing of

data, high-resolution satellite imagery,

and output from numerical weather

prediction models. Additional circuits

provide a subset of these data to

OWSs.

Forecaster-developed products and

gridded data sets are distributed from

AFWA via the Weather Product Management and Distribution System to

base/post-level weather forces around

the globe using the DOD's Non-Secure

Internet Protocol Router Network

(NIPRNET) and Secure Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNET).

Alphanumeric data, including surface,

upper-air, space weather, and pilot

reports, are also collected and distributed via the Automated Weather Network (AWN), Very Small Aperture

Terminal (VSAT) satellite communications system, and the NIPRNET. The

AWN, consisting of data collection,

message creation, and dissemination

software, is a global communications

network used for alphanumeric terrestrial and space weather data. The

AWN supports DOD as well as federal

and foreign meteorological, space, and

aviation centers.

AFWA operates a website on the

NIPRNET known as the Joint Air

Force-Army Weather Information Network (JAAWIN). JAAWIN provides

worldwide access to numerical model

forecasts, satellite imagery, forecasterin-the-loop (FITL) products, and text

bulletins, and includes links to all

OWS websites. Additional products

are available to classified users via

JAAWIN-Secret (JAAWIN-S) and

JAAWIN-Sensitive Compartmented

Information (JAAWINSCI).

JWIS offers another means of making tailored weather information available to DOD users. JWIS provides a

link to weather information from both

AF and Navy sources for exploitation

by command and control systems and

applications. AFW successfully

demonstrated a JWIS-based machineto-machine (M2M) weather information transfer to command and control

applications during Joint Expeditionary Force Experiment 2004.

Although information technology

continues to enhance the integration of

weather and weather impact information into decision-making processes,

well-trained weather professionals are

still essential. Designated AFW personnel serve on the staffs of operational AF, Army, and Joint force units

worldwide. In this capacity, they identify weather-sensitive areas of the

operation and provide expert advice to

help mitigate weather impacts on personnel, platforms. weapons and

weapons systems, and tactics. The

ultimate goal is to identify opportunities for an asymmetric advantage over

our foes, i.e., when enemy force capabilities are more severely degraded by

weather than those of friendly forces.

For AF operations, these weather

professionals are normally assigned to

a flight under an operations support

squadron in a flying wing; however,

individuals from the weather flight are

integrated into flying squadron mission

planning and execution processes. In

this capacity, they infuse critical

weather information at key points in

the decision cycle to help aircrews

maximize wartime capabilities,

enhance flight safety, and optimize

training effectiveness. Weather

experts are also assigned to weather

specialty teams (WST) in air and space

operations centers (AOCs). This

cross-cutting team integrates allsource actionable environmental information at key decision points of air and

space operations planning, execution,

and assessment. Armed with this

information, decision-makers can balance operational risks against mission

need to optimize timing, tactics, target

and weapons selection, and other factors affecting air and space operations.

Finally, AFW experts are integrated

into a variety of other unique mission

areas, such as space launch support and

research, development, test, and evaluation (RDTE) activities. In each

capacity, these specialists enable the

supported organization to minimize or

alleviate weather impacts to the mission. For instance, to avoid potentially

devastating storms, space launch

weather personnel may advise decision-makers to adjust launch timing,

while RDTE weather personnel may

identify potential weather sensitivities

to system developers to ensure a safe,

effective design.

Likewise, Army weather requirements are incorporated into the AF's

overall weather operations concept.

AFW forces are integrated with Army

intelligence staffs, and the Army trains

and educates AF personnel on Army

organizations, concepts of operations,

and their weather sensitivities. AFW

forces are currently aligned with echelons above corps, corps, divisions, sep-
122 DOD SECTION 3

arate brigades, aviation brigades,

armored cavalry regiments, ranger regiments, and special forces groups (as

well as subordinate battalions

deployed at forward operating bases).

Over the next few years, AFW support

to the Army will undergo significant

transformation as the Army transitions

from a division-centric force based on

large standing organizations to a

brigade-centric force based on smaller,

modular organizations.

The emerging operational environment (post-Cold War, 9-1l, and Global

War on Terror) is characterized by less

predictability stemming from decentralized, well-networked threats. The

AF is transforming the way it delivers

environmental information to the

warfighter to meet these challenges.

Key to this transformation is creating

an information advantage through the

robust networking of well-informed,

geographically dispersed forces, which

will help create a decisive warfighting

advantage. In this fast-paced, net-centric environment, the AF will rely more

heavily on machine-to-machine

(M2M) information exchanges. The

challenge to AFW forces is to deliver

timely and actionable information via

M2M exchanges, thereby supporting

more efficient and faster application of

force on shorter decision timescales.

In 2001, AFWA initiated the WDAC

program to begin the migration to the

DOD Joint METOC Data Architecture

to support dynamic, fast-paced M2M

operations. This architecture provides

for authoritative, timely, accurate, and

relevant environmental information,

accessible via a common web-services

interface from anywhere on the Global

Information Grid (GIG). The WDAC

program modernizes the AFWA production center and AFCCC infrastructure, providing a centralized net-centric reach-back source for worldwide

space and atmospheric weather information, to include environmental intelligence data to C2, C4ISR, MP, and

mission support systems such as the

Joint Mission Planning System. This

vision is accomplished through implementation of the Joint METOC Data

Base (JMDB), which is a virtual collection of worldwide METOC databases. JMBL is the common mechanism for users to access the JMDB for

M2M operations.

Increments one and two of WDAC

delivered JMGRID (gridded analysis

and forecast data), JMOBS (conventional observation data), JMAN

(alphanumeric messages and bulletins), and JMPLAT (fixed and mobile

weather station platform data). In

2006, increment three will deliver

JMCAT (weather data catalog) and

Gridded CDC (subscription capability

for data from JMGRID). For FY 2007,

work is underway to develop JMSESS

(space environment and solar data),

JMIM Lite (imagery and visualized

products), and a CDC capability for

alphanumeric data. Later increments

will deliver JMSAT (METSAT data),

JMCLIM (climatology products), and

JMR-SOB (remote-sensed observations).

RESEARCH INITIATIVES

The overarching objective of the AF

meteorological and space environmental research and development (R&D)

program is to provide capability

designers, operational weather personnel, and weather information users

with the technology and tools to gain

and maintain the advantage over a

potential adversary. Documented

R&D requirements in the atmospheric

sciences are articulated in the AFW

Mission Support Plan and in the Mission Area Plans of the AF major commands. Space environment R&D is

targeted to meet the DOD's space

weather requirements as documented

in the AFW and AFWA Strategic Plans,

the AFW Characterize the Environment Enabling Concept, and the AFW

Space Weather Modeling Implementation Plan. AFW also strives toward

improvements through cooperative

research and development agreements

with for-profit companies. AFW has

recently fielded an IOC version of the

Utah State University (USU) developed Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurements (GAIM) model.

AFW continues to work with USU

toward the fielding of a full physics

version of the GAIM model sometime

in FY 2008-2009. In addition, AFW

will be working during FY 2007 to

fully integrate ultraviolet sensing

instruments (SSUSI, SSULI, and

GUVI) into space weather operations.

This effort will include model integration, visualization, and validation

efforts.

In meteorological R&D, the AF is

improving cloud depiction and forecasting system (CDFS) techniques by

doubling the resolution, integrating

geosynchronous METSATs into the

cloud analysis, using a new cloud

interpretation scheme, and blending

numerical weather prediction with

forecast cloud advection techniques.

The AF has transitioned key advances

in tactical decision aids into operations, permitting improved forecasting

of electro-optical system performance

and generation of cloud and target

scene visualizations for training, system development, and mission

rehearsal. In addition to internal

efforts, AFW will continue to rely on

collaboration and leveraging of efforts

with other federal meteorological

agencies, research labs, and universities to further improve CDFS system

performance and meet other research

needs.

Mesoscale Modeling for AF and Army

Operations

The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is the next generation community model expected to

replace MM5. It is another area of

AFWA participation in research.

AFWA is closely collaborating with

the National Center for Atmospheric

Research (NCAR), NOAA's NCEP,

NOAA' s Earth Systems Research Lab-
SECTION 3 DOD 123

oratory (ESRL), the University of

Oklahoma's Center for the Analysis

and Prediction of Storms, and others in

WRF development. AFWA is preparing to initially implement WRF operationally in 2005, and will continue with

sponsorship and funding of development at NCAR and ESRL, test and

evaluation of real-time runs of the

WRF prototype, and will lead the Land

Surface Model (LSM) Working Group

while participating in others. The

LSM analyzes the current state of the

land surface to provide information to

both DOD and civilian agencies, and

through coupling with WRF, will

improve forecasting performance in

the low levels of the atmosphere. This

allows AFW forces to provide better

forecasts for low-level aircraft operations, the dispersion of aerosol contaminants, and the employment of precision-guided munitions. It also

allows for assessment of trafficability

for ground forces.

Through a joint AF-Navy effort,

AFWA and FNMOC were awarded a

$4.2 million grant from the DOD High

Performance Computing Modernization Office in 2004, to establish an

operational test and evaluation center

for the WRF modeling framework.

Additionally, each organization gained

status as a DOD High Performance

Computing Distributed Center. The

WRF Operational Test Center (OTC)

will greatly enhance DOD's ability to

efficiently incorporate state-of-the-science modeling technologies into operations. The end result will be neverbefore-seen predictive accuracy of

fine-scale weather features crucial to

DOD operations. A cutting-edge IBM

supercomputer suite, split into two

identical subsystems, was installed at

each weather center. The distributed

WRF OTC subsystems will be virtually integrated using high-speed communications networks, allowing operational simulations with real-time

weather data from each center. After

rigorous test and evaluation, the specialized WRF configurations that perform optimally for DOD and Serviceunique mission needs will be implemented at AFWA.

Over the next several years, AFWA

will transform its mesoscale modeling

approach from a traditional deterministic (single forecast) process to a stochastic (multiple forecast) process with

the use of ensemble forecasting (EF).

The purpose of this change is to add

forecast uncertainty information into

weather support, thus enabling optimal

decision making for warfighter Operational Risk Management (ORM).

AFWA is currently exploring how to

best design and apply EF to weather

operations with a prototype project

called the Joint Ensemble Forecast

System (JEFS). Dependent on the success of JEFS, AFWA will begin operational transition of EF in 2008.

Atmospheric Optical Turbulence

Electro-optical (EO) systems are

adversely affected by optical distortions caused by thermal or refractive

turbulence. As the sophistication of

current and next-generation military

systems grows, the requirement for

more detailed knowledge of fine-scale

(meters or less) atmospheric behavior

also grows. The Airborne Laser (ABL)

program is one such capability whose

performance is highly dependent on

the variations of the meteorological

conditions that produce optical turbulence. The AF program in atmospheric

optical turbulence measurements and

modeling seeks to address these needs.

Researchers used a balloon-borne turbulence sensor mated to a standard

radiosonde to obtain measurements,

producing data and empirical models

that are the basis for ABL system specification. Balloon-borne measurements were made in conjunction with

airborne stellar scintillometer measurements to understand the relation

between atmospheric structure and

path-integrated optical effects. The

turbulent scalar spectrum was also

sampled using balloon-borne highbandwidth sensors. As part of an international program, aircraft measurements of temperature and velocity turbulence have been made in different

locales worldwide. Horizontal measurements by the aircraft augment the

vertical profiling by balloons to assist

in the development of the detailed

knowledge required to support new EO

systems.

United States Weather Research Program (USWRP)

USWRP's mission is to accelerate

forecast improvements for high-impact

weather phenomena and to facilitate

full use of advanced weather information. AFW first entered into discussions with USWRP in 2001, to explore

expanded participation in the program.

The program currently focuses on

land-falling hurricanes, heavy precipitation, and socio-economic impacts.

The AF is eager to leverage future

efforts in the areas of observing, assimilation strategies for data-sparse

regions, and urban forecasting to

increase warfighters' abilities to anticipate and exploit the weather. AFW is

already committed to the USWRPaffiliated community development of

the WRF model and will continue its

USWRP involvement during the coming fiscal year.

Air Force Research Laboratory

(AFRL)

AFRL supports AFWA by executing

research conducted by external agencies and by conducting in-house

research on both terrestrial and space

weather. AFRL works with AFWA to

execute the research portion of

AFWA's forecasting and modeling program. AFRL coordinates with government agencies (e.g. NASA), Federally

Funded Research and Development

Centers (e.g. NCAR), and private corporations to fund research in support of

weather model development.

AFRL's in-house terrestrial weather

program concentrates on optical turbulence. This research attempts to determine the impact of optical turbulence
124 DOD SECTION 3

on laser propagation. Basic mechanisms of turbulence genesis, energy

transfer, and dissipation are explored.

Methods are explored for predicting

the impact of turbulence on laser propagation with an emphasis on developing forecasting methods. Research is

also being performed on determining

the impact of cloud layers on directed

energy transfer. Emphasis is on detecting and predicting cloud layers that

interfere with lasers.

In space weather research, AFRL

programs focus on ionospheric impacts

to radio frequency systems, space particle specification and forecasts, solar

disturbance prediction, and neutral

density effects on Low-Earth Orbit

(LEO) spacecraft. Working closely

with the DMSP System Program

Office (SPO) at the Space and Missile

Systems Center (SMC) under a Memorandum of Agreement, AFRL supports

the development and upgrading of

operational space weather sensors,

models, and software products to

include: space environment sensors on

the DMSP spacecraft; state-of-the-art

ground-based scintillation detectors;

total electron content sensors; DISS;

SEON; and the Operationalized Space

Environment Network Display suite of

web-based products.

In addition to the AFRL research

portfolio, AFW collaborates with others in the space weather community to

develop new techniques, models, and

systems for transition to operational

applications. These include the Community Coordinated Modeling Center

(CCMC), John Hopkins Applied

Physics Laboratory, the Naval

Research Laboratory, NASA, NOAA's

Space Environment Center, and the

Constellation Observing System for

Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

(COSMIC).

In conclusion, through a continuous

process of review and definition, the

AF documents its requirements for

research aimed ultimately at providing

timely, accurate, relevant, and consistent weather information to the

warfighter today and in the future. In

meteorological R&D, AFW is committed to continued development of the

WRF model and collaboration with

others to the benefit of the warfighter

and the nation. Space weather research

will continue with a strong program at

the AFRL to facilitate the transition of

required capabilities to operational use

at minimum expense.
SECTION 3 DOD 125

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

The United States Navy Oceanography Community (officer and enlisted

personnel) are required to assess both

meteorological and oceanographic

(METOC) impacts on naval, joint, and

combined operations. METOC support begins with intelligence preparation of the environment (IPE), or

measuring the physical environment,

and culminates with exploitation of the

environment by employing sensors and

weapons in a manner that result in

more effective force protection and

offensive strike operations. The generation of METOC forecasts and determination of potential environmental

impacts on platforms, sensors, and

weapons systems requires the collection of METOC data through a variety

of tactical and dedicated sensors

(including satellites), the fusion and

analysis of atmospheric and oceanographic conditions, and the integration

of METOC knowledge into decision

aids/mission planning systems.

The Office of the

Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy

was recently realigned under the Chief

of Naval Operations (CNO), Integration of Capabilities and Resources

(N8) and CNO, Warfare Integration

(N8F), and is now designated as CNO

(N84). The Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

(COMNAVMETOCCOM), is an Echelon III command and reports directly to

the Commander, U.S. Fleet Forces

Command (COMUSFLTFORCOM)

for meteorological and oceanographic

(METOC) operational support. While

operational requirements are coordinated through COMUSFLTFORCOM,

the CNO, through the Office of the

Oceanographer of the Navy (N84),

sponsors the development of future

capabilities with related research and

development (R&D) and acquisition to

support prioritized requirements. The

Navy METOC organization provides

meteorological support services for

Navy and joint forces, meteorological

products to the uniformed services and

other Government agencies, and

oceanographic support to all elements

of DOD.

Research and development is conducted by warfare centers, laboratories, and systems commands, through

sponsorship by the Chief of Naval

Research and the Oceanographer/ Navigator of the Navy. To ensure that all

research and development supported

by the Oceanographer is in direct support of the Naval Mission as established by formal Navy Doctrine, the

Oceanographer has developed and

implemented a comprehensive framework to transition research to operations. The Naval Research Laboratory

(NRL) and the Program Executive

Office (PEO), C41 and Space are the

primary activities that manage naval

research and transition to operations,

and are supplemented by various universities, industry partners, and organizations under Navy contract. NRL

detachments are collocated with the

Fleet Numerical Meteorology and

Oceanography Center in Monterey,

California and with the Naval Oceanographic Office at Stennis Space Center,

Mississippi. The PEO C41 and Space

Program Office (PMW-l80) is Navy's

single program manager for METOC

system development and acquisition.

The Naval Oceanography Community

is moving towards increased automation and more "machine to machine

(M2M)" operations using a service oriented architecture and web-based services in the future.

In 2006, the Naval Meteorology and

Oceanography Command continued its

realignment and transformation from a

geo-centric to knowledge-centric

organization designed to directly and

measurably enhance warfighting capabilities.

Major Activities within the Command currently include:

• Naval Oceanography Operations

Command, Stennis Space Center, MS,

• Naval Oceanographic Office,

Stennis Space Center, MS,

• Fleet Numerical Meteorology and

Oceanography Center, Monterey, CA,

UNITED STATES NAVY

Figure 3-DOD-10. Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Organization.

(COO - Commander, Oceanography Operations and DOO - Director, Oceanography Operations)
126 DOD SECTION 3

• Naval Maritime Forecast Center/

Joint Typhoon Warning Center, Pearl

Harbor, HI,

• U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, DC, and 

• Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Professional Development Center, Gulfport, MS. 

Additional subordinate commands

include:

• The Naval Aviation Forecast Center, Norfolk, VA,

• Strike Group Oceanography

Teams in Norfolk, VA and San Diego,

CA,

• Mine Warfare Oceanography

Command, San Diego, CA,

• Naval Special Warfare Oceanography Center in San Diego, CA,

• Naval Oceanography ASW Centers in Yokosuka, Japan and Stennis

Space Center, MS,

• Fleet Survey Team, Stennis Space

Center MS, and 

• Naval Ice Center, Suitland, MD.

NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHY OPERATIONS COMMAND

The Naval Oceanography Operations Command (NAVOCEANOPSCOM), Stennis Space Center, MS,

was established in early 2006, as an

Echelon IV command reporting to

Commander, Naval Meteorology and

Oceanography Command. The NAVOCEANOPSCOM, headed by the

Commander, Oceanographic Operations, serves as the principal operational organization of CNMOC and

coordinates and manages efforts

among field activities under the Operational Oceanography Program to optimize warfighting resources, support

safe operations and enhance dominance of the battlespace through superior understanding and exploitation of

the environment.

NAVOCEANOPSCOM encompasses nine separate directorates:

• Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW); 

• Mine Warfare (MIW);

• Naval Special Warfare (NSW); 

• Navigation (NAV);

• Precise Time and Astronomy

(PTA);

• Intelligence, Surveillance and

Reconnaissance (ISR);

• Maritime (MAR) Operations; 

• Fleet (FLT) Operations (Strike and

Expeditionary); and

• Aviation (AVN) Operations.

The Commander, Oceanography

Operations supports the combatant

commanders and national missions,

U.S. interagency and international

partners. The other NAVMETOCCOM production centers (NAVOCEANO, FLENUMETOCCEN,

NMPOC/JTWC, etc.) support the

Commander, Oceanographic Operations.

The command's operational model is

based on standardizing services for

each directorate, automating everything that can be automated, and coupling situational awareness and a small

on scene presence, supported by a significant 24/7 reachback production

capability at the major production centers. Aviation and maritime operations

have also been centralized and are now

organized under the aviation and maritime directorates of the NAVOCEANOPSCOM.

Aviation Forecasting

Aviation forecasting is now conducted at CONUS and OCONUS aviation forecasting hubs which provide

flight route weather briefings, point

weather warnings for Navy airfields,

Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts provided every 6 hours and Forecast advisories for aircraft. Forecasting for the

Atlantic is conducted by the Naval

Aviation Forecast Center in Norfolk,

VA. A Naval Aviation Forecast Component will also be established in San

Diego, CA to provide aviation meteorology products to military assets. Routine aviation and installation weather

for NATO and the U.S. European AOR

is provided by the Naval Aviation

Forecast Activity (NAFC)/21st Operational Weather Squadron in Sembach,

Germany.

Systems used in aviation forecasting

include:

• Flight Weather Briefer, a DODdeveloped automated web-based system used to request, produce and disseminate flight route weather briefings.

• Leading Environmental Analysis

and Display System (LEADS) AviaFigure 3-DOD-1l. Forecasters at the Naval Maritime Forecast Activity (NMFA)

Norfolk monitor current weather conditions within the SECOND FLEET area of

responsibility. The Naval Meteorological Center is currently preparing for the

upcoming hurricane season predicted to be as or more severe than last year. (U.S.

Navy Released)
SECTION 3 DOD 127

tion Forecasting System. The primary

display and analysis tool used by our

forecasters.

• Automated Surface Observing

System (ASOS). The Navy's primary

airfield environmental observing system, standardized with Federal Aviation Administration and National

Weather Service.

Fleet Operations

The Naval Meteorology and

Oceanography Command is actively

engaged with Fleet forces to provide

valuable environmental knowledge to

aid warfighting decision making.

Skilled personnel are integrated with

the Fleet, where they provide in situ

observations, run tactical decision aids

and interpret environmental data to

provide decision support to fleet commanders. The onboard personnel work

with reachback cells that refine data,

develop models, conduct forecast

analyses, and deliver high-quality

information to Fleet commands.

Tailored Strike Group Oceanography

Team (SGOT) Detachments train,

work-up, and deploy with carrier and

expeditionary strike groups through

each face of the FRTP and deployment.

Each SOOT Detachment includes a

trained cadre of meteorologists and

oceanographers who forecast for the

CVNs/LHDs/LHAs. In addition to

flight deck weather, they forecast the

target area METOC that varies greatly

considering the tremendous reach of

Naval Aviation along the world's

dynamic coastlines. Naval Strike

Group Oceanography Teams are

located in Norfolk, VA, and San Diego,

CA. Support in the European AOR is

provided by the Naval Strike Group

Oceanography Team, collocated with

Naval Aviation Forecast Center in Norfolk, VA.

US Marine Corps landing forces

receive METOC support from Marine

METOC Support teams and METOC

divisions on amphibious capable ships.

Maritime Operations

The Maritime Directorate is located

at the Naval Maritime Forecast Center

in Pearl Harbor, HI. There is also a

Naval Maritime Forecast Activity

(NMFA) collocated with the Naval

Aviation Forecast Center in Norfolk,

VA. NMFA Norfolk supports Optimum Track Ship Routing and en route

weather for the Atlantic, Mediterranean, waters surrounding Western

and Southern Africa, and the Black and

Baltic Seas.

Key components of the maritime

operations mission are ship routing,

forecasts and warnings and support for

ice operations. Significant contributions to maritime safety and efficiency

include:

• Optimum Track Ship Routing

(OTSR), an enroute weather forecasting service to support trans-oceanic

transits and coastal operations of the

Navy and naval support ships. OTSR

services also include sortie recommendations for potentially damaging

weather conditions in port. Additionally, OTSR provides climatologic outlooks for preliminary transit and mission planning.

• Delivery of tropical cyclone forecasts, warnings and other products.

• Ship weather forecasts (WEAX).

• Aviation weather forecasts for

ship-based helicopters.

• High wind and seas warnings, special weather advisories and local area

warnings.

• Ice analysis and forecasting by the

National Ice Center, a joint operations

of the Naval Ice Center, U.S. Coast

Guard and NOAA.

• Joint Operational Area Forecasts

for Commanders operating in littoral

regions.

FLEET NUMERICAL METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY CENTER

The U.S. Navy's Fleet Numerical

Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC; see https://www.fnmoc.

navy.mil/), an Echelon IV activity

reporting to the Commander, Naval

Meteorology and Oceanography Command, plays a significant role in the

National capability for operational

weather and ocean prediction through

its operation of sophisticated global

and regional meteorological and

oceanographic models, extending from

the top of the atmosphere .to the bottom of the ocean. Through close collaboration with the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO),

FNMOC is a key component in the

Figure 3-DOD-12. The Military Sealift Command (MSC) underway replenishment oiler USNS JOHN ERICSSON (T-AO 194), breaks away from the

NIMITZ-class aircraft carrier USS RONALD REAGAN (CVN 76) after a refueling at sea in foggy weather.(U.S. Navy Released)
128 DOD SECTION 3

Navy's operational weather and ocean

prediction program. This program provides information that helps give

Naval forces an asymmetric advantage

in speed, access and persistence in any

combat operation for which they may

be called upon. Users of FNMOC's

products include all branches of the

Department of Defense (DOD), the

intelligence community (IC), other

government organizations (e.g.,

National Weather Service), private

companies, a number of colleges and

universities, and the general public.

FNMOC is well known for its long

and productive history of implementing, evaluating, operating, maintaining

and improving complex Numerical

Weather Prediction (NWP) models

specifically to meet the requirements

of the U.S. Navy. These requirements

include the need for a particularly

accurate representation of coastal

meteorology and the air-sea heat fluxes

and wind stresses required to drive the

Navy's ocean models. In support of

this need, FNMOC acquires and

processes over six million observations

per day--creating one of the world's

most comprehensive real-time databases of meteorological and oceanographic observations--for real-time

fusion and assimilation into its models.

In addition, FNMOC is designated as

the DOD center for global Numerical

Weather Prediction. FNMOC uniquely

satisfies the military's requirement for

an operational global NWP capability

based on software certified to DOD

information assurance standards and

operated in a secure classified environment protected from outside intrusion

by DOD certified firewalls. This

requirement is driven by the importance of weather and ocean conditions

on modern military operations, the

need to utilize classified weather

observations to guarantee the very best

weather and ocean predictions in theaters of conflict, and the imperative to

produce and disseminate weather and

ocean products to military decision

makers without fear of interruption or

compromise as a result of cyber terrorists or cyber warfare.

FNMOC employs four primary models, the Navy Operational Global

Atmospheric Prediction System

(NOGAPS), the Coupled

Ocean/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS), the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics - Navy (GFDN)

model, and the WaveWatch III model

(WW3), along with a number of specialized models and related applications. 

NOGAPS is a hydrostatic, global

spectral model that drives nearly all

other FNMOC models and applications in some fashion, and forms the

basis for the FNMOC global Ensemble

Forecast System (EFS).

COAMPS is a high-resolution, nonhydrostatic regional model, multiply

nested within NOGAPS, that has

proven to be particularly valuable for

forecasting weather and ocean conditions in highly complex coastal areas.

GFDN is a moving-nest tropical

cyclone (TC) model, nested within

NOGAPS, that is used to forecast TC

tracks globally.

WW3 is a spectral ocean wave

model that is employed both globally

(driven by NOGAPS) and regionally

(driven by COAMPS) in support of a

wide variety of naval operations.

Other models support and supplement the main models with predictions

of ocean thermal structure, ocean currents and other data. All of the models

are configured, scheduled and operated

under the central control of FNMOC

Operations. COAMPS, however, can

also be configured, scheduled and

operated remotely by users in the field

as an on-demand modeling service.

This is done over the Web via the

FNMOC Centralized Atmospheric

Analysis and Prediction System

(CAAPS). In general, FNMOC strives

to treat the air-ocean environment as a

fully integrated system, from the top of

the atmosphere to the bottom of the

ocean, placing special emphasis on the

air-ocean interface.

FNMOC's complex and robust operational prediction capability is

designed to deliver, in conjunction

with NAVOCEANO, 7x24x365 support organized along the warfare areas.

For example, some FNMOC prodFigure 3-DOD-13. An F/A-18F Super Hornet assigned to the "Fighting Vigilantes" of Strike Fighter Squadron One Five One (VFA- 151) launches from the

flight deck of the NIMITZ class aircraft carrier USS ABRAHAM LINCOLN

(CVN 72) during a snowstorm. (U.S. Navy Released)
SECTION 3 DOD 129

ucts consist of detailed forecasts of

wind stresses and heat fluxes to drive

very high-resolution ocean models at

NAVOCEANO that provide ocean

thermal structure and currents in support of anti-submarine and mine warfare operations, or near-shore wind,

sea and surf forecasts that directly support Fleet Operations through ship-toobjective maneuver. In many cases,

the outputs of the FNMOC models

feed directly into applications models,

tactical decision aids and other products that provide direct support to various weather-sensitive activities associated with the Business Lines identified above. These include optimum

path aircraft routing, optimum track

ship routing, issuance of high-winds

and high-seas warnings,

hurricane/typhoon sortie decisions,

covert ingress/egress of Special Operations Forces, ballistic missile targeting,

cruise missile launch and targeting,

radar performance prediction in support of ship self defense, naval gunfire

operations, understanding the threats

posed by airborne

nuclear/biological/chemical agents,

search-and-rescue at sea, and many

other activities.

FNMOC also provides a wide-range

of meteorological and oceanographic

observations and satellite imagery to

complement its models and applications products. These include ondemand extracts from its global observational database, a full range of

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Special Sensor

Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) products,

ERS and QuikScat scatterometer wind

products, a comprehensive view of

tropical cyclones via the FNMOC TC

Web Page, and various experimental

satellite products fielded for evaluation

in conjunction with the Naval

Research Lab (e.g., satellite imagery

that enhances the visualization of airborne sand and dust). FNMOC also

hosts the USGODAE Monterey Data

Server in support of the Global Ocean

Data Assimilation Experiment

(GODAE). This system serves as a

one-stop shop for meteorological and

oceanographic data and model products required to support global ocean

modeling R&D. It also functions as

one of two Argo Global Data Assembly Centers (GDACs), hosting the

complete collection of quality-controlled Argo temperature/salinity profiling float data.

Many of FNMOC's products are distributed to users over the Web via the

PC-based METCAST system, and subsequently displayed and manipulated

on the user's PC with the Joint

METOC Viewer (JMV) software. This

includes all standard meteorological

and oceanographic fields, synoptic

observations, and satellite imagery.

For those who require only graphical

display of model-predicted meteorological or oceanographic fields,

FNMOC provides a Web-based capability called MyWxMap (i.e., "My

Weather Map"). MyWxMap, requiring

only a Web browser for access, allows

the user to select and quickly display

predicted meteorological and oceanographic fields for any user-defined

geographical area.

All of FNMOC's production capabilities are fielded on a collection of computer hardware and software designated as the Primary Oceanographic

Prediction System (POPS). POPS is

organized into two subsystems: the

Analysis and Modeling Subsystem

(AMS) and the Applications, Transactions, and Observations Subsystem

(ATOS). AMS is a cluster of SGI and

IBM supercomputers on which the

major NWP models run. ATOS is a

large suite of IBM Linux clusters that

ingests, decodes and quality-controls

data; does satellite data processing;

hosts many of the applications models

and products mentioned above; and

supports data distribution via a services oriented architecture and Web portal. Note that FNMOC also hosts a

DOD High Performance Computing

Modernization Program (HPCMP)

Distributed Center, which are integrated closely with POPS.

In addition to its primary role of

focused support to the warfighter,

FNMOC also plays a key role in the

U.S. national program for weather prediction. In this regard, FNMOC's tropical cyclone track predictions, widely

recognized as among the best in the

world, have proven to be especially

valuable, with the National Hurricane

Center (NHC) relying on them heavily.

FNMOC also provides an important

and physically separate backup for

some of the models run at the National

Weather Service's National Centers for

Environmental Prediction (NCEP). In

addition, FNMOC serves as the Alternate Joint Typhoon Warning Center

(AJTWC), providing the backup for

the JTWC located in Pearl Harbor,

Hawaii. And finally, FNMOC makes a

subset of its products available to the

general public via the Internet.

FNMOC benefits greatly from collocation with its supporting R&D activity, the Marine Meteorology Division

of the Naval Research Laboratory

(NRL/MRY). NRL/MRY is a worldclass research organization, with focus

on weather-related support to warfighting. FNMOC and NRL/MRY share

space, data, software and computer

systems, and together with the nearby

Naval Postgraduate School represent

one of the largest concentrations of

weather-related intellectual capital in

the nation. Collocation and close

cooperation between research and

operations, such as exists between

NRL/MRY and FNMOC, is the optimum arrangement for transitioning

R&D quickly and cost-effectively into

new and improved operational weather

prediction capabilities.

NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC

OFFICE

Since atmospheric conditions are

inherently coupled to oceanographic

conditions, the Navy's program in
130 DOD SECTION 3

meteorology is closely linked with

oceanography, which is the focus of

the Naval Oceanographic Office

(NAVOCEANO) at the Stennis Space

Center in Mississippi. NAVOCEANO

is an Echelon IV activity reporting to

the Commander, Naval Meteorology

and Oceanography Command. NAVOCEANO's primary responsibilities

include the collection, processing, and

distribution of oceanographic, hydrographic, and other geophysical data

and products. NAVOCEANO runs and

disseminates products from the world's

first operational global ocean model -

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)

Layered Ocean Model

(NLOM) as well as a

number of regional and

coastal circulation and

wave models. NAVOCEANO also runs the

Polar Ice Prediction

System (PIPS) ice

model and provides the

output to the National

Ice Center for product

generation. A key

ingredient to ocean

model performance is

real-time data for

assimilation and evaluation. NAVOCEANO

is the Navy's primary

processing facility for

NOAA polar-orbiting

satellite data and is

nationally recognized

for satellite-derived

sea-surface temperature and satellite

altimeter-derived sea-surface topography and wave height. NAVOCEANO's

global sea surface temperature data are

critically important to successfully

running NOGAPS and COAMPS.

Additionally, NAVOCEANO houses a

DOD Major Shared Resource Center,

enabling transition of the latest

research and development models on

the most modern scaleable, supercomputing architecture and facilitating

transition from R&D to operational

use. The NAVOCEANO web site for

information is https://www.navo.

navy.mil.

NAVAL MARITIME FORECAST

CENTER/JOINT TYPHOON WARNING CENTER

Located at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the

Naval Maritime Forecast Center, an

Echelon V activity reporting to the

Commander, Naval Meteorology and

Oceanography Command, hosts the

Command's Maritime Directorate and

is collocated with the Joint Typhoon

Warning Center (JTWC). The JTWC

is the U.S. Department of Defense

agency responsible for issuing tropical

cyclone warnings for the Pacific and

Indian Oceans.

Official JTWC support is provided

to all branches of the U.S. Department

of Defense and other U.S. government

departments and their agencies such as

the State Department (U.S. Embassies

and Consulates), and the Department

of Commerce, (U.S. National Weather

Service). JTWC products are intended

for use by operational units in making

decisions regarding ship movements,

aircraft sorties and operational planning and by other government agencies

in their respective support and international cooperation roles.

As an example, the U.S. National

Weather Service, in close cooperation

with JTWC, utilizes JTWC tropical

cyclone warnings to provide local

scale forecasts for the various political

entities known as Micronesia. Though

not an official member or participant in

the United Nations World Meteorological Organization (WMO), JTWC continually attempts to maintain cordial

relations with WMO tropical cyclone

forecast centers to minimize the

issuance of conflicting information.

JTWC tropical

cyclone warning support is conducted on a

365 days/year, 24

hours/day basis.

JTWC monitors, analyzes and forecasts

tropical cyclone genesis, development and

movement across

more than 100 million

square miles of the

Pacific and Indian

Oceans from the west

Coast of the Americas

to the east Coast of

Africa. This area of

responsibility encompasses more than 90

percent of the world's

tropical cyclone activity.

Manned by U.S. Air Force and Navy

personnel, JTWC uses a vast array of

data sources and computational

resources in fulfillment of the stated

mission. These sources include

numerous meteorological satellite systems and sensors, radar data, surface

and upper level synoptic data and

numerical atmospheric models.

U.S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY

The U.S. Naval Observatory in

Figure 3-DOD-14. GOES E/W Satellite composite image provided by the

U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Monterey, Calif., showing Hurricane

Wilma at 4:00 am EST. Wilma, a dangerous category three hurricane on

the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale, has maximum sustained winds near

125 mph with higher gusts at this time. (U.S. Navy Released)
SECTION 3 DOD 131

Washington, D.C., is one of the oldest

scientific agencies in the country.

Established in 1830 as the Depot of

Charts and Instruments, the U.S. Naval

Observatory today is the preeminent

authority in the areas of Precise Time

and Astrometry and distributes Earth

Orientation parameters and other astronomical data required for accurate navigation and fundamental astronomy.

The U.S. Naval Observatory serves

as the official source of time for the

Department of Defense and the standard of time for the U.S.. The atomic

clock timescale of the Observatory is

based on an ensemble of cesium-beam

frequency standards and hydrogen

masers.

The U.S. Naval Observatory performs an essential scientific role for

the U.S., the Navy and the Department

of Defense. Its mission includes determining the positions and motions of

the Earth, Sun, Moon, planets, stars,

and other celestial objects, providing

astronomical data; determining precise

time; measuring the Earth's rotation;

and maintaining the Master Clock for

the U.S.. Observatory astronomers

formulate the theories and conduct the

relevant research necessary to improve

these mission goals. This astronomical

and timing data, essential for accurate

navigation and the support of communication on Earth and in space, is vital

to the Navy and Department of

Defense. It is also used extensively by

other government agencies and the

public at large.

EDUCATION/TRAINING

Navy Oceanography Officers are all

university graduates in meteorology,

oceanography or other earth sciences,

with most attaining dual meteorology

and oceanography advanced graduate

degrees.

Enlisted forecasters/briefers are

trained in meteorological analysis and

forecasting at military schools.

Enlisted observers receive training at

military schools.

The enlisted Aerographer's "A"

(observer) and "C" (forecaster) schools

are located at the Naval Technical

Training Unit collocated with Air

Force and Marine weather training at

Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi.

Ongoing professional development

for both officer and enlisted personnel

is offered through the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Professional

Development Center in Gulfport, MS

(with Pacific and Atlantic detachments). The center offers directorate

training as well as training on oceanographic knowledge continuum.

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

(USMC)

The mission of the Marine Corps

(Meteorology and Oceanography

(METOC) Service is to provide meteorological, oceanographic, and space

environmental information, products,

and services required to support

Marine Corps and other military operations. The Marine Corps METOC

support infrastructure is designed to

readily deploy and operate in austere

expeditionary environments. It is

capable of providing sustained, comprehensive, and relevant METOC support to all elements of a Marine Air

Ground Task Force (MAGTF), as well

as bases and stations of the supporting

establishment.

Organization

The Deputy Commandant for Aviation, Headquarters United States

Marine Corps (Code ASL37), is the

responsible office for Marine Corps

METOC requirements and support.

The Marine Corps METOC organization consists of two operational chains

of command, one for supporting establishment METOC units and the other

for the Fleet Marine Force (FMF).

Supporting establishment METOC

units are located worldwide at Marine

Corp Air Stations (MCAS) and Facilities (MCAF). These activities are

manned and equipped to provide direct

aviation METOC support and services

to host and tenant units at seven major

air stations in the continental U.S., one

in Hawaii, and two in Japan.

Within the FMF, Marines deploy and

employ as scalable, tailored, combined-arms teams known as Marine

Air Ground Task Forces. There are

three sizes of MAGTFs. They are the

Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU),

Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB),

and Marine Expeditionary Force

(MEF) with the latter being the largest.

Additionally, Special Purpose

MAGTFs (SPMAGTFs) may be

formed to support operationally unique

situations and/or requirements. All

MAGTFs, regardless of size, share

four organizational elements that vary

in size and composition according to

the mission: Command Element (CE),

Ground Combat Element (GCE), Aviation Combat Element (ACE), and

Combat Service Support Element

(CSSE).

FMF METOC activities are organized, trained, and equipped to provide

tailored support products and services

to all combat elements of the MAGTF.

METOC support is focused towards

impacts on Expeditionary Maneuver

Warfare (EMW) operations, particularly Operational Maneuver from the

Sea (OMFTS). FMF METOC activities are fully interoperable within joint

force operations as part of a service or

functional component command.

When directed to stand-up as part of a

Joint Task Force Headquarters (JTF

HQ), they are capable of planning,

coordinating, and leading joint

METOC operations. Marine METOC

forces can rapidly transition from precrisis state to full operational capability in a distant theater to provide onscene support to MAGTF, combined,

joint, allied, and coalition operations

and other military operations as may

be directed.

FMF METOC assets are permanently assigned to Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters (MEF

HQ), Intelligence Battalions, Marine
132 DOD SECTION 3

Wing Support Groups (MWSGs), and

Marine Wing Support Squadrons

(MWSSs). There are three Marine

Expeditionary Forces strategically

positioned for global response. I MEF,

based in southern California and III

MEF, forward based in Okinawa,

Mainland Japan and Hawaii fall under

the control of the Commander, Marine

Forces Pacific. II MEF, located at

bases in North and South Carolina,

falls under the Commander Marine

Forces Command. MEF METOC personnel serve as special staff to the

Commanding General (CG) and are

under the direction and cognizance of

the G-2 (Intelligence) Division.

The three Intelligence Battalions in

the Marine Corps are co-located with

respective Marine Expeditionary Force

Headquarters. These battalions

directly support the MEF G-2 and

serve as MAGTF intelligence centers

during operations. METOC is a vital

part of the intelligence estimate and is

an essential element that supports the

Marine Corps Rapid Response Planning Process. METOC personnel

assigned to these commands provide

expertise, products, and services that

directly support the Intelligence Preparation of the Battle-space (IPB)

process by helping intelligence analysts to effectively evaluate, integrate,

and synchronize METOC effects for

both enemy and friendly courses of

action.

Marine Aircraft Wings (MAWs) conduct the complete range of air operations in support of the MEF, to include

anti-air warfare, offensive air support,

assault support, aerial reconnaissance,

electronic warfare, and control of aircraft and missiles. The MAW serves as

the principle headquarters for the ACE.

Most of the MAGTF's METOC support assets reside within the MAW,

specifically at the MWSG and its subordinate MWSSs. These assets are

organized, structured, and capable of

supporting a variety of MAGTF and

ACE-specific operations as defined by

the size, scope, and mission requirements. Dedicated METOC support is

available for all MAGTF elements

from within the MAW/ACE.

METOC Support Capabilities

Meteorological Mobile FacilityReplacement (MetMF(R)). The highest level of METOC support to the

MAGTF and ACE-specific operations

is the deployment of the MetMF(R).

The MetMF(R) provides a METOC

support capability similar to that found

in garrison METOC facilities. The

METMF(R) is normally employed as

part of MWSS to a Forward Operating

Base (FOB) and is the only realistic

option for large-scale MAGTF operations. Once established ashore, the

MWSS may detach small METOC

support teams with portable ancillary

equipment to a forward base in support

of ACE units that are separated from

the main airbase. This redeployment

also provides the MetMF(R) with a

forward data collection capability that

significantly enhances METOC situational awareness and overall support

efforts to the entire MAGTF. With

appropriate service personnel augmentation, the MetMF(R) is also capable

of serving as host for an in theater Joint

METOC Forecasting Unit (JMFU)

during joint operations and exercises.

METOC Support Team (MST).

MSTs are task organized and equipped

to provide a limited level of METOC

support to combat elements other than

the ACE (e.g. CE, GCE, and CSSE)

and are assigned in support of MEU

operations. It is capable of rapidly

deploying as part of a first-in level of

METOC support response to a crisis

and can be easily integrated into an Air

Contingency MAGTF (ACM). Additionally, the MST can be assigned to

augment a JMFU during joint operations.

Each MWSS within the MAW is

structured and organized to provide

one MST that consist of one METOC

officer, two forecasters, and two

observers. When deployed, the MST

will normally be assigned to the G/S-2

(Intelligence) division/section of the

supported combat element or MEU.

The MST deploys with rugged, ancillary environmental collection and data

processing equipment. During operations they organically collect METOC

products, data, and information from

the nearest deployed MetMF(R), Navy

METOC OA Division afloat, host

nation or other METOC support organizations and agencies to satisfy

Figure 3-DOD- 15. Marines assigned to Weapons Company, 3rd Battalion, 3rd

Marine Regiment, conduct a mounted patrol in the cold and snowy weather of

the Khowst-Gardez Pass, Afghanistan in order to disrupt any enemy activity.

(U.S. Marine Corps Released)
SECTION 3 DOD 133

METOC information requirements.

Specialized METOC Support

The Marine Corps' Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (CBIRF)

was established in 1996, as a result of

Presidential Decision Directive (PDD)

39 to manage the consequences of

Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical

(NBC) materials or weapons used by

terrorists. This national level asset is

part of the re-activated 4th Marine

Expeditionary Brigade - Anti-Terrorism (MEBAT) located at Indian Head,

Maryland. It is comprised of specially

trained and equipped Navy, Marine,

and civilian personnel who can rapidly

be forward deployed and/or respond to

a credible threat of a Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, or High

Yield Explosive (CBRNE) incident in

order to assist local, state, or Federal

agencies and designated Unified Combatant Commanders in the conduct of

consequence management operations.

Within the S-2 (Intelligence) section,

permanently assigned METOC forecasters provide specialized NBC dispersion forecast products and services

that aid mission accomplishment of

this organization.

METOC Support Doctrine

Marine Corps War Fighting Publication (MCWP) 3-35.7, MAGTF Meteorological and Oceanographic Support,

provides more detailed information

about the Marine Corps METOC Service. An electronic copy is available

for viewing and downloading from the

Marine Corps Combat Development

Command (MCCDC), Doctrine Division web site at https://www.doctrine.guantico.usmc.mil/.

Figure 3-DOD-l6. Marines, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom with Marine

Medium Helicopter Squadron 764, tie down the rotor blades of a CH-46E Sea

Knight helicopter as a massive dust storm approaches the squadron's work area

in AL ASAD, Iraq. (U.S. Marine Corps Released)

SECTION 3 DOD 135

ARMY TRANSFORMATION

The United States Army is undergoing a historical transformation from a

division-centered Army, to a smaller,

brigade based Army. This transformation will require an adjustment on how

weather support will be provided to the

new modular Army. Weather forces

will be pooled at designated Army

locations to provide personnel ready to

accompany deploying Army forces.

These force pools will rely more on

"reach back" capabilities to obtain pertinent meteorological data. The Army

and AF are working together to determine the optimal weather team sizing,

equipment and communications capabilities required to support the new

modular Army forces.

OPERATIONAL EQUIPMENT AND

SUPPORT MISSIONS

Although it is transforming to a

modular force, the existing weather

support structure within the U.S. Army

is a mix of Army and USAF personnel

and equipment according to Army-Air

Force agreement (Army Regulation

(AR) 115-10/Air Force Joint Instruction (AFJI) 15-157, Weather Support

for the U.S. Army, 30 June 1996). This

joint regulation describes the Service

responsibilities and those of Army

Commands and Army Service Component Commands (ASCC) within the

Army for providing weather support.

The U.S. Army provides direct weather

support to two Army missions: upper

air observations for Field Artillery fire

support, and limited surface weather

observations to support Army weapon

systems forward of Division tactical

operations centers. AF Major Commands (MAJCOMs) provide operational weather services to war fighting

ASCCs in combat, contingencies, and

peacetime training. U.S. Army Forces

Command (FORSCOM), U.S. Army

Europe (USAREUR), U.S. Army

Pacific (USARPAC), U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC),

Eighth U.S. Army (EUSA), and U.S.

Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) have AF Weather

(AFW) personnel providing daily

installation and tactical weather support. Army Artillery Meteorological

(ARTYMET) Crews provide direct

upper air observation support to

artillery units in the same ASCC. During peacetime training and activation,

the Air National Guard (ANG) provides AF operational weather support

to the U.S. Army Reserve (USAR) and

Army National Guard (ARNG), collectively designated the Reserve Component (RC). In addition, during exercises and contingencies, the ANG may

augment the active Army Battlefield

Weather forces.

The Army also provides the operational weather support to Army

Research Development, Test and Evaluation (RDTE) ranges, centers, and

other research facilities using the

Developmental Test Command's

(DTC) Meteorological Teams (MET

Teams) and U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) contractors. DTC operational support is

established under Army Test and Evaluation Command. SMDC provides

weather support to the Ronald Reagan

Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site at

Kwajalein Atoll through a Meteorological Environmental Test Support contractor.

The Army provides the tactical field

and communications equipment to

USAF weather forces for tactical operations. The Integrated Meteorological

System (IMETS) is the U.S. Army's

tactical weather communication, intelligence, and information system providing digital weather support to the

commanders and staffs of tactical

units, from Echelons Above Corps

(EAC) to aviation battalions. The

Communications and Electronics

Command (CECOM) and Army

Research Laboratory (ARL) provide

fielding and technical support to Program Director (PD), IMETS and to

Field Artillery meteorology programs.

ARTYMET Crews are assigned to

Artillery units at Division level, to

Field Artillery Brigades, and to Separate Brigades with a direct support

Artillery Battalion. Army soldiers regularly take tactical upper air observations to support Field Artillery units

during tactical training exercises, at

permanent Army Artillery Ranges, or

during the full range of combat missions. ARTYMET Crews also take

limited surface observations at tactical

locations on an "as needed" basis to

support artillery operational requirements.

ARTYMET Crews in the Active

Component (AC) and RC sections currently use the Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS), AN/TMQ-41, to take

upper air observations during tactical

operations. It is a mobile, upper air

sounding system mounted on a High

Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV). The MMS provides

upper air data to the Field Artillery

Tactical Data System for use in adjusting artillery fire, to USAF Battlefield

Weather Teams (BWTs), and to the

Chemical Officer for use in smoke and

in Nuclear, Biological and Chemical

(NBC) defense operations (Figure 3-

DOD-17). The U.S. Army Field

Artillery School (USAFAS), Fort Sill,

OK, develops requirement documents

and is the combat and training developer for meteorological equipment

used for Field Artillery support.

Headquarters, Department of the

Army, Office of the Deputy Chief of

Staff, G-2, is responsible for Army

weather support policy. The Office of

the Deputy Chief of Staff, G-3, is

responsible for validating and prioritizing weather support requirements and

programs to meet Army requirements.

ARMY OPERATIONAL SUPPORT

PROVIDED BY THE AIR FORCE

Under AR 1 15-l0/AFJI 15-157, the

UNITED STATES ARMY
136 DOD SECTION 3

AF provides the Army with the necessary manpower and unique tactical and

fixed weather equipment to meet Army

tactical and garrison active component

and reserve component support

requirements. Army support manpower requirements are sourced from

AF active, reserve, and ANG weather

forces. While direct support of the

Field Artillery remains an Army

responsibility, and is supported by

Army ARTYMET teams, AF Battlefield Weather forces provide supplemental information to artillery crews in

contingencies for areas beyond direct

ARTYMET observation capabilities.

The AF assigns AF weather personnel

to the war fighting Army Commands

and ASCCs at theater, corps, division,

armored cavalry regiments, aviation

brigades, separate brigades, and Special Forces groups/ranger regiments to

provide direct, on site weather support.

AF operational weather squadrons

(OWSs) and post-level weather organizations provide garrison and tactical

weather warning, observing, forecasting, special support, and staff weather

officer (SWO) services to Combat,

Combat Support, and Combat Service

Support units throughout the peacetime/war continuum. Peacetime garrison activities include supporting flying

operations at Army Airfields and

severe weather watch, warning, and

advisory services for aircraft and post

resource protection.

Per Army-AF agreement, the AF is

responsible for installation, operation,

and maintenance of standard AF meteorological and observing equipment at

Army Airfields. Tactically, the Army

is responsible for vehicles, tactical

communications, and weather effects

criteria. The Army's IMETS is fielded

for these purposes and is operated by

AFW personnel. The Army also maintains IMETS hardware and software,

with the AF maintaining AF software

that performs meteorological functions

within IMETS. IMETS uses AF meteorological software, but IMETS is

hosted on an Army vehicle, uses Army

tactical communications and Army

weather effects software. IMETS

baseline software is hosted on Army

Common Hardware and is Defense

Information Infrastructure Common

Operating Environment (DIICOE) and

Joint Technical Architecture - Army

(JTA-A) compliant. The Army provides other tactical equipment to AF

BWTs through an Army Table of Organizations and Equipment (TOE). The

following paragraphs describe weather

activities within Army Commands and

Army Service Component Commands.

Eighth U.S. Army

The Eighth United States Army

(Eighth Army) requires and uses Army

resources to collect upper air data for

artillery support. Two artillery meteorological (ARTYMET) crews with the

Second Infantry Division (2 ID) use

AN/TMQ-41 Meteorological Measuring Sets to collect upper air data for

direct use by field artillery units. AFW

personnel assigned to the 607th

Weather Squadron (607 WS) provide

operational weather support to Eighth

Army units. The 607 WS provides

garrison and tactical weather observing, advisories, mission execution

forecasts and staff weather support

during armistice operations, exercises

and contingencies. These personnel

use knowledge of Army missions to

prepare theater-scale and site-specific

weather forecasts essential to resource

protection, operational planning and

execution of combat operations. The

607 WS has units at four installations

to provide direct support to HQ Eighth

Army, HQ 2 ID and the 2nd Combat

Aviation Brigade. In FY 2006, the 607

WS had 64 assigned weather personnel

to support the Army mission. IAW AR

115-10/AFJI 15-157, the Eighth Army

provided garrison facilities, tactical

equipment (MTOE and CTA) and an

operating budget.

United States Army Europe

United States Army Europe

(USAREUR) and 7th Army require

and use Army resources to provide

meteorological services in direct support of Army operations. These services include collecting and disseminating upper air observations for artillery

support and collecting and disseminating limited surface weather observations to support all tactical units and

operations.

The Air Force's 7th Weather

Squadron (7WS) provides

USAREUR/7th Army in-garrison and

Figure 3-DOD-17. Accurate wind profiles are essential for the Artillery to

engage their targets. Photo courtesy U.S. Army.
SECTION 3 DOD 137

tactical weather intelligence and support. This includes observing services

for in-garrison operations, contingency

and exercise operations, staff weather

officer (SWO) services, and specialized support. The United States Air

Forces in Europe (USAFE) Operational Weather Squadron (OWS) at

Sembach AB, Germany, provides operational-level forecast products for the

European Command Area of Responsibility, to include all USAREUR units.

BWTs located at V Corps and its aviation assets, 1st Infantry Division and

its aviation brigade,1st Armored Division and its aviation brigade, Southern

European Task Force, and 7 Army

Training Command, as well as 7WS

supporting 7th Army, evaluate and tailor these forecast products to produce

mission execution forecasts.

The 7WS mission, with its 10

detachments and operating locations,

is to provide weather operations packages to conform to the Army's garrison

and war operations. Additionally,

7WS conducts weather operations and

planning to meet future Army transformation and modularity initiatives.

7WS will match the deploying weather

force structure to the mission that

USAREUR is called upon to execute.

7WS will tailor the permanently

assigned weather force to meet

requirements of the new USAREUR

structure and utilize "reachback" capabilities to the maximum extent possible

to minimize the fielded footprint without compromising weather operations.

During late FY 2006 and early FY

2007, three 7WS detachments will

close: Hanau, Giebelstadt, and

Wurzburg. These closures follow

USAREUR transformation.

Seven IMETS were fielded within

USAREUR (V Corps, two divisions

and their aviation brigades, and two

separate brigades). IMETS is geared

to interface as a module of the Army

Battlespace Control System (ABCS) to

inject weather decision products into

the common battle picture for Army

commanders. IMETS Light was

fielded in Oct FY 2005 to Aviation

Brigade weather teams, and an

upgrade (version 6.4) was fielded in

FY 2005 (Figure 3-DOD-19).

USAREUR provides supporting

USAF weather teams with tactical

vehicles, MTOE and Common Table

of Allowances (CTA) equipment and

operating funds (expendables, maintenance, etc.). Four artillery meteorological (ARTYMET) sections collect

upper air observations for direct use by

field artillery units. The Forward Area

Limited Observing Program (FALOP)

consists of Army personnel taking limFigure 3-DOD-18. Reliable wind forecasts are necessary to ensure safety during airborne operations.(Photo courtesy U.S. Army).

Figure 3-DOD-19. The Integrated Meteorological System - Light (IMETS-L).

(Photo courtesy U.S. Army.)
138 DOD SECTION 3

ited observations at forward areas in

the battlespace. USAREUR G2

funded purchases of handheld weather

sensors for use in FALOP training and

equipping Army teams to provide limited weather data at Forward Operating

Bases and Forward Arming and Refueling Points. These additional "eyes

forward" provide critical information

that benefits flight safety as well as the

theater weather sensing strategy without having to forward deploy more

people to austere locations.

U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)

Weather support to USASOC allows

commanders to improve efficiency,

effectiveness and safety of operations

for USASOC units. Air Force Special

Operations Command (AFSOC) and

Air National Guard (ANG) weather

personnel provide direct support to

USASOC units and are assigned to

10th Combat Weather Squadron

(CWS); OL-A, 320th Special Tactics

Squadron (STS); 321st STS; and OLA, 353rd Special Operations Group.

ANG personnel providing direct support to USASOC when activated are

assigned to the 107th MIANG, 146th

PAANG, and the 181st TXANG. 

SOWT personnel use tactical

weather kits to collect limited weather

data and provide limited scope meteorological observations from permissive,

semi-permissive, and uncertain environments in direct support of Army

Special Operations Forces (ARSOF).

10th CWS SOWTs collect weather

data at the deployed team level. These

observations are passed to operating

bases for use by ARSOF commanders

and staff and a variety of other weather

units and personnel. Specifically,

SOWTs provide garrison and tactical

support to USASOC units including

the U.S. Army Special Forces Command and its seven subordinate Special

Forces Groups (SFG); the 75th Ranger

Regiment; the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment; the United

States Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command

(USACAPOC); and all SFG and regimental subordinate battalions and two

separate aviation companies. Weather

operations include: climatology and

solar/lunar illumination tables and

studies; courses of action and mission

impacts analysis; weather watch/warning services; mission execution forecasts; flight weather briefings;

drop/landing zone forecasts; training

of ARSOF; training of host nation and

indigenous forces on conducting limited observation programs; surface,

upper-air and tactical radar observations; and Foreign Internal Defense

analysis, surveys, and training.

AFSOC SOWTs provide the DOD's

sole source for high-fidelity Meteorological and Oceanographic (METOC)

intelligence data collection from austere, denied, hostile, or semipermissive

areas of the battlespace.

USASOC plans and expends

resources for some operational and

administrative support to SOWTs providing meteorological service support

to USASOC components. USASOC

provides funding for office and

deployable automation systems and

connectivity to local networks; operations and maintenance/sustainment to

support USASOC requirements; funding for temporary duty for some

USASOC mission needs; and funding

for the Army Combat Uniform

(ACUs). Additionally, USASOC provides for some tactical items such as

NBC and some communications

equipment; electrical power, vehicles,

life support equipment necessary for

accomplishing USASOC weather support missions; and maintenance and

supplies for USASOC provided equipment. Fifteen Integrated Meteorological Systems-Light (IMETS-L) have

been fielded within USASOC and

funding has been secured for thirty-six

additional systems. IMETS-L provides AFSOC SOWTs a system to

assist with mobile automated weather

data receiving, processing, and dissemination. IMETS-L also provides

AFSOC SOWTs a system to assist

with digital weather support, real-time

tailored weather information, forecasts, and weather effects on friendly

and hostile weapons systems.

