OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR

FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES OFCM AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH

FCM-P1-2011

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The Federal Plan

for Meteorological Services

and Supporting Research

Fiscal Year 2012
THE INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH (ICMSSR) 

MR. SAMUEL P. WILLIAMSON, Chairman 

Federal Coordinator 

MR. THOMAS PUTERBAUGH 

Department of Agriculture 

DR. JOHN (JACK) L. HAYES 

Department of Commerce 

RADM DAVID TITLEY, USN 

United States Navy 

Department of Defense 

DR. FRED P. LEWIS 

United States Air Force 

Department of Defense 

MR. RICKEY PETTY 

Department of Energy 

MR. JOEL WALL 

Science and Technology Directorate 

Department of Homeland Security 

MR. JOHN VIMONT 

Department of the Interior 

MR. MARK KEHRLI 

Federal Highway Administration 

Department of Transportation 

 MR. PAUL FONTAINE 

Federal Aviation Administration 

Department of Transportation 

DR. JONATHAN M. BERKSON 

United States Coast Guard 

Department of Homeland Security 

DR. REID MILLER 

Department of State 

DR. S. T. RAO 

Environmental Protection Agency 

MR. PATRICK HERNANDEZ 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

Department of Homeland Security 

DR. RAMESH KAKAR 

National Aeronautics and Space 

 Administration 

DR. MICHAEL MORGAN 

National Science Foundation 

MR. DONALD E. EICK 

National Transportation Safety Board

MR. SCOTT FLANDERS 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

COL WILLIAM CARLE, Secretariat 

Office of the Federal Coordinator for 

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 
The Federal Plan for 

Meteorological 

Services and 

Supporting Research 

FISCAL YEAR 2012 

FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGICAL 

SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH 

8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1500 Silver Spring, MD 20910 

 301-427-2002 

FCM-P1-2011 Editors: Mr. Anthony Ramirez 

October 2011 Mr. Robert Dumont

WASHINGTON, D.C. Dr. Robert Katt

Ms. Erin McNamara 

Mr. Kenneth Barnett 

iii 

PREFACE 

Since 1965, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting 

Research (OFCM) has compiled a Federal Plan that articulates the provision of meteorological 

services and the support for meteorological and related research by agencies of the Federal 

government. The 2012 Federal Plan provides Congress and the Executive Branch with a 

comprehensive account of proposed programs for fiscal year (FY) 2012 and a review of agency 

programs in FY 2011. The Federal Plan's narratives, timelines, and schedules are current as of 

November 2011. 

This 2012 Federal Plan uses the section structure introduced in the 2011 Plan. Section 1 

summarizes the resources appropriated by Congress for FY 2011 and the resources requested in 

the President's FY 2012 Budget. Please note that actual FY 2011 funding under continuing 

resolutions or eventual final appropriation bills is not described in Section 1. The budget 

narrative in Section 1 is organized by agency, but Tables 1.4 and 1.5 provide a service category 

breakout that corresponds to major service categories for purposes of cross-agency coordination 

and cooperation. Section 2 contains narratives on operations and programs for providing 

meteorological services and supporting research and development, organized by these same 

service categories. This organization by service categories, rather than by department or agency, 

more closely follows the original intent when an annual plan was first requested by Congress and 

the Executive Office of the President in 1963. The introductory segment of Section 2 describes 

the formal Federal coordination and planning process overseen by OFCM. This segment replaces 

and expands on the appendix describing OFCM activities that was included in recent Federal 

Plans prior to FY 2011. A comprehensive list of acronyms used in Sections 1 and 2 is included 

as the current Appendix A. 

 //SIGNED// 

 Samuel P. Williamson 

 Federal Coordinator for Meteorological 

 Services and Supporting Research 

 
iv 

 
v 

Table of Contents

PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... iii

SECTION 1 AGENCY FUNDING FOR METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS AND 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH ....................................................................................................... 1

AGENCY BUDGET SUMMARIES ........................................................................................... 1

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA) ........................................................................ 1

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE (DOC)/NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC 

ADMINISTRATION (NOAA) ................................................................................................... 2

National Weather Service (NWS) ........................................................................................... 2

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Services (NESDIS) ...................... 5

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) ............................................................ 7

National Ocean Service (NOS) ............................................................................................... 7

Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) ............................................................. 8

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (DOD) ..................................................................................... 8

United States Air Force (USAF)/Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA) ................................. 8

United States Navy (USN) .................................................................................................... 10

United States Army (USA) ................................................................................................... 12

DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY (DHS) ......................................................... 13

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) .................................................................................................... 13

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR (DOI) .......................................................................... 14

Bureau of Land Management ................................................................................................ 14

National Park Service (NPS) ................................................................................................ 15

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION (DOT) ................................................................. 15

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ............................................................................... 15

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) .......................................................................... 15

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) ......................................................... 16

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) ....................... 16

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION (NRC) ............................................................. 17

BUDGET TABLES ..................................................................................................................... 18

Table 1 Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research Costs* by Agency ................ 18

Table 2 Operational Costs by Budget Category ..................................................................... 19
vi 

Table 3 Supporting Research Costs by Budget Category ...................................................... 19

Operational Costs and Supporting Research Costs by Service Category ................................. 20

Service Category Definitions ................................................................................................ 20

Table 4 Operational Costs by Service Category .................................................................... 22

Table 5 Supporting Research Costs by Service Category ...................................................... 22

Table 6 Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations .................................................... 23

Table 7 Interagency Fund Transfers ....................................................................................... 24

Table 8 Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations .................................. 25

SECTION 2: FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING 

RESEARCH PROGRAMS ........................................................................................................ 29

FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES 

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH ........................................................................................... 31

STATUTORY BASIS FOR THE FEDERAL COORDINATION PROCESS ........................ 31

OFCM COORDINATING INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................... 32

OFCM HIGHLIGHTS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2011 AND PLANS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2012

................................................................................................................................................... 34

National Aviation Weather Program Council ....................................................................... 34

National Operational Processing Centers Program Council (NOPC) ................................... 35

National Space Weather Program Council ........................................................................... 35

Executive Council for Multifunction Phased Array Radar (MPAR) .................................... 37

Crosscutting Activities under the ICMSSR .......................................................................... 38

Committee on Environmental Services, Operations, and Research Needs .......................... 38

Committee for Integrated Observing Systems (CIOS) ......................................................... 42

Committee on Climate Analysis, Monitoring, and Services................................................. 44

Committee on Cooperative Research .................................................................................... 44

Committee on Environmental Information Systems and Communications (CEISC) .......... 45

OFCM External Collaborations ............................................................................................ 46

American Meteorological Society ........................................................................................ 46

International Collaboration ................................................................................................... 46

FY 2011 OFCM PUBLICATIONS .......................................................................................... 46

BASIC SERVICES ....................................................................................................................... 49

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................... 49

National Weather Service ..................................................................................................... 49
vii 

NOAA/NESDIS .................................................................................................................... 51

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations............................................................... 55

NASA Basic Meteorological Services .................................................................................. 56

Federal Aviation Administration Contributions to Basic Services ....................................... 57

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................... 57

Interagency Research Programs ............................................................................................ 57

NOAA/NWS Research Programs and Projects .................................................................... 60

NOAA/NESDIS .................................................................................................................... 60

NOAA/OAR Laboratories .................................................................................................... 62

NASA Supporting Research for Basic Meteorological Services .......................................... 72

National Science Foundation ................................................................................................ 73

AGRICULTURAL AND LAND MANAGEMENT METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES .......... 75

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES ..................... 75

U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Services ......................................................... 75

Bureau of Land Management, Land Management Services ................................................. 79

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................... 80

USDA .................................................................................................................................... 80

AVIATION SERVICES ............................................................................................................... 83

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................... 83

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Weather Service .. 83

Federal Aviation Administration .......................................................................................... 85

National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation........................................................... 92

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................... 94

The National Airspace System of the Future ........................................................................ 94

FAA Research and Development: The Aviation Weather Research Program ................... 100

CLIMATE SERVICES ............................................................................................................... 103

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES ................... 103

NOAA National Weather Service ....................................................................................... 103

NOAA/NESDIS National Climatic Data Center ................................................................ 104

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) ............................................. 109

United States Air Force ....................................................................................................... 110

United States Navy ............................................................................................................. 111

United States Geological Survey (USGS) .......................................................................... 112

Department of State (DOS) ................................................................................................. 112
viii 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 113

NOAA/NESDIS National Climatic Data Center ................................................................ 113

NOAA/OAR Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) .............. 117

NOAA/OAR Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) ................................................. 118

United States Geological Survey ........................................................................................ 119

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ................................................................ 122

Department of Energy, Office of Science ........................................................................... 126

National Science Foundation (NSF) ................................................................................... 131

EMERGENCY RESPONSE AND HOMELAND SECURITY SERVICES ............................ 133

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................. 133

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) ........................................................... 133

Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center (IMAAC) ............................ 134

NOAA NWS ....................................................................................................................... 135

NOAA National Ocean Service (NOS) .............................................................................. 136

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) ............................................. 136

United States Air Force ....................................................................................................... 136

U.S. Marine Corps Chemical Biological Incident Response Force .................................... 137

Department of Energy ......................................................................................................... 137

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) ............................................................................ 138

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Role in Emergency Response to Natural Hazards ......... 139

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 140

NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), Air Resources Laboratory 

(ARL) .................................................................................................................................. 140

DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council (DMCC) ........................................................ 142

Nuclear Regulatory Commission ........................................................................................ 142

HYDROMETEOROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES SERVICES ................................... 145

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................. 145

National Weather Service Forecast and Warning Services ................................................ 145

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) ............................................. 147

U.S. Department of Agriculture .......................................................................................... 147

U.S Army Corps of Engineers ............................................................................................ 148

U.S. Geological Survey ....................................................................................................... 149

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 150

NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ....................................................... 150

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) ............................................................................ 151
ix 

MILITARY SERVICES ............................................................................................................. 153

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................. 153

U.S. Air Force (USAF) ....................................................................................................... 153

U.S. Army ........................................................................................................................... 161

U.S. Navy ............................................................................................................................ 164

U.S. Marine Corps .............................................................................................................. 176

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 178

National Unified Operational Prediction Capability (NUOPC) Research Partnering Initiative

............................................................................................................................................. 178

U.S. Air Force Supporting Research Programs and Projects .............................................. 179

U.S. Army Supporting Research Programs and Projects .................................................... 181

U.S. Navy Supporting Research Programs and Projects .................................................... 186

SPACE WEATHER SERVICES ................................................................................................ 187

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES ................... 187

NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center ........................................................................... 187

United States Air Force ....................................................................................................... 188

U. S. Geological Survey ...................................................................................................... 190

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) ........................................................... 191

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 191

NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center ........................................................................... 191

USGS .................................................................................................................................. 192

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ................................................. 192

Department of Energy National Nuclear Security Administration ..................................... 193

National Science Foundation .............................................................................................. 194

Air Force Research Laboratory ........................................................................................... 194

SURFACE TRANSPORTATION SERVICES .......................................................................... 195

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................. 195

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ............................................ 195

United States Coast Guard .................................................................................................. 198

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 199

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) ........................................................................ 199

Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) ............................................................................. 202

NOS Marine Transportation Research ................................................................................ 202

WILDLAND FIRE WEATHER SERVICES ............................................................................. 205

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................. 205
x 

Fire Weather Services in the National Coordination Structure for Wildland Fire 

Management ........................................................................................................................ 205

National Weather Service ................................................................................................... 207

U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service ......................................................... 207

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) ......................................................................................... 209

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 209

Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service ................................................................. 209

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ................................................. 210

OTHER SPECIALIZED SERVICES ......................................................................................... 213

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES .................. 213

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ................................................. 213

U.S. Air Force Space Launch Support ................................................................................ 216

U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (USASMDC) ...................................... 216

National Park Service (NPS)/Fish and Wildfire Service (FWS) ........................................ 217

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) ............................................................................ 218

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ............................................. 219

NASA .................................................................................................................................. 219

Environmental Protection Agency ...................................................................................... 220

National Park Service ......................................................................................................... 223

APPENDIX A ACRONYMS ................................................................................................... A-1
1 

SECTION 1 

AGENCY FUNDING FOR METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS 

AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH 

AGENCY BUDGET SUMMARIES 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA) 

The USDA budget request for FY 2012 is $114.8 million for operations and supporting research, up 53 

percent from the FY 2011 funding level. The increase in funding is mainly for research programs, with 

only a slight increase in funding for meteorological operations. The USDA has requested $94.2 million 

for research and development programs, a $39.4 million increase from FY 2011. Most of the funding 

increase is for the National Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA), due to increases in the 

Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI) programs in the FY 2011 appropriation and FY 2012 

President’s Budget. The AFRI funds projects on a wide variety of weather- and climate-related 

research in collaboration with other U.S. Federal agencies. AFRI’s Climate Change Challenge Area is 

currently focused on the following research areas: regional climate studies in agriculture and forestry, 

plant breeding, animal health impacts, and mitigation and adaptation in agriculture and forestry. Other 

AFRI areas of research related to weather and climate change include organic agriculture, carbon 

cycling, agro-ecosystem modeling, and the economic consequences of adaptation and mitigation 

strategies. Emerging areas of research include the impact of climate on biofuel production, carbon 

cap-and-trade, and environmental markets. The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the USDA’s 

chief scientific research agency. ARS conducts research on how the annual variation in weather 

adversely effects crop and animal production, hydrologic processes, the availability of water from 

watersheds, and the environmental and economic sustainability of agricultural enterprises. 

Research at the USDA Forest Service includes studies of the long-term effects of air pollution on 

forests of the Sierra Nevada Ecosystem, Cascade and coastal forests in the Pacific Northwest, Rocky 

Mountains, Appalachian Mountains, and the northeastern U.S. 

RESOURCE INFORMATION AND AGENCY PROGRAM UPDATES 

The narratives and tables in this section summarize the budgetary information for the Federal 

government for fiscal years (FY) 2011 and 2012. The funds shown are used to provide meteorological 

services and associated supporting research with service improvements as their immediate objectives. 

Fiscal data are current as of the end of September 2011 and are subject to later changes. The data for 

FY 2012 do not have legislative approval and do not constitute a commitment by the United States 

Government. The budget data are prepared in compliance with Section 304 of Public Law 87-843, in 

which Congress directed that an annual horizontal budget be prepared for meteorological programs 

conducted by the Federal agencies. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

2 

The FY 2012 amount requested for meteorological operations is $20.6 million, slightly up from the 

$20.4 million funding level in FY 2011. Operational activities include specialized weather observing 

networks such as the SNOTEL (SNOw pack TELemetry) system operated by the Natural Resources 

Conservation Service (NRCS) and the remote automated weather stations (RAWS) network managed 

by the Forest Service. The SNOTEL and RAWS networks provide cooperative data for NOAA’s river 

forecast activities, irrigation water supply estimates, and Bureau of Land Management operations. The 

Forest Service is also the world leader in developing emissions factors from fires and modeling its 

dispersion. The World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB) operates the Joint Agricultural Weather 

Facility (JAWF), a global agricultural weather and information center located in Washington, D.C. 

JAWF agricultural meteorologists operationally monitor global weather conditions and assess the 

impacts of growing season weather on crop and livestock production prospects. This information keeps 

crop and livestock producers, farm organizations, agribusinesses, state and national farm policymakers, 

government agencies, and foreign buyers of agricultural products apprised of worldwide weatherrelated developments and their effects on crops and livestock. The USDA is also actively involved in 

drought monitoring efforts in concert with the National Drought Mitigation Center. 

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE (DOC)/NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC 

ADMINISTRATION (NOAA) 

National Weather Service (NWS) 

The NWS funding request for the FY 2012 President’s Budget totals $1.021064 billion and 4,602 fulltime equivalent (FTE) employees. Requested increases and decreases in funding over the FY 2011 

program include the following: 

 National Data Buoy Center (NDBC). NWS requests an increase of $4 million to resolve 

sustainment gaps in NDBC’s ocean observation capabilities, which include Coastal Weather 

Data Buoys (CWB) and Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) stations. NWS 

currently operates 101 moored weather observation buoys and 48 C-MAN stations. Over the 

last 8 years, system performance has trended downward to the current low (as of February 

2011) of 66 percent data availability. Decreased data availability has caused large maritime 

data voids where no meteorological or oceanographic data is routinely sampled. The requested 

increase will provide operations and maintenance funding to support buoy data availability, 

enabling NWS forecasters to make accurate and timely marine warnings and forecasts, and to 

verify the accuracy of their forecasts. 

 Global Positioning System (GPS) radiosondes. NWS requests an increase of $5.042 million to 

fully fund the acquisition cost of the GPS radiosondes for all 102 NOAA/NWS Upper Air (UA) 

observing stations, utilizing GPS tracking capability and GPS radiosondes. The current NWS 

UA operations concept, driven by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) 

modeling requirements, requires an annual quantity of over 78,000 radiosondes per year to be 

launched at 102 sites. Today’s powerful computers and higher resolution models are capable 

of processing the increased number of observations, therefore producing more accurate 

forecasts. NOAA’s upper-air network (radiosondes, wind profilers, NEXRAD, and in-flight 

data sensors from commercial aircraft) provides the foundation for all short-term weather 

predictions. The quality, timeliness, and availability of observations from this composite 

network directly affect NOAA’s ability to meet its protection of life and property mission. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

3 

 Aviation Weather. NWS requests an increase of $26.944 million and 4 additional FTEs to fund 

the planned third year Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) development 

activities for this multi-year, multi-agency effort to improve the Nation’s air transportation 

system. The demand for air transportation is expected to more than double by 2025. The 

current National Airspace System (NAS) cannot accommodate the increased demand and will 

be saturated by 2015. In its May 2008 report on the cost of flight delays to passengers, the 

airline industry and the economy, the Congressional Joint Economic Committee quantified the 

total cost of air traffic delays for 2007 at $41 billion. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

records indicate that on average, weather is a factor in 70 percent of these delays, or roughly 

$29 billion. The FAA estimates that two-thirds of these delays can be avoided with enhanced 

weather information fully integrated into its operational decision-making process, thus saving 

approximately $19 billion annually. This capability does not presently exist within the Federal 

government, and the Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) partner agencies are 

depending on NOAA, as the Federal weather information experts, to deliver it. The JPDO 

developed a plan for accommodating the expected growth in demand. A critical component of 

the NextGen plan is a weather forecast process, with meteorologist intervention, that generates 

rapidly updated, high-resolution probabilistic weather information, consistent across space and 

time. This 4-Dimensional Weather Single Authoritative Source (4-D Weather SAS) will be 

stored in a Weather Information Database (WIDB) where it can be accessed by all NAS users. 

This requested increase will support initial operational deployment of a 4-Dimensional (4-D) Weather 

Data Cube for aviation users and lay the foundation for the development of follow-on capabilities. The 

NextGen 4-D Weather Data Cube will improve access and availability of observed and forecast weather 

information and enable its integration into an automated, multi-agency air traffic management system.

 Space Weather. NWS requests an increase of $2 million to make required information 

technology (IT) security improvements to the Nation’s National Critical Space Weather System 

required to maintain its authority to operate prior to the upcoming solar max. NOAA’s Space 

Weather Program depends on the National Critical Space Weather System to monitor the space 

environment and to provide timely and accurate operational space weather forecasts, warnings, 

and alerts. The program is the sole civilian entity that (1) operates and maintains the US 

National Critical Space Weather System; (2) ingests and processes data from NOAA, NASA, 

and other sources; (3) supports research to understand the processes that cause severe space 

weather; (4) transitions research into operations to improve services; and (4) archives data from 

NOAA and the Department of Defense (DOD) and makes it accessible to customers. Without 

the Authorization to Operate, all of the above activities will cease and the space weather 

products and services critical to our Nation’s infrastructure and defense will be lost. 