USASOC also provides funding for

facilities, telephones, office space and

Figure 3-DOD-20. Weather plays an important role in day to day Army operations, such as this bridging operation in South Korea. (Photo courtesy U.S.

Army)
SECTION 3 DOD 139

furniture, and real property to house

supporting special operations weather

units, as well as secure storage of

required equipment.

United States Army Pacific

(USARPAC)

USARPAC uses Army resources to

conduct meteorological services in

direct support of Army operations.

These services include collecting and

disseminating upper air observations

for artillery support and collecting and

disseminating surface weather observations to support tactical units and

operations. USARPAC provides supporting USAF units with tactical vehicles, MTOE and Common Table of

Allowances (CTA) equipment and

operations and maintenance funds.

The IMETS and New Tactical Forecast

System (NTFS) have been fielded

within USARPAC as the primary

meteorological equipment for

deployed operations. The IMETS and

NTFS receive data via Army-provided

reachback NTPRNET and SIPRNET

conduits. The 25th ASOS weather

budget will increase in FY 2007 due to

an increase in IMETS funding and the

25ID(L) SWO's operating budget.

Approximately $9.4K has been provided for each fielded IMETS-V system, and $ 8.9K for each IMETS-L

system. Furthermore, the SWO's operating budget increased from an undeterminably small amount to $25K. The

25th ASOS also supports Bradshaw

Army Airfield, for which funding is

incorporated into the SWO's operating

budget.

The 17th Operational Weather

Squadron (17 OWS) at Hickam AFB,

HI, provides HQ USARPAC with garrison and tactical weather warnings,

forecasts, special support, and Staff

Weather Office (SWO) services. Additional BWTs assigned to U.S. Army

Japan (USARJ), U.S. Army Hawaii

(USARHAW), including the 25th ID

(L), and U.S. Army Alaska

(USARAK), including 172 SIB, provide direct, on-site support at 5

USARPAC installations. The BWTs

also deploy with their customers, providing tailored battlefield observations

and forecasts. Weather reengineering

has reduced the requirement for forward deployed weather personnel,

instead leveraging IMETS and other

recently fielded technology for reachback capability. The 17 OWS provides

regional weather support, allowing the

forward deployed forces to focus on

specific area and target forecasts.

There are three subordinate commands

within USARPAC: United States

Army, Hawaii (USARHAW), United

States Army, Alaska (USARAK), and

United States Army, Japan (USARJ).

The 17 OWS provides operationallevel forecast products for the USFJ

and USFK AORs, to include all USFJ

and USFK AF and Army units. This

includes specific resource protection

support (i.e. weather advisories, warnings, and watches), as well as Terminal

Aerodrome Forecasts for selected

units. The 5th Air Force (5 AF) Liaison serves as USFJ's Staff Weather

Officer (SWO), and also serves as the

USARJ SWO. Day-to-day support for

Camp Zama, Japan, is provided by an

Operating Location (OL) under the AF

BWT assigned to the 374th Operational Support Squadron at Yokota AB.

The OL on-site at Camp Zama provides observational support and produces mission execution forecasts to

support aviation operations.

The 11th Operational Weather

Squadron (11 OWS) at Elmendorf

AFB AK, provides Operational level

forecast products for the Alaskan Command AOR, to include all USARAK

units. The Commander, 11 OWS,

serves as the CG, USARAK's SWO.

Additionally, 11 OWS is responsible

for Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts for

Fort Wainwright, along with resource

protection weather support (i.e.

weather advisories, warnings, and

watches) for Forts Wainwright, Greely,

and Richardson. The 11 OWS provides

flight weather briefing support, as

required, to Army, Army Reserve, and

Army National Guard aviation assets

in theater. An AF BWT (3 ASOS/WE)

is collocated with the 172d Infantry

Brigade (Separate) (172d Stryker

Brigade Combat Team (172 SBCT)) at

Fort Wainwright, and the aviation

assets of 4th Battalion, 123d Aviation

Regiment. The 3 ASOS/WE provides

weather support for both tactical and

garrison operations, observes the

atmosphere and evaluates, then tailors,

forecast products to produce Mission

Execution Forecasts and staff briefings. The 3 ASOS/WE also supports

172 SBCT tactical unmanned aerial

vehicle (T-UAV) operations. The

Alaska Army National Guard operates

the airfield at Fort Richardson.

U.S. Army Forces Command

(FORSCOM)

Weather support to the U.S. Army

Forces Command (FORSCOM) is

diverse and demanding. FORSCOM,

the Army's largest major command,

requires and uses Army resources to

conduct meteorological services in

direct support of Army operations.

These services include collecting and

disseminating upper air observations

for artillery support and collecting and

disseminating limited surface weather

observations to support all tactical

units and operations. FORSCOM consists of more than 750,000 Active

Army (AA), U.S. Army Reserve

(USAR) and Army National Guard

(ARNG) soldiers. These soldiers

account for more than 80 percent of the

Army's combat power. FORSCOM

trains, mobilizes, deploys, and sustains

combat ready forces capable of

responding rapidly to crises worldwide. The AA component of

FORSCOM has nearly 200,000 soldiers. Third U.S. Army is the Army

component of U.S. Central Command

(USCENTCOM), which is the Joint

command responsible for Southwest

Asia (SWA), the Persian Gulf, and the

Horn of Africa. U.S. Army South

(USARSO) serves as the Army compo-
140 DOD SECTION 3

nent to U.S. Southern Command

(USSOUTHCOM). USARSO relocated from Fort Buchanan, Puerto

Rico, to Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in

2003, and became a FORSCOM major

subordinate command October 1st,

2003. FORSCOM also commands

three Army Corps: I Corps at Fort

Lewis, Washington, III Corps at Fort

Hood, Texas, and XVIII Airborne

Corps at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.

Together, they include six divisions,

two armored cavalry regiments, five

separate brigades and a range of other

corps combat, combat support and

combat service support units. Two

Continental U.S. Armies (CONUSAs),

First U.S. Army and Fifth U.S. Army,

are responsible for training, mobilization, and deployment support to

Reserve Component units in

FORSCOM. Another major subordinate command to FORSCOM, the U.S.

Army Reserve Command (USARC),

commands all U.S. Army Reserve

units in the continental U.S. except

those assigned to Special Operations

Command. FORSCOM's Army

Reserve strength stands at approximately 196,000 soldiers. USARC

units are part of the Federal force and

make their primary contribution to

FORSCOM combat power in combat

support and combat service support

specialties such as medical, civil

affairs, transportation, maintenance

and supply.

The ARNG provides FORSCOM a

balanced force of eight National Guard

combat divisions, 15 enhanced separate brigades, extensive combat support, and combat service support units.

The current FORSCOM ARNG

strength is approximately 367,000 soldiers.

The Army is in a period of transformation, over the next several years

where the Army will transform from its

current structure to a structure that has

two higher headquarters replacing

existing divisions, corps and echelons

above corps. This transformation is

requiring AFW to retune its service

approach to Army units in terms of

manpower and functions.

Weather support to FORSCOM's AA

units comes from dedicated AFW

forces aligned under three Air Support

Operations Groups (ASOGs) within

Air Combat Command (ACC): 1

ASOG at Fort Lewis, Washington; 3

ASOG at Fort Hood, Texas; and 18

ASOG at Pope AFB, North Carolina.

A weather squadron under each ASOG

supports the Corps. Each Army division normally has dedicated AFW

forces aligned under an Air Support

Operations Squadron (ASOS) or one

of the weather squadrons, at their

respective installations. Corps and

division weather forces are authorized

personnel and equipment to support a

variety of missions at the various Army

echelons. Weather support at each

Army echelon is provided according to

Army Field Manual 34-81, and Air

Force Joint Pamphlet 15-127. Currently, there are nearly 350 AFW

authorizations supporting various echelons across FORSCOM. These personnel, enabled by an operational

weather squadron, provide garrison

and tactical weather warning, observing, mission execution forecast, special

support, and SWO-services during

peacetime, combat, contingency, exercise, or armistice operations.

Air Combat Command weather

organizations provide direct, on-site

support at 11 major, Army installations, including the National Training

Center at Fort Irwin, California, and

the Joint Readiness Training Center at

Fort Polk, Louisiana, and at deployed

locations. Support is focused on air,

ground, special operations, and other

combat and combat support missions.

FORSCOM provides supporting

AFW forces with a Modified Table of

Organization and Equipment (MTOE)

and operating funds (expendables,

maintenance, etc.). ARTYMET

requirements in FORSCOM increased

from 17 to 20 sections in FY 2005, due

to modularity. These 6-person sections, comprised of Army weather personnel, collect upper air observations

for direct use by field artillery units.

Six more teams are planned to be

added in FY 2006 - FY 2007.

The New Tactical Forecast System

(N-TFS) is the primary in-garrison and

tactical weather equipment for receiving graphics and alphanumeric data.

Data is received via the Very Small

Aperture Terminal (VSAT), Tactical

VSAT (T-VSAT), Non-Secure Internet

Protocol Router Network, and Secure

Internet Protocol Router Network.

Nineteen IMETS and 15 IMETS-L,

developed by the Army Research Laboratory, have been fielded within

FORSCOM. FORSCOM has also

fielded commercial Automated

Weather Observing Systems at Yakima

Training Center, Washington, Fort

Campbell, Kentucky, and Georgetown

Bahamas.

Training and Doctrine Command

(TRADOC)

Headquarters, TRADOC (HQ

TRADOC) is responsible for development and management of weather

training programs, Army and Joint

weather support doctrine (concepts and

field manuals), and the establishment

of requirement documents for Army

tactical weather support. HQ

TRADOC is the approval authority for

Army-AF weather doctrine, Army

weather system requirements, and

weather support policy. Key mission

areas for the next few years will be to

coordinate weather requirements to the

Army's Modular Forces; develop new

weather support doctrine, concepts,

and tactics, techniques, and procedures; ensure weather, weather effects

to operations, and weather support

processes/procedures are properly

trained across the TRADOC schoolhouses.

The IMETS continues as the state of

the art Army weather support system.

However, over the next few years its

capabilities will be consolidated into
SECTION 3 DOD 141

the Air Force's Joint Environmental

Toolkit (JET) program. The Army will

retain research and development

efforts related to Army-specific

weather support challenges (short-term

forecasting in the lowest levels of the

atmosphere) and will be responsible

for interfacing JET with Army command and command systems. Initial

JET fielding is programmed to begin in

FY 2007.

The U.S. Army Intelligence Center

and Fort Huachuca (USAIC&FH) is

the functional proponent for Army tactical weather support. USAIC&FH

represents the Army warfighter by collecting weather support requirements

and developing solutions to satisfy

those requirements. A key component

to providing weather support to the

Army is IMETS, fielded by the Army

and operated by Air Force Battlefield

Weather Teams (BWTs). The

USAIC&FH Weather Team assists in

advising the Army Research Lab,

USAIC&FH, DAMI-PO and AFW on

Army weather support issues and helps

develop solutions to meet both active

and reserve forces' weather requirements. In addition, the USAIC&FH

Weather Team conducts and monitors

initial weather support training to

Army Military Intelligence personnel

and AFW personnel supporting the

Army. The USAIC&FH Weather

Team consists of three active duty

AFW personnel that support Army

concepts, architecture and requirements initiatives; one civilian contractor that manages the Battlefield

Weather (BW) course; and one Army

Government Civilian that serves as the

assistant TRADOC Capabilities Manager (TCM) for IMETS. This year the

USAIC&FH Weather Team drafted the

initial Army Weather Functional Area

Analysis (FAA) and will continue

associated work on weather input to

the Intelligence, Surveillance and

Reconnaissance (ISR) Concept Capabilities Plan (CCP). Also, the team

developed a new TRADOC Staff

Weather Officer organizational structure which consolidates most SWOs

under one office at Ft Huachuca. This

new manning initiative includes the

future addition of an Army Weather

civilian position, also located at Ft

Huachuca. Due to personnel turnover,

the BW course hired a new Course

Administrator this year. The

USAIIC&FH TCM for IMETS has

coordinated with DCGS-A to ensure

the highest level of integration of

IMETS as a Program of Record (POR)

in the DCGS-A family of systems

while developing a clear migration

path towards total integration of capabilities. The TCM participated in the

DCGS-A Fusion Working Group documenting each intelligence domain's

current fusion architecture and documenting the level of automation currently being provided by POR systems

for each level of fusion. The TCM also

provided DCGS-A an evaluation of

IMETS ability to satisfy the DCGS-A

CPD requirements. In FY 2008, the

IMETS Program Office will move

under the Program Executive Office -

Intelligence, Electronic Warfare &

Sensors (PEO-IEW&S) as part of the

Distributed Common Ground SystemArmy (DCGS-A) program.

The AF SWO at the Army's Combined Arms Center (CAC) is the primary overseer of the Tables of Organization and Equipment (TOE) for

BWTs supporting Army operations.

The CAC SWO also arranges for or

provides environmental data, concepts

of operation, and weather subject matter expertise for programs, projects,

documents, and studies conducted by

the TRADOC System Manager - Army

Battle Command System, the Battle

Command Battle Lab-Leavenworth,

the Center for Army Lessons Learned,

the Combined Arms Doctrine Directorate, the TRADOC Assistant Deputy

Chief of Staff for Intelligence -Threats,

the Foreign Military Studies Office,

and the TRADOC Analysis CenterLeavenworth. Other key CAC SWO

tasks are to develop weather/weather

effects scripts and climatology packages to support modeling and simulation efforts of the Battle Command

Training Program (BCTP) and the

National Simulation Center, and to

make available Army weather support

instruction at the Command and General Staff College (CGSC).

The U.S. Army Field Artillery

School (USAFAS), Fort Sill, OK is the

proponent for upper air meteorological

support to the Army. Artillery meteorological crews, Active and Reserve,

had used the AN/TMQ-50 to measure

surface weather parameters. Tactical

reliability issues forced an Army-wide

'STOP-USE' of the AN/TMQ-50 at the

end of FY 2003. Artillery meteorological crews currently use manual surface instruments to measure surface

weather conditions. The AN/TMQ 55

(TACMET) is being fielded to

Artillery Meteorological sections to

replace the AN/TMQ 50. The

AN/TMQ-41 Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS) and AN/TMQ-52

Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler

(MMS-P) are utilized to take upper air

observations. The MMS and MMS-P

provides weather data to the Field

Artillery Tactical Data System for ballistic calculations; to USAF weather

forces for weather forecasting; and to

the Chemical Officer for obscurant

deployment, and Nuclear, Biological,

Chemical (NBC) defense operations.

Efforts are ongoing to ensure these surface and upper air observations are

sent back to military weather centrals

where they can be ingested in to our

newest numerical meteorological

analysis and forecasting models.

Active unit's MMSs will eventually be

replaced by the AN/TMQ-52 Meteorological Measuring Set Profiler (MMSP). The MMS-P is scheduled to begin

fielding in early FY 2005. The MMSP is a suite of meteorological sensors

and associated software/models which

will provide the Field Artillery with

current and/or expected weather condi-
142 DOD SECTION 3

tions at a point where the weapon

munitions is expected to engage a target (Target Area Met).

The U.S. Army Engineer School

(USAES), Fort Leonard Wood, MO,

coordinates weather support requirements for Terrain Analysis and Topographic Engineering. USAES develops methods of measuring and forecasting state of the ground for trafficability assessments using input weather

data fields. Their mission also

includes identifying, and documenting

requirements to interface meteorological and engineer battlefield systems.

Due to resource constraints, USAES

no longer has a full time civilian meteorologist in the Terrain Visualization

Center, DCD, but does have an instructor at the Terrain School at Ft Belvoir ,

VA, to teach weather effects on crosscountry mobility and engineer missions.

The U.S. Army Aviation Warfighting

Center (USAAWC) at Fort Rucker,

AL, incorporates weather instruction

and procedures into rotary-wing training programs in their mission areas.

The center is the proponent for all

Army Aviation including Unmanned

Aerial Vehicle Systems (UAVS). The

Center has requirements for weather

observations and USAF forecast support at Cairns Army Airfield, Troy

Municipal Airport (MAP), Alabama,

and Andalusia MAP, Alabama. Additionally, Fort Rucker operates observing and communications equipment to

relay weather intelligence and resource

protection advisories to numerous

Army remote training sites. Two

active duty positions, aligned under the

Directorate of Training and Doctrine

(DOTD), are allocated to provide staff

support for Army aviation and aviator

training weather issues in areas of curriculum, concept development and

doctrine. Staff weather personnel

review training material and doctrine

publications, provide advice to

USAAWC staff and monitor developing

The USAAWC SWO also supports

the U.S. Army Combat Readiness Center, Air Traffic Services Command, and

other Fort Rucker tenants. Operational

weather support for aircrews and

resource protection are provided by Air

Force contractors who are functionally

aligned under the Directorate of Plans

Training Mobilization and Security

(DPTMS).

Beginning in FY 2004, ACC contracted day-to-day operational weather

support to aviation operations at Fort

Rucker (Cairns Army Airfield, Troy

Municipal Airport, and Andalusia

Municipal Airport) to 3D Research

Corporation. ACC, through the same

contract with 3D Research Corporation, also provides garrison airfield

weather services (observing and/or

forecasting) at Fort Belvoir, Fort Benning, Fort Knox, Fort Leonard Wood,

Fort Huachuca, and Fort Sill.

Army National Guard (ARNG)

Artillery

In FY 2005, the ARNG downsized

its Meteorological (MET) Sections

assigned to artillery units at Division

level, Field Artillery Brigades

(DIVARTY), and in Separate Brigades

to two 6-soldier teams in the

DIVARTY's, except in the Light DIV

where there is one team, equaling a

total of fifteen 6-soldier teams. In the

ARNG "Modular Forces", there is one

6-soldier team per Fires Battalion in

the Brigade Combat Team (BCT), providing 34 teams with six soldiers each,

for 204 soldiers. In the Fires BDE

there are 3 MET teams required per

BDE providing 21 teams with 6 soldiers each, for a total of 126 soldiers.

However, all Fires BDE TABs have

authorizations for only one MET team

for a total authorization for 42 soldiers.

All together the ARNG has 246 soldiers authorized to Artillery Metrological Teams.

The ARTYMET sections provide

upper air observations at least 39 training days each year supporting artillery

live fire during Annual Training and

monthly Inactive Duty Training. The

ARTYMET sections support an average of 20 live fire training days and

annually expend in excess of 100 balloons per section. The ARNG's ARTY

MET Teams use the Meteorological

Measuring Set (MMS), AN/TMQ41A.

Figure 3-DOD-21. Meteorological Measuring Set- Profiler (MMS-P) obtains

upper level wind data for artillery fires. (Photo courtesy U.S. Army.)
SECTION 3 DOD 143

Army Corps of Engineers

The Corps of Engineers (COE) uses

a network of about 10,850 land-based

gages. About 55 percent of the sites

collect meteorological data, 35 percent

a combination of hydrologic and meteorological data, and 10 percent hydrologic or water quality data. The Corps

funds or partially funds 58 percent

(6350) of all the gages it uses. Meteorological gages commonly measure

precipitation and temperature, as a

minimum. Most sites also measure

hydrological data. All data are used in

the regulation of COE dams and other

water projects used for flood control,

navigation, hydroelectric power, irrigation, water supply, water quality, and

recreation. The COE transfers funds to

NOAA/National Weather Service

(NWS) to collect and maintain precipitation information from 826 of meteorological sites. Similarly, COE transfers funds to the U.S. Geological Survey to maintain precipitation data collection from about 2000 sites, while

the COE maintains the rest. Seventyfive percent of all Corps sites provide

real-time data via satellite,

microwaves, meterbursts, landlines, or

radio. Data from COE gauging sites

are available to other Federal, state and

local agencies. All Corps data is made

available to the National Weather Service. Most of the data is also used by

other agencies.

United States Army Space and Missile

Defense Command (USASMDC)

The High Energy Laser Systems Test

Facility (HELSTF), an USASMDC

directorate located on White Sands

Missile Range, is an Army element of

the DOD Major Range and Test Facility Base with the mission of highenergy laser (HEL) test and evaluation

for future Army and sister Service

HEL weapons. In addition to HEL systems test and evaluation, extensive use

has been made of on-site laser systems

to perform damage and vulnerability

testing on laser-hardened materials,

missile and aircraft components, and

assorted battlefield equipment. The

atmospheric sciences/meteorological

mission is to support HEL testing by

providing measurements of atmospheric conditions that are extremely

important to propagation of any HEL

beam thru the atmosphere (Figure 3-

DOD-22). Many unique meteorological instruments are maintained to support this critical data collection for

HBL testing. The HELSTF meteorological team also supports critical

safety analysis of atmospheric dispersion for the very toxic laser fuels used.

Efforts for FY 2007 include work

required to modernize the atmospheric

measurements and data

collection/analysis capabilities needed

to support new laser testing activities.

United States Army Kwajalein Atoll

(USAKA) is a subcommand of USASMDC, which provides operational support for the Ronald Reagan Ballistic

Missile Defense Test Site (RTS). The

RTS (Figure 3-DOD-23) meteorological services support contractor provides meteorological support for range

activities including missile operations

within the atoll, intra-atoll transportation (marine and aircraft), remote

island missile launches including

Wake Island, and emergency operations support.

A full suite of surface and upper air

observing equipment is available to

support of these operations. Three,

fixed upper air sounding systems are

located on Kwajalein and Roi-Namur.

Two portable upper air systems can be

deployed to remote locations to provide upper air soundings. Additionally, one dual-polarized -Doppler Sband weather radar and one Doppler

C-band weather radar, two

DMSP/NOAA satellite receivers (one

mobile) both having McIDAS display

and management systems, one geostationary satellite receiver, and an intraatoll mesonet and lightning detection

network round out the sensors available to RTS forecasters. RTS, in cooperation with NASA/GSFC, continues

to support global climate studies

through the Tropical Rainfall Measurements Mission and the follow-on program of Global Precipitation Measurement and a smaller program of monitoring the solar-earth radiation flux for

NOAA/BRL.

Figure 3-DOD-22. Meteorological Equipment at HELSTF (Photo courtesy U.S.

Army.).
144 DOD SECTION 3

WEATHER SUPPORT FOR

RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT,

TEST, AND EVALUATION (RDTE)

Under Army-AF agreement, the

Army has responsibility for weather

support for research, development,

test, and evaluation (RDTE) to support

Army ground combat missions as

specified in AR 115-10/AFJI 15-157.

The Corps of Engineers (COE), and

the Army Materiel Command (AMC)

are the major contributors to weather

research. The Medical Research and

Development Command does research

related to soldiers performance in the

range of weather conditions expected

to be encountered in all theaters of

operations. The Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC) is responsible

for operational meteorological support

to Army RDT&E.

Corps of Engineers (COE). The

COE is responsible for reviewing all

emerging Army systems for environmental effects, as stated in Army Regulation 70-1. The Topographic Engineering Center (TEC), and the Cold

Regions Research and Engineering

Laboratory (CRREL), of COE's Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC), develop Tactical Decision

Aids (TDAs) to interpret the impact of

weather on terrain to enhance Army

operations. TDAs are transitioned to

the Digital Topographic Support System (DTSS).

Under its military mission, the Engineer Research and Development Center's Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL),

Hanover, NH, provides support to

Army weapon systems RDTE with allseason solutions for mitigating adverse

environmental effects on Army operations. CRREL conducts basic and

applied research to investigate energy

and mass transfer process at and near

the terrain surface. Energy propagation and interaction across the electromagnetic, acoustic, and seismic spectral regions sees special emphasis, particularly with regard to dynamics in

propagation caused by properties and

processes of materials near the terrestrial surface. CRREL develops databases and models for predicting the

state of the terrain including surface

temperature, and tactical decision aids

supporting mobility analysis and sensor performance. These products transition to various research and engineering programs including advanced technology demonstrations and specific

programs of record such as the Commercial Joint Mapping Tool Kit.

Recent efforts have included supporting materiel developers to simulate

acoustic/seismic systems for the purpose of risk mitigation and trade-off

studies.

Army Material Command (AMC).

AMC is responsible for the research,

design, development, test, and evaluation of equipment to satisfy the Army's

requirements for meteorological support. AMC provides climatological

and meteorological support to RDTE

projects involving electro-optical sensors, atmospheric and obscurant

effects on systems and their performance. It is also responsible for determining weather impact critical threshold values and the environmental sensitivities of battlefield systems, including soldiers. AMC has several Major

Subordinate Commands (MSCs) and

elements carrying out weather research

and development responsibilities

including the Research Development

and Engineering Command (RDECOM), which has responsibility for the

Army's Research Development and

Engineering Centers (RDECs) and the

Army Research Laboratory

(ARL).

The Army Research Laboratory Battlefield Environment (BE) Division

has a robust program in developing

very high spatial and time resolution

characterizations of the lower atmosphere using both measurements and

numerical models. This research is

particularly focused on characterizing

and predicting higher resolution effects

caused by complex and urban terrain.

The focus of RDT&E is in the nearsurface boundary layer domain that is

most critical to Army applications.

RDT&E includes characterizing

aerosols and CBRN contaminants in

the atmosphere and on predicting more

general impacts of weather on Army

systems, sensors, personnel and operations. Research addresses how to

assimilate battlefield meteorological

observations into diagnostic and prognostic numerical weather models and

how to fuse forward area observations

into these short term forecasts or

"nowcasts" to correct for actual local

conditions and improve actionable

weather information.

The BE Division within the ARL

Computational and Information Sciences Directorate (CISD), consists of

three Branches shared between Adelphi, Maryland and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. The three

branches combine basic and applied

research programs in the areas of:

meteorological modeling and modeling applications at high space and time

resolution and the effects of complex

terrain; atmospheric sensing of

aerosols and contaminants using laser

scattering, spectral analysis, multiwavelength imagers, and lidars; atmospheric and aerosol propagation including electromagnetic and acoustic sigFigure 3-DOD-23. USASMDC is

responsible for meteorological support to the Ronald Reagan Ballistic

Missile Defense Test Site in the

remote Kwajalein Atoll. Photo courtesy U.S. Army.
SECTION 3 DOD 145

nal and target effects modeling; meteorological measurements as part of the

"develop-verify-improve-verify" modeling and measurement cycle; and

advanced weather impact decision aids

for Command and Control and for

Intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and target acquisition. The Division also provides liaison personnel

between Army weather R&D and the

coupled programs at the Air Force

Weather Agency and the National

Polar Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)

IPO. These positions focuses on coordinating technology transitioned from

the BE Division into Army and AF

fielded systems.

The BE Division and the Army Project Director- Integrated Meteorological System (PD-IMETS) office are

partnering with AFW in new programs,

such as the development of a common

Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET).

The Army IMETS Battle Command

(BC) 6.4 software and several AFW

system software baselines are to converge as a single weather forecasting

software tool. The Army will add

command and control interfaces and

weather effects tactical decision aid

products such as the Tri-Service

Weather Effects Decision Aid (TS-I

WEDA). The combined JET-IMETS

software will transition to the Distributed Common Ground Station-Army

(DCGS-A) and Army software Block 2

to enhance weather capabilities for netcentric Army support. POR IMETS

weather products can be accessed

through a web-browser, client server

applications, or overlaid on the user's

Common Operational Picture (COP)

through web services such as publish

and subscribe (PASS). Current client

applications will be web-enabled over

time. IMETS technologies will continue to provide net-centric weather

support to Army Battle Command and

Future Combat Systems (FCS) as

DCGSA Weather Services.

The Meteorological Modeling

Branch conducts a research program in

the micrometeorological and

mesoscale-gamma (small end of

mesoscale) processes and structure of

the atmospheric boundary layer at

scales generally smaller than a few

kilometers. This program focuses on

the complex interactions of the land-air

interface with wind fields, turbulence,

and fluxes in terrains that range from

open rolling grasslands to mountains

and from forest canopies to urban

canyons. Detailed modeling of aerosol

and chemical-biological transport and

dispersion in this wide variety of tactical environments are addressed. A

range of numerical weather models are

addressed, including non-hydrostatic

predictive and diagnostic gridded

meteorological models. Diagnostic

models are fed with near real-time

observations from lidar, sonic

anemometers and other battlefield sensors to produce rapid refresh analyses

for urban domains and complex terrain. Short term 2-3 hour local "nowcasting" and "Weather Running Estimate" products are being developed to

improve the confidence in actionable

weather intelligence for future Army

systems. The integration of next generation ensemble forecasts and development of measures of confidence to

improve decision making are being

performed.

The Atmospheric Effects Branch

performs research on the basic characteristics of the atmosphere as they will

affect new sensing technologies and

systems. The branch designs and executes experiments to verify and

improve the new diagnostic and prognostic numerical weather models and

atmospheric effects on sensors and

systems. Technology is developed to

more easily capture forward area environmental data and information in near

real-time in a networked environment.

The branch also is responsible for producing and verifying tactical decision

aids and models to assess atmospheric

effects and impacts on weapon systems, sensors, and personnel. Weather

knowledge management tools are

developed for Army C2 and ISR systems including automation of Intelligence Preparation Battlefield (IPB)

and weather optimization of route

planning into mission planning and

execution for unmanned ground and

aerial vehicles. Controlled field measurements are performed to develop or

verify theoretical models for atmospheric and optical turbulence, acoustic

propagation, radar propagation, wind

flow in small scale urban domains and

desert aerosol production.

The Atmospheric Sensing Branch is

working to enhance warfighter situational awareness through the utilization of advanced atmospheric instrumentation and novel characterization

techniques. They are developing, testing, evaluating, and implementing

novel polarimetric imaging techniques

to analyze effects from surface contaminants for target recognition and

identification. Research on real-time

four-dimensional monitoring of the

atmosphere using remote sensing techniques will provide war fighters and

homeland defense with a realistic

understanding of the atmosphere for its

effects on CBRNE. This research also

includes modeling the effects of forest

canopies on acoustic propagation and

investigating the use of beam-forming

techniques for the mitigation of the

effects of the atmosphere on sensors,

systems, and soldiers.

The Army Research Office,

Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, manages the Army's extramural

basic research program in the atmospheric sciences. These programs are

concerned with understanding the

dynamical and physical processes of

the atmospheric boundary layer at

scales of interest to the Army (millimeters to 10's of kilometers) through

measurements, simulations, and theoretical considerations. The basic

research program is conducted through

the peer-reviewed, individual investi-
146 DOD SECTION 3

gator program and occasional special

initiatives. The focus of the research is

on the atmospheric processes and

effects of the atmospheric boundary

layer where the Army operates. Objectives of the research are to develop,

from first principles, the physical basis

for understanding the boundary layer

processes, thereby leading to better

understanding of atmospheric effects

on soldiers, materials, and weapon systems. The research examines dispersion of battlefield materials, the effects

of heterogeneous terrain features on

airflow, and the development of natural

obscurations throughout the diurnal

cycle. An essential element of the

research is the development of instrumentation to measure the volumetric

fields of wind velocity, temperature,

and moisture of the boundary layer at

turbulence time scales. Special funding areas are also managed. The

Defense University Research and

Instrumentation Program (DURIP)

provides funds for instrumentation

needed to support ongoing research

activities. The Defense Experimental

Program to Stimulate Competitive

Research (DEPSCoR) participation is

a competition restricted to universities

in certain states that compete for additional basic research funds. Also basic

research under the Small Business

Innovative Research Program (SBIR)

is managed for selected topics. The

primary research focus continues on

the analysis and understanding of the

stable boundary layer, which is augmented by external funding as a special program. New initiatives include

development of a plan for a Soldier

Scale Atmospheric Test Bed to examine the diurnal boundary layer process

and studies of stable boundary layers

in complex terrains.

Communications Electronics Command (CECOM), a major subordinate

command of AMC, provides support to

developing and fielding weather programs through the following organizations Logistics Readiness Center

(LRC), Research, Development and

Engineering Center (RDEC), Software

Engineering Center (SEC), and Safety

office. The CECOM LRC is the level

II manager of the Meteorological Measuring Set (MMS) program.

RDEC's Communications-Electronics Research Development Engineering Center (CERDEC), Intelligence

and Information Warfare Directorate

provides technical management and

support to the Program Manager, Intelligence and Effects and Program Manager, Night Vision/Reconnaissance,

Surveillance, and Target Acquisition

for the IMETS and the MMS Profiler.

A brief description of each of these

programs shows CECOM's involvement.

Meteorological Measuring Set

(MMS), AN/TMQ-41. The MMS is an

upper air meteorological data collection, processing and dissemination system that provides data to the field

artillery and target acquisition users.

The system is a non-developmental

item (NDI). All active Army units and

National Guard Bureau are equipped

with the MMS.

The Meteorological Measuring SetProfiler (MMS-P) AN/TMQ-52 System. The Meteorological Measurement Set-Profiler (MMS-P) is a major

improvement over the MMS. The

AN/TMQ-52 design will support the

new generation of artillery weapons.

The system will include frequent and

update meteorological messages that

enhances the meteorological validity

over a larger battle space than the current equipment. The MMS-P uses the

MMS mesoscale meteorological

model to assimilate data from a variety

of sources to provide the best meteorological messages to the user in a timely

fashion. The system receives data

from ground-based sources, radiosondes, and satellite-based sources, (such

as boundary data from communications satellites and, in a future program

block improvement, polar orbiting

meteorological satellites) through

onboard satellite receiving capability.

The data affects the operation of the

mesoscale meteorological model and

for post-processing of the data in order

to generate meteorological messages.

Finally, an operator interface, in conjunction with the message generation

and formatting software, facilitates

communication between the MMS-P

and all other systems that require interoperability with the MMS-P. Four System Design and Development (SDD)

models have been produced. Developmental testing has been successfully

completed and Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) was approved at a MS

C decision in FY 2003. The Profiler

system has completed Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOTE) FY

2005. Full Rate Production (FRP) was

approved at a FRP Decision in FY

2005.

The Intelligence and Information

Warfare Directorate (I2WD), Communications Electronics Research &

Development Engineering Center

(CERDEC), Research Development &

Engineering (RD&E) Command is

providing technical and sustainment

support to the Program DirectorIMETS.

The IMETS comes in two basic configurations known as the Vehicle

Mounted (AN/TMQ40B/C/D) and

Light (AN/GMQ-36/36A/36B) groups.

The IMETS Vehicle Mounted group

has three variants, all with the same

function that differ only by vehicle,

shelter, and/or generator (Figure 3-

DOD-24). The new IMETS-Light

(AN/GMQ-36A) provides a transit

case version of the IMETS with the

same software capabilities as the vehicle version.

Either the IMETS Vehicle Mounted

or the IMETS Light configuration can

provide the weather component of the

Intelligence Electronic Warfare (IEW)

sub-element of the Army Battle Command System (ABCS). IMETS has

been designated by the DCGS as the

Weather Center for DCGS-A weather
SECTION 3 DOD 147

requirements and is on track to fully

support the Future Combat System

(FCS) prime. The IMETS at Div and

Corps levels provides commanders at

all echelons with an automated tactical

weather system that receives,

processes and disseminates weather

observations, forecasts, battlefield

visualization, and weather effects decision aids to all Army Tactical Command and Control System (ATCCS)

Battlefield Functional Areas (BFAs).

IMETS can receive weather information from (either USA, European,

Japanese, or Chinese civilian) geostationary satellites depending on the system's location, civilian forecast centers, the Air Force Weather Agency,

artillery meteorological sections and

remote sensors. IMETS processes and

collates forecasts, observations, and

climatological data to produce timely

and accurate weather products tailored

to the specific war-fighters needs. Significant weather and environmental

support to war-fighters are the weather

applications such as the automated tactical decision aids and contours client.

These weather products display the

impact of the weather on current or

planned operations for both friendly

and enemy forces. Weather products

can also be overlaid on the Common

Operational Picture (COP) or Common

Tactical Picture (CTP) accessed by

using a browser, and is executed on the

users terminal through weather client

implementations.

Major test events in FY 2005 include

the IMETS Intra-Army Interoperability Certification test, completed during

the first quarter of FY 2005, at the Central Test Support Facility (CTSF) and

the ABCS 6.4 Good Enough (GE)

Operational Evaluation (OPEVAL)

completed in second quarter FY 2005.

The AN/TMQ-40C Materiel Release is

on schedule to occur at the last quarter

of FY 2005, and the AN/TMQ-40D for

FY 2006. Both of these systems, along

with the AN/GMQ-36 are on schedule

to field to units. In order to streamline

the acquisition process, the IMETS

AN/GMQ36A/B has been given permission to go directly to Materiel

Release pending the results of Development Testing and skip Milestone C

pending on Development Testing

results. FY 2005 efforts will focus on

the ABCS 6.4 GE Operational Assessment and fielding and the IMETS

Light (AN/GMQ-36A/B) Materiel

Release and fielding decision, along

with finishing the fielding efforts for

the AN/GMQ-361 to gaining units

including the Stryker Brigade.

AN/TMQ40B/C/D systems will also

be fielded during FY 2005.

Army Test and Evaluation Command

(ATEC)

The Developmental Test Command

(DTC), a subordinate command of

U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC), is responsible for providing operational meteorological support to eight Army ranges and test

sites. Under responsibilities established in AR 115-10/ AFJI 15-157, the

DTC meteorological units provide

meteorological data collection and

analysis, consultation, and weather

forecast and warning services to support Army and other DOD research,

development, test and evaluation

(RDT&E) activities at eight Army

installations. Funding for the Army

RDT&E Meteorology Program under

Program Element 665702 is sufficient

to maintain the basic meteorological

support infrastructure at Army

RDT&E ranges and sites. However,

instrumentation needed to support

unique or test-specific requirements

generally must be funded by test sponsors. Because the majority of the operational meteorological support workforce at the Army ranges is or soon will

be eligible to retire, the Program has

implemented an intern program to

recruit and train entry-level scientists

and technicians to ensure continuity in

specialized meteorological support

services as senior employees begin to

retire.

The Army RDT&E Meteorology

Program has entered into a multi-year

working relationship with the National

Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR) to enhance "range scale"

(mesoscale to microscale) forecast and

analysis capabilities at the Army test

ranges. The principal product of this

relationship is the Four-Dimensional

Weather (4DWX) System, which consists of a central data archival/retrieval

system for all range and external meteorological and model data, a high-resolution mesoscale meteorological

model (MM5), and a variety of userconfigurable displays. The MM5

mesoscale model is used operationally

in both predictive and analytic modes

to provide detailed information about

the past, current, and future structure

of the atmosphere over the Army's test

ranges. ATEC 4DWX capabilities

include MM5-based real-time fourdimensional data assimilation (RTFDDA) at the major Army test ranges

and 4DWX On the Move (OTM), a

globally-relocatable mesoscale modeling system to support Army RDT&E

(including DTC distributed and virtual

testing) at locations other than the

Army ranges. In FY 2007, the 4DWX

program will continue the transition of

Figure 3-DOD-24. IMETS Vehicle Mounted Configuration. (Photo courtesy

U.S. Army.)
148 DOD SECTION 3

its operational mesoscale model from

MM5 to the next-generation Weather

Research and Forecast (WRF) model.

The NCAR/ATEC version of WRF

includes the full observation nudging

capabilities of the MM5-based RTFDDA system. Output from

mesoscale model forecasts and analyses is used as meteorological input to

atmospheric dispersion, noise propagation, ballistic trajectory, and other

range applications models to simulate

many tests and their associated

impacts. The 4DWX system contributes to improved test planning and

conduct, selection of more representative locations for test sensors, inclusion of realistic atmospheric effects in

virtual testing, and forensic analyses of

meteorological effects on test results.

The Chief of the Meteorology Division at Dugway Proving Ground's

West Desert Test Center serves as the

Program Manager for Meteorological

Support to Army RDT&E. Under Program Element 0605384, the Division's

Modeling and Assessment Branch also

provides the following specialized

services:

1. technical assistance to the DTC

operational meteorological

teams/branches;

2. atmospheric model verification

and validation, including algorithm

evaluation and the generation of validation data sets; and

3. technical assistance to the DOD

CB defense modeling community in

the development of new CB hazard

assessment models.

Division employees also serve on

various national and international committees addressing issues related to

meteorological measurements, atmospheric dispersion modeling, and CB

hazard assessment.

Army Medical Research and Material Command

The U.S. Army Research Institute of

Environmental Medicine (USARIEM)

conducts basic and applied research on

the effects of heat, cold, high terrestrial

altitude and nutritional status on the

health and performance of individual

soldiers and combat crews operating

Army systems.

Applied research in thermal physiology and biophysical modeling is

directed towards improving soldier

performance and minimizing health

risks in climatic extremes. The sensitivity of the soldier to local weather

parameters (primarily ambient temperature, dew point, wind speed, and solar

radiation) defines an operational envelope for unimpaired human performance. The overall goals of USARIEM

weather-related research programs are

to develop methods to effectively monitor and, where possible, extend the

operational envelope for both training

and operational scenarios.

Weather-related research efforts

include the development and validation of automated methods to integrate

thermal strain prediction models with

real-time weather information

resources relevant to dismounted

infantry operations. Temporal and spatial scales of interest are meters to kilometers and minutes to several days.

USARIEM is working through an

MOA with the Army Research Laboratory Battlefield Environment Division

to implement thermal models on Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) devices

and the Integrated Weather Effects

Decision Aid (IWEDA).

The availability of ground level

environmental data at high temporal

and spatial resolution continues to pose

a significant challenge for predictive

model development and validation. As

part of the warfighter physiological

status-monitoring (WPSM) program,

USARIEM is investigating methodologies needed to integrate real-time

local environmental data and

warfighter physiological data with predictive model processes. The effective

fusion of these two real-time data

streams will enable near term environmental strain and performance status

predictions for individual warfighters.

A miniature weather station developed under a Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) project has been

refined into a 1 kg battery powered

unit which may be used to collect

meteorological data to support the prediction of thermal stress on the WPSM

system. Research efforts in this area

are intended to address capabilities

identified in the Operational Requirements Document (ORD) for the

Army's Land Warrior program.
THE NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM OF THE FUTURE

In a proactive stroke to broaden the

capabilities of the National Airspace

System for the future, the 108th Congress and President Bush took the first

critical step toward transforming our

air transportation system by passing

and signing into law VISION 100 -

Century of Aviation Reauthorization

Act (P.L. 108-176). VISION 100 calls

for an integrated, multi-agency plan to

transform the nation's air transportation system to meet the needs of the

year 2025 while providing substantial

near-term benefits. This Next Generation Air Transportation System

(NGATS) Initiative will address critical safety and economic needs in civil

aviation while fully integrating

national defense and homeland security improvements into this future system.

Along with the private sector and

academic community, the Federal Aviation Administration, NASA, the

Departments of Commerce, Defense,

Homeland Security, Transportation,

and the White House Office of Science

and Technology Policy are working

together to design and build the

NGATS.

The first product of this landmark

effort was an Integrated National Plan

delivered to Congress in December

2004. This strategic business plan lays

out a common vision for the NGATS,

establishes benchmarks for our success, and establishes a structure by

which we can design and implement

the changes we need to make. VISION

100 also created the Joint Planning and

Development Office (JPDO). Jointly

managed by the FAA and NASA, and

supported by staff from all the agencies involved, the JPDO serves as a

focal point for coordinating the

research related to air transportation

for all of the participating agencies.

Overseeing the work of the JPDO is

a Senior Policy Committee chaired by

the Secretary of Transportation that

includes senior representatives from

the participating departments and

agencies and the Director of the Office

of Science and Technology Policy.

Among its key responsibilities, the

Senior Policy Committee provides policy guidance and review; makes legislative recommendations; and identifies and aligns resources that will be

necessary to develop and implement

the Integrated National Plan. DOT

Secretary, Norman Mineta, chaired the

first meeting of the Senior Policy

Committee on September 26, 2003.

The JPDO has defined eight strategies that are the first steps towards creating the roadmap for NGATS. While

the strategies deal with transforming

specific areas of the air transportation

system, they make up a larger whole

and will integrate the sum of the efforts

into building the NGATS system. The

transformation strategies are:

• Develop Airport Infrastructure to

Meet Future Demand.

• Establish an Effective Security

System without Limiting Mobility or

Civil Liberties.

• Establish an Agile Air Traffic System.

• Establish User-specific Situational

Awareness.

• Establish a Comprehensive Proactive Safety Management Approach.

• Ensure Environmental Protection

that Allows Sustained Economic

Growth.

• Develop a System-wide Capability

to Reduce Weather Impacts.

• Harmonize Equipage and Operations Globally.

For each of the eight Integrated

National Plan strategies an an integrated product team (IPT) was formed.

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the responsibility to provide national and international

leadership in the optimization of aviation weather systems and services. This leadership is manifested

through the management of a safe and efficient National Airspace System (NAS) and the encouragement of consensus and cooperation between government agencies, private weather services, research

organizations, and user groups involved in aviation weather. The Federal Highway Administration

(FHWA) manages programs that provide federal financial and technical assistance to the states, promotes safe commercial motor vehicle operations, and provides access to and within national forests and parks, native

American reservations, and other public lands. Safety, efficiency, and mobility in these programs requires the incorporation and use of timely weather and road condition information. The Federal Railroad Administration promotes and

regulates railroad safety. It also sponsors research to enhance railroad safety and efficiency, including support for

improved collection, dissemination, and application of weather information to reduce hazards to train operations and to

railroad employees. The Federal Transit Administration’s mission is to ensure personal mobility and America's economic and community vitality by supporting high quality public transportation through leadership, technical assistance

and financial resources.

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

SECTION 3 DOT 149
150 DOT SECTION 3

The IPTs will be made up of government and private sector experts with

extensive aviation experience. The

IPTs will be responsible for applying

best private and public sector practices

to achieve that particular strategy's

mission and objectives. The primary

responsibility for assembling and leading each IPT belongs to one Federal

agency.

The IPTs will establish detailed

action plans that will break the project

down into manageable tasks. Specific

IPT activities include: 

• Managing the planning and

orchestrating the execution of all relevant work to complete the assigned

strategy; 

• Conducting analyses and trade

studies to select and validate implementation alternatives; 

• Analyzing changes currently

underway, identifying gaps, and establishing the required Government

and/or industry research and development activities to close necessary gaps; 

• Coordinating with Government

and private industry on research and

development resources; 

• Collaborating with industry on

research and implementation for the

initiative; 

• Identifying non-technical

approaches such as policy, regulation,

and operational procedures; 

• Establishing detailed requirements

for individual mission areas; 

• Conducting advanced concept and

technology demonstrations; 

• Creating a transition plan for

implementation of products; and 

• Creating public/private partnerships that include multi-agency, industry, and Government participation.

The JPDO is responsible for approving broad strategies of the IPTs as part

of the Integrated National Plan and

ensuring IPT plans and schedules are

consistent with the roadmap and architecture.

In addition, the NGATS Institute will

support the NGATS mission by recruiting, selecting, and assigning private

sector experts and technical resources

to participate on IPTs and perform

technical work for the IPTs and JPDO.

These efforts will guarantee the establishment of a collective enterprise

among key stakeholders to achieve the

transformation, as well as to ensure

that a process is created that is transparent and fully open to public

scrutiny.

AVIATION WEATHER MANAGEMENT

Although the Department of Commerce’s National Weather Service has

the lead for the Weather IPT within the

JPDO, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) continues to have the

leadership role for the national aviation

weather program requirements. As the

leader, FAA must conduct continual

coordination for identifying needs for

aviation weather products and services

among the Air Traffic Control organization, the aviation industry components and among service providers.

The coordination process leads to

opportunities to leverage efforts and

resources to form partnerships in finding solutions in response to the needs.

The National Aviation Weather Program Strategic Plan and the National

Aviation Weather Initiatives are two

documents that formalize the coordination and partnerships.

The FAA focus for aviation weather

has been to promote safety first; then

improve the NAS efficiency to reduce

delays and re-routing due to weather.

The Administrator has launched The

Safer Skies, A Focused Safety Agenda

which includes a government/industry

Commercial Aviation Safety Team

(CAST) and Joint Safety Analysis

Teams (JSAT) to evaluate accident

investigation reports to analyze the

series of events leading to the accidents, and get a sense of what and how

decisions were made in the course of

the flight. Other teams, Joint Safety

Implementation Teams (JSIT), using

the findings of the JSAT, develop and

recommend intervention actions to

eliminate or reduce the causes or

improve the actions in the decision

making process. Training about the

decision making process has been

identified by these teams as a major

part of the solution.

Aviation weather information is

complex and highly perishable, is most

useful when customers can successfully plan, act, and respond in ways

that avoid accidents and delays. FAA

will improve the ability of the aviation

community to use weather information

through a review and upgrade of airmen training and certification programs. FAA will also develop multi-
SECTION 3 DOT 151

media training tools to support aviation

safety and training initiatives. Funding

has been requested to further this

effort.

Weather has been made a standard

consideration in all aspects of the operation and architecture of the NAS.

Aviation weather needs from the field,

Federal agencies, and industry are

entered into the FAA Acquisition Management System (AMS) through which

all new programs and changes to the

NAS are processed, evaluated, validated, engineered to a requirement,

and acquired. The new Air Traffic

Organization (ATO) Service components have the responsibility to guide

all initiatives through the AMS process

and organization, including the Integrated Requirements Team, the Integrated Product Team, and the Decision

Boards; to assure the development

continues to meet the original need;

and to guide the activity should the

need evolve. Improvements to the

AMS process facilitate non-system or

non-hardware (e.g., service improvement or rule changes) solutions receiving the same rigorous evaluation and

validation.

FAA has established an Aviation

Weather Technology Transfer (AWTT)

Board which addresses the key issues

involved in bringing new weather

capabilities in to the operational system. At key decision points, the board

evaluates the maturity of the capability,

its integration into the existing system,

its supportability in the field, and the

training program to prepare the users.

FAA relies on other Federal agencies

for weather services and support, especially NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) and its Aviation Weather

Center. Requirements validated by

FAA for domestic and International

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

users are coordinated annually and

supported through the agencies and

contractual arrangements. All agencies' efforts in the area of aviation

weather services are coordinated for

use by everyone, as appropriate. Aviation weather technology includes the

ways in which aviation weather information is gathered, assimilated, analyzed, forecast, disseminated, and displayed. The development of this technology also demands that consideration be given to human factors and the

application of decision-making tools.

FAA will support the use of technology

to improve aviation weather information through integration of Federal and

non-Federal resources. Automation,

improved product and graphics generation, and dissemination to the cockpit

are being developed as early opportunities to achieve these goals.

AVIATION WEATHER ACQUISITION AND SERVICES

One of the primary functions of the

FAA ATO organization is the development and management of requirements

for the FAA Capital Investment Plan.

Recent projects in the Acquisition

Management System (AMS) have

focused on weather detection and display systems for pilots and air traffic

controllers to ensure that aircraft avoid

hazardous weather. The following

paragraphs describe many of those

projects.

The Integrated Terminal Weather

System (ITWS) will integrate weather

data from sensors in the terminal area

to provide and display compatible,

consistent, real-time products that

require no additional interpretation by

controllers or pilots--the primary users

(Figure 3-DOT-1). ITWS will use data

from automated surface observing systems, Doppler weather radars, and

low-level wind-shear alert systems,

together with NWS data and products,

to forecast aviation impact parameters,

such as convection, visibility, icing,

and wind shear, including down bursts.

ITWS has been installed at 10 locations, of which 9 are in service. Installations are planned at 11 additional

Figure 3-DOT-1. The ITWS integrates data from FAA and NWS sensors and

systems to provide a suite of weather informational products.
152 DOT SECTION 3

locations by FY 2009. The current

long range program has been limited to

22 ITWSs, which will cover about 30

high-activity airports that are supported by terminal doppler weather

radars.

The Corridor Integrated Weather

System (CIWS) is a demonstration

program which will take some of the

capabilities of the integration software

of the ITWS and expand it to cover

larger areas beyond the terminals.

'Corridor' in the name implies the area

covered will be an elongated zone

which may include a number of terminal areas. The demonstration area

extends from Boston southward over

New York as far as Washington and

westward over Pittsburgh and Cleveland connecting to Chicago. The

CIWS is expected to integrate information from the WSR-88D and ASR-9

radars and other observing sensors in

the corridor to produce weather information products focused on current

conditions affecting en route traffic in

the corridor (Figure 3-DOT-2). It will

produce two hour forecasts with trend

information and a high-resolution echo

tops product. There will be twelve

sites, including six in the ARTCCs and

one at the Command Center. The comprehensive plan calls for implementation by 2009; however the funding

stream has been interrupted in 2006

which may delay implementation to a

later year

The Terminal Doppler Weather

Radar (TDWR) program consisted of

the development, procurement, and

installation of a new terminal weather

radar based on Doppler techniques.

TDWR units have been located to optimize the detection of microbursts and

wind shear at selected airports with

high operations and frequent weather

impacts. In addition, TDWR has the

capability to identify areas of precipitation and the locations of thunderstorms (Figure 3-DOT-3).

Microbursts are weather phenomenon that consists of an intense down

draft with strong surface wind outflows. They are particularly dangerous

to aircraft that are landing or departing.

TDWR scanning strategy is optimized

for microburst/wind shear detection.

The radars are located near the airport

operating areas in a way to best scan

the runways as well as the approach

and departure corridors. The displays

are located in the tower cab and Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON).

The FAA has 47 TDWR systems. A

software upgrade will integrates

TDWR and low level wind shear alert

system data has been integrated at 9

high traffic/high weather threat airports.

The Low Level Wind Shear Alert

System (LLWAS) provides information on hazardous wind shear events

that create unsafe conditions for aircraft landings and departures. A total

of 110 airports have LLWAS. The 101

basic systems, LLWAS-2, consists of a

wind sensor located at center field and

5 to 32 sensors near the periphery of

the airport (Figure 3-DOT-4). A computer processes the sensor information

and displays wind shear conditions on

a ribbon display to air traffic controllers for relay to pilots. The

improvement phase, referred to as

LLWAS-Relocation/Sustainment

(LLWAS-RS), will include expanding

the network of sensors, developing

improved algorithms for the expanded

network, and installing new information/alert displays. The new information/alert displays will enable controllers to provide pilots with head

wind gain or loss estimates for specific

runways. These improvements will

increase the system's wind shear detection capability and reduce false alarms.

Improvements are also expected to

Figure 3-DOT-2. Corridor Integrated reduce maintenance costs. LLWASWeather System (CIWS) Display
SECTION 3 DOT 153

RS deployment was completed this

year.

The Weather Systems Processor

(WSP) program provides an additional

radar channel for processing weather

returns and de-alias returns from the

other weather channel in the ASR-9.

The displays of convective weather,

microburst, and other wind shear

events will provide information for

controllers and pilots to help aircraft

avoid those hazards. All 34 units are in

place and operating. Also, there is one

mobile system in operation.

The Terminal Weather Information

for Pilots (TWIP) program provides

text message descriptions and character graphic depiction of potentially

hazardous weather conditions in the

terminal area of airports with installed

TDWR systems. TWIP provides pilots

with information on regions of moderate to heavy precipitation, gust fronts,

and microburst conditions. The TWIP

capability is incorporated in the

TDWR software application. Text

messages or character graphic depiction are received in the cockpit through

the Aeronautical Radio Incorporated

(ARINC) Communication Addressing

and Reporting System (ACARS) data

link system. A total of 47 TDWR systems are deployed, installed and commissioned. The TWIP capability is

operational at most of the TDWR sites.

Activation of TWIP at the remaining

sites is dependent on availability of

National Airspace Data Interchange

Network (NADIN) II connectivity and

program funding.

The Flight Information System (FIS)

Policy was implemented during FY

2001, through Government-Industry

Project Performance Agreements (GIPPAs) with two industry FIS data link

service providers (ARNAV Systems,

Inc. and Honeywell International,

Inc.). Through the government-industry agreements, the FAA provides

access to four VHF channels (136.425-

136.500) in the aeronautical spectrum

while industry provides the ground

infrastructure for data link broadcasts

of text and graphic FIS products at no

cost to the FAA. Under the agreements, a basic set of text products are

provided at no cost to the pilot users

while industry may charge subscription fees for other value-added text and

graphic products.

The FAA FIS data link program will

continue development of necessary

standards and guidelines supporting

inter-operability and operational use.

In addition, the need and feasibility for

establishing a national capability for

collecting and distributing electronic

pilot reports (E-PIREPs) from low-altitude general aviation operations is

being evaluated. A concept analysis

has been initiated to define the need for

transition and evolution of FIS data

link services supporting the future

NAS architecture including Free Flight

operations.

SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVING PROGRAM

Aviation Weather Observations. The

FAA has taken responsibility for aviation weather observations at many airports across the country. To provide

the appropriate observational service,

FAA is using automated systems,

human observers, or a mix of the two.

It has been necessary to place airports

into four categories according to the

number of operations per year, any Figure 3-DOT-4. LLWAS equipment on an airfield.

Figure 3-DOT-3. FAA Terminal

Doppler Weather Radars provide supplementary wind and precipitation

conditions for airport approach and

departure. 
154 DOT SECTION 3

special designation for the airport, and

the frequency at which the airport is

impacted by weather.

Level D service is provided by a

stand-alone Automated Weather

Observing System (AWOS) or an

Automated Surface Observing System

(ASOS). In the future, Level D service

may be available at as many as 441 airports.

Level C service includes the

ASOS/AWOS plus augmentation by

tower personnel. Tower personnel will

add to the report observations of thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, tower visibility, volcanic ash, and virga when the

tower is in operation. Level C service

includes about 301 airports.

Level B service includes all of the

weather parameters in Level C service

plus Runway Visual Range (RVR) and

the following parameters when

observed--freezing drizzle versus

freezing rain, ice pellets, snow depth,

snow increasing rapidly remarks, thunderstorm/lightning location remarks,

and remarks for observed significant

weather not at the station. Level B

service includes about 58 airports.

Level A service includes all of the

weather parameters in Level B service

plus 10-minute averaged RVR for

long-line transmission or additional

visibility increments of 1/8, 1/16, and 0

miles. Level A service includes about

70 airports.

Automated surface aviation weather

observing systems will provide aviation-critical weather data (e.g., wind

velocity, temperature, dew point,

altimeter setting, cloud height, visibility, and precipitation type, occurrence,

and accumulation) through the use of

automated sensors. These systems will

process data and allow dissemination

of output information to a variety of

users, including pilots via computergenerated voice.

Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS) was deployed at over

200 airports to provide the basic aviation weather observation information

directly to pilots approaching the airport. The majority of these systems

were installed at various non-towered

airports to enhance aviation safety and

the efficiency of flight operations by

providing real-time weather data at airports that previously did not have local

weather reporting capability. These

systems are built to the standards of

quality necessary to ensure the safety

of flight operations and are available

off-the-shelf as a commercial product.

There remain 198 AWOSs.

Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOS). In a joint program with

NOAA NWS, the FAA has procured,

installed, and operates ASOS at the

remaining airports where the FAA provides observations and at additional

non-towered airports without weather

reporting capabilities in accord with

the levels of service listed above. Production is complete and the FAA has

569 systems installed and commissioned.

Aviation Weather Sensor Systems

(AWSS), a new program, will have

capability similar to ASOS (Figure 3-

DOT-5). However, the AWSS is a

direct acquisition of the FAA--not

from the joint ASOS program. Production was completed in CY 2005.

The AWOS/ASOS Data Acquisition

System (ADAS) functions primarily as

a message concentrator and will collect

weather messages from AWOS and

ASOS equipment located at controlled

and non-controlled airports within

each ARTCC's area of responsibility.