 NWS Cooperative Observer Program (COOP). NWS requests a decrease of $1.2 million to 

COOP by phasing out approximately 1,000 COOP observing sites. The COOP Network 

consists of approximately 11,000 surface observing systems located throughout the United 

States, and the NWS is reviewing and prioritizing the existing sites as part of the plan for 

phasing out approximately 1,000 sites. These stations are operated by volunteer COOP 

observers. COOP observational data supports the NWS field operations and climate program 

by providing data that is used in statistical and numerical model weather and river forecast 

guidance; to verify our forecasts, watches, and warnings; and to compute climatic trends. Of 

the 11,000 COOP sites, 1,200 sites are designated as U.S. Historical Climate Network 

(USHCN) sites. The temperature and rain gauge sensors at current USHCN stations lack the 

accuracy, precision, and resolution to monitor climate trends. The USHCN sites are not located 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

4 

in an optimal configuration, resulting in observing gaps—too many stations in some areas and 

too few in other areas. The installation of the Regional U.S. Historical Climatology Network 

(RUSHCN) sites will allow NWS to prioritize which 1,000 COOP sites to phase out. 

 Telecommunications. NWS requests a decrease of $3.203 million for telecommunications 

costs because of savings attributable to administrative efficiencies realized by the utilization of 

the new United States General Services Administration Network contract. NWS believes it can 

achieve a target reduction in its telecommunications costs across all its programs. While NWS 

has ongoing initiatives that may reduce the need for added bandwidth and these initiatives 

could conceivably result in lower existing costs, the likely result is in future cost avoidance. 

 NWS Weather and Climate Operational Supercomputing System (WCOSS). NWS requests 

an increase of $11 million to (1) transition NOAA’s operational high performance computing 

(HPC) to a new HPC contract and (2) to continue regular improvements to numerical weather 

prediction (NWP) modeling applications and thereby achieve certain model-based NWS GPRA 

measures. The current operational HPC contract expires at the end of FY 2011. In FY 2012 

and FY 2013, NOAA must transition operations to a newly competed contract, utilizing more 

technologically advanced supercomputing systems. During this two year period, the 

production of operational NWP guidance on the current supercomputers will be maintained 

under a bridge contract while systems under the new contract are configured to support 

operations. The current increase request impacts NOAA’s ability to apply HPC resources to 

support the production of NWP guidance. WCOSS enables NWS to output approximately 28 

million model fields a day for every forecast hour, including temperature, winds, and humidity 

as a function of pressure. The model-based guidance underpins the provision of most of NWS 

products and services to the Nation by providing models and model-based estimates of both 

current and future states of the Earth’s environment. Decision makers at all levels rely on this 

credible information at finer scales to support strategies to protect the lives and livelihoods of 

American citizens and to support commerce. 

 NEXRAD Product Improvement (NPI). NWS requests a planned decrease of $2.157 million 

to reflect the nearing completion of the NEXRAD Product Improvement (NPI) program. The 

NPI program focused on shared agency (NWS, FAA, and the United States Air Force Weather 

Agency) requirements to effect synergistic solutions. For example, external FAA radar data are 

provided to NWS forecast offices to address coverage issues and provide backup data sources. 

NPI science improvements have made significant improvements in NEXRAD performance, 

products, and data leading to increased warning lead time for tornados, lower false alarm rate 

for severe weather warnings, and more accurate hail and precipitation amount forecasts. 

 Complete and Sustain NOAA Weather Radio (NWR). NOAA requests a decrease of $5.406 

million for NWR.. This planned decrease reflects the completed funding for the deployment of 

the NWR Broadcast Management System (BMS) and associated hardware at all 122 Weather 

Forecast Offices (WFO). NWR gives the NWS the ability to quickly disseminate severe and 

high-impact weather warnings, watches and forecasts, and non-weather emergency messages to 

the public. 

 NOAA Profiler Network (NPN). NWS requests a decrease of $2.020 million to extend the 

ongoing modernization of the 20-year old NPN to take advantage of the slip in the European 

Union’s Search and Rescue Satellite Tracking (SARSAT) transponders aboard the (Galileo) 

GPS satellite constellation. NOAA is able to reduce its budget requirements as a result of this 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

5 

slip. The Next Generation NOAA Profiler Network (NGNPN) contributes to NOAA's ability 

to provide and substantially improve upon its high quality products and services, such as those 

focused on enhancing public safety, transportation, water resources, wildfire management, and 

air quality monitoring and prediction. These observations and their associated metadata will be 

utilized by field meteorologists, assimilated into NOAA’s numerical weather prediction 

models, made available to NOAA’s partners in near real-time, and stored in the long-term 

archive for climate monitoring. 

 Weather Forecast Office (WFO) Construction. NWS requests an increase of $3.150 million 

for modernization projects in the Alaska and Pacific Regions and replacement of end-of-life 

heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems at two WFOs with modern, highefficiency (green) units. Specifically, increased funding completes the St. Paul Island, Alaska, 

upper-air inflatable shelter, the Weather Service Office Koror renovations, and two HVAC 

replacements at WFOs with newer energy efficient models. 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Services (NESDIS) 

With the technical transfer of programs to the new Climate Service line office, NOAA/NESDIS, which 

is proposed to become the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS), requests an increase of 

$727.891 million for a total of $2.015426 billion and 558 FTEs for the FY 2012. The cost of the 

technical transfer associated with the creation of the new Climate Service line office is $108.365 

million and 258 FTEs. Additionally as part of this reorganization, $2.622 million and 11 FTEs are 

proposed to be transferred from the NOAA Library to the Office of the Chief Information Officer. 

NESDIS is responsible for managing all aspects of remotely gathered environmental data. This 

includes procurement, launch, operation, product development, and product distribution of the 

Nation’s civil operational environmental satellites and corresponding data. In addition, NESDIS 

manages the NOAA environmental data collections, provides assessments that describe climate, and 

disseminates data and information to meet the needs of users in commerce, industry, agriculture, 

science, and engineering, as well as Federal, state, and local governments. 

The Systems Acquisition sub-activity includes the following budget line items for FY 2012: 

 Polar Operational Environmental Satellite Systems (POES) NOAA Polar K-N’ (Base Funding: 

22 FTEs and $43,135,000). NOAA requests a decrease of $8.319 million and 0 FTE for a total 

of $34.816 million and 22 FTEs for the continuation of the POES program, and continued 

support for the MetOp program. The revised funding requirement represents recently identified 

savings as a result of the successful launch of the last POES satellite, NOAA-19, in February 

2009. 

 Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) (Base Funding: 61 FTEs and $382.2 million). NOAA 

requests an increase of $687.8 million and 0 FTE for a total of $1.07 billion and 61 FTEs to 

continue development of JPSS instruments, the ground systems, and the spacecraft for the 

afternoon orbit for the JPSS program. The JPSS program continues a number of management 

and acquisition reforms initiated in FY 2010 to deliver polar observations necessary to meet 

both the civil and military needs for weather and climate information. To implement the 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

6 

restructured JPSS program as directed by Executive Office of the President in February 2010, 

NOAA will oversee program management while NASA will provide technical management as 

the acquisition agent. NOAA and NASA will share the mission success responsibility. Mission 

success includes building all instruments, launching the spacecraft, algorithm development, 

ground systems development, and all other program-related activities that are essential to the 

success of the JPSS program. 

 Jason-3 (Base Funding: $20 million). NOAA requests an increase of $33 million for a total of 

$53 million to provide continuity of precise measurement of sea-surface heights for 

applications in ocean climatology and ocean weather. Jason-type satellite altimetry is the only 

proven technique for monitoring global sea-level rise—a key indicator of climate change. 

Jason-2 continues the systematic collection of sea-level observations initiated by 

TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. The Jason-3 satellite will be functionally equivalent to the Jason-2 

satellite. 

 GOES-N (Base Funding: $53.945 million). NOAA requests a decrease of $19.978 million for a 

total of $33.967 million for the GOES-N Series program. The funding decrease re-aligns the 

GOES-N Series total program to support handover of GOES-15 from NASA to NOAA and 

provides technical management, maintenance, and operations of the on-orbit assets. 

 GOES-R (Base Funding: 46 FTEs and $667.5 million). NOAA requests a decrease of $50.11 

million for a total of $617.39 million to provide continued satellite engineering development 

and production activities for GOES-R and GOES-S, and to introduce development activities for 

the option satellites: GOES-T and U. This budget request for FY 2012 is for a four-satellite 

GOES-R (GOES-R, S, T, and U) program with enhanced capabilities above the current GOESN, O, and P Series. 

 Restoration of Climate Sensors (Base Funding: 0 FTE and $0). NOAA requests $30.4 million 

in FY 2012 to support the continued development of Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy 

System Flight Model 6 (CERES FM-6) and the Total Solar and Spectral Irradiance Sensor 

(TSIS). This request continues the development of the climate sensors to be incorporated into 

the JPSS program. Specifically, funds support the continued development of CERES FM-6 and 

TSIS instruments. The sensors under development are based on the NASA Earth Observing 

System (EOS) heritage designs to maintain the data continuity started by EOS that is required 

to accurately assess long-term changes in the Earth’s climate. NASA will be NOAA’s 

acquisition agent in procuring the Climate Sensors and will hold the contracts with vendors, 

under an Interagency Agreement. NOAA, however, will retain overall program management 

responsibility. 

 Constellation Observing System for Meteorology Ionosphere and Climate-2 (COSMIC-2) 

(Base Funding: 0 FTE and $0). NOAA requests $11.3 million to collaborate with the Taiwan 

National Space Organization (NSPO) for the launch of 12 satellites which will provide 

replenishment and operational upgrade to the current COSMIC constellation. 

 Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) (Base Funding: 0 FTE and $0). NOAA requests 

$47.3 million in FY 2012 to maintain continuity of solar wind data used for geomagnetic storm 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

7 

warnings by refurbishing the DSCOVR satellite and developing a Coronal Mass Ejection 

(CME) imager. 

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) 

Requested FY 2012 funding for Weather and Air Quality Research (W&AQR) is $53.7 million within 

OAR and an additional $22.6M within the weather-oriented components of the newly proposed NOAA 

Climate Service (CS), which previously has been reported under the OAR W&AQR labs that are 

proposed for transfer to the new CS. This amount represents a net increase of $12.4 million or 19.4 

percent from the FY 2011 amount estimated at the time of the FY’12 President’s Budget. Increases of 

$17.1 million consist of funds to: partially cover inflationary cost increases within base programs 

($1.4 million), enhance the Multi-Function Phased Array Radar (MPAR) Program ($6.0 million) and 

fund new initiatives for wind energy ($2.0 million) and water resources ($7.7 million). Proposed 

decreases of $4.9 million result from reductions to Unmanned Aircraft Systems ($3.0 million), 

Nutrient and Mercury Speciation Research (-$0.6 million), and the THORPEX Program (-$1.3 

million). 

National Ocean Service (NOS) 

The FY 2012 budget provides $28.979 million to allow for continued operation of the National Water 

Level Observation Network (NWLON), the expansion of the Physical Oceanographic Real-Time 

System (PORTS®) program, further implementation of an advanced data quality control program 

known as the Continuous Operational Real-time Monitoring System (CORMS AI), and ongoing 

operation of the Ocean Systems Test and Evaluation Program (OSTEP), which is a development 

program for bringing new sensor technology into operations. Both the NWLON and PORTS®

programs have subsets of operational water-level stations with meteorological sensors installed for 

various partners and users, including the NWS. 

The NWLON has traditionally been an oceanographic observing system; however, NWLON 

technology allows multiple other sensors to be added, including meteorological sensors such as wind 

speed/direction/gusts, air temperature, relative humidity, and barometric pressure. These observations 

provide a significant data source for improving and verifying marine weather forecasts and warnings. 

NOS has upgraded and enhanced the majority of its NWLON stations with new meteorological sensors 

in recent years. Actual verification data for special marine warnings (WFO Sterling) shows a 10 

percent increase in the probability of detection and a ten- minute increase in warning lead times, due in 

part to an increase in marine observations. Navigation data users require a complete picture of their 

operating environment to make the best safety and efficiency decisions, and local meteorological data 

is a part of that picture. Optimization of the existing observing infrastructure is a cost-effective 

alternative to establishing new platforms. The additional meteorological data will also improve the 

accuracy of NWS forecasts of storm surge, marine wind speed, and marine wave heights for use by 

both the marine navigation and coastal communities when extreme weather events occur. The real-time 

information can be used by emergency responders to make sound decisions based upon which coastal 

areas are flooding, which evacuation routes are still viable, and other situations requiring a good 

understanding of the current state of the physical environment. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

8 

Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) 

OMAO supports meteorological activities by collection of related data from ships and aircraft. The FY 

2012 President’s Budget request of $30.858 million represents a 6.8 percent decrease from the FY 

2011 appropriation and maintains OMAO’s ship and aircraft support of meteorological data collection. 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (DOD) 

United States Air Force (USAF)/Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA) 

USAF resources for meteorological support fall into two primary categories: general operations and 

investment and research. The total AFWA weather operations and research funding for FY 2012 is 

$187.9 million. Additionally, the USAF provides resources for space-based environmental monitoring 

development and operations managed by Air Force Space Command, including the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), the Defense Weather Satellite System (DWSS), and the 

Space Situational Awareness Environmental Monitoring (SSAEM). 

Operations 

The operations support portion of AFWA’s FY 2012 budget is $156.8 million and funds day-to-day 

environmental support to the DOD, the Active and Reserve Components of the Air Force and Army, 

ten unified commands, and other agencies as directed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force. AFWA 

employs over 1,198 military and civilian personnel to conduct these activities at more than 22 locations 

worldwide. Approximately 71 percent of personnel specialize in weather; the remainder includes 

communications, computer, information technology, program management, program analyis, 

administrative, and logistics specialists. 

Supporting Research 

The total AFWA budget for meteorological-related research during FY 2012 is $31.1 million. As part 

of AF Smart Operations 21st Century (AFSO21), Air Force Weather (AFW) is investing in 

modernized environmental prediction technologies and global information grid technologies that 

enhance automation and save resources. In addition, AFW is investing in the following efforts in FY 

2012 and beyond: 

 Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET). JET will eliminate redundancies and inefficiencies in 

current systems by extending, consolidating, and/or replacing the Operational Weather 

Squadron (OWS) Production System-Phase II (OPS II), the New-Tactical Forecast System (NTFS), and the weather effects decision aids portion of the Integrated Meteorological System 

(IMETS). JET also provides software components for the Defense Common Ground System – 

Army (DCGS-A). 

 Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model. WRF advances, as well as WRF-Chem

(taking into account chemical constituents), such as with the Land Information System (LIS—a 

collaborative effort with NASA) and WRF coupling, will improve forecasting performance in 

the low levels of the atmosphere. This will allow AFW forces to provide better battlespace 

characterization for missions that include, but not limited to, low-level aircraft operations, the 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

9 

dispersion of aerosol contaminants, and the employment of precision-guided munitions. It also 

allows for assessment of trafficability for ground forces. 

 Modernizing space weather capabilities. Collaboration with U.S. and Allied government and 

civilian agencies, along with ground-based sensing modernization, will result in a robust 

sensing capability for space weather. 

 Cloud Depiction and Forecasting System (CDFS) II improvements. Improving CDFS 

techniques by increasing the resolution, integrating available satellite (to include nontraditional METSAT) into the cloud analysis, using a new cloud interpretation and assimilation 

schema, incorporating cloud optical properties, and blending numerical weather prediction with 

forecast cloud advection techniques will ensure the AF continues as a center of excellence in 

cloud analysis and forecasting. MARK IVB data integration into cloud models will be 

expanded. 

 Tactical Decision Aids (TDA). TDAs provide warfighters an automated way to “visualize” 

environmental impacts on operations. These tools continue to be integrated into AF and joint 

service command and control (C2) systems (e.g., mission planning systems) including Target 

Acquisition Weapons Software (TAWS), Infrared Target Scene Simulation (IRTSS), and TriService Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid (T-IWEDA). 

 Weather Data Analysis (WDA). WDA will provide many of the behind-the-scene tools at the 

weather production centers necessary for processing NPOESS Preparatory Project sensor and 

environmental data for AF and Navy exploitation for military operations and enabling JET to 

provide decision-quality products and information to warfighters. 

 Air Force Weather Ensemble Prediction Suite (AFWEPS). AFWEPS output, at both the 

mesoscale and global scale, will provide better meteorological intelligence for the warfighter 

by objectively quantifying the forecast certainty of mission-impacting meteorological 

parameters to optimize operational risk management for all echelons of decision making. It 

will provide probabilistic algorithms for high-impact variables and to quantify biases, enabling 

concise, focused products. 

The goals of these efforts are to provide accurate, relevant, and timely meteorological intelligence to 

warfighters at all levels of operations quicker and more consistently than ever before, within the 

decision cycle and in a manner that facilitates exploitation of the current and forecasted environmental 

conditions. 

While these all work synergistically to provide warfighters a quantum leap in capability, JET is the 

most visible piece to decision makers. JET will exploit data contained in the Virtual Joint 

Meteorological Oceanographic (METOC) Database via common-user communications, integrate with 

joint and coalition command and control and mission planning systems, and provide the machine-tomachine data exchange for assimilating METOC and C4ISR data to meet operational and tactical 

mission planning and execution requirements. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

10 

United States Navy (USN) 

The U.S. Navy FY 2012 budget request for meteorological programs is $79.3 million; made up of 

$69.8 million for operations and $8.5 million to support enabling research. 

Naval Oceanography Program (NOP) 

NOP is the elite, world-class maritime science and service program. It provides support in the global 

maritime regions around the globe, with unchallenged capabilities in the littorals and arctic. Naval 

METOC personnel (Navy and Marine Corps) are required to provide intelligence preparation of the 

environment (IPE) for operational decision makers by assessing the impact of atmospheric and ocean 

phenomena on platforms, sensors, and weapon systems. Navy and Marine Corps METOC personnel 

provide for safe space, aviation, surface, and submerged movement, maneuver, and navigation in 

support of naval, joint, and combined forces, operating around the globe. This is done with a cadre of 

highly trained military and civilian personnel, educated in both sciences and warfighting services. By 

teaming with and leveraging the efforts of other agencies and activities, the NOP meets these 

challenges in a cost-effective manner, providing a full spectrum of products and services to provide 

decision makers in the field with environmental decision superiority while using only a small 

percentage of the Federal weather budget. The NOP is required to provide comprehensive and 

integrated weather and ocean support worldwide. The Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy (CNO 

OPNAV N2/N6E) sponsors programs in five closely related disciplines: meteorology, oceanography, 

space, maritime domain awareness, and positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT). All are used to 

protect ships, aircraft, fighting personnel, other platforms (manned and unmanned), and shore 

establishments from adverse ocean and weather conditions, and to provide a decisive tactical or 

strategic edge by exploiting the physical environment to optimize the performance and efficiency of 

platforms, sensors, and weapons. Two high-profile elements of the NOP, Battlespace on Demand and 

Littoral Battlespace Sensing, are discussed in Section 2, in the subsection of Military Services on Navy 

Products and Services. 

Operational Support 

Naval METOC support starts with sensing the battlespace without being adversely affected by the 

physical environmental and culminates with weapons arriving on target and enabling personnel to 

operate in the battlespace without being adversely affected by physical environmental phenomena. 

Operational support for the Navy and Marine Corps includes the day-to-day provision of METOC 

products and services. As naval operations in the littoral increase, Naval METOC support is directed 

towards providing on-scene capabilities to personnel that directly furnish environmental data for 

sensor, weapon system, and personnel planning and employment. These on-scene capabilities are key 

elements for enabling the war-fighters to take advantage of the natural environment as part of 

battlespace management. Owing to the crucial interrelationship of the ocean and the atmosphere, 

Naval METOC requires various oceanographic products to provide the requisite meteorological 

services. In addition to aviation and maritime METOC support, Navy and Marine Corps METOC 

teams provide a variety of unique services on demand, such as electro-optical, electro-magnetic, and 

acoustic propagation models and products, METOC-sensitive tactical decision aids, and global sea ice 

analyses and forecasts. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

11 

Systems Acquisition. Naval METOC systems acquisition is accomplished through the Program 

Executive Office for Command, Control, Communication, Computers and Intelligence and Space (C4I 

and Space) in San Diego, California. 