ADAS will distribute minute-byminute AWOS/ASOS data to the

Weather and Radar Processor (WARP)

within the air route traffic control center in which it is installed. ADAS will

also distribute AWOS data to the

NADIN which will in-turn forward the

data to the Weather Message Switching

Center Replacement (WMSCR) for

further distribution. Field implementation of ADAS is complete.

The Automated Lightning Detection

and Reporting System (ALDARS) is a

system adjunct to the ADAS.

ALDARS collects lightning stroke

information from the National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) and

disseminates this data to AWOS/ASOS

for the reporting of thunderstorms in

METAR or SPECI observations, when

appropriate. The use of ALDARS

eliminates the need for manual reporting of thunderstorms and increases the

number of airports where thunderstorms will be reported. ALDARS is

completely operational.

Stand Alone Weather Sensors

(SAWS) are back-up systems for some

AWOS/ASOS sensors at locations

where no other back-up capability is

available. SAWS have been demonstrated and full delivery is nearly completed. The full deployment will comprise up to 307 units.

ASOS Controller Equipment- Information Display System (ACE-IDS) is

an electronic cabinet of displays available to the controller at his work station (Figure 3-DOT-6). It provides

graphics of information which comes

from many sources that originate at

many nodes of an LAN which

includes, but is not limited to, weather

related parameters, observations, and

other automated weather products.

This system is designed specifically to

support operations in high-volume,

high-tempo Terminal Radar Approach

Control (TRACON) facilities. They

are installed at the following TRACONs: Atlanta, Boston, Dallas-Fort

Figure 3-DOT-5. Aviation Weather

Sensor Systems an ASOS like supplement for observations.
SECTION 3 DOT 155

Worth, Honolulu, Northern California

(San Francisco), Oklahoma City,

Potomac (Wash. D.C.), Saint Louis,

and Seattle.

AWOS for Non-Federal Applications. Under the Airport Improvement

Program (AIP), state and other local

jurisdictions may justify to the FAA

their need to enhance their airport

facilities. Upon approval, these

improvements may be partially funded

by the FAA using resources from the

Airway Trust Fund. The local airport

authority becomes responsible for the

remainder of the funding necessary to

complete the procurement, as well as

the funding for the regular maintenance. The addition of an AWOS is

one of the improvements that qualify

for AIP funding assistance. Systems

that qualify must meet certain standards which are defined in an FAA

Advisory Circular on Non-Federal

Automated Weather Observing Systems.

There are more than 275 non-Federal

AWOS locations. Some of these are

capable of reporting through a geostationary communications satellite.

These observations will be entered into

the national network for use in support

of the NAS and the national weather

network.

The New Generation Runway Visual

Range (NRVR) program provides for a

new generation

RVR sub-element

of the NAS. The

NRVR provides

runway visual

range information

to controllers and

users in support of

precision landing

and take-off operations. The NRVR

incorporates stateof-the-art sensor

technology and

embedded remote

maintenance monitoring. The FAA

plans to procure and install these

NRVR systems at all new qualifying

locations. FAA plans also call for the

replacement of many existing RVRs in

the NAS inventory.

The NRVR provides for near realtime measurement of visibility conditions along a runway (up to three

points along the runway can be measured-- touchdown, midpoint, and rollout) and reports these visibility conditions to air traffic controllers and other

users. The system automatically collects and formats data from three sensors: a visibility sensor--forward scatter meters will replace the transmissometers currently in use; a runway

light intensity monitor for both runway

edges and center-line lights; and an

ambient light sensor which controls

computer calculations using a day or

night algorithm. The data processing

unit calculates runway visibility products and distributes the products to

controllers and other users.

NRVR visibility sensors will be

deployed at 308 airports. Delivery of

the NRVR sensors began in November

1998. To date, 230 units have been

delivered and 185 have been commissioned. At the current levels of annual

funding, the program will be completed the deployment by the end of

CY 2009.

The FAA procured the Operational

and Supportability Implementation

System (OASIS) to improve weather

products, flight information, aeronautical data collection, analysis, and timeliness of dissemination, thereby

enhancing the safety and efficiency of

the NAS. OASIS will replace the

Model-1 Full Capacity Flight Service

Automation System, which includes

the Aviation Weather Processor.

OASIS will also integrate the Interim

Graphic Weather Display System functions and include several automated

flight service data handling capabilities. This configuration will be an initial deployment capability. Operational testing began in 1999; 16 systems have been deployed from the

original plan of 61. Future enhancements leading to the full capability

deployment will include: interactive

alphanumeric and graphic weather

briefings; direct user access terminal

(DUAT) service functionality; automated special use airspace; and training support. OASIS will support flight

planning, weather briefings, NOTAM

service, search and rescue, and pilot

access terminal services. Note: This

program will be suspended in FY

2008.

The Next Generation Weather Radar

(NEXRAD), known operationally as

the Weather Surveillance Radar-1988

Doppler (WSR-88D), is a multiagency program that defined, developed, and implemented the new

weather radar. Field implementation

began in 1990 and was completed in

1996. There are a total of 161 WSR88D systems deployed. The FAA

sponsored 12 systems in Alaska,

Hawaii, and the Caribbean. DOC and

DOD WSR-88Ds provide coverage

over the continental U.S..

The FAA emphasized the development of WSR-88D algorithms that take

advantage of the improved detection of

precipitation, wind velocity, and hazardous storms. The FAA also stressed

that these algorithms provide new or

improved aviation-oriented products.

Figure 3-DOT-6. ASOS Controller Equipment- Information Display System (ACE-IDS)
156 DOT SECTION 3

These improvements in detection of

hazardous weather will reduce flight

delays and improve flight planning

services through aviation weather

products related to wind, wind shear,

thunderstorm detection, storm movement prediction, precipitation, hail,

frontal activity, and mesocyclones and

tornadoes. WSR-88D data provided to

ATC through the WARP will increase

aviation safety and fuel efficiency.

In addition, the three funding agencies support the field sites through the

WSR-88D Radar Operations Center

(ROC) at Norman, Oklahoma. The

ROC provides software maintenance,

operational troubleshooting, configuration control, and training. Planned

product improvements include a shift

to an open architecture, new antenna

design, dual polarization, and the

development of more algorithms associated with specific weather events,

such as hurricanes.

The Air Route Surveillance Radar

(ARSR-4) provides the ARTCCs with

accurate multiple weather levels out to

200 nautical miles. The ARSR-4 is the

first enroute radar with the ability to

accurately report targets in weather.

The ARSR-4 can provide weather

information to supplement other

sources. The ARSR-4 is a joint

FAA/USAF funded project. Forty

joint radar sites were installed during

the 1992-1995 period.

The Weather and Radar Processor

(WARP), has replaced the Meteorologists Weather Processor to provide aviation weather information to the Center Weather Service Units. WARP

automatically creates unique, regional,

WSR-88D-based, mosaic products,

and sends these products, along with

other time-critical weather information, to controllers through the Display

System Replacement and to pilots via

the FIS. WARP greatly enhances the

dissemination of aviation weather

information throughout the NAS.

WARP underwent operational testing

and evaluation in early FY 2003 and is

operationally fielded at the 21

ARTCCs and the command center.

Others systems used for enhancements, testing, and software support

bring the total to 25 systems.

The Direct User Access Terminal

(DUAT) system has been operational

since February 1990. Through DUAT,

pilots are able to access weather and

NOTAMs and also file their IFR

and/or VFR flight plans from their

home or office personal computer.

AVIATION WEATHER COMMUNICATIONS

It should be noted that FAA communications systems are multi-purpose.

Weather data, products, and information constitute a large percentage of the

traffic, as do NOTAMS, flight plans,

and other aeronautical data.

The National Airspace Data Interchange Network (NADIN II) packetswitched network was implemented to

serve as the primary inter-facility data

communications resource for a large

community of NAS computer subsystems. The network design incorporates

packet-switching technology into a

highly connected backbone network

which provides extremely high data

flow capacity and efficiency to the network users. NADIN II consists of

operational switching nodes at two network control centers (and nodes) at the

National Aviation Weather Processing

Facilities at Salt Lake City, Utah, and

Atlanta, Georgia. It will interface

directly to Weather Message Switching

Center Replacement (WMSCR),

WARP, ADAS, TMS, and the Consolidated NOTAM System. NADIN II

also may be used as the intra-facility

communications system between these

(collocated) users during transition to

end state.

The Weather Message Switching

Center Replacement (WMSCR)

replaced the Weather Message Switching Center (WMSC) located at FAA's

National Communications Center

(NATCOM), Kansas City, Missouri,

with state-of-the-art technology.

WMSCR performs all current alphanumeric weather data handling functions

of the WMSC and the storage and distribution of NOTAMs. WMSCR will

rely on NADIN for a majority of its

communications support. The system

will accommodate graphic data and

function as the primary FAA gateway

to the NWS National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)--the

principal source of NWS products for

the NAS.

To provide for geographic redundancy, the system has nodes in the

NADIN buildings in Atlanta, Georgia,

and Salt Lake City, Utah. Each node

supports approximately one-half of the

U.S. and will continuously exchange

information with the other to ensure

that both nodes have identical national

databases. In the event of a nodal failure, the surviving node will assume

responsibility for dissemination to the

entire network.

Currently, specifications for an

upgrade or replacement for the

WMSCR are being formulated. The

needs, when developed, will be entered

into the AMS process for validation

and acceptance into the NAS architecture.

The Flight Information Service (FIS)

is a new communication system to provide weather information to pilots in

the cockpit. FIS is a partnership program among the government and private industry with the government providing the base information and the

bandwidth while the private companies

provide the broadcast and value-added

products. New products are screened

for technical suitability and value to

the pilots. Two companies have

demonstrated preliminary products

and capability.

The Worldwide Aeronautical Forecast System (WAFS) is a three geosynchronous satellite-based system for

collecting and disseminating aviation

weather information and products

to/from domestic or international avia-
SECTION 3 DOT 157

tion offices as well as in-flight aircraft.

The information and products are prepared at designated offices in Washington, District of Columbia, and Bracknell, United Kingdom. The U.S. portion of WAFS is a joint project of the

FAA and NWS to meet requirements

of the ICAO member states. FAA

funds the satellite communications link

and the NWS provides the information/product stream.

Two of the three satellites are funded

by the U.S.. The first is located over

the western Atlantic with a footprint

covering western Africa and Europe,

the Atlantic Ocean, South America,

and North America (except for the

West Coast and Alaska). The second

U.S.-funded satellite is positioned over

the Pacific and covers the U.S. West

Coast and Alaska, the Pacific Ocean,

and the Pacific rim of Asia. The third

satellite, operated by the United Kingdom, is stationed over the western

Indian Ocean and covers the remaining

areas of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The

data available via WAFS include flight

winds, observations, forecasts, SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and hazards to aviation including volcanic ash clouds.

The System Wide Information Manager is a new concept developed in

conjunction with NGATS to support

NAS operations in the 2025 timeframe. For all facets of the NAS operations, all data will be resident on a

'data cube' which will be accessible to

all users; thus assuring that all users

will have the same data. This will

assure that collaborative decision making will benefit from the same situational awareness, weather and traffic

programs.

AVIATION WEATHER

RESEARCH PROGRAM

Working closely with the Integrated

Product Team for Weather/Flight Services Systems, ATO sponsors research

on specific aviation weather phenomena which are hazardous and/or limiting to aircraft operations. This

research is performed through collaborative efforts with the National Science

Foundation (NSF), NOAA, NASA,

and the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology's Lincoln Laboratory. A

primary concern is the effective management of limited research, engineering, and development resources and

their direct application to known deficiencies and technical enhancements.

IMPROVED AIRCRAFT ICING

FORECASTS. The purpose of this initiative is to establish a comprehensive

multi-year research and development

effort to improve aircraft icing forecasts as described in the FAA Aircraft

Icing Plan. The objectives of this plan

are to develop: (1) an icing severity

index, (2) icing guidance models, and

(3) a better comprehension of synoptic

and mesoscale conditions leading to

in-flight icing. The result of this effort

will be an improved icing forecasting

capability that provides pilots with

more timely and accurate forecasts of

actual and expected icing areas by

location, altitude, duration, and potential severity.

CONVECTIVE WEATHER FORECASTING. The purpose of this

research effort is to establish more

comprehensive knowledge of the conditions that trigger convection and

thunderstorms and, in general, the

dynamics of a thunderstorm's life

cycle. The program will lead to

enhanced capability to predict growth,

areal extent, movement, and type of

precipitation from thunderstorms.

Gaining this forecast capability will

allow better use of the airspace and

help aircraft avoid areas with hazardous convective conditions (Figure

3-DOT-7).

MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND

ENHANCEMENT. This research is

aimed at developing or improving

models to better characterize the state

of the atmosphere and stratosphere in

general, with specific emphasis on the

flight operation environment specifically, with the aim to provide superior

aviation weather products to end users.

AVIATION FORECAST AND

QUALITY ASSURANCE.

The Product Development Team

(PDT) for the Aviation Gridded Forecast System is working on the development of products for dissemination on

the Aviation Digital Data System.

New algorithms will be developed to

present hazardous conditions in the

flight operations environment. They

will develop a process for automated

production of the SIGMETs. There

will be capability to assure quality and

a real-time verification process.

WEATHER SUPPORT TO DEICING DECISION MAKING

(WSDDM). This system develops

products that provide forecasts on the

intensity of snow and freezing rain,

and how or when these phenomena

will change in the short term. This

information is needed by airport management to determine when an aircraft

will require deicing before take-off.

The water content of snow is believed

to be an important factor. The output

product is designed for non-meteorological aviation users and has been

demonstrated at three different airports. Development work has been

completed and FAA has made this system available to airport authorities who

wish to use it as a decision aid.

CEILING AND VISIBILITY. A

development and demonstration is

underway in the San Francisco Bay

area. The project will have unique sensors and the data will be used in new

algorithms to develop improved forecasts. The project will continue over a

number years as the progress is evaluated. This project is a joint effort with

other Federal agencies and some of the

effort is performed by academic

researchers.
158 DOT SECTION 3

TURBULENCE. In addition to the

work being performed by the JSAT

under the Safer Skies Program, a PDT

has a seven year plan to evaluate wind

shear and turbulence around and on the

approaches to Juneau, Alaska. Also,

they are working with certain airlines

to install instruments on aircraft with

the capability to measure turbulence as

sensed on the aircraft and report this

information automatically. The data

will be used to verify forecasts and to

develop a standard index to report and

warn for turbulence.

NEXRAD ENHANCEMENTS.

Work is continuing to develop

improvements to the existing products

and to develop new graphic products.

Hardware and software pre-planned

product improvements are are being

pursued. This is a joint effort among

DOT, DOD, and DOC. 

Under the auspices of the OFCM,

FAA is investigating the possibilities

of developing multi-use phased array

radar to accomplish both weather surveillance and monitor aircraft movement in controlled airspace.

SPACE WEATHER. Space Weather

is of concern to the FAA in several

areas of operations and regulations.

Ionospheric scintillation creates certain

errors in the Global Positioning System that affects navigation, especially

for instrument approaches to airports.

In programs for Wide Area and Local

Area Augmentation Systems (WAAS

and LAAS) corrections for these

effects are being developed. This will

be a very important advance to promote the Free Flight management of

the National Airspace System. In addition, the effects on the ionosphere have

grave impacts on the use of high frequency communications which are

essential in air traffic control of flights

across the oceans and over the poles of

the Earth.

FAA is embarking in research at the

Civil Aeromedical Institute in Oklahoma City, OK, on the radiation effects

on fetuses of newly pregnant women

when flying at high altitudes and at

high latitudes where exposure is

increased. The exposure of flight

crews to this hazard will be measured

to determine if repeated flights in this

regime may accumulate deleterious

results.

FAA planners for commercial space

operations are working on the weather

requirements to set criteria for space

launch activities. The commercial

launch sites in California, Florida and

Virginia are co-located with government sites where the weather support is

available. However, at the new commercial space launch site in Kodiak,

Alaska new criteria must be developed

and established for standard procedures.

Figure 3-DOT-7. 4-panel Low Level Significant Weather graphics are produced by the Aviation Weather Center and

accessible to pilots from their web site. (Source: AWC web site)
SECTION 3 DOT 159

FEDERAL PROGRAMS IN SUPPORT OF ROAD WEATHER

THE ROAD WEATHER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) coordinates a number of

activities aimed at improving safety,

mobility, productivity, environmental

quality and national security on the

nation's highways during weather

threats. These activities include identification of weather impacts on the

roadway environment, traffic flow, and

the operational decisions that are made

because of them. It includes research

to advance the state of the art concerning road weather management tools, as

well as documentation and promotion

of the best practices. The FHWA acts

through federal aid and national coordination since it does not operate the

highway system or environmental

observing systems that serve state and

local highway operators, private road

users, and the traveling public. FHWA

activities are conducted as partnerships

with other public agencies, the private

sector, and universities.

As of 1997, coordination of FHWA

weather related activities has been centered in the Road Weather Management Program (RWMP) within the

FHWA’s Office of Transportation

Operations. From the beginning, an

important goal of this program has

been to help promote road weather

research and development and this

objective and its associated roadmap

was further defined in 2005 by the passage of the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity

Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEALU). Title V, Subtitle C - Intelligent

Transportation System Research, Section 5308 of this bill contains specific

reference to a "Road Weather Research

and Development Program," the scope

of which includes: maximizing the use

of available road weather information

and technologies; expanding road

weather research and development

efforts to enhance roadway safety,

capacity, and efficiency; minimizing

environmental impacts; and promoting

technology transfer of effective road

weather scientific and technological

advances. The bill directs the Secretary of the USDOT to solely carry out

research and development called for in

the National Research Council's

(NRC) report entitled, Where the

Weather Meets the Road, A Research

Agenda for Improving Road Weather

Services. This effort includes: integrating existing observational networks and data management systems

for road weather applications; improving weather modeling capabilities and

forecast tools, such as the road surface

and atmospheric interface; enhancing

mechanisms for communicating road

weather information to users (such as

transportation officials and the public);

and integrating road weather technologies into an information infrastructure.

The bill also includes three guiding

principles which are to: enable efficient technology transfer; improve

education and training of road weather

information users (such as state and

local transportation officials and private sector transportation contractors);

and coordinate with transportation

weather research program in other

modes, such as aviation.

Funding authorized for Section 5308

is $5.0 million per year for the years

2006 to 2009, and the Secretary was

directed to give preference to applications with significant matching funds

from non-Federal sources.

The FHWA Road Weather Management Program team is responsible for

executing the program in coordination

with the ITS Joint Program Office.

The goals and objectives of the RWMP

and its associated roadmap have been

modified to align with the legislation,

though such modification was minimal

since the existing program already

aligned very closely with the NRC

report. Numerous efforts and initiatives within the RWMP are satisfying

the requirements in the bill, including

the Maintenance Decision Support

System (MDSS), the Clarus initiative,

and the Memorandum of Understanding between the FHWA and NOAA.

Some of the activities occurring

within the RWMP include:

THE STRATEGIC HIGHWAY

RESEARCH PROGRAM (SHRP)

Congress established the Strategic

Highway Research Program (SHRP)

under the 1987 Surface Transportation

Act. SHRP examined a number of different subject areas including winter

maintenance operations on the nations

highways. The research program was

active until 1993, producing specifications, testing methods, equipment, and

advanced technologies. Following the

success of the five-year effort, the

FHWA coordinated a national program, entitled SHRP Implementation,

to work with state and local highway

agencies to implement and evaluate the

products. The American Association

of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO), and the Transportation Research Board (TRB)

administered this program in coordination with FHWA. The SHRP Implementation web site

(www4.trb.org/trb/dive.nsf/web/shrp_i

mplementation) contains information

on the SHRP Lead States Program,

SHRP products under evaluation and

implementation, and SHRP in general. 

THE INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS (ITS) PROGRAM

The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, established the ITS Program, including its

research program that funds the FHWA

Road Weather Management Program

activities. This program is overseen by

the ITS Joint Program Office (ITSJPO), which is a cross-modal office

FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION
160 DOT SECTION 3

hosted in the USDOT’s Research and

Innovative Technology Administration. While ITS initially focused on

automated highways and metropolitan

areas, a rural focus was initiated in

1996. The rural ITS program identified maintenance and weather as additional ITS focus areas, and recognized

the need for total integration of the

maintenance, traffic, and emergency

management functions across wide

areas and between states. The following research activities are examples

that fall within this overall weatheracross-ITS strategy:

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII)

Initiative

This initiative (www.its.dot.gov

/vii/index.htm) is exploring the potential of creating a data sharing communication system that could support

vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-toinfrastructure communications. The

system, once implemented, will provide real-time travel and weather information to both the public sector and

private industry, and also support

advanced safety applications. VII

could be a significant enabler of

weather-related applications, such as

vehicle-based sensors that gather environmental data system-wide. The

resulting communications network

would allow weather, traffic and other

information to be transmitted to transportation operators, providing a realtime view of the conditions on every

major road within the transportation

network. Such concepts will be

explored as the initiative matures. The

functional architecture and requirements for VII are under development.

Preliminary documentation describes

some of the weather-related data items

that could be directly measured or

inferred from vehicle sensor systems

including precipitation detection,

ambient air temperature, fog or visibility information, and road traction state

or mobility.

National ITS Architecture and ITS

Standards

Intelligent Transportation Systems

use open system principles and are

based upon the National ITS Architecture - a modularly defined set of information processes with known protocols for exchanging information

between modules. While road weather

information was not an original focus

of the National ITS Architecture, it has

since been captured through the Maintenance and Construction Operations

(MCO) user service. MCO development included the definition of a Road

Weather Information Service terminator designed to complement the existing Weather Service terminator.

Together, these represent the division

of responsibility for road weather

information, provided largely by private vendors and based on ESS observations, and weather information in

general. The interfaces between the

two types of services are then defined

as being outside of the ITS, although

the FHWA continues to maintain an

active interest in their development.

It is hoped that further detailing of

weather applications in traffic and

emergency management will lead to

further architecture developments in

the years ahead. As the interface

between the ITS and evolving national

weather information systems becomes

better defined, the National ITS Architecture and standards will provide a

technical basis for integration and promotion of open system principles. Version 5.1 of the National ITS Architecture can be found at

http://itsarch.iteris.com/itsarch/.

Environmental Observing Systems

Over 2,400 ESS are owned by state

transportation agencies in the United

States as shown in Figure 3-DOT-8.

More than 2,000 of these ESS are field

components of the Road Weather

Information Systems. ESS placed in

the field are generally fixed, with in

situ sensors for the usual atmospheric

weather variables, as well as pavement

and subsurface temperature probes,

pavement chemical concentration or

pavement freezing point. In some

cases, and potentially over all road

mileage, mobile environmental sensors

are being deployed to observe weather

and pavement conditions from vehicles. An important application of the

mobile, and potentially remote, sensing is thermal mapping of road segments. This technique provides snapshots of complete pavement temperature profiles and is used both to select

fixed ESS sites and to spatially predict

temperatures based on time series predictors at the fixed stations. FHWAfunded research is also investigating

the potential to extract surface weather

and road condition data from standard

traffic camera imagery. The potential

value of this research is significant

considering the fact that in 2004, there

were already 4000 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) traffic cameras

deployed nationwide.

At present, ESS data across the

United States are neither integrated nor

open. The data are not centrally collected, in a standard format, available

to all users, nor uniformly used. A

USDOT-sponsored initiative entitled

Clarus aims to correct this shortfall by

designing and demonstrating an integrated road weather observational network, and establishing a partnership to

facilitate deployment of a nationwide

surface transportation weather observing system. The long-term vision of

Clarus is that all data from state DOT

ESS will be routinely collected, quality-checked, and translated into an

open standard format. Quality checking algorithms and direct feedback to

state DOT points of contact will

improve agency awareness of sensor

status. Access to robust and calibrated

data will be provided through an open

Internet data portal. The Clarus Concept Of Operations and the Clarus system design has been completed. A

Proof-of-Concept demonstration

occurred in 2006, and regional demon-
SECTION 3 DOT 161

strations are planned for 2007.

In order to address some of the

issues related to surface weather observations, the FHWA is participating in

several OFCM projects including the

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation Working Group, the

Phased Array Radar (PAR) Joint

Action Group, the Joint Action Group

for Joint Urban Test Beds

(JAG/JUTB), the Fire-Weather Joint

Action Group, the Committee on Environmental Information Systems and

Communication, and the Committee

for Environmental Services, Operations, and Research Needs (CESORN).

FHWA is also participating in NOAA

efforts to explore the modernization of

the cooperative observer network and

development of a national surface

weather observing system.

From 2001 to 2003, the FHWA sponsored five research projects, under the

Cooperative Program for Meteorological Education and Training (COMET)

(www.comet.ucar.edu), which became

the first to add state DOTs to the traditional partnerships of NWS forecast

offices and universities. The COMET

projects in Iowa, Nevada, New York,

Pennsylvania, and Utah fostered the

sharing of environmental data and

facilitated advanced meteorological

modeling to enhance road weather

forecasts. Ultimately, these efforts will

contribute to the development of decision support tools for winter maintenance managers, traffic managers, and

the traveling public. Lessons learned

from these projects can help all state

DOTs better manage RWIS networks

and achieve maximum utility from

RWIS data.

In order to enhance observation

capabilities and define requirements

for road weather observing systems,

the Road Weather Management Program worked with the Aurora Pooled

Fund Program and the AASHTO Snow

and Ice Cooperative Program to produce the Road Weather Information

System ESS Siting Guidelines

(http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/e

ss05/). The guidelines, published in

2005, provide a set of recommendations to support uniform siting of ESS

that collect road and weather observations for RWIS, and are intended to

improve the usefulness of road weather

information derived from these observations. The Road Weather Management Program will facilitate the adoption and implementation of the guideFigure 3-DOT-8. Census of deployed Environment Sensor Station (ESS) units. An ESS is a site measuring atmospheric,

pavement and/or water level conditions. Many state transportation agencies deploy ESS as field components of Road

Weather Information Systems (RWIS). As shown on the map, there are over 2,400 ESS owned by state transportation

agencies. Most of these stations (i.e., 2,000) are part of RWIS and used to support road maintenance activities. The

other environmental sensor stations are deployed for various applications including flood monitoring and aviation.
162 DOT SECTION 3

lines in transportation agencies

through targeted research and deployment activities.

Decision Support

Transportation system managers and

users identified three critical surface

weather information requirements as

the trinity of "relevance, accuracy and

timeliness". Although significant

progress continues to be made by both

the public and private sectors in providing new technologies to meet these

requirements, a significant gap has

developed between the amount of

increasingly good and plentiful surface

weather information, and the amount

of support available for effective operational decision-making. Assisting

and supporting the research and development of ways to overcome this gap

has become an important initiative

within the FHWA.

Decision support is where surface

weather data needs to be customized

since each operational decision is specific to a type of road weather management strategy, a particular place and

time, and the characteristics of the

decision maker (their expertise, their

location, their information processing

equipment). Road weather management strategies mitigate weather

impacts by advising motorists of prevailing and predicted conditions (e.g.,

traveler information), controlling traffic flow and roadway capacity (e.g.,

weather-responsive traffic signal timing, road closure), and/or treating

roads to minimize or eliminate weather

threats (e.g., plowing, anti-icing/deicing).

In 1999 and 2000, decision support

requirements, first generally and then

specifically for winter road maintenance, were studied in the Surface

Transportation Weather Decision Support Requirements (STWDSR) project.

This project used weather threat scenarios to identify specific decisions

made in winter road maintenance, their

timing, and the expected confidence of

the decisions at various time horizons.

General requirements for emergency

managers, traffic managers, and road

users were also defined. The

STWDSR project became an important

contributor to the OFCM's Weather

Information for Surface Transportation (WIST) needs analysis, the

National ITS Architecture modifications, and to the Maintenance Decision

Support System (MDSS) prototype

project.

Along with the Maintenance Decision Support System described below,

in 2006 FHWA and the Missouri DOT

developed and tested a prototype

Weather Response System (WRS) for

transportation system operations. The

WRS was intended to use road weather

information from the NWS, the private

sector, state agencies and other sources

to support transportation control,

maintenance and operations decisionmaking. The results of the test and

evaluation will be used to improve the

prototype and bring it closer to

statewide deployment.

Support for Maintenance Managers

The Maintenance Decision Support

System (MDSS) project is a multiyear, FHWA-sponsored effort that was

envisioned to assist transportation

managers and operators improve roadway levels of service during winter

weather events while minimizing road

treatment costs (e.g., by optimizing use

of labor, materials, and equipment).

This data management tool has an

ensemble of advanced weather prediction and road condition prediction

capabilities, including air and pavement temperatures, precipitation

start/stop times, precipitation types and

accumulation amounts. These predictions are fused with customized winter

road maintenance rules of practice to

generate route-specific treatment recommendations (i.e., strategy, timing,

and material application rates).

In the spring of 2003, the first functional MDSS prototype was demonstrated and evaluated by three Iowa

DOT maintenance garages. The main

display of the demonstration prototype, shown in Figure 3-DOT-9,

includes predicted weather and road

conditions, a weather parameter selection menu, a map of roads and weather

alerts, as well as forecast animation

controls. During the winter of 2004-

2005, the demonstration domain was

moved to Colorado to assess prototype

capabilities over more complex terrain.

Based on lessons learned from the preliminary demonstration in Iowa, the

subsequent releases of Versions 2.0

and 3.0 in 2003 and 2004 respectively,

and the Colorado demonstration, Version 4.0 was made available in

November 2005.

Lessons learned, recommended

enhancements and the future directions

of the program were addressed and discussed during the 8th annual stakeholder meeting that was held in Falls

Church, Virginia in August 2006.

The MDSS development process has

moved forward to the point where the

AASHTO Technology Implementation

Group (TIG) proclaimed it to be a

"2006 ready-to-implement technology" (AASHTO Journal 4/7/2006).

Such a designation by one of FHWA

primary partners will significantly support the deployment of MDSS. In

addition, FHWA and its partners have

worked together to see the MDSS project evolve from prototype development to proactive outreach, deployment assistance, technology transfer,

and expansion of the functionality to

other applications, such as summer

maintenance and traffic management,

and even other surface transportation

sectors. This change is consistent with

the FHWA's original deployment strategy, which included creating an environment that enables the private sector

to build end-to-end products using core

MDSS prototype functionality/technology as their foundation. These

products will be procured by public

agencies (e.g., state DOTs), enabling

both the private and public sectors to

benefit from millions of dollars of
SECTION 3 DOT 163

high-risk research. One example of

technology transfer is the MDSS

Pooled Fund Study (PFS) project led

by the South Dakota DOT. Other participants include the state DOTs in

Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota,

Kansas, Wyoming, New Hampshire

and North Dakota, as well as Aurora (a

pooled fund research program), a private vendor, and the FHWA. The

objective of the project has been to

build, evaluate, and deploy an operational MDSS by refining model components and conducting extensive field

tests. 

An example of proactive outreach

has been the development and deployment of the "MDSS Road Show" by

the FHWA Resource Center. This free

seminar, which includes both an Executive Briefing and a Shop Session, is

available to transportation managers,

maintenance engineers and operators.

The presentation describes the functions of MDSS, its capabilities, and its

limitations. It also provides a level of

detail that helps public agencies make

more informed decisions about investing in such a tool.

Other FHWA-sponsored support

activities planned for 2007 include:

updating several components of the

MDSS core system; overseeing the

release of an enhanced version of the

software; and conducting several

cost/benefit analyses to generate quantitative results that can be used by the

transportation community to justify

investments in MDSS. Additional

information on the MDSS project and

the Road Show can be found at

www.rap.ucar.edu/projects/rdwx_mdss

and at http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/

Weather/index.asp.

Support for Traffic Managers

In 2006, the Road Weather Management Program developed a 5-year

roadmap for Weather-Responsive Traffic Management. The roadmap identifies the goals and activities that FHWA

will pursue in three major program

areas: data collection and integration,

impacts of weather on traffic flow, and

traffic management strategies. The

roadmap also serves as the basis for

future work to identify, develop, test,

and evaluate a variety of weatherresponsive traffic management strategies.

Empirical studies of traffic flow and

driver behavior during inclement

weather are currently underway and

will be completed in 2007. The Road

Weather Management Program is

working with FHWA's Office of Operations Research and Development to

collect empirical traffic, weather, and

pavement condition data on both freeway and arterial routes to quantify

weather impacts on driver behavior,

traffic speeds, traffic volumes, and

travel time delay. This research will

improve the understanding of how traffic flow and driver behavior change

under adverse weather conditions.

Once these factors are better understood, the information can be incorporated into traffic simulation models

and, ultimately, traffic information and

control tools.

511-The National Traveler Information

Telephone Number

Based on the concept that a standardized number for travel information

would be beneficial to the traveling

public, a broad coalition of ITS interests worked together to allocate a

national 511 traveler information telephone number. In 2002, the FHWA

sponsored a number of grants to plan

for state deployment of 511 services,

and guidelines were issued on service

content. A survey on traveler information conducted by ITS America indicated that weather and road condition

information were highest in demand by

travelers, and therefore, this type of

information is considered a key component of 511 services. The means of

delivering information through 511 are

still being developed, including ways

to serve peak demands for emergency

evacuation information, as part of the

homeland defense, or other threat

capability.

In June 2003, the 511 Deployment

Coalition released a Deployment Assistance Report, Weather and Environmental Content on 511 Systems, to recommend basic content and provide for

consistency in 511 systems as they are

deployed across the country. Since

these systems are in their infancy, gaps

exist in defining the types of road

weather information travelers' desire,

appropriate data formats, and the frequency and detail needed for travelers

to make safe and effective decisions.

The Road Weather Management Program has participated in several 511

Deployment conferences, including

the one held in San Diego, California

in July 2006, and continues its efforts

to help establish road weather data

requirements and close these gaps.

The 511 program must also find ways

to complement NOAA Weather Radio

broadcasts, and use the NWS official

watches and warning information. The

511 capability is just one more way in

which ITS is becoming a significant

dissemination means for road weather

information. As of May 2006, 511

services were operational in 22 states,

available to 32 percent of the population, and expected to be launched in

eight more states by the end of the

year (Figure 3-DOT-10).

Weather Impacts on Roadway Safety,

Mobility & Productivity

While the impacts and associated

costs of adverse weather on surface

transportation are considered to be

immense, it has been difficult to quantify specific costs related to these

impacts. This is also true of the benefits (as avoidable costs) that are

achieved through better information

that helps support more effective

responses and/or mitigation strategies.

It is likely that the costs to mobility, in

terms of delay due to weather, are the

most significant part of this economic

picture. For example, initial estimates

of the economic impact of weatherrelated delay on trucks in the 20 major
164 DOT SECTION 3

metropolitan areas most affected by

adverse weather are on the order of $2

billion per year.

In an attempt to get a better understanding on the relationship between

adverse weather and traffic delays, the

FHWA sponsored a series of analyses

that were conducted for the Seattle,

Washington and Washington, DC metropolitan areas. These analyses combined surface weather observations

with traffic speed data, both empirical

and modeled. The results were consistent in showing about a 12 percent

increase in travel time averaged over a

wide range of weather events. A second analysis of delay effects in Washington, DC was conducted with

archived Doppler radar data for more

precise and more dynamic inference of

road weather conditions. Analysis

results indicated that during peak

travel periods, travel time increased by

roughly 24 percent when precipitation

was present. It is the FHWA's belief,

that achieving a better understanding

of weather-traffic interactions, will

lead to an improved ability to mitigate

the impact of weather-related delays

through traffic management practices,

including speed management, access

control (e.g., road closure), motorist

warning systems, and weather-responsive signal timing.

Road Weather Management Program

Outreach and Training

The Road Weather Management Program web site (http://www.ops.fhwa.

dot.gov/Weather/index.asp) contains a

wealth of information on the program.

This includes material objectives and

initiatives, weather impacts, benefits of

road weather management strategies,

technologies to help mitigate weather

impacts, best practices, training,

upcoming events, a listing of over 200

road weather related publications, and

30 case studies of road weather management systems. Each case study has

six sections including a general

description of the system, system components, operational procedures,

resulting transportation outcomes (i.e.,

improved safety, mobility and/or productivity), implementation issues, as

well as contact information and references.

Figure 3-DOT-9 . Schematic of FHWA’s Maintenance Decision Support System.
SECTION 3 DOT 165

A key outreach activity of the program is the annual Eastern Winter

Road Maintenance Symposium &

Equipment Expo (or Snow Expo). Over

the past eleven years, FHWA has partnered with state agencies to host the

Snow Expo, which provides a forum

for sharing information and technologies used to counter the effects of winter weather. AASHTO is now the lead

sponsor, with FHWA as a co-sponsor.

More information on the Snow Expo

can be found at www.easternsnowexpo.org.

The FHWA sponsors training programs and conducts outreach to promote Road Weather Management Program products and activities. In 2005,

a one-day training course on Principles

and Tools for Road Weather Management became available through the

National Highway Institute (NHI

course No. 137030A). The course is

aimed at helping those involved in

highway maintenance and operations

develop techniques and strategies for

tackling road weather problems. The

course will provide basic knowledge of

meteorology and address the technological resources available to support

highway personnel in making effective

road weather management decisions.

Additional details are listed on

National Highway Institute web site

(www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov).

The computer-based AntiIcing/RWIS Training Program is a

comprehensive, interactive training

program for winter operations that was

jointly developed by AASHTO, with

support from FHWA and Aurora. The

training program covers an introduction to anti-icing and winter maintenance, winter road maintenance management, winter roadway hazards and

principles of overcoming them,

weather basics, weather and roadway

monitoring for anti-icing decisions,

computer access to road weather information, and anti-icing practice in winter maintenance operations.

Figure 3-DOT-10 . 511 National Traveler Information Telephone Number Deployment - May 2006.

SECTION 3 DOT 167

The Federal Railroad Administration

(FRA) supports improving the collection, dissemination, and application of

weather data to enhance railroad safety

through the Intelligent Weather Systems project, as part of the Intelligent

Railroad Systems and Railroad System

Safety research programs. These programs address safety issues for freight,

commuter, intercity passenger, and

high-speed passenger railroads.

Intelligent weather systems for railroad operations consist of networks of

local weather sensors and instrumentation - both wayside and on-board locomotives - combined with national,

regional, and local forecast data to alert

train control centers, train crews, and

maintenance crews of actual or potential hazardous weather conditions.

Intelligent weather systems will provide advance warning of weather

caused hazards such as flooding; track

washouts; snow, mud, or rock slides;

high winds; fog; high track-buckling

risk; or other conditions which require

adjustment to train operations or action

by maintenance personnel (Figure 3-

DOT-11).

Weather data collected on the railroad could also be forwarded to

weather forecasting centers to augment

their other data sources. The installation of the digital data link communications network is a prerequisite for

this activity.

FRA intends to examine ways that

weather data can be collected on railroads and moved to forecasters, and

ways that forecasts and current

weather information can be moved to

railroad control centers and train and

maintenance crews to avoid potential

accident situations. This is one of the

partnership initiatives identified in the

National Science and Technology

Council's National Transportation

Technology Plan.

WEATHER FORECASTING

ENHANCED BY NATIONWIDE

DIFFERENTIAL GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (NDGPS)

Nationwide Differential Global Positioning System (NDGPS) is a system

of reference stations that monitors GPS

and broadcasts corrections, which can

be used by the GPS receiver to

improve the accuracy, integrity and

availability of the GPS position.

NDGPS is used in a myriad of applications including: maritime navigation,

positive train control, precision farming, dredging, graphic information systems and surveying.

The Global Systems Division (GSD)

of the Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) in the National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) developed a unique application, which very accurately measures

the amount of water vapor in the

atmosphere by taking advantage of the

dual-frequencies, reference station

receivers at the NDGPS sites and a

suite of weather sensors added to each

reference station. The weather sensors, circled in the photo above, measure temperature, relative humidity and

barometric pressure. The GPS satellites broadcast on two frequencies, L1

and L2. GSD uses these two frequencies to correct for the ionospheric

delay that is caused by changes in the

refractive index associated with the

concentration of free electrons in the

upper atmosphere. The ionospheric

delay is usually about 6-10 times

greater than the signal delay caused by

the neutral, non-electrically conducting, atmosphere. GSD can than estimate the signal delays caused by the

neutral atmosphere by comparing the

errors in position between sites that are

over 500 km apart by viewing the same

satellites for about 30 minutes. Most

of the delay in the troposphere (lower

atmosphere) is caused by the mass of

the atmosphere, or the hydrostatic

component, while the induced dipole

moment of the water vapor molecules

FEDERAL RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION

Figure 3-DOT-11. Track washed out

by flood waters from Hurricane

Alberto.
168 DOT SECTION 3

in the atmosphere is responsible for the

rest of the delay.

The GSD can accurately estimate the

hydrostatic delay by putting a pressure

sensor at the NDGPS site and mapping

the surface pressure into signal delay

using well-known physical relationships. Subtracting the hydrostatic

delay from the observed tropospheric

delay gives the wet signal delay caused

by water vapor in the atmosphere.

Then, the wet delay is mapped into the

quantity of water vapor responsible for

the delay using information about the

temperature of the atmosphere and the

characteristics of the air at microwave

frequencies.

This results in the equivalent height

of a column of water that would form

if all of the water vapor in the atmosphere were to fall or precipitate. The

total precipitable water vapor content

is a direct measure of how much raw

material is in the atmosphere in the

form of rain, snow, hail and clouds. As

the water vapor changes state from gas

to liquid to solid and back again, it

releases or absorbs energy associated

with the latent heat bound-up in the

molecules. This energy release and

absorption is the primary energy

responsible for weather. The reason

that water vapor is hard to measure is

that it only manifests itself when it

changes state, and most instruments

that can observe water in its gaseous

state do not work well under all

weather conditions. However,

NDGPS works remarkably well in all

weather conditions.

Water vapor is the most important
SECTION 3 DOT 169

component of weather and the least

observed. In June 2005, the research

and development program to evaluate

the use of NDGPS data became an

operational program feeding near-real

time date into NOAA's operational

models. The addition of this data has

greatly improved the model and shortterm weather forecasts, especially during periods of active weather such as

fronts, hurricanes or tornadoes.

The Federal Railroad Administration

will continue to work with NOAA's

GSD and the Coast Guard to install

weather sensor systems at all of the

NDGPS sites as they are built.

NATIONWIDE SURFACE TRANSPORTATION WEATHER

OBSERVING AND FORECASTING SYSTEM - CLARUS

The weather products available today

through both public and private

resources are typically insufficient to

meet the demands of transportation

operations. Nearly all weather forecasting today is based on observations

of the atmosphere. However, the

greatest impact of weather events on

the safety and mobility of travelers and

freight occurs on the surface. Many

state DOT's have invested in road

weather information systems that provide their agencies with observations

on conditions at the surface and just

below the surface. Other entities such

as agriculture, water districts, electric

utilities, and railroads also operate

weather observation stations. FRA is

developing a partnership with the Federal Highways Administration

(FHWA), state DOT's, NOAA and others to establish a nationwide road

weather observation network known as

Clarus. The goal of the Clarus project is to tie this mosaic of private and

public observation stations into a cohesive weather forecasting system that is

specifically focused on surface conditions.

SECTION 3 USDA 171

Numerous agencies within the U.S.

Department of Agriculture (USDA)

require a wide range of high quality

weather and climatological data to successfully carry out their missions.

Some of the diverse applications that

require accurate, timely, and comprehensive data include crop monitoring

and weather impact assessment, agricultural yield and productivity modeling, natural resource conservation

planning, forest fire potential monitoring, irrigation scheduling, water supply

information, reinsurance and compliance programs, crop disaster assistance

and emergency relief programs, integrated past management, crop yield

modeling, and agricultural research

studies. The following is a brief

description of agency weather activities.

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF ECONOMIST /WORLD AGRICULTURAL

OUTLOOK BOARD

The World Agricultural Outlook

Board (WAOB) is located within the

Office of the Chief Economist (OCE).

The WAOB's primary objectives are

consistency, objectivity, and reliability

of outlook and situation related material, including weather information

developed within the USDA. The

WAOB coordinates all weather and climate information and monitoring

activities within USDA. The WAOB

also manages the Joint Agricultural

Weather Facility (JAWF), which

serves as the focal point in the USDA

for weather and climate information

and impact assessment.

THE JAWF was created in 1978 as

an operational unit, and is jointly managed by the USDA/OCE/WAOB and

the U.S. Department of Commerce

(DOC)/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/

National Weather Service

(NWS)/National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)/Climate

Prediction Center (CPC). The primary

mission of the JAWF is to routinely

collect global weather data and agricultural information to assess the

impact of growing season weather

conditions on crops and livestock production prospects. JAWF meteorologists work as a team, monitoring

global weather conditions and crop

developments on a daily basis, and

preparing real-time agricultural assessments (Figure 3-USDA-1). These

assessments keep USDA commodity

analysts, the OCE, and the Secretary of

Agriculture and top staff informed of

worldwide weather related developDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Nation's food and fiber products are a critical resource impacting our domestic and international

economic situation and are essential for ensuring our national security and shaping foreign policy.

Weather is the most important factor influencing the Nation's variability in crop yields and related production. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) monitors global weather and agricultural developments through the Joint Agricultural Weather Facility (JAWF). The JAWF provides critical information to decision-makers formulating crop production forecasts, programs that provide natural disaster assistance to U.S. farmers and ranchers, emergency relief programs, and trade policy. USDA operates specialized weather observing networks such as SNOTEL, SCAN, and RAWS that provide vital data and information used

to forecast seasonal water supplies in the West, to support national conservation programs, and to monitor the health of

the Nation's forests. USDA conducts supporting research that focuses on understanding the interactions of weather and

climate with plants, animals, forests, and forest ecological systems. 

Figure 3-USDA-1. Joint Agricultural Weather Facility Web Site.
172 USDA SECTION 3

ments and their effects on crops and

livestock. In addition to providing

routine assessments, OCE/WAOB

agricultural meteorologists at JAWF

are frequently requested to prepare

special assessments when adverse or

anomalous weather conditions (i.e.,

droughts, heat waves, freezes, floods,

and hurricanes) are observed in major

crop producing regions. An example

of an assessment made during Hurricane Wilma is shown in Figure 3-

USDA-2. This special assessment was

prepared using sophisticated GIS tools,

overlaying the track and sustained

wind speeds of the hurricane over

Florida citrus and sugarcane producing

areas. When integrated with economic

analyses and information, these routine

and special crop-weather assessments

provide critical information to decision-makers formulating crop production forecasts, trade policy, and disaster relief. They also help identify

potential agricultural markets for U.S.

products around the world. Inputs

from OCE/WAOB/JAWF are integrated into USDA's monthly foreign

crop production estimates. Weekly

briefings on global weather and crop

developments are provided to USDA

top staff. The Senate and House Agricultural Committees periodically

request agricultural weather briefings

that focus on the severity and impact of

drought, heat waves, and excessive

wetness in major crop areas across the

Nation.

The JAWF serves as the USDA focal

point for weather data received from

the Global Observing System, a worldwide network of over 7,000 meteorological reporting stations managed by

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These data are used at

JAWF and other USDA agencies for a

number of agricultural applications.

The agricultural meteorologists of

OCE/WAOB/JAWF merge these

weather data with climatological

analyses and global agronomic data, to

determine the weather's impact on crop

development and yield potential. A

major source of domestic weather and

climate data that are used in crop and

weather analyses by JAWF comes

from the NWS's Cooperative Observer

(COOP) Network.

JAWF's flagship publication is the

Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin

(WWCB). The WWCB is jointly produced by USDA/OCE/WAOB,

USDA/National Agricultural Statistics

Service (NASS), and the

DOC/NOAA/NWS/NCEP/CPC. First

published in 1872 as the Weekly

Weather Chronicle, the publication has

evolved over the past 134 years into

one that provides a vital source of

information on weather, climate, and

agricultural developments worldwide.

The publication is a shining example

of how two major departments (USDA

and DOC) within the Federal government can mutually cooperate, combining meteorology and agriculture

expertise to provide a service that benefits the economic well being of the

nation. The WWCB (Figure 3-USDA3) highlights weekly meteorological

and agricultural developments on a

national and international scale, providing written summaries of weather

and climate conditions affecting agriculture, as well as detailed maps and

tables of agrometeorological information that is appropriate for the season.

Figure 3-USDA-3. Weekly Weather

and Crop Bulletin is a joint effort of

between the Departments of Agriculture and Commerce.

Figure 3-USDA-2. Special agricultural assessment example - Hurricane

Wilma.
SECTION 3 USDA 173

The WWCB also provides timely

weather and crop information between

the monthly Crop Production and

World Agricultural Supply and

Demand Estimates reports, issued by

USDA/NASS and

USDA/OCE/WAOB, respectively.

The WWCB is available in electronic

form from the OCE web site at:

http://www.usda.gov/oce/weather/inde

x.htm.

Knowledge of historical climate data

and agricultural production patterns in

agricultural regions around the world

is critical in JAWF's assessments of

weather's impact on crop yields. In

September 1994, OCE/WAOB/JAWF

published the Major World Crop Areas

and Climatic Profiles (Agricultural

Handbook No.664). This reference

handbook provides the framework for

assessing the weather's impact on

world crop production by providing

information on climate and crop data

for key producing regions and countries. Coverage includes major agricultural regions and crops, including

coarse grains, winter and spring wheat,

rice, major oilseeds, sugar, and cotton.

World maps show the normal developmental stage of regional crops by

month. An electronic version of the

handbook was developed to provide

periodic updates to the printed version

as additional data become available.

The electronic version is available

from the OCE web site at:

http://www.usda.gov/oce/weather/pubs

/Other/MWCACP/index.htm.

Drought is one of the most costly

natural disasters affecting the U.S. In

the summer of 1999, a monitoring tool

known as the Drought Monitor was

developed to help assess drought conditions in the U.S. The Drought Monitor is a collaborative effort between

Federal and academic partners, including the University of Nebraska-Lincoln National Drought Mitigation Center, OCE/WAOB/JAWF, NOAA/NWS

/CPC, and NOAA/NESDIS/National

Climatic Data Center. Approximately

ten lead authors rotate the responsibility of preparing the Drought Monitor.

Produced on a weekly basis, the

Drought Monitor is a synthesis of multiple indices, outlooks, and impacts

depicted on a map and in narrative

form. The official web site for the

Drought Monitor can be found at:

http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/monitor.html. The Drought Monitor is

released each Thursday at 8:30 A.M.

Eastern Local Time. Because the

Drought Monitor is prepared in a GIS

system, it can be overlaid on agriculFigure 3-USDA-4. A monthly update of United States winter wheat areas experiencing moderate

or more intense drought.
174 USDA SECTION 3

tural data, to create agricultural

weather products that quantify the spatial extent of drought affecting various

agricultural commodities (Figure 3-

USDA-4). These agricultural weather

products, along with the Drought Monitor, serve as the main source of information for briefing materials on U.S.

drought developments for the Department's Drought Task Force.

The North American Drought Monitor (NADM) is a cooperative effort

between drought experts in Canada,

Mexico, and the U.S. to monitor

drought across the continent. The

NADM was initiated at a workshop in

April 2002, and is part of a larger effort

to improve the monitoring of climate

extremes on the continent. Issued

monthly since March 2003, the

NADM is based on the end-of-month

U.S. Drought Monitor analysis and

input from scientists in Canada and

Mexico. Major participants in the

NADM program include the entities

involved with the production of the

U.S. Drought Monitor, as well as Agriculture and Agrifood Canada, the

Meteorological Service of Canada, and

the National Meteorological Service of

Mexico. The NADM web site is:

http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/m

onitoring/drought/nadm/nadmmap.html.

USDA's Chief Meteorologist is currently serving as the president of World

Meteorological Organization's

(WMO's) Commission for Agricultural

Meteorology. In this position, the

USDA's Chief Meteorologist leads an

effort to enhance the flow of more

accurate and timely global agricultural

weather information through an ongoing project utilizing Internet technology. The World AgroMeteorological

Information Service (WAMIS) is a

dedicated web server that provides

agrometeorological bulletins and advisories issued by WMO Members to the

global agricultural community as well

as training modules to aid Members in

improving their agrometeorological

products. Currently, 25 member services contribute advisories and bulletins

to the WAMIS web server. The

WAMIS web site is:

http://www.wamis.org.

The OCE/WAOB/JAWF opened a

field office in Stoneville, Mississippi

in October 1998. The OCE office in

Stoneville, Mississippi is co-located

with the Mississippi State Delta

Research and Extension Center

(DREC) and USDA's Agricultural

Research Service (ARS) Mid-South

Area Jamie Whitten Delta States

Research Center. A primary goal of the

field office is to access and link existing agricultural weather data collection

networks to assist with the nationwide

flow of agricultural weather data and

information. This goal is being

achieved through ongoing cooperative

efforts with other state, public, and

government institutions engaged in

agricultural weather activities and climate services, including the states of

Missouri, Iowa, Alabama, Mississippi,

Oklahoma, Illinois, Louisiana, Indiana, NOAA’s Regional Climate Centers, USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), and the

U.S. Department of Interior/Bureau of

Reclamation/Pacific Northwest

Region AgriMet Program. Interactions

with these other agencies have helped

to ensure the availability of soil temperature data, previously unavailable

on a national scale. These soil temperature data are published during the

spring and early summer in the

WWCB. Such data are critical in providing guidance to farmers on when

soil temperatures have reached high

enough levels to begin planting field

crops.

FOREST SERVICE

RESEARCH

Pollutants and emissions from prescribed and wildland fires are decreasing current and future air quality. Forest Service meteorologists are working

with biological and social scientists to

look at how land use changes (such as

transportation patterns), and forest

species distributions impact air quality

and forest health. Predictions of prescribed and wildland fire and smoke

emissions and transport are being used

to assess the added impact of fires on

air quality and as a planning tool for

scheduling prescribed burns to reduce

the buildup of hazardous fuels.

Research at the Missoula Fire Laboratory, in cooperation with other partners, forms the foundation for many

fire weather products as well as smoke

management guidelines. Predicting

emissions factors from fires and modeling smoke dispersion provides estimates of smoke impacts on human

health and relationships between onsite meteorology and smoke dispersion

including consequences of smoke to

visibility in Clean Air Act Class I

Areas.

Air pollution effects remain a serious

threat to forest health in some parts of

the U.S. Research is focusing on sampling methods and quantifying air

quality (nitrogen and ozone) and air

quality related values, particularly in

remote areas, and on measuring and

quantifying impacts of nitrogen deposition on alpine and subalpine terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Forest

Service’s research is also investigating

nitrogen deposition in selected forest

ecosystems across the U.S., with particular attention to nitrogen deposition

effects on nutrient cycling, soil and

water chemistry, soil microbiology,

plant species composition and abundance, and ecosystem function.

NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM

The National Forest System weather

program works with the USDA

Drought Commission. It provides liaison with the Satellite Telemetry Working Group (STWG) on satellite services and with the National Weather

Service, DOI, and NWCG on the

delivery of fire weather forecasting,
SECTION 3 USDA 175

critical for safety and effectiveness of

fire fighting and for flash flood warnings. The Forest Service watershed

management program provides assistance to the NRCS by conducting snow

surveys in 11 western states and Alaska

on National Forest System lands to

maximize safety and efficiency. Cooperative efforts with NRCS and USGS

in the Eastern U.S. include monitoring

air and weather stations on National

Forest System lands in wilderness

areas as well as near large urban centers. This information provides the

basis for modification of forest structure through the deposition and melt of

snow, flood forecasting, fire season

risk, and water management decisions

affecting aquatic species, agriculture,

hydro-electric, transport & international treaties. Land management and

timber harvest impact water yields and

storage, can enhance existing water

supplies, and can be consistent with

other resource uses and values. Snow

augmentation or other modification

activities carried out by cooperators

are consistent with applicable laws,

regulations and management guidelines for National Forest System lands.

FIRE AND AVIATION MANAGEMENT

This program uses meteorological

data, analysis and prediction tools and

expert interpretation skills for decision

making regarding wildland fire management including wildfire, wildland

fire use and prescribed fire activities.

The Forest Service State and Private

Forestry, Fire and Aviation Management (F&AM) program operates a network of over 1000 remote automated

weather stations (RAWS) in a national

network of over 2500 stations. The

network provides real-time meteorological information which is key in

processing the National Fire Danger

Rating System (NFDRS) via the

Weather Information Management

System (WIMS) used by fire agencies

across the country.

The program provides liaison with

the Satellite Telemetry Interagency

Working Group (STIWG) and its associated Technical Working Group; the

National Weather Service (NWS); DOI

agencies including the Bureau of Land

Management (BLM), Fish and

Wildlife Service (FWS), Bureau of

Indian Affairs (BIA), and National

Park Service (NPS); state fire protection agencies; and the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) on

the delivery of fire weather data and

forecasting, critical for safety and

effectiveness in wildland fire management. The RAWS Program assures

that the USFS network is in compliance with the National Fire Danger

Rating Weather Station Standards; and

serves as key contact for any changes

to that document on behalf of the Fire

Environment Working Team

(FENWT). The FS F&AM participates on the NWCG FENWT and other

fire weather-related groups to address

fire weather standards, translation of

fire weather information into models

and fire behavior support tools. The

FS F&AM program is participating on

the OFCM Joint Action Group for the

National Wildland Fire Weather Needs

Assessment which should be complete

in 2007. The RAWS Program provides

extensive support to local fire management and national fire management

personnel through the hosting and

maintenance of the Interagency RAWS

web site. The web site address is

http://www.fs.fed.us/raws.

The data from this network of stations form the basis for the assessment

of fire danger, the pre-positioning of

fire fighting resources and the conducting of prescribed fire operations

including management of smoke. The

costs include maintenance support

contracts, maintenance training sessions, contracts for the delivery of this

information to agency personnel, fire

weather forecasters, and state forestry

agencies that use the data in real-time

for critical decisions.

The agency fire weather program

works with the National Predictive

Service Group (NPSG) at the National

Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), Boise,

ID, in providing technical support and

oversight to 10 Geographic Area Coordination Centers and works closely

with the Forest Service Research and

Development staff in the oversight of

the 5 regional Fire Consortia for

Advanced Modeling of Meteorology

and Smoke. This effort, in cooperation

with NOAA and EPA, will provide

valuable fire weather predictions,

smoke forecasting and air quality

information to fire managers and air

quality programs nationally.

The F&AM program participates in

the Automated Lightning Detection

Contract to support quick response to

new wildland fire ignitions. The data

is delivered in real-time via the BLM's

Wildland Fire Management Information System (WFMI). WFMI is accessible via the internet with correct logon

and password credentials. State and

private forestry agencies are also

allowed access to the data through FS

sponsorship and funding. The contract

with Vaisala is held by the National

Weather Service on behalf of several

Federal government agencies.

The RAWS program is participating

in an interagency Competitive Sourcing Study of the maintenance support

required to keep the RAWS network

operational and accurate. The study is

being led by the BLM. The results will

affect all Federal wildland fire agencies and many state forestry agencies

and private users. At the conclusion of

the study, the newly formed Most Efficient Organization (MEO) will include

employees and workload from the

USFS, BLM, BIA, NPS, and FWS.

NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE )(NRCS)

SNOW SURVEY AND WATER SUPPLY FORECASTING - MONITORING
176 USDA SECTION 3

Snowmelt provides approximately

80 percent of the streamflow in the

western U.S.. The NRCS, in partnership with other Federal and state agencies, operates the Snow Survey and

Water Supply Forecasting Program

(SS&WSF) in 11 western states and

Alaska. To accurately forecast seasonal water supplies, the program collects critical snow and climate data

from high elevation snow packs in the

mountainous western U.S. The data

collection system includes 922 manual

snow courses and over 703 automated

SNOTEL (SNOw pack TELemetry)

monitoring stations throughout the

western U.S. These data, along with

information from 740 stream gauges,

399 major reservoirs, and 3,200 climatological observing stations are merged

into a hydroclimatic database that is

used to produce real-time watershed

analyses and water supply forecasts.

Monitoring is done in partnership with

Federal, state, and local agencies,

power companies, irrigation districts,

and the Provincial Government of

British Columbia. This information is

the basis for water management decisions under international treaties with

Canada and Mexico.

The SNOTEL automated data collection system plays an important role by

providing near real-time remote

hydrometeorological data required to

evaluate snowpacks, potential instream water supplies and drought risk.

The SNOTEL network can provide

hourly precipitation, temperature, and

snowpack depletion information that

significantly improves flood stage

forecasts and the monitoring of other

life threatening snow-related events.

SNOTEL information enables emergency management agencies to effectively mitigate drought and flood damages. An added benefit during the late

spring and summer is the availability

of hourly climate data, which is used to

monitor and assess forest and wildfire

potential.

Additionally, the SS&WSF Program

supports research to improve monitoring technology, data reliability, data

quality, water supply forecasting, and

water resource modeling.

WATER SUPPLY FORECASTS

Monthly water supply forecasts are

produced each year, January through

June, in partnership with the NWS.

The purposes of water supply forecasts

are to: (1) help irrigators make the

most effective use of limited water

supplies for agricultural production

needs; (2) assist the Federal government in administering international

water treaties with Canada and Mexico; (3) assist state governments in

managing intrastate streams and interstate water compacts; (4) assist municipalities in planning the early management of anticipated water supplies and

drought mitigation; (5) operate reservoirs to satisfy multiple use demands

including hydropower generation; (6)

mitigate flood damages in levied areas

and downstream from reservoirs; and

(7) support fish and wildlife management activities associated with species

protection legislation.

During a typical forecast season, the

NRCS SS&WSF Program issues

approximately 11,400 seasonal water

supply forecasts for 711 locations in 12

Western states. The water supply forecasts are coordinated and peer

reviewed by a number of Federal agencies and cooperators to ensure the

highest quality and accuracy. Major

cooperators include the Bureau of

Reclamation, Corps of Engineers,

Bonneville Power Authority, state and

local agencies, power utilities, irrigation districts, Tribal Nations, the

Provincial Government of British

Columbia, the Yukon Territory and

Mexico. The primary users of this

information include agricultural,

municipal, industrial, hydropower, and

recreation organizations. Recent Federal legislation related to endangered

species protection has placed increased

emphasis on timely and accurate forecasts.

The NWCC web site provides snow

data, analyses, and forecasts efficiently

to approximately 80,000 users. The

web site experiences over 2.4 million

accesses per month during the snow

season.

DROUGHT ASSESSMENT

The SS&WSF Program provides a

variety of climate and water supply

products that are used to assess western U.S. drought. These include SNOTEL snow pack and precipitation

analysis in the mountains, water supply forecasts, and state Surface Water

Supply Indexes (SWSI). These products are critical to the weekly production of the interagency Drought Monitor web-based report. A cooperative,

nationwide network of 108 Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN) sites

in 39 states monitors soil temperatures

and soil moisture to support national

drought monitoring, production agriculture, and climate change research.

CLIMATE INFORMATION

NRCS provides climate data and

products that directly support agriculture and conservation activities nationwide. Digital maps of monthly and

annual precipitation and temperature

for the U.S. are available from the

NWCC web site (Figure 3-USDA-5).

To meet the needs for real-time climate

in formation and analysis, the

SS&WSF program and the NOAA climate program are sponsoring the

Applied Climate Information System

(ACIS). ACIS is an internet-based climate data delivery system that provides the NRCS field offices, USDA,

and partners with internet access to

thousands of climate data sets collected by scores of Federal, state, and

county networks. To support agricultural modeling efforts, the NWCC is

also providing serially complete (i.e.,

no missing data values) temperature

and precipitation data for approximately 11,000 climate stations nationwide. NRCS long range planning is

supported by the Generation of

weather Elements for Multiple (GEM)
SECTION 3 USDA 177

applications model, which has been

used to generate future climate data

sets for more than 250 locations

nationwide. GEM is being integrated

with several NRCS environmental

models. Monthly precipitation averages and growing season length information required for wetlands analysis

are also available from the NWCC web

site at over 6,000 locations in the

United States, plus Guam and Puerto

Rico. Finally, wind roses for 237

NWS stations in the United States, plus

offices in Guam and Puerto Rico are

now available from the NWCC web

site. A wind rose gives a very succinct

but information-laden view of how

wind speed and direction are typically

distributed at a particular location.

Wind roses are useful planning tools

for agricultural and natural resource

planning.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

SERVICE

Research in this area focuses on how

annual variation in weather impacts

crop and animal production, soil erosion, irrigation scheduling, water availability, fate and transport of pollutants,

and the environmental and economic

sustainability of agricultural enterprises. Scientists are developing algorithms and decision support systems

for the development of a stochastic

storm-generator model and methodology to use contemporary weather radar

systems to determine rainfall amounts

and the spatial distribution and variability in precipitation associated with

individual storms. Scientists are working on incorporating weather information and climate forecasts to improve

irrigation scheduling and water use

efficiency across the western U.S.

Research in conjunction with NRCS

and NASA is being conducted to map

snow packs and predict water yield in

the western U.S. The ARS watershed

network is partnering with the NRCS

in measuring and reporting soil temperature and moisture (Soil Climate

Analysis Network (SCAN)) in addition

to standard weather variables to help in

Figure 3-USDA-5. Natural Resources Conservation Service Web Site, where digital maps of monthly and annual precipitation and temperature are available.
178 USDA SECTION 3

understanding and forecasting the

impact of drought on crop and forage

production across the nation. Additional research is being conducted to

integrate seasonal forecasts, other

information on extended climate

departures from normal and extreme

events, corresponding agricultural

responses, and associated uncertainties

into planning and management decision aids readily useable by producers.

The research is conducted in collaboration with the NOAA forecast developers.

COOPERATIVE STATE

RESEARCH, EDUCATION AND

EXTENSION SERVICE

Funding from the Cooperative State

Research, Education and Extension

Service (CSREES) supports research

projects that collect and process longterm weather and climatic data and

provide immediate and future use as a

base of information for the projection

and prediction of climatic trends

related to environmental impacts of

human activities, soils, crops and

domestic animals on agroecosystems,

forest, and rangelands. Broader areas

of study involve climatic dynamics,

carbon and water cycling, and their

role in global change. The impact of

changes in UV and ozone level studies

also fit into this broad global category.

Historical climatic changes are

related to trends visible from present

data gathering studies, enabling prediction of future crop production and

irrigation needs. CSREES funding

supports studies on the impact of climate and weather on food and fiber

production. These studies relate to forest plant growth, rangeland productivity, cropping system selection and livestock production practices.

Man's impact on climate systems is

also well represented in studies of both

micro- and macro-climatic change.

These involve studies dealing with the

climatic impact of changes in air quality, water quality and point/non-point

pollution related to agricultural practices and forest and urban development. Studies on climatic impact on

nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration are supported with CSREES

funds. Research is also being supported that quantifies the impact of climate change on the incidence and

severity of plant and animal diseases

and pests, invasive species, and biodiversity.

The National Research Initiative

(NRI) has funded a wide variety of

weather and climate research. Topics

have varied from a number of fundamental plant drought tolerance studies

to using meteorological data to forecast market performance. Much of the

support in this area is also focused on

climate change. The NRI has also

funded research on how land changes

have influenced climate and vice

versa.
SECTION 3 DOE 179

OVERVIEW OF DOE AND NNSA

OPERATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL PROGRAMS AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Recognition of the need for site-specific meteorological services began in

1944, with the development, fabrication, and testing of atomic weapons

and their accompanying national security and safety issues. In response to

this need, the Department of Energy

(DOE) and its predecessors, the

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), and the

current National Nuclear Security

Administration (NNSA), have established and supported operational meteorological programs and atmospheric

research projects at many DOE and

NNSA field offices.

Operational meteorological program

requirements were subsequently augmented, starting in the late-1960's, by

the passage of environmental protection legislation under the Clean Air Act

(CAA), enforced by the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) under 40

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

enabling regulations, and reinforced by

several DOE directives (e.g., DOE O

5400.1) that specify requirements for

meteorological services to protect

facility worker health and safety, public health and safety, and the environment. Since that time, the CAA has

been amended on three occasions, each

time including broader requirements,

inclusive of stratospheric ozone protection regulations. Consequently, an

effectively managed meteorological

monitoring program has become an

even more essential component of

operations at each DOE and NNSA

site.

Moreover, the acquisition of quality

assured meteorological data, the provision of weather forecasting services,

and the development of site-specific

climatology from these meteorological

programs is an important element of a

DOE Integrated Safety Management

System (ISMS) that significantly contributes to the implementation of sitewide personnel safety programs and

supports multiple evaluations. These

evaluations include, but are not limited

to the following:

• Protection of facility workers and

the public;

• Development of nuclear and

chemical safety documentation (e.g.,

Safety Analysis Reports);

• Diagnostic and prognostic consequence assessment elements of emergency management programs;

• Preparation of air and surface

water permits to support environmental compliance activities; and,

• Impact analyses for construction,

operation and decommissioning of

projects, and missions requiring

National Environmental Protection Act

(NEPA) determinations.

DOE and NNSA continue to address

their fundamental mission areas of

national security, science and technology, energy security, and environmental clean up of cold war production

sites. Meteorology and atmospheric

science contributes to many of these

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY AND NATIONAL NUCLEAR SECURITY

ADMINISTRATION (NNSA) OPERATIONAL AND RESEARCH

WEATHER PROGRAMS

For almost 60 years, the Department of Energy (DOE) and its predecessors, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), have established

and supported meteorological operations and atmospheric research at the DOE field facilities. The need

for meteorological services began in 1944 with the development, fabrication, and testing of atomic

weapons and their accompanying national security and safety issues. Meteorological program requirements were subsequently augmented, starting in the late-1960's, by the passage of environmental protection legislation under the Clean Air Act, which is enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) under 40 CFR enabling regulations, and reinforced by several DOE Orders that specify requirements for meteorological services to protect public health and safety and the environment. Consequently, a meteorological monitoring program has become an even more essential component of each DOE site. Moreover, the acquisition of qualityassured meteorological data and the provision of weather forecasting services is an important element of a DOE Integrated Safety Management System (ISMS). It significantly contributes to the implementation of site-wide personnel

safety programs along with site evaluations. These evaluations include, but are not limited to the following: protection

of facility workers and the public; development of Authorization Basis (AB) safety documentation; diagnostic and prognostic consequence assessment elements of an emergency management system; preparation of permits to support environmental compliance activities; and, impact analyses of construction and operation of projects and missions requiring

National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) determinations.
180 DOE SECTION 3

mission elements. Consequently,

atmospheric science research programs

and weather forecasting operations

have been an integral part of DOE,

NNSA and its predecessor agencies

since World War II. Therefore it is

vital to understand the nature of the

atmospheric domain and its relationship to terrestrial, ocean, and other

environmental domains. Understanding these relationships feeds into the

reduction of uncertainties regarding

climate change research.

DOE and NNSA administer programmatic activities throughout their

various offices, such as the Office of

Science (SC), Environmental Safety

and Health (ES&H), the National

Nuclear Safety Administration

(NNSA), and Environmental Management (EM), in which each has some

linkages to meteorology and atmospheric science. Some of these program

offices are responsible for the management of scientific research programs,

such as the National Atmospheric

Release Advisory Capability

(NARAC), Global Climate Change

Research (GCCR), and various environmental cleanup activities at former

DOE production sites. Additional

activities at DOE and NNSA sites

include support to daily operations and

national defense programs; all of

which require a fundamentally sound

well-managed meteorological monitoring program.

Meteorological services at DOE and

NNSA facilities range from the conduct of cutting-edge basic research to

providing daily support to operational

programs and construction projects.

Some examples of research and development are investigations of potential

global climatic change, radiation transfer mechanisms and cloud studies,

lightning and thunderstorm studies,

atmospheric chemistry, atmospheric

tracer studies, and studies of atmospheric planetary boundary layer

processes. Operational support programs include daily-customized

weather forecasting services, support

to national defense projects and homeland security, on-site meteorological

monitoring programs, climatological

services, occupational health and

safety program support, and emergency management program support.

Some DOE and NNSA sites maintain

a 24-hour weather watch for severe

weather conditions that have the potential to impact site operations, damage

property, or threaten lives. DOE-wide

and NNSA-wide lightning safety initiatives, which are becoming integral

elements of an Integrated Safety Management System (ISMS), are supported by DOE and NNSA operational

meteorological programs (e.g., Nevada

Test Site (NTS), Hanford, Savannah

River Site (SRS), Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory

(INEEL)).

A number of DOE and NNSA field

offices and their associated sites and

facilities cover large areas (e.g.,

INEEL, Oak Ridge Reservation

(ORR), NTS, Hanford, and SRS). In

addition, several DOE and NNSA sites

are situated in areas of complex topography and heterogeneous surface characteristics (e.g., land-water interface),

creating mesoscale conditions that

locally influence on-site weather and

more importantly, airflow trajectories

associated with atmospheric transport

and dispersion. This is why DOE originated a research program addressing

Atmospheric Studies in Complex Terrain (ASCOT) during the eighties and

early nineties to address emergency

response issues in complex terrain

environments at the various DOE sites.

For these reasons, and to ensure the

protection of public health and safety

and the environment, on-site meteorological monitoring programs have

been, remain, and will always be an

essential part of DOE and NNSA

atmospheric science programs. Moreover, partnerships have been forged

with other Federal agencies (i.e.,

Department of Commerce (DOC) via

its National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)) to leverage

research resources addressing complementary mission areas.

Some DOE and NNSA sites enhance

the spatial resolution of the National

Weather Service (NWS) observing network by taking standard surface and

upper-air observations. Many of these

sites are in remote areas where NWS

and community weather observations

would otherwise be limited. Weather

observations taken at a few DOE and

NNSA field sites are entered into the

database via the NWS meteorological

data distribution and display system.

This distribution and display system

interconnects field offices and serves

as the distribution system for NWS

meteorological products that are centrally produced by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction

(NCEP). Some DOE and NNSA sites

(e.g., NOAAAir Resources Laboratory

(ARL)/Special Operations and

Research Division (SORD), Las

Vegas, NV) employ the NOAA

Advanced Weather Information Processing System (AWIPS), as well as

vertical profilers and meteorological

monitoring networks.

An accidental release of radioactive,

chemical, or biological toxic material

into the atmosphere can have potentially serious health effects, as well as

environmental consequences. Meteorological transport and dispersion

processes play a key role in determining the fate of radioactive, chemical, or

biological agents released into the

atmosphere; including those resulting

from malevolent acts. Consequently, a

central theme within the DOE and

NNSA community has been to protect

public health, safety, and the environment on and around DOE and NNSA

facilities by accurately measuring and

characterizing the important local

atmospheric processes necessary to

characterize atmospheric transport and

dispersion.

In recognition of the aforementioned
SECTION 3 DOE 181

needs and requirements, DOE and

NNSA have established and continue

to support on-site meteorological monitoring programs since the commissioning of an operational meteorological program in 1944 at Hanford. Each

meteorological program contributes to

the support of emergency management

programs and focuses on the protection

of the environment and the safety and

health of the on-site work force and the

public. In addition, research on the

modeling of the transport, dispersion,

deposition, and resuspension of

radioactive, chemical, and biological

agent materials is undertaken to refine

the transport and dispersion models

used in these endeavors. New remote

sensing techniques are being developed, such as the "Best" Aircraft Turbulence probe at the ARL Field

Research Division (FRD), in Idaho

Falls, ID. On-site weather forecasting

services, each tailored specifically for

the special operational and emergency

management requirements at each

DOE and NNSA site, provide necessary support to the safety and health

programs designed to protect site personnel, the public, and the environment.

Over the years, operational and

research meteorological programs

have grown to address and support

many environmental, safety, and health

issues. Due to the complexity of activities, it was recognized that efforts

should be made to coordinate meteorological operations and research among

the field offices to enhance cost effectiveness and productivity. To address

these considerations, the DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council

(DMCC) was formed in 1994, and has

been providing support to DOE and

NNSA meteorological programs for 10

years. The following narrative highlights meteorological activities at 15

separate DOE and NNSA sites. The

activities are subdivided into operational and research components. The

DMCC narrative is the last entry signifying the importance of this program in

alleviating meteorological and safety

coordination across the DOE sites.

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY (ANL)

Operational

Argonne National Laboratory (ANL)

is one of DOE's largest research centers. It is also the nation's first national

laboratory, chartered in 1946. ANL is

managed and operated by the University of Chicago (UC) for the DOE

Chicago Operations Office. Argonne

occupies two sites, designated as ANLEast in Illinois and ANL-West in

Idaho. The Illinois site is surrounded

by forest preserve on 1,500 wooded

acres about 25 miles southwest of

Chicago's Loop. The site also houses

the DOE Chicago Operations Office.

Argonne-West occupies about 900

acres about 50 miles west of Idaho

Falls in the Snake River Valley. It is

the home of most of the ANL major

nuclear reactor research facilities.

There are three divisions, Environmental Research (ER), Decision and

Information Sciences (DIS) and Environmental Assessment (EAD) at ANL

with meteorological research or operational program support. Two crossdivisional groups are involved in these

programs at ANL: the Atmospheric

Research Section (ARS) and the

Atmospheric Emergency Preparedness

(AEP) Group. The ARS is composed

of scientist with research activities in

both basic and applied science; particular technical strengths are in the areas

of air-surface exchange, remote sensing, atmospheric chemistry, and

numerical modeling. About half of the

ARS support is currently devoted to

activities associated with the DOE

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement

(ARM) Program. The AEP is composed of scientists and engineers in

two divisions involved in programs

with a greater emphasis on applied science. Particular technical strengths

include air pollution meteorology,

emergency preparedness and response,

and stochastic systems simulations.

More than half of the AEP support is

associated with the DOE Protect Critical Infrastructure Program involving

chemical and biological agents.

ARS operates and maintains a 60-

meter meteorological tower and supplies meteorological data for emergency response, facility operations,

and regulatory compliance for ANL

operations. Wind and temperature

measurements are taken at the 10-

meter and 60-meter levels. Real-time

and historical data are available via the

Web (http://gonzalo.er.anl.gov/ANLMET).

Research

As part of a larger program for the

protection of subway systems from terrorist attacks using chemical agents,

AEP Group is installing sonic

anemometers as well as temperature

and pressure sensors in the subway

tunnels of a large urban subway system. These instruments will assist in

the understanding of flows in the tunnels, which are driven by a combination of: 

• The "piston" action of train

motion; and,

• Buoyancy effects and aboveground forcing.

Measurements from these instruments will be correlated with the above

ground measurements to develop and

validate predictive and emergency

response models for flow and dispersion in subway systems.

The AEP group research also focuses

on the analysis of routinely measured

meteorological data to provide atmospheric boundary layer turbulence

information for atmospheric dispersion

calculations. Under the Department of

the Army Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program

(CSEPP), ANL provides support to

improve the collection efficiency and
182 DOE SECTION 3

quality of meteorological data measured at the Army's Demilitarization

towers. The data are used the emergency operation centers in support of

emergency response exercises and for

use in real-time in the event an actual

accident. The goal of the CSEPP support is to improve the accuracy and

robustness of the data obtained from

the meteorological monitoring stations

and to develop unified quality control

and analyses procedures of the data

collected by the towers.

Key support is also provided to

Department of Transportation (DOT)

in applying an ANL-developed 5-year

meteorological database for over 100

locations in the U.S. to conduct statistical analyses of hazardous materials

incidents on a national basis. Recent

work for DOT has centered on development of the Table of Initial Isolation

and Protective Action Distances for the

2000 Emergency Response Guidebook.

Protective Action Distances are given

in the Table for over 200 toxic-byinhalation chemicals and generic compounds for both daytime and nighttime

accidents, and represent the safe distance for 90 percent of hazardous

materials transportation accidents considering variability in meteorology and

spill size. Recent work for DOT has

also involved conducting national risk

assessments for transportation of certain high volume toxic chemicals like

chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride

and sulfur dioxide.

The Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Experiments (ABLE) is one of several

DOE supported research programs

conducted by the ARS (Figure 3-DOE1). ABLE is located on the lower Walnut Watershed, mostly in Butler

County east of the city of Wichita, KS.

This location is within the existing

boundaries of the DOE ARM Southern

Great Plains (SGP) Clouds and Radiation Test-bed (CART) site. The establishment of this facility offers a virtual

atmospheric observatory and provides

essential research tools for addressing

a myriad of unresolved fundamental

questions in atmospheric research.

The ABLE provides a continuous view

of processes in the lower atmosphere

over a limited domain within the SGP

CART site.

The initial focus of ABLE is measurement of the planetary boundary

layer (PBL) where almost all interactions between the atmosphere and

humans take place. Many scientific

issues may be addressed by use of such

a facility, including:

• Natural disaster reduction and

public safety;

• Safe and efficient aviation and

other transportation;

• Agriculture;

• Water resource management;

• Effective energy production, use

and environmental protection;

• Space flight operations;

• Defense; and,

• Related areas of Earth Science.

Instrumentation at the ABLE site

includes winds, temperatures, moisture, surface net radiation and soil

moisture as the minimum set of atmospheric observations.

The initial set of equipment, which is

available at ABLE includes:

• Three 915 MHz RWP-RASS

(wind speed and direction, virtual temperature profiles);

• Three minisodars (wind and turbulence profiles between heights of 10 m

and 200 m);

• One lidar ceilometer (cloud base

height);

• One balloon-borne sounding sys- Figure 3-DOE-1. DOE Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (ABLE) site

locations in the Midwest.
SECTION 3 DOE 183

tem (wind, temperature, moisture profiles);

• Five surface flux stations (surface

sensible and latent heat, ground heat

storage);

• Five soil moisture sampling stations (soil moisture, soil temperature);

• One satellite data receiver-processor;

• One data hub/central location for

data collection; and,

• One (extra) instrument pad for visiting scientist instrument accommodation.

BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY (BNL)

Operational

The BNL, under the responsibility of

the Brookhaven Area Office, has been

active in both operational meteorology

and atmospheric sciences for the past

50 years. BNL is now managed by

Brookhaven Science Associates, which

is a joint venture by Battelle Memorial

Institute Incorporated, The Research

Foundation of the State University of

New York at Stony Brook, and six

other core university partners. Meteorological operations and research cover

a wide range of programs encompassing interpretive and theoretical studies.

BNL is located near the geographical

center of Long Island, New York.

Long Island is glacial in origin and, as

a result, has sandy soil, mostly gentle

undulating contours, and a single water

aquifer for the entire island. Elevations vary between 20 meters and 35

meters. The BNL site is rectangular

and approximately 5,200 acres in area.

Winds are predominantly southwesterly, and plume dispersion studies

show that it is essential to monitor

winds well beyond laboratory borders.

The New York City NWS Weather

Forecast Office is located at BNL.

This office has an umbrella of coverage that includes an estimated population of one million. Nearby, in

Bohemia, is the NWS Eastern

Regional Headquarters that administers a 12-state region.

The mesoscale meteorological measurements necessary for emergency

response are the responsibility of the

Meteorological Services Group, a support group under the Department of

Applied Science, Environmental Biology and Instrumentation Division

(EBID).

The Meteorological Services Group

maintains two meteorological towers,

10-meter and 88-meter, and an instrument shelter. By integrating redundant

pairs of standard, approved meteorological sensors throughout the system,

an overall data availability of better

than 99 percent is achieved. The realtime data are merged into the laboratory emergency response network. A

database of 50 years (in digital format

since 1960), one of the longest continuous meteorological time series in the

U.S., is archived and is available. A

real-time monitoring network with

worldwide web access covers the eastern end of Long Island. Coastal

weather stations at Smith Point and

Orient Point transmit data each minute.

Pollution-monitoring data buoys are

added during field programs.

The Meteorological Services Group

provides a locally tuned forecast twice

daily during normal working hours.

Weather forecasts and data are available by telephone or the Internet

(www.weather.bnl.gov). During

severe weather events updates are

given every three hours and, in the case

of a hazardous material or radiological

release, a member of the Meteorological Services Group will assist the

emergency coordinator with regular

forecasts and information on local

wind fields and gustiness.

Research

Areas of meteorological research at

BNL include:

• Instrumentation development for

field studies of atmospheric constituents, air-sea interaction, and laboratory experiments;

• Gaseous tracer studies of atmospheric transport and dispersion;

• Aerosol formation and behavior;

• Atmospheric pollution studies

• Modeling of atmospheric chemical

reactions;

• Acid rain studies both in the field

and in the laboratory;

• Theoretical and observational

studies of radiation transfer and fluxes;

and,

• Analysis of data and development

of parameterizations relevant to global

climate change.

The ARM Program provides the

stimulus for a wide range of climaterelated studies. The ARM ocean monitoring program is developing instrumentation and a broad ship- and buoybased observational network in the

tropical western Pacific Ocean. The

Atmospheric Chemistry Program

(ACP) supports the Atmospheric

Chemistry Division's (ACD) concern

with aerosol sources, transport, and

fate in the global atmosphere and the

overall, and the little understood,

impact of aerosols on global climate

dynamics. The ARM External Data

Center is the center for collection,

archival, and dissemination of all climate-related data sets for the ARM

program.

An exciting new effort in radar meteorology focuses on algorithms for

cloud detection and cloud mapping

using both the WSR-88D radar network and research radar. BNL is a site

in the National Aeronautical and Space

Administration (NASA) Solar Irradiance Network and continuous short

wave absorption measurements are
184 DOE SECTION 3

made here. In a related NASA study,

oceanic aerosol optical depths are

measured and used to validate absorption algorithms in the SeaWiFS ocean

color program.

The Optical Remote Sensing (ORS)

group within the Department of

Advanced Technology (DAT) is

presently modifying one of its Raman

lidar systems for vertical profiling of

carbon dioxide. The Raman lidar

instrument is a self-calibrating sensor

that means that data from a variety of

locations in the world can be compared. With the incorporation of a

large (1.25 m) antenna and advanced

filters and detectors, a vertical profile

of CO2 concentration with a precision

of 1 part per million (ppm) (Note:

atmospheric mean = 370 ppm) and

maximum height of two to three km

can be produced routinely. These profiles will support model development

and validation. Importantly, comparison of CO2 concentrations collected

throughout the world and over time

will prove invaluable in confirming

adherence to the Kyoto protocols.

HANFORD SITE

Operational

Beginning in 1944, meteorological

services have been provided to the

Hanford Site. The Hanford Site is an

area of 560 square miles within the

semi-arid and sparsely vegetated

Columbia River basin in southeastern

Washington near Richland, Washington. Since 1965, the Pacific Northwest

National Laboratory (PNNL) operated

for the Department of Energy (DOE)

by the Battelle Memorial Institute, has

managed the Hanford Site meteorological program. Not only has operational

support been provided, but also supporting research into atmospheric

processes has been a key part of the

PNNL support to DOE. Within PNNL,

the Environmental Technology Directorate provides day-to-day operational

meteorological and emergency

response support to the Hanford site.

Through funding from DOE, the

PNNL Meteorological and Climatological Services Project (MCSP) provides meteorological monitoring and

operational support to the Hanford

Site. The monitoring system consists

of an array of 26 10-meter towers,

three 60-meter towers and one 125-

meter tower instrumented with temperature and wind direction and wind

speed sensors (Figure 3-DOE-2).

Atmospheric pressure and precipitation data are also collected by this

monitoring system. Meteorological

data from this network is transmitted

via UHF radio to a computer, which

decodes the data and plots graphics

products for immediate display and use

by Hanford Meteorological Station

personnel.

Meteorological services include

emergency response functions,

weather forecasting for on-site operations and special projects, and climatology support. MCSP support to the

Hanford site includes: extensive data

acquisition via a site-wide meteorological monitoring network; weather forecasting services 24-hours/day during

Monday through Friday; weather forecasting services eight-hours/day on

weekends and holidays; hourly surface

observations, and six-hourly synoptic

observations; monthly and annual climatology data summaries; and, meteorological input to annual environmental reports.

PNNL atmospheric sciences staff

operate meteorological, atmospheric

transport and dispersion and dose

assessment, and information display

workstations at the Hanford Site's

Emergency Operations Center (EOC).

Atmospheric sciences staff are

involved in facility planning, exercise

development, and training activities

for Hanford's emergency preparedness

program. Assistance is also provided

to state and local emergency operations facilities. PNNL staff members

have developed MetView software to

graphically display Hanford Site and

regional meteorological data to support

a variety of emergency preparedness

and research applications. Staff members have also developed the Air Pollutant Graphical Environmental Monitoring System (APGEMS)-family of

software products to improve the ability to rapidly and accurately estimate

the atmospheric transport and dispersion and human health and environ-
mental consequences of accidental or

unexpected releases on or near the

Hanford Site. The flexible user interface and graphical output capabilities

of APGEMS allow it to efficiently support a range of users including first

responders, experienced hazard assessors, and decision makers.

Research

The Fundamental Sciences Directorate conducts research into meteorological, climatological, and atmospheric chemical processes in support

of other major DOE programs such as

the Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM) program and the Atmospheric Science Program (ASP).

PNNL plays both management and

developmental roles in the ARM program which is focused on the development of cloud and radiation databases

and data products that are critical to

improved understanding of global and

regional climate change and the

improvement of climate research and

prediction models. In addition to of its

roles in ARM, PNNL also conducts

research into the processes affecting

radiation transfer through the atmosphere and the effects of greenhouse

gases, aerosols, and clouds on regional

and global climate. The PNNL Atmospheric Remote Sensing Laboratory is a

portable system for studying the vertical structure of atmospheric constituents, particularly clouds, which

govern radiation transfer through the

atmosphere. Capabilities of the Environmental and Molecular Sciences

Laboratory (EMSL) are used to conduct molecular level research into

aerosol formulation and aging. Carbon

dioxide emissions research is aimed at

providing a scientific basis for forecasting future emissions of carbon

dioxide and other gases of radiative

importance.

In support of the ASP, PNNL uses

ground-based and airborne measurements systems, numerical and conceptual modeling, and data analysis to

conduct research into the vertical

transport and mixing processes that

govern the distribution in the lower

troposphere of trace gases and aerosols

released during energy production or

use and on chemical processes that

govern the transformation and fate of

gaseous and particulate pollutants.

PNNL manages the DOE Research

Aircraft Facility, a Gulfstream 159

twin turboprop aircraft that supports

research in atmospheric chemistry,

radiation transfer, and aerosol characteristics for DOE.

A hierarchy of atmospheric dispersion models is being developed within

DOE's Chemical Biological National

Security Program (CBNP) covering

transport distances ranging from

around individual buildings, through

the urban area and beyond the urban

area into the surrounding region.

These models will allow individuals in

intelligence, law enforcement and

emergency management to adequately

plan against, train for and respond to

potential terrorist attacks. PNNL scientists, in collaboration with other

government and private scientists, are

conducting atmospheric tracer and

meteorological field studies for evaluating the models being developed

within CBNP. The field studies will

provide valuable information to all

investigating urban dispersion, urban

air quality and atmospheric transport

and dispersion in general.

IDAHO NATIONAL ENGINEERING

AND ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY (INEEL)

Operational

INEEL is managed by the Idaho

Operations Office and is on 890 square

miles of rolling, arid terrain in southeastern Idaho at the foot of the Lost

River and Lemhi mountain ranges.

The primary mission of the INEEL for

years has been nuclear reactor research

with a focus on cleanup and environmental restoration. Meteorological

services and supporting research are

provided to INEEL via NOAA ARL

Field Research Division (FRD). The

Division, under administration from

various agencies, has provided support

to INEEL for over 50 years. Its current

mission to DOE/ID is to support emergency response and operations with

real-time meteorological data, climatology data, weather predictions, dispersion calculations, and consultation.

ARL FRD maintains other capabilities

that are not funded directly by DOE.

ARL FRD designs, arranges, and conducts field studies as needed to evaluate the performance of transport and

dispersion models over local, regional,

and continental scales, and to obtain

high quality databases for model

improvement. An airborne geosciences program is also maintained to

measure fluxes of carbon dioxide,

water vapor, and other atmospheric

constituents that affect climate. These

SECTION 3 DOE 185

Figure 3-DOE-2. Meteorological

towers record temperature and wind

direction and speed at various levels.
186 DOE SECTION 3

interactions provide ARL FRD staff

with additional insights that aid in the

understanding of local meteorological

phenomena.

ARL FRD operates a large meteorological monitoring network to characterize the meteorology and climatology

of the INEEL site. The network consists of 33 meteorological towers that

are deployed both on-site and off-site.

The overall meteorological measurement program is designed to provide

representative data for the INEEL to

meet specific operational and potential

emergency response situations. The

network covers an area of approximately 15,000 square miles. Many of

the towers are 15-meters tall and provide wind speed and direction at 15-

meters and air temperature at 2-meters

and 15-meters. Instrumentation on 15

of the 15-meter towers also measure

relative humidity at 2-meters, precipitation, and global solar radiation.

Barometric pressure is provided on 11

of the towers. The other three towers

range from 46-meters to 76-meters in

height and are instrumented at multiple

levels. The sensors at all stations are

scanned every second and averaged or

totaled over five minutes.

The data are subsequently retrieved

into the data display and archive system at the ARL/FRD office through a

radio repeater located at an elevation

of 8,930 ft MSL. Continuous wind and

temperature profiles are obtained from

a 915 MHz radar wind profiler and

RASS. A Doppler SODAR supplements the wind profile at lower levels

with higher resolution data. Meteorological data are quality-controlled

through automated and manual

processes.

INEEL meteorological monitoring

and emergency response efforts are

enhanced with the use of an ARL FRD

meteorological data display and visualization program known as INEELViz.

This program has been widely

deployed at 50 sites on and around the

INEEL for access by Federal, state,

and Indian tribes via the Internet.

Within INEELViz, meteorological

data are displayed in real-time and

overlaid on maps of the local area that

include political and terrain features.

In addition, the local MDIFF puff dispersion model can be accessed through

the INEELViz front-end and the model

output can be displayed as trajectories

or concentration isopleths on the

INEELViz display screen. The incorporation of RSAC dose conversions

permits the user to also view real-time

dose estimates from the model output.

These features have become very useful enhancements to the INEEL emergency response capability.

Research

Partnerships forged with DOE/ID,

the State of Idaho INEEL Oversight

Program, and the Shoshone-Bannock

Indian Tribes have resulted in additional methods of meteorological data

dissemination. Meteorological and

background nuclear radiation data

from four public access sites on and

surrounding the INEEL are displayed

at nearby kiosks in real-time. Additional information on nuclear radiation

and meteorological tutorials are presented at the kiosks. The data are also

available on the Internet at http://oversite.inel.gov. ARL FRD maintains its

own web site at www.noaa.inel.gov.

LAWRENCE LIVERMORE

NATIONAL LABORATORY (LLNL)

Operational

LLNL is located in a valley in California's Coast Range Mountains about

25 miles east of Oakland. LLNL covers approximately 2 square miles and

is operated by the University of California for the DOE Oakland Operations Office. Two groups are involved

in the atmospheric sciences at LLNL:

1. Environmental Protection Department (EPD); and,

2. Atmospheric Sciences Division

(ASD).

EPD operates a 40m tower and supplies meteorological data for facility

operations, regulatory compliance, and

emergency response. Real-time and

historical data are available at

http://www-metdat.llnl.gov/.

The National Atmospheric Release

Advisory Center (NARAC) is a centralized emergency response resource

supporting Federal agencies

(http://narac.llnl.gov/). The mission of

NARAC is to deliver realistic real-time

graphical dose and exposure assessments to emergency decision-makers

to assist in the protection of populations at risk for releases of radiological

and other hazardous material to the

atmosphere (Figure 3-DOE-3).

NARAC has developed specific tools

to assist elements of the DOE Consequence Management assets, including

the Nuclear Emergency Search Team

(NEST), Accident Response Group

(ARG), Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (FRMAC)

(http://www.nv.doe.gov/programs/frm

ac/default.htm), and the Radiological

Assistance Program (RAP). Under

DOE direction, NARAC supports

National Special Security Events, such

as the winter 2002 Olympics. NARAC

also supports DOE sites and Emergency Operations Centers around the

U.S. (http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/).

NARAC's central emergency

response system consists of automated

continuous worldwide meteorological

data acquisition, detailed worldwide

terrain and geographic mapping databases, a suite of atmospheric dispersion models and source models to

assess explosions, fires, spills, or other

types of radiological, chemical, biolog-
SECTION 3 DOE 187

ical releases. The system includes a

high-resolution, terrain-following,

variable-gridded diagnostic meteorological model (ADAPT) and a prognostic model with parameterizations

for urban settings (COAMPS) coupled

with a generalized Lagrangian particle

dispersion model (LODI).

A staff of NARAC emergency

response model experts provides a 24-

hour response service. To minimize

response time, NARAC has developed

and supplied over 40 Federal facilities

around the U.S. with software that performs meteorological data acquisition,

local-scale stand-alone modeling, and

reaches back to LLNL for detailed

simulations. NARAC mapped products are delivered in 5-10 minutes for a

computer-linked site and up to 60 minutes for a non-computer-linked site.

Supported sites and organizations can

use the client-server-based NARAC

iClient tool (for heavy modelers) or

NARAC Web (for light modelers)

tools to run models and seamlessly distribute products to multiple organizations over the world wide web.

The Regional Modeling and Dispersion Group is investigates regional

scale processes affecting dispersion.

This group works with the Urban

Group to with the goal of developing a

seamless set of validated diagnostic

and prognostic tools from the building

to urban to regional scales. In collaboration with LANL, LLNL developed a

prototype prediction capability to

assist in multi-agency smoke and fire

management of wildfires.

Research

Scientists in the Atmospheric Science Division (ASD)

(http://asd.llnl.gov/ ) at LLNL perform

pioneering research on global climate

and chemistry and predict the local,

urban, regional, and global transport

and fate of hazardous and toxic pollutants. Research is focused on major

national energy and security policy

issues and is based primarily on development and use of advanced computational simulations of the atmosphere,

oceans, and biosphere.

ASD conducts research in four areas:

• Atmospheric hazards and consequence assessment;

• Atmospheric transport & fate;

• Carbon cycle and climate model

physics; and,

• Climate change & model evaluation.

ASD Major Programs Include:

• Program for Climate Model Diagnosis & Intercomparison (PCMDI);

• Institute for Research on Climate

Change & Its Societal Impacts

(IRCCSI); and,

• NARAC Programs and the

National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (NARAC).

PCMDI's mission is to develop

improved methods and tools for the

diagnosis, validation, and intercomparison of global climate models, and to

conduct research on a variety of problems in climate modeling and analysis

(http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov/).

The mission of IRCCSI is to improve

understanding of climate change and

its societal impacts, by facilitating collaborations between the University of

California-operated DOE laboratories

(i.e., LANL, LLNL, and LBNL) and

University of California campuses

(http://irccsi.llnl.gov/). In particular,

DOE plans to try to link the Laboratories' capabilities in high-end climate

modeling and climate science with the

expertise in regional climate and societal impacts issues resident at the University of California campuses.

NARAC is a centralized emergency

response service supporting Federal

agencies (http://narac.llnl.gov/). The

mission of NARAC is to deliver realistic real-time graphical dose and exposure assessments to emergency decision-makers to assist in the protection

of populations at risk for releases of

radiological and other hazardous material to the atmosphere. NARAC Programs have developed specific tools to

assist elements of the DOE Consequence Management assets, including

the Nuclear Emergency Search Team

(NEST), Accident Response Group

(ARG), Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (FRMAC)

(http://www.nv.doe.gov/programs/frm

ac/default.htm), and the Radiological

Assistance Program (RAP). Under

DOE direction, NARAC supports

national special security events, such

Figure 3-DOE-3. Each of DOE’s eight Regional Coordinating Offices maintain a 24-hour response capability for radiological emergencies that may occur

in states served by its region.
188 DOE SECTION 3

as the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake

City, UT, in 2002. NARAC also supports DOE sites and Emergency Operations Centers around the U.S.

(http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/).

The NARAC central emergency

response system consists of automated

continuous worldwide meteorological

data acquisition, detailed worldwide

terrain and geographic mapping databases, a suite of atmospheric dispersion models and source models to

assess explosions, fires, spills, or other

types of radiological, chemical, biological releases. The system includes a

high-resolution, terrain-following,

variable-gridded diagnostic meteorological model (ADAPT) and a prognostic model with parameterizations

for urban settings (COAMPS) coupled

with a generalized Lagrangian particle

dispersion model (LODI).

A staff of NARAC emergency

response model experts provides a 24-

hour response service. To minimize

response time, NARAC has developed

and supplied over 40 Federal facilities

around the U.S. with software that performs meteorological data acquisition,

local-scale stand-alone modeling, and

reaches back to LLNL for detailed simulations. NARAC mapped products

are delivered in 5-10 minutes for a

computer-linked site and up to 60 minutes for a non-computer-linked site.

Supported sites and organizations can

use the client-server-based NARAC

iClient tool (for modeling specialists)

or NARAC Web tools to run models and

seamlessly distribute products to multiple organizations over the worldwide

web.

One of the shared goals of the last

three groups is to develop new tools

useful to emergency response operations, a key focus area at LLNL since

the mid 1970's.

The urban Research & Development

effort is developing a coupled suite of

multi-scale dispersion models to effectively respond to urban releases. LLNL

was a co-leader of the Joint Urban

2003 (i.e., JU2003) field study in

Oklahoma City, OK, the largest most

complex urban tracer experiment performed to date. The Pacific Northwest

National Laboratory (PNNL) was the

overall leader, while LLNL, LANL,

LBNL were co-Principal Investigators.

JU2003 was supported by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the

Defense Threat Reduction Agency

(DTRA) and the Department of

Defense (DOD). Data from this study

is being used to identify key urban

physics and to evaluate NARAC's suite

of urban models. A new three-year

project has begun to develop a nextgeneration building-scale computational fluid dynamics model.

Examples of on-going operational

integration projects include:
SECTION 3 DOE 189

• Integration of mapping systems for

field measurement, modeling results,

and dose assessment to support DOE

Nuclear Incident Response Team

(NIRT) capabilities (SNL, RSL) -

DOE;

• Enhancement of source term models for radiological, prompt (i.e., blast,

thermal, radiation, explosive effects),

and chemical-biological releases

(SNL) - DOE and DHS;

• Improved dose-response and toxic

load models (Edgewood Chemical and

Biological Center, U.S. Army) - DHS;

• Development of building infiltration models to predict indoor exposures (with LBNL) - DHS;

• Incorporation of an empirical

urban model (Defense Science and

Technology Laboratory, UK) - DHS;

• Meteorological and outdoor dispersion modeling for an operational

subway system - DHS; and,

• Standardization and integration

with the EPA/NOAA

CAMEO/ALOHA toxic chemical

databases and atmospheric dispersion

models - DHS.

LOS ALAMOS NATIONAL LABORATORY (LANL)

Operational

LANL is operated by the University

of California (UC) under the responsibility of the DOE Albuquerque Operations Office (ALOO), and is spread

across 43 square miles of the Pajarito

Plateau at the foot of the Jemez Mountains that extend up to around 900

meters above the plateau. LANL is

about 30 miles northwest of Santa Fe

in north central New Mexico. The

Pajarito Plateau slopes to the eastsoutheast, dropping 400 meters across

the Laboratory, with canyons and

mesas running along the slope of the

plateau. The broad Rio Grande Valley

lies to the east of the laboratory. Los

Alamos has a semi-arid, temperate,

mountain climate.

The operational meteorological program at Los Alamos operates a network of six towers (ranging in height

from 23 meters to 92 meters), a monostatic Doppler SODAR, and three supplemental precipitation stations. Data

from four instrumented meteorological

towers that are located on the Pajarito

plateau drives a diagnostic wind field

for the program's plume modeling

capability. A fifth tower is located in

Los Alamos Canyon to give information on the larger canyons in the area,

and a sixth tower is located on top of

Pajarito Mountain to measure ambient

conditions. The SODAR gives information on winds up to the level of the

Pajarito Mountain tower.

More than 100 instruments, consisting of over 20 different types of sensors, are used to collect data throughout the network. Variables measured

by the program can be grouped into the

categories of wind, SODAR-derived

wind, atmospheric state, precipitationrelated, radiative fluxes, eddy heat

fluxes, subsurface measurements, and

fuel moisture. Data collected by the

network are checked for quality before

its archiving, and raw data and realtime displays of graphs and tables are

made available via the Internet.

The LANL Air Quality Group

(AQG) provides regulatory and environmental surveillance leadership and

services to meet LANL air quality obligations and public assurance needs.

The group develops and implements

programs to ensure and address institutional compliance with state and Federal laws related to air quality regulations, DOE orders for emergency management, air quality surveillance, dose

assessment activities, and community

concerns related to air quality issues.

The group takes a proactive approach

to managing air emissions by providing continuous air monitoring and

measurement of external penetrating

radiation on-site and off-site.

The group also coordinates LANL

activities to ensure full compliance

with air emission regulations, providing monitoring and modeling for emergency response, and assisting operating groups in developing and implementing new methods and systems to

reduce emissions to as low as reasonably achievable. The monitoring capabilities of the AQG are supplemented

by the Atmospheric and Climate Sciences Group (ACSG) field team,

which operates various sensor systems

including a unique Raman lidar system

to obtain images of atmospheric water

vapor distributions.

Research

Research within the LANL ACSG

supports DOE missions in both the

defense and civilian sectors, such as

work in the propagation of very-lowfrequency sound (i.e., infra-sound)

waves. Modeling studies contributed

to understanding of propagation and,

in particular, sources of "infra-sound".

Just as it is possible to infer earthquake

epicenters from seismic wave observations, "infra-sound" sources can be

inferred from atmospheric observations. This work is an important component of monitoring compliance with

the proposed Comprehensive Test Ban

Treaty (CTBT). The CTBT work

involves a number of organizations

within DOE and DOD community,

including interactions with other DOE

laboratories within the CTBT Research

and Development program.

Operational issues involve close

work with the Air Force Technical

Applications Center (AFTAC) at

Patrick AFB, Florida, the DOD organization that handles monitoring systems. In addition, several active international collaborations with other

infrasound researchers are ongoing.

The Meteorology Team within the

ACSG at LANL conducts analysis and

modeling on microscale to mesoscale

atmospheric flows and phenomena. In

support of the DOE CBNP, a model for
190 DOE SECTION 3

High Resolution and Strong Gradient

(HIGRAD) applications is being used

to study the effects of radiative heating

and shading around groups of buildings. The objective of this study is to

determine how these processes may

influence the transport of agents within

the urban environment. On larger

scales, the team is examining the influence of flow merger and urban roughness on the vertical transport and mixing of pollutants with the Regional

Atmospheric Modeling System

(RAMS) for several western U.S. valleys and basins. This project is in support of the DOE Environmental Meteorology Program (EMP) and for the

EPA. As part of the LANL initiative in

Coupled Environmental Modeling,

researchers within the Meteorology

Team are developing a physics-based

fire behavior model, FIRETEC, and

coupling this model to the HIGRAD

atmospheric dynamics code to examine the details of the interaction

between local winds and the intense

heat generated by wildfires. Also as

part of this initiative, a land surface

model is being coupled that includes

hydrologic processes (i.e., SPLASH)

to the RAMS mesoscale model for

multi-seasonal simulations of the water

resources of the upper Rio Grande

Basin.

Meteorology team members are also

working on the LANL Urban Security

project, which is linking physical and

urban growth models to address the

needs of cities. In this framework, we

are using the RAMS model to provide

meteorological fields for use by air

chemistry, urban runoff, and other

models. The meteorology team within

the ACSG conducts analysis and modeling on microscale to mesoscale.

On global scales, research within the

LANL meteorological community

involves the study of climate change

and variability. A major project is the

development of a global coupled

ocean-atmosphere model sponsored by

the DOE Climate Change Prediction

Program. The global model being

developed consists of a Los Alamos

global ocean Global Climate Models

(GCMs) Parallel Ocean Program

(POP), the Los Alamos sea-ice model

(CICE), the National Center for

Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Climate Model (CCM3), and a

"flux coupler" to link the media consistently. The two GCM's and the CICE

model exchange heat, momentum, and

water mass across the air-sea boundary. A ten-year synchronized simulation revealed the synoptic weather

events, seasonal cycles and interannual variations.

Observations related to understanding global climate are the focus of the

Tropical Western Pacific (TWP) Program Office LANL, an element of the

DOE ARM Program. The TWP Program Office is responsible for the

development and operation of the

TWP CART locale, a large expanse of

tropical-ocean and maritime-continent

lying roughly between 10 degrees S

and 10 degrees N latitude and from

135 degrees E to 150 degrees W longitude. The maritime continent area is

largely in the southwest and the open

ocean area in the northeast of the

locale. The local climate is characterized by warm sea surface temperatures, deep and frequent atmospheric

convection, high rain rates, strong coupling between the atmosphere and

ocean, and substantial variability associated with El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon.

Scientific questions that need to be

addressed in the TWP can be grouped

under three main headings:

•. Radiation budget and cloud forcing;

• Water and energy budgets; and,

• Ocean-atmosphere interactions.

The program supports a variety of

operations at LANL. The primary

client of the program is the Emergency

Management Group, for which the

program provides a plume modeling

capability. Other clients use the program's data for such activities as operations and planning, hazard and accident analyses, environmental studies,

support for experiments, compliance,

and documentation.

NEVADA TEST SITE (NTS)

Operational

The NTS is managed and operated

by the National Nuclear Security

Administration/Nevada Site Office

(NNSA/NSO). The NTS has been the

Nations' underground nuclear weapons

testing facility and is now used to support sub-critical experiments and other

national defense missions of the U.S..

The NTS occupies 1,350 square miles

of south central NV and is approximately 75 miles northwest of Las

Vegas, NV. The topography of the

NTS is complex with a system of dry

lakebeds and mountains. Elevations

range from nearly 2,700 feet (ft) above

mean sea level (MSL) to 7,600 ft MSL.

The climate is arid.

Meteorological services are provided

to NNSA/NSO by components of

NOAA. NOAA has had a presence on

the NTS for more than 45 years

through the implementation of Interagency Agreements (IA). During this

time, NOAA personnel have built a

solid technical reputation in meteorological operations and emergency

response. Presently, NOAA support is

provided by Air Resources Laboratory

Special Operations and Research Division (ARL/SORD) recognized for its

expertise in the transport, dispersion,

and deposition of radioactive and toxic

materials (Figure 3-DOE-4).

ARL/SORD has developed a rapid

emergency response capability for the
SECTION 3 DOE 191

unlikely occurrence of an accidental

release of radioactive or hazardous

material into the atmosphere.

ARL/SORD provides full meteorological support to all NNSA/NSO

operations on and off the NTS. Meteorology plays a key role in environmental, safety, and health responsibilities of NNSA/NSO. The ARL/SORD

staff is responsible for conducting a

modern program in support of nuclear

and non-nuclear projects authorized by

NNSA/NSO. Furthermore, the mission of ARL/SORD involves technical

support to the emergency preparedness

and response activities of NNSA/NSO.

ARL/SORD supports a comprehensive

meteorological program on the NTS,

and provides meteorological and climatology services required in supporting the NNSA/NSO and contractor

programs at the NTS, and elsewhere,

as necessary.

Personnel at ARL/SORD also consult with senior scientists and engineers at the DOE National Laboratories, NASA, private contractors,

Desert Research Institute (DRI),

United States Geological Service

(USGS), United States Forest Service

(USFS), and other NOAA laboratories.

ARL/SORD operates and maintains

a large meteorological monitoring network (MEDA) to characterize the

meteorology and climatology of the

NTS. This network consists of 29, 10-

meter towers and 2, 30-meter towers.

Wind direction and speed is measured

at the 10-meter level on all the towers

and temperature and relative humidity

is sampled at the 2-meter level. Data

from these towers are transmitted via

microwave radio to a central processor

that checks the data, creates data files,

and archives the data every 15 minutes.

The data files are accessed by microcomputer to create graphics products

for operational use and for immediate

display at 15-minute intervals. The

MEDA system was upgraded in 2004

to include sonic anemometers.

SORD also operates two, 915MHz

vertical profilers on the NTS. One

tower is located in the middle of Yucca

Flat and the other tower is located at

the Hazardous Materials Spill Center

(HMSC) in Frenchman Flat near Mercury, NV. In addition, a NOAA full

surface radiation (SURFRAD) budget

station is operated and maintained at

the Desert Rock Meteorological

Observatory (DRA) located in the

southern part of the NTS. Upper-air

soundings are taken twice daily, at 00

and 12 Universal Time Coordinated

(UTC) from the DRA facility.

ARL/SORD also operates mobile

upper-air sounding systems and mobile

pilot balloon (PIBAL) equipment to

support special projects requiring

winds aloft data in real-time.

Large-scale meteorological data and

National Center for Environmental

Predictions (NCEP) weather forecast

products are received via AWIPS, or

from the University Center for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) and ARLSilver Spring, MD. Weather products

supplied to DOE contractors, the

National Laboratories (e.g., SNL,

LANL, and LLNL), the NWS, and

Nellis AFB, include real-time cloudto-ground lightning flash graphical

products and local forecast products.

Furthermore, a three-tiered lightning

alert and warning procedure has been

implemented as part of the NTS Integrated Safety Management program.

ARL/SORD has also implemented

the RAMS model for the NTS and

Southern Nevada. This model predicts

boundary layer airflow and precipitation over complex terrain. The RAMS

code accesses the NCEP predictive

Figure 3-DOE-4. Air Resources Laboratory (ARL)/Special Operations and

Research Division (SORD) conducts basic and applied research on problems of

mutual interest to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

and Department of Energy (DOE), that relate to the Nevada Test Site (NTS), its

atmospheric environment, and its emergency preparedness and emergency

response activities.
192 DOE SECTION 3

model outputs and is run twice daily at

the University of Nevada at Las Vegas

(UNLV) Supercomputer Center on a

daily basis. In addition, the NOAA

HYSPLIT/HARM dispersion model

has been installed on microprocessors

in the SORD Meteorological Assessment Center.

ARL/SORD provides meteorological

monitoring support and project-specific weather forecast services to

NEST, FRMAC and ARG activities.

Monitoring support includes surface

and upper-air data collection and

analysis. Weather forecast service

entails maintaining a constant weather

watch for conditions that might impact

NEST, FRMAC, or ARG operations

and personnel, issuing site-specific

mesoscale wind, stability, and weather

forecasts, aviation weather support,

and providing consultation to the OnScene Commander (OSC) and to

National Laboratories personnel.

ARL/SORD maintains a web site

(www.sord.nv.doe.gov) that includes

graphical products that display current

meteorological conditions on and

around the NTS, including data from

ARL/SORD vertical profilers, climatology data, cloud-to-ground lightning

information and time-relevant plume

transport and dispersion calculations.

Research

Both basic and applied research is

carried out on problems of mutual

interest to DOE and to NOAA.

Emphasis is on the maintenance of

meteorological support to national

defense projects and to the stewardship

of nuclear weapons. These capabilities

focus on those facets of meteorology

having a direct bearing on the transport, dispersion, deposition (i.e., fallout), and resuspension of radioactive

and/or toxic materials. Other research

includes documentation and study of

extreme precipitation events, desert

thunderstorms, cloud-to-ground lightning, and environmental issues related

to air quality and visibility. In addition, the SORD program serves as a

test bed for advanced NOAA mesoscale prediction models.

A NOAA Climate Reference Station

was installed at the Desert Rock Meteorological Observatory in April 2004.

OAK RIDGE RESERVATION (ORR)

Operational

The ORR is home to four

DOE/NNSA sites: Oak Ridge National

Laboratory (ORNL), the Y-12 National

Security Complex, the East Tennessee

Technology Park (ETTP, formerly K25 Site), and the Oak Ridge Institute

for Science and Education (ORISE).

Managed by the Oak Ridge Operations

Office (OROO), the ORR encompasses nearly 100 square miles of hilly

and heavily vegetated terrain in eastern

Tennessee.

Formerly known as the Oak Ridge Y12 Plant, and constructed in the early

1940's as part of the Manhattan Project

to manufacture nuclear weapons components, the Y-12 National Security

Complex (NSC) has now assumed a

national security role under NNSA. Y12 is an 811-acre facility located

within the city limits of Oak Ridge,

TN, 10 miles from the ORNL and 12

miles from the ETTP, once known as

the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion

Plant.

Currently operated by BWXT Y-12,

the national security programs at Y-12

include manufacturing and reworking

nuclear weapon components, dismantling nuclear weapon components

returned from the national arsenal,

serving as the nation's safe, secure

storehouse of special nuclear materials, providing the U.S. Navy with safe,

militarily effective nuclear propulsion

systems, and reducing the global threat

from terrorism and weapons of mass

destruction. In early 2004, the Y-12

NSC received, stored and secured a

shipment of Libyan nuclear materials.

Meteorological network systems,

which support day-to-day operations,

are managed and operated at the three

main sites by the University of Tennessee (UT)/Battelle, BWXT Y-12 and

Bechtel Jacobs Company. These network systems provide data that support

environmental management (permitting, facility siting and environmental

impact assessment), facility safety

(safety analyses), emergency management (hazards and consequence assessment), operations (work planning) and

substantial research.

The BWXT Y-12 meteorological

program is operations-, environmentand safety- oriented. Y-12 is located in

the narrow Bear Creek Valley, and it is

bordered by two SW to NE oriented

ridges, mostly covered with mature

pines and hardwoods. Two meteorological towers have long formed the

basis for the meteorological program -

a 100-meter tower, instrumented at 10-

, 30- and 100-meters, located on the

valley floor at the East end of Y-12,

and a 60-meter tower, instrumented at

10-, and 60-meters, located on a ridgeline at the West end. In 2003, the data

acquisition system was upgraded to an

Environmental Systems Corporation

(ESC) Windows-based software package, accessing via Ethernet the ESC

8832 data loggers at the towers. This

data acquisition package is widely

used in air pollution monitoring and in

other environmental compliance applications.

Given the complex terrain setting of

the Y-12 NSC, a REMTECH PA-2

sodar is used to characterize the winds

from 50-meters, extending above the

surrounding ridges to a height of 500-

meters. Redundant Windows XP

polling computers collect 1-hour average sodar data, plus 1-hour, 15-minute,

and 1-minute tower data. Displays of

the 15-minute data are available in the

operations center, in the emergency
SECTION 3 DOE 193

centers (including the State EOC), and

on an internal web page for general

use. For real-time emergency response

modeling purposes, 15-minute data is

also routed to the NARAC meteorological database, and to a specially-formatted file on the Y-12 EOC modeling

computers. There, it is accessible by

the local chemical model, CHARM®,

a commercially available 3-D grid

model with an extensive chemical

database and source term modeling

features. For most other modeling

needs, the NARAC iClient model is

used at Y-12, where the ridge-valley

and generally complex terrain setting

has represented a prototype test and

demonstration site for 3-D wind field

and terrain models.