Navy Integrated Tactical Environmental System (NITES). The Navy operates a distributed model in 

support of tactical weather prediction. Each NITES is a set of meteorology and oceanography forecast, 

database, and decision-aid tools tailored for specific platforms and users. Five variants exist to support 

a variety of operators and platforms. NITES-Fielded is a tactical environmental support system which 

collectively refers to all five variants. The Distributed Atmospheric Modeling Prediction System 

(DAMPS) allows users to ingest high-resolution data and on-scene observations into regional and 

global model information received from the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center. 

The result is an on-scene weather model that provides accurate weather predictions for an operating 

area within a 24-hour time frame. 

The Navy is developing a follow-on system, called NITES–Next, to increase the capabilities for 

ashore, afloat, and mobile METOC support to naval tactical operations and to be net-centric and 

interoperable with the other services. NITES–Next will be a software-only solution and compliant 

with the DOD Global Information Grid and Navy FORCEnet architectures. The Navy is coordinating 

with the Air Force to efficiently and effectively leverage the Air Force’s Joint Environmental Toolkit 

(JET) Program to eliminate unnecessary duplication and build a System of Systems to support all joint 

warfighters and peace-keeping missions, including homeland defense. 

Through-the-Sensor (TTS) Capabilities. The Hazardous Weather Detection and Display Capability 

(HWDDC) and Tactical Environmental Processor (TEP) are TTS technologies which will passively tap 

Navy air-search radars to obtain and display hazardous weather information. The HWDDC and TEP 

systems will be based off common modular weather processing algorithms and will have similar data 

product and display capabilities. Essentially, they represent one common set of processing algorithms 

applied to two different radars. The differences in capabilities supported by the systems are driven by 

the differences in the individual radars. 

The HWDDC will be integrated into the baseline AN/SPS-48G air-search radar, allowing it to extract 

and display reflectivity data. The HWDDC addresses a long-standing fleet requirement for real-time 

hazardous weather detection/display to support safety of flight and operations planning within Carrier 

and Expeditionary Strike Groups. The knowledge of hazardous weather conditions afloat greatly 

enhances readiness and combat posture. 

Research and Development (R&D) 

Naval METOC R&D is cooperatively sponsored by the Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy and the 

Chief of Naval Research. Naval R&D efforts typically have applications to meteorological, 

oceanographic, and/or tactical systems. The Navy’s tabulation of budget data includes R&D funding 

for basic research, applied research, demonstration and validation, and engineering and manufacturing 

development. Projects initiated by the Navy and Marine Corps, under sponsorship of the 

Oceanographer/Navigator of the Navy, transition from engineering development to operational naval 

systems. Such efforts include advances in Naval METOC forecasting capabilities, enhancements to 

communications and data compression techniques, further development and improvement of models to 

better predict METOC parameters in littoral regions, and an improved understanding of the impact 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

12 

these parameters have on sensors, weapons systems, and platform performance. To realize the 

opportunities and navigate the challenges ahead, the Department of Navy must have a clear vision of 

how they will organize, integrate, and transform. The Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower

and the updated Naval Operations Concept 2010 provide that vision. They align our efforts, accelerate 

our progress, and realize the individual and aggregate potential of our people. Support to naval 

operations is provided under the direction of the Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography 

Command (CNMOC) located at the Stennis Space Center, MS, and the Marine Corps advocate for 

METOC, the Deputy Commandant for Aviation, at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. 

With the addition of the Naval Oceanography Operations Command, the NOP optimizes warfighting 

resources, supports safe operations, and enhances dominance of the battlespace through superior 

understanding and exploitation of the environment. The Naval METOC community works closely with 

research developers and operational forces to ensure that naval and joint force commanders will always 

have the most accurate, timely, and geo-referenced METOC information available for successful 

operations. 

United States Army (USA) 

The U.S. Army estimates a $17.5 million requirement for operational support and $13.6 million 

requirement for research and development in FY 2012. Funding for operational support will decrease 

4 percent while funding for research will decrease 15 percent from FY 2011 to FY 2012. Staffing 

levels decreased slightly for FY 2012, due mainly to reorganization at the US Army Fires Center of 

Excellence at Ft. Sill, OK. 

 

Army monies for meteorology are spent on research and development related to the Army mission; the 

development, production, and maintenance of Army meteorological systems; staff meteorological 

functions at selected headquarters; and weather-related training at the Training and Doctrine Command 

(TRADOC) schools and centers. 

 

Headquarters, Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of Staff, G-2, employs two full-time meteorologists for the development of meteorology policy; the coordination of meteorological support 

within the Department of the Army and with other Department of Defense and Federal agencies and 

organizations; and the development of Department of the Army policy, concerning weather, 

environmental services, and oceanographic support to the Army (not to include those environmental 

services functions assigned to the Corps of Engineers). The USAF provides one full-time staff weather 

officer to serve as a liaison between the AF and the Army Staff. Headquarters, U.S. Army North 

employs one civilian meteorologist to address meteorological issues at its headquarters. Forces 

Command, U.S. Army Europe, Eighth U.S. Army, U.S. Army Pacific, and U.S. Army South have 

either active component, reserve component, or civilian Air Force meteorologists who conduct 

meteorological staff services at these locations. TRADOC employs both Army and Air Force 

personnel to manage its meteorological-related activities. 

The Distributed Common Ground System–Army (DCGS-A) is the Army’s premier intelligence, 

surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) enterprise for the analysis and processing, exploitation, and 

dissemination (PED) of information and intelligence data across all echelons. The Integrated 

Meteorological System (IMETS) Project Office transitioned to PM DCGS-A in 2007 to become 

DCGS-A Weather Services. Current work includes the testing and integration of new weather 

capabilities such as the Air Force Joint Environmental Toolkit (JET) into DCGS-A. Maintenance and 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

13 

support for the existing fielded IMETS hardware will continue until these systems are replaced by 

DCGS-A. 

In FY 2011, the Army received funding for the Meteorological Measuring Set-Profiler (MMS-P) 

artillery system, also known as the Profiler Block I system. This funding was used to support new 

equipment training and fielding, hardware and software upgrades, and technical support for the Block I 

systems. The Army requested additional funding in 2012 to support the continuation of new 

equipment training and fielding for all remaining Profiler Block I systems, the fielding of the Global 

Broadcast System (GBS) Modification to replace the Tactical Very Small Aperture Terminal satellite 

link, and hardware and software upgrades and technical support for the Profiler Block I systems. The 

Army received Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) funds in 2011 for the 

development of the CMD-P AN/GMK-2 (Profiler Block III) system, to include software analysis 

efforts for accuracy improvements; migration efforts, leading to a single operating system hosted on 

one computer; the delivery of eight production representative systems; and the conduct of technical 

testing. The Army requested additional 2012 RDT&E funds for the completion of CMD-P AN/GMK2 development efforts initiated in 2011 and the conduct of Limited User Test and Austere 

Environmental Testing of the eight production representative systems. Procurement for the Block III 

systems is scheduled to begin in FY 2013. 

Weather equipment maintenance and training costs at the Artillery school accounted for the majority of 

weather-related expenditures within TRADOC. Funds were programmed for operations support 

related to training development, instructor/support personnel, logistics (expendable supplies), and 

repair costs for artillery meteorological systems at the US Army Field Artillery School (USAFAS). 

Funding was also allocated to support development of weather requirements and doctrine, along with 

training on Army tactics, techniques, and procedures for Air Force weather personnel at the US Army 

Intelligence Center of Excellence at Ft. Huachuca, AZ. Maintenance and servicing of five automated 

surface observing sensor systems and two pole-mounted Tactical Meteorological Observing Systems at 

Ft Rucker, AL, accounted for the remainder of TRADOC weather-related spending. 

Elsewhere in the Army, budgets for meteorological operations and research do not change significantly 

from FY 2011 to FY 2012. Within the Army Materiel Command, the Army Research Laboratory 

(ARL) continued its research and development efforts in basic meteorology. After undergoing a 

modest reduction in funding from FY 2010 to FY 2011, ARL anticipates a slight increase in research 

funding for FY 2012. The Army Test and Evaluation Command’s meteorology program budget will 

remain relatively stable from FY 2011 to FY 2012, as will the weather operations budget for the Space 

and Missile Defense Command. 

DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY (DHS) 

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) 

All of the USCG’s funding for meteorological programs is for operations support. For FY 2012, the 

requested funding level is $28.5 million. The Coast Guard does not have a specific program and budget 

for meteorology—all meteorological activities are accomplished as part of general operations. The 

Coast Guard’s activities include the collection and dissemination of meteorological and iceberg 

warning information for the benefit of the marine community. The Coast Guard also collects coastal 

and marine observations from its shore stations and cutters and transmits these observations daily to 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

14 

the Navy’s Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center and NOAA’s National Weather 

Service. These observations are used by both the Navy and NOAA in generating weather forecasts. 

The Coast Guard also disseminates a variety of weather forecast products and warnings to the marine 

community via radio transmissions. Coast Guard shore stations often serve as sites for NWS automated 

coastal weather stations, and the National Data Buoy Center provides logistics support in deploying 

and maintaining NOAA offshore weather buoys from Coast Guard cutters. The International Ice Patrol 

conducts iceberg surveillance operations and provides warnings to mariners on the presence of 

icebergs in the North Atlantic shipping lanes. Coast Guard efforts in meteorological operations and 

services have not changed significantly during recent years. 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR (DOI) 

Bureau of Land Management 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) funds two principal programs—the soil, water, and air 

(SWA) program and the fire weather activities of the Office of Fire and Aviation (OFA). 

Soil Water and Air Program (SWA). When existing monitoring networks are not sufficient to meet the 

needs for air-resource-related information, the BLM, within the SWA program, initiates efforts to 

collect additional data through cooperative efforts with other agencies or with resource management 

staff in state and field offices. The BLM will expend an estimated total of $1.36 million on such efforts 

in FY 2012. This total includes $120,000 to operate a series of RAWS stations equipped with 

additional instruments to measure soil moisture and winter precipitation not required for fire 

monitoring; $50,000 to maintain eight stations in the NRCS SCAN network; $65,000 to operate six 

NADP sites; $250,000 on other efforts such as downscaling climate models and assessing the response 

of aquatic ecosystems to reduced groundwater discharge from climate change impacts; and $875,000 

for labor and logistics to support climate and weather data collection efforts by BLM resource 

management staff. 

Office of Fire and Aviation Program (OFA). OFA funding for FY 2012 is $3.513 million, which 

represents BLM support for meteorologists at the National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC) 

and other Geographic Area Coordination Centers (GACC) and BLM support of the Interagency 

Remote Automatic Weather Station (RAWS) network. An additional $1.2 million is recovered through 

reimbursable accounts with non-DOI agencies for RAWS support. Funded activities related to the 

RAWS network include maintenance, travel, transportation, services, supplies, and equipment. Some 

agencies incur additional costs in support of the RAWS network through commercially contracted 

maintenance services. 

The interagency RAWS network is an important tool for wildland fire management which directly 

supports the protection of life and property. All affected Federal agencies within DOI participate in its 

acquisition, operation, and support. The BLM, in particular, has a lead role in the maintenance of the 

RAWS network, providing both data distribution services and equipment support. Participating 

agencies address common issues and coordinate efforts to ensure the collection of accurate and useful 

fire weather data. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

15 

Under the Predictive Services Program, meteorologists who specialize in fire weather services team 

with intelligence specialists and wildland fire analysts at the GACCs and the NICC to form Predictive 

Services units. The Predictive Services units act as centers of expertise to produce integrated planning 

and decision-support tools that enable more proactive, safe, and cost-effective fire management. 

National Park Service (NPS) 

The NPS expends about $1.7 million on atmospheric research with a focus on measurements of all 

forms of atmospheric reactive nitrogen and on aerosol science. The goal of this research is to identify 

the sources of air pollution that are affecting park ecosystems and visibility and to quantify their 

impacts. The NPS also expends approximately $2 million in routine air quality and meteorological 

monitoring networks. 

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION (DOT) 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

For FY 2012, the FAA requested a total of $212 million for the Aviation Weather Programs, including 

acquisition of new systems, operations and support, supporting research, and special programs. The 

actual funding for Aviation Weather in FY 2011 was $201 million. For FY 2012, the FAA requested 

an additional $11 million—a 5.5 percent increase in total funding. 

The changes are comprised of: 

 An increase in Systems Development from $74.8 million to $83.1 million, reflecting new 

programs for NextGen (see below) which show a slight increase in reported numbers for 

Operations Support from $15.9 million to $16.1 million and Systems Acquisitions from $6.3 

million to $6.4 million. 

 An increase in Special Programs funding from $68 million in FY 2011 to $71 million for FY 

2012 due to adjusted budget and projections for FY 2011 and FY 2012 which show an increase 

in the planned research and development budget from $35.3 million to a total of $36.0 million, 

as reflected in the latest NARP submission. 

The funding changes reflect major initiatives in the aviation weather programs in support of the Next 

Generation (NextGen) National Air Transportation System. These changes will bring increased and 

enhanced automation to the collection of weather observations from remote sensors to the 

dissemination of weather products, graphics, and decision-making information, available for use by the 

air traffic facilities, pilots, the aviation industry, and general aviation users. 

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) 

All of FHWA’s funding is for applied research which is nearly $5 million dollars per year. The 

majority of the Road Weather Management Program (RWMP) activity involves software development 

and studies under the research and development category to develop decision-support systems that 

integrate high-resolution road weather products with transportation-oriented management strategies. It 

also includes $320,000 to operate and expand the Clarus System under system development. The 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

16 

remaining special program funding is for training and administration. Due to the extended time for 

road construction projects, DOT does not go through an annual budget process but typically uses a sixyear authorization. The latest transportation authorization for the RWMP began in 2006 and has been 

extended through FY 2011 with little change in funding levels. The same level of funding is expected 

for FY 2012. 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) 

All of the EPA’s funding of meteorological and air quality programs is for supporting basic and 

applied research. The anticipated funding level in FY 2012 for directed meteorological research is 

about $8 million. 

Continued attention is being paid to the effects of airborne toxins and fine particulate matter on human 

health, on the effect of climate change on air quality, and the impact of air pollution on human health 

and sensitive ecosystems. In addition, to promote excellence in environmental science and engineering, 

the EPA established a national research grants program and substantially increased its support for 

investigator-initiated research. The funding for grants (with reliance on quality science and peer 

review) and for graduate fellowships (to support the education and careers of future scientists) will 

provide for a more balanced, long-term capital investment in improved environmental research and 

development. The funding for the grants program will remain about the same in FY 2012 as in FY 

2011. 

The EPA’s Research Grants Program will fund research in areas, including ecological assessment, air 

quality, environmental fate and treatment of toxins and hazardous wastes, effects of global climate 

change on air quality, and exploratory research. The portion of these grants that will be awarded for 

meteorological research during FY 2012 cannot be foreseen, but it is probable that the grant awards 

will increase the base amount of $8 million listed above for directed meteorological research. 

The EPA continues its development and evaluation of air quality models for air pollutants on all 

temporal and spatial scales as mandated by the Clean Air Act as amended in 1990. Research will focus 

on urban, mesoscale, regional, and multimedia models, which will be used to develop air pollution 

control policies, human and ecosystem exposure assessments, and air quality forecasting. There will be 

increased emphasis placed on meteorological research into global-to-regional-to-urban-local formation 

and intercontinental transport of air contaminants in support of the revisions to the National Ambient 

Air Quality Standards and ecosystem protection strategies. Increased efficiency of computation and 

interpretation of model results are being made possible by means of supercomputing and scientific 

visualization techniques. 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) 

The NASA funding request for FY 2012 decreases NASA’s meteorological research budget .2 percent 

to $1.863 billion and the operations budget decreases 18.3 percent to $5.2 million. 

 

In FY 2011, NASA spent $6.366 million on meteorological operations and $1.866 billion on 

supporting research. NASA supports weather operations through the Space Operations Mission 

Directorate (SOMD), operational satellite weather observations though the Science Mission 

Directorate (SMD) Joint Agency Satellite Division (JASD), weather and climate research through the 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

17 

SMD Earth Science Division (ESD), and space weather research through SMD’s Heliophysics 

Division. 

The SOMD objective is weather-related safety of manned spacecraft, satellites, scientific instruments, 

and launch vehicles. The greatest challenge is to accurately measure and forecast mesoscale weather 

events that strongly impact launch and landing operations. On August 12, 2011, SOMD was merged 

with another directorate to become the Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate (HEO). 

The SMD objective in weather and climate research is to improve the accuracy of severe weather 

forecasts and global climate predictions through improved understanding of the atmosphere, land, and 

oceans, including ecosystems, and their mutual interactions. The greatest challenge is to observe the 

continuum of weather-to-climate processes and produce models of future conditions verifiable with 

observations. The SMD objective in space weather research is to develop the scientific foundation that 

will enable space weather forecasters to predict the extreme and dynamic conditions in space in order 

to maximize safety and productivity of robotic explorers. 

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION (NRC) 

For FY 2012, the NRC’s total planned contract expenditures of $372,000 ($32,000 for operations and 

$340,000 for supporting research) is for meteorological operations to continue technical assistance for 

the analysis of atmospheric dispersion for routine and postulated accidental releases from nuclear 

facilities, for conducting meteorological research in support of licensing activities, for preparation of 

guidance on meteorological issues in licensing actions, and for the review of proposed sites for 

possible construction of new nuclear power plants. 

The meteorological support program in the NRC includes analyzing and utilizing meteorological data 

in atmospheric transport and dispersion models. These models provide insight on plume pathways in 

the near- and far-fields for building wake and dispersion characteristics to perform dose calculations on 

postulated releases into the environment. Meteorological information is used as input to the 

probabilistic safety assessment, the assessment of the radiological impacts of routine releases from 

normal operations, the assessment of other (non-radiological) hazards that may impact safe operation 

of the facility, and the assessment of design or operational changes proposed for the facility. 

Current research activities also include quantifying the storm surge from severe weather events and 

updating the hydrometeorological reports (HMR) and methods used to estimate the effects of extreme 

precipitation events. During FY 2012, an additional focus will be looking at the influence of 

orographic features on extreme precipitation events—an aspect which was ignored in developing the 

original HMRs. This work is prioritized for those areas of the United States where new nuclear power 

plants are proposed and will provide the design basis for flood protection systems. 

Additionally, after a hiatus of some 25 years, the nuclear power industry has expressed an interest in 

seeking approvals for new nuclear power plants. Numerous early site permit, combined license, and 

design certification applications have been received and are currently under review. These reviews will 

also consider regional climatology and local meteorology. In addition to its internal review activities, 

the NRC may seek assistance from other Federal agencies to support its safety and environmental 

reviews. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

18 

BUDGET TABLES 

 

Table 1 Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research Costs* by Agency 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

19 

 

Table 2 Operational Costs by Budget Category 

This table depicts how the agencies plan to obligate their funds for meteorological operations by 

“budget category.” The two major categories are “Operations Support” and “Systems Acquisition.” To 

a large degree, these categories correspond to non-hardware costs (Operations Support) and hardware 

costs (Systems Acquisition). For identifying small components that do not fit into these two major 

categories, a third category is added called “Special Programs.” 

 

Table 3 Supporting Research Costs by Budget Category 

This table describes how the agencies plan to obligate their funds for meteorological supporting 

research also broken down by budget categories. The agencies’ supporting research budgets are 

subdivided along similar lines of operational funding--Research and Development (non-hardware), 

Systems Development (hardware), and Special Programs (for those items that do not easily fit into the 

two major categories). For FY 2012, agencies will obligate a total of $2.28 billion in supporting 

research funds in the following manner: $1.67 billion to research and development, $611 million to 

systems development, and $2.2 million to special programs. 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

20 

 

Operational Costs and Supporting Research Costs by Service Category 

Tables 4 and 5 reflect how the agencies plan to obligate FY 2012 operational and supporting research funds by service 

category. The service category definitions are described below: 

Service Category Definitions 

 Basic Services. Basic services include the basic meteorological service system, to include observations, public weather 

forecasts, severe weather warnings and advisories, and the meteorological satellite activities of NOAA. Basic services 

also include the operations and supporting research of other Federal agencies that have been identified as contributing 

to basic meteorological services. 

 Aviation Services. Aviation services are those specialized meteorological services and facilities established to meet the 

requirements of general, commercial, and military aviation. Civil programs that are directly related to services solely 

for aviation and military programs in support of land-based aviation and medium- or long-range missile operations are 

included. Detailed aviation services/products for specific areas include, but are not limited to, ceiling and visibility, 

convective hazards, en route winds and temperatures, ground de-icing, in-flight icing, terminal winds and temperatures, 

turbulence, volcanic ash, and other airborne hazardous materials. 

 Surface Transportation. Surface transportation services are those specialized meteorological services and facilities 

established to meet the weather information needs of the following surface transportation sectors: roadways, long-haul 

railways, the marine transportation system, rural and urban transit, pipeline systems, and airport ground operations. The 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

21 

roadway sector includes state and Federal highways and all state and local roads and streets. The marine transportation 

system includes coastal and inland waterways, ports and harbors, and the intermodal terminals serving them. Rural and 

urban transit includes bus and van service on roadways and rail lines for metropolitan subway and surface “light-rail” 

systems.

 Agriculture and Land Management Meteorological Services. Agricultural and land management meteorological 

services are those services and facilities established to meet the requirements of the agricultural industries and Federal, 

state, and local agencies charged with the protection and maintenance of the Nation's land areas. Meteorological 

services specifically tailored for wildland fire management are reported under the wildland fire weather service 

category. 

 Military Services. Military services are those meteorological operations, services, and capabilities established to meet 

the unique requirements of military user commands and their component elements. Programs and services that are not 

uniquely military in nature are reported under another service category (e.g., Basic Services, Aviation Services 

[civilian], Surface transportation Services, or Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services). 

 Wildland Fire Weather Services. Wildland fire weather services are those specialized meteorological services and 

facilities established to meet the requirements of the wildfire management community at the Federal, state, tribal, and 

local levels. The primary areas of service are to support the reduction of wildfire initiation potential and the mitigation 

of both human and environmental impacts once initiation does occur. Services can include support to first responders 

and land managers and climate services tailored to wildland fire management. 

 Climate Services. Climate services are those specialized meteorological services and facilities established to meet the 

requirements of Federal, state, and local agencies for information about trends in seasonal, interseasonal, or longer 

aspects of the atmosphere-hydrosphere-land surface system. Climate services include information on both oscillatory 

patterns (cycles varying over periods of several years to several decades) and longer-term secular trends in climate. 

 Space Weather Services. Space weather services are those specialized meteorological services and facilities 

established to meet the needs of users for information on extreme space weather events, also known as solar storms, 

which can affect terrestrial systems, the Earth’s atmosphere, and the near-Earth space environment. Space weather 

services include monitoring and reporting of solar storms and their effects on the Earth’s atmosphere and geomagnetic 

fields. Early warning of an approaching solar storm, so that timely protective response is possible, is an important part 

of space weather services. 

 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services. Emergency response and homeland security services are those 

specialized meteorological services and facilities established to meet the requirements of Federal, state, and local 

agencies responding to natural disasters and security incidents. This category includes the use of atmospheric transport 

and diffusion (ATD) models for predicting the dispersion of airborne toxic substances; it also includes natural disaster 

monitoring and prediction services and the transport of water-borne toxic substances not included in basic services. 

 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services. Hydrometeorology and water resources services are those 

specialized meteorological services and facilities that combine atmospheric science, hydrology, and water resources in 

order to meet the requirements of Federal, state, and local agencies for information on the effects of precipitation 

events on infrastructure, water supplies, and waterways. These products and services also meet the needs of the general 

public in the conduct of everyday activities and for the protection of lives and property. 

 Other Specialized Services. Other specialized services include weather and climate information services and facilities 

established to meet the special needs of user agencies or constituencies not included in basic services or the preceding 

service categories. This service category includes any efforts to integrate the social sciences into meteorological 

operations, applications, and services not already described in the preceding sections. 
 Total

AGENCY FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012

Agriculture 0 0 1170 1225 0 0 0 0 0 0 10943 10965 0 0 0 0 0 0 8296 8365 0 0 20409 20555

Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 2311068 2931674 0 0 11538 38593 16153 9223 0 0 10613 10669 0 0 9585 9585 29441 28979 1433 1433 5606 3150 2395437 3033306 NWS 922,047 915,875 0 0 11,538 38,593 16,153 9,223 0 0 10,119 10,119 0 0 9,585 9,585 0 0 1,433 1,433 5,606 3,150 976481 987978

 NESDIS 1,359,400 1,986,991 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1359400 1986991

 OAR 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 NOS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29441 28979 0 0 0 0 29441 28979

 OMAO 29621 28808 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 494 550 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30115 29358

Defense(Subtot) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 254872 233572 12017 10485 0 0 0 0 0 0 266889 244057

 Air Force 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 163364 146357 12017 10485 0 0 0 0 0 0 175381 156842

 Navy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 73246 69765 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 73246 69765

 Army 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18262 17450 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18262 17450

Homeland Security (Subtot) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27570 28500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27570 28500

 USCG 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27570 28500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27570 28500

Interior/BLM 0 0 1360 1360 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3369 3513 2000 2000 6729 6873 BLM (Subtot) 0 0 1360 1360 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3369 3513 0 0 4729 4873

 SWA 0 0 1360 1360 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1360 1360

 OFA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3369 3513 0 0 3369 3513

 NPS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2000 2000 2000 2000

Transportation(Subtot) 0 0 0 0 91116 93611 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 91116 93611

 FAA 0 0 0 0 91116 93611 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 91116 93611

 FHWA 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00EPA 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00NASA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6366 5202 6366 5202

NRC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 140 0 0 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 140 32DOE 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00TOTAL 2311068 2931674 2530 2585 102654 132204 16153 9223 27710 28500 21556 21666 254872 233572 21602 20070 29441 28979 13098 13311 13972 10352 2814656 3432136

% of FY TOTAL 82.1% 85.4% 0.1% 0.1% 3.6% 3.9% 0.6% 0.3% 1.0% 0.8% 0.8% 0.6% 9.1% 6.8% 0.8% 0.6% 1.0% 0.8% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.3% 100.0% 100.0%

Services Management Aviation & Homeland Security

 TABLE 4 Operational Costs by Service Category

 (Thousands of Dollars)

Basic Emergency Response Agriculture & Land Hydrometeorology

Climate Surface Transportation & Water Resources Military Space Weather Wildland Fire Weather Other Specialized

 Total

AGENCY FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012 FY2011 FY2012Agriculture 0 0 46979 86340 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7810 7884 0 0 54789 94224

Commerce/NOAA(Subtot) 130763 123597 0 0 4825 15139 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 600 600 0 0 136188 139336

 NWS 37,371 18,972 0 0 3,200 13,514 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 600 600 0 0 41171 33086

 NESDIS 28,152 28,435 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28152 28435

 OAR 62240 74690 0 0 1,625 1,625 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63865 76315

 NOS 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 OMAO 3000 1500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3000 1500

Defense(Subtot) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54114 48794 4357 5377 0 0 0 0 0 0 58471 54171

 Air Force 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28016 25707 4357 5377 0 0 0 0 0 0 32373 31084

 Navy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10055 9500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10055 9500

 Army 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16043 13587 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16043 13587

Homeland Security (Subtot) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 USCG 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00Interior/BLM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1700 1700 1700 1700

 BLM (Subtot) 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 SWA 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 OFA 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 NPS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,700 1,700 1700 1700

Transportation(Subtot) 0 0 0 0 110100 119100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4600 4600 0 0 0 0 114700 123700

 FAA 0 0 0 0 110100 119100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110100 119100

 FHWA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4600 4600 0 0 0 0 4600 4600

EPA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9000 8000 9000 8000

NASA 0 0 0 0 0 0 1305051 1291732 0 0 0 0 0 0 560737 569062 0 0 0 0 960 2235 1866748 1863029

NRC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 175 40 0 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 175 340

DOE 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00TOTAL 130763 123597 46979 86340 114925 134239 1305051 1291732 175 40 0 300 54114 48794 565094 574439 4600 4600 8410 8484 11660 11935 2241771 2284500

% of FY TOTAL 5.8% 5.4% 2.1% 3.8% 5.1% 5.9% 58.2% 56.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0 0.0% 2.4% 2.1% 25.2% 25.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 100.0% 100.0%

 TABLE 5 Supporting Research Costs by Service Category

 (Thousands of Dollars)

Basic

Services Management Aviation 

Emergency Response

& Homeland Security Other Specialized Wildland Fire Weather Climate & Water Resources Military 

Hydrometeorology Agriculture & Land

Space Weather Surface Transportation

22
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

23 

Table 6 Personnel Engaged in Meteorological Operations 

Agency staff resources engaged in meteorological operations. The total agency staff resources 

requested for FY 2012 is 8,808, no increase to FY 2011. 

Table 6 PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS 

(Units are Full time Equivalent Staff Years) 

 

 

AGENCY FY 2011 FY 2012 %CHG

% of FY 2012 

TOTAL

Agriculture 134 124 -7.5 1.4

Commerce/NOAA (sub-total) 5562 5562 0.0 63.1

 NWS 4648 4654 0.1 52.8

 NESDIS (sub-total) 682 682 0.0 7.7

 NESDIS 682 682 0.0 7.7

 Reimbursed 0 0 0 0

 OAR 0 0 0 0

 NOS 113 122 8.0 1.4

 OMAO 119 104 -12.6 1.2

Defense(Subtotal) 2115 2085 -1.4 23.7

 Air Force 1221 1198 -1.9 13.6

 Navy 415 415 0.0 4.7

 Marine Corps 370 370 0.0 4.2

 Army 109 102 -6.4 1.2

Homeland Security-USCG 108 108 0.0 1.2

Interior/BLM(Subtotal) 45 44 -2.2 0.5

 BLM Soil/Water/Air Program 10 10 0.0 0.1

 BLM Fire Weather Program 35 34 -2.9 0.4

Transportation(Subtotal) 805 851 5.7 9.7

 FHWA 0 0 0 0

 FAA 805 851 5.7 9.7

EPA 0 0 0 0

NASA 37 29 -21.6 0.3

NRC 2 5 150.0 0.1

DOE 0 0 0 0

 TOTAL 8808 8808 0.0 100.0

 

* Refer to Section 2, Resource Information and Agency Program Updates, Department of Defense, 

U.S. Army for details 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

24 

Table 7 Interagency Fund Transfers 

Summarizes the reimbursement of funds from one agency to another during FY 2011. Agencies 

routinely enter into reimbursable agreements when they determine that one agency can provide the 

activity more effectively than the other. While specific amounts may vary from ear-to-year, the pattern 

shown is essentially stable and reflects a significant level of interagency cooperation. 

TABLE 7 INTERAGENCY FUND TRANSFERS FOR METEOROLOGICAL OPERATIONS AND SUPPORTING 

RESEARCH 

 FY 2011 Funds ($K) 

 Estimated or Planned 

Agency Funds Agency Funds Supporting 

Transferred from: Transferred to: Operations Research 

USDA/USFS DOI/BLM 717 

 

Air Force NOAA 

Air Force Weather DOC/NOAA/NWS 1648 120 NEXRAD 

Air Force Weather DOC/NOAA/NWS 50 150 ASOS 

Air Force Weather OFCM 153 

OFCM cost 

share 

Air Force Weather OFCM 34 Aircraft data 

Air Force Weather USGS (Dept of Interior) 536 Magnetometer 

Air Force Weather NASA 550 Land Info Sys 

Air Force Weather NASA 373 JPL tech data 

Air Force Weather NSF/UCAR/NCAR 2101 WRF 

Air Force Weather NSF/UCAR/NCAR 1172 

Data 

assimilation 

Air Force Weather NSF/UCAR/NCAR 250 Ensembles 

Air Force Weather NSF 800 GONG 

Air Force Weather GSA 25 Data admin 

Air Force Weather NOAA 98 DAPE program 

Corps of Engineers National Weather Service 320 224 

Corps of Engineers US Geological Survey 18996 

TRADOC Air Combat Command 

FAA(Contract Weather) NWS APAIDS in Alaska 128 

FAA(Contract Weather) NWS Cascade Locks 13 

FAA(Contract Weather) NWS Meteorologists 376 

FAA(NEXRAD) NWS 2500 

FAA(ASOS) NWS 12479 

NASA DOD/USAF/45th Space Wing 1780 

 DOD/USAF/Edwards AFB 110 

 DOC/NOAA/NDBC 103 

 DOC/NOAA/SMG 1700 

DOI/BLM SWA USDA-NIFA 65 

DOI/BLM SWA USDA-NRCS 50 

DOI/BLM OFA USFS 835 

DOI/BLM OFA DOD 341 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

25 

Table 8 Facilities/Locations for Taking Meteorological Observations 

This table shows the number of facilities/locations or platforms at which the Federal agencies carry out 

or supervise the taking of various types of meteorological observations. 

TABLE 8 Facilities/Locations Taking Meteorological Observations 

 

 No. of 2011 

TYPE OF OBSERVATION by AGENCY Locations 

Surface, land 

 Commerce (all types) 841 

 Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 265 

 Navy (U.S. & Overseas) 68 

 Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 13 

 Army (U.S. & Overseas) 92 

 Transportation (FAA Contract Wx Obsg Stn)* 147 

 Transportation (FAA Auto Wx Obsg Stn - AWOS) 180 

 Transportation (FAA Auto Wx Sensor Sys - AWSS) 44 

 Transportation (FAA Auto Sfc Obsg Sys - ASOS)** 571 

 Transportation (FHWA-Road Wx Obsg Stn) 2253 

 Homeland Security (USCG Coastal) 50 

 Interior (BLM Soil/Water/Air Program) 200 

 Interior (BLM Office of Fire and Aviation) 971 

 Agriculture 1025 

 Agriculture (NRCS active manual snow courses) 1200 

 Agriculture (NRCS automated SNOTEL stations) 800 

 NASA (all types) 0 

 Total 8720 

 *Note: All 147 FAA Contract Wx Obsg Stations are colocated with a FAA or Commerce (NWS) ASOS 

 **Note: Transportation (FAA oversight Auto Sfc Obsg Sys, non-Fed inspected) 

 

Surface, marine 

 Commerce (SEAS-equipped ships) 622 

 Commerce (Coastal-Marine Autom Network) 56 

 Commerce (NOS/PORTS - only stations with met sensors) 66 

 Commerce (Buoys--moored) 98 

 Commerce (Buoys--drifting) 21 

 Commerce (NOS/NWLON - only stations with met sensors) 181 

 Navy (Ships with met personnel) 29 

 Navy (Ships without met personnel) 255 

 Homeland Security (USCG Cutters) 248 

 NASA (Buoys - moored) 0 

 Total 1576 

Upper air, balloon 

 Commerce (U.S.) 102 

 Commerce (Foreign, Cooperative) 22 

 Air Force, Mobile 29 

 Army, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 0 

 Army, Mobile (U.S. and Overseas) 0 

 Navy, Fixed (U.S. & Overseas) 0 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

26 

 Navy, Mobile(U.S. & Overseas) 10 

 Navy, Ships 29 

 Marine Corps, Mobile 10 

 NASA (U.S. and Overseas) 13 

 Total 215 

Atmospheric Profilers 

 Air Force (Eastern Range) (915 MHz) 5 

 Air Force (Eastern Range) (SODARS) 5 

Air Force (Western Range) (915 MHz) 5 

 Air Force (Western Range) (50 MHz) 1 

 Air Force (Western Range SODARS) 2 

 Army 7 

 NASA (50 MHz) 1 

 Total 26 

 

Doppler weather radar (WSR-88D) sites 

 Commerce (NWS) 121 

 Air Force (U.S. & Overseas) 26 

 Transportation (Off CONUS) 12 

 Sub-total 159 

Doppler weather radar (Not WSR-88D) sites 

 Air Force (Fixed) 11 

 Army 0 

 Navy (Fixed) 9 

 Sub-total 20 

Airport Terminal Doppler weather radars 

 Transportation (Commissioned) 45 

 Sub-total 45 

Conventional radar (non-Doppler) sites 

 Commerce (NWS) 2 

 Air Force, Mobile Units 35 

 Army (U.S. and Overseas) 0 

 Transportation (FAA (WSP)) 34 

 Sub-total 71 

 295 

Off-site WSR-88D Principle User Processors (PUPs) 

 Air Force (OPUPs only) 99 

 Marine Corps (U.S. & Overseas) 9 

 Army 0 

 Total 108 

Weather reconnaissance Aircraft 

 Commerce (OMAO) 3 

 Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) - WC-130J 0 

 Total 3 

Geostationary meteorological satellites (No. operating) 

 Commerce (2 primary, 1 standby, 1 servicing South America) 4 

 

Polar meteorological satellites (No. operating) 

 Commerce (2 primary - one US; one European, 3 standby) 5 

 Air Force (2 primary, 3 standby) 5 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research

27 

 Navy (WINDSAT and GFO) 1 

 Total 11 

Electric Field Mills (Surface) 

 NASA (KSC) 0 

 Army 3 

 Total 0 

Lightning Detection Systems 

 Air Force (ER&WR - Cloud - Ground) 2 

 Air Force (ER&WR - NLDN) 2 

 Army 6 

 Total 10 
Section 1. Agency Funding for Meteorological Operations and Supporting Research 

28 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

29 

SECTION 2 

FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

30 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

31 

FEDERAL COORDINATION AND PLANNING 

FOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH 

STATUTORY BASIS FOR THE FEDERAL COORDINATION PROCESS 

In 1963, Congress and the Executive Office of the President expressed concern about the 

adequacy of the coordination of Federal meteorological activities. In response, Congress directed 

in Section 304 of Public Law 87-843—the Appropriations Act for State, Justice, Commerce, and 

Related Agencies—that the Bureau of the Budget prepare an annual horizontal budget for all 

meteorological programs in the Federal agencies. The Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of 

Management and Budget, OMB) issued a report in 1963 entitled “Survey of Federal 

Meteorological Activities.” That report described each agency’s program for meteorological 

services and products and detailed the relationships among the programs of the various agencies. 

The report revealed close cooperation but little evidence of systematic coordination. Based on its 

survey, the Bureau of the Budget issued a set of ground rules to be followed in the coordination 

process. It established a permanent general philosophy for assignment and assessment of agency 

roles in the field of meteorology and set certain goals to be achieved by the coordination process. 

The Bureau of the Budget tasked the Department of Commerce (DOC) to establish the 

coordinating mechanism in concert with the other Federal agencies. It also reaffirmed the 

concept of having a central agency—the DOC—responsible for providing common 

meteorological facilities and services and clarified the responsibilities of other agencies for 

providing meteorological services specific to their mandated missions. 

The implementation of these directives by DOC led to the creation of OFCM and the 

appointment of the first Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting 

Research (“the Federal Coordinator”). The Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and 

Supporting Research (FCMSSR) was established in 1964 to provide policy-level agency 

representation and guidance to the Federal Coordinator in addressing agency priorities, 

requirements, and issues related to services, operations, and supporting research. The FCMSSR 

The mission of the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting 

Research (OFCM) is to ensure the effective use of Federal meteorological resources by leading the 

systematic coordination of operational weather requirements, services, and supporting research among 

the Federal agencies. Its high-level focus includes cross-agency needs and requirements, issues and 

problems, studies, reports, plans, handbooks, and crosscut reviews, assessments, and analyses. 

OFCM operates with policy guidance from the Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and 

Supporting Research (FCMSSR). The principal work in coordinating meteorological activities and in 

the preparation and maintenance of OFCM reports, plans, and other documents is accomplished by the 

OFCM staff with the advice and assistance of the Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological 

Services and Supporting Research (ICMSSR) and more than 30 program councils, committees, 

working groups, and joint action groups, all of whose members are Federal agency representatives. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

32 

also resolves agency differences that arise during the coordination of meteorological activities 

and the preparation of Federal plans. 

The FCMSSR comprises representatives of the 15 Federal agencies that engage in 

meteorological activities or supporting research, have a major need for meteorological services, 

or set policy and direction for such services and research. These 15 agencies are the Departments 

of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, the Interior, State, and 

Transportation; the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Transportation Safety 

Board, and Nuclear Regulatory Commission; and OMB and the Office of Science and 

Technology Policy (OSTP). The Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, 

who is also the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), serves as the FCMSSR Chairperson. The full membership of the FCMSSR is shown on 

the inside cover of this Federal Plan. 