There is no on-site weather forecasting service at Y-12, but since it is in the

city limits of Oak Ridge, representative forecasts are readily available

from the local media, the national network services, and the Internet. Local

severe weather advisories and warnings are issued by the nearby NWS

Office at Morristown, TN, and they are

received and disseminated by the Plant

Shift Superintendent's (PSS) Office at

Y-12. Also available to the PSS is a

subscription weather and doppler radar

service, as well as lightning detection

and prediction equipment. The Y-12

Meteorologist and a Systems (Hardware/Software) Engineer maintain the

program, train and assists others, as

needed.

The meteorological data acquisition

program at ETTP has two main towers.

K-1209 is 60 meters high while K1208 is 30 meters in height. In addition, two 10-meter supplemental towers are still operating. Lastly, a

NEXRAD radar system, and The

Weather Channel (TWC) are available

to each of the control rooms and emergency response facilities.

The data acquisition program at the

ORNL consists of three (two 30-meter

and one 100-meter) meteorological

towers. Meteorological data is fed to

an ORNL central computer system for

analysis and dissemination.

Research

NOAA Air Resources

Laboratory/Atmospheric Turbulence

and Diffusion Division (ARL/ATDD)

is located in Oak Ridge near the ORR.

The primary mission of ATDD is

atmospheric research. Substantial

research programs at ATDD are undertaken with the assistance of staff from

ORISE/Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU) and scientists from

other national laboratories and organizations in the U.S. and abroad.

ARL/ATDD also works closely with

the ORAU to enhance educational

opportunities in atmospheric science.

ARL/ATDD research attention is

focused on the physics of the lower

atmosphere, with special emphasis on

the processes contributing to atmospheric transport, dispersion, and airsurface exchange, and on the development and improvement of predictive

capabilities using the results of this

research. Many other projects are

underway such as surface energy balance and CO2 exchange studies and

long-term studies of CO2 exchange

aimed at process-level understanding.

Operationally, ARL/ATDD personnel provide meteorological consultation and supplemental data for air quality analyses, environmental reports,

and hazard assessments and consequence assessments. Local climatology data are routinely collected and

distributed. Under NOAA funding,

ARL/ATDD operates a regional network of 15 towers ranging from the

Cumberland Mountains (middle Tennessee) to the Smoky Mountains on

Tennessee's eastern border. Wind,

temperature, and precipitation data are

recovered every 15 minutes by telemetry and made available to users.

ARL/ATDD incorporates NWS forecast products into the high-resolution,

regional, meteorological model (i.e.,

RAMS) to produce twice daily 12-

hour, 24-hour, and 36-hour predictions

of surface winds for eastern Tennessee,

and transport trajectory predictions for

the ORR.

PANTEX PLANT

Operations

The Pantex Plant covers 15,977 acres

and is located 17 miles northeast of

Amarillo, TX, in Carson County. The

Plant was a World War II munitions

factory and was converted to a nuclear

weapons assembly facility in 1951.

Today, it is the nation's only assembly/disassembly facility supporting the

nuclear weapons arsenal. Pantex Plant

is a government-owned, contractoroperated facility. DOE oversees operation of Pantex Plant through the

Amarillo Area Office (AAO), which

reports to the Albuquerque Operations

Office. Mason and Hanger Corporation had been the operating contractor

since 1956. On February 1, 2001,

BWXT Pantex has assumed the Pantex

contract.

The Plant is composed of several

functional areas, commonly referred to

as numbered zones. These include a

weapons assembly/disassembly area, a

weapons staging area, an area for

development of experimental explo-
194 DOE SECTION 3

sives, a drinking water treatment facility, a sanitary wastewater treatment

facility, and vehicle maintenance and

administrative areas. Other functional

areas include a utility area for steam

and compressed air, an explosive testfiring facility, a burning ground for

thermally treating explosive materials,

and landfills. Overall, there are more

than 700 buildings at the Pantex Plant.

The Environmental

Protection/Restoration Department

(EP/RD) of the Environment, Safety

and Health Directorate is tasked with

the quality assurance program for the

meteorological data captured by the

one on-site two-level tower located in

the northeast corner of the Plant site.

The data from this tower (i.e., 10-

meters and 60-meters) are collected

and used by the DOE NARAC site

workstation, located in the Plant EOC.

These data are collected and archived

as 15-minute averages plus maximum

and minimum values for each 15-

minute period. They are primarily

used for input to the NARAC emergency response models that could be

used for off-normal events involving

radionuclides. Annual dispersion

model calculations of off-site radiation

doses from on site sources, required by

40 CFR 61, Subpart H, National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP), are accomplished

by the EP/RD. EP/RD uses the EPAapproved CAP88-PC atmospheric

transport and dispersion model and the

Pantex meteorological tower data

processed into the STAR format. This

department also maintains the Pantex

Plant climatology database.

Meteorological tower data is also

used by the Risk Management Department for plume dispersion modeling

applied to the Plutonium Dispersal

Consequence Analysis for the Basis for

Interim Operations (BIO) validation

and upgrade reports, other operations

directives, and other safety analyses.

Routine preventive maintenance on

the meteorological instruments as well

as calibration and certification are

done semi-annually by the U.S. Bureau

of Land Management (BLM). The

BLM maintenance depot at Boise,

Idaho performs similar work for the

U.S. Forest Service's own meteorological towers instruments. This work is

done under a contract administered by

the Pantex Emergency Management

Department. The BLM Idaho depot

also handles emergency repairs and

replacement of sensors. Temperature

and wind sensors are replaced semiannually with calibrated and certified

sensors. The barometer is replaced

annually. During the semi-annual preventive maintenance visits all of the

other meteorological instruments are

replaced by the BLM technician with

rebuilt/refurbished, calibrated equipment, from the Idaho depot. The maintenance check also includes the telephone line, modem, and backup power

supply.

As a result of a FY 2000 project

meteorological tower data is now displayed on the Pantex Plant Intranet for

use by Plant personnel. During FY

2001, the potential for replacing the

existing wind sensor on the meteorological tower with a three-dimensional

wind sensor was evaluated. In addition, replacing/upgrading the NARAC

computer and software located at the

base of the tower that feeds data into

the NARAC Site System in the EOC

was also considered.

Research

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at the Pantex Plant.

ROCKY FLATS ENVIRONMENTAL

TECHNOLOGY SITE (RFETS)

Operational

The RFETS is managed by the

Rocky Flats Operations Office

(RFOO) and is located approximately

16 miles northwest of downtown Denver, CO. One of the smaller DOE sites,

the facility occupies a 10 square mile

area along the foothills of the Rocky

Mountain Front Range.

A 61-meter meteorological tower at

the west-end of the site continuously

monitors meteorological conditions at

surface, 10-meters, 25-meters, and 60-

meters above ground level. The data

are analyzed, quality assured, and

assembled into data sets for use in

atmospheric modeling, climatology,

and other analyses at the site. Data

from the 61-meter and 10-meter towers

are also transmitted back to the main

site every 15 minutes by telemetry for

use in emergency response modeling.

The Regional Atmospheric Response

Center (RARC) conducts meteorological activities associated with emergency preparedness and response at the

site. An upper air remote sensing

Sound Detection and Ranging/Radio

Acoustic Sounding System

(SODAR/RASS) continuously monitors winds, temperatures, and atmospheric stability above the RFETS site.

Through a cooperative agreement

with the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE),

meteorological data are transmitted to

the site from five surface meteorological stations by telemetry that form a

ring around the site perimeter. Another

cooperative agreement with NOAA

provides near real-time data from multiple monitoring sites throughout the

Denver metropolitan area. These data

are all received, quality assured, and

combined into a three-dimensional

observation set for emergency

response modeling every 15 minutes,

24 hours per day.

The RARC provides 24-hour consequence assessment support for any

unplanned radiological or chemical

releases from the site. The Center

responds with customized weather

forecasts, plume projections, and dose

modeling results that lead to event
SECTION 3 DOE 195

classifications and protective actions

for on-site and off-site populations.

RARC also conducts specialized consequence assessments in support of

emergency preparedness, hazard

assessments, and risk assessments for

RFETS. Weather forecasts are provided for severe weather events, such

as winter storms, windstorms, and

severe thunderstorms.

A customized modeling system has

been developed and implemented at

RFETS to predict the pathway and

impacts from any radiological emergency at the site. Called the Computer-Assisted Protective Action Recommendation System (CAPARS), the

new capability addresses the need for

fast, accurate plume predictions in a

complex atmosphere.

CAPARS provides a variety of

plume, weather, hazard, and related

products with the accuracy and speed

needed for response to an emergency

at RFETS. Eleven integrated major

subsystems form the overall CAPARS

capability.

The State of Colorado has formally

accepted the CAPARS modeling system for emergency response and planning applications at RFETS. A specialized planning version of the

CAPARS system has been developed,

implemented, and applied for emergency planning at the RFETS. Called

the TRAC Risk Assessment/Hazards

Assessment Model, the capability is

designed to support hazards and risk

assessments for RFETS and to form

the basis for an evaluation of the size

and shape of the Emergency Planning

Zone (EPZ) surrounding RFETS.

Research

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at RFETS.

SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORY (SNL)-ALBUQUERQUE

Operational

The DOE Kirtland Area Office

(KAO) manages SNL in Albuquerque,

NM, located between the Rio Grande

Valley and Manzano Mountains. SNL

covers approximately 80 square miles

of flat to mountainous arid terrain.

Meteorological Programs at SNL

include both support and research

activities.

Meteorological services and support

are provided through the EOC in the

Laboratory Services Division (LSD).

The mission is to provide meteorological support for various operations

including:

• Emergency response;

• Environmental surveillance and

characterization; and,

• Regulatory compliance.

The monitoring network

consists of six, 10-meter and two, 60-

meter towers used to measure wind

direction and speed, ambient temperature, and relative humidity. There are

also three precipitation gauges, two

barometric pressure sensors, and one

solar radiation pyranometer in the network.

Research

Key research activities are provided

through the Energy and Critical Infrastructure Center in the Energy, Information, and Technology Division.

SNL scientists are involved in the

ARM program and the Surface Heat

Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA).

The ARM project is a combined measurement and modeling program. The

goal is to gain a better understanding

of clouds and their effect on atmospheric radiation, with the final goal of

developing better climate models. The

SHEBA program addresses the interaction of the surface energy balance,

atmospheric radiation and clouds over

the Arctic Ocean.

SAVANNAH RIVER SITE (SRS)

Operational

The SRS is under the responsibility

of the Savannah River Operations

Office (SR) and operated by the Westinghouse Savannah River Company

(WSRC). SRS is located in southwestern South Carolina, along the banks of

the Savannah River. The SRS covers

an area of approximately 300 square

miles and is thickly forested with pine

trees. There are also several small

streams, a large swamp, and two reservoirs built as cooling ponds for nuclear

plant reactors. The topography of SRS

is characterized by gently rolling hills

with an adjacent flood plain near the

Savannah River. The climate at SRS is

typical of the southeastern U.S. with long,

hot and humid summers and

short mild winters.

The Atmospheric Technologies

Group (ATG) of the Savannah River

Technology Center (SRTC) has developed and operated a meteorological

monitoring and modeling program at

the SRS since the early 1970's. This

program supports SRS operations in

emergency response consequence

assessment, weather forecasting, radiological and non-radiological air quality calculations for regulatory compliance, safety analyses, environmental

impacts, engineering studies, environmental research and non-proliferation

activities.

ATG's meteorological data sources

are extensive and quite varied. On-site

meteorological data are obtained from

a network of eight 200-foot meteorological observing towers located near

the major production sites. The instrumentation on these towers includes

sensitive bi-directional vanes (i.e.,
196 DOE SECTION 3

bivanes), cup anemometers, resistance

thermometers and lithium chloride

humidity sensors. Another tower is

located at the Central Climatology

facility, located near the geometric

center of the SRS. It includes like

instruments near ground level, 60-ft,

120-ft, and 200 ft. Additional meteorological measurements at the Central

Climatology facility include precipitation, evaporation, barometric pressure,

soil temperature, solar and long wave

radiation. Data are collected with dedicated data loggers at each tower site.

Each logger is then polled by a remote

computer that, in turn, populates a relational database with meteorological

data.

A network of twelve manually-read

rain gauges is located throughout the

SRS. Additional local upper-air data

are collected from a balloon-launched

airsonde system and a portable tethersonde system. Portable towers are

available for use in case studies.

ATG also has access to local radar

data, which is then distributed sitewide via the SRS intranet. Regional,

national, and international meteorological data are received from a commercial weather data provider via satellite

in real time. The data include surface

observations, satellite and radar

imagery, and predictive model information from the U.S. and abroad.

In addition, ATG has developed the

Weather Information and Display

(WIND) System as an automated

resource for conducting real-time consequence assessments following

unplanned releases of hazardous material. The WIND System is a multicomputer platform network that links

the real time meteorological observations and forecasts with a suite of

atmospheric and aqueous transport and

dispersion models. A rolling 24-hour

data file is created from data archived

in the meteorological database and disseminated to a pc-based workstations

that can operate the WIND System's

modeling and display software.

In the mid 1990s, a mutual aid agreement with surrounding counties emergency management agencies was created to install and operate four meteorological towers at nearby chemical

plants in support of emergency

response activities. Data from these

towers are incorporated into the SRS

meteorological database, integrated

into the 24-hour data file, and made

available beyond the SRS firewall for

use by the off site partner entities using

appropriate WIND System software.

Nearby SRS, two television stations,

WJBF and WAGT, have built a new

television tower, where SRTC has

installed meteorological instrumentation at the 100 ft, 200 ft, and 1000 ft

levels. This local television transmitter

tower was instrumented with fast

response three-dimensional sonic

anemometers and optical water vapor

and CO2 sensors at 100-ft, 200-ft, and

1,000 ft. Slow response temperature

and humidity sensors were also

installed at these levels. The data from

this tower will provide vital information for both operational emergency

response and for the USFS to conduct

control burns. It will also provide

valuable data for research in the atmospheric boundary layer.

A joint partnership between Westinghouse Electric Company and a local

television station provides local

Doppler radar data to SRS and the

local community in real-time. This

provides valuable site specific radar

returns to assist in site operations. The

data (e.g., static and time lapse - movie

- images) are available through the site

internal computer network at employees' desktop computers.

ATG utilizes a regional mesoscale

model, RAMS, for providing detailed

forecast information. Specifically,

forecasts out to 24 hours from RAMS

are available as input for the predictive

component of WIND System models.

Transport calculations blend observed

meteorological data with RAMS forecasts to make timely and accurate

assessments. The grid resolution used

in RAMS varies from 2 km for the

inner grid (100 km x 100 km centered

on the SRS) and 8 km for the outer grid

(250 km x 250 km).

The SRS Atmospheric Technology

Center provides access to local,

national and international meteorological data to provide comprehensive

meteorological support for SRS and

WFO customers. On a daily basis,

ATG provides weather forecasts in

support of site operations. Typical customers include waste handling groups

where wind and rain forecasts often

determine daily activities. Also, ATG

supports the U.S. Forest Service

(USFS) prescribed burn program and

site heat stress program with detailed

observations and forecasts. Custom

forecasts are also provided to facility

and other senior managers to support

protective action decisions for severe

weather.

Research

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at SRS.

WASTE ISOLATION PILOT PLANT

(WIPP)

Operational

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

(WIPP) is operated by Westinghouse

TRU Solutions for the DOE Carlsbad

Area Office (CAO). A cornerstone of

the DOE national clean-up strategy, the

WIPP is designed to permanently dispose of transuranic (TRU) radioactive

waste generated by defense-related

activities in the Salado salt formation

2,150 feet beneath the surface. WIPP

is located in Eddy County in southeast-
SECTION 3 DOE 197

ern New Mexico, 26 miles east of

Carlsbad, and occupies 16 square

miles of a region know as Los

Medanos. Geographically, the region

is regarded as a relatively flat, sparsely

inhabited plateau with little surface

water.

The WIPP Environmental Monitoring Section (EMS) performs meteorological monitoring as part of the Nonradiological Environmental Monitoring Program. The primary meteorological station provides measurement

of wind direction and speed, temperature at two-meters, 10-meters, and 50-

meters, as well as ground level measurements of barometric pressure, relative humidity, precipitation, and solar

radiation. The main function of the

station is to generate data for operational support, emergency response

and regulatory dispersion modeling

applications. Parameters are monitored continuously and the data are

stored in the Central Monitoring System, a computerized system including

automated parameter checks, realtime displays in the Central Monitoring Room, and data archiving. Meteorological data are compiled and distributed to stakeholders, including the

NOAA NWS, on a monthly basis.

WIPP also, under a cooperative

agreement with the NWS, maintains a

Cooperative Weather Observing Station at the Far Field Station. Data from

this station are compiled monthly and

the Record of Climatological Observations form is submitted to the Weather

Forecast Office in Midland, TX.

Under the same cooperative agreement, the Midland office is given

access to real-time data from the primary meteorological station.

Research

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at WIPP.

WELDON SPRINGS SITE REMEDIAL ACTION PROJECT (WSSRAP)

Operational

The activities associated with Weldon Springs Site Remedial Action Project (WSSRAP) have been completed.

The meteorological monitoring program that had operated at the WSSRAP since 1994 was dismantled in

2003.

Research

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at WSSRAP.

YUCCA MOUNTAIN PROJECT

(YMP)

Operational

As part of the DOE Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management

(OCRWM), the Yucca Mountain Project (YMP) studies may eventually

support a recommendation of Yucca

Mountain for the nation's first geologic

repository for spent nuclear fuel and

other high level radioactive waste (Figure 3-DOE-5). The current meteorological program within the YMP

focuses on environmental compliance

and operational health and safety considerations, for both employees and the

general public.

As with a number of DOE sites, the

Yucca Mountain area is one of complex topography and heterogeneous

surface characteristics, creating

mesoscale conditions that locally influence on-site weather. The YMP meteorological program, therefore, includes

four full stations for measuring atmospheric dispersion and general meteorological conditions, as well as nine precipitation stations. These stations

serve to monitor the significant variations in airflow, rainfall, and temperature caused by the area's complex terrain environment. The meteorological

stations are key to the thorough monitoring of these variations that is essential for the YMP ongoing commitment

to environmental compliance and to

the health and safety of employees and

the public.

The YMP meteorological program

also provides essential data for the

studies necessary to evaluate the site's

suitability for a potential repository.

Should the site be deemed suitable and

a repository licensed, built, and operated, water would be the primary

means by which radioactive materials

could be transported to the accessible

environment. Thus, movement of

water from the atmosphere to the surFigure 3-DOE-5. Yucca Mountain (100 miles northwest of Las Vegas,

Nevada) is unpopulated land owned by the Federal Government and adjacent

to the nation's nuclear weapons test site.
198 DOE SECTION 3

face and on through the mountain is a

key concern. The meteorological program provides essential data for the

infiltration model of the mountain.

Data about precipitation, humidity,

evapotranspiration, surface water runon, solar radiation, air temperatures,

and wind patterns all contribute to the

overall infiltration model. The model

gives special emphasis to the transient,

or temporal, versus steady-state rates

of water movement through the unsaturated zone of rock at Yucca Mountain.

The temporal variation of infiltration

may be short term, due to weather fluctuations that drive episodic flow, or

much longer term, in periods corresponding to climate change. Data from

the meteorological program's ongoing

monitoring programs are supplemented by the program's paleoclimatology studies. Together, they provide

essential information for the YMP

modeling of past, present, and future

infiltration rates.

If the potential repository were actually built and operated, continuous

meteorological monitoring and analysis would also be essential for the operational facilities on the surface of the

mountain, at least until the final closure of the repository. Buildings

would be built to withstand the probable maximum flood and wind conditions, and administrative controls

would be in place to suspend operations during severe weather conditions.

An integral part of the emergency

response system would include monitoring the overall environmental situation at the repository site.

In turn, an integral part of the overall

environmental monitoring system

would be the meteorological monitoring system. This system would collect

real-time meteorological information

about the site and provide weather

forecasting and climatological data.

Such data would be essential for management decisions regarding the health

and safety conditions for employees

and the public.

Research

There are no current or projected

supporting meteorological research

activities planned at the Yucca Mountain site.

DOE METEOROLOGICAL COORDINATING COUNCIL (DMCC)

Based on a need to facilitate more

coordination and cooperation among

the meteorological activities at the

DOE field offices, the DMCC (i.e., the

Council) was established on December

2, 1994. The mission of the Council,

now in its eleventh year, is to coordinate meteorological support and

research to meet DOE objectives. The

objectives of the council are to:

• Promote cost-effective support for

all DOE facilities;

• Plan for future needs, requirements, and missions;

• Advocate awareness of atmospheric science applications and benefits to DOE; and,

• Advocate the use of common

methods, procedures, and standards.

Council oversight is provided by a

steering committee consisting of DOE

and NNSA headquarters and field element representatives. Products of the

DMCC include evaluations of meteorological requirements contained in

DOE orders and guidance documents,

site meteorological program peer

reviews, and, as needed, customized

technical assistance. Assist Visits have

been conducted at NNSA/NSO, WIPP,

Pantex, DOE/OR and SNL-Albuquerque. Two follow-up assist visits

were also conducted at WIPP. Additional assist visits are in the planning

stages and will be conducted over the

next several years.

The DMCC web page has been

broadened and can be accessed at

www.sord.nv.doe.gov. The DMCC

can also be accessed through the web

page of the Subcommittee for Consequence Assessment and Protective

Actions (SCAPA).
On March 1, 2003, the Department

of Homeland Security (DHS) assumed

primary responsibility for ensuring that

emergency response professionals are

prepared for any situation in the event

of a terrorist attack, natural disaster, or

other large-scale emergency. This

entails providing a coordinated, comprehensive Federal response to any

large-scale crisis and mounting a swift

and effective recovery effort. DHS

will also prioritize the important issue

of citizen preparedness, and educating

America's families on how best to prepare their homes for a disaster and tips

for citizens on how to respond in a crisis will be given special attention at

DHS.

Homeland Security Presidential

Directive #5 (HSPD 5), states that "to

prevent, prepare for, respond to, and

recover from terrorist attacks, major

disasters, and other emergencies, the

U.S. Government shall establish a single, comprehensive approach to

domestic incident management." It

also assigns the Secretary of the

Department of Homeland Security the

role of principal Federal official for

domestic incident management. Based

on previous Federal guidelines and

legal authorities, a number of Federal

agencies have responsibilities, depending on the scenario, and each agency

has developed or has access to sourceterm estimates, dispersion modeling,

and consequence assessment capabilities to meet their responsibilities. For

a domestic incident, these capabilities

would be coordinated by the Secretary

of the Department of Homeland Security in cases where a Federal response

is required and authorized.

Over the coming year, the goal is to

develop an all-hazards dispersion support framework, initially based on

atmospheric dispersion modeling and

consequence assessment, to support

the DHS Secretary in his role as principal Federal official for planning,

preparing, and responding to domestic

incidents. This framework will provide tailored all-hazards dispersion

support to DHS and its Homeland

Security Operations Center (HSOC).

The primary and most urgent objective

is to provide the best available information for atmospheric hazard predictions so that DHS can make appropriate emergency response and consequence management decisions. This

effort is based on the work and recommendations of the OFCM-sponsored

Joint Action Group on the Selection

and Evaluation of Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Models

(JAG/SEATD) report, Atmospheric

Modeling of Releases from Weapons

of Mass Destruction: Response by

Federal Agencies in Support of Homeland Security, August 2002, and the

National Research Council's (of the

National Academies) Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate report,

Tracking and Predicting the Atmospheric Dispersion of Hazardous Material Releases: Implications for Homeland Security, 2003.

EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

AND RESPONSE (EPR)

In March 2003, FEMA joined other

Federal agencies, programs and offices

in becoming the Department of Homeland Security. The new department

brings a coordinated approach to

national security from emergencies

and disasters - both natural and manmade. About 2,600 full-time employees in FEMA are supplemented by

more than 4,000 stand-by disaster

reservists.

In carrying out its role, FEMA works

with all of the agencies to assure that

the delivery of meteorology-related

information is conducted in keeping

with established goals and objectives.

As administrator of the National Flood

Insurance Program (NFIP), FEMA

publishes Flood Insurance Rate Maps

for all flood-prone communities,

which serve as the official demarcation

DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has three primary missions: Prevent terrorist attacks

within the United States, reduce America's vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage from

potential attacks and natural disasters. The department's first priority is to protect the nation against

further terrorist attacks. Component agencies will analyze threats and intelligence, guard our borders

and airports, protect our critical infrastructure, and coordinate the response of our nation for future

emergencies. Besides providing a better-coordinated defense of the homeland, DHS is also dedicated

to protecting the rights of American citizens and enhancing public services, such as natural disaster

assistance and citizenship services, by dedicating offices to these important missions. DHS has Five Major Divisions,

or "Directorates": Border and Transportation Security (BTS); Emergency Preparedness and Response (EPR); Science

and Technology (S & T); Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection (IAIP); Management. Besides the five

Directorates of DHS, several other critical agencies folded into the new department or were created: United States Coast

Guard; United States Secret Service; Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services; Office of State and Local Government Coordination; Office of Private Sector Liaison; and the Office of Inspector General.

SECTION 3 DHS 199
200 DHS SECTION 3

for flood risk. FEMA administers the

National Hurricane Program and, for

regions subject to hurricanes, publishes hurricane evacuation zone maps

based on surge model simulation

results from the National Weather Service's National Hurricane Center.

FEMA priority interests with OFCM

are in supporting the FEMA pre-disaster initiatives and in promoting standards and procedures which will

enhance the ability of the Nation to

mitigate and recover from emergencies

and disasters (Figure 3-DHS-1). These

interests extend to national standards

for geographic information systems

(GIS) used for delivery of meteorological products and services by other

agencies. FEMA also actively supports the OFCM-sponsored Working

Group for Post-Storm Data Acquisition

(WG/PSDA) and the WG/PSDA's

efforts to develop a National Plan for

Post-Storm Data Acquisition to coordinate and support the collection, by the

Federal agencies, of perishable data

after major storms. These data have

potential applications in post-disaster

mitigation activities, the NFIP flood

hazard analysis, the FEMA National

Hurricane Program hurricane evacuation studies, and other FEMA risk

analysis activities, such as the MultiHazard Loss Estimation Methodology

(HAZUS). The Risk Analysis Branch

is the principal contact for hurricane

evacuation studies and flood risk

analysis as well as the FEMA contact

point for meteorology-related matters.

For additional information see

www.fema.gov.

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

(USCG) 

Since March 2003, the Commandant

of the Coast Guard reports directly to

the Secretary of Homeland Security.

However, the USCG also works

closely with the Under Secretary of

Border and Transportation Security as

well as maintain its existing independent identity as a military service. Upon

declaration of war or when the

President so directs, the Coast Guard

would operate as an element of

the Department of Defense, consistent

with existing law.

Although no U.S. Coast Guard

(USCG) cutters or shore units are

solely dedicated to meteorology, they

collectively perform a variety of functions in support of the national meteorology program. USCG ocean-going

cutters and coastal stations provide

weather observations to the National

Weather Service (NWS). Coast Guard

communications stations broadcast

NWS marine forecasts, weather warnings, and weather facsimile charts and,

also, collect weather observations from

commercial shipping for the NWS.

The Coast Guard also operates the

LORAN C radionavigation system and

the Maritime Differential GPS (DGPS)

Service. The LORAN C system provides Position, Navigation, and Timing

(PNT) information to a variety of navigation and non-navigation users

throughout the continental U.S. and

Alaska (e.g. radiosondes). The Maritime DGPS Service is an augmentation to the GPS that improves GPSonly accuracy to better than ten meters

and provides DGPS coverage to

coastal areas of the continental U.S.,

the Great Lakes, Puerto Rico, portions

of Alaska and Hawaii, and portions of

the Mississippi River Basin.

Coast Guard operates three polar icebreakers - USCGC POLAR STAR,

USCGC POLAR SEA, and USCGC

HEALY - to serve our Nation’s security, economic, environmental, and scientific interests. These vessels make

important marine environmental measurements during dedicated science

deployments or in conjunction with

other missions.

USCGC HEALY, a new icebreaking

research vessel, was delivered to the

Coast Guard in November 1999 and

conducted successful shakedown tests

of the hull, machinery, and scientific

equipment during January-August

2000 (Figure 3-DHS-2). The first

unrestricted science cruise was conducted in the Eastern Arctic in the

summer of 2001. HEALY, has a length

of 420 feet, beam of 82 feet, and displaces over 16,000 tons. Scientific sysFigure 3-DHS-1. Bay Minette, AL, July 14, 2005. The FEMA mobile Disaster Recovery Center helps applicants with the FEMA recovery process by making it easier for applicants to apply for FEMA aid. It contains phone lines and

wireless telecommunications. Many areas of southern Alabama were affected

by Hurricane Dennis. FEMA Photo/Mark Wolfe.
SECTION 3 DHS 201

tems and gear include a bottom mapping multi-beam sonar system; a subbottom profiling system; a conductivity-depth-temperature data system; an

expendable oceanographic probe system; an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler; a jumbo coring system; a continuous flow, seawater sampling system;

a meteorological measurement system;

and a bow tower for clean air experiments. To schedule time on HEALY, see

the UNOLS web site, www.unols.org.

For more information, see the Coast

Guard web page for HEALY,

www.uscg.mil/pacarea/healy/.

USCG conducts the International Ice

Patrol (IIP) under the provisions of the

International Convention for Safety of

Life at Sea (SOLAS). The IIP uses

sensor-equipped aircraft to patrol the

Grand Banks of Newfoundland to

locate and track icebergs which pose a

hazard to North Atlantic shipping.

Direct observations are supplemented

and extrapolated using a numerical iceberg drift and deterioration model. IIP

determines the geographic limits of the

iceberg hazard and, twice daily, broadcasts iceberg warning bulletins and ice

facsimile charts which define the limits

of the iceberg threat during the iceberg

season (spring and summer). IIP annually archives data on all confirmed and

suspected icebergs, and forwards these

data to the National Snow and Ice Data

Center. These data can be accessed via

the IIP web page www.uscg.mil/

lantarea/iip/home.html. Archived data

contains all iceberg sighting data along

with the last model-predicted position

of each berg.

The Coast Guard participates with the

Navy and NOAA in conducting the

National Ice Center, a multi-agency

operational center that produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic,

Great Lakes, and coastal ice conditions.

The Coast Guard also collaborates

with NOAA in operating the National

Data Buoy Center (NDBC) which

deploys and maintains NOAA's automated network of environmental monitoring platforms in the deep ocean and

coastal regions. Five Coast Guard personnel fill key technical and logistics

support positions within NDBC. Coast

Guard cutters support the deployment

and retrieval of data buoys, and provide periodic maintenance visits to

both buoys and coastal stations,

expending approximately 180 cutter

days annually. Coast Guard aircraft,

small boats, and shore facilities also

provide NDBC support.

Meteorological activities are coordinated by the Ice Operations Division of

the Office of Aids to Navigation at

Coast Guard Headquarters. Field management of Coast Guard meteorological support services is accomplished at

the Coast Guard Area and District levels.

Figure 3-DHS-2. USCGC HEALEY,

the Coast Guard’s new icebreaking

research vessel, conducting ice trials.

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL

SURVEY (USGS)

WATER DATA

The USGS's Water Resources Discipline (WRD) collects streamflow, precipitation, water quality, ground-water

level, and other water resources and

climatological data as part of a national

network and for a number of projects

concerning rainfall runoff, water quality and hydrologic processes. Currently, the USGS collects hydrologic

and meteorological data from about

11,000 surface-water sites, precipitation data from more than 1,200 sites,

ground-water level data from more

than 23,000 sites, and water quality

data from more than 8,400 surfacewater, ground-water, and precipitation

sites.

Data collected at USGS sites are

transmitted from approximately 8,100

remote Data Collection Platforms

(DCPs). The data are transmitted to

Wallops, Virginia, via GOES and

rebroadcast to a domestic communication satellite (DOMSAT). Data are

received from the DOMSAT by local

readout ground stations (LRGS) procured by USGS. The USGS currently

operates 25 LRGS which provide nearreal-time data to the USGS's computerized National Water Information System (NWIS). Data from over 1,800

additional sites are transmitted via

other telemetry (mostly telephone).

Near-real-time streamflow data and

ancillary information are provided to

National Weather Service River Forecast Centers for about 3600 river forecast points (Figure 3-DOI-1).

The USGS also collects precipitation

samples in a number of studies for the

determination of atmospheric contribution to the chemical constituent

loads to runoff, and for defining the

effect of atmospheric deposition on

water quality and the aquatic environment.

The USGS serves historical and realtime water resources data on the Internet at its NWIS Web site (http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/).

SNOW AND ICE STUDIES

USGS scientists are cooperating with

scientists at the University of Washington, Seattle, to improve hydrologic

runoff modeling of the snow pack in

the Pacific Northwest through the

application of data assimilation techniques. The assimilation uses passive

microwave observations from the

Advanced Microwave Scanning

Radiometer, AMSR-E, and numerical

integration of Maxwell's equations

constrained by a snow pack model to

determine the distribution of snow

water equivalent across select drainage

basins. Then the UW Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) model calculates

the subsequent runoff, which is compared to USGS discharge measurements. If the calculated runoff is not

within a specified amount of the measured runoff, the assimilation technique

adjusts the snowpack characteristics

and another iteration is carried out.

USGS, in cooperation with BLM, is

using a variety of remote sensing data

to monitor the rapid wastage of the

piedmont lobe of Bering Glacier,

Alaska. Landsat, Radarsat, ICESat,

and Ikonos observations show that

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WEATHER PROGRAMS

The Department of the Interior (DOI), is the nation's principal conservation agency, charged with the

mission "to protect and provide access to our Nation's natural and cultural heritage and honor our trust

responsibilities to Indian tribes and our commitments to island communities." The following operational and research programs contribute to the Federal Meteorological Plan.

SECTION 3 DOI 203

Figure 3-DOI-1. Sample USGS Water Watch map of real-time streamflow

compared to historical streamflow for the day of the year. Source: USGS Website: http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/
204 DOI SECTION 3

Bering Glacier is retreating rapidly and

thinning in an accelerating retreat from

an advanced position that resulted

from a major glacial surge in 1993-95.

The satellite data and ground-based

observations have been combined to

determine the surface flow velocities

and calving rates of the glacier, and to

monitor the expansion of Vitus Lake

and Berg Lake, two large lakes whose

boundaries include the glacier terminus. The rapid change in glaciation is

having a large impact on nearby terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

CLIMATOLOGICAL RESEARCH

USGS also carries out research in climate change, regional hydrology, the

carbon cycle, coastal erosion, volcanic

activity, and glaciology. As part of its

glaciology program, the USGS maintains an observation program on three

benchmark glaciers representative of

different climactic zones of the western U.S., one in Washington, one on

the south coast of Alaska and one in

the interior of Alaska. At each glacier,

the program measures the winter snow

accumulation, summer snow and ice

ablation, air temperature, and runoff in

the glacier basin. Begun in 1959, this

is the longest such record in North

America. Analysis of this record is

providing a greater understanding of

the climate variability and its effects

on water resources of the western U.S..

The record clearly shows the effects of

changing winter precipitation patterns

associated with atmospheric conditions in the northeast Pacific Ocean,

including El Niño - La Niña events and

the Pacific Decadal Oscillation.

To augment its glacier monitoring

efforts, the USGS is using National

Systems data to measure fluctuations

of glaciers in Alaska, Washington, and

Montana. Mountain glaciers are ideal

subjects for these systems because they

are remote, have an appropriate space

scale, and require infrequent but repetitive observations. The observations

have established a baseline of regional

glacial conditions. The resulting and

on-going archive of observations is

now 5-years long and is being used to

determine recent trends in glacier size

and terminus location. In addition,

techniques have been developed to

generate derived products that provide

critical glacial parameters, including

DEMs, equilibrium line altitudes, and

ablation rates. These products are

already being incorporated into a glacial runoff model of the South Cascade

Glacier, Washington, where they are

proving to be a valuable source of otherwise unavailable data.

GEOMAGNETIC DATA

The Geomagnetism Program

(http://geomag.usgs.gov) of the USGS

Central Region Geohazards Team provides real-time, ground-based measurements of the Earth's magnetic field,

which are an important contribution to

the diagnosis of conditions in the nearEarth space environment of the sun,

the solar wind, the magnetosphere, the

ionosphere, and the thermosphere.

During geomagnetic storms, brought

about by the complex interaction of the

Earth's magnetic field with that of the

Sun's, both high- and low-frequency

radio communications can be difficult

or impossible, global positioning systems (GPS) can be degraded, satellite

electronics can be damaged, satellite

drag can be increased, and astronauts

and high-altitude pilots can be subjected to enhanced levels of radiation.

Ground-based geomagnetic observatory data are complementary to those

collected by space-based satellites;

indeed, most of the hazardous effects

on technological systems brought

about by magnetic storms occur at or

near the Earth's surface. Therefore, the

Geomagnetism Group monitors the

surficial magnetic field by operating

14 magnetic observatories in the U.S.

and its Territories. The data from these

observatories, plus 15 foreign observatories, are transmitted to the Group's

headquarters in Golden, Colorado,

where they are processed and analyzed. Data are then transmitted to the

Space Environment Center (SEC) of

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) and to the

U.S. Air Force's (USAF) Weather

Agency at Offutt Air Force Base,

Nebraska.

USGS observatories are operated in

cooperation with Intermagnet

(www.intermagnet.org), an international consortium overseeing the operation of nearly 100 geomagnetic observatories distributed around the globe.

The USGS Geomagnetism Program is

also an integral part of the National

Space Weather Program

(http://nswp.gsfc.nasa.gov).

VOLCANOLOGY AND VOLCANIC

ASH PLUMES

Through its Volcanic Hazards Program, the USGS is responsible for

monitoring volcanoes in the U.S. and

issuing eruption forecasts and notifications. The USGS participates in the

Working Group for Volcanic Ash

(WG/VA) of the OFCM. This working

group is preparing a National Volcanic

Ash Operating Plan for Aviation. The

purpose of the plan is to provide operational guidance by documenting the

required procedures and information

products of the government agencies

responsible for ensuring safety of

flight operations when volcanic ash

has been erupted into the atmosphere.

The agencies involved are the USGS,

Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and

the U.S. Air Force. Timeline for completion of the plan is FY 2006.

The OFCM helps to administer funding from the FAA to the USGS to

improve aviation safety through

expanded volcano monitoring in

Alaska, where many historically active

volcanoes underlie the heavily traveled

air routes of the North Pacific region.

Over the past decade, with FAA support, the USGS's Alaska Volcano
SECTION 3 DOI 205

Observatory (AVO) has installed seismic networks at approximately two

dozen volcanoes in the Aleutian

Islands, bringing to 30 the number of

Alaska's volcanoes under continuous

real-time geophysical surveillance.

Data and information from the AVO

monitoring activities are integrated

directly into the regional operational

activities of the FAA, DOD, and

NOAA/NWS to provide warnings for

pilots and aircraft operators in the

Alaskan region.

The U.S. has experienced significant

levels of volcanic activity recently.

Augustine Volcano, located near

Anchorage, Alaska, erupted from January to April 2006, and has not yet settled back to quiescence. AVO mounted

a 24/7 monitoring response to characterize ash-cloud hazards to aviation

and worked closely with the National

Weather Service to provide ash-fall

information to the public. AVO also

has continued to closely monitor Veniaminoff volcano in Alaska, which has

been erupting intermittently since

2002. Mount St. Helens, Washington,

reawakened in September 2004, from

18 years of quiescence. The eruption

has largely consisted of the extrusion

of lava with activity confined to the

summit area. However, periodic

explosions have erupted ash to heights

as great as 30,000 feet above sea level.

USGS, NWS, and FAA have worked

together to develop procedures and

protocols to handle an erupting volcano situated between two major metropolitan centers.

The Volcano Hazards Program

posted new pages on its website,

devoted to practical guidance for dealing with ash hazards to transportation,

communications, agriculture, water

supplies, etc. See

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash.

Recognizing that many potentially

dangerous U.S. volcanoes have inadequate or no ground-based monitoring,

the USGS recently evaluated U.S. volcano-monitoring capabilities and published "An Assessment of Volcanic

Threat and Monitoring Capabilities in

the United States: Framework for a

National Volcano Early Warning System (NVEWS)" (online at

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1164/).

Results of the NVEWS volcanic

threat and monitoring assessment are

being used to guide long-term

improvements to the national volcanomonitoring infrastructure operated by

the USGS and affiliated groups. The

most threatening volcanoes, those near

communities and transportation infrastructure (ground and air) and with a

history of frequent and violent eruptions, need to be well monitored in real

time with an extensive suite of instrument types to detect the earliest symptoms of unrest and to reliably forecast

behavior of the volcano. Waiting until

unrest escalates to augment monitoring

capabilities at these high-threat volcanoes puts people (including scientists

in the field) and property at undue risk.

Remote, isolated, or less frequently

erupting volcanoes that nevertheless

can pose hazards to air-traffic corridors

require sufficient monitoring capability with ground-based instruments to

detect and track unrest in real-time so

that other agencies responsible for

enroute flight safety can be kept

apprised of the potential for explosive,

ash-cloud-forming eruptions. 

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT (BLM)

The BLM is one of five Federal Land

Management agencies which have centralized Wildland fire weather operations at the National Interagency Fire

Center (NIFC), in Boise, Idaho. The

BLM's Initial Attack Management

System (IAMS) was designed in the

mid-1980's to provide real-time data

access and modeling for the fire management organization. The IAMS

required a considerable dedicated

telecommunications network for data

distribution. In an effort to reduce

these inherent telecommunications

costs, the BLM has moved into a "web

server" environment. Many of the

capabilities that were centrally located

in the old IAMS have been moved to

other web sites.

FIRE WEATHER WEBSITES

The principal Wildland Fire Management Information System (WFMIS)

inputs remain the same with Remote

Automatic Weather Station (RAWS)

and National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) information (Figure 3-

DOI-2). BLM's new server system is

called the BLM Wildland Fire Management Information Site

(www.nifc.blm.gov). Additional fire

management information is summarized and made available at the Desert

Research Institute (wrcc.dri.edu and

cefa.dri.edu) and the U.S. Forest Service Wildland Fire Assessment System

(//svinet2.fs. fed.us/land/wfas/). Additionally, the BLM has utilized the

Desert Research Institute's capabilities

to respond quickly for website support.

AUTOMATED WEATHER STATIONS

The BLM's RAWS Program primarily collects meteorological data for

fire weather forecasting. However, use

of BLM's RAWS data set by other nonfire users has generated sufficient

funding to permit year-round operation

of the entire network. The BLM's

Resource Management and Oregon

O&C (West-Side) also operate RAWS

networks which are much smaller and

have specific program requirements

that differ from fire management.

LIGHTNING DETECTION

In 1997, the BLM began contracting

with a private vendor via the National

Weather Service for lightning location

data. Data are received at the NIFC in

Boise, Idaho, and placed on the BLM

WFMIS for qualified user access.

Current plans are to continue the operation of the Alaska Automatic Light-
206 DOI SECTION 3

ning Detection System as an independent government-owed and operated

system.

FIRE WEATHER SUPPORT

The BLM's Remote Sensing / Fire

Weather Support Unit (RSFWSU) at

NIFC provides the full range of program management, equipment dispatch, field and depot maintenance,

support and data services for the BLM

and numerous other government agencies. This interagency-staffed and

funded facility performs work under

long term agreements with those agencies within the government having

similar equipment and requirements.

CLIMATE MONITORING

In addition to the meteorological

monitoring BLM conducts primarily to

support wildland fire management

activities, the BLM also conducts sitespecific climate monitoring at over 200

manual weather station locations on

the public lands in the 11 western

states and Alaska. The operation of

these sites ranges from seasonal to

annual, taking measurements of precipitation, temperature, soil moisture,

and other meteorological parameters

necessary to assess local climactic

influences. These data are primarily

used for natural resources management

and planning at the local level.

PORTABLE WEATHER STATIONS

During the 1999 fire season, the

Remote Sensing/Fire Weather Support

Unit began a 2-year "proof of concept"

effort with a portable weather station

referred to as the Fire RAWS (FRWS).

FRWS are intended for use on or near

a fire line and can be rapidly relocated

to points desired by Fire Behavior

Analysts for real-time weather data.

Due to the extreme fire season in both

1999 and 2000, the FRWS was used

extensively and was found to be a

valuable asset for firefighter safety and

fire weather forecasting. Fire managers

have also increased the use of FRWS

to monitor intentionally-initiated prescribed burns.

Currently, 42 FRWS systems are

cached at NIFC for use during the

2006 season. FRWS collect, store, and

forward data by interrogated voice

radio with new data available every fifteen minutes. Satellite data can be

retrieved from the BLM/NIFC website, and hourly satellite data is available to Fire Weather Forecasting Staff

for spot forecasts and fire support from

all central locations (Geographic Area

Coordination Centers, NIFC, etc.).

ALL RISKS SUPPORT

After the terrorist attack on September 11th, 2001, the RSFWSU was

tasked to provide near real-time meteorological data collection at the World

Trade Center (Figure 3-DOI-3). This

effort was in direct support of the

Environmental Protection Agency's

task of monitoring air quality in the

vicinity of the collapsed towers. The

unit also provided remote meteorological support for the Columbia Shuttle

accident investigation and recovery

effort, and RAWS support has generated interest from the Department of

Homeland Security as it assesses its

needs for remote and urban environmental monitoring. Using the personnel and resources available at the

RSFWSU, the BLM can offer a rapid

meteorological support capability that

is unique across the Federal government.

BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS

(BIA)

The Bureau of Indian Affairs collects

atmospheric data to evaluate potentially irrigable Indian Trust lands in the

Southwest. The Bureau also collects

and shares fire weather data with other

Federal agencies while participating in

fire management activities for local

and interagency use.

Currently, BIA operates the following instrumentation:

• 69 fire weather RAWS stations

(permanent stations)

• 5 "manual" weather stations

• 13 portable RAWS stations used

for Prescribed Fire

• 10 RAWS deployed on emergency

stabilization projects.

MINERALS MANAGEMENT

SERVICE (MMS)

The Minerals Management Service

(MMS) gathers offshore meteorological data for use in the management of

offshore oil and gas resources and

sources of alternative energy. The data

Figure 3-DOI-2. A National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC) graphic

of Observed Fire Danger Class for the lower 48 states.
SECTION 3 DOI 207

are used in air quality and oil-spill

modeling, model development, and

other research projects.

MMS operates a radar wind profiler

(RWP) at the Louisiana Universities

Marine Consortium (LUMCON) facility in Cocodrie, Louisiana (Figure 3-

DOI-4). The profiler has been collecting data since October 2004 and will

be operating over a three-year period.

Data collected at this site may be

accessed at

http://weather.lumcon.edu/weatherdata/doppler. The data will be applied

to regional models for evaluating

impacts from emission sources on

ozone, fine particulate matter, and

regional haze. The Service, in a cooperative agreement with The University

of Houston (UH), is planning to support the installation and operation of an

RWP at the UH Coastal Research Center (UHCRC) near Galveston, TX. The

profiler is expected to be installed and

operational in the summer of 2006 and

will collect data for 3 years. In addition, MMS is providing funding for the

operation of an RWP on a platform in

the Gulf of Mexico in support of the

Texas Air Quality Study-II (TexAQSII) Field Study in 2006.

Another meteorological data collection effort is ongoing in the Beaufort

Sea in Alaska, with six meteorological

stations collecting data since 2001 (see

http://www.resdat.com/mms/). Data

collection will continue through FY

2006. The information will be applied

to oil spill modeling and air quality

impact evaluations.

MMS has a cooperative agreement

with the Coastal Marine Institute

(CMI) at Louisiana State University to

study the relationships between visibility, haze, ozone, and

PM2.5 and meteorological variables and

to determine source

regions for haze near

the Breton National

Wilderness Area in

Louisiana. This study

is expected to be completed in FY 2007.

The MMS is completing a study entitled The Breton

National Wilderness

Increment Analysis. This study consists of a meteorological and air quality

modeling analysis in and around the

Breton National Wilderness Area

(NWA), which is a Clean Air Act Prevention of Significant Deterioration

(PSD) Class I area located on a chain

of barrier islands off southeastern

Louisiana. The objective of the study

is to assess the impacts of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas production activities on the PSD increment

consumption. (PSD increment consumption is the maximum level of pollutant increase allowed over a baseline

concentration.) This effort is expected

to be completed by the end of FY

2006. Copies of final reports in past

meteorological and air quality studies

in the Gulf of Mexico may be found at 

http://www.gomr.mms.gov/homepg/re

gulate/environ/techsumm/rec_pubs.ht

ml.

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

(NPS) AND FISH AND WILDLIFE

SERVICE (FWS)

The National Park Service monitors

air quality and visibility in a number of

national parks and monuments.

Gaseous pollutant data are collected on

continuous and integrated (24-hour to

weekly) bases. Surface meteorological

data are collected and analyzed for

hourly averages. Precipitation chemistry is determined on week-long integrated rainfall samples. Twenty-fourhour-average particle concentrations

(mass, elemental analyses, some chemFigure 3-DOI-3. Remote Sensing/Fire Weather Support Unit providing nearreal-time meteorological data collection at the World Trade Center.

Figure 3-DOI-4. The MMS Profiler at LUMCON facility in Cocodrie, Louisiana.
ical constituent analyses) are measured

every third day. Atmospheric light

extinction is measured continuously

and relayed to a central location for

analyses.

MODELING

The NPS also conducts and contracts

research to develop and test air quality

models to assess long-range transport,

chemical transformation, and deposition of air pollutants. These models

are used to estimate source contributions to, and to identify source regions

responsible for, observed pollutant

loadings.

JOINT MONITORING AND

RESEARCH

The Fish and Wildlife Service Air

Quality Branch and the NPS Air

Resources Division operate under an

interagency agreement and are collocated in Lakewood, Colorado. Expertise from both agencies is pooled to

address the air quality issues that are

the responsibility of the Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Fish and

Wildlife and Parks.

The NPS oversees the operation of

the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments

(IMPROVE) network and the

IMPROVE Protocol network in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the United States Forest

Service (USFS), the FWS, the BLM,

and various State organizations. Currently, the network has about 170 sites,

mostly funded by the EPA in support of

their regional haze regulations and

through other cooperators. The

enhanced network allows a better characterization of visibility and fine particle concentrations throughout rural and

remote areas of the country (Figure 3-

DOI-5).

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION

The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) activities requiring the collection and use of meteorological data

include water supply forecasting,

snowpack water equivalent assessment, river system management, reservoir operations, irrigation scheduling,

drought status

assessment,

flood hydrology, and projects related to

hydroelectric

energy

resources.

One example of

such an ongoing

activity is the Watershed and River System

Management Program

(WaRSMP), which is being developed

in partnership with the USGS. Information on WaRSMP is at

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/

rivers/rsmgwtrmg.htm.

Other key players in this effort

include TVA, the Corps of Engineers,

NOAA, NASA, NRCS, the University

of Colorado and Colorado State University. This program provides a datacentered framework for science-based

water resources decision making.

208 DOI SECTION 3

Figure 3-DOI-5. Map of annual average standard visual range (SVR), in kilometers, calculated from IMPROVE particle concentrations. Also shown are the

locations of most of the IMPROVE and IMPROVE protocol sites during 2003

(http://vista.circa.colostate.edu/views).
SECTION 3 DOI 209

Major components are:

• Hydrologic Database (HDB),

• Modular Modeling System

(MMS),

• RiverWare river system modeling

framework,

• Stochastic Analysis, Modeling and

Simulation (SAMS) system, 

• Agricultural WAter Resources

Decision Support (AWARDS) and

• Evapotranspiration Toolbox (ET

Toolbox) system.

HYDROLOGIC MODELING

The SAMS hydrologic modeling

system is being used in WaRSMP to

assist water resource managers in

developing likely hydrologic scenarios

for water supplies. It allows users to

test various water resources management strategies, including extreme

drought and high-flow scenarios

which haven't been encountered in the

historical period of record.

The RiverWare and HDB data-centered decision support system enables

water managers to examine a variety

of observed and forecast hydrologic

scenarios using hourly, daily, or

monthly data within the legal and

physical constraints on operations of

the river system. This model provides

a holistic management tool for watershed and river systems, in order to

meet a variety of competing demands

for water.

Each new river system requires considerable development work (2-3

years) for RiverWare and HDB implementation. However, such a system

can provide for efficient water operations management, and is especially

useful during periods of drought and

surplus - as demonstrated by the recent

"Colorado River Interim Surplus Criteria: Final Environmental Impact

Statement".

Current Reclamation projects under

WaRSMP include:

• Planning and developing HDB,

MMS and RiverWare systems for the

Gunnison, San Juan, Rio Grande,

Yakima, and Truckee river systems.

• Development of expanded capabilities to allow HDB to function as the

Database of Record which will document management decisions and the

data used to make them for Reclamation's Upper and Lower Colorado

regions as well as other participating

offices.

• SAMS integration and testing for

the lower Colorado and Truckee River

Basins.

• Implementing AWARDS systems

to improve the efficiency of water

management and irrigation scheduling

for the Tualatin Project, Upper Columbia project areas, and Lower Colorado

area.

• Developing the AWARDS/ET

Toolbox system in the Middle Rio

Grande and providing 24-hour water

use estimates for input, via the Corps

of Engineers' Hydrologic Engineering

Center Decision Support System or a

new HDB, to the Rio Grande RiverWare.

• Implementing similar

AWARDS/ET Toolbox systems with

input to local HDBs and RiverWare

systems in the Upper Columbia,

Lower Colorado, and possibly the

Truckee-Carson areas.

• Integration and testing of emerging Land Surface Modeling Products

from NASA's Global Land Data

Assimilation Systems for snow mapping, surface energy and water budgets

and ET analysis and prediction for

water operations management.

• Testing and development of

weather and climate products from the

Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) for water supply and

demand forecasting.

INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA

ACQUISITION

NEXRAD estimates of precipitation

are used for water supply and water

delivery decision-making. Water managers can view the distribution of precipitation over watersheds that supply

water to storage facilities, and examine

the detailed spatial distributions of precipitation over the irrigated areas along

with estimates of soil moisture, and

evapotranspiration from crops and

riparian vegetation.

The Watershed and River Systems

Management Program focuses on integrating multi-disciplinary science into

decision support systems that enable

water managers to make the best deliveries of water to stakeholders.

Currently, Reclamation's

HYDROMET system collects data

from approximately 400 hydrometeorological data collection platforms

(DCPs) which transmit data in realtime through GOES to Reclamation's

DRGS in Boise, Idaho. AGRIMET is

another network of 60 DCPs dedicated

to analysis of crop water use and water

conservation in the Pacific Northwest.

Data collected and products created

in Boise are electronically transferred

to other BLM, Federal and state

offices. Reclamation's primary realtime hydrometeorological information

from the NWS, USGS, NASA, and

other agencies is displayed on the

AWARDS / NEXRAD / ET Toolbox

web site: http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/

rivers/awards/index.html.

Water supply information from

cumulative precipitation estimates

from radar is also provided in areas

where snowfall is an important source

of water. Links directly to USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

and NOAA/National Centers for Environmental Prediction analysis and

forecasting web sites are provided to

further document the latest information.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION

The National Xeriscape Demonstration Program (NXDP) is nearing an

end. The NXDP was initiated by

Reclamation to estimate the benefits of

water conserving landscaping. In partnerships with States, field demonstration projects were conducted in Fargo
210 DOI SECTION 3

ND, Austin TX, the Colorado Front

Range, Phoenix AZ, and southern

Nevada. Water savings ranged from

18 to over 50 percent in the demonstration projects, strongly suggesting

water planners should consider this

water conservation alternative as a

supply development option.

SNOWPACK ASSESSMENT

Snowmelt represents about 80 percent of reservoir storage in Colorado

and is largely responsible for spring

flooding events in the state. Therefore

it is highly desirable to know snowpack characteristics, such as its snow

water equivalent (SWE), its spatial and

elevation distribution, and its evolution

with time during the water year. With

support of the Colorado Water Conservation Board (CWCB), Reclamation

has adapted the Snow Data Assimilation System (SNODAS) for enhanced

snowpack assessment in the state of

Colorado. The SNODAS was developed by the National Operational

Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center

(NOHRSC), a National Weather Service unit, and data are acquired

through the National Snow and Ice

Data Center.

SNODAS consists of a spatially distributed snow energy and mass balance

model, coupled with an assimilation of

all available SWE, snow depth, and

snow cover data (from surface, aircraft, radar, satellite). Model outputs

are at 1 km resolution and include

SWE, snow depth, snowmelt, pack

temperature, and sublimation. Comparison with data from Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) sites and satellite

imagery shows faithful representation

of SWE and snow cover, respectively.

Basin average SWE is substantially

reduced over that of SNOTEL because

the former is a basin-wide spatial average instead of an arithmetic average of

a few high-elevation points. This difference is important hydrologically

and holds the promise of coupling

snowmelt with a hydrologic model to

produce streamflow hydrographs.

Such hydrographs would be extremely

useful to the decision support systems

of water management agencies such as

the CWCB and Reclamation, with the

ultimate aim of improved forecasting

of water supplies and flooding. Colorado SNODAS products have been

posted daily at

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/rivers/awar

ds/SNODAS/SNODAS_CO_hist.html

since October 2003. Future work will

consist of verification of SNODAS

outputs, improvement of precipitation

inputs, and coupling to a hydrologic

model. An example of such an online

product is given by Figure 3-DOI-6

(see the next page).
SECTION 3 DOI 211

Figure 3-DOI-6. Agricultural Water Resources Decision-Support

(AWARDS)/ET Toolbox example for the Lower Colorado River basin.

AWARDS merges the precipitation accumulation algorithm (PAA) estimates

from five WSR-88D (or NEXRAD) radars into a 2x2km grid.

Stratospheric ozone depletion has

been recognized as a critical health and

environmental problem for more than

a decade. Under DOS leadership, the

U.S. worked to negotiate international

agreements to phase out ozone-depleting substances, which should lead to a

recovery of the ozone layer in the next

century. To date, these treaties have

been signed and ratified by more than

170 countries (including the U.S.).

These countries represent 99 percent

of the world's production of ozone

depleting substances.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was

established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the

United Nations Environment Program

(UNEP), held its first session in 1988.

This organization serves as a government forum to assess scientific, technical and socioeconomic information

relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potential impacts and

options for adaptation and mitigation..

In doing so, the Panel draws on the

expertise of thousands of scientists and

technical experts. The IPCC is currently organized into three working

groups, which examine (1) the state of

the science, (2) impacts and adaptation, and (3) mitigation. The IPCC

released its first and second assessment reports in 1990 and 1995, respectively, and a third assessment report

from each of the working groups was

published in 2001. The fourth assessment report, due in 2007, is currently

under preparation. In addition to

preparing assessment reports, the

IPCC also contributes to international

negotiations through preparation and

review of special reports and development of methodologies requested by

the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC).

The FCCC was negotiated beginning

in February 1991; the Convention was

open for signature in Rio de Janeiro at

the Earth Summit in June 1992. As of

May 2004, it had been ratified by 189

countries, including the U.S. The ultimate objective of the Convention is to

stabilize greenhouse gas emissions at a

level that would prevent dangerous

anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate system. It

states that such a level should be

achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that

food production is not threatened, and

to enable economic development to

proceed in a sustainable manner. The

Convention calls for all countries to

develop inventories of their emissions

and sinks of greenhouse gases and

calls upon developed countries and

economies in transition to aim to

return these emissions to their 1990

levels by the year 2000.

In December 1997, parties to the

Convention adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which commits developed countries to reducing their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by at least 5

percent by the period 2008-2012. Following Russian ratification in late

2004, the Kyoto Protocol entered into

force in February 2005. In early 2001,

the U.S. announced that it would not

ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The U.S.

approach to addressing the challenge

of climate change harnesses the power

of markets and technological innovation. It also holds the promise of a new

partnership with the developing world

and it recognizes that climate change is

a complex, long-term challenge that

will require a sustained effort over

many generations.

Today the U.S. is actively engaged in

addressing climate change through the

Convention, through a wide range of

international science and technology

initiatives, through multilateral efforts

such as the Asia-Pacific Partnership

for Clean Development and Climate

and bilateral partnerships with 14

countries including Australia, Brazil,

Canada, China, India, Italy, Japan, and

other countries. Together these initiatives will help improve our global

capability to understand and address

issues associated with climate change

in a manner that supports broader sustainable development goals.

DEPARTMENT OF STATE CLIMATE AND ATMOSPHERIC PROGRAMS

The Department of State (DOS) plays an active role in international climate/meteorological policy making as a result of the growing worldwide concern with global environmental issues, including the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and climate change. The role of DOS has principally revolved

around preparation and negotiation of the United States position in three fora: (1) the Conference of the

Parties to the Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone

Layer, (2) the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); and (3) negotiation under the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). In addition, over the past few

years the DOS has played a central and active role in the development and implementation of a number of international

science and technology initiatives including the Group on Earth Observations, the Carbon Sequestration Leadership

Forum, the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy, the Methane-to-Markets Partnership, and Generation

IV (a U.S.-led program working on new fission reactor designs that will be safer, more economical and secure).

SECTION 3 DOS 213
214 DOS SECTION 3

In addition to its primary role in the

fora listed above, DOS is active in several relevant interagency processes,

including the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR)

of the National Science and Technology Council and the Interagency

Working Group on Climate Change

Science and Technology (IWGCCST).

The CENR was established in 1993 to

coordinate scientific domestic programs. Created in 2002, the

IWGCCST is a sub-Cabinet level

group that reviews all programs that

contribute to climate change science

and technology. Furthermore, while

the emphasis on global environmental

issues is a key new component of the

department's focus, traditional DOS

responsibilities, described in earlier

Federal plans, continue. These

include, but are not limited to, international aspects of food policy, disaster

warnings and assistance, WMO and

UNEP activities, and international

meteorological programs.
Meteorological support to EPA's

Office of Research and Development,

EPA's Office of Air and Radiation,

EPA Regional Offices, and to state and

local agencies includes:

• Development and application of

air quality models for pollution control, direct and indirect exposure

assessments, and emission control

strategy assessment;

• Preparation and performance of

dispersion studies and air quality

model evaluations;

• Review of meteorological aspects

of environmental impact statements,

state implementation plans, and pollution variance requests;

• Air quality forecasting; and

• Emergency response planning in

support of homeland security.

Meteorological expertise and guidance are also provided for the national

air quality standards, modeling guideline, and policy development activities

of the EPA.

In light of the 1990 Amendments to

the Clean Air Act and the recent

national rules, air quality models and

the manner in which they are used are

expected to continue to grow over the

next few years. In the area of pollutant

deposition, the evaluation of nitrogen,

oxidant, sulfur and aerosol chemistries

will help to clarify the roles of model

formulation, cloud processes, aerosols,

radiative transfer, and air/surface

exchanges in air quality model predictions, leading to a better understanding

of model predictions relative to control

strategy assessments. Further development and evaluation of existing air

quality models will take place to

accommodate the inter-pollutant

effects resulting from the variety of

control programs that are now or may

be in place, such as the new National

Ambient Air Quality Standards for

ozone and particulate pollution. These

inter-pollutant effects include tradeoffs among controls on ozone, sulfur

oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile

organic compounds, as well as developing predictable methods of forecasting the impacts on various measures of

air quality.

With respect to the fine particulate

model development, air quality models

are being enhanced to accurately predict aerosol growth from precursors

over local and regional transport distances. To assist in the evaluation of

the contribution of various sources to

regional air degradation, inert tracer

and tagged species numerical models

have been developed. These models

will introduce separate calculations for

inert or reactive chemical species emitted from a particular source or region.

The calculations will proceed to simulate transport and transformation to a

receptor point, where the contribution

of emission sources can be discerned.

Atmospheric research is the area of

the effects of climate change on

regional air quality involves both analytical and statistical climatology as

well as support for regional-scale climate model development.

Research in human exposure modeling includes micro-environmental

monitoring and modeling, and development of exposure assessment tools.

Micro-environmental algorithms are

being developed based on field data to

predict air quality in buildings,

attached garages, and street canyons.

These improved algorithms are then

incorporated into micro-environmental

simulation models for conducting

human exposure assessments within

enclosed spaces in which specific

human activities occur.

In addition to the above major areas,

dispersion models for inert, reactive

and toxic pollutants are under development and evaluation on all temporal

and spatial scales, e.g., indoor, urban,

complex terrain, mesoscale, regional,

and global. Other efforts include modeling nutrient deposition to Chesapeake Bay and mercury deposition to

the Florida Everglades; and determination of meteorological effects on air

quality. Atmospheric flow and dispersion experimental data obtained from

wind tunnel and convection tank

experiments in the EPA Fluid Modeling Facility will be used to continue

development and evaluation of these

models along with providing

researchers with insight into the basic

physical processes that affect pollutant

dispersion around natural and manmade obstacles. For example, the

transport and dispersion of airborne

agents in the Manhattan, New York

area were simulated in the wind tunnel

to evaluate Computational Fluid

Dynamics modeling systems in an

effort to help build confidence in modENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY WEATHER PROGRAMS

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for working with state, local, and other Federal

government agencies to provide user-appropriate and scientifically-credible air quality and meteorological programs to support regulatory applications. Applied research and meteorological support are

furnished primarily by EPA's National Exposure Research Laboratory and EPA's Office of Air Quality

Planning and Standards, both located in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. This activity is provided through interagency agreements with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA), which assigns approximately 50 research meteorologists to the EPA.

SECTION 3 EPA 215
eling assessment source-receptor relationships for horrific events such as the

one that occurred on September 11,

2001 A similar study was conducted

for the Pentagon (Figure 3-EPA-1) and

will be conducted for the Washington,

DC area.

Over the past twenty-five years,

numerous air quality simulation models have been developed to estimate

reductions in ambient air pollutant

concentrations resulting from potential

emission control strategies. Separate

models were developed, for example,

for tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog, for acid deposition,

and for fine particles. Distinct models

also existed for addressing urban scale

problems and the larger regional scale

problems. It has been recognized,

however, that the various pollutant

regimes are closely linked chemically,

spatially/temporally in the atmosphere.

The principal purpose of the Community Multi-scale Air Quality (CMAQ)

modeling project was to develop a

"one atmosphere" flexible environmental modeling tool that integrates

the major atmospheric pollution

regimes in a multi-scale, multi-pollutant modeling system. This system

will enable high-level computational

access to both scientific and air quality

management users for socio-economic

applications in community health

assessments and ecosystem sustainability studies.

After seven years of development,

the Models-3/CMAQ was first

released in June 1998, and is being

updated annually for use by Federal

and state agencies, industry, and academia. The latest version of CMAQ,

which includes science enhancements

and computational efficiencies, will be

released in September 2006. It is also

intended to serve as a community

framework for continual advancement

and use of environmental assessment

tools. CMAQ, configured for the Windows-NT computer system, is available on tapes from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). It is

accompanied by an Installation and

Operations Manual, a User Manual, a

Science Document, and a tutorial providing step by step instructions for use

of the modeling capabilities. Additional information is available at the

Models-3 web site at

http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/models3/. Figure 3-EPA-2 illustrates the

results of CMAQ for ozone and fine

particulate matter (PM2.5), sulfates,

and visibility for August 8, 2001, for

the contiguous U.S. at 36-km horizontal grid dimension, a period of widespread ambient pollution in the nation.

In FY 2005, EPA worked closely

with the National Center for Environmental Prediction of the National

Weather Service (NWS) in the continued development, evaluation, and use

of a coupled meteorological-chemical

transport model (WRF-CMAQ) for

predicting ambient air quality over the

Continental U.S.. This capability is

built on years of research in air quality,

exemplified by the NOAA-led New

England Pilot Air Quality Study in

2002 and 2004. In the first phase of

the forecasting project, NWS implemented the Eta-CMAQ modeling system, to provide daily forecast guidance

for ozone for the northeastern U.S.

starting from September 2004. Within

the next few years, the system for

ozone will deploy nationwide. Within

ten years, the operational forecast

capability is projected to be able to

forecast particulate matter. State and

local air quality management agencies

will continue to forecast local air quality, assisted in their efforts by the addition of national forecast guidance for

the concentrations of ozone and other

air pollutants.

EPA participation in the interagency

Information Technology Research and

Development (IT R&D) Program is

developing a modeling framework that

supports integration of diverse models

(e.g, atmospheric, land surface, and

watershed) as part of EPA's Multimedia Integrated Modeling System

(MIMS) project, described at

http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/mims/.

EPA's IT R&D work also enables

increased efficiency in air quality

meteorological modeling through

research on parallel implementation of

the CMAQ modeling system. The

evolving MIMS research seeks to

improve the environmental manage216 EPA SECTION 3

Figure 3-EPA-1. Model of the Pentagon used in the wind tunnel of the Fluid

Modeling Facility to study the transport and dispersion of airborne agents.
SECTION 3 EPA 217

ment community's ability to evaluate

the impact of air quality and watershed

management practices, at multiple

scales, on stream and estuarine conditions. Toward this goal the primary

objectives include:

• Developing a prototype multiscale

integrated modeling system with predictive meteorological capability for

transport and fate of nutrients and

chemical stressors;

• Enabling the use of remotely

sensed meteorological data; and

3. developing a computer-based

problem solving environment with

ready access to data, models, and integrated visualization and analysis tools

for water and air quality management,

local and regional development planning, and exposure-risk assessments.

Under the MIMS project, a variety of

research areas are being pursued such

as the integration of the National

Weather Service Next Generation

Radar (NEXRAD) Stage IV data into

watershed modeling applications;

enhanced atmospheric dry deposition

models; multi-scale, spatially explicit

watershed modeling tools; and modelcoupling technology for integrating

media specific models. The MIMS

development extends the open architecture approach demonstrated in the

third generation modeling system,

CMAQ, and is the next generation of

modeling frameworks under the IT

R&D program.

EPA also maintains relations with

foreign countries to facilitate exchange

Figure 3-EPA-2. CMAQ simulation results for August 8, 2001, for the contiguous U.S. at 36-km horizontal grid spacing

showing: (upper left) maximum 1-hour average ozone concentrations (ppbV) in each grid cell; (upper right) 24-hour

averages of sulfate concentrations (micrograms/m3); (lower left) 24-hour averages of PM2.5 concentrations (micrograms/m3) in each 36-km grid cell; and (lower right) visibility (deciview - see insert) in each grid cell.
218 EPA SECTION 3

of research meteorologists and

research results pertaining to meteorological aspects of air pollution. For

example, agreements are currently in

place with Canada, Greece, Japan,

Korea, China, India, and Mexico, and

with several European countries under

the NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS).
OPERATIONS

The goal of the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration (NASA)

weather operations program is to provide specialized meteorological data

and techniques needed by Air Force

forecasters at Cape Canaveral Air

Force Station (CCAFS), adjacent to

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), and by

the NWS' Spaceflight Meteorology

Group (SMG) at Johnson Space Center (JSC), to support NASA's Space

Shuttle and Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) programs. Their greatest

challenge is to accurately measure and

forecast the mesoscale weather events

that strongly impact ground processing, launch, and landing operations.

To successfully support the diverse,

unique and complex requirements of

their many customers' 24/7 operations,

in the mesoscale driven lightning capital of America, requires:

• A sophisticated weather infrastructure which includes systems normally

found only in research field programs

rather than operations;

• A dedicated capability to transition

research and technology to support

new or poorly satisfied operational

requirements;

• Rigorous training to ensure the

weather infrastructure, diverse customer requirements, and dynamic,

mesoscale weather are thoroughly

understood; and

• At least 2-3 years of on-site experience to adequately master the infrastructure, the weather, and the requirements sufficiently to provide timely,

tailored, accurate support to the many

weather sensitive daily operations.

The focal point for satisfying

requirement 3 above and assisting with

requirements 1 and 2 above is the

Applied Meteorology Unit (AMU).

The AMU, co-located with the Air

Force's Range Weather Operations at

CCAFS, develops, evaluates and, if

warranted, transitions new meteorological technology into operations.

For instance, the AMU strives to

develop techniques and systems to

help predict and avoid the impacts of

Central Florida's frequent thunderstorms which endanger the ground

processing, launch, and landing operations of the American Space ProgramSpace Shuttle, DOD, and commercial

interests. The AMU has focused special attention on evaluating and transitioning mesoscale numerical models,

and developing forecast techniques

applicable to Central Florida. The

AMU functions under a joint NASA,

Air Force, and NWS Memorandum of

Understanding.

Current AMU tasks include:

• Task: Objective Lightning Probability Forecast: Phase I.

Goal: Develop a set of statistical

equations to forecast the probability of

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WEATHER PROGRAMS

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Headquarters Weather Support Office has

continued to improve NASA's weather support capabilities for both manned and unmanned space launch

vehicles. It is expected that these improvements will strengthen and enhance the information provided

to the ground-based decision makers and astronaut observers to insure that NASA achieves the best

operational posture for Space Shuttle launches and landings. The goal of the operations program is to

provide the specialized meteorological data needed by operational forecasters at the Kennedy Space

Center (KSC) and Johnson Space Center (JSC). NASA also maintains a sophisticated fleet of eighteen

Earth-monitoring satellites, measuring a vast number of Earth properties. The focus of Earth Science Research is to integrate satellite observations, numerical model and theoretical studies of various Earth system attributes. These attributes

include ocean currents, temperature and biological activity; atmospheric ozone and aerosols; tropical rainfall, lightning;

atmospheric temperature and humidity structure; Antarctic and Arctic sea ice; volcanic emissions and gravitational

anomalies in the Earth's crust. NASA also performs aviation research to improve safety, develop weather information

technologies, and increase aviation system capacity. Advanced operations technologies can increase the number of operations per runway in all weather conditions. The research applies to both commercial and general aviation.

SECTION 3 NASA 219
220 NASA SECTION 3

lightning occurrence for the day. This

will aid forecasters in evaluating flight

rules and determining the probability

of launch commit criteria violations, as

well as preparing forecasts for ground

operations.

• Task: Severe Weather Forecast

Decision Aid.

Goal: Create a new forecast aid to

improve the severe weather watches

and warnings meant for the protection

of KSC and CCAFS personnel and

property.

• Task: Shuttle Ascent Camera

Cloud Obstruction Forecast.

Goal: Develop a model to forecast

the probability that at least three Shuttle ascent imaging cameras can view

the Shuttle launch vehicle (LV) unobstructed by cloud at any time from

launch to Solid Rocket Booster (SRB)

separation.

• Task: Stable Low Cloud Evaluation.

Goal: Examine archived data collected during rapid stable cloud development events resulting in cloud ceilings below 8000 ft at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF). Document the

atmospheric conditions favoring this

type of cloud development to improve

the ceiling forecast issued by the

Spaceflight Meteorology Group

(SMG) for Shuttle landings at KSC.

• Task: Hail Index.

Goal: Evaluate current techniques

used by the 45 Weather Squadron (45

WS) to forecast the probability of hail

occurrence and size. Hail forecasts are

required to protect personnel and material assets at KSC, CCAFS, Patrick Air

Force Base and the Melbourne International Airport. The evaluation results

will be used by the 45 WS to determine

if a new technique is needed.

• Task: RSA and Legacy Wind Sensor Evaluation.

Goal: Compare wind speed and

direction statistics from the legacy and

RSA sensors on the Eastern (ER) and

Western (WR) Ranges to determine the

impact of the sensor changes on wind

measurements. The 45 WS and 30 WS

at Edwards AFB, CA, need to know of

any differences in the measurements

between the two systems as they use

these winds to issue weather advisories

for operations.

• Task: Volume Averaged Height

Integrated Radar Reflectivity

(VAHIRR).

Goal: Transition the VAHIRR

algorithm into operations. The current

lightning launch commit criteria

(LLCC) for anvil clouds to avoid triggered lightning are overly conservative

and lead to costly launch delays and

scrubs. The VAHIRR algorithm was

developed as a result of the Airborne

Field Mill program to evaluate a new

LLCC for anvil clouds. This algorithm

will assist forecasters in providing

fewer missed launch opportunities

with no loss of safety compared with

the current LLCC.

• Task: Mesoscale Model Phenomenological Verification Evaluation.

Goal: Find model weather-phenomena verification tools in the literature that could be transitioned into

operations. Forecasters use models to

aid in forecasting weather phenomena

important to launch, landing, and daily

ground operations. Methods that verify model performance are needed to

help forecasters determine the model

skill in predicting certain phenomena.

• Task: Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) Optimization and

Training Extension.

Goal: Provide assistance and support for upgrading and improving the

operational ARPS and ARPS Data

Analysis System (ADAS) that is used

to make operational forecasts at the

National Weather Service in Melbourne, FL (NWS MLB) and SMG

forecast offices.

• Task: User Control Interface for

ADAS Data Ingest.

Goal: Develop a GUI to help forecasters at NWS MLB and SMG manage the data sets assimilated into the

operational ADAS.

• Task: Anvil Transparency Relationship to Radar Reflectivity.

Goal: Determine if the NWS MLB

WSR-88D radar can be used to analyze

anvil cloud transparency 

• Task: Range Standardization and

Automation (RSA) Support.

Goal: Help ER management evaluate proposed designs and implementations of the weather systems

upgrade by the RSA and SLRSC contractors.

Additionally the KSC Weather

Office continues to work with the ER

to improve the KSC and ER weather

infrastructure and improve operational

processes and facilities in the following areas:

• Lightning Launch Commit Criteria

(LLCC) [Airborne Field Mill

(ABFM)] Program.

The Weather Office continued to

direct the analysis of data gathering

from KSC's major field research program called the Lightning Launch

Commit Criteria (LLCC) program.

The LLCC program used an aircraft

equipped with field mills and cloud

physics sensors, in combination with

several ground based radars and other

sensors, to collect the data necessary to

relax the lightning launch constraints

while making them even safer. LLCC

was cooperatively funded by the Shuttle program, NASA ELVs and the

USAF. The team included more than

50 personnel from eleven organizations including other Governmental

agencies, NASA Centers, universities

and their contractors.

Based on analyses of the extensive

data base of in-situ and radar measurements, the team developed revised

LLCC for both Attached Anvils and

Detached Anvils. Working with colleagues from the National Center for

Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Marshall Spaceflight Center (MSFC), the

University of Arizona (U AZ), the Hurricane Research Division

(NOAA/HRD), National Severe

Storms Lab., Aerospace Corp. and oth-
SECTION 3 NASA 221

ers, KSC developed and applied software to perform a variety of analyses

on the massive data set. These analyses included correlation and power

spectral analyses, and extensive statistical examinations of the radar, cloud

physics and electric field data.

KSC facilitated and participated in

defining the new LLCC. To help the

Lightning Advisory Panel (LAP) determine the threshold electric field aloft

that poses a triggered lightning hazard,

KSC acquired information from Shuttle and Titan about the length of the

ionized plum from their solid rocket

motors. From data obtained elsewhere

on the likely potential difference

required to trigger lightning, the LAP

used the plume lengths to convert the

triggering threat potential to a corresponding threshold electric field.

In order to automate processing of

ABFM data for the determination of

the decay of electric fields with distance from cloud edges, KSC developed an automated cloud edge detection algorithm. A paper describing the

algorithm and its testing appeared in

the May 2004 issue of the Journal of

Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology.

(Ward, J.G. and F.J. Merceret, 2004: An

Automated Cloud-Edge Detection

Algorithm Using Cloud Physics and

Radar Data, J. Atm. & Ocean. Tech.,

21(5), 762-765)

• Winds.

The KSC Weather Office (KSCWO)

requested the Shuttle Program to reexamine its day of launch upper air

winds procedures to ensure spatial and

temporal variability are being optimally accounted for. The KSCWO

presented several briefings on temporal wind persistence as a function of

vertical feature size and related instrumentation matters to the Space Shuttle

Natural Environments Panel challenging engineers from the Shuttle, Titan

and new Expendable Launch Vehicle

programs (Atlas V and Delta IV) to

reconsider their assumptions and

launch day procedures.

• Visibility Sensors.

In FY 2004, KSC began transmitting

Visibility and Soil Moisture data to

JSC/SMG from five suites of newly

installed sensors west of KSC to aid in

the forecast of morning fog that could

impact Shuttle landings.

• Range Standardization and

Automation (RSA).

The KSC Weather Office, SMG at

JSC, and the AMU continue to actively

participate in plans and proposals for

projects managed by the RSA program. RSA is a major Air Force program to modernize the Eastern and

Western Range infrastructure. Many

issues remain with RSA's pending

changes. Thus the Air Force and

NASA weather communities continued to expend significant resources to

solve potential major RSA deficiencies, since NASA KSC, JSC and

MSFC depend heavily on this infrastructure for their weather support. A

major success was the RSA contractor's decision to discard their proposed

Control and Display (C&D) system,

and instead partner with NOAA's Forecast Systems Lab to deliver a COTS

AWIPS (Automated Weather Information System). This will provide Range

Weather Operations with a very capable system that is cost effective, and

compatible with both future AWIPS

upgrades and with SMG. However, in

FY 2003 and FY 2004, the Air Force

budget redirection seriously threatened

cancellation of the entire RSA weather

system which would have seriously

degraded long term weather support to

the American Space Program. Fortunately, the program is still progressing.

Although deliveries of some weather

sensors, models, and control and display systems began in FY 2000, budget

restrictions have delayed full operational capability and acceptance by the

Eastern Range to FY 2007 (a decade

plus delay from original schedule).

• Spacelift Range Systems Contract

(SLRS-C).

In addition to the RSA Modernization programs, the new SLRS-C provides Sustaining Engineering for the

legacy systems and also the systems

RSA is delivering. SLRS-C is currently upgrading or replacing three

systems currently owned by NASA

Kennedy Space Center: the 50 MHz

Doppler Radar Wind Profiler; the

Shuttle Landing Facility Weather

Tower and Sensor system; and the

Lightning Detection and Ranging (4D

total lightning) system. Upon completion of each program, the system will

be turned over from NASA/KSC to the

Eastern Range. Despite numerous

logistical and programmatic hurdles all

three programs will likely move forward to completion: SLF in FY 2006,

4D lightning in FY 2007, and 50 MHz

profiler in FY 2007.

• 50 MHz Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (DRWP).

Replacement of the KSC DRWP and

its electronic components began in FY

2004 and finished in FY 2005. Meanwhile, several antenna field issues

were corrected. The Air Force funded

a project to improve the drainage of the

DRWP antenna field that flooded during very heavy rains. During droughts,

the very dry antenna ground plane

caused erroneous side lobe returns.

The Profiler O&M contractor designed

and a contractor installed a sprinkler

system to wet the antenna field during

droughts. The sprinkler system is now

installed which solved the side-lobe

problem during dry weather.

• Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF)

Weather Sensors.

LRSC also contracted to replace and

modernize all SLF weather instrumentation. SLRS-C chose the AF Weather

Agency FMQ-19 (aka OS-21) as the

basic system to ensure adequate logistics support. To meet special NASA

requirements, the system has been

modified to provide 1-second winds,

additional ceilometers off both runway

approaches, and a 120 minute (vs 30

minute) UPS backup. After several

communication links are complete, the
222 NASA SECTION 3

system will become operational and

turned over to the AF expected by FY

2006.

• Lightning Detection and Ranging

(LDAR) System.

Since LDAR was originally developed as a research system in the late

1980s, its components are increasingly

subject to obsolescence, and thus costs

and the risk of system failure are

increasing.

KSC worked with the Range to justify raising the priority of a replacement LDAR in the AF Space Command priority list. The AF and KSC

worked with SLRS-C to overcome

numerous obstacles: electromagnetic

interference; NASA and AF requirements vs. COTS capabilities; site

selection for antenna towers; takeover

of COTS contractor by Finish international company; etc. Major unresolved

KSC issues: transmission of LDAR

data to SMG and NWS Melbourne;

and an expected requirement to perform environmental impact assessments (EIS) on all seven antenna sites

because of the location of two towers

in marshlands. The EISs will delay

antenna installation until FY 2006;

testing until FY 2006, and project

completion until FY 2007.

• TAL Atmospheric Sounding System (TASS).

The Radio Automatic Theodolite

System (RATS) was used to provide

SMG with upper level winds, temperatures and humidity at the Shuttle

Transatlantic Abort Landing (TAL)

sites in Spain, Morocco, and Gambia.

RATS became obsolete when the manufacturer announced cessation of

sonde production. A replacement system called TASS, a Global Positioning

System (GPS) based Sippican W9000,

was selected, procured, integrated and

tested with the help of the Eastern

Range. The initial system is now

installed and operational. The Eastern

Range owns, operates and maintains

the system for NASA. In order to

improve TASS' user friendliness, reliability, and accuracy, NASA will funded

the ER to upgrade the Operating System from DOS to Windows, and

upgrade the sondes in FY 2005.

• Sonic Lightning Locator

(SOLLO).

The KSC Weather Office funded

development of a new lightning detection system capable of locating lightning strikes in 4D with an accuracy of

less than 5 meters (a considerable

improvement over the 250-300 meter

accuracy of our current lightning location system). Called SOLLO, it uses a

sensor to detect the time of arrival of

the electromagnetic pulse from a lightning strike, and then one elevated

detector and three surface based detectors to measure the time of arrival of

thunder from the lightning, to very

accurately calculate the location of the

lightning strike. SOLLO also calculates the amperage, rise time, and

polarity of the strike. During FY 2004,

KSC replaced/upgraded SOLLO components to enhance its capability to

operate reliably in the corrosive

KSC/ER environment. During the

2004 and 2005 spring/summer lightning season, KSC installed SOLLO

systems at the Shuttle Launch Complex and a new technology development and testing facility for further

testing.

• KSC/CCAFS Weather Observation Site Relocation.

The 24/7 official KSC/CCAFS

Weather Observation Site is located in

a very aging structure with its view of

Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) runway

totally obscured. We convinced architects and managers of a project to build

a new SLF air traffic control tower to

include two floors for weather

observers and equipment. The Range

Technical Service Contractor (CSR)

provided detailed specifications to

ensure the final design met strict

observing requirements. Tower project

is complete; and move in completed

FY 2005. The tower enables observers

to provide much more accurate

weather depictions over SLF, especially during rapidly changing conditions, thus improving aircraft, Space

Shuttle and future RLV safety.

• Lightning Launch Commit Criteria

(LLCC) Revision.

During analyses of Airborne Field

Mill (ABFM) Program data, the Lightning Advisory Panel (LAP) concluded

the radar definition of cloud edge, top

and base in the LLCC was not sufficiently conservative. Based on ABFM

measurements of electric fields high

enough to trigger lightning with radar

reflectivities as low as 5 dBZ, the LAP

concluded the radar threshold needed

to be lowered from 10 dBZ to 0 dBZ.

The conclusion was reached one week

before the launch of first Mars Rover

on board a Delta.

A new definition was quickly staffed

from the LAP thru 45 WS. and 45th

Space Wing Safety, and the revision

recommended at the Delta/Mars Rover

Launch Readiness Review, two days

before launch. Although Launch and

Program managers are normally reluctant to accept last minute changes to

procedures, we emphasized the revision was a safety issue and they

accepted the change exactly as proposed.

• Columbia Accident Investigation.

The entire NASA and ER weather

communities (KSC, JSC/SMG, MSFC,

GSFC, LRC, and 45 WS) were deeply

involved supporting the Space Shuttle

Columbia accident investigation.

Weather analyses were crucial to: identifying likely debris impact locations

over the western and central U.S.;

characterizing the atmosphere during

reentry, beginning in the very data

sparse upper Mesosphere; identifying

possible anomalous wind shears during

launch ascent; analyzing Columbia's

exposure to the atmosphere during the

39 days Columbia was on the launch

pad; and numerous engineering studies. NOAA/NWS also provided considerable help.

• Helios Accident Investigation.
SECTION 3 NASA 223

NASA's premier solar-powered

research aircraft (Helios) crashed just

west of Barking Sands, Kauai in late

June 2003. The KSC Weather Office

participated on the Mishap Board

along with Dr. John Brown from

NOAA/Forecast Systems Lab. Due to

Helios' many unique design and power

characteristics, it had many very complex stability and control physics and

characteristics.

Initial research revealed little was

known about the atmosphere's behavior west of Kauai, specifically the

atmosphere's combined response to the

wake turbulence from the Trade Wind

flow over the island, shear lines from

air flowing around Kauai, sea breezes,

and the large scale pattern. Thus the

Weather Office contracted with NCAR

and the University of Hawaii to perform high resolution atmospheric

numerical model simulations to try to

understand the atmosphere Helios

encountered. In addition, the University of Hawaii designed and implemented a very low budget, aircraft data

gathering program offshore of Barking

Sands, Kauai, to measure wind and

temperature profiles, and turbulence

features. The aircraft data was used to

understand small-scale features and to

validate results from NCAR's high resolution model simulations. The final

Helios Mishap Board report was

released to the public.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

NASA's Earth Science program is

dedicated to the utilization of space

technology and the pioneering of the

use of global satellite measurements to

improve human understanding of our

Home Planet and thus inform economic and policy decisions and

advance operational services of benefit

to the Nation. The program is responsive to several Congressional Mandates and Presidential Initiatives.

Perhaps more than any other human

activity, several centuries of progress

in flight and advances in the spacerelated technology have steadily

changed our perception of the Earth as

a home planet. Satellite measurements

of essential characteristics have

enabled human understanding of the

Earth as a system of tightly coupled

parts. It is now clear for example that

the characteristics of Earth's atmosphere so critical to human habitability

are maintained by complex and tightly

coupled circulation dynamics, chemistry, and interactions with the oceans,

ice and land surface; all driven by solar

radiation and gravitational forces. We

live on a planet undergoing constant

change due to natural phenomena and

our own activities, and to maintain and

improve quality of life on Earth, we

need continuous global observations of

variability and change analyzed to

reveal the forces involved, the nature

of the underlying processes and how

these are coupled within the Earth system. To inform resource management

decisions and policies we need ongoing predictions derived from Earth

observations to expose the responses

that determine further change. Thus,

NASA's strategic goal: "study planet

Earth from space to advance scientific

understanding and meet societal

needs" is expressed by the fundamental question: "How is the Earth changing and what are the consequences for

life on Earth?"

NASA's Earth Science programs are

essential to the implementation of

three major Presidential initiatives:

• Climate Change Research (June

2001), 

• Global Earth Observation (July

2003), and 

• the Vision for Space Exploration

(February 2004). 

The first is the subject of the U.S.

Climate Change Science Program

(CCSP). The second is related, and

focuses on national and international

coordination of Earth observing capabilities to enhance their use in meeting

important societal needs. An Earth

Observation Summit in Brussels in

February 2005, adopted a ten year plan

for a Global Earth Observation system

of systems. The third initiative uses

NASA's observing technologies and

knowledge of Earth as a planet to aid

in the Nation's exploration of worlds

beyond. NASA's unique role in these

coordinated efforts is to advance

remote sensing technology and computational modeling for scientific purposes, and facilitate the transition of

mature observations and technologies

to partner agencies that provide essential services using Earth science information.

The complexity of the Earth system,

in which spatial and temporal variability exists on a range of scales, requires

that an organized scientific approach

be developed for addressing the complex, interdisciplinary problems that

exist, taking good care that in doing so

there is a recognition of the objective

to integrate science across the programmatic elements towards a comprehensive understanding of the Earth

system. In the Earth system, these elements may be built around aspects of

the Earth that emphasize the particular

attributes that make it stand out among

known planetary bodies. These

include the presence of carbon-based

life; water in multiple, interacting

phases; a fluid atmosphere and ocean

that redistribute heat over the planetary

surface; an oxidizing and protective

atmosphere, albeit one subject to a

wide range of fluctuations in its physical properties (especially temperature,

moisture, and winds); a solid but

dynamically active surface that makes

up a significant fraction of the planet's

surface; and an external environment

driven by a large and varying star

whose magnetic field also serves to

shield the Earth from the broader astronomical environment. The resulting

structure is comprised of six interdisciplinary science Focus Areas:

• Atmospheric position,

• Carbon Cycle and Ecosystems,

• Water and Energy Cycle,
224 NASA SECTION 3

• Climate Variability and Change,

• Weather and Earth Surface, and

• Interior

These six focus areas include

research that not only addresses the

challenging hierarchy of science questions but drives the development of an

Earth observing capability and associated Earth system models as well.

NASA conducts Earth science

research within a larger national and

international context. This implies

both opportunities for task sharing

with partner agencies and the responsibility to seek optimal coordination of

mutually supportive programs of these

national and international partners. In

particular, NASA has been actively

seeking the cooperation of operational

agencies in the US (DOD, NOAA,

USGS) and elsewhere to ensure the

long-term continuity of key environmental measurements in the long term.

To achieve this goal, NASA will promote the convergence of the operational observation requirements of

partner agencies with its research data

needs for systematic observations,

share the cost of new developments,

and develop precursor instruments and

spacecraft technologies for future

operational application missions.

NASA will also encourage the continuing involvement of scientific investigators in the calibration and validation

of operational measurements, the

development of more advanced information retrieval algorithms, and the

analysis of operational data records.

From this perspective, the potential for

serving operational needs or commercial-applications is a priority criterion

for NASA Earth science programs.

Interagency and international partnerships are also important for maximizing the scientific value of any

research while minimizing costs. The

need for partnerships in process-oriented field measurement activities is

crucial, especially when investigators'

access to particular regions of scientific interest is needed. For spacebased measurements, partnerships provide the opportunity for leveraging

additional contributions onto those that

would be made by NASA, and allow

for benefiting from the technological

and scientific skills resident in other

agencies and countries, as well as

access to information needed for validation under a broad range of biological and geophysical conditions. Partnership opportunities will typically be

encouraged in all relevant solicitations

as long as they are consistent with

national policy objectives such as

export control of sensitive technology.

Commercial partnerships also provide

the opportunity for NASA to obtain

needed data or services, and NASA has

committed to working with the private

sector to avoid duplicating capability

that already exists in it.

Since its inception, NASA has

exploited satellite platforms to observe

the Earth, providing a critical resource

for Earth science research. As a result

of growing research efforts, many

measurements from space are now routine and essential. For example, satellite remote sensing has become indispensable for accurate weather forecasts

and severe storm warnings. But other

important measurements require new

concepts that take advantage of

advancing technology-many observations remain difficult to interpret.

Earth science research drives NASA

satellite missions, and the focus area

roadmaps indicate major requirements

for developing or extending satellite

remote sensing.

Beginning with the launch of the

Terra satellite in December 1999,

NASA began to deploy an Earth

observing system with the objective of

collecting systematic, well-calibrated

and validated, long-term measurements to characterize and detect

change in the Earth system. A suite of

polar-orbiting and low-inclination

satellites, each carrying multiple sensors, linked to a data system for acquisition, processing, and distribution,

provides numerous science data products with global coverage and repeated

measurements of sufficient frequency

and accuracy to detect change. With

the launch of Aura in July 2004, NASA

completed the deployment of the

observing system that now provides a

core set of data products to characterize the Earth system and to identify

and track changes. In the future, measurements whose scientific value

demand a data continuity spanning

multiple mission lifetimes will be provided by NASA satellites or operational satellites operated by other agencies. In addition, satellites like

GRACE, launched in March 2002,

probe key Earth processes globally for

the first time. The CloudSat and

CALIPSO satellites, launched in April

2006, are recent additions to these

highly focused exploratory measurement missions. A brief description of

all operating NASA Earth Science

satellites is provided below:

ACRIMSAT

The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor III (ACRIM III) instrument onboard ACRIMSAT monitors

total radiant energy from the Sun.

Measurements of total solar irradiance

are directly relevant to the Climate

Variability and Change science focus

area. When combined with other scientific data, these measurements will

help climatologists to improve their

predictions of long-term climate. They

extend the database initiated by

ACRIM I in 1980. ACRIMSAT was

launched on December 20, 1999, and

is in an extended mission having

exceeded its 5 year design life.

Aqua

Aqua, Latin for water, was named for

the large amount of information that

the mission collects about the Earth's

water cycle, including evaporation

from the oceans, water vapor in the

atmosphere, clouds, precipitation, soil

moisture, sea ice, land ice, and snow

cover on the land and ice. In addition

to the Water and Energy Cycle science
SECTION 3 NASA 225

focus area, its six optical and

microwave sensors provide interdisciplinary measurements supporting the

Climate Variability and Change;

Weather; Carbon Cycle, Ecosystems

and Biogeochemistry; and Atmospheric Composition science focus

areas. It is the second, following Terra,

of the series of large satellites devoted

to characterizing the Earth system and

identifying and tracking changes. It is

a collaboration with Japan and Brazil.

Aqua was launched on May 4, 2002,

and is in its 6-year prime mission.

Aqua was the first member launched of

a group of satellites termed the Afternoon Constellation, or sometimes the

A-Train. Envisioned to eventually

comprise 6 satellites, the A-Train will

provide synergistic measurements

from multiple satellites that together

will contain comprehensive information about key atmospheric components and processes related to climate

change and atmospheric composition.

Aura

Aura, Latin for air, was named for

the unique global view it provides of

the Earth's atmosphere in direct support of the Atmospheric Composition

science focus area. It additionally supports Climate Variability and Change

science focus area. Aura's objective is

to study the chemistry and dynamics of

the Earth's atmosphere with emphasis

on the upper troposphere and lower

stratosphere by employing four optical

and microwave instruments on a single

satellite. It is the third, following

Aqua, of the series of large satellites

devoted to characterizing the Earth

system and identifying and tracking

changes. It is a collaboration with the

UK, Netherlands, and Finland. Aura

was launched on July 15, 2004, and is

in its prime 6 year mission. Aura is the

second member to joint the A-Train or

Afternoon constellation of satellites.

Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared

Pathfinder Satellite Observations

(CALIPSO)

CALIPSO will help answer significant questions about the effects of thin

clouds and aerosols on changes in the

Earth's climate. Understanding these

components will provide the more

comprehensive data set that is essential

for better understanding the Earth's climatic processes in support of the Climate Change and Variability science

focus area. CALIPSO combines a

laser radar (backscatter lidar) with passive infrared and visible imagers to

probe the vertical structure and properties of thin clouds and aerosols. It is a

collaboration with France. CALIPSO

was launched on April 28, 2006, with

CloudSat and is early in its prime 3

year mission. It flies within seconds of

CloudSat in the A-Train formation to

take advantage of its complementary

millimeter-wave radar measurements

of clouds.

CloudSat

CloudSat uses advanced radar to

"slice" through clouds to see their vertical structure, providing a completely

new observational capability from

space. CloudSat is one of the first

satellites to study clouds on a global

basis. It will look at their structure,

composition and effects in support of

the Climate Change and Variability

and Weather science focus areas. It is

a collaboration with Canada. CloudSat

was launched on April 28, 2006, with

CALIPSO and is early in its prime 22

month mission. CloudSat maintains a

close formation with Aqua and particularly CALIPSO, providing near-simultaneous and collocated observations

with the instruments on these two ATrain satellites.

Earth Observing-1 (EO-1)

EO-1 is an advanced land-imaging

mission to demonstrate new instruments and spacecraft systems. EO-1

validated technologies contributing to

the significant reduction in cost of follow-on Landsat missions. It supports

the Carbon, Ecosystems and Biogeochemistry science focus area. EO-1

was launched on November 21, 2000,

and is in an extended mission having

exceeded its 2 year design life.

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)

The primary goal of the GRACE

mission is to accurately map variations

in the Earth's gravity field. GRACE

studies gravity changes due to surface

and deep currents in the ocean; runoff

and ground water storage on land

masses; exchanges between ice sheets

or glaciers and the oceans; and variations of mass within the earth. The

tandem two satellite mission supports

the Earth Surface and Interior, Climate

Variability and Change, and Water and

Energy Cycle science focus areas.

GRACE maps the Earth's gravity fields

by making accurate measurements of

distance between the two satellites

using high quality Global Positioning

System (GPS) receivers and a

microwave ranging system. It is a collaboration with Germany. Grace was

launched on March 17, 2002, and is in

its prime 5 year mission.

Ice, Clouds, and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat)

ICESat's primary objective is to

quantify ice sheet mass balance and

understand how changes in the Earth'

atmosphere and climate affect polar ice

masses and global sea level. It also

measures the distribution of clouds and

aerosols, as well as surveying land

topography, sea ice, and vegetation

cover. ICESat observations support

the Climate Variability and Change,

Earth Surface and Interior, and Water

and Energy Cycle science focus areas.

The primary instrument is a laser

altimeter. ICESat was launched on

January 12, 2003, and is in an extended

mission having exceeded its 3 year

design life.

Jason

Jason is an oceanography mission to

monitor global ocean circulation,

improve global climate predictions,

and monitor events such as El Nino

conditions and ocean eddies. The

Jason satellite carries a radar altimeter

and continues the precise sea surface
226 NASA SECTION 3

height measurement record begun by

the TOPEX/Poseidon mission in 1992.

Jason measurements support the Climate Variability and Change science

focus area. It is a collaboration with

France. Jason was launched on

December 7, 2001, and is in an

extended mission having exceeded its

3 year design life.

Landsat 7

Landsat 7 systematically provides

calibrated, multispectral, moderate resolution images of the Earth's continental and coastal areas with global coverage on a seasonal basis. It covers the

U.S. every 16 days. These images

form a unique resource for global

change research and various applications. Landsat 7 measurements support the Carbon, Ecosystems and Biogeochemistry science focus area.

Landsat 7 is a collaboration with the

U.S. Geological Survey which took

over spacecraft operations in the Fall

of 2000. Landsat 7 was launched on

April 15, 1999, and is in an extended

mission having exceeded its 5 year

design life.

Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT)

QuikSCAT records sea-surface wind

speed and direction data for global climate research and operational weather

forecasting and storm warning (Figure

3-NASA-1). These data support the

Climate Variability and Change and

Water and Weather science focus areas.

It replaces the data lost by the failure

of the Japanese Advanced Earth

Observing Satellite (ADEOS) in 1997.

SeaWinds, a radar scatterometer, is the

main instrument on the QuikSCAT

satellite. QuickSCAT was launched on

June 19, 1999, and is in an extended

mission having exceeded its 3 year

design life.

SOlar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE)

SORCE provides data continuity

with ACRIMSAT and operational successors to ensure long-term systematic

measurement of total and spectral (1-

2000 nm) solar irradiance, the dominant energy source in the Earth's

atmosphere and one of its primary climate variables. Its measurements support the Climate Variability and

Change science focus area. SORCE

was launched on January 25, 2003, and

is in its prime 5 year mission.

Terra

Terra, Latin for land, provides global

data on the state of the atmosphere,

land, and oceans, as well as their interactions with solar radiation and with

one another. Its name reflects an

emphasis on observations of terrestrial

surface features although its measurements have a truly interdisciplinary

character. Terra measurements support

the Atmospheric Composition; Carbon, Ecosystems and Biogeochemistry; Climate Variability and Change;

Earth Surface and Interior; Water and

Energy Cycle; and Climate Variability

and Change science focus areas. Terra

employs five optical instruments on a

single satellite. It is the first, of the

series of large satellites devoted to

characterizing the Earth system and

identifying and tracking changes. It is

a collaboration with Japan and Canada.

Terra was launched on December 18,

1999, and is in an extended mission

having exceeded its 5 year design life. 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

(TOMS)-Earth Probe (EP)

TOMS-EP provides global measurements of atmospheric total column

ozone and its variation on a daily basis.

It continues a long-term data set of

daily ozone of over two decades. Its

measurements support the Atmospheric Composition science focus area.

The single instrument, TOMS, is a second-generation backscatter ultraviolet

sounder. TOMS-EP was launched on

July 2, 1996, and is in an extended

mission having exceeded its 2 year

design life.

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

(TRMM)

TRMM monitors tropical and subtropical rainfall and the associated

release of energy that helps to power

the global atmospheric circulation

shaping both weather and climate

Figure 3-NASA-1. NASA QuickSCAT satellite view of Hurricane Frances

(2004) in the Atlantic, showing structure of the low-level wind vortex.
SECTION 3 NASA 227

around the world (Figure 3-NASA-2).

Its measurements support the Climate

Variability and Change, Water and

Energy Cycle, and Weather science

focus areas. The TRMM satellite carries the first precipitation radar flown

in space and several microwave and

optical radiometers. It is a collaboration with Japan. TRMM was launched

on November 27, 1997, is in an

extended mission having exceeded its

3 year design life.

Figure 3-NASA-2. Global view of one week of rainfall accumulation obtained by the TRMM-based Multi-Satellite 

Precipitation Analysis.

Within the NRC, the Offices of

Nuclear Reactor Regulation and New

Reactors conduct reviews of nuclear

power plant siting, design, construction, and operation while the Offices

of Nuclear Material

Safety and Safeguards and Federal

and State Materials

and Environmental

Management Programs conduct similar reviews of materials and waste facilities. These reviews

include consideration of meteorological factors. The

offices also conduct

rulemaking to establish regulatory

requirements. The

NRC Regional

Offices assure that

licensing conditions

are followed by NRC licensees.

Together with the NRC Incident

Response Operations, they also carry

out NRC responses to nuclear facility emergencies.

The Office of Nuclear Regulatory

Research (RES) conducts research in

various categories to identify potential safety issues, and to prepare the

agency to regulate the use of new

technology. RES also develops regulatory guidance and participates in

the development of criteria and consensus standards related to the protection of the public health and

safety and the environment. 

At the present time, the NRC is a

user of meteorological information,

rather than a performer of research in

this field. Meteorological data will

be used to assess radiological impacts of

routine airborne

releases from facilities, to evaluate the

impact of proposed

changes in plant

design or operation on

unplanned releases,

and to evaluate new

reactor designs or

sites. Information of

this type is also

important for developing scenarios of climatological impacts

on the isolation of

long-lived nuclear

wastes. The NRC also

maintains an interest

in the transport and dispersion of airborne, hazardous, nonradioactive

materials, and the effects of extreme

meteorological events on the safe

operation of nuclear facilities.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION WEATHER PROGRAMS

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses and regulates all nuclear facilities

subject to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 as amended. The licensing and operation of these nuclear

facilities require the identification of meteorological and climatological conditions that can affect the

safe operation of the facility, and that provide input to the assessment of the radiological impacts of any

airborne releases from the facility.

SECTION 3 NRC 229

Figure 3-NRC-1. Fort Calhoun Nuclear Power Plant (NRC Image)

The Division of Atmospheric Sciences manages NSF's basic atmospheric research support. This research

focuses on new and fundamental

knowledge needed to better understand

the atmosphere and related sciences

and to manage atmospheric science

programs including natural disaster

reduction, space weather, global

change, and air quality.

NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION

NSF supports fundamental and

applied research to address weather

phenomena that are either life threatening or economically disruptive. Focus

areas include:

• Better understanding and forecasting of hurricane track and intensity;

• Better quantitative precipitation

forecasting and estimation;

• Optimal use of observations in

numerical models; and

• The societal/economic impacts of

improved weather information.

The total research support for FY

2006 was approximately 14 million. A

major activity in FY 2006 was the

NSF/NOAA joint program entitled,

Rainband Intensity Experiment

(RAINEX). This project was focused

on obtaining a better understanding of

the impact of internal tropical storm

dynamics on storm intensity. An

excellent data set was gathered including data from hurricanes Katrina and

Rita. Analysis of this data set is ongoing. In FY 2007, support is expected to

remain at the same level as in FY 2006.

SPACE WEATHER

NSF supports research under the

National Space Weather Program

(NSWP). The objective of the NSWP

is to perform the research and technology transfer needed to improve the

specification and forecasts of space

weather events that can cause disruption and failure of space borne and

ground based technological systems

and can endanger human health.

Examples of NSF support of space

weather include conducting a highly

successful competition for space

weather research grants and providing

support for the Center for Integrated

Space Weather Modeling (CISM), a

multi-institutional effort led by Boston

University and dedicated to providing

advance warning of potentially harmful space weather events. NSF NSWP

support in FY 2006 is about $14 million and is expected to be about the

same in FY 2007.

GLOBAL CHANGE

Under the United States Climate

Change Research Program, NSF supports research and related activities

that advance fundamental understanding of dynamic, physical, geochemical,

biological, and socioeconomic systems

as well as interactions among those

systems. In addition to research on

Earth system processes and the consequences of changes in those systems,

NSF facilitates data acquisition and

data management activities necessary

for basic research on global change,

promotes the enhancement of modeling designed to improve representations of Earth system interactions, and

develops advanced analytic methods to

facilitate fundamental research. NSF

also supports fundamental social and

economic research on the general

processes used by governments and

other organizations to identify and

evaluate different types of policies for

mitigation, adaptation, and other

responses to changing global environmental conditions. The total NSF FY

2006 funding for this area of research

was about $195 million; in FY 2007, a

modest funding increase is expected.

AIR QUALITY

NSF supported fundamental research

in the area of air quality helps develop

improved understanding of the

sources, formation, atmospheric processing and fates of ambient air pollutants. Atmospheric oxidant species

(and their precursors), sulfur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, fine

particles (and their precursors), and

acids are important atmospheric constituents that influence air quality, and

in turn habitability, human health and

climate. Field experiments, laboratory

studies, instrument development, new

methods of chemical analysis, and

improved models of atmospheric

chemical reaction mechanisms, transport and depositional phenomena are

examples of air quality research supported by NSF. These categories provide scientific and technical input for

management and control of atmospheric pollutant gases and particles.

NOTE: NSF budget data is not captured in Tables 2.1-2.5.

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency of the Federal Government established to promote and advance scientific and engineering progress. The NSF sponsors and funds scientific and engineering research and education projects and supports cooperative research to gain new

understanding of the behavior of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans. NSF does not itself conduct

research but funds research performed by scientists at universities and other entities. In addition, NSF

provides support for the maintenance and operation of the National Center for Atmospheric Research

(NCAR) which is devoted to large-scale atmospheric research projects conducted in cooperation with universities and

other Federal, state and/or local organizations. 

SECTION 3 NSF 231

APPENDIX A

MISSION OF THE OFFICE OF THE

FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR

METEOROLOGY (OFCM)

The mission of the OFCM is to

ensure the effective use of Federal

meteorological resources by leading

the systematic coordination of operational weather requirements, services,

and supporting research, among the

Federal agencies. The high level focus

and output as a result of carrying out

this mission includes needs and

requirements; issues and problems;

studies, reports, plans, and handbooks;

and crosscut reviews, assessments, and

analyses.

OFCM's objectives in carrying out its

mission include:

• Documenting agency programs

and activities in a series of national

plans and reports that enable agencies

to revise/adjust their individual ongoing programs and provide a means for

communicating new ideas and

approaches to fulfill requirements.

• Providing structure and programs

to promote continuity in the development and coordination of interagency

plans and procedures for meteorological services and supporting research

activities.

• Preparing analyses, summaries, or

evaluations of agency meteorological

programs and plans that provide a factual basis for the Executive and Legislative branches to make appropriate

decisions related to the allocation of

funds.

• Reviewing Federal weather programs and Federal requirements for

meteorological services and supporting research. This review may suggest

additions or revisions to current or proposed programs, or identify opportunities for improved efficiency, reliability,

or cost avoidance through coordinated

actions or integrated programs.

As detailed in the report which follows, this has been an excellent year

for OFCM in carrying out its interagency activities. The accomplishments of FY06 were substantial and

meaningful for the nation, and the

foundation has been placed for a similarly productive FY07.

BASIS FOR FEDERAL COORDINATION PROCESS

In 1963, Congress and the Executive Office of the President expressed concern about the adequacy of coordination of

Federal meteorological activities. In response, Congress directed in Section 304 of Public Law 87-843--the Appropriations Act for State, Justice, Commerce, and Related Agencies--that the Bureau of the Budget prepare an annual horizontal budget for all meteorological programs in the Federal agencies.

The Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget) issued a report entitled "Survey of Federal

Meteorological Activities" (1963). The report described each agency's program in some detail, particularly its operational services, and detailed the relationship between the programs of the various agencies. The report revealed close

cooperation but little evidence of systematic coordination. Based on this study, the Bureau of the Budget issued a set

of ground rules to be followed in the coordination process. It established a permanent general philosophy for assignment and assessment of agency roles in the field of meteorology and set certain goals to be achieved by the coordination process. The Bureau of the Budget tasked the Department of Commerce (DOC) to establish the coordinating

mechanism in concert with the other Federal agencies. It also reaffirmed the concept of having a central agency--the

DOC--responsible for providing common meteorological facilities and services and clarified the responsibilities of

other agencies for providing meteorological services specific to their own needs.

The implementation of these directives by DOC led to the creation of the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM) which operates with policy guidance from the Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. The principal work in the coordination of meteorological

activities and in the preparation and maintenance of Federal plans is accomplished by the OFCM staff with the advice

and assistance of the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, and over 30

program councils, committees, working groups, and joint action groups.

FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING

APPENDIX A 233
234 APPENDIX A

NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION

INTERDEPARTMENTAL HURRICANE CONFERENCE

The OFCM annually hosts the Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference

(IHC) to provide a forum for the

responsible federal agencies, together

with representatives of the user communities such as emergency management, to review the nation's hurricane

forecast and warning program and to

make recommendations on how to

improve the program. The OFCM

hosted the 60th IHC in Mobile,

Alabama, March 20-24, 2006. The

theme of the 2006 conference was

Hurricane Season 2006: Building on

the Historic 2005 Season. The conference attendance was more than 240;

for the seventh consecutive year, attendance has exceeded 200. VADM Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.),

Under Secretary of Commerce for

Oceans and Atmosphere and Administrator of the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

set the tone for the meeting during his

Monday afternoon keynote addressPower of Partnerships: Prediction and

Protection, noting that the only way to

protect lives, property, and the economic well-being of our citizens is

through partnerships. As a result, the

importance of building partnerships

became the central theme of the conference which the attendees took to

heart. Objectives of the 2006 IHC

included the following: review the

nation's tropical cyclone forecast and

warning program from end-to-end and

update the National Hurricane Operations Plan for 2006; evaluate lessons

learned from the 2005 hurricane season, with a focus on Hurricanes Dennis, Katrina, Rita, and Wilma; examine

the results of the Joint Hurricane Test

Bed (JHT) as a model for transitioning

successful research results into operations; review the federal priorities for

tropical cyclone research and development for the next decade, to include

relevant social science issues; examine

the needs and requirements for future

tropical cyclone surveillance and

reconnaissance observations; and evaluate changes in forecast and warning

messages needed to improve public

awareness, preparedness, and

response. The IHC once again proved

to be an extremely valuable forum to

bring the operational and research

communities together to produce the

best possible tropical cyclone forecast

and warning program, and to address

the needs of the federal agencies and

user communities that have a stake in

the nation's tropical cyclone program.

Actions resulting from the conference

are: (1) publish the 2006 National

Hurricane Operations Plan; (2)

through the Joint Action Group for

Tropical Cyclone Research

(JAG/TCR), further refine the draft

strategic research plan for tropical

cyclones based on the input received

during the 60th IHC workshop; (3)

develop a Strategic Plan for Improved

Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance Systems (ITCRS) (manned, unmanned,

space-based, etc.); (4) facilitate bringing together the Web site owners from

NOAA (e.g., Hurricane Research Division, National Hurricane Center),

Navy, etc., to improve linkages for

supporting research and development;

and (5) adopt recommendations for

action in a comprehensive effort to

improve getting the "right" message to

the customer. In May 2006, the 44th

edition of the National Hurricane

Operations Plan (NHOP), which provides the basis for hurricane reconnaissance for the 2006 season and details

federal agency responsibilities, operations, and procedures; products; aircraft, satellite, radar, and buoy data

collection; and marine weather broadThe Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting

Research (FCMSSR), established in

1964, provides policy-level agency

representation and guidance to the

Federal Coordinator to address agency

priorities, requirements, and issues

related to services, operations, and

supporting research, and also resolves

agency differences that arise during the

coordination of meteorological activities and the preparation of Federal

plans. The Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere,

who is also the Administrator of the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), serves as the

FCMSSR Chairperson.

The 15 Federal agencies that engage

in meteorological activities, or have a

need for meteorological services, are

represented on FCMSSR. The

FCMSSR membership includes:

DOC, DOD, DOT, the Departments of

Agriculture (USDA), Energy (DOE),

Homeland Security (DHS), Interior

(DOI), and State (DOS), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), National Science Foundation (NSF), National

Transportation Safety Board (NTSB),

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC), the Office of Science and

Technology Policy (OSTP), and the

Office of Management and Budget

(OMB).

HIGHLIGHTS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2006

AND PLANS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2007

FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH
APPENDIX A 235

casts, was published based on the

inputs and discussions from the 60th

IHC. The comprehensive NHOP was

critical to ensuring successful weather

and reconnaissance operations for the

2006 hurricane season. The 2007 IHC

is being planned for New Orleans,

Louisiana.

TROPICAL CYCLONE RESEARCH

AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN

Actions from previous meetings of

the Interdepartmental Committee for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) and Interdepartmental Hurricane Conferences

(IHC) called for the preparation of a

tropical cyclone strategic research

plan. This is being accomplished by

the OFCM Joint Action Group for

Tropical Cyclone Research

(JAG/TCR). JAG/TCR had available

results from numerous past efforts

which have outlined the tropical

cyclone community's priorities and

strategies which were vetted through

many meetings and workshops.

Examples of these, which detailed

research challenges and priorities,

operational needs, gaps, and potential

solutions, include the U.S. Weather

Research Program (landfalling hurricanes and Joint Hurricane Testbed),

OFCM-sponsored Interdepartmental

Hurricane Conferences, two Hurricane

Weather Research and Forecasting

(HWRF) model workshops, and activities of NOAA's National Weather Service and Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. In addition, the tropical cyclone research workshop held in

March 2006 at the 60th IHC, reviewed

ongoing efforts of three complementary hurricane research projects. These

included the NOAA Science Advisory

Board (SAB) Hurricane Intensity

Research Working Group (HIRWG),

the National Science Foundation

(NSF) National Science Board's (NSB)

Task Force on Hurricane Science and

Engineering (HSE), and the OFCM

Joint Action Group for Tropical

Cyclone Research which is preparing

the document, Interagency Strategic

Research Plan for Tropical Cyclones:

The Way Ahead. The plan notes that

overarching tropical cyclone priorities

that need further improvement are

intensity and structure; track; other

impacts (sea state, storm surge, precipitation, inland flooding); social science

research and results; and intraseasonal

and interannual variability. More specific examples of research priorities

were identified as the role of inner core

processes for intensification and weakening (e.g., eyewall replacement

cycles, mixing); role of the ocean and

oceanic heat content; value of highresolution deterministic forecasts vs.

ensembles; consideration of the extent

to which the public understands terms

such as "hurricane watch" and "hurricane warning" and whether these terms

best convey these concepts; and consideration of how probabilistic forecasts can be structured to promote public understanding. OFCM will publish

the Interagency Strategic Research

Plan for Tropical Cyclones: The Way

Ahead in fall 2006. It will then focus

on development of a Strategic Plan for

Improved Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance Systems (manned, unmanned,

space-based, etc.).