OFCM COORDINATING INFRASTRUCTURE 

Figure 2-OFCM-1 shows the current infrastructure of advisory committees, program councils, 

working groups, and joint action groups through which OFCM carries out its mission of ensuring 

the effective use of Federal meteorological resources by coordinating operational weather 

requirements, services, and supporting research among the Federal agencies. The FCMSSR is 

shown at the top of the chart, as the policy guidance advisor to the Federal Coordinator. 

 The Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting 

Research (ICMSSR), which is chaired by the Federal Coordinator, is the primary 

program management body of the Federal coordinating structure. ICMSSR provides 

advice to OFCM, implements FCMSSR policies, and oversees the committees and 

working groups that address observing systems, weather operations and services, 

operational processing centers, and automated weather information systems. The full 

membership of ICMSSR is shown on the inside cover of this Federal Plan.

 The Program Councils, which are directly under the FCMSSR and are each chaired by 

the Federal Coordinator, coordinate key programs at the highest interagency policy 

decision-making level, and ensure that the programs meet joint requirements. In addition 

to establishing policy, the program councils coordinate development and oversee the 

preparation and implementation of national program plans, which include research and 

development (R&D), systems development, validation and integration, acquisition 

strategy, operational concepts, agency roles, and management. 

 The Committees and their Working Groups and Joint Action Groups operate at the 

program and working levels to provide: (1) a forum for each agency to report activities, 

difficulties, and achievements; (2) a mechanism for coordinated change and problem 

solving; (3) a medium for collection, documentation, and consolidation of agency 

requirements and inventories; (4) oversight for coordinated system development; (5) a 

vehicle for coordinating with other groups; and (6) a mechanism for the preparation of 

studies, agreements, standards, protocols, reports, and national plans. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

33 

FEDERAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL 

SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (FCMSSR)

INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR METEOROLOGICAL 

SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH (ICMSSR)

FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR METEOROLOGY

STANDING COMMITTEES

PROGRAM COUNCILS

Figure 2-OFCM-1. Federal Meteorological

Coordinating Infrastructure

NATIONAL SPACE 

WEATHER

Committee for Space Weather

NATIONAL AVIATION 

WEATHER

Committee for Aviation Services 

and Research

Volcanic Ash

NATIONAL OPERATIONAL 

PROCESSING CENTERS

Committee for Operational 

Processing Centers

Cooperative Support and 

Backup

 Operational Community 

Modeling

 Centralized 

Communications 

Management

 Operational Data 

Acquisition for 

Assimilation

MULTIFUNCTION PHASED 

ARRAY RADAR

Multifunction Phased Array 

Radar (aft Pgm Council conv.)

ENVIRONMENTAL 

SERVICES, OPERATIONS 

AND RESEARCH NEEDS

Social Science Results

Severe Local Storms 

Operations

Hurricane and Winter Storm 

Operations

Disaster Impact Assessment 

and Plans: Weather and 

Water

Wildland Fire Weather

Urban Meteorology

 Joint Urban Test Bed

Satellite Telemetry

Test Bed Coordination

CLIMATE ANALYSIS, 

MONITORING AND 

SERVICES

COOPERATIVE 

RESEARCH

Tropical Cyclone Research

Planetary Boundary Layer

 Environmental Modeling

Weather Information for 

Surface Transportation

Multifunction Phased Array 

Radar (transition to MPAR 

Pgm Council on standup)

INTEGRATED OBSERVING 

SYSTEMS

 Metadata

 Architecture and Data Mgt

Unmanned Aerial Systems

Remote Sensing

ENVIRONMENTAL 

INFORMATION SYSTEMS 

AND COMMUNICATIONS

Meteorological Codes

Frequency Management

Legend

Working Group

Joint Action Group

Blue denotes new or proposed groups
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

34 

Using these multiagency entities, the OFCM pursues the following objectives as the means for 

achieving its mission: 

 Document agency programs and activities in a series of national plans and reports that 

enable agencies to adjust their individual ongoing programs and provide a means for 

communicating new ideas and approaches to fulfill requirements. 

 Provide structure and programs to promote continuity in the development and 

coordination of interagency plans and procedures for meteorological services and 

supporting research activities. 

 Prepare analyses, summaries, or evaluations of agency meteorological programs and 

plans that provide a factual basis for the executive and legislative branches to make 

appropriate decisions related to the allocation of funds. 

 Review Federal weather programs and Federal requirements for meteorological services 

and supporting research. This review may suggest additions or revisions to current or 

proposed programs, or identify opportunities for improved efficiency, reliability, or cost 

avoidance through coordinated actions or integrated programs. 

OFCM HIGHLIGHTS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2011 AND PLANS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2012 

Federal coordination activities during FY 2011 and plans for FY 2012 are discussed here under 

the Program Council or ICMSSR standing committee that provided oversight of the associated 

working group or joint action group. 

National Aviation Weather Program Council 

The OFCM continues to participate in the Next Generation Air Transportation System 

(NextGen) Weather Working Group and the Friends/Partners in Aviation Weather (FPAW). The 

OFCM also continues to implement the National Aviation Weather Program, and is working 

with the agencies to advance meteorological standards, improve products, enhance services, and 

participate in research that contributes to the overall goal of providing the best state-of-the-art 

information to aviation end users where and when they need it. During FY 2012, the OFCM will 

be participating in two activities under the Joint Program Development Office (JPDO) for 

NextGen: the Weather Working Group Executive Committee and the Integrated Surveillance 

activity. 

The Air Domain Awareness (ADA) program is an interagency homeland defense, security, and 

air transportation initiative that has grown out of the Federal interest in Multifunction Phased 

Array Radar (MPAR, see discussion below). The Federal Coordinator represented the DOC 

Deputy Secretary at the ADA Summit in July 2010 and continues to represent DOC in ADA 

working groups, fostering synergism between ADA and the DOC and NOAA roles supporting 

environmental awareness and frequency management. 

During FY 2012, the Committee for Aviation Services and Research (CASR) will develop a 

NextGen Weather Research Roadmap. The initial focus of the effort is on meeting 4D Weather 

Cube content requirements for NextGen Mid-term Operational Capability (MOC) in 2018. The 

initiative will leverage NOAA National Weather Service (NWS) work that was already 

underway when CASR began this initiative. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

35 

In response to the volcanic ash airspace closure in Europe during 2010, the Working Group on 

Volcanic Ash (WG/VA), which is aligned under the CASR, coordinated interagency and 

international assistance to Europe and also worked with the NOAA National Weather Service on 

actions to improve U.S. preparations for a similar event. The WG/VA has developed a clear 

action plan to focus research for improved volcanic ash products and services, primarily for 

aviation, but exportable to all applications. Also, in June 2011, the WG/VA published the 

National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation and Support of the ICAO International 

Airways Volcano Watch: Pacific Northwest Regional Plan.

National Operational Processing Centers Program Council (NOPC) 

On October 7, 2009, the NOPC implemented the Environmental Satellite Data Annex to the 

interagency Data Acquisition, Processing, and Exchange (DAPE) Memorandum of Agreement, 

superseding the Shared Processing Program before its expiration in November 2009. The new 

annex established satellite data management and exchange processes among the five operational 

processing centers to optimize the Federal investment in environmental satellite data acquisition. 

In FY 2011, the OFCM continued to host the Committee for Operational Processing Centers 

(COPC) to facilitate improved processing and backup capabilities for NOAA’s National Centers 

for Environmental Prediction and Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution, the Air 

Force Weather Agency, and the U.S. Navy’s Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography 

Center and Naval Oceanographic Office. In FY 2010, the agencies with operational processing 

centers moved to a new high-bandwidth communications network to eliminate outdated and 

unsupportable asynchronous transfer mode channels. The COPC network backbone that 

interconnects the operational processing centers was upgraded from the Defense Information 

Switched Network Asynchronous Transfer Mode System (DATMS) to the Defense Information 

Systems Agency Optical Transport Network (OTN). The new connection increases throughput 

and link utilization and provides more robust network survivability in catastrophic events like 

Hurricane Katrina. This upgrade improved the operational processing centers’ data 

communications by up to 250% and established a foundation to meet future needs. 

During FY 2012, activities under COPC’s Working Group for Cooperative Support and Backup 

will include three joint action groups. The Joint Action Group for Operational Community 

Modeling (JAG/OCM) will be enhancing and extending community modeling opportunities. The 

Joint Action Group for Centralized Communications Management (JAG/CCM) will monitor 

communications among the operational processing centers in order to project future 

infrastructure needs and plan capacity increases to meet those needs. The JAG/CCM is working 

with the Defense Information Systems Agency to clarify the centers’ communications 

investment and operations planning to meet rapidly expanding needs by overseeing network 

sizing, cost estimates, and analysis across all five centers. The Joint Action Group for 

Operational Data Acquisition for Assimilation (JAG/ODAA) is developing additional annexes to 

supplement the DAPE Memorandum of Agreement. 

National Space Weather Program Council 

Based on a request in August 2008 to the National Space Weather Program (NSWP) Council 

from OSTP, the OFCM sponsored and formed the Committee for Space Environmental Sensor 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

36 

Mitigation Options (CSESMO) and its four supporting joint action groups. The overall study 

included 75 experts from 19 different Federal offices or agencies. The tasks assigned to the 

CSESMO included developing options and recommendations to continue solar wind monitoring 

and mitigate the loss of most space environmental sensing capability from the reconfigured 

National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS). During FY 

2009, the CSESMO delivered an interagency-coordinated set of options and a recommended 

approach to sustain solar wind observations critical to averting adverse space weather effects. 

The CSESMO also delivered a coordinated mitigation strategy to provide robust space weather 

observing capabilities to replace those lost from NPOESS. This capability can be used to protect 

the reliability and effectiveness of the Global Positioning System (GPS), all satellite 

communications, U.S. ballistic missile defense, and satellite and manned spaceflight safety. The 

committee briefed its findings and recommendations to OSTP, OMB, and National Security 

Council staff, and OFCM prepared written reports based on both presentations. 

In November 2009, the CESMO delivered the last of five deliverables to OSTP, completing all 

its assigned tasks on time. Overall, the CESMO reports gave OSTP a coordinated, interagency 

consensus set of options, recommendations, and preliminary cost estimates. These constitute 

solid steps toward resolving the significant risk to the electric power grid and potentially trillions 

of dollars in losses from lack of timely warning of a major geomagnetic storm. 

In June 2011, the National Space Weather Program Council, through the OFCM, sponsored, 

planned, and hosted the annual Space Weather Enterprise Forum (SWEF) to share information 

among Federal agency stakeholders and extend education and outreach to a wider community. 

The 2011 SWEF brought together more than 200 experts and stakeholders from government, 

science, and industry, including international participants. Media coverage and outreach raised 

awareness of space weather and its effects—the first step in creating a more resilient society and 

economy. 

In the spring of 2011, the US and Great Britain agreed to work together to improve 

environmental prediction, including space weather services. The NSWP Council responded by 

initiating a high-level memorandum of understanding (MOU) among the Federal agencies 

engaged in space weather activities to establish the Unified National Space Weather Capability 

(UNSWC). The UNSWC will serve as the internationally recognized entry point to US space 

weather support and services, encompassing the ongoing contributions of the NSWP member 

agencies. 

Also in 2011, the NSWP completed another report on space weather issues to OSTP to help 

inform the President’s budget and respond to congressional interest. The report was entitled, 

“Space Weather Observing Systems: Current Capabilities and Requirements for the Next 

Decade.” 

As solar activities ramp up to an expected maximum in 2013, impacts from space weather on the 

national critical technological infrastructure are on the rise. Particular attention is being paid to 

the vulnerability of the national electrical power grid to disruption from geomagnetic storms. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

37 

Executive Council for Multifunction Phased Array Radar (MPAR) 

The MPAR initiative seeks to consolidate the radar surveillance missions of four agencies 

(Department of Defense [DOD], Department of Homeland Security [DHS], DOC/NOAA, and 

the Federal Aviation Administration [FAA] in the Department of Transportation [DOT]), 

reducing the number of radars required and consolidating operations and logistics. MPAR risk 

reduction targets: (1) significantly reducing the cost of phased array technology, (2) validating 

the capability for one radar design to simultaneously meet the needs of four agencies, and (3) 

successful implementation of dual polarization on a phased array system. 

MPAR risk reduction has been driven by Federal Research and Development Needs and 

Priorities for Phased Array Radar published by OFCM in 2006. This report included a Research 

and Development Plan, siting study, and early cost estimates. 

The National Weather Radar Testbed (NWRT, the SPY-1 phased array radar at NOAA’s 

National Severe Storm Laboratory) has demonstrated promising results for weather: 

- Rapid updates identify severe weather signatures sooner; increase forecaster confidence. 

- Adaptive scanning eliminates unnecessary, time-consuming surveillance of empty space. 

There is still more to learn from the NWRT, but there are also serious limitations in that radar’s 

legacy passive array technology. Meaningful upgrades would involve essentially replacing the 

radar. The MPAR Executive Council has considered and recommended work on two other 

options: the EQ-36 transportable radar project and the FAA/NOAA technology collaboration. 

In June 2011, OFCM published a new Unified R&D Plan in June 2011. The plan organizes over 

70 research elements under two major components: Technology Development and Test, and 

Proof of Operational Concepts. The plan also includes timeframe, priority, and technical and 

programmatic risk factors for each element. 

The Technology Development and Test is the focus of current work of the NextGen Surveillance 

and Weather Radar Capability (NSWRC) program, an FAA program that is accomplished in 

collaboration with NOAA. The NSWRC establishes the timelines that drive the MPAR effort: a 

final investment decision in 2017 along with the operational deployment that would begin in 

2023. 

The Proof of Operational Concepts is the focus of the EQ-36 project, which proposes to develop 

a transportable dual polarization radar. This initiative includes the modification of a preproduction version of Army counter-fire radar for dual polarization. The 3-year project includes 

time share with the Army to investigate munitions ID. 

The major outcomes of a meeting that took place on November 7, 2011, where most principal 

agencies comprising the OFCM-sponsored Executive Council for MPAR, were: (1) investigating 

a least cost option and compare with the EQ-36 option; and (2) clarifying requirements for wind 

turbine clutter mitigation and munitions ID. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

38 

Crosscutting Activities under the ICMSSR 

OFCM activities described under this heading are relevant to two or more of ICMSSR standing 

committees (see Figure 2-OFCM-1) or are overseen directly by ICMSSR. 

Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference and Tropical Cyclone/Winter Storm 

R&D 

The ICMSSR Standing Committee on Environmental Services, Operations, and Research Needs 

(CESORN) oversees the Working Group on Hurricane and Winter Storms Operations. The 

Committee on Cooperative Research coordinates hurricane-related R&D through the Working 

Group on Tropical Cyclone Research. 

The Working Group on Hurricane and Winter Storms Operations completed changes and 

coordination for the 2011 National Hurricane Operations Plan, which was published ahead of 

schedule on April 21. The updated plan was therefore ready well in advance of the 2011 

hurricane season, enabling agencies to prepare for a potentially active season. 

During 2011, the Working Group on Tropical Cyclone Research focused on assessing its 2010 

snapshot of interagency R&D activities. The working group also participated in NOAA’s 

Hurricane Forecasting Improvement Project. 

Each year, OFCM hosts an Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference (IHC) to provide a forum 

for the Federal agencies responsible for hurricane operations and/or supporting R&D, together 

with representatives of the user communities such as emergency management. IHC participants 

review the Nation’s tropical cyclone forecasting and warning program and make 

recommendations to improve the program. The 65th IHC was held in Miami, Florida, from 

February 28-March 3, 2011. The theme was Ocean and Atmospheric Influences on Tropical 

Cyclone Predictions: Challenges and Recent Progress. For the 12th consecutive year, about 200 

personnel attended, including representatives from eight Federal agencies: DOC/NOAA, DOD 

(Navy, Air Force, Army Corps of Engineers), NASA, NSF, DHS (Headquarters Science and 

Technology, Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA]), FAA, Department of the 

Interior, and Department of Agriculture. Attendees also included representatives from academia, 

industry, and the emergency management community. All conference objectives were achieved, 

The 65th IHC provided a highly effective interagency update and technical exchange on 

improving the hurricane warning system, strengthening partnership approaches for improving 

services, and sharpening the focus on research-to-operations linkages. 

Committee on Environmental Services, Operations, and Research Needs 

As illustrated by the list of working groups and joint action groups that fall under this committee 

in Figure 2-OFCM-1, OFCM’s CESORN covers a wide range of basic meteorological services 

and supporting research. 

Disaster Impact Assessments and Plans: Weather and Water Data 

NOAA National Weather Service flood forecasting operations save thousands of lives and 

reduce injuries and property damage by billions of dollars annually. But this process, which 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

39 

depends on data from thousands of USGS streamgages and NOAA meteorological stations, 

usually does not provide data coverage sufficient to adequately document the extensive impacts 

of a major storm or flood or enable understanding of small-scale, localized processes. As a result, 

network observations have for many years been supplemented by post-storm surveys and studies

of rainfall, flood marks, and wind damage to fill in observational gaps and obtain a more 

complete spatial coverage. These efforts contribute to the determination of the intensity and 

magnitude of storms and, in many cases, help to determine the extent of damage for use in 

Presidential disaster declarations. The additional data collected after hurricane landfall is also 

used in validating modeling efforts with both emergency management models (e.g., FEMA’s 

HAZUS) and hurricane storm surge models (e.g., NOAA’s SLOSH). These models are used in 

real time to assist decision makers in evacuation decisions and procedures. Post-storm data are 

also used to update FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Maps, revise building materials and 

construction standards, and improve forecasting models. The National Institute of Science and 

Technology and various State agencies use the data for purposes such as improving building 

codes and construction practices. 

Today, post-storm surveys and traditional observing networks can be greatly augmented by preevent deployment of small, self-contained instruments in spatially dense, temporary networks to 

monitor the event directly and continuously. Clusters of self-logging pressure transducers and 

real-time rapid-deployment gages monitor waves and water-levels and anemometers and truckmounted Doppler radars monitor wind speed and direction at rapid intervals. These data describe 

the evolution of storms and floods with unprecedented spatial and temporal detail, particularly 

floods of coastal waters and wetlands. The resulting data can be used to (1) develop more 

accurate and robust wind, storm-surge, and flood models; (2) derive better structure design 

criteria and building codes; and (3) improve warning systems. 

The need for a national plan for disaster impact assessments stems from recognition by several 

Federal agencies that they were gathering complementary and, in some cases, overlapping and 

duplicate weather and water data for significant storm events. These agencies desired to improve 

the efficiency of their individual data collection efforts, leverage the efforts of others, and share 

these data through an organized, inter-agency disaster impact assessment process. In 2010 the 

Federal Coordinator established the Working Group for Disaster Impact Assessments and Plans: 

Weather and Water Data (WG/DIAP) to update and expand on the 2003 National Post-Storm 

Data Acquisition Plan by addressing not only post-storm activities but also these new 

technologies to pre-deploy, increase the density of, and harden observation systems, thereby 

providing the capability to collect and disseminate real-time data of relevance to those who 

forecast the events and manage Federal, State, and local response and recovery. In October 2010, 

OFCM published the report from the WG/DIAP, the National Plan for Disaster Impact 

Assessments: Weather and Water Data (NPDIA). The new plan documents the types of data 

required, the acquisition processes, and the coordinating procedures to be used leading up to, 

during, and following a significant storm event. The storm events addressed in the NPDIA 

include land-falling tropical cyclones (hurricanes/typhoons and tropical storms), coastal extratropical storms (Nor'easters), severe convective outbreaks (tornadoes and windstorms), riverine 

and flash flooding, tsunamis, coastal and lake waves, and wind waves. The plan includes data 

requirements and acquisition capabilities of participating agencies, event response procedures 

and initiation criteria, coordination procedures, contact information, and data archival 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

40 

procedures. An agency response to a particular event is the responsibility of the individual 

agency according to its mission requirements, data needs, and available resources. 