NATIONAL HURRICANE CONFERENCE

OFCM participated in the 28th

Annual National Hurricane Conference (NHC) in Orlando, Florida, April

10-14, 2006. The NHC is the nation's

forum for education and professional

training in hurricane preparedness.

The primary goal of the NHC is to

improve hurricane preparedness,

response, recovery, and mitigation in

order to save lives and property in the

United States and the tropical islands

of the Caribbean and the Pacific. In

addition, the conference serves as a

national forum for federal, state, and

local officials to exchange ideas and

recommend new policies to improve

emergency management. On April 11,

OFCM conducted a training session in

conjunction with the conference. The

theme of the training session was

Warning Messages: Improving

Response. The training session

focused on hurricane messages and

communication, and introduced a new

proposed communications model that

reflects the divergent information

needs of various users. Included in the

session was a review of recent social

science research results, pertaining to

hurricane response and, just as important, specific recommendations emergency managers and decision makers

can use to improve hurricane response.

Approximately 200 conference attendees participated in the training session, which validated the need to

revisit the warning process. It was

noted that messages, resulting in

appropriate response, must come from

credible sources, must be received,

must be understood, must have personal meaning, should include action

statements, often require confirmation,

and are only successful if appropriate

responses are possible. It was also

emphasized that the results of social

science research need to be an integral

part of the hurricane forecast and

warning program.

POST-STORM DATA ACQUISITION

The OFCM continued to coordinate,

as required, timely post-storm data

acquisition surveys in response to

Presidentially declared natural disasters and other agency requirements to

evaluate, for example, the impact on

the coastal ecosystems. These natural

disaster reduction efforts contribute to

the determination of the intensity and

magnitude of storms, and, in many

cases, help to determine the extent of

damage for use in Presidential disaster

declarations. The additional data collected after hurricane landfall is also

used in validating modeling efforts

with both emergency management

models (e.g., FEMA's HAZUS) and
236 APPENDIX A

hurricane storm-surge models (e.g.,

NOAA's SLOSH). These models are

used in real time to assist decision

makers in evacuation decisions and

procedures. Post-storm data are also

used to update FEMA Flood Insurance

Rate Maps. In FY 2006, post-storm

surveys were conducted for Hurricane

Rita and after the April 7, 2006, tornado outbreak in central Tennessee.

URBAN METEOROLOGY

NATIONAL WILDLAND FIRE

WEATHER NEEDS ASSESSMENT

An important contribution to urban

meteorology during the period of this

report is related to the National Wildland Fire Weather Needs Assessment

which is being conducted by OFCM.

The formation of the Joint Action

Group for National Wildland Fire

Weather Needs Assessment

(JAG/NWFWNA) and conduct of the

assessment is responsive to ICMSSR

Action Item 2005-1.1 where ICMSSR

"concurred that OFCM should move

forward to form a Joint Action Group

(JAG) under the Committee for Environmental Services, Operations, and

Research Needs (CESORN), to review

the needs and requirements for wildland fire weather information, to

include identifying organizational

responsibilities and addressing the following issues: data collection, fire

weather research, weather forecast

services, data assimilation, air quality,

information dissemination, education

and outreach, and user response." An

abundance of accumulated biomass in

forests and rangelands, persistent

drought conditions, and encroaching

urbanization are contributing to larger,

more costly wildland fires; and to

effectively manage and suppress wildland fires, fire managers need timely,

accurate, and detailed fire weather and

climate information. As examples, the

2003 wildland fires in southern California claimed 22 lives, destroyed

3,600 homes, burned 740,000 acres of

land, and caused over $2 billion in

property damage; and the grassland

fires this year in Texas by June 1st had

claimed 11 lives, destroyed 440

homes, and burned over 5 million

acres. Another example is the fires in

southern California in mid-July, which

were started by lightning, and

enhanced by dry conditions (drought)

and fanned by strong winds. On June

22, 2006, California Governor

Schwarzenegger signed an Executive

Order to expand statewide firefighting

efforts and called on Californians to

take common sense fire prevention

measures. An important benchmark is

the June 2005 Western Governors'

Association (WGA) meeting where

they approved Policy Resolution 05-

04: National Wildland Fire Weather

Program. Within the policy, the WGA

urged NOAA to have the OFCM complete a National Needs Assessment

Report of federal, state, and local fire

managers' needs for weather information in their wildfire and prescribed

fire decision making processes and a

framework to meet those needs by the

National Weather Service and Predictive Services. The JAG/NWFWNA

was established in December 2005 and

has moved forward to conduct the

assessment. Preliminary findings have

been obtained in several areas including federal agency reactions, education

and outreach, atmospheric and meteorological research concerns, user and

stakeholder initial response, and social

science aspects. Next steps include the

interim assessment report (early

results) to be completed in the fall of

2006; an OFCM Special Session on

wildland fire weather and climate use

in decision making at the 3rd International Fire and Ecology Congress,

November 14, 2006, in San Diego,

California; briefing to the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research;

continuing the fact survey effort; and

the final product available during the

spring 2007 which will be used to support the 2007 WGA conference.

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND

DIFFUSION RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT

OFCM developed an atmospheric

transport and diffusion (ATD) implementation strategy for the recommendations for which OFCM has primary

responsibility in the Federal Research

Needs and Priorities for Atmospheric

Transport and Diffusion Modeling

(September 2004) report. The implementation strategy has three parts: (1)

working with the agencies to identify

and improve a baseline set of national

ATD modeling capabilities; (2) helping

the agencies implement a common

framework for model development and

evaluation; and (3) recommending criteria for multifunctional joint urban

test beds ["urban" describes a metropolitan area and its interfaces with surrounding areas]. In accordance with

this, OFCM formed a Joint Action

Group for the Joint Urban Test Beds

(JAG/JUTB) under the Working Group

for Urban Meteorology (WG/UM);

and this joint action group met January

24, March 1-2, and June 15, 2006, and

is continuing work to develop an operational concept document for multifunctional joint urban test beds to provide services and data to model developers, test and evaluation personnel,

and users. The joint urban test beds

will support the following functional

areas: severe weather (e.g., hurricanes,

tornadoes, heat waves and cold spells,

drought, and wildland fires), homeland

security (dispersion of hazardous

materials), climate, air quality (e.g.,

particulate matter aerosols), and water

quality (e.g., deposition of airborne

contaminants on water sources and

waterborne transport of contaminants). 

GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND

DISPERSION MODELING CONFERENCE

George Mason University (GMU),
APPENDIX A 237

Fairfax, Virginia, conducted its 10th

Annual Conference on Atmospheric

Transport and Dispersion Modeling,

August 1-3, 2006. The OFCM cosponsored the event, together with the Joint

Science and Technology Office for

Chemical and Biological Defense,

Defense Threat Reduction Agency

(DTRA); the Naval Surface Warfare

Center, Dahlgren Division (NSWCDD); and George Mason University.

Technical topics of interest for the conference were: new developments in

basic theories of boundary layer models and transport and dispersion models; urban-scale meteorological and

dispersion experiments and models;

computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

model theory and applications; field

experiments and laboratory experiments concerned with boundary layer

studies and turbulence and dispersion

studies; mesoscale meteorological

modeling for input to transport and

dispersion models; the use of remote

sensing technology in boundary layer

and transport and dispersion studies;

model evaluation methods, uncertainty/sensitivity analyses, and risk

assessments; improvements in model

inputs (e.g., land-use data, 3-D building data) and output visualizations; and

methods and criteria for emergency

response and decision making. 

The OFCM conducted a special session related to the OFCM's ongoing

work with other members of the federal meteorological community to

implement the recommendations in the

report, Federal Research Needs and

Priorities for Atmospheric Transport

and Diffusion Modeling. The special

session provided much information on

joint urban test beds, including the history and status of the joint urban test

bed effort, the importance of user

involvement, the importance of test

beds for air quality and for regulatory

work done by the Environmental Protection Agency, the efforts of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to monitor health impacts, the

needs of emergency managers and

responders, research perspectives, data

management needs, and the importance of more complete understanding

of weather in the urban environment.

CLIMATE

OFCM supports the U.S. Climate

Change Science Program (CCSP).

OFCM arranged for Dr. James R.

Mahoney, former Director of the

CCSP, to brief the Federal Committee

for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (FCMSSR) so that

member agencies can stay abreast of

the program and coordinate priorities

for atmospheric requirements through

OFCM for inclusion in CCSP. Further,

OFCM used its infrastructure to reach

out and invite many government, private, and academic individuals to

attend the November 14-16, 2005,

CCSP Climate Science in Support of

Decision Making workshop, and this

resulted in substantially increased

attendance of the workshop; and

OFCM provided interagency funding

support for an evening poster session

of the workshop. OFCM also prepared

results of a Climate Services Survey to

identify new climate products and

services that have been developed and

implemented since the Board on

Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

defined "climate services" in 2001 as

"the timely production and delivery of

useful climate data, information, and

knowledge to decision makers." This

definition was adopted by Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research

(ICMSSR) agencies. The results of the

survey were forwarded to the Director

of the CCSP just prior to the beginning

of FY 2006. And the Federal Coordinator, through his participation on the

Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR), reviewed and

commented on and provided concurrence with the U.S. CCSP Synthesis

and Assessment Product 1.1, Temperature Trends in the Lower AtmosphereSteps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences, a report by the U.S.

CCSP and the CENR Subcommittee

on Global Change Research (SGCR).

OPERATIONAL PROCESSING

OFCM's activities regarding Operational Processing Centers (OPC) continue opportunities to improve processing and backup capabilities of NOAA's

National Centers for Environmental

Prediction and Office of Satellite Data

Processing and Distribution, the Air

Force Weather Agency, and the U.S.

Navy's Fleet Numerical Meteorology

and Oceanography Center and Naval

Oceanographic Office. Efforts continue to improve backup support and

capabilities and to coordinate preparation for the implementation of the

Weather Research and Forecasting

(WRF) modeling system, in accordance with the National Concept of

Operations Framework for the Operational Processing Centers, which is

contained in an April 1, 2004, memorandum of agreement signed by the

directors of the OPC's. Of particular

significance during this period is the

establishment of a National Operational Processing Centers (NOPC) Program Council within the OFCM coordinating infrastructure, to help achieve

national priorities by focusing agency

efforts and leverage resources to gain

the maximum return. This was in

response to the OPC Directors' determination that effectively coordinating

the OPCs' efforts and providing the

resources to support those efforts

necessitated high-level policy guidance and oversight. OFCM's previously existing Committee for Operational Processing Centers (COPC) and

its Working Group for Cooperative

Support and Backup (WG/CSAB) and

joint action groups for operational

community modeling, centralized

communications management, and

operational data acquisition for assimilation, were placed under the new

NOPC Program Council.
238 APPENDIX A

ANNUAL FEDERAL PLAN

In October 2005, the OFCM issued

The Federal Plan for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research-Fiscal Year 2006. The Federal Plan is

congressionally mandated and is a oneof-a-kind document which articulates

the meteorological services provided

and supporting research conducted by

agencies of the federal government.

The Federal Plan helps to reduce overlap and duplication among the agencies. It is a comprehensive publication

that documents proposed programs for

FY 2006 and reviews agency programs

in FY 2005. The feature article for the

FY 2006 Annual Federal Plan focuses

on the federal agencies' meteorological

activities related to minimizing the

impact of wildland fires on the urban

environment; its title is Living with

Wildland Fire in the Urban Environment. The article summarizes the

causes of wildland fires, describes

their impacts on urban communities,

reviews some activities undertaken by

federal agencies to minimize the

impacts, and recommends next steps to

address these impacts effectively. The

feature article for the FY 2007 Annual

Federal Plan focuses on tropical

cyclone research.

WEATHER INFORMATION FOR

SURFACE TRANSPORTATION

Since 1998, OFCM has made

weather services and research and

development (R&D) activities supporting the surface transportation community a priority for the federal meteorological community. In December

2002, OFCM published the comprehensive report, Weather Information

for Surface Transportation-National

Needs Assessment Report, which provides the first ever compilation and

analysis of weather support needs

across six surface transportation sectors (roadway, railway, transit, marine

transportation, pipeline systems, and

airport ground operations). In August

2004, OFCM established the Working

Group for Weather Information for

Surface Transportation (WG/WIST) to

develop both a WIST R&D Plan and a

WIST Implementation Plan. More

recently, OFCM conducted two WIST

workshops June 6-7 and June 13-14,

2006, with the objectives to: (1) help

determine the priorities for the surface

transportation weather information

research needed to provide improved

weather information and services to

the surface transportation community;

(2) gather and crossfeed information

concerning ongoing or planned (next 3

years) surface transportation weatherrelated research and development; and

(3) hear from workshop attendees on

what they see as a vision (3-10+ years)

on how weather information will be

used to optimize surface transportation

operations and safety, and what specific hurdles must be overcome to

reach such a vision. Information from

these workshops is being reviewed and

organized to support continued

progress in this important area, which

will lead to the WIST R&D Plan and

WIST Implementation Plan mentioned

above. During the period of this

report, OFCM also attended the

National Research Council Transportation Research Board (TRB) 85th

Annual Meeting in Washington, D.C.,

January 22-26, 2006; provided a WIST

presentation at the 86th American

Meteorological Society (AMS) Annual

Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia (January 29

- February 2, 2006); and attended the

Intelligent Transportation Society of

America (ITS-A) 2006 Annual Meeting and Exposition in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania (May 7-9, 2006). And in

August 2006, OFCM published the

report, Weather Information for Surface Transportation-Update on

Weather Impacts and WIST Results.

This update focuses on the status of

transportation weather issues in the

nation and the results achieved since

the first WIST report in 2002. It also

highlights areas where further steps

can be made in the near term. When

statewide transportation incident

reporting systems are implemented, we

will be able to monitor, assess, and

manage transportation weather risks,

as well as evaluate the benefits of

WIST-informed transportation decisions. R&D programs are in progress

to improve warnings and decision support systems, implement weatherresponsive traffic management in communities, and provide the observational support necessary for locationspecific WIST.

AVIATION WEATHER

A project which is underway in the

area of aviation weather support

includes the development of The

National Volcanic Ash Operations

Plan for Aviation and Support of the

International Civil Aviation Organization International Airways Volcano

Watch (NVOPA). This plan, projected

be completed in the fall of 2006, is the

national operations plan in support of

observing, tracking, monitoring, forecasting and reporting volcanic ash in

the atmosphere that affects the safety

of flight operations in the U.S.

National Airspace System (NAS). It

identifies the federal agencies that

implement these actions and describes

their responsibilities, procedures,

actions, and message formats. It also

provides information on how the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

meets its obligations to the International Airways Volcano Watch, sponsored by the International Civil Aviation Organization. Participating agencies include, in addition to FAA, the

Department of Commerce National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, the

National Weather Service, and the

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric

Research; the Department of Defense

U.S. Air Force; and the Department of

Interior's U.S. Geological Survey. The

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) and the
APPENDIX A 239

Smithsonian Institution also provide

support to the federal agencies through

extending the benefits of earth science

research in the areas of volcanic ash

monitoring and tracking.

The OFCM continues to facilitate

the continuation of interagency funding for the acquisition of automated

meteorological observations from aircraft in partnership with several major

U.S. commercial airlines.

The OFCM attended the National

Business Aviation Association, Inc.,

and Friends and Partners in Aviation

Weather Annual Meeting and the

FAA's Aviation Weather Technology

Transfer meeting held in Orlando,

Florida, in November 2005. OFCM

also participated in the NASA Weather

Accident Prevention project review in

September 2005, and continued to

implement the National Aviation

Weather Program during FY 2006.

The federal interagency National Aviation Weather Program has resulted in a

major reduction of weather-related

accidents. The program remains on

track toward meeting the established

goal to reduce weather-related accidents by 80 percent by 2007. The

OFCM continues to monitor progress

in meeting this goal by monitoring

weather-related aviation accident

events and trends. A National Aviation

Weather Program Mid-Course Assessment was completed in August 2003.

OFCM will complete a final assessment in 2007, the ten year point of the

National Aviation Weather Program. 

The OFCM continues to implement

the National Aviation Weather Program. OFCM is a member of the executive council of the interagency Joint

Planning and Development Office

Weather Integrated Product Team, and

has monitored the early development

of the Next Generation Air Transportation System concept of operations with

special emphasis on how weather support will be integrated into the concept

of operations for the overall NAS

2025.

SPACE WEATHER

It was noted at the November 16,

2004, and December 1, 2004, meetings

of the Interdepartmental Committee

for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) and Federal Committee for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research

(FCMSSR), respectively, that the

National Space Weather Program

(NSWP) was nearing the end of its 10-

year period to accomplish its overarching goal to achieve an active, synergistic, interagency system; providing

timely, accurate, and reliable space

weather warnings, observations, specifications, and forecasts by 2007. It

was also noted that it was time to perform an interagency assessment to

look at the progress toward meeting its

goals. A National Space Weather Program Assessment Committee was

formed by OFCM to perform the

assessment, which was led by Dr.

Louis J. Lanzerotti, Distinguished

Research Professor, Center for SolarTerrestrial Research, New Jersey Institute of Technology. The charge to the

Assessment Committee was to review

the NSWP to quantify and document

the progress toward meeting the

NSWP stated goals in observations,

research, modeling, transition of

research to operations, and education

and outreach; to see if the program is

still on target and moving in the direction pointed to by the Strategic Plan; to

determine whether the strategic goals

should be adjusted at this time based

on emerging/evolving requirements;

and to suggest a way ahead which will

form a basis for a new strategic plan

covering the next 10 years. The committee's activities in conducting the

assessment included briefings at

OFCM; visits to the National Security

Space Office, National Reconnaissance Office, NOAA's Space Environment Center, U.S. Geological Survey,

Air Force Space Command, Air Force

Weather Agency, Air Force Space

Weather Operations, STRATCOM,

and Air Force Research Laboratory;

community and user questionnaires;

and issuance of a September 2005

interim report. Important reference

sources were the National Security

Space Architecture 2000: Space

Weather Architecture; U.S. Department of Commerce Service Assessment, April 2004; and the National

Academies report, The Sun to the

Earth-and Beyond: A Decadal

Research Strategy in Solar and Space

Physics, 2002.

In its Report of the Assessment Committee for the National Space Weather

Program (June 2006), the Assessment

Committee concluded that, since the

program's inception in 1995, it has had

a number of noteworthy achievements,

most of which likely would not have

been attained without the program's

existence. The committee also found

shortfalls in the program. Based on the

conclusions of the committee as contained in the report, continuation of the

NSWP is strongly warranted because

of the enormous potential to enhance

the nation's space weather mission

over the next 10 years through

improved operational capabilities,

which capitalize on the transition of

innovative research. Moving NOAA's

operational space weather prediction

center (i.e., the Space Environment

Center) from its research organization

to the National Weather Service was a

positive step to improve operational

focus within the NSWP. The committee made specific recommendations to

further strengthen the NSWP in four

key areas. The critical findings and

recommendations to strengthen the

NSWP are:

1. To centralize program management, set national funding priorities,

and increase the effectiveness of the

NSWP:

• Establish a space weather expert as

the permanent Executive Secretary to

the Committee for Space Weather

under the National Space Weather Program Council.
240 APPENDIX A

• Establish a focal point for the program in the Office of Science and

Technology Policy (OSTP)/Office of

Management and Budget (OMB).

• Create a joint, cross-agency, space

weather organization, the "Center for

Space Weather Research to Operations.”

2. For continuity of data sources critical to space weather forecasts and

operations:

• Develop and execute strategy and

funding for L1 sensor continuity.

• Maintain critical ground-based

assets such as USGS magnetic observatories.

3. To strengthen the science-to-user

chain:

• Maintain and strengthen both targeted and strategic space weather

research.

• Enhance emphasis and resources

for transition of models to operational

users.

• Increase the private sector role in

supplying products and services.

4. To emphasize public and user

awareness of space weather for critical

national needs:

• Quantify the national benefits that

arise from the NSWP.

• Enhance academic and professional education programs for new

space weather professionals.

It was agreed that the Report of the

Assessment Committee for the

National Space Weather Program

should proceed for consideration by

the National Space Weather Program

Council (NSWPC), and that the Program Council should be the executive

agent for FCMSSR for continuing

activities in this area. And, at its July

19, 2006, NSWPC meeting, Action

Item 2006-1.1 was agreed to stating

"The National Space Weather Program

Council (NSWPC) accepted the report

as an extremely important resource in

moving the National Space Weather

Program (NSWP) forward over the

next 10 years and tasked the Committee for Space Weather (CSW) to prepare new strategic and implementation

plans that stress the importance of

improving our operational capabilities

to provide space weather products and

services with the support of a viable

research program and an effective

mechanism to transition proven

research results into operations."

Additional action items were approved

concerning OFCM investigation of

oversight of the NSWP in the Office of

Science and Technology Policy

(OSTP) and in the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and the possibility of establishing a joint working

group for all cooperating NSWP agencies similar to that described for

NASA and NOAA in the NASA

Authorization Act of 2005, Section

306; and identification of report recommendations that the CSW can move

forward on right away, agency specific

recommendations, and recommendations that require more study.

The OFCM also participated in

Space Weather Week April 25-28,

2006, in Boulder, Colorado. Space

Weather Week was sponsored by

NOAA Space Environment Center and

partners, and is for users and

researchers interested in space

weather. 

PHASED ARRAY RADAR

The OFCM Joint Action Group for

Phased Array Radar Project

(JAG/PARP) recently completed the

report, Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Phased

Array Radar (June 2006). It is responsive to ICMSSR Action Item 2004-2.3

where ICMSSR supported the joint

action group's "continued work to

identify and document the potential

needs and benefits that phased array

radar and an adaptive radar sensing

strategy would address, and to integrate those identified needs into a multiagency-coordinated R&D plan that

would focus R&D efforts on meeting

each agency's need." In the MPAR

national vision, the National Radar

Network will be the critical observing

system supporting public safety, homeland security, and the transportation

sector for decades to come; there is a

need to replace the aging fleet of 526

conventional mechanically scanning

radars over the next 20 years with

300+ MPAR radars; MPAR can provide simultaneous air and weather surveillance from a single radar site; and

with the consolidation of multiple single-mission radars into MPAR we can

reduce the national radar fleet by more

than 40 percent. The scalable (modular construction) MPAR can perform

weather surveillance, aircraft tracking,

non-cooperative aircraft tracking, and

other specialized functions. The

JAG/PARP has determined that MPAR

has the potential to exceed present

radar capabilities and meet stated user

needs; there would be a significant

increase in tornado lead times; there

are no serious hardware technical challenges; and a 7- to 10-year intensive

research and development effort will

be required, and the estimated cost of

this is $200 million. The lifecycle cost

savings of the MPAR over the 526

conventional radars, would be $5 billion. MPAR's potential improvements

include: agile beam-forming allows

multi-function applications for optimum weather, aircraft surveillance, as

well as specialized functions such as

tracking chemical/biological plumes,

volcanic ash, birds, wildfire debris,

etc.; improved coverage in the boundary layer and clutter suppression; capability to perform intensive radar interrogation ("staring") simultaneously

with all-sector surveillance; rapid

refresh rate-improved spatial and temporal resolution, especially of severe

weather events; and graceful degradation, greater system reliability, and

simplified logistics. The report Federal Research and Development Needs

and Priorities for Phased Array Radar

estimated needed research and development funding to be $215 million

over 9 years to meet the replacement
APPENDIX A 241

opportunity. This would support the

research needed to reduce risk, determine the capability of MPAR to meet

multiple user needs concurrently,

develop a full MPAR prototype, and

perform a cost analysis to determine

system affordability. Delays in performing the necessary MPAR research,

development, and testing may mean

missed opportunity to replace legacy

radars. At its July 18, 2006, meeting,

ICMSSR decided that an MPAR interagency working group should be established within the OFCM infrastructure

with a defined charter to develop a

strategy to address the key findings

and recommended next steps in the

MPAR report, and agency comments

from the ICMSSR meeting.

ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH AND

DATA ASSIMILATION/DATA

MANAGEMENT

Advances in data assimilation are

key to meeting virtually any forecast

goal relating to model performance. It

was stated in the Strategic Plan for the

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System (April 2005) that "In order to

take the 'pulse of the planet,' we must

establish a valid end-to-end process

that will take us from observations to

user-related products. Scientific needs

for this end-to-end process require that

we ... assimilate the Earth observation

data streams into models (eventually in

real time) ..." and "Data assimilation

may be the most critical path through

which advances in forecasting convective precipitation will be modulated."

At its November 16, 2004, meeting,

the Interdepartmental Committee for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) supported

action to examine gaps in data assimilation and data management capability,

articulate challenges that lie ahead in

meeting future requirements, and propose strategy to address gaps in capability and future challenges. And

Action Item 2004-1.2 from the Federal

Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research

(FCMSSR) December 1, 2004, meeting, recommended that: FCMSSR

agencies will support R&D needs and

requirements based on agency priorities and will continue to identify issues

and concerns that are necessary for the

development of capabilities required to

realize societal benefits; federal

requirements and capabilities in key

areas like data assimilation need to be

surveyed and further addressed; and

FCMSSR agencies will support and

facilitate opportunities for the transition of research into operational applications.

The data assimilation survey and follow-on strategy was briefed at the July

18, 2006, ICMSSR meeting. It was

noted that the focus of the report which

is being prepared is on data assimilation for the purpose of improving forecast skill of a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model; the scope of

data assimilation is restricted to incorporation of observational data as a

forcing factor in cycles of forward

NWP models; and broader definition

of data assimilation would be

addressed through inclusion of related

activities such as climate reanalysis,

trace constituent monitoring, and air

quality. Key data assimilation issues

are:

• Data delivery and standard formatting.

• How best to evolve assimilation

techniques over time to meet future

application challenges.

• Early delivery of new instrument

data.

• Testing and transitioning new data

assimilation techniques and concepts

into "hardened" data assimilation

instruments for operational use.

• Impact of the national shortfall in

high performance computing and support for trained personnel on meteorological data assimilation and modeling.

• Data staging and delivery required

for Global Earth Observation System

of Systems (GEOSS)-level infrastructure capability.

• Education and public outreach:

implications for data assimilation and

modeling.

• Funding issues.

Data gathering and data assimilation

activity analysis tasks are essentially

complete; the report framework and

key issues have been defined by the

data assimilation group; and next steps

are being defined. The report, Federal

Meteorological Data Assimilation

Capabilities, will be published in the

fall of 2006, and this item will be

briefed to FCMSSR around that time.

ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

OFCM has laid out a vision, framework, and methodology which the

office will embrace to systematically

promote and execute environmental

literacy through interdepartmental collaboration within the OFCM coordinating infrastructure. The methodology defines how to determine if an

opportunity to promote environmental

literacy exists. It also describes the

method to be used to determine the target public, private, and/or academic

sector audiences and how to reach

them. Determining the target audiences' needs and a means for assessing

how those needs are being met is

incorporated into the methodology as

well. Executing this methodology will

result in a nation better able to understand the linkages between weather

and climate and personal and professional choices and build a national

capacity to solve problems and

respond to change. It will provide for

a more environmentally literate citizenry. In this regard, the OFCM

developed an implementing

strategy/action plan to make environmental literacy a crosscutting priority

within the OFCM coordinating infrastructure. An Implementing Strategy

for Promoting Environmental Literacy

as an OFCM Crosscutting Priority

was presented to the science community at the American Geophysical
242 APPENDIX A

Union (AGU) Fall Meeting, December

5-9, 2005, in San Francisco, California. OFCM is also making environmental literacy an important part of the

National Wildland Fire Weather Needs

Assessment discussed earlier in this

report. OFCM will also continue its

support of an American Meteorological Society undergraduate scholarship

in the atmospheric and related oceanic

and hydrologic sciences.

FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT

Both international and domestic

spectrum policy are of critical importance to the federal meteorological

community and can significantly

impact our ability to carry out our

assigned duties and responsibilities.

The OFCM Working Group for Frequency (Radio Spectrum) Management (WG/FM) acts as a two-way

clearinghouse for information on environmental use of the radio spectrum. It

fosters cooperation and coordination

among federal agencies for the collection and consolidation of agency needs

and requirements related to frequency

management issues as they affect

meteorological services, and planned

non-environmental spectrum uses that

may affect the environmental community for good or ill. During the first

quarter of FY 2006, OFCM updated its

frequency management issues document to provide the interagency community with background information,

current status of meteorological uses,

potential future technology that could

impact spectrum bandwidth, identification of other new frequency management issues, and recommendations for

agency involvement in the radio spectrum area. WG/FM met October 28,

2005, at which time the members

approved and discussed future updates

to the frequency management issues

document, and reviewed the Office of

Radio Frequency Management

(ORFM) role and the NOAA/DOC

spectrum plan. A particular issue

which has arisen concerns possible

interference of radiosonde operations

with medical implants within the

human body. In May 2006, OFCM

placed on its Web site information on

this subject for the frequency management community.

GUIDANCE AND PRACTICES

FOR XML

The recently formed Committee for

Environmental Information Systems

and Communications (CEISC) Joint

Action Group for Extensible Markup

Language and Web Services

(JAG/XMLWS) reviewed the members' current Meteorological and

Oceanographic (METOC) XML

implementations and agreed to use

DOD's Joint METOC Broker Language (JMBL) as a starting point for a

U.S. position. A Report on the use of

XML within the U.S. was presented to

the Expert Team on Data Representation and Codes (ET/DR&C) at its

meeting May 8-12, 2006. ET/DR&C

is currently tasked by World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) Commission for Basic Systems (CBS) to

develop XML guidance, practices, and

any associated WMO standards for the

representation and delivery of meteorological information using XML. The

ET/DR&C recommended that CBS

create a new Expert Team to tackle the

XML standardization issue. Assuming

that CBS approves the recommendation when they meet in November

2006, the U.S. could then nominate our

own experts, perhaps from the

JAG/XMLWS to participate in the

development of an XML standard.

COLLABORATION WITH

NAS/NRC BOARD ON ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AND CLIMATE

The OFCM continued its mutually

beneficial interactions with the

National Academy of

Sciences/National Research Council

(NAS/NRC). The NAS/NRC Board

on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

(BASC) conducted a strategic planning

workshop on August 8-9, 2006, in

which the Federal Coordinator for

Meteorology participated. The workshop was held at the J. Erik Jonsson

Woods Hole Center of the National

Academy of Sciences in Woods Hole,

Massachusetts. The purposes of the

meeting were to identify emerging

issues facing the atmospheric sciences

and climate communities, and to discuss future goals of BASC and set priorities for action. Emerging issues

were examined in meteorology,

weather, atmospheric composition and

other areas relevant to the BASC mission. A balance was achieved in considering issues in basic and applied science, and policy; varied disciplines

and interdisciplinary areas; and technology as well as research. 

COLLABORATION WITH THE

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

CENR PRINCIPALS

The Federal Coordinator continued

to be a participant on the CENR, and

continued to assist CENR through

review and concurrence of CENR

reports and materials. Since the last

ICMSSR meeting, these included: (1)

the U.S. CCSP Synthesis and Assessment Product 1.1, Temperature Trends

in the Lower Atmosphere-Steps for

Understanding and Reconciling Differences, a report by the U.S. CCSP

and the CENR Subcommittee on

Global Change Research (SGCR), (2)

Grand Challenges for Disaster Reduction Implementation Plans, authored

by the CENR Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction (SDR), (3) United States

Group on Earth Observations

(USGEO) Annual Report and USGEO

Near Term Opportunity Reports, (4) A

Multiyear Research and Program

Management Plan for Particulate Matter - a Response to the NRC's Committee on Research Priorities for Airborne
APPENDIX A 243

Particulate Matter's Report IV, and (5)

CENR Toxics and Risk Subcommittee

Charter.

SUBCOMMITTEE ON DISASTER

REDUCTION

The OFCM has been an active participant in the work of the CENR Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction

(SDR). SDR has developed Grand

Challenges implementation plans, to

improve the nation's capacity to prevent and recover from disasters. These

disaster scenarios serve as a useful tool

for sharing the ideas behind the 2005

SDR Grand Challenges document and

demonstrating their possible application. The implementation plans

include such topics as assessing disaster resilience, understanding the natural processes that produce hazards,

promoting risk-wise behavior, etc.

SDR has also completed a Windstorm

Impact Reduction Implementation

Plan which is the culmination of an

SDR-led, coordinated federal effort, in

cooperation with other levels of government, academia, and the private

sector, to improve understanding of

windstorms and their impact, and

develop and encourage implementation of cost-effective mitigation measures to reduce those impacts while promoting community resilience. In addition, the SDR working group on satellite issues has participated in the creation of a waiver for the 24-hour wait

period on high resolution commercial

satellite imagery. The need of state

and local governments as well as private entities to respond quickly in the

aftermath of Hurricane Katrina and

other natural disasters was the impetus

behind the waiver request, which has

been instituted domestically. OFCM is

committed to working with SDR to

provide a forum for information sharing, development of collaborative

opportunities, and interactive dialogue

with the U.S. policy community to

advance informed strategies for managing risks associated with natural and

technological disasters.

AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY

During FY 2006, the OFCM joined

in supporting the new 2006/2007

American Meteorological Society

(AMS) Freshman Undergraduate

Scholarship Program. The scholarship

program is open to all high school students and designed to encourage study

in the atmospheric and related sciences. The scholarships will be

awarded, based on academic excellence, to high school seniors entering

their freshman year of study in the

atmospheric, oceanic, or hydrologic

sciences. The scholarships are for the

freshman and sophomore years, with

second-year funding dependent on successful completion of the first year.

The OFCM also supports AMS

endeavors by participating in AMS

conferences and workshops and other

environmental science education and

outreach programs, including for

example the December 19-21, 2005,

policy forum Building America's

Resilience to Hazards held in Washington, D.C.; and the January 29 - February 2, 2006, 86th AMS Annual Meeting in Atlanta, Georgia, at which

OFCM provided a presentation on

Weather Information for Surface

Transportation (WIST). In addition,

an OFCM staff member is Chairperson

of the AMS Weather Analysis and

Forecasting Committee; Cochair of the

2007 AMS Annual Meeting to be held

in San Antonio, Texas; and a member

of the AMS Reichelderfer Award Committee. 

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

During FY 2005, the Federal Coordinator provided a comprehensive briefing on the OFCM and interagency

coordination of federal meteorological

activities to Dr. Xu Xiaofeng and a

delegation of 25 individuals from the

Chinese Meteorological Administration, on May 24, 2005. Then on

August 24, 2005, the Federal Coordinator hosted and briefed Dr. Zheng

Guoguang, Deputy Administrator of

the Chinese Meteorological Administration. Also, news media from Japan

attended and conducted interviews at

the 59th Interdepartmental Hurricane

Conference in Jacksonville, Florida,

March 7-11, 2005. OFCM continued

to participate in opportunities as they

arose during FY 2006. The OFCM

Committee for Environmental Information Systems and Communications

(CEISC) and its Joint Action Group for

XML and Web Services

(JAG/XMLWS) prepared a U.S. position paper on the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) development on guidance and practices for

XML based representation and delivery of meteorological information

which was presented at the meeting of

the Expert Team on Data Representation and Codes (ET/DR&C) in Montreal, Canada, May 8-12, 2006. In the

position paper, the U.S. supported the

efforts of the ET/DR&C to develop

XML guidance, practices, and any

associated WMO standards for the representation and delivery of meteorological information; and noted that the

U.S. has a substantial body of work to

share with the ET/DR&C, and would

like to be involved in all steps of the

process.

PUBLICATIONS AND OFCM'S

WEB SITE

The following publications were prepared in hardcopy form and/or have

been placed on OFCM's Web site

(www.ofcm.gov):

• The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting ResearchFiscal Year 2006

• National Winter Storms Operations Plan

• National Hurricane Operations
244 APPENDIX A

Plan

• Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Phased

Array Radar

• Report of the Assessment Committee for the National Space Weather

Program

• Weather Information for Surface

Transportation-Update on Weather

Impacts and WIST Results

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 1-Surface Weather Observations

and Reports

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part A-System Concepts, Responsibilities and Procedures

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part B-Doppler Radar

Theory and Meteorology 

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part D-WSR-88D Unit

Description and Operational Analysis

The following documents are planned

for publication during FY 2007:

• The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting ResearchFiscal Year 2007

• Federal Meteorological Data

Assimilation Capabilities

• National Hurricane Operations

Plan

• Interagency Strategic Research

Plan for Tropical Cyclones: The Way

Ahead

• Strategic Plan for Improved Tropical Cyclone Reconnaissance Systems

• Criteria for Selection of Joint

Urban Test Beds (JUTB)

• Federal Meteorological Handbook

No. 11-Doppler Radar Meteorological

Observations; Part C-WSR-88D Products and Algorithms

During FY 2006, the OFCM continued to make substantial progress on its

use of the Internet. In addition to

information about the office, the

OFCM has placed its current publications on its Web site, and keeps the

Web site current with information

regarding workshops and forums being

conducted by the office. The OFCM

will continue to make information

available on the Internet during FY

2007.
APPENDIX A 245

Table A.1 Current OFCM Publications

Publication Title Date Number

Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, Fiscal Year 2006 October 2005 FCM-P1-2005

Urban Meteorology: Meeting Weather Needs in the Urban Community January 2004 FCM-R22-2004

National Plan for Space Environment Services and Supporting Research: 1993-1997 August 1993 FCM-P10-1993

National Severe Local Storms Operations Plan May 2001 FCM-P11-2001

National Hurricane Operations Plan May 2006 FCM-P12-2006

WSR-88D Tropical Cyclone Operations Plan

National Winter Storms Operations Plan December 2005 FCM-P13-2005

Federal Plan for Cooperative Support and Backup Among Operational Nov 2002 FCM-P14-2002

Processing Centers

National Plan for Stratospheric Monitoring, 1988-1997 July 1989 FCM-P17-1989

National Aircraft Icing Technology Plan April 1986 FCM-P20-1986

National Plan to Improve Aircraft Icing Forecasts July 1986 FCM-P21-1986

Federal Plan for the Coordination of Automated Weather Information May 1988 FCM-P23-1988

System Programs 

Federal Plan for Meteorological Information Management July 1991 FCM-P24-1991

National Plan for Tropical Cyclone Research and Reconnaissance (1997-2002) January 1997 FCM-P25-1997

National Aviation Weather Program Plan September 1992 FCM-P27-1992

National Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)

Data Collection System (DCS) Operations Plan August 1997 FCM-P28-1997

Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Data, Services, and Supporting Research June 1996 FCM-P29-1996

The National Space Weather Program: Strategic Plan August 1995 FCM-P30-1995

The National Space Weather Program: Implementation Plan - 2nd Edition July 2000 FCM-P31-2000

National Aviation Weather Strategic Plan April 1997 FCM-P32-1997

National Post-Storm Data Acquisition Plan March 2003 FCM-P33-2003

National Aviation Weather Initiatives February 1999 FCM-P34-1999

National Aviation Weather Initiatives, Final Baseline Tier 3 and 4 Report April 2001 Unnumbered

National Aviation Weather Program/Projects (Tier 3/4 Baseline Update) December 2003 FCM-R21-2003

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 1 - Surface Weather Observations September 2005 FCM-H1-2005

and Reports
246 APPENDIX A

Table A.1 Current OFCM Publications (cont.)

Publication Title Date Number

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 2 - Surface Synoptic Codes December 1988 FCM-H2-1988

Surface Synoptic Code Tables (Update) July 1990 FCM-T1-1990

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 3 - Rawinsonde and Pibal Observations May 1997 FCM-H3-1997

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 10 - Meteorological Rocket Observations December 1988 FCM-H10-1988 

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 11 - Doppler Radar Meteorological Observations

Part A - System Concepts, Responsibilities and Procedures April 2006 FCM-H11A-2006

Part B - Doppler Radar Theory and Meteorology December 2005 FCM-H11B-2005

Part C - WSR-88D Products and Algorithms February 1991 FCM-H11C-1991

Part D - WSR-88D Unit Description and Operational Analysis February 2006 FCM-H11D-2006

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 12 - United States Meteorological Codes December 1998 FCM-H12-1998

and Coding Practices

Directory of Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion Consequence Assessment Models March 1999 FCM-I3-1999

Federal Directory of Mobile Meteorological Equipment and Capabilities December 1995 FCM-I5-1995

A Guide to WMO Code Form FM 94 BUFR March 1995 FCM-I6-1995

Tropical Cyclone Studies December 1988 FCM-R11-1988

Tropical Cyclone Studies Supplement August 1989 FCM-R11-1988S

Interdepartmental Meteorological Data Exchange System Report, IMDES August 1998 FCM-R12-1998

Federal Meteorological Requirements 2000 October 1990 FCM-R13-1990

U.S. Wind Profiler: A Review March 1998 FCM-R14-1998

Atmospheric Modeling of Releases from Weapons of Mass Destruction August 2002 FCM-R17-2002

Weather Information for Surface Transportation--National Needs Assessment Report December 2002 FCM-R18-2002

Report on Wind Chill Temperature and Extreme Heat Indices: Evaluation and January 2003 FCM-R19-2003

Improvement Projects

National Aviation Weather Program Mid-Course Assessment August 2003 FCN-R20-2003

Standard Formats for Weather Data Exchange Among Automated Weather November 1994 FCM-S2-1994

Information Systems

Standard Telecommunication Procedures for Weather Data Exchange (under revision) October 1991 FCM-S3-1991

Federal Standard for Siting Meteorological Sensors at Airports August 1994 FCM-S4-1994

Proceedings of the Workshop on Multiscale Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling June 2000

within the Federal Community

Proceedings of the Aviation Weather User Forum--Aviation Weather: Opportunities July 2000

for Implementation
APPENDIX A 247

Proceedings for the Symposium on Weather Information for Surface Transportation:

Delivering Improved Safety and Efficiency for Tomorrow February 2000

Proceedings of the Symposium on Weather Information for Surface Transportation

-- Preparing for the Future: Improved Weather Information for Decision Makers March 2001

Proceedings of the Forum on Risk Management and Assessment of Natural Hazards July 2001

Proceedings of the Workshop on Strategy for Providing Atmospheric Information March 2002

Aviation Weather Training: A Report on Training for Emerging and Recently

Implemented Aviation Weather Programs April 2002 FCM-R16-2002

Proceedings of the Workshop on Effective Emergency Response May 2002

Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Atmospheric Transport September 2004 FCM-R23-2004

and Diffusion Modeling

Aviation Weather Programs/Projects-2004 Update (Tier 3⁄4 Baseline Update) December 2004 FCM-R21-2004

Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Volcanic Ash and Aviation November 2004

Safety

Proceedings of the User Forum on Urban Meteorology March 2005

Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Phased Array Radar June 2006 FCM-R25-2006

Report of the Assessment Committee for the National Space Weather Program June 2006 FCM-R24-2006

Weather Information for Surface Transportation - Update on Weather Impacts and August 2006 FCM-R26-2006

WIST Results

Italics = publication available online at www.ofcm.gov

Table A.1 Current OFCM Publications (cont.)

Publication Title Date Number

APPENDIX B

GOALS AND ORGANIZATION

The World Weather Watch Program

(WWWP) is the core of the World

Meteorological Organization's (WMO)

programs and continues to receive the

highest budget priority. The WWWP

goals are to extend the time, accuracy,

range, and scope of weather prediction

and to understand the physical basis of

climate and climatic change. The ability of the U.S. and other nations to use

their existing scientific capability to

understand the climate and to increase

their weather predicting skills is limited

by the lack of global weather data.

Available weather data are inadequately observed over a significant portion of the Earth's surface, especially

over isolated areas including the

oceans.

Development of the technology and

the systems to obtain these observations, especially over the oceans, presents formidable problems. With the use

of satellites, aircraft, ships, radar,

anchored and drifting buoys, and balloons, however, an integrated system

can be developed to observe and collect

comprehensive data about the atmosphere over the entire globe. This system is too complex and expensive to be

implemented by a single nation--a fact

clearly recognized by the leaders of

many nations whose international

cooperation in meteorology has been a

tradition for more than a century. In

1961, this continuing need for international cooperation prompted the President of the United States to propose to

the United Nations (UN) the establishment of an international effort in

weather prediction. The UN responded

by calling upon the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the

International Council of Scientific

Unions (ICSU) to develop measures to

improve weather forecasting capabilities and to advance the knowledge of

the basic physical forces that determine

climate.

The WMO, with 181 member states

and 6 member territories, is an intergovernmental organization affiliated

with the UN to facilitate international

cooperation in the fields of meteorology, climate, and operational hydrology. The WMO responded to the UN

request with the concept of the World

Weather Watch (WWW), an operational system to bring the global atmosphere under improved surveillance and

to provide for the rapid collection and

exchange of weather data as well as for

the dissemination of weather products

from centralized processing centers.

More recently, the WMO is working

towards the design and implementation

of improved observations for a Global

Climate Observing System (GCOS)

through enhancements to the Global

Observing System (GOS) and other

appropriate measures. These efforts are

expected to yield an enhanced GOS for

both operational and research purposes

and are part of the effort to strengthen

the WMO's commitment to improve

the understanding of climate and

related environmental matters, as articulated by the Second World Climate

Conference in 1990, and repeated at the

UN Conference on the Environment

and Development in 1992. The WMO

has established the concept of a

Regional Basic Climate Network

(RBCN); most observing stations

would function as part of both the

Regional Basic Synoptic Network

(RBSN) and the RBCN.

The responsibilities of U.S. Federal

agencies in the WWW are as follows:

• Department of Commerce (DOC).

Represents the U.S. at WMO and,

through the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

provides the focal point to coordinate

our Nation's efforts in these international programs, implements those

service improvements in the existing

international weather system for which

the U.S. accepts responsibility, and

develops new technology. The U.S. is

one of three (Russia and Australia are

the other two) World Meteorological

Centers, which includes World Data

Centers and the principal telecommunication gateway for the WMO's Global

Telecommunication System (GTS).

• Department of State (DOS). The

DOS is the principal source for U.S.-

appropriated funds to the WMO. The

DOS maintains relations with developing nations and, through NOAA and the

WMO, assists developing nations

through the Voluntary Cooperation Program (VCP) to improve their national

weather services. DOS also develops

appropriate multilateral and bilateral

arrangements to further international

participation.

• National Science Foundation

(NSF). The NSF stimulates and supports basic and applied research by scientists primarily in academia on atmospheric and ocean circulation and models. It also promotes the education and

training of atmospheric and ocean sciWORLD WEATHER PROGRAM

The Department of Commerce (DOC) was designated by the President, following Senate Concurrent Resolution 67

(1968), to be the lead agency for coordinating United States participation in the World Weather Program (WWP). Until

1983, DOC published a separate report on WWP Plans. Beginning with the 1983 edition of the Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, a section on the WWP has been included, obviating the need for a separate report. The last segment of this narrative includes information on bilateral and regional international cooperative

activities which are not under the WWP.

APPENDIX B 249
250 APPENDIX B

entists at universities.

• Department of Defense (DOD).

Although the mission of DOD weather

services is basically internal, the nature

of the DOD's operations is global. As

such, the observation, telecommunications, and data-processing programs of

the DOD weather services provide significant indirect support to the WWW

through DOD's interface with NOAA's

National Weather Service (NWS).

Information from the research and

development activities of these services

is exchanged routinely with other similar national agencies and is often presented at national forums. DOD also

operates a polar-orbiting meteorological satellite program.

• Department of Transportation

(DOT). Through the U.S. Coast Guard,

DOT provides personnel to support

NOAA's National Data Buoy Center

(NDBC) in developing, deploying,

operating, and evaluating data buoy

systems. DOT's Federal Aviation

Administration's terminal aerodrome

meteorological observations and air

traffic telecommunication network provides an important source of data to the

WWW.

• National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA). NASA performs research, develops aerospace

technology required for an effective

global weather system, and provides

data from R&D satellites to the WWW.

NASA launches for NOAA both polarorbiting and geostationary satellites.

• Department of the Interior (DOI).

DOI's U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

is an important source of hydrologic

data used in flood forecasting. The

USGS, in addition to its advisory role

on water issues in the WMO, will

assume a greater functional role in the

WMO's emerging water program.

• Department of Agriculture

(USDA). USDA is a valuable resource

for surface climatological meteorological data from cooperating observers.

The department's World Climate

Observing Board is responsible for

monitoring the impact of climate and

extreme weather on both national and

international commercial crops.

USDA is on the WMO technical commission that works on agrometeorological issues.

THE WORLD WEATHER WATCH

(WWW)

The WWW is an integrated memberoperated observing system linked by

the GTS and it functions on three levels

-- global, regional, and national. The

WWW is divided into three essential

elements that are closely linked and

interdependent - the Global Data Processing System (GDPS), Global

Telecommunication System (GTS),

and the Global Observing System

(GOS).

These elements are coordinated and

closely integrated through three WWW

support functions:

• The data management function

coordinates, monitors, and manages the

flow of data and products within the

WWW system to assure their quality

and timely delivery. It also includes the

definition and use of code forms for

data exchange.

• The systems support activity provides guidance, technical and scientific

information, and training to those

involved in the planning, development,

and operation of WWW components.

• The implementation and coordination function assures the timely completion of the WWW implementation

and effective support and maintenance

of the WWW system.

GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM

(GOS)

The GOS is a coordinated observing

system, employing standardized techniques for making meteorological and

marine surface observations on a

worldwide scale. It is a composite system, containing surface-based (national

networks), airborne (civil aviation),

and space-based (satellite) subsystems.

The main elements of the network and

airborne subsystems include:

• The Regional Basic Synoptic Network (RBSN), staffed and automated,

for both surface and upper-air observations.

• Fixed observing stations at sea,

composed of fixed and anchored platform stations, and island and coastal

stations.

• Mobile sea stations, including

moving ships.

• Moored and drifting buoys.

• Aircraft meteorological stations,

including automated aircraft reporting

systems.

ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES 

NOAA’s National Environmental

Satellite, Data, and Information Service

(NESDIS), manages the U.S. civil

operational environmental satellite systems. NESDIS procures, launches, and

operates two types of satellites to provide worldwide environmental data and

information products and services to

Federal agencies, state and local governments, and private users. They are

the Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) and Geostationary Operational Environmental

Satellites (GOES).

Currently NESDIS is operating six

polar orbiters. The newest series of

POES satellites began with the launch

of NOAA-15 in May 1998, followed by

NOAA-16 on September 21, 2000,

NOAA-17 on June 24, 2002, and

finally NOAA-18 on May 20, 2005.

NOAA-17 and NOAA-18 are classified

as the primary operational satellites.

NOAA-12, NOAA-14, NOAA-15, and

NOAA-16 satellites continue to transmit data as stand-by satellites. NOAA17 serves as the primary morning satellite and NOAA-18 the primary afternoon satellite.

The POES satellites are circling the

Earth in an almost north-south orbit,

passing close to both poles. These

orbits have an altitude between 830 km

(morning orbit) and 870 km (afternoon

orbit) and are sun synchronous. One
APPENDIX B 251

satellite crosses the equator in descending orbit at 10:00 AM local time, the

other at 2:00 PM local time. Operating

as a pair, these satellites ensure that

data for any region of the Earth are no

more than six hours old. Each satellite

orbits the Earth 14 times per day, collecting global data for atmospheric and

surface measurements in support of

short-term weather forecasting and

long-term global climate change

research. NOAA also manages the

command, control, and communications function of the DOD's Defense

Meteorological Satellite Program

(DMSP) constellations.

An agreement with the European

Organization for the Exploitation of

Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) gives EUMETSAT responsibility

for the morning segment of NOAA's

polar environmental mission (circa

9:30 AM LST), with U.S.-provided

payload instruments and sensors,

beginning in 2006. Upon inception of

this operational arrangement, NOAA

will operate the afternoon mission

while EUMETSAT will support the

morning mission. Under this joint mission, upgraded instruments will be

flown that will result in improvements

for the user community.

NESDIS is also responsible for operating two geostationary satellites,

referred to as GOES East and GOES

West, plus an on-orbit spare satellite.

Each satellite views nearly one third of

the Earth's surface. The GOES-12

(East) satellite is positioned at 75

degrees W longitude at the equator and

monitors North and South America and

most of the Atlantic Ocean. GOES-11

(West) is positioned at 135 degrees W

longitude at the equator and monitors

North America and the Pacific Ocean

basin. These two satellites operate

together to provide continuous monitoring necessary for effective and

extensive weather forecasting, prediction, and environmental monitoring.

GOES East and West are in geosynchronous orbits, which means they

orbit the equatorial plane of the Earth at

a speed matching the Earth's rotation.

This allows them to continuously view

one part of the Earth's surface. The

geosynchronous orbit is about 35,800

km (22,300 miles) above the Earth's

equator. On May 24, 2006, GOES-13

was launched. This spacecraft is the

first spacecraft of the GOES N-P series.

This new series improves NOAA's coverage during spacecraft eclipse season.

After checkout of the satellite, GOES13 will be available as a replacement

for GOES East or West in the event of

a failure. With the move of GOES-11

to GOES West (replacing GOES-10),

GOES-10 will be repositioned to support South America as part of the

Global Earth Observation System of

Systems (GEOSS).

AIRBORNE OBSERVATIONS

The WWW has pursued a class of

automated airborne reporting systems

such as the Automated Meteorological

Data and Reporting (AMDAR) systems. Over 3000 aircraft now provide

reports of pressure, winds, and temperature during flight. The amount of data

from aircraft has increased dramatically during recent years -- from 78,000

reports in 2000 to 190,000 reports in

2006. These systems are making a

major contribution to the upper-air

component of the GOS in regions

where there is little or no radiosonde

data.

The U.S. AMDAR program began in

the early 1980's as a cooperative effort

among ARINC (Aeronautical Radio,

Inc.), the NWS, and the FAA. Over

150,000 reports of wind and temperature are sent every day in the Binary

Universal Form for Representation of

Meteorological Data (BUFR) code.

These reports are provided by seven

airlines: American, Delta, Federal

Express (FedEx), Northwest, Southwest, United, and United Parcel Service (UPS). Global cooperation on

AMDAR is facilitated by the WMO

AMDAR Panel established in 1998 by

a number of WMO members operating

or intending to operate AMDAR programs. Australia, Canada, China,

EUMETNET/E-AMDAR, Japan, New

Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia,

Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and the

U.S. have AMDAR programs. A number of new countries have directly indicated interest in the past year in developing AMDAR including Slovenia, the

Czech Republic, Malaysia, Kenya, and

Mauritius, who have also appointed

focal points, and Singapore has recommenced exploring possibilities of using

targeted data. Specific information and

guidance has been provided to all countries. Additionally, Bulgaria and Croatia have begun exploring the potential

of using AMDAR in their own national

programs.

In addition to wind and temperature

data collection, the U.S. program is

expanding the operational parameters

collected to also include water vapor

and turbulence. Water vapor observations from over 75 aircraft, from two

different sensors have been routinely

available for assessment since early

2005. A new turbulence algorithm,

developed by the National Center for

Atmospheric Research (NCAR)

derives an objective, aircraft-independent measure of turbulence (eddy dissipation rate (EDR)) from aircraft vertical acceleration. The EDR algorithm is

currently installed on 400 United Airlines aircraft, is available through the

AirDat TAMDAR sensor, and will be

added to several additional Southwest

Airlines aircraft in the next year as

well. EDR reports are being experimentally ingested into the FAA

Graphic Turbulence Guidance (GTG)

and as an initialization parameter.

SURFACE-BASED OBSERVATIONS

GOS employs both marine and land

surface-based observing systems.

Approximately 11,000 stations on land

take observations at least once every

three hours and often hourly of thermodynamic and wind-field parameters of
252 APPENDIX B

the atmosphere. About 4,000 of the

world's surface stations comprise the

RBSN. Data from these stations are

exchanged globally in real time. A subset of these surface stations are used in

the Global Climate Observing System

(GCOS) Surface Network (GSN). The

U.S. operates 87 surface stations as part

of the GCOS network. Many countries, including the U.S., have available

additional surface data from specialized mesoscale networks, such as Oklahoma's Mesonet, used for research,

water management, and transportation

needs. The U.S. operates about 73 surface stations on the Antarctic continent.

Twenty are U.S. government sponsored

of which only 4 report regular observations. The other 53 sites are sponsored

through university programs.

The lower atmosphere is vertically

profiled using a land-based global array

of about 900 upper-air stations which

deploy at least once per day a balloonborne radiosonde capable of providing

in-situ measurements of basic state

parameters. Approximately 15 specially outfitted commercial ships provide upper-air observations over

sparsely instrumented oceanic regions.

The NWS operates 92 upper-air stations and supports 15 additional sites in

the Caribbean and Pacific. For all U.S.

activities (including DOD and other

agencies), we have reported to WMO a

total of 132 sites. The U.S. has also

implemented experimental or quasioperational networks or single sites of

ground-based Doppler radars called

wind profilers to provide nearly continuous wind soundings. A network of 32

tropospheric wind profilers is being

operated quasi-operationally at 404

MHZ, primarily in the central part of

the U.S.

MARINE OBSERVATIONS

Over the oceanic regions, the global

observing system relies on ships,

moored and drifting buoys, profiling

floats, and stationary platforms, in

addition to derived data from satellite

observations. The Volunteer Observing

Ship fleet is comprised of some 5,000

commercial ships. About 900 ships

report marine meteorology observations at least 25 times per month. A

subset of the volunteer ships routinely

deploys expendable bathythermograph

probes to measure upper-ocean temperatures to a depth of 750 meters; about

20,000 probes are deployed annually.

An array of 1250 surface drifting buoys

provides 30,000 sea surface temperature and surface air pressure reports per

day. Surface currents are derived by

tracking the drifter movements. A network of 375 moored buoys provides

about 9000 reports of surface marine

observations per day. The moored

buoys are located offshore of several

maritime nations and also span the

tropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Implementation of a tropical Indian

Ocean moored array is now underway.

The Indian Ocean array is planned to be

completed by about 2012. Argo--a

global array of profiling floats--provides profiles of ocean temperature and

salinity to depths of 2000 meters. Each

float reports via satellite once every 10

days. As of October 2006, about 2500

Argo floats were in operation around

the globe and it is expected that the

array will reach its design goal of 3000

floats by early 2007.

GLOBAL CLIMATE OBSERVING

SYSTEM (GCOS)

The U.S. has been involved with

GCOS since its inception. NOAA's

National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)

in Asheville, North Carolina, supports a

number of GCOS data management

activities and hosts the U.S. GCOS

Program Office based in Silver Spring,

Maryland [see http://www.ncdc.

noaa.gov/oa/usgcos/index.htm]. This

support fits in with a proactive process

approach for GCOS implementation

planning with the goal of obtaining a

sustainable and robust GCOS observing network for international atmospheric, oceanographic, and terrestrial

climate observing. The U.S. national

program has taken a three-tiered

approach to fostering the GCOS program. This approach involves providing support:

• Internationally to improve and

enhance monitoring stations in developing nations that require assistance as

identified by the international GCOS

Atmospheric Observations Panel for

Climate.

• Regionally for workshops and

projects such as those in the Pacific

Ocean region for ensuring a robust and

sustainable GCOS observing program;

and

• On a bilateral basis with nations

that have entered into agreements with

the U.S. on improving climate observing activities.

Meteorological surface-based networks, utilized for climate purposes,

make observations of important climate

factors; atmospheric profiles; and pollutant emissions, aerosols, and ozone.

These surface-based networks are

intended to provide the basic observational set needed to define the status

and trends in climate of the world, and

also to calibrate and validate satellitebased observations. NOAA's U.S.

GCOS Program Office has committed

to leading the way, in partnership with

the GCOS Secretariat at the WMO, to

facilitate improvements in the management and operation of GCOS and

GCOS-related networks.

In general, GCOS performance measures used by NOAA in managing its

international support are intended to

gradually increase the quality and

quantity of data from the GCOS Surface Network (GSN) and GCOS

Upper-Air Network (GUAN) over the

next several years. The performance

measures focus on observing system

improvements in developing nations in

Africa, South America, and the Pacific

Islands. The support for developing

nations has primarily been for retrofitting surface and upper-air observing

stations that have up-to-now been
APPENDIX B 253

silent, but yet are key to global climate

monitoring activities. Countries that

have received new equipment and

expendables over the past three years

include: Argentina, Armenia, Congo,

Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Ecuador,

Ivory Coast, Kenya, Maldives,

Namibia, the Philippines, and Zimbabwe. The U.S. State Department has

been instrumental in aiding in the

establishment of regional GCOS maintenance facilities which have been

established in the Pacific and the

Caribbean. Another one is being

planned for Southern and Eastern

Africa in order to further the sustainability of the GCOS network in the

developing nations of that region.

Additionally, for the GSN, the performance measure is the percent

explained variance in mean annual

temperature in the developing world.

The long-term goal is 90 percent

explained variance with a network of

75 stations. This will be accomplished

by deploying new observing stations

that meet the same stringent requirements as those in the U.S. Climate Reference Network. For the GUAN, the

long-term objective is to increase the

percent of GUAN sites in the developing world that meet GCOS reporting

requirements (i.e., two soundings per

day for 25 days in the month, each

sounding with temperature/wind data

up to 5 hPa and humidity data up to the

tropopause). This will be accomplished by modernizing 75 existing

GUAN stations. The long-term goal is

to have 90 percent of the GUAN stations in the developing world meeting

GCOS requirements. The U.S. GCOS

Program, in conjunction with the

GCOS Secretariat and other elements

in NOAA, is working towards the

development of a high-quality GCOS

Atmospheric Reference Observations

Network (GARON). Finally, support

for the chemical constituent portion of

GCOS, the Global Atmosphere Watch

(GAW) program is part of the integrated GCOS support provided.

GLOBAL DATA PROCESSING AND

FORECASTING SYSTEM (GDPFS)

The purpose of GDPFS is to make

available all processed information

required for both real-time and nonreal-time applications. GDPFS provides products and processed information, based on recent advances in

atmospheric science, using powerful

numerical computer methods. Members have real-time, unrestricted access

through the GTS to GDPFS products

which allow all countries to benefit

from their participation in the WWW.

The GDPFS is organized as a threelevel system. It consists of World

Meteorological Centers (WMC),

Regional/Specialized Meteorological

Centers (RSMC), and National Meteorological Centers (NMC). Products of

RSMCs can be used by members at the

national level for further processing or

interpretation to provide assistance or

service to users. NMCs carry out

GDPFS functions at the national level.

In general, real-time functions of the

system involve preprocessing of data to

include real-time quality control, analysis, and prognosis, and the derivation of

appropriate meteorological parameters.

The non-real-time functions include

data collection and archival, and additional quality control, storage, and

retrieval, to include cataloging observational data and processed information

for operational and special applications

and for research. WMCs are located in

Melbourne, Moscow, and Washington,

and they provide guidance products

used for general short-, medium-, and

long-range weather forecasts on a

global scale. Melbourne specializes in

forecast products for the Southern

Hemisphere.

RSMCs with geographical specialization include Algiers, Beijing, Bracknell, Brazilia, Buenos Aires, Cairo,

Dakar, Darwin, Jeddah, Khabarovsk,

Melbourne, Miami, Montreal, Moscow,

Nairobi, New Delhi, Novosibirsk,

Offenbach, Pretoria, Rome, Tashkent,

Tokyo, Tunic/Casablanca, Washington

and Wellington. RSMCs with specialization for tropical cyclone forecasting

are: Miami - Hurricane Center, Nadi -

Tropical Cyclone Center, New Delhi -

Tropical Cyclone Center, Saint Denis,

La ReUnion - Tropical Cyclone Center,

Tokyo - western Pacific Typhoon Center, and Honolulu - central Pacific

Typhoon Center. The European Center

for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

(ECMWF) is an RSMC operated by the

European community out of Bracknell,

UK. The regional centers at Bracknell,

Honolulu, Miami, Montreal, New

Delhi, and Tokyo also have dual geographical and activity specialization

responsibilities. These centers provide

regional products used for short- and

medium-range forecasting of small,

mesoscale, and large-scale meteorological systems by WMCs. The RSMCs

located at Beijing, Bracknell, Melbourne, Montreal, Obninsk, Tokyo,

Toulouse, and Washington provide,

upon request, atmosphere aerosol and

chemical transport model products for

environmental emergency responses.

Other WMO-designated specialized

centers serve emerging development

needs: African Center of Meteorological Applications for Development

(ACMAD) - Niamey, Niger; ASEAN

Specialized Meteorological Center

(ASMC) - Singapore; Drought Monitoring Centers (DMC) - Nairobi,

Kenya, and Harare, Zimbabwe; INPE -

Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Center for

Medium Range Weather Forecasting -

New Delhi.

INTERNATIONAL SATELLITE

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(ISCS)

The World Area Forecast System

(WAFS) has two centers (Washington

and London) which are designated by

the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as World Area Forecast

Centers (WAFC). The dissemination of

aeronautical information via global

satellite broadcast began in 1995,

through the International Satellite
254 APPENDIX B

Communication System (ISCS). The

U.S. provides the links to two of the

three satellites specified in the system.

The WAFS issue upper-level wind and

temperature forecasts with global coverage and forecasts of weather elements defined by ICAO as significant.

The U.S. continues to support ten

ISCS/WAFS workstations of the

Regional Meteorological Telecommunication Network in the Caribbean and

also supports the Caribbean weather

website (www.caribweather.net).

GLOBAL TELECOMMUNICATION

SYSTEM

The GTS provides communication

services for the collection, exchange,

and distribution of observational data

and processed information among the

WMCs, RSMCs, and NMCs of the

WWW to meet the member needs for

real-time or quasi-real-time exchange

of information for both operational and

research purposes. The GTS also supports other WMO programs, joint programs with other international organizations, and environmental programs

as decided by the WMO and is organized on three levels:

• The Main Telecommunication Network (MTN).

• The Regional Meteorological

Telecommunication Networks

(RMTN).

• The National Meteorological

Telecommunication Networks

(NMTN).

The GTS is supported by the

telecommunications functions of the

WMCs, Regional Telecommunications

Hubs (RTH), RSMCs, and NMCs. The

MTN links the WMCs at Melbourne,

Moscow, and Washington with the

RTHs at Algiers; Beijing; Bracknell;

Brasilia; Buenos Aires; Cairo; Dakar;

Jeddah; Maracay, Venezuela; Nairobi;

New Delhi; Norrköping, Sweden;

Offenbach; Prague; Rome; Sofia;

Tokyo; Toulouse; and Wellington. It

ensures the rapid and reliable exchange

of observational data and processed

information required by the members.

The RMTNs consist of an integrated

system of links which interconnects

RTHs, NMCs, and RSMCs to WMCs.

The RMTNs provide for the collection

of observational data and the selective

distribution of meteorological information to member nations.

In summary, the GTS enables the

NMCs to receive and distribute observational data and meteorological information to meet the requirements of

members. Ongoing WWW activities

include:

• GTS network redesign, referred to

as the WMO Information System

(WIS), to take into consideration new

technical opportunities, such as Internet-like services.

• Improvement of the capacity of

MTN links and inclusion of graphics

(e.g., Washington-Brasilia, Washington-Buenos Aires, Washington-Tokyo).

• Upgrade of the GTS in the Indian

Ocean Basin to facilitate real-time

movement of tsunami and natural hazard warnings.

• Continued implementation of satellite-serviced data collection platforms

to enhance the collection of meteorological data from upper-air and surfaceobserving sites.

• Continued implementation of satellite direct-readout stations that are compatible with polar-orbiting satellites

and the weather facsimile (WEFAX)

component of the geostationary satellites. Planning is underway for eventual conversion of WEFAX to LowRate Information Transmission (LRIT)

and Automatic Picture Transmission

(APT) to Low Rate Picture Transmission (LRPT) formats with the advent of

a new generation of satellites.

VOLUNTARY COOPERATION PROGRAM (VCP)

The WMO Voluntary Cooperation

Program (VCP) is a technical cooperation program, managed by the WMO,

focused on meeting the needs of member countries to implement WMO scientific and technical programs. The

VCP endeavors to complement activities being implemented through

national meteorological services and

WMO trust-fund arrangements, and

through other UN organizations such as

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

The U.S. participates in the WMO

VCP with coordination assistance provided by NOAA's National Weather

Service. In 2005, the U.S. contributed

nearly $2 million dollars to the VCP to

support projects and training which

enhance the sciences of meteorology

and hydrology. The focus this year was

to support the theme "Technical Cooperation for Sustainable Development."

U.S. VCP funds provided assistance

to developing countries to help develop

and improve their WMO telecommunications infrastructure for tsunami and

natural disaster warning networks.

Through the NWS’ National Centers

for Environmental Prediction (NCEP),

the U.S. VCP supports weather forecast

training for the Americas and the

Caribbean countries and climate prediction training for Africa. Additionally, in the Pacific, NCEP provides

forecaster training for islanders, and

new funding is now dedicated to working with regional associations to

enhance communications by upgrading

of Low-Rate Users Stations in the

Island Developing States to provide

access to meteorological satellite

images in LRIT format for 17 Pacific

Island countries and territories.

The U.S. VCP will also support training programs in the Americas to

advance satellite data applications and

build capacity as part of the Earth

Observations Partnerships of the Americas (EOPA) initiative and support the

upcoming move of the GOES-10 satellite to provide more regional coverage.
APPENDIX C

PREVIOUS FEATURE ARTICLES

APPENDIX C 255

2005 FY 2006 Living With Wildland Fire in the Urban Ms. Mary M. Cairns, OFCM

Environment

2004 FY 2005 The Rewards of Managing Weather-Related Mr. Samuel P. Williamson, OFCM

Risks

2003 FY 2004 Weather and The Urban Environment: Ms. Margaret R. McCalla, OFCM

Meeting The Needs of Urban Communities

2002 FY 2003 The Need For Weather Information For Ms. Mary M. Cairns, OFCM

Surface Transportation: Keeping The

Country Safe and On The Move

2001 FY 2002 Research to Operations: Bridging the Mr. Robert Dumont, OFCM

Valley of Death

2000 FY 2001 The Legacy of Hurricane Floyd--Inland Mr. Robert Dumont, OFCM

Flooding and a Massive Evacuation

1999 FY 2000 Natural Disaster Reduction--Reducing the OFCM Staff in collaboration with

Impacts of Natural Hazards Dr. William Hooke, OAR, and

Ms. Keli Tarp, NOAA Public Affairs

1998 FY 1999 Aviation Weather: Taking A Leadership Role FAA's Aviation Weather Policy Division

(ARW-100) Staff

1997 FY 1998 Owning The Weather--An Army Force Mr. Richard J. Szymber, Army

Multiplier

1996 FY 1997 Space Weather - A New Challenge for Col Jud Stailey, USAF

Meteorologists

1995 FY 1996 The Role of Federal Agencies in International Mr. Blaine K. Tsugawa, OFCM

Aviation Meteorology

1994 FY 1995 Data Continuity in the Climatological Record Dr. Nathaniel B. Guttman, NCDC

Mr. Andrew H. Horvitz, NWS

Mr. Arthur L. Booth, NOAA-EOSDIS

1993 FY 1994 Training and Professional Development in the Mr. Eli Jacks, NWS

Modernized Weather Services Mr. LeRoy Spayd, NWS

1992 FY 1993 Mesoscale Meteorology Mr. Floyd F. Hauth, OFCM

1991 FY 1992 Some Recent Developments in Lightning Dr. Donald R. MacGorman, NOAA

Mapping Systems Dr. Frederick R. Mosher, NOAA

Ms. Jan S. Lewis, NOAA

Year Edition Title Author
256 APPENDIX C

1990 FY 1991 The Next Generation Weather Radar - Mr. E. Don Sarreals, NEXRAD JSPO 

A System for Locating and Tracking

Severe Weather

1989 FY 1990 Strategic Plan for the Modernization and Verbatim reproduction of a plan

Associated Restructuring of the required by Congress and submitted

National Weather Service by DOC and OMB

1988 FY 1989 Supercomputers for Meteorological Services (Source or author unknown)

and Supporting Research

Year Edition Title Author
APPENDIX D

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

APPENDIX D 257

3D-VAR Three Dimensional VARiational (DOD)

4DWX Four Dimensional Weather (DOD)

AA Active Army

AAO Amarillo Area Office (DOE)

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (FHWA)

AAU Alaskan Aviation Unit (NOAA/NCEP)

AB Authorization Basis

ABCS Army Battle Command System (DOD)

ABFM Airborne Field Mill (NASA)

ABL Airborne Laser (DOD)

ABLE Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment (DOE)

AC Active Component (DOD)

AC&A Atmospheric Chemistry and Aerosols (DOE)

ACARS ARINC Communication Addressing and Reporting System

ACD Atmospheric Chemistry Division (DOE)

ACE Aviation Combat Element (DOD)

ACE-IDS ASOS Controller Equipment - Information Display System (FAA)

ACIS Applied Climate Information System (USDA)

ACP Atmospheric Chemistry Program (DOE)

ACSG Atmospheric and Climate Sciences Group (DOE)

ADA Atmospheric Decision Aid (DOD)

ADAPT Atmospheric Data Assimilation and Parameterization Tool (DOE)

ADAS AWOS/ASOS Data Acquisition System (FAA)

ADEOS Advanced Earth Observing System (NASA)

AEC Atomic Energy Commission (DOE)

AEP Atmospheric Emergency Preparedness (DOE)

AESS Allied Environmental Support System (DOD)

AF Air Force

AFB Air Force Base 

AFCCC Air Force Combat Climatology Center

AFCWC Air Force Combat Weather Center 

AFFSA Air Force Flight Standards Agency

AFGS Aviation Forecast Gridded System

AFJI Air Force Joint Instruction

AFR Air Force Reserve

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

AFSOC Air Force Special Operations Command

AFTAC Air Force Technical Applications Center

AFW Air Force Weather

AFWA Air Force Weather Agency

AFWIN Air Force Weather Information Network

AFWWS Air Force Weather Weapon System

AF/XOO Air Force Director of Operations and Training (DOD)

AF/XO Air and Space Deputy Chief of Staff for Air and Space Operations (DOD)

AF/XOO-W Air Force Director of Weather

AGFS Aviation Gridded Forecast System (FAA)

AGRIMET A conjunction of the words "agricultural" and "meteorology", is a satellite-based network of 

automated agricultural weather stations operated and maintained by the U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation (DOI)

AHPS Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Services (NOAA/NWS)

AI Aircraft Icing (NASA)

AIP Airport Improvement Program (FAA)

AIRMAP Atmospheric Investigation Regional Modeling, Analysis, and Prediction (NOAA/OAR)
258 APPENDIX D

AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network (NOAA/OAR)

AIRS Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (NASA)

AL Aeronomy Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

ALDARS Automated Lightning Detection and Reporting System (FAA)

ALOHA Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres (a transport and dispersion code)

ALOO Albuquerque Operations Office

AMC Army Materiel Command 

AMDAR Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (WWP)

AMIS Automated Meteorological Information System (DOD)

AMPS Automated Meteorological Profiling System (NASA)

AMOS Automated Meteorological Observing System (DOD)

AMS Acquisition Management System (FAA)

American Meteorological Society

AMSR-E Advanced Microwave Sounding Radiometer 

AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit

AMU Applied Meteorology Unit (NASA)

ANG Air National Guard (DOD)

ANL Argonne National Laboratory (DOE)

AOC Aircraft Operations Center (NOAA)

Air and Space Operations Center (DOD)

AOML Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

AOR Area of Responsibility (DOD)

AOT Aerosol Optical Thickness (NOAA/NESDIS)

APGEMS Air Pollutant Graphical Environmental Monitoring System

APS Aerosol Polarimetry Sensor (APS)

APT Automatic Picture Transmission (NOAA/NESDIS)

AQG Air Quality Group (DOE)

AR Army Regulation

ARAC Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability (DOE)

ARCS Atmospheric Radiation CART Sites (NOAA/OAR)

ARG Accident Response Group (DOE)

ARGO Global Array of Profiling Floats (NOAA/OAR)

ARGOS French Satellite Data Collection System 

ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated

ARL Army Research Laboratory 

Air Resources Laboratory (NOAA and DOE)

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Monitoring (DOE)

ARNG Army National Guard

ARO Army Research Office

ARS Agricultural Research Service (USDA)

Air Traffic System Requirements Service (FAA)

Atmospheric Research Section (DOE)

ARSPACE Army Space Command

ARSR Air Route Surveillance Radar (FAA)

ARSST Army Space Support Team

ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Center (FAA)

ARTYMET Artillery Meteorological (DOD)

ARW Aviation Weather Directorate (FAA)

ASCAT Advanced Scatterometer 

ASD Atmospheric Sciences Division (DOE)

ASDAR Aircraft to Satellite Data Relay

ASNE MSEA Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation Executive Agent (DOD)

ASOG Air Support Operations Group (DOD)

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System

Air Support Operations Squadron (DOD)

ASP Atmospheric Science Program (DOE)

ASR Airport Surveillance Radar (FAA)
APPENDIX D 259

ATC Air Traffic Control (FAA)

ATCCS Army Tactical Command and Control System

ATD Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion 

ATDD Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division (NOAA/ARL) 

ATEC Army Test and Evaluation Command

ATG Atmospheric Technologies Group (DOE)

ATLAS Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition System (NOAA/OAR)

ATMS Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder

ATO Air Traffic Organization (FAA)

Air Tasking Order (DOD)

ATOS Appalachian Tropospheric Ozone Study (NOAA/AOC)

ATWIS Advanced Transportation Weather Information System (FHWA)

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA)

AVO Alaskan Volcano Observatory (DOI/USGS)

AVP Advanced Vehicle Technologies Program (FTA)

AWARDS Agricultural Water Resources Decision Support (DOI/BUREC)

AWC Aviation Weather Center (NOAA/NCEP)

AWIPS Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (NOAA)

AWIS Automated Weather Information System

AWN Automated Weather Network (DOD)

AWOS Automated Weather Observing System (FAA)

AWR Aviation Weather Research (FAA)

AWSS Aviation Weather Sensor System (FAA)

AWTT Aviation Weather Technology Transfer (FAA)

BAMP Breton Aerometric Monitoring Program (DOI)

BASC Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate

BCTP Battle Command Training Program (DOD)

BE Battlefield Environment (DOD)

BER Biological and Environmental Research (DOE)

BFA Battlefield Functional Areas (DOD)

BIO Basis for Interim Operations (DOE)

BLM Bureau of Land Management (DOI)

BMDO Ballistic Missile Defense Office (DOD)

BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory (DOE)

BUFR Binary Universal Form for the Representation of Meteorological Data

BUREC Bureau of Reclamation (DOI)

C2 Command and Control (DOD)

C4I Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (DOD)

CAAM Computer Assisted Artillery Meteorology (DOD)

CAC Combined Arms Center (DOD)

CAIB Columbia Accident Investigation Board

CALJET California Land-falling Jets Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

CAMEO Computer Aided Management of Emergency Operations

CAMEX Convective and Moisture Experiment (NASA)

CAO Carlsbad Area Office

CAP Civil Air Patrol

CAP88-PC Clean Air Act Assessment Package-1988 - Personal Computer (DOE)

CAPARS Computer-Assisted Protective Action Recommendation System (DOE)

CARDS Comprehensive Aerological Reference Data Set (NOAA/NCDC)

CARS Condition Acquisition and Reporting System (FHWA)

CART Clouds and Radiation Testbed (DOE)

CASPER Computer Aided System For Planning Efficient Routes (FHWA)

CAST Commercial Aviation Safety Team (FAA)

CAT Clear Air Turbulence

CAWIS Committee for Automated Weather Information Systems (OFCM)
260 APPENDIX D

CBIRF Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (DOD)

CBAP Catastrophic Backup Action Plan

CBNP Chemical Biological Non-Proliferation Program (DOE)

Chemical Biological National Security Program (DOE)

CBOFS Chesapeake Bay Oceanographic Forecasting System (NOAA/NOS)

CBRNE Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, or High-Yield Explosive (DOD)

CBS Commission on Basic Services (WWP)

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

CCCM Climate and Carbon Cycle Modeling (DOE)

CCM3 Community Climate Model-3 used at LANL (DOE)

CCMC Community Coordinated Modeling Center (DOD)

CCMS Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (EPA)

CDA Command and Data Acquisition 

CDF Cloud Depiction and Forecasting (DOD)

CDFS Cloud Depiction and Forecast System (DOD)

CDPHE Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (DOE)

CECOM Communications and Electronics Command (DOD)

CEMSCS Central Environmental Satellite Computer System (NOAA/NESDIS)

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (NOAA/NESDIS)

CERES Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (NASA)

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics 

CFIT Controlled Flight Into Terrain (NASA)

CFR Code of Federal Regulations (DOE)

CGSC Command and General Staff College (DOD)

CHAMMP Computer Hardware Advanced Mathematics and Model Physics (DOE)

CHARM An Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Model

CIASTA Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Studies and Terrestrial Applications (NOAA/OAR)

CICE Sea Ice Code at LANL

CIDE Communications Interfaces and Data Exchange (OFCM)

CIOS Committee for Integrated Observing Systems (OFCM)

CIRES Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences 

CIWS Corridor Integrated Weather System (FAA)

CLASS Comprehensive Large Array-Data Stewardship System (NOAA/NESDIS)

CLIVAR-GEWEX Climate Variability and Predictability - Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment

CLIVAR-VAMOS Climate Variability and Predictability - Variability and Predictability of the American 

Monsoon System 

C-MAN Coastal-Marine Automated Network

CMAQ Community Multi-scale Air Quality (EPA)

CMDL Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

CME Coronal Mass Ejection

CMFC Coordinating METOC Forecast Center (DOD)

CMIS Conical Scanning Microwave Imager Sounder

COADS Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (NOAA/NCDC) 

COAMPS Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System 

COARE Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment

COE Corps of Engineers (DOD)

COMET Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education and Training

CONUS Continental United States (DOD)

CONUSA Continental United States Armies (DOD)

COPC Committee for Operational Processing Centers (OFCM)

COOP Cooperative Observer Program (NOAA/NWS)

CORMS Continuous Real-time Monitoring System (NOAA/NOS)

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (DOD)

COTS Commercial Off-the-Shelf

CPC Climate Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

CPHC Central Pacific Hurricane Center (NOAA/NCEP)
APPENDIX D 261

CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement

CrIS Cross-track Infrared Sounder 

CRN Climate Reference Network (NOAA)

CRREL Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (DOD)

CS Climate Services 

CSD Climate Services Division (NOAA/NWS)

CSEPP Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (DOE)

CSRA Central Savannah River Area (DOE)

CSREES Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA)

CSW Committee for Space Weather (OFCM)

CTA Common Table of Allowances (DOD)

CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (DOE)

CWS Combat Weather Squadron (DOD)

CWSU Center Weather Service Unit (FAA)

CWT Combat Weather Team (DOD)

CXD Combined X-ray Dosimeter (DOE)

CY Calendar Year

DAC Data Assembly Center (NOAA/OAR)

DAMPS Distributed Atmospheric Modeling Prediction System (DOD)

DAT Department of Advanced Technology (DOE)

DCO Data Collection Office (NOAA/NWS)

DCP Data Collection Package

Data Collection Platform (DOI)

DCS Data Collection System (NOAA/NESDIS)

DEPSCoR Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (DOD)

DGPS Differential Global Positioning System (USGS)

DHS Department of Homeland Security 

DIS Decision and Information Sciences (DOE)

DISS Digital Ionospheric Sounding System (DOD)

DMCC DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council (DOE)

DMS Dynamic Message Sign (FHWA)

DMSO Defense Modeling and Simulation Office (DOD)

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DOD)

DNT Dinitrotoluene (DOE)

DOC Department of Commerce 

DOD Department of Defense 

DOE Department of Energy 

DOI Department of the Interior 

DOMSAT Domestic Communications Satellite (DOI)

DOS Department of State 

DOT Department of Transportation

DRA Desert Rock Meteorological Observatory at NTS (DOE)

DREC Delta Research Extension Center (USDA)

DRGS Direct Readout Ground Stations (DOI)

DRI Desert Research Institute (DOE)

DRWP Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (NASA)

DTC Developmental Test Command (DOD)

DTED Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DOD)

DTRA Defense Threat Reduction Agency 

DTSS Digital Topographic Support System (DOD)

DUAT Direct User Access Terminal (FAA)

DURIP Defense University Research Instrumentation Program (DOD)

EAC Echelon Above Corps (DOD)

EAD Environmental Assessment Division (DOE)

EBID Environmental Biology and Instrumentation Division (DOE)
262 APPENDIX D

ECDIS Electronic Chart Display Information System (NOAA/NOS)

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting

EDAS Eta Data Assimilation System (NOAA/NESDIS)

EDIS Environmental Data and Information Service (NOAA)

EERE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (DOE)

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle (NASA)

EM Office of Environmental Management (DOE)

EMC Environmental Modeling Center (NOAA/NCEP)

European Modeling Center (NOAA/NCEP)

EMP Environmental Meteorology Program (DOE)

EMS Environmental Monitoring Section (DOE)

ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation

EO Electro-optical

Earth Observation (NASA)

EOC Emergency Operations Center

EOS Earth Observing System (NASA)

EOSDIS EOS Data and Information System (NASA)

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

EPD Environmental Protection Department (DOE)

EPIC Equatorial Pacific Investigation of Climate (NOAA/AOC)

EPR Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate (FEMA)

E-PIREPS Electronic Pilot Reports (FAA)

EP/RD Environmental Protection/Restoration Department (DOE)

EPZ Emergency Planning Zone (DOE) 

ER Eastern Range (NASA)

Environmental Research (DOE)

ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (NASA)

ERC Extended Research Checkout

ERDA Energy Research and Development Administration (DOE)

ERDAS Eastern Range Dispersion Assessment System (NASA)

ERDC Engineering Research and Development Center (DOD)

ERL Environmental Research Laboratories (NOAA)

ESD/IPC Environmental Satellite Distribution/Interactive Processing Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

ESE Earth Science Enterprise (NASA)

ESP Energy Spectrometer for Particles (DOE)

Ensemble Streamflow Prediction (NWS)

ESS Environmental Sensor Station (FHWA)

ESSP Earth System Science Pathfinders (NASA)

ETIS Evacuation Traffic Information System (FHWA)

ETL Environmental Technology Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

ETOS East Tennessee Ozone Study (NOAA/OAR)

ETTP East Tennessee Technology Park (DOE)

ET Toolbox Evapotranspiration Toolbox (DOI)

EUMETSAT European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

EUSA Eighth U.S. Army

EUV Extreme Ultraviolet

EWR Ellason Weather Radar (DOD)

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FALOP Forward Area Limited Observing Program (DOD)

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA)

FBA Fire Behavior Analysts (DOI)

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change (DOS)

FCMSSR Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM)

FCS Future Combat System (DOD)

FDD First Digitized Division (DOD)
APPENDIX D 263

FDIC Force Development and Integration Center (DOD)

FEM3MP LLNL finite element model (DOE)

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

FIRETEC Fire Code at LANL (DOE)

FIRST FAA Icing Remote Sensor Testbed (NOAA/OAR)

FIS Flight Information System (FAA)

FITL Forecaster-in-the-Loop (DOD)

FLENUMMETOCCEN Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Monterey, California

FMF Fleet Marine Force

FMH Federal Meteorological Handbook (OFCM)

FNMOC Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (DOD)

FOA Field Operating Agency (DOD)

FORSCOM U.S. Army Forces Command

FOV Field of vision

FR Flight Rules

FRA Federal Railroad Administration

FRD Field Research Division (NOAA/ARL)

FRERP Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (DOE)

FRMAC Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (DOE)

FRWS Fire RAWS (DOI)

FS-21 Forecasting System 21st Century (DOD)

FS Forest Service (USDA)

FSA Farm Services Agency (USDA)

FSL Forecast Systems Laboratory (NOAA/OAR)

FSR Forest Service Research (USDA)

FTA Federal Transit Administration

FTE Full-time Equivalent

FTP File Transfer Protocol

FU Forecast Unit

FWS Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI)

FY Fiscal year 

G-IV Gulfstream IV (NOAA)

GAA GOES Active Archive (NOAA/NESDIS)

GAC Global Area Coverage

GACC Geographic Areas Coordination Center (DOI)

GACP Global Aerosol Climatology Project (NASA)

GAIM Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurements (DOD)

GAPP GEWEX Applications Prediction Program (DOI/BUREC)

GAO General Accounting Office

GCCR Global Climate Change Research (DOE)

GCCS Global Command and Control System (DOD)

GCIP GEWEX Continental-scale International Project (DOI)

GCM Global Climate Models (DOE)

GCOS Global Climate Observing System (WWP)

GCPS Global Climate Perspectives System

GCRP Global Change Research Program

GDPC Global Data Processing Centers (WWP)

GDPFS Global Data Processing and Forecast System (WWP)

GEM Generation of weather Elements for Multiple (USDA)

GEOSAR Geostationary Earth Orbit Search and Rescue (NOAA/NESDIS)

GEOSS Global Earth Observation Systems of Systems (WWP)

GEWEX Global Energy and Water-Balance Experiment

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

GHCN Global Historical Climatology Network

G-IPPA Government-Industry Project Performance Agreement (FAA)

GIN Geomagnetic Information Nodes (DOI)
264 APPENDIX D

GIS Geographic Information System

GLD Global Lagrangian Drifters (NOAA/OAR)

GLOFS Great Lakes Operational Forecast System

GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System (NOAA/NESDIS)

GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite-Japan (WWP)

GMSRA GOES Multi-Spectral Rainfall Algorithms (NOAA/NESDIS)

GMU George Mason University 

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System

GOS Global Observing System (WWP)

GOSSP Global Observing Systems Space Panel (NOAA/NESDIS)

GPCP Global Precipitation Climatology Program

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS/MET GPS for Meteorology

GRIB Gridded Binary (FM 92-X Ext.)

GRIDS Ground-based Remote Icing Detection System (NOAA/OAR)

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)

GSN GCOS Surface Network (WWP)

GTS Global Telecommunications System (WWP)

GTSPP Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Project

GTWAPS Global Theater Weather Analysis and Prediction System (DOD)

GUAN GCOS Upper Air Network (WWP)

HAF Headquarters Air Force (DOD)

HaL Hurricanes at Landfall (NOAA/OAR)

HAR Highway Advisory Radio (FHWA)

HARM Hazardous Atmospheric Release Model (NOAA/OAR)

HAZMET Hazardous Material (FHWA)

HCRS Highway Closure and Restriction System (FHWA)

HDB Hydrologic DataBase (DOI)

HELSTF High Energy Laser System Test Facility (DOD)

HF High Frequency 

HFRB High Frequency Regional Broadcast 

HIGRAD Transport and Dispersion Model at LANL (DOE)

HIRS/3 High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

HMI Hydrologic Modeling Inventory (DOI)

HMSC Hazardous Materials Spill Center (DOE)

HMMWV High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle (DOD)

HPC Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

HPCC High Performance Computing and Communications

HRAP Hydrologic Rainfall Analysis Project (DOI)

HRD Hurricane Research Division (NOAA/ERL)

HRPT High Resolution Picture Transmission (NOAA/NESDIS)

HSA Hydrologic Service Area (NOAA/NWS)

HSM Heat Stress Monitor (DOD)

HYDROMET A network of automated hydrologic and meteorologic monitoring stations located throughout the 

Pacific Northwest (DOI)

HYSPLIT Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (NOAA/OAR)

HUD Head-up display (NASA)

IA Interagency Agreement

IAMS Initial Attack Management System (DOI)

IAS International Airspace System (NOAA/NWS)

IAV Interim Armored Vehicle (DOD)

IBCT Interim Brigade Combat Teams (DOD)

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

LCC Launch Commit Criteria
APPENDIX D 265

ICMSSR Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (OFCM)

ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions

IDCS International Data Collection System (WWP) 

IEW Intelligence and Electronic Warfare (DOD)

IFEX Intensity Forecast Experiment

IFFA Interactive Flash Flood Analyzer (NOAA/NESDIS)

IGBP International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (WWP)

IHC Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (OFCM)

IIP International Ice Patrol (USCG)

IMA Individual Mobilization Augmentee (DOD)

IMAAC Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center 

IMDES Interdepartmental Meteorological Data Exchange System 

IMETS Integrated Meteorological System (DOD)

Incident Meteorologists (NOAA/NWS)

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (DOI)

INEEL Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (DOE)

INSAT India's National Satellite (WWP)

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (WWP)

IPB Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace (DOD)

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (WWP/DOS)

IPEX Intermountain Precipitation Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

IPO Integrated Program Office

IR Infrared

IRTSS Infrared Target Scene Simulation Software (DOD)

ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Program (NOAA/NESDIS)

ISES International Space Environment Service (NOAA/OAR)

ISIS Integrated Solar Irradiance Study (NOAA/OAR)

ISMS Integrated Safety Management System (DOE)

ISS International Space Station

ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (FHWA)

IT Information Technology

ITCT Intercontinental Transport and Chemical Transformation (NOAA/OAR)

ITCZ Inter-tropical convergence zone

ITS Intelligent Transportation System (FHWA)

ITS-JPO ITS Joint Program Office (FHWA)

IT-RD Information Technology Research and Development (EPA)

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System (FAA)

IWEDA Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid (DOD)

IWGCCST Interagency Working Group on Climate Change Science and Technology (DOS)

IWRS Improved Weather Reconnaissance System (OFCM)

IWRPC Improved Weather Reconnaissance System Program Council (OFCM)

JAAWIN Joint Air Force-Army Weather Information Network (DOD)

JAG Joint Action Group

JAG/OCM Joint Action Group for Operational Community Modeling 

JASL Joint Archive for Sea Level

JAWF Joint Agricultural Weather Facility (USDA)

JCOMM Joint Commission for Oceanographic and Marine Meteorology (WWP)

JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff (DOD)

JCSDA Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (NOAA/NCEP)

JET Joint Environmental Toolkit (DOD)

JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

JHT Joint Hurricane Testbed (NOAA/OAR)

JMDB Joint METOC Database (DOD)

JMFU Joint METOC Forecast Unit (DOD)

JMIB Joint METOC Interoperability Board (DOD)

JMIST Joint METSAT Imagery, Software, and Terminals (DOD)
266 APPENDIX D

JMV Joint METOC Viewer (DOD)

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA)

JSAT Joint Safety Analysis Team (FAA)

JSIT Joint Safety Implementation Team (FAA)

JSC Johnson Space Center (NASA)

JSCP Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan (DOD)

JTWC Joint Typhoon Warning Center (DOD)

JWIS Joint Weather Impacts System (DOD)

KAO Kirtland Area Office

KLC Kodiak Launch Center (NASA)

KM Kilometer

KSC Kennedy Space Center (NASA)

KVERT Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (DOI)

LAAS Local Area Augmentation System (FAA)

LAC Local Area Coverage

LAN Local Area Network

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory (DOE)

LAPS Local Analysis and Prediction System (NOAA/FSL)

LDAR Lightning Detection and Ranging

LDCM Landsat Data Continuity Mission (NASA)

LDIS Local Data Integration System (NASA)

LEO Low Earth Orbit

LLCC Lightning Launch Commit Criteria (NASA)

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (DOE)

LLWAS Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (FAA)

LLWAS-RS LLWAS-Relocation/Sustainment (FAA)

LODI Transport and Dispersion Model at LLNL (DOE)

LRGS Local Readout Ground Stations (DOI)

LSD Laboratory Services Division

LSM Land Surface Model (DOD)

LV Launch Vehicle

LWS Living With A Star (NASA)

M2M Machine-to-Machine

MACOM Major Army Command

MAGTF Marine Air Ground Task Force

MAJCOM Major Command (DOD)

MAW Marine Aircraft Wing

MB Millibars

MC Meteorological Codes

MCAF Marine Corps Air Facilities

MCAS Marine Corps Air Station

MCCDC Marine Corps Combat Development Command (DOD)

MCD Mesoscale Discussions (NOAA/NWS)

MCO Maintenance and Construction Operations (FHWA)

MCS Mesoscale Convective System (NOAA/OAR)

MCSP Meteorological and Climate Services Project 

MCWP Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (DOD)

MDIFF Transport and Dispersion Code at INEEL (DOE)

MDCRS Meteorological Data Communications and Reporting System (WWP)

MDSS Maintenance Decision Support System (FHWA)

MeaPRS MCS Electrification and Polarimetric Radar Study (NOAA/OAR)

MEDA Meteorological Data System

MEF Mission Execution Forecast (DOD)

MEPED Medium Energy Proton and Electron Detector (NOAA/NESDIS)
APPENDIX D 267

MES Marine Environmental Services (OFCM)

MET Mobile Environmental Teams (DOD)

Meteorological Teams (DOD)

METMF Meteorological Mobile Facility (DOD)

METOC Meteorological and Oceanographic (DOD)

METSAT Meteorological Satellite

MHS Microwave Humidity Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

MHz Megahertz

MIMS Multimedia Integrated Modeling System (EPA)

MM5 Mesoscale Meteorological Model-Version 5.0 (DOD)

MME Mobile Meteorological Equipment (OFCM)

MMS Meteorological Measuring System (DOD)

Mineral Management Service (DOI)

Modular Modeling System (DOI)

MMS-P Meteorological Measuring System-Profiler (DOD)

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOBY Marine Optical Buoy (NOAA/NESDIS)

MOCE Marine Optical Characterization Experiment (NOAA/NESDIS)

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (NASA)

MOS Model Output Statistics 

MP Mission Planning (DOD)

MPA Magnetospheric Plasma Analyzer (DOE)

MPC Marine Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

MS Monitoring the Stratosphere (OFCM)

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA)

MSL Mean Sea Level

MSS Meteorological Sounding System (NASA)

MST Meteorological Support Teams (DOD)

MSU Microwave Sounding Unit (NOAA/NESDIS)

MTN Main Telecommunications Network (WWP)

MTOE Modified Table of Organization and Equipment (DOD)

MTPE Mission to Planet Earth (NASA)

MTSAT Multi-functional Transport Satellite

MWSS Marine Wing Support Squadron

MW Microwave

N511 National 511-Traveler Information Service (FHWA)

NADIN National Airspace Data Interchange Network (FAA)

NAF Numbered Air Force

NAME North American Monsoon Experiment 

NAMIS NATO Automated Meteorological Information System (DOD)

NMAO NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations 

NAP Non-insured Crop Disaster Assistance Program (USDA)

NAPP National Aerial Photography Program (USDA)

NAOS North American Atmospheric Observing System (NOAA)

NARAC National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (DOE)

NARSTO North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone (EPA)

NAS National Airspace System (FAA)

National Academy of Sciences

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASDA National Space Development Agency of Japan 

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA)

NATCOM National Communications Center (FAA)

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (DOD, EPA)

NAVICECEN Naval Ice Center

NAVOCEANO Naval Oceanographic Office 

NAVLANTMETOCCEN Naval Atlantic Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Norfolk, Virginia
268 APPENDIX D

NAVMETOCCOM Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

NAVPACMETOCCEN Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

NAWPC National Aviation Weather Program Council (OFCM)

NBC Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (DOD)

NC NOAA Corps 

NCA National Command Authority (DOD)

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research 

NCAS NOAA Center for Atmospheric Sciences 

NCDC National Climatic Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NOAA/NWS)

NCO NCEP Central Operations (NOAA/NCEP)

Non-commissioned officer (DOD)

NDBC National Data Buoy Center (NOAA/NWS)

NDGPS Nationwide Differiental Global Positioning System

NDI Non-developmental item

NDOP National Digital Orthoquad Program (USDA)

NDRI Natural Disaster Reduction Initiative (NOAA)

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NOAA/NESDIS)

NEAQS New England Air Quality Study 

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act 

NERON NOAA’s Environmental Real-Time Observation Network 

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NOAA)

NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (DOE)

NESS National Environmental Satellite Service (NOAA)

NEST Nuclear Emergency Search Team (DOE)

NETRAD Networked Radars 

NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar (WSR-88D)

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA)

NFDRS National Fire Danger Rating System (DOI/BLM)

NGDC National Geophysical Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NGIC National Geomagnetic Information Center (DOI)

NGST Northrup Grumman Space Technology 

NHC National Hurricane Center (NOAA/NCEP)

NHI National Highway Institute (FHWA)

NHOP National Hurricane Operations Plan (OFCM)

NIC National Ice Center (DOT/USCG)

National Intelligence Community (DOD)

NIFC National Interagency Fire Center (DOI)

NIPRNET Non-secure Internet Protocol Router Network (DOD)

NIRT Nuclear Incident Response Team

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology (DOC)

NITES Navy Integrated Tactical Environmental Subsystem

NLDN National Lightning Detection Network (FAA)

NMC National Meteorological Center(s) (WWP)

NMHS National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (WWP)

NMOC Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command

NMP New Millennium Program (NASA)

NMS National Military Strategy (DOD)

NMTN National Meteorological Telecommunications Network (WWP)

NNDC NOAA National Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration (DOE)

NNSA/NSO National Nuclear Security Administration/Nevada Site Office (DOE)

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOCMP National Operational Coastal Modeling Program 

NODC National Oceanographic Data Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

NODDS Navy Oceanographic Data Distribution System

NOGAPS Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System
APPENDIX D 269

NOHRSC National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center 

NOS National Ocean Service (NOAA) 

NOTAMS Notices to Airmen (FAA)

NOWS NVG Operations Weather Software (DOD)

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (DOE)

NPN NOAA Profiler Network (NOAA/OAR)

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NPP NPOESS Preparatory Program (NASA)

NPS National Park Service (DOI)

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA)

NRI National Research Initiative (USDA)

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NRO National Reconnaissance Office (DOD)

NRVR New Generation Runway Visual Range (FAA)

NSC National Security Complex

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center (NOAA)

NSO Nevada Site Office (DOE)

NSS National Security Strategy (DOD)

NSSL National Severe Storms Laboratory (NOAA)

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NSTEP National Strategic Training and Education Plan (NOAA/NWS)

NSWP National Space Weather Program (OFCM)

NTCIP National Transportation Communications for ITS Protocol (FHWA)

N-TFS New Tactical Forecast System (DOD)

NTIS National Technical Information Service

NTS Nevada Test Site (DOE)

NTSB National Transportation Safety Board 

NV Nevada Operations Office (DOE)

NVG Night vision goggles (DOD)

NWA National Wilderness Area (DOI)

NWCC National Water & Climate Center (USDA)

NWCG National Wildfire Coordinating Group (USDA)

NWIS National Water Information System (DOI)

NWLON National Water-Level Observation Network (NOAA/NOS)

NWP Numerical Weather Prediction

NWS National Weather Service

NWSRFS National Weather Service River Forecast Service (NOAA/NWS)

NWSTC National Weather Service Training Center (NOAA/NWS)

NXDP National Xeriscape Demonstration Program (DOI)

O&C Oregon and California Railroad Land Grants (DOI)

OAR Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (NOAA)

OASIS Operational and Supportability Implementation System (FAA)

OB Operational Build

OCAP Operating Consortium of ASDAR Participants (WWP)

OCE Office of the Chief Economist (USDA)

OCRWM Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management

OCWWS Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services (NOAA/NWS)

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology 

OGP Office of Global Programs (NOAA)

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OMEGA Operational Medicine Environmental Grid Application (DOD)

OMPS Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite

ONR Office of Naval Research

OOR Object Oriented Redesign
270 APPENDIX D

OPAREA Fleet Operational Area (DOD)

OPARS Optimum Path Aircraft Routing System (DOD)

OPC Operational Processing Centers 

OPS-II Operational Weather Squadron Production System, Phase II

OPUP Open Principal User Processor

OR&F Operations, Research, and Facilities (NOAA/NWS)

ORA Office of Research and Applications (NOAA/NESDIS)

ORAU Oak Ridge Associated Universities (DOE)

ORD Operational Requirements Documents (DOD)

ORISE Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (DOE)

ORPG Open Systems Radar Product Generator (NOAA/OAR)

ORR Oak Ridge Reservation (DOE)

ORS Optical Remote Sensing

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory (DOE)

OROO Oak Ridge Operations Office (DOE)

OS Office of Science, South Carolina

OS-21 Observing System 21st Century (DOD)

OSC On-Scene Commander (DOE)

OSDPD Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSE Observing System Experiments (WWP)

OSEI Operational Significant Event Imagery (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration 

OSO Office of Satellite Operations (NOAA/NESDIS)

OSSE Observing System Simulation Experiments (WWP)

OSTEP Ocean Systems Test and Evaluation Program (NOAA/NOS)

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy

OTC Operational Test Centers 

OTH Over the horizon (NOAA/OAR)

OTSR Optimum Track Ship Routing (DOD)

OWF Operational Weather Flight (DOD)

OWS Operational Weather Squadron (DOD)

OWSE Operational World Weather Watch Systems Evaluation (WWP)

PAA Precipitation Accumulation Algorithm (DOI)

PAC Procurement, Acquisition, and Construction (NOAA/NWS)

PACS Polar Acquisition and Control Subsystem (NOAA/NESDIS)

PAR Phased Array Radar 

PATMOS Pathfinder Atmosphere (NOAA/NESDIS)

PAWRP Phased Array Weather Radar Project 

PBL Planetary Boundary Layer (DOE)

PC Program Council (OFCM)

Personal Computer (DOE)

PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl 

PCMDI Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (DOE)

PD Program Director (DOD)

PDD Presidential Decision Directive

PDT Product Development Team

PECAD Production Estimates and Crop Assessment Division (USDA)

PIBAL Pilot Balloon

PIPS Polar Ice Prediction System (NOAA/NESDIS)

PIRATA Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic (NOAA/OAR)

PIREP Pilot Report

PMC Project Management Coordinator (DOE)

PMEL Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (NOAA/ERL)

PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (DOE)

PNT Position, Navigation, and Timing (USCG)

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)
APPENDIX D 271

POP Parallel Ocean Program (DOE)

POPS Primary Oceanographic Prediction System (DOD)

PORTS Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System (NOAA/NOS)

ppm Part per Million (DOE)

PSDA Post-Storm Data Acquisition (OFCM)

PSR Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer (NOAA/OAR)

PSS Plant Shift Superintendent

PUP Principal User Processor

QPF Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (NOAA/NCEP)

QuikSCAT Quick Scatterometer

R&A Research and Analysis

R&D Research and Development 

RAFC Regional Area Forecast Center (WWP)

RAMS Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (DOE)

RAMSDIS RAMM Branch Advanced Meteorological Satellite Demonstration and Interpretation System 

(NOAA/NESDIS)

RAP Radiological Assistance Program (DOE)

Remedial Action Plan (DOE)

RARC Regional Atmospheric Response Center (DOE)

RASS Radio Acoustic Sounding System (NOAA/OAR and DOE)

RATS Radio Automatic Theodolite System (NASA)

RAWS Remote Automatic Weather Station (USDA/DOI)

RBCN Regional Basic Climate Network (WWP)

RC Reserve Component (DOD)

RCC Regional Climate Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

RCTM Road Condition and Treatment Module (FHWA)

RDA Radar Data Acquisition

RDEC Research Development and Engineering Center (DOD)

RDTE Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (DOD)

REIP Reengineered Enterprise Infrastructure Program (DOD)

RF Radio Frequency

RFETS Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site (DOE)

RFOO Rocky Flats Operations Office (DOE)

RFC River Forecast Center (NOAA/NWS)

RMTN Regional Meteorological Telecommunications Network (WWP)

ROC Radar Operations Center (NOAA/NWS)

RPC Rapid Prototype Center (NOAA/SEC)

RSA Range Standardization and Automation (NASA)

RSAC Transport and Dispersion Code at INEEL (DOE)

RSFWSU Remote Sensing/Fire Weather Support Unit (DOI)

RSMC Regional/Specialized Meteorological Centers (WWP)

RSS Receiving Set Satellite (DOD)

RTH Regional Telecommunications Hub (WWP)

RUC Rapid Update Cycle (NOAA/OAR)

RVR Runway Visual Range (FAA)

RWIS Road Weather Information System (FHWA)

SAA Satellite Active Archive

Snow Accumulation Algorithm (DOI/BLM)

SAFETEA Safe, Accountable, Flexible, and Efficient Transportation Equity Act of 2003 (FHWA)

SALEX Saharan Air Layer Experiment 

SAMS Stochastic Analysis, Modeling, and Simulation (DOI)

SAP Special Access Program

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar (NOAA/NESDIS)

SARSAT Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking
272 APPENDIX D

SATCOM Satellite Communications

SATS Small Aircraft Transportation System (NASA)

SAWS Stand Alone Weather Sensor (FAA)

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research Program 

SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultra-violet Instrument (NOAA/NESDIS)

SCAN Soil Climate Analysis Network (USDA)

SCAPA Subcommittee for Consequence Assessment and Protective Actions

SCI Sensitive Compartmented Information (DOD)

SDHS Satellite Data Handling System (DOD)

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field Scanner (NASA)

SEC Space Environment Center (NOAA/NCEP)

Sun Earth Connection (NASA)

SEM Space Environment Monitor (NOAA)

SEMSIM Southeastern Michigan Snow and Ice Management (FHWA)

SEON Solar Electro-optical Observing Network (DOD)

SESS Space Environmental Sensor Suite 

SFMR Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometer

SGP Southern Great Plains (DOE)

SHEBA Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (DOE)

SHEP State Highway Emergency Patrol (FHWA)

SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program (FHWA)

SIGRID Sea Ice in Gridded Format (NOAA/NESDIS)

SLF Shuttle Landing Facility

SLRS-C Spacelift Range System Contract (NASA)

SMC Space and Missile Systems Center (DOD)

SMDC Space and Missile Defense Command (DOE)

SMG Spaceflight Meteorology Group (NASA)

SNDR Subcommittee on Natural Disaster Reduction

SNL Sandia National Laboratory (DOE)

SNODEP SNOw DEPth

SNOTEL Snow Pack Telemetry (USDA)

SOCC Satellite Operations Control Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

SODAR Sound Detection and Ranging (DOE)

SODAR/RASS Sound Detection and Ranging/Radio Acoustic Sounding System (DOE)

SOF Special Operations Forces (DOD)

SOLAS International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (NOAA/NCEP, DHS/USCG)

SOPA Synchronous Orbit Plasma Analyzer (DOE)

SORD Special Operations and Research Division (NOAA/ARL)

SPLASH Hydrologic Code at LANL (DOE)

SPAWARSYSCOM Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command

SPC Storm Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

SPO System Program Office (DOD)

SPP Shared Processing Program

SR Savannah River (DOE)

SRB Solid Rocket Booster

SRS Savannah River Site (DOE)

SRTC Savannah River Technology Center (DOE)

SS&WSF Snow Survey & Water Supply Forecasting (USDA)

SSIES Special Sensor for Ions and Electrons (DOD)

SSJ Special Sensor Precipitating Elecron and Ion Spectrometer (DOD)

SSM Special Sensor Magnetometer (DOD)

SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (DOC, DOD, DOI)

SSM/T Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature (DOD)

SSOB Special Support Operations Branch (DOD)

SST Sea Surface Temperature

SSU Stratospheric Sounding Unit (NOAA)

SSUSI Special Sensor Ultraviolet Spectrographic Imager (DOD)
APPENDIX D 273

STAR Weather Data Format used at Pantex (DOE)

STIWG Satellite Telemetry Interagency Working Group (OFCM)

STP Solar-Terrestrial Physics

STS Special Tactics Squadron (DOD)

STWDSR Surface Transportation Weather Decision Support Requirements (FHWA)

SURFRAD Surface Radiation Budget Station at NTS (DOE)

SVS Synthetic Vision System (NASA)

SWA Southwest Asia (DOD)

SWAFS Space Weather Analysis and Forecasting System (DOD)

SWE Snow Water Equivalent (DOI/BUREC)

SWO Staff Weather Officer (DOD)

Space Weather Operations (NOAA/OAR)

SWR Supplemental Weather Radar (DOD)

SWSI Surface Water Supply Index (USDA)

SXI Solar X-Ray Imager (DOD)

T2 Technology transfer

TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast

TAL Transatlantic Abort Landing (NASA)

TAMDAR Troposphere Airborne Meteorological Data Reports (WWP)

TAO Tropical Atmosphere Ocean

TAWS Target Acquisition Weather Software (DOD)

TCP Transformation Campaign Plan (DOD)

TDA Tactical Decision Aid (DOD)

TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (FAA)

TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (FHWA)

TEC Topographic Engineering Center (DOD)

Total Electron Content (DOE)

TED Total Energy Detector (NOAA/NESDIS)

TEDS Tactical Environmental Data Server (DOD)

TESS Tactical Environmental Support System (DOD)

THORPEX The Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment (WWP)

TIMEX Thunderstorm Initiation Mobile Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

TIROS Television Infrared Observation Satellite (NOAA/NESDIS)

TOC Tactical Operations Center (DOD)

TOE Table of Organization and Equipment (DOD)

TOGA Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere 

TOVS TIROS-N Operational Vertical Sounder (NOAA/NESDIS)

TNT Trinitrotoluene (DOE)

TPAWS Turbulence Prediction and Warning System

TPC Tropical Prediction Center (NOAA/NCEP)

TPW Total Precipitable Water (NOAA/NESDIS)

TRACON Terminal Radar Approach Control (FAA)

TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command (DOD)

TRB Transportation Research Board (FHWA)

TRITON Triangle Trans-Ocean buoy Network (NOAA/OAR)

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (NASA)

TRU Transuric (DOE)

TSIS Total Solar Irradiance Sensor 

TUAN Tactical Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (DOD)

TWC The Weather Channel 

TWIP Terminal Weather Information for Pilots (FAA)

TWP Tropical Western Pacific (DOE)

TWR Tactical Weather Radar (DOD)

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (DOD)

UC University of Chicago or California 

UCAN Unified Climate Access Network (USDA)
274 APPENDIX D

UCAR University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

UHF Ultra High Frequency 

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations 

UNEP United Nations Environment Program 

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (WWP)

UNLV University of Nevada at Las Vegas (DOE)

UPOS University Partnering for Operational Support (DOD)

USA U.S. Army

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAES U.S. Army Engineer School

USAF U.S. Air Force 

USAFE U.S. Air Forces in Europe

USAFAS U.S. Army Field Artillery School

USAIC&FH U.S. Army Intelligence Center and Fort Huachuca

USAR U.S. Army Reserve

USARAK U.S. Army Alaska

USARC U.S. Army Reserve Command

USAREUR U.S. Army Europe

USARHAW U.S. Army Hawaii

USARIEM U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine

USARJ U.S. Army Japan

USARPAC U.S. Army Pacific

USASMDC U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command

USASOC U.S. Army Special Operations Command

USCENTCOM U.S. Central Command

USCG U.S. Coast Guard 

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program

USFS U.S. Forest Service 

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

USHCN U.S. Historical Climatology Network

USIABP U.S. Interagency Arctic Buoy Program (NOAA/NESDIS)

USMC U.S. Marine Corps

USMCC U.S. SARSAT Mission Control Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

USN U.S. Navy

USSOCOM U.S. Special Operations Command (DOD)

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program

UT University of Tennessee

UTC Universal Time Coordinated (Zulu)

UV Ultra-violet

VA Volcanic Ash 

VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (NOAA/NESDIS)

VAS VISSR Atmospheric Sounder 

VCP Voluntary Cooperation Program (WWP)

VII Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (FHWA)

VIIRS Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite

VIN Vegetative Index Number (USDA)

VIRS Visible and Infrared Scanner (NASA)

VISSR Visible and Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer 

VOC Volatile organic compound 

VISTAS Visibility Improvement State and Tribal Association of the Southeast (DOI)

VORTEX Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment (NOAA/OAR)

VOS Voluntary Observing Ship (WWP)

VPR Vertical Profile of Reflectivity (DOI)

VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal (DOD)
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VSL Variable Speed Limit (FHWA)

VTMX Vertical Transport and Mixing Experiment (DOE)

VTS Vessel Traffic System (NOAA/NOS)

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System (FAA)

WAFC World Area Forecast Center (WWP)

WAFS World Area Forecast System (WWP) 

WAMIS World Agrometeorological Information Service (USDA)

WAOB World Agricultural Outlook Board (USDA)

WARP Weather and Radar Processor (FAA)

WaRSMP Watershed and River System Management Program (DOI)

WCT Wind Chill Temperature (OFCM)

WDA Weather Data Analysis (DOD)

WEFAX Weather Facsimile (WWP)

WETM Weather Team (DOD)

WFAS Wildland Fire Assessment System (DOI)

WFMIS Wildland Fire Management Information Site (DOI)

WFO Weather Forecast Office (NOAA/NWS)

WG Working Group

WG/VA Working Group for Volcanic Ash (DOI)

WG/PSDA Working Group for Post-Storm Data Acquisition (FEMA)

WGCV Working Group on Calibration and Validation (NOAA/NESDIS)

WINCOM Weather Information Communications (NASA)

WIMS Weather Information Management System (USDA)

WINDS Weather Information and Display System (DOE)

WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (DOE)

WIS WMO Information System(WWP)

WIST Weather Information for Surface Transportation

WMC World Meteorological Center(s) (WWP)

WMO World Meteorological Organization 

WMSCR Weather Message Switching Center-Replacement (FAA)

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment 

WPDN Wind Profile Demonstration Network (NOAA)

WPSM Warfighter Physiological Status Monitoring (DOD)

WRD Water Resources Division (DOI/USGS)

WRF Weather Research and Forecast (DOC, DOD)

WRS Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (DOD)

WRTC Weather Readiness Training Center (DOD)

WSDDM Weather Support to Deicing Decision Making (FAA)

WSP Weather Systems Processor (FAA)

WSR-88D Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (NEXRAD)

WSRC Westinghouse Savannah River Company (DOE)

WSSRAP Weldon Springs Site Remedial Action Project (DOE)

WST Weather Specialty Team (DOD)

WWCB Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin (USDA)

WWP World Weather Program 

WWW World Weather Watch (WMO)

World Wide Web

XOW Air Force Director of Weather (DOD)

YMP Yucca Mountain Project (DOE)