During FY 2011 and continuing in FY 2012, the OFCM continues to coordinate, as required, 

timely post-storm data acquisition surveys in response to natural disasters and other agency 

requirements, including aerial support from the Civil Air Patrol (CAP). Under the five-year 

Umbrella Agreement and a FY 2011 funding agreement between the OFCM and the U.S. Air 

Force for up to $21,000 in reimbursable support, the CAP flew nine missions: four missions in 

support of glacial lake damming assessments in Alaska; two missions in support of tornado 

damage assessments in North Carolina, Mississippi and Alabama; two missions in support of 

severe flooding in Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska and Arkansas; and one mission in 

support of catastrophic flooding in Vermont associated with the remnants of Hurricane Irene. 

The CAP support for aerial data acquisition surveys will continue in FY 2012 at a planned level 

of $21,000. During FY 2012, the OFCM will work with the Air Force to develop a new umbrella 

agreement for CAP support for FY 2012-2016. 

In the days leading up to and after landfall of Hurricane Irene, there was great response and 

coordination across the membership of the WG/DIAP. During Irene at least four groups 

deployed mobile sensors and instrumentation for collecting wind speed data. There were 

numerous federal and academic teams that also deployed mobile instruments to collect storm 

surge and other water level and wave data. As outlined in the national plan, the WG/DIAP is 

compiling a list of web sites for weather and water data collected during Irene. 

Wildland Fire Weather 

Wildland fires have both direct and indirect effects on the urban environment. Indirect effects 

include degraded air quality and consequent health effects, as well as reduced visibility for both 

air and surface transportation. In FY 2008, the Joint Action Group for the National Wildland Fire 

Weather Needs Assessment, responding to a request from the Western Governors’ Association, 

completed a needs assessment report. The needs assessment identified 47 specific needs in nine 

functional areas: (1) data collection, integrity, processing, and archival; (2) fire weather research 

and development; (3) forecast products and services; (4) modeling, prediction, and data 

assimilation; (5) information dissemination and technologies; (6) education, training, outreach, 

partnering, and collaboration; (7) user response, decision support, and resulting user impacts; (8) 

funding and human resources (crosscutting); and (9) socioeconomic factors. 

The OFCM subsequently developed a compilation of existing and planned Federal capabilities to 

meet these needs, as a first step toward identifying gaps in such capabilities. Work on this 

portfolio of Federal and associated governmental and fire weather capabilities, covering all nine 

functional areas used in the needs assessment, culminated in May 2011 with the publishing of the 

report, Wildland Fire Weather: Multi-Agency Portfolio of Current and In-development 

Capabilities.

Urban Meteorology and Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion R&D 

Based on the September 2004 OFCM report, Federal Research Needs and Priorities for 

Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion Modeling, the OFCM developed an atmospheric transport 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

41 

and diffusion (ATD) implementation strategy for those recommendations in the report for which 

OFCM had primary responsibility. This implementation strategy has three parts: (1) working 

with the agencies to identify and improve a baseline set of national ATD modeling capabilities, 

(2) helping the agencies implement a common framework for model development and 

evaluation, and (3) recommending criteria for multifunctional joint urban test beds. To 

implement this strategy, the OFCM formed the Joint Action Group for Joint Urban Test Beds 

(JAG/JUTB) under the Working Group for Urban Meteorology (WG/UM). 

During FY 2011, the JAG/JUTB continued work on an operational concept document for 

multifunctional joint urban test beds intended to provide services and data to model developers, 

test and evaluation personnel, and other users and stakeholders. The operational concept 

document includes capabilities and benefits, management structure, infrastructure requirements, 

selection process, implementation framework, definitions, and characteristics of urban scales. 

Joint urban test beds will support the following functional areas: severe weather (e.g., hurricanes, 

tornadoes, heat waves and cold spells, and drought), wildland fire weather, emergency 

response/homeland security (dispersion of hazardous materials), climate, air quality (e.g., 

particulate matter aerosols), and water quality (e.g., deposition of airborne contaminants on water 

sources and waterborne transport of contaminants). 

For FY 2012, the goals of the JAG/JUTB are to finalize criteria for establishing urban test beds 

and establish a JUTB Prototype Model Site in National Capital Region. This model site will 

provide a proof of concept for the operational concepts and criteria. The experience gained 

through its operation will provide for further refinement of the operational concept document. 

On July 12-14, 2011, the OFCM cosponsored the 15th Annual George Mason University 

Conference on ATD Modeling. The themes of the conference were: (1) improve understanding 

of atmospheric transport and dispersion processes; (2) support homeland security requirements; 

and (3) share experience across different sectors. In a panel session organized by the OFCM, the 

panel moderator and four panel members gave presentations, from both scientific and operational 

perspectives, regarding ongoing work and progress in implementing the recommendations in the 

OFCM report, Federal Research and Development Needs and Priorities for Atmospheric 

Transport and Diffusion Modeling. 

Working Group for Test Bed Coordination (WG/TBC) 

Among CESORN plans for FY 2012 is establishing of a new working group to bring together 

representatives from current and emerging test bed activities, such as the Joint Urban Test Bed, 

Joint Hurricane Test Bed, Developmental Test Bed Center, Aviation Test Bed, Space Weather 

Test Bed, and Hydrometeorology Test Bed. The objectives for this WG/TBC are to facilitate 

exchange of science, technology, and best practices including verification, validation, and 

evaluation techniques; identify common problem areas and potential solutions, and facilitate 

common frameworks to the greatest extent possible, with the goal of fostering transition to an 

eventual Earth System framework. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

42 

Committee for Integrated Observing Systems (CIOS) 

National Network of Weather and Climate Observing Networks 

The Federal meteorological community embarked on a significant new initiative for climate 

observing networks in FY 2009 in response to growing interest in climate trends and the 2009 

publication of a National Research Council (NRC) report, cosponsored by the OFCM, entitled 

Observing Weather and Climate from the Ground Up—A Nationwide Network of Networks. In 

brief, the theme of this report was that the United States enjoys an effective synoptic-scale 

weather observing network, but society demands increasingly finer-scale weather and climate 

information to meet urgent needs such as predictions of atmospheric dispersion of chemical, 

biological, and radiological hazards from accidental releases or terrorist acts and severe weather 

warnings and nowcasts for urban communities. At the same time, spurred by inexpensive 

electronics and increasingly higher-bandwidth communications, State and local governments, 

corporations, academic institutions, and individuals have deployed a rapidly growing array of 

individual sensors and sensor networks in patchwork fashion across the country. Much of the 

data from these systems remain unknown or inaccessible to a wider audience of potential users. 

In response to the recommendations of the NRC report, the OFCM crafted an initial framework 

for Federal action and gathered the stakeholder agencies in two foundational meetings held in 

May and July, 2009, to share information and begin developing a coordinated way forward. A 

refocused CIOS provided the venue for these meetings and now oversees refinement and 

implementation of an overarching national strategy to integrate observational networks and 

systems and increase the effectiveness of current and planned capabilities. 

As a result of the foundational and subsequent meetings of the CIOS, the community established 

the Network of Weather and Climate Observing Networks (NOWCON) initiative. In August, 

2009, the Committee reported its activities to the ICMSSR and proposed NOWCON as the way 

ahead. The ICMSSR concurred, supported the NOWCON initiative, and approved a cochair 

arrangement with NOAA, DOD, DOT, and EPA representatives. 

The CIOS met on November 30, 2009, and agreed on a general division of responsibility among 

various sectors (Federal agencies, academia, industry, individuals, State and local government, 

nongovernmental organizations, and others) for each of the 15 recommendations in the NRC 

report. The following goals and priorities were established: 

 Within 2 years, develop an inventory of observing systems, facilitate standards for 

observing systems to participate in the national network, develop an approach for quality 

assurance, explore opportunities for an integration pilot project, and develop approaches 

for cooperation with non-Federal stakeholders. 

 Within 3 years, explore gaps, opportunities, and technologies for improving mesoscale 

monitoring and prediction. 

 Within 4 years, develop the justification and a practical framework for cooperation, 

collaboration, and investment in observing systems. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

43 

At this meeting, the CIOS also approved establishment of two joint action groups and developed 

tasks and deliverables for them: 

 The Joint Action Group on Architecture and Data Management (JAG/ADM) was tasked 

to survey current constructs, investigate options, and develop a concept for a flexible, 

extensible infrastructure of observing networks. The JAG/ADM is continuing to work on 

these tasks. 

 The Joint Action Group on Metadata (JAG/MD) was tasked to survey existing practices 

and develop a flexible metadata specification or family of specifications. Near the end of 

FY 2010, the JAG/MD recommended a metadata standard, and the CIOS agreed in 

principle to work in that direction. 

CIOS activities planned for FY 2012 includes the following: 

 Continue to address the recommendations of the NRC report and facilitate the 

implementation of actions that respond to the challenges in that report. 

 Develop a national strategy to implement a NOWCON that is driven by validated needs 

and requirements. 

 Working with the JAG/MD, develop a standardized, coordinated approach to metadata 

for the NOWCON. 

 Working with the JAG/ADM, develop a coordinated architecture and data management 

approach for NOWCON. 

 Coordinate as appropriate with the U.S. Group on Earth Observations and the NOAA 

Observing Systems Council. 

 Interact with the American Meteorological Society (AMS) Ad hoc Network of Networks 

Study Group as appropriate to synchronize Federal and private sector planning and 

activities related to NOWCON implementation. 

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) 

Another area of CIOS activity took place in February 2011, when OFCM conducted an 

Exploratory Mini-workshop on the Utilization of UAS for Environmental Monitoring on 

February 4, 2011. Some key points regarding the workshop are: 

o Gathered 33 participants and 12 federal agencies to focus on UAS issues. 

o Created connections to foster cooperation among agencies pursuing UASs for 

environmental monitoring, and published a Summary Report (FCM R32-2011). 

o Impact: focused attention of the federal government on the potentially game-changing 

capabilities of UAS platforms to perform environmental monitoring. 

The workshop complemented the activities of the Task Force for Unmanned Systems under the 

Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology, which is part of the National Science and 

Technology Council structure. 

NOAA and NASA have an active partnership for developing and using UAS for weather and 

climate research campaigns for tropical cyclone, arctic, and other missions. The NOAA UAS 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

44 

Program is working to determine how and when UAS platforms can begin to augment its fleet of 

manned aircraft for both operational and research missions. NASA’s Hurricane and Severe 

Storm Sentinel (HS3) experiment relies heavily on UASs. 

In FY 2011, there was growing Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and NOAA interest to apply the 

knowledge, expertise, and success of NASA’s Global Hawk UAS tropical cyclone experiments 

in the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Basin. The initial goal is a Joint DoD/NASA/NOAA 

experiment during a NW Pacific tropical cyclone season to illustrate Global Hawk capability and 

operational benefits. 

Working Group for Remote Sensing 

This new working group, which will also be overseen by CIOS, will have the following tasks: 

 Facilitate information exchange and coordinated development of agency needs, 

requirements, and priorities for remote sensing capability, including environmental 

satellites, suborbital systems, GPSMet, radars (excluding MPAR), and other systems 

 Plan and execute an exploratory mini-workshop to develop recommendations and 

potential courses of action to identify and address remote sensing capability gaps. 

Committee on Climate Analysis, Monitoring, and Services 

The OFCM supported the U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP), now the U.S. Global 

Change Research Program (USGCRP), and actively served on the CCSP Education Interagency 

Working Group (EdIWG) which developed the Climate Literacy Framework. The framework 

was lauded by the CCSP Acting Director as “essential principles that should be included in 

climate science education efforts” and was then sent to OSTP for its consideration and attention. 

The EdIWG also authored the “Education, Training, and Public Awareness Chapter” in the UN 

Framework Convention on Climate Change Climate Action Report #5. 

During FY 2011, the Committee for Climate Analysis, Monitoring, and Services continued work 

on its project examining the impact of climate-related extreme events and the observation and 

modeling capability available to understand and predict these events. Planned activities for FY 

2012 include further development, as required, of needs and requirements for climate-related 

products and services. 

Committee on Cooperative Research 

Working Group on Tropical Cyclone Research 

See heading above for Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference and Tropical Cyclone R&D, 

under Crosscutting Activities under the ICMMSR. 

Working Group on Weather Information for Surface Transportation (WG/WIST) 

The OFCM continued to advance weather services and R&) activities supporting the surface 

transportation community, building on its December 2002 publication, Weather Information for 

Surface Transportation--National Needs Assessment Report. During FY 2011, the OFCM 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

45 

participated in the Transportation Research Board’s annual meeting and continued to support the 

agencies’ activities related to weather information and intelligent transportation systems. 

Activities planned for the WG/WIST in FY 2012 include (1) integrating planetary boundary 

layer activities and advances to improve road weather capability; (2) coordinating with CIOS on 

observing systems and activities; (3) balancing road/highway observation system efforts with 

additional focus on products and services for transportation system managers and users; and (4) 

begin to develop a WIST R&D strategy. 

Planetary Boundary Layer 

A new focus area for the Committee on Cooperative Research during FY 2012 will be on 

research needed to improve scientific understanding of the planetary boundary layer, in order to 

improve products and services for a range of applications (i.e., OFCM service categories) 

including weather information for surface transportation, wildland fire smoke management, and 

atmospheric dispersion modeling for airborne chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and 

explosive materials. The environmental modeling aspect of this activity will not include 

numerical weather prediction models such as the global and mesoscale models used by the 

operational processing centers (see section above on NOPC) but will instead focus on facilitating 

information exchange and coordinated development of agency needs, requirements, and 

priorities to improve modeling capabilities for dispersion, including coupled ocean-atmosphere 

dispersion models, fire weather and smoke, and volcanic ash. 

Committee on Environmental Information Systems and Communications (CEISC) 

FY 2012 activities planned for the CEISC include exploring development of a solution for PKI 

/certificate security needs, exploring and developing a coordinated and unified approach to Open 

Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards for meteorological information services, exploring the 

communications and information systems issues related to the 5D Environmental Data Cloud 

(see discussion above under “Exploration of Products and Services Innovations”), and support 

the CIOS on the information services and communications aspects of the NOWCON initiative. 

Working Group on Frequency Management 

During FY 2012, this CEISC working group will review radio spectrum requirements for 

meteorological operations and services of Federal agencies, then update its white paper 

documenting current issues in spectrum management and proposing resolutions for them. 

Working Group on Meteorological Codes 

FY 2011 activities for this working group, which will continue in FY 2012, focused on 

coordinating standardization efforts and improvements in meteorological codes and data formats 

as required, e.g., XML and GRIB2 data formats. 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

46 

OFCM External Collaborations 

NAS/NRC Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate 

The OFCM continued its mutually beneficial interactions with the National Academies’ National 

Research Council (NRC). The Federal Coordinator continued to participate in NRC Board on 

Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (BASC) strategic planning workshops and regularly 

scheduled meetings. The OFCM expects to continue to participate in BASC meetings and 

workshops in FY 2012. 

Committee on Environment, Natural Resources, and Sustainability (CENRS) 

CENRS Principals. The Federal Coordinator served as a member of CENRS, a committee of the 

National Science and Technology Council, during FY 2011 and will continue to serve in FY 

2012. 

Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction. The OFCM has been an active participant in the work of 

the CENRS Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction (SDR). SDR has developed Grand Challenges 

for Disaster Reduction, a set of implementation plans to improve the nation’s capacity to prevent 

and recover from disasters. 

American Meteorological Society 

The OFCM supports AMS activities by participating in AMS conferences and workshops and 

other environmental science education and outreach programs. In FY 2011, the OFCM presented 

two papers at the 91th AMS Annual Meeting and continued its scholarship support and 

collaboration with the ad hoc group on NOWCON and with the AMS public-private partnership 

initiative. 

International Collaboration 

OFCM international collaborations during FY 2011 included the 65th IHC and the 2011 Space 

Weather Enterprise Forum. Plans for international collaboration during FY 2012 include the 66th 

IHC and the 2012 Space Weather Enterprise Forum. The WG/Volcanic Ash will be supporting 

FAA participation in the International Volcanic Ash Task Force, which was established after the 

Iceland volcano eruption in summer of 2010 disrupted European air traffic. 

FY 2011 OFCM PUBLICATIONS 

The publications listed in the table below were prepared in hard copy and/or were added to 

OFCM’s web site (www.ofcm.gov) during FY 2011. 

 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

47 

OFCM PUBLICATION DATE NUMBER 

PLANS

National Severe Local Storms Operations Plan November 2010 FCM-P11-2010 

National Hurricane Operations Plan May 2011 FCM-P12-2011 

National Winter Storms Operations Plan November 2010 FCM-P13-2010 

Multifunction Phased Array Radar Unified Research and 

Development Plan 

June 2011 FCM-P36-2011 

National Plan for Disaster Impact Assessments: Weather and 

Water Data 

November 2010 FCM-P33-2010 

National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation and Support 

of the ICAO International Airways Volcano Watch: Pacific 

Northwest Regional Plan 

June 2011 FCM-P35-2007 

REPORTS

Utilization of Unmanned Aircraft Systems for Environmental 

Monitoring Exploratory Mini-Workshop Summary Report 

May 2011 FCM-R32-2011 

Wildland Fire Weather: Multi-Agency Portfolio of Current and Indevelopment Capabilities to Support User Needs May 2011 FCM-R34-2011 

HANDBOOKS

Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 3 - Rawinsonde and Pibal 

Observations, Part A: System Concepts, Responsibilities, and 

Procedures 

March 2011 FCM-H11A2011 

 
 Federal Coordination and Planning 

48 
Basic Services 

49 

BASIC SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

National Weather Service 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Weather Service 

(NWS) provides climate, water, and weather warnings and forecasts for the United States, its 

territories, adjacent waters, and ocean areas to help protect life and property and enhance the 

national economy. These services are provided through 122 Weather Forecast Offices (WFO), 13 

River Forecast Centers (RFC), and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). 

These offices collect data, prepare local warnings and forecasts, and disseminate information to 

the public, both nationally and internationally, through NOAA Weather Radio (NWR), satellitebased telecommunication systems, radiofacsimile, the media, and the internet. NWS forecasters 

issue short-duration watches and warnings for severe weather, such as tornadoes and severe 

thunderstorms, as well as long-duration watches, warnings, and advisories for hazardous winter 

weather conditions, high wind events, dense fog, and extreme temperatures. 

The NWS uses surveillance and data collection technologies such as a national network of 

Doppler weather radars, satellites operated by NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, Data, 

and Information Service (NESDIS), data buoys for marine observations and tsunami detection, 

surface observing systems for the safe operation of airports, and weather balloons to obtain 

vertical measurements of the atmosphere. Some observations are obtained through the 

Cooperative Observer Program, which is a nationwide network of volunteer-operated weather 

observing sites. Many other observations are contributed through arrangements with publicly and 

privately operated networks. Observations feed sophisticated environmental prediction models 

running on high-speed supercomputers, which provide weather, water, and climate forecast 

guidance that are available to all users. The NWS’ highly trained and skilled workforce uses 

powerful workstations to analyze all of these data to issue forecasts and warnings around the 

clock. A high-speed communications hub allows for the efficient exchange of these data and 

products between NWS components, partners, and other users. NWS forecasts and warnings are 

rapidly distributed via a diverse dissemination infrastructure including NOAA Weather Radio, 

satellite broadcast, and the Internet. 

The NWS creates forecasts in digital formats and makes them readily available. Forecasters use 

their expertise to maintain an up-to-date digital forecast database of weather elements. This 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Basic Services include the basic meteorological service system, to 

include observations, public weather forecasts, severe weather warnings and advisories, and the 

meteorological satellite activities of NOAA. Basic Services also include the operations and supporting 

research of other Federal agencies that have been identified as contributing to basic meteorological 

services. 
Basic Services 

50 

information is stored in the National Digital Forecast Database (NDFD). Output from the NDFD 

is publicly available in the form of web graphics on the Internet and in several other digital 

formats. Outreach, education, and feedback are also critical elements in effective public response 

and improvements to NWS services. 

NCEP consists of nine national centers that provide a backbone of national expertise for both 

forecast capabilities and numerical guidance. The NCEP Storm Prediction Center (SPC) provides 

forecasts and watches for severe thunderstorms and tornadoes over the contiguous United States. 

The SPC also monitors heavy rain, heavy snow, and provides national outlooks on fire weather 

potential. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) monitors the tropical North Atlantic, Caribbean 

and Gulf of Mexico for the development and prediction of tropical cyclones and provides 

educational outreach and guidance for the international community in the region. While not part 

of NCEP, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (Honolulu) and the Joint Typhoon Warning 

Center (Guam) provide additional tropical cyclone coverage for the central and western Pacific. 

The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (HPC) provides analyses and forecast guidance on 

general weather patterns with a focus on precipitation type and amount and winter precipitation. 

The Ocean Prediction Center (OPC), along with a component of NHC, issues marine forecasts 

for the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Aviation Weather Center (AWC) provides aviation 

warnings and forecasts of hazardous flight conditions at all levels within domestic and 

international air space. The Climate Prediction Center (CPC) monitors and forecasts short-term 

climate fluctuations and provides information on the effects that climate patterns can have on the 

Nation. The Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) provides space weather alerts and 

warnings for disturbances that can affect people and equipment working in space and on Earth. 

The Environmental Modeling Center (EMC) and NCEP Central Operations develop, maintain, 

and execute a suite of numerical analysis and forecast models. 

There are other specialized service centers within the NWS, such as the Pacific Tsunami 

Warning Center (PTWC) and the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC), 

which use data from deep water buoys located throughout the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and 

Caribbean Sea to issue tsunami watches and warnings for all U.S. and many international 

communities. The National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) is responsible for the deployment and 

maintenance of coastal and ocean buoys and sensors that are used for marine forecasts and 

The Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System 

(AWIPS) is a technologically advanced information 

processing, display, and telecommunications system 

that is the cornerstone of the National Weather Service 

(NWS) modernization and restructuring. AWIPS is an 

interactive computer system that integrates all 

meteorological and hydrological data, and all satellite 

and radar data, for the first time, and enables the 

forecaster to prepare and issue more accurate and timely 

forecasts and warnings (NOAA Image) 
Basic Services 

51 

analysis of ocean-based storms . The NWS Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) located in 

Anchorage, Alaska, provides worldwide warnings and advisories to aviation interests regarding 

airborne volcanic ash hazards (see further description of the global system of VAACs in the 

section on volcanic ash in Aviation Services.) 

NWS forecasters support several health-related programs such as Air Quality, Heat Health, and 

the Ultraviolet Index. The NWS Air Quality Forecast Services prepare reliable forecast guidance 

to accurately predict the onset, severity, and duration of poor air quality. Forecast guidance 

consists of next-day ground-level ozone and smoke predictions. NOAA’s partner agency, the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), provides health-based interpretations of the 

forecast guidance. NOAA’s products also assist state and local air quality forecasters who issue 

health-based air quality alerts. Heat Health Watch Warning Systems (HHWWS) have been 

developed for select cities to provide advance notice of excessive heat events that produce the 

greatest number of weather-related deaths. Also, in partnership with the EPA, a climatologically 

based ultraviolet alert is being produced for the entire Nation. 

NOAA/NESDIS 

NOAA’s NESDIS operates the Nation’s civil operational environmental satellite system, making 

constant observations of the Earth and its oceans and atmosphere. Satellite observations are 

collected, processed, and used to develop weather, climate, ocean, and other environmental 

products, services, and long-term data records that benefit the American public. 

NOAA’s satellites include Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) and 

Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES). These two systems provide the U.S. 

component of a joint environmental monitoring system in partnership with the European 

Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). On behalf of the 

Department of Defense (DOD), NESDIS also operates the Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program (DMSP) spacecraft, part of the military’s sixth generation of weather satellites. In 

addition, on behalf of the Department of Commerce, NESDIS licenses the operation of 

commercial remote-sensing land-imaging satellites. NESDIS also provides long-term 

stewardship of environmental data, managing the world’s largest collection of climatic, 

geophysical, and oceanographic data derived from both in situ and space-based systems. 

Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites 

POES circle the Earth in a nearly north-south orbit, passing close to both poles. These satellites 

ensure observational data for any region of the Earth are no more than six hours old. Data from 

POES support global weather forecasting models, long-term global climate change research, and 

hazard detection and mitigation. NESDIS operates five polar orbiters. The NOAA-15, NOAA16, NOAA-17, and NOAA-18 satellites continue to transmit data as back up and secondary 

satellites. Metop-A, a European environmental satellite with three instruments provided by 

NOAA, is the primary morning orbit satellite. Launched on February 6, 2009, NOAA-19 is the 

primary afternoon orbit satellite. NESDIS also manages the command, control, and 

communications functions of DOD’s DMSP. 
Basic Services 

52 

In addition, NOAA operates Jason-2, a joint U.S./European specialized polar-orbiting satellite. 

This spacecraft’s mission is to provide physical data of the ocean surface, including ocean 

surface altimetry, sea wave height, sea wave period, surface roughness, and others. This family 

of products is called the Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM), and is a follow-on to the 

successful Jason-1 mission developed by the French Space Agency—Centre National d’Etudes 

Spatiales (CNES)—and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 

From the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System to 

the NOAA Joint Polar Satellite System 

The President’s FY 2011 budget contained a major restructuring of the National Polar-orbiting 

Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) program to put this critical POES 

program on a more sustainable pathway toward success. The POES system is a National priority: 

essential to meeting both civil and military weather-forecasting, storm-tracking, and climatemonitoring requirements. At the time of restructuring, the NPOESS program was behind 

schedule, over budget, and underperforming. Independent reports and an administration task 

force concluded that the program could not be successfully executed with the existing 

management and budget structure. NOAA and the U.S. Air Force (USAF) have nearly completed 

the transition from NPOESS to its successor, the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS). NASA is 

serving as NOAA’s acquisition agent for the JPSS program. Whereas the USAF has several 

remaining DMSP polar-orbiting satellites available for launch over the next few years, NOAA 

launched its final polar-orbiting satellite in February 2009. 

Given that weather forecasters and climate scientists rely on data from NOAA’s current on-orbit 

assets, efforts to develop the first of the JPSS platforms will focus on ensuring both short- and 

long-term continuity in crucial climate and weather data. Maintaining launch progress for the 

NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP), intended as a prototype of next-generation POES, is the 

highest priority for JPSS. NOAA/NASA oversight of the ground system has enabled NPP to 

remain on track for an October 2011 launch. In addition, these agencies have a strong partnership 

with Europe through EUMETSAT, which will continue to be a cornerstone of a joint polarorbiting constellation and will ensure NOAA/NESDIS’s ability to provide continuous 

measurements. These changes to the POES program will ensure continuity of crucial civil 

climate and weather data in the future. Decisions on future satellite programs will be made to 

ensure the best plan for continuity of data. 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) 

The GOES spacecraft, in contrast to the POES spacecraft, orbit the Earth in a geosynchronous 

orbit, which means they orbit the equatorial plane of the Earth at a speed matching the Earth’s 

rotation. The GOES system provides continuous observations of environmental conditions of 

North, Central, and South America and the surrounding oceans. These spacecraft provide data 

critical for fast, accurate weather forecasts and warnings, detection of solar storm activity, and 

relay of distress signals from emergency beacons. They provide nearly continuous monitoring 

necessary for effective, detailed, and extensive weather forecasting, prediction, and 

environmental monitoring 

There are two operational geostationary satellites for the North American region, GOES-East at 

75°W and GOES-West, at 135°W, plus an on-orbit spare satellite at 105°W. Each operational 
Basic Services 

53 

satellite continuously views nearly one-third of the Earth’s surface. GOES-P was launched on 

March 4, 2010, and was renamed GOES-15 once it was successfully on orbit. GOES-15 is the 

third and last in the current series of NOAA geostationary satellites. GOES-15 joins the current 

constellation of GOES-11 (West), GOES-13 (East), and GOES-14 (on-orbit spare). GOES-12 

provides coverage for South America. 

GOES Series R 

Geostationary satellites remain the weather sentinels for NOAA— tracking hurricanes, severe 

storms, clouds, land, and ocean features. The next-generation geostationary satellite series is 

called the Geostationary Operational Environment Satellite–R Series (GOES-R). The advanced 

spacecraft and instrument technology used on the GOES-R series will result in more timely and 

accurate weather forecasts. It will improve support for the detection and observations of 

meteorological phenomena and directly benefit public safety, protection of property, and 

ultimately, economic health and development. GOES-R will scan its field of view on the Earth 

nearly five times faster, with more than three times the spectral coverage and four times the 

spatial resolution of the current GOES. GOES-R will provide users such as meteorologists and 

government agencies around the world with approximately 60 times the amount of data currently 

provided. GOES-R is a collaborative development and acquisition effort between NOAA and 

NASA. In FY 2012, the GOES-R program plans to continue instrument and spacecraft 

development to meet phased instrument delivery milestones beginning in 2012. Both the 

Spacecraft Critical Design Review and the Ground Systems Critical Design Review are planned 

to meet the scheduled 2015 launch date. 

NOAA/NESDIS Data Centers 

National Climatic Data Center 

The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is the largest climate data center in the world. See 

Climate Services for additional details. 

National Geophysical Data Center 

NOAA’s National Geophysical Date Center (NGDC) provides scientific stewardship, products, 

and services for geophysical data describing the solid earth, marine, and solar-terrestrial 

environments, as well as Earth observations from space. NGDC’s data holdings contain more 

than 400 digital and analog databases. Digital databases at NGDC include more than 20 million 

data records. As technology advances, so does the search for more efficient ways of preserving 

these data. NGDC works closely with contributors of scientific data to prepare documented, 

reliable data sets and continually develops data management programs that reflect the changing 

world of geophysics. Recent examples of NGDC’s work include the creation of digital elevation 

models of U.S. coastal communities for prediction of potential tsunami impacts, estimation of 

global emissions of natural gas associated with petroleum production, and support of a future 

submission for extended continental shelf boundaries under the United Nations Convention on 

the Law of the Sea. 

Natural Hazards Coastal Inundation Modeling and Mapping. Tsunamis are low-frequency, but 

high-impact, events that can cause a considerable number of fatalities, inflict major damage, and 
Basic Services 

54 

cause significant economic loss to large sections of the Nation’s coastline. Since 1900 more than 

200 tsunami events have affected the coasts of the United States and its territories, causing more 

than 500 deaths. To improve the tsunami forecast capability and mitigate the impacts of tsunami 

and other coastal flooding hazards, NGDC continues to develop high-resolution coastal digital 

elevation models (DEM) for inundation modeling and mapping. NGDC is also researching how 

variations in the DEM methodology affect the inundation model results and comparing these 

results to past tsunami event data. The purpose of the research is to better understand how 

different data processing methods affect DEM development and to use this knowledge to 

develop the most accurate coastal DEM generating inundation results validated by historical 

data. Emergency managers in coastal communities around the United States and its territories use 

DEMs and inundation modeling to guide evacuation planning. Improving DEMs will result in 

improved forecasts and improved inundation products supporting local community emergency 

managers and planners, thereby saving lives and money. 

Geomagnetic Field Modeling For Improved Navigation. The NGDC geomagnetism group 

develops and produces magnetic field models for navigation and pointing, which are used in a 

multitude of defense and civilian applications. Production of the World Magnetic Model, the 

standard magnetic model for DOD and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is sponsored by 

the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. The geomagnetism group also leads the production 

and distribution of the International Geomagnetic Reference Field. These main magnetic field 

models represent approximately 90 percent of the magnetic field that influences a compass on or 

near the surface of the Earth. NGDC continues to develop improved magnetic models, 

addressing the additional magnetic influences affecting navigation by land, sea, and air. Making 

use of its extensive holdings of satellite, airborne, and marine magnetic data, NGDC is 

developing new high-resolution magnetic field models. Recent products include animations of 

the model results for the change in the magnetic field from 1590 to 2010, a three-arc-minute 

World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map, and the extended magnetic reference model to spherical 

harmonic degree 720 (NGDC-720). The NGDC-720 model corresponds to a 15-arc-minute 

model resolution. 

National Oceanographic Data Center 

The National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) maintains the largest collection of publicly 

available oceanographic data and information in the world, including hundreds of millions of 

records gathered from ocean observation programs conducted over the past 150 years. These data 

document the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the oceans, currents, weather, and 

biota, as observed from ships, buoys, and satellites. NODC provides access to these data to more 

than 270,000 users each year, including ocean researchers within NOAA, other agencies, 

academia, environmental program managers, educators, maritime industries, and foreign 

communities. Examples of these products and special-topic data sets include the World Ocean 

Database, the Global Argo Data Repository, the Coral Reef Information System, and the Global 

Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment High-Resolution Sea-Surface Temperature Project. 

NODC’s National Coastal Data Development Center at the Stennis Space Center in Mississippi 

provides central access to coastal environmental data from a wide variety of sources. 
Basic Services 

55 

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations 

The NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) operates a fleet of survey ships 

and aircraft to support NOAA’s mission goals. NOAA’s ship fleet includes oceanographic and 

atmospheric research vessels. The NOAA aircraft fleet includes (1) aircraft that collect 

environmental and geographic data essential to NOAA hurricane and other severe weather and 

atmospheric research and (2) aircraft that conduct aerial surveys for hydrologic research for 

forecasting flooding potential from snow melt. 

NOAA vessels make weather and ocean observations in the marine environment. Over 50,000 

automated observations are submitted per year through the World Meteorological Organization’s 

(WMO) Voluntary Observing Ships scheme. NOAA vessels also support NOAA’s NDBC in 

recovery of buoys that have been disabled or gone adrift. 

NOAA supports a broad range of meteorological activities and projects with its fleet of aircraft, 

based at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. Three of its twelve aircraft are dedicated to 

this purpose throughout the year, providing valuable information to NOAA and the Nation. The 

NOAA Gulfstream, G-IV (SP) (N49RF), provides scientists with a platform for the investigation 

of processes in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. With an operating ceiling of 45,000 

ft, the G-IV is a critical tool for obtaining the data necessary to improve hurricane track forecasts 

and for research leading to improvements in hurricane intensity forecasts. 

The NOAA G-IV annually supports Hurricane Synoptic Surveillance missions; the aircraft flies 

in the environment surrounding the storm at a high altitude, releasing Global Positioning System 

(GPS)–equipped dropsondes at preselected locations. The data from these vertical atmospheric 

soundings are received, processed, and transmitted from the aircraft to a NOAA NCEP computer 

site, where they are incorporated into computer models of hurricanes to improve hurricane track 

forecasts. Each dropsonde directly measure temperature, pressure, and humidity at the rate of 

two samples per second as it falls through the atmosphere to the surface and computes wind 

speed and wind direction at a rate of four samples per second, using a full-up GPS receiver. 

Recent estimates of the improvement in hurricane track predictions utilizing this technology 

show an improvement of between 20 and 30 percent, which represents a savings of $10 million 

or more per hurricane in warning and preparedness costs. 

The G-IV is also used for winter storm surveillance in the Pacific, operating from bases in Japan, 

Hawaii, and Alaska. Flights are in support of NCEP’s ongoing program to improve winter storm 

forecasts in the United States. 

Two NOAA WP-3D Lockheed Orion aircraft (N42RF and N43RF) support NOAA's 

atmospheric and oceanographic research, as well as its tropical storm and hurricane 

reconnaissance operations. The aircraft’s research and navigation systems provide detailed 

spatial and temporal observations of a wide range of atmospheric and oceanic parameters. 

NOAA’s Aircraft Operations Center (AOC) develops and calibrates specialized instruments, 

installs and integrates user-supplied instrumentation into the aircraft and data network, and 

processes data for immediate satellite transmission or future analysis. The NOAA WP-3D 

aircraft, while executing the complex flight patterns required for hurricane research, also provide 

storm data to the NHC in real time, transmitting flight level data and GPS dropsonde messages, 
Basic Services 

56 

as well as radar images transmitted via their multiple aircraft-satellite data links. The stepped 

frequency microwave radiometers (SFMR) on the NOAA WP-3D are used to map the surface 

wind fields in and around hurricanes and tropical storms. Real-time surface wind speed maps are 

critical to providing more accurate forecasts of the extent of hurricane and tropical storm force 

winds. 

During each hurricane season, the two NOAA WP-3Ds support several major research 

experiments in support of NOAA’s Hurricane Research Division (HRD) of NOAA’s Atlantic 

Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories in its Intensity Forecast Experiment (IFEX), an 

ongoing program studying hurricane genesis, rapid intensification, and other related experiments. 

A relatively new and exciting part of this research effort is the collaboration with NOAA’s EMC 

in a program to obtain three-dimensional horizontal wind fields in developing tropical systems 

and hurricanes, utilizing the Tail Doppler Radars of the WP-3D aircraft. The objective of this 

effort is to obtain data that can be assimilated into the Hurricane Weather Research and 

Forecasting (HWRF) model for the purpose of improving hurricane intensity forecasts. Extensive 

descriptions of the various hurricane research experiments may be found in the HRD Field 

Program Plan for 2011. 

The NOAA WP-3D aircraft annually participate in both summer and winter operations 

supporting the NESDIS satellite validation program. Operating in regions of high winds and 

heavy precipitation, one of the WP-3Ds, equipped with microwave scatterometers and 

radiometers, provides under-flight validation of the ocean surface wind vectors sensed by the 

European ASCAT and Indian OceanWind2 satellites. Traditional venues for these satellite 

validation operations are Alaska or Newfoundland in the winter and the Atlantic and Caribbean 

regions during the summer hurricane season. 

These versatile aircraft also routinely support NOAA’s air quality research programs. Most 

recently the N43RF aircraft has supported the Chemical Science Division of The Earth System 

Research Laboratory (ESRL) in a major air quality study of the Los Angeles basin and the San 

Joaquin Valley in California as part of a joint venture, known as CalNex, of the California Air 

Resources Board, NASA, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and the Office of Naval 

Research (ONR). For this project, a WP-3D is converted to a flying air chemistry laboratory for 

the sampling of atmospheric gases, particulate matter, and radiative fluxes. While equipped this 

way, the aircraft also flew several survey patterns over the oil spill from the Deep Horizon oil 

well disaster. The results of these surveys show that aircraft so equipped can make a major 

contribution to monitoring major oil spills in the oceans. 

NASA Basic Meteorological Services 

NASA is a long-term partner with NOAA for building and launching U.S. POES and GOES 

civilian weather satellites under reimbursable arrangements. For example, NOAA will fund the 

JPSS Program, with NASA serving as the acquisition agency. NASA is also collaborating with 

NOAA to acquire key climate measurements and transition them into the operational system. 

NASA coordinates with the US Geological Survey (USGS) on the Landsat Data Continuity 

Mission (LDCM) (also called Landsat 8). Future Landsat missions will be funded through the 

USGS, with NASA serving as the acquisition agency. 
Basic Services 

57 

NASA consistently supports and develops programs to improve public understanding of the 

complexity of the global integrated Earth system and to educate and train the next generation of 

scientists and engineers. NASA is the largest contributor to the Global Learning and 

Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) Program. NASA supports innovative 

projects in formal and informal education to stimulate Science, Technology, Engineering, and 

Mathematics (STEM) learning in schools, such as the DEVELOP (not an acronym) Program, 

and to engage the public. NASA’s Earth System Science Fellowship Program trains graduate 

students. 

Federal Aviation Administration Contributions to Basic Services 

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS). ASOS, a joint program of the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA), NOAA/NWS, and the Department of Defense. The ASOS units installed 

at 884 sites serve as the nation's primary surface weather observing network. ASOS is designed 

to support routine weather forecast activities and aviation operations while also supporting the 

needs of the meteorological, hydrological, and climatological research communities for basic, in 

situ observations. About 426 ASOS units are installed at towered airports where the FAA 

provides augmentation/backup of the observations. The remaining ASOS units are installed at 

non-towered airports where its automated observations support FAA Service Level D weather 

reporting capabilities. (FAA aviation weather Service Levels are discussed in the section on 

Aviation Services.) ASOS units work nonstop, updating observations every minute, 24 hours a 

day, every day of the year. 

At airports that do not have an ASOS unit, the FAA’s Automated Weather Observing System 

(AWOS) provides basic aviation weather observations directly to pilots approaching the airport. 

The AWOS Data Acquisition System (ADAS) functions as a message concentrator for 

observations from ASOS, AWOS, and the FAA’s Automated Weather Sensor Systems. These 

capabilities, which serve the aviation community, are described further in the Aviation Services 

section. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

Interagency Research Programs 

The United States Weather Research Program (USWRP) 

The USWRP is an interagency program for weather research and the transition of research to 

applications. The member agencies include NOAA (lead), NASA, the National Science 

Foundation (NSF), the Navy, and the Air Force. The NOAA component of the USWRP has been 

quite active although the funding levels have been flat. NOAA’s Office of Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Research (OAR), through its Office of Weather and Air Quality, helps plan NOAA 

USWRP priorities, implements the program, and monitors progress. In FY 2011 and FY 2012, 

the USWRP funded the following projects: 

The Developmental Test Center (DTC). The DTC (http://www.dtcenter.org/index.php) is a joint 

operation between NOAA/ESRL/Global Systems Division (GSD) and the National Center for 

Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Colorado, Funded by NOAA, the DTC serves as the 

test bed for the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) community model (http://wrf-
Basic Services 

58 

model.org/index.php), which is a cooperative venture between NOAA, NSF, the Air Force, and 

the Navy. In FY 2012, the DTC will continue to develop the HWRF community hurricane 

model. 

Collaborative Program on the Societal Impacts and Economic Benefits of Weather 

Information (Societal Impacts Program or SIP). The USWRP provides most of the support for 

SIP (http://www.sip.ucar.edu/) and will continue to do so in FY 2012. Its mission is to be a 

clearing house for socioeconomic information on weather, to increase knowledge within the 

weather community concerning the human and economic impacts of weather, to better determine 

the value of weather information, and to improve our ability to communicate weather 

information to all public and private sectors. In FY 2012, the SIP will continue work to 

determine how the public understands forecast uncertainty and to research the communication, 

use, and value of hydrometeorological information, undertaking outreach and education.

The Joint Hurricane Testbed (JHT). The NOAA USWRP provides support for the JHT, which 

transitions mature research products from the hurricane research community into operations 

through improvements in hurricane landfall decision support systems. This project is located at 

NCEP’s Tropical Prediction Center in Miami, Florida. The USWRP will continue to support the 

JHT in FY 2012. Recently, the JHT has been emphasizing improving forecasts of hurricane 

intensity at landfall. In FY 2012, the JHT will be at the beginning of its sixth cycle of two-year 

awards. This cycle has 13 awards. 

The Hydrometeorological Testbed (HMT). The NOAA USWRP has invested in research and 

transition of research to applications to improve quantitative precipitation forecasts through 

NOAA’s HMT (http://hmt.noaa.gov/), led by the Physical Sciences Division (PSD) of 

NOAA/OAR/ESRL. The HMT seeks to improve regional precipitation forecasts, particularly for 

heavy, flooding rains. This support will continue as the HMT moves from the west coast to set 

up a field program in the southeast United State. This project also collaborates with OAR’s 

National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL). 

The Observing System Simulation Experiment (OSSE) Testbed. The NOAA USWRP provides 

support for the OSSE Testbed. The OSSE aims to establish a numerical test bed that will enable 

a hierarchy of experiments to determine the potential impact of proposed space-based, suborbital, and in situ observing systems on analyses and foecasts, evaluate trade-offs in observing 

system design, and assess proposed methodology. In FY12 the OSSE testbed will continue to 

provide expertise to NOAA, the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA) partners, 

and academia. 

Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation 

Effective environmental prediction requires several elements. One of these is a global observing 

system that provides accurate, well-distributed measurements of the Earth’s environment. 

Another element consists of the numerical models that effectively embody the physical and 

chemical laws governing the behavior of the Earth’s land surface, oceans, and atmosphere. Data 

assimilation is the mortar that binds these elements into successful prediction systems for 

weather, oceans, climatology, and ecosystems. The JCSDA is a partnership between NOAA, 

NASA, the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. Air Force dedicated to developing and improving our ability 
Basic Services 

59 

to exploit satellite data more effectively in the United States. The JCSDA is a collaborative effort 

that allows the work required to assimilate the billions of satellite observations available daily to 

be shared by several agencies. This effort would otherwise be duplicated across the agencies. 

The JCSDA has the following goals: 

 Reduce the average time for operational implementation of data from new satellite 

sensors to one year. 

 Increase the use and impact of current satellite data in numerical weather prediction 

models. 

 Advance the common numerical models and data assimilation infrastructure. 

 Assess the impacts of data from advanced satellite sensors on weather and climate 

predictions. 

By meeting these goals, the JCSDA achieves its objective of maximizing the nation’s return on 

its investment in observing systems and modeling by providing improved support for U.S. 

military actions and improving the guidance used by forecasters to protect citizens’ lives and 

property. 

Wind Forecast Improvement Project (NOAA–DOE Collaborative Project) 

The Wind Forecast Improvement Project (WFIP) is a collaboration of NOAA, DOE, two private 

wind energy companies, and academic research institutions. The goal is to lower the cost to 

utilities of wind-derived electric power by improving the foundational wind forecast for all users, 

including wind power and utility system operators. 

DOE contributes funding for WFIP and scientific expertise from within its national research 

laboratories, while NOAA contributes scientific expertise in collecting atmospheric data and in 

making weather models and forecasts. The project targets the Upper Midwest and West Texas, 

which were selected in part because WFIP industry partners operate thousands of wind turbines 

in these areas. WFIP researchers will capture detailed data on wind speed and direction in the 

atmosphere up to 400 feet above the ground, using instruments such as wind profiling radars, 

sodars, and anemometers located at normal 

reading heights and on meteorological tall 

towers. 

The data will be used as additional input to 

a high-resolution research weather model 

at OAR/ESRL. Scientists expect the 

additional observations will improve the 

accuracy of regional weather forecasts for 

the lower atmosphere–thus affecting the 

wind industry forecasts at turbine level. 

WFIP researchers will evaluate the value of 

various types of weather data for 

improving the accuracy of weather 

Turbines near the Dyess Air Force Base in Texas

generate power for the base. Photo courtesy of the

National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Basic Services 

60 

forecasts, as well as the economic value of improved forecasts to the wind utilities. The WFIP is 

the first of a growing number of joint agency efforts under a Memorandum of Understanding on 

“Weather-dependent and Oceanic Renewable Energy Resources” signed by NOAA and DOE in 

January 2011. The agreement set up a framework for NOAA and DOE to work together on 

renewable energy modeling and forecasting. 

NOAA/NWS Research Programs and Projects 

Continually improving the accuracy, timeliness, and accessibility to prediction services is largely 

a result of research and development (R&D) within the NWS, at other NOAA offices such as 

OAR, and externally from universities and private corporations. NCEP/EMC develops, 

enhances, and maintains complex data assimilation and numerical modeling software systems 

that span the globe. The computer models and other numerical forecast products developed by 

the EMC provide the basic guidance that NCEP and WFO meteorologists use in making weather 

and climate predictions. EMC uses advanced modeling methods developed both internally and 

cooperatively with universities, the international scientific community, NESDIS, NOAA 

laboratories, and other government agencies. As an example, EMC is a partner in the JCSDA, 

which is designed to accelerate the use of research and operational satellite data in NCEP 

operational models. The EMC integrates research and technology through collaborative model 

development projects. These interactions serve as an efficient and effective interface between 

NCEP and the scientific community that develops ideas, numerical models, and forecast 

techniques to implement model improvements and improve NWS products. The EMC conducts 

applied research and technology transfers and publishes research results in various media for 

dissemination to the world meteorological, oceanographic, and climate communities. EMC also 

participates in ongoing interactive research programs such as NOAA’s Hurricane Forecast 

Improvement Project (HFIP) and the WRF community model. Furthermore, EMC is 

participating in the Winter Storm Reconnaissance Program in the Pacific through targeted 

observations aimed at improving forecasts across the country. In addition, at NCEP, led by the 

EMC, the ensemble modeling approach has been applied operationally at short, medium, and 

extended ranges. EMC efforts in collaborative development resulted in improvements to 

mesoscale and global models, as well as advances in hurricane track forecasts, climate forecasts, 

and air quality forecasts. 

NOAA/NESDIS 

Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR) 

STAR is the science arm of NESDIS. Its mission is to create satellite data products using 

observations of the land, atmosphere, and ocean and transfer those products from research into 

routine operations. In addition, STAR supports the assimilation of the data from new satellite 

instruments into NOAA’s numerical prediction models. STAR also calibrates the Earthobserving instruments of all NOAA satellites to provide reliable measurements for assessing the 

current conditions on Earth in a timely manner, predicting changes in conditions, and studying 

long-term trends in the environment. STAR works to create products that monitor atmospheric, 

oceanic, and environmental hazards; enhance NOAA’s infrastructure for remote sensing; reduce 

the risks associated with launching new, untested, and very expensive satellites and sensors; and 

expand its support to satellite data users. 
Basic Services 

61 

Satellite Research Projects 

Hurricane Applications of Lightning Measurements. The next-generation NOAA geostationary 

satellites, starting with GOES-R, will be capable of measuring total lightning. Lightning causes 

between $4 and $5 billion in losses each year in the civilian sector with about 47 deaths and 303 

injuries per year. In addition, location and frequency of lightning discharges are useful indicators 

of storm development and intensity. Although ground-based lightning measurements have been 

available for several years, this will be the first time that these data are available with high time 

resolution over the open oceans where hurricanes form and grow. The improvements in the 

prediction of hurricane genesis and intensification have not kept pace with those for track 

forecasting. The lightning observations have the potential to provide a new source of information 

for tropical cyclone forecasting. 

Research in FY 2012 will continue to focus on ways to use a new ground-based lightning 

network, which can provide some information on lightning activity over the tropical oceans. The 

World Wide Lightning Locator Network (WWLLN) provides estimates of only about 25 percent 

of the lightning activity, compared with what will be available from GOES-R, but it provides a 

first look at the forecast potential of this new data source. The WWLLN data are being used to 

examine the relationship between lightning distributions and hurricane formation and 

intensification in combination with other factors known to be important such as sea surface 

temperature and atmospheric vertical wind shear. Preliminary results for the Atlantic are very 

encouraging and show the potential to use lightning information to improve predictions of rapid 

storm intensity change, which is an especially challenging forecast problem. Ongoing research 

will generalize this study to tropical cyclones in ocean basins other than the Atlantic Basin and 

will develop experimental forecast algorithms for rapid intensification, using the WWLLN data. 

This work has the potential to help improve hurricane forecasts. The ability to better forecast 

how strong a storm will be when it reaches inhabited land will help to improve the reliability of 

hurricane watches and warnings, which are important for evacuations and other mitigation 

activities. 

Precipitation Estimation Using Satellite Observations. Precipitation estimation data from 

satellites provide a critical supplement to other sources of rainfall information for flood and flash 

flood forecasting, water resources applications, and myriad other uses. In many parts of the 

world, satellites represent the only reliable source of rainfall information. Data from GEOS 

instruments sensing in the infrared and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum provide 

high-resolution, rapidly updated rainfall information for hazardous-weather applications. Moreaccurate estimates of rainfall can be derived from microwave-frequency instruments onboard 

POES, but their less frequent updating makes them more suitable for longer term water 

monitoring. In FY 2011 and into FY 2012, NOAA will continue to develop the algorithms for 

the next generation of NOAA’s GOES. In addition, modifications to the current generation of 

algorithms will be explored, in search of better ways to serve the users of these data 

Microburst Assessment from Satellites. A suite of products derived from the current generation 

of GOES was developed and evaluated to assess hazards to aircraft in flight presented by 

convective storms and associated high winds. The existing suite of GOES microburst products 

employs the GOES sounder to calculate risk based on conceptual models of favorable 
Basic Services 

62 

environmental profiles for convective wind generation. Large output values of the microburst 

index algorithms indicate that the ambient thermodynamic structure of the troposphere fits the 

prototypical environment for each respective microburst type (Wet, Hybrid, Dry, etc.). In 

accordance with new diagnostic nowcasting products, the Microburst Windspeed Potential Index 

(MWPI), and a multichannel GOES imager microburst risk product were recently developed and 

experimentally implemented. These products are designed to infer attributes of a favorable 

microburst environment that include large temperature and moisture changes with height in the 

atmosphere. These conditions foster intense convective downdrafts due to evaporative cooling as 

precipitation descends in the sub-cloud layer. 

The GOES imager microburst risk product is based on a multichannel algorithm in which output 

brightness temperature difference is proportional to microburst potential. This product provides a 

higher spatial (4 km) and temporal (30 minutes) resolution than is currently offered by the GOES 

sounder microburst products (10 km, 60 minutes). It thus provides useful information to 

supplement the sounder products in the convective storm nowcasting process. In addition, this 

imager product provides microburst risk guidance in high latitude regions, especially north of 

latitude 50°N, where existing sounder coverage is not available. FY 2012 research will continue 

to focus on intercomparison, validation, and refinement of the GOES microburst products, as 

well as training in the operational use of the products. 

NOAA/OAR Laboratories 

Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) 

ARL conducts R&D in the fields of air quality, atmospheric dispersion, and climate. Key 

activities include the development, evaluation, and application of air quality models; 

improvement of approaches for predicting atmospheric dispersion of hazardous materials; and 

the generation of new insights into air-surface exchange and climate variability and trends. The 

goal of ARL’s work is to conduct research that can improve the Nation's ability to protect human 

and ecosystem health. ARL research contributions are also discussed in the Support Research 

section of Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services. 

Earth System Research Laboratory 

ESRL is taking a lead role in implementing the International Earth Observation System, 

including the development and testing of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) for providing global 

weather and climate observations. ESRL is one of several NOAA research organizations 

collaborating with NASA and many external partners in support of this project. The goal of these 

missions is to evaluate the utilization of UASs for improved U.S. and global observing in areas 

too remote or dangerous for lengthy manned flights, e.g., the polar regions and hurricanes. High 

and medium altitude, long-endurance UASs (HALE and MALE-class) can fly at remote 

locations in dangerous flying conditions for long periods. This technology provides many 

scientific benefits such as sustained global high quality all-weather profiles of atmospheric 

composition (water vapor, aerosols, cloud water, and trace gases), and high altitude vertical 

resolution and profiling. It also offers a rapid response platform for improved high impact 

weather forecasts at 1-day to 2-week lead times, and better climate change detection, attribution, 

and prediction in support of policy decisions. ESRL/GSD is conducting global and regional 
Basic Services 

63 

Observing System Simulation Experiments to evaluate the potential benefits of UAS sampling of 

hurricanes and their environment. 

Scientists at GSD have developed GPS-Meteorology (GPS-Met), a ground-based research 

system that uses GPS to measure atmospheric water vapor in real time, increasing the accuracy 

of precipitation forecasts in the hourly updated numerical weather prediction model used by the 

NWS for high impact weather events. This system collects and processes observations from over 

250 GPS-Met stations, owned and operated by NOAA and other Government agencies across the 

United States. The data are distributed by GSD using an Internet web interface. When funds are 

available, this system will be transferred to NWS operations so that system reliability and 

maintainability can be ensured and sites expanded for use by NWS forecasters, the research 

community, and the private sector and so that the system can be incorporated into weather 

prediction models. In the process of developing this capability, NOAA research discovered that 

GPS can be used to calibrate satellite-based observations of total precipitable water in the 

atmosphere, thereby increasing the usefulness of the space-borne sensors. In addition, the GPSMet observations for water vapor, an important greenhouse gas, were discovered to be both 

sensor and model independent, providing the consistency necessary to support long-term 

monitoring of water vapor for climate applications and a reproducible climate quality data record 

to verify and confirm climate model predictions. 

ESRL will continue development of new sensors and innovative techniques for combining 

observing systems synergistically and economically. Efforts include developing tools and 

techniques to integrate the data from surface-based and satellite-borne profiling systems for more 

effective use of these data in forecasts. In support of this effort, ESRL/PSD has an active satellite 

remote-sensing group that uses data from various environmental satellites to study air-sea 

interaction processes; the global hydrological cycle, including water vapor and precipitation; and 

the Earth's radiation budget. 

Meteorological Assimilation Data Ingest System (MADIS). The demands for finer scale 

meteorological services have increasingly required higher resolution observations to initialize 

and evaluate weather and climate models, applications, and products. In response to these 

demands, ESRL/GSD developed MADIS to collect, integrate, quality control, and distribute 

observations from NOAA and non-NOAA organizations. MADIS leverages partnerships with 

international agencies; Federal, State, and local agencies (e.g., State departments of 

transportation); universities; volunteer networks; and the private sector (e.g. airlines, railroads) to 

integrate observations from their in situ observing networks with those of NOAA/NWS to 

provide a finer density, higher frequency observational database for use by the greater 

meteorological community. MADIS observational products and services were first provided to 

the public in July of 2001. 

Other important areas of research within ESRL include tropical atmospheric research, numerical 

analysis and prediction modeling, and atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric boundary layer 

processes. 
Basic Services 

64 

National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) 

NSSL seeks to improve the accuracy and timeliness of forecasts and warnings of hazardous 

weather events such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, flash floods, lightning, winter storms, and their 

associated impacts. NSSL accomplishes this goal through a balanced research program, which 

aims to: (1) advance the understanding of weather processes; (2) improve forecasting and 

warning techniques; (3) develop new forecast and warning techniques and applications and 

evaluate them for operational use; (4) transfer knowledge, techniques, and applications to the 

NWS and other agencies; (5) develop enhancements for the Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 

Doppler (WSR-88D), the cornerstone of the radar network now operated across the United 

States; (6) develop new radar technologies (e.g., dual-polarization and phased-array radar); and 

(7) conduct field programs that use mobile, in situ, and remote observational capabilities to 

collect data that support theoretical research. NSSL performs research in three primary areas: 

weather radars, high-impact hazardous weather, and storm-scale hydrometeorology. 

Weather Radar Research. The NSSL is known for research leading to better understanding of 

severe weather and the development of related observational capability, both remote and in situ, 

and in particular for its role in the development of the WSR-88D radar. NSSL continues to 

improve the WSR-88D software algorithms used by NWS forecasters. NSSL is assisting in the 

NWS deployment of the dual polarization upgrade to the WSR-88D and is engaged in a risk 

reduction activity for the Multifunction Phased Array Radar (MPAR) technology. MPAR is a 

promising option for meeting the Nation’s future domestic radar surveillance needs. Using 

multiple beams and frequencies that are controlled electronically, NSSL has demonstrated that 

phased array radar reduces the scan time for severe weather from six minutes for WSR-88D 

radar to less than one minute, producing quicker updates of data and thereby potentially 

increasing the lead time for tornado warnings well beyond the current average of 13 minutes. 

In FY 2012, NSSL will continue collaborating with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

and industry in designing and testing dual-polarized phased array radar panels required to 

determine the feasibility of using MPAR as the replacement technology for weather and aircraft 

surveillance radars. Over the next 10 to 15 years, a network of MPAR units could provide the 

next-generation expansion of our current weather radar surveillance network, replace the 

Nation’s aging air traffic surveillance radars, and meet homeland security and defense 

requirements for identifying and tracking non-cooperative craft operating over the U.S. 

homeland. 

In the spring of 2011, forecasters from the NWS brought their warning decision making 

expertise to Norman, Oklahoma, to participate in the Phased Array Radar Innovative Sensing 

Experiment (PARISE). They continued to investigate whether faster data updates increases 

warning lead-time (as preliminary results have shown). NSSL continues to conduct experiments 

to directly compare warnings based on data provided at current radar update rates with warnings 

issued based on faster data update rates provided by phased array radar technology. NSSL also 

continues to work on signal processing improvements including range oversampling, beam 

multiplexing, ground clutter canceling, and other techniques to improve the quality, usability, 

and availability of radar data. In addition to learning about the impact of temporal sampling on 

warning decision making, PARISE will continue to evaluate data processing and collection 
Basic Services 

65 

techniques unique to NSSL's Phased Array Radar Program, such as electronic adaptive scanning 

and scheduled scanning that are adapted to end users’ needs. 

High Impact Hazardous Weather Research. The NSSL focuses on research to better understand 

such hazards as tornadoes, hail, high winds, heavy rain and snow, lightning, and ice storms with 

the goal of helping the NWS improve forecasts and warnings. The parameters of storm 

development and intensification are identified and studied by incorporating observations from 

Doppler weather radar, satellites, remote-sensing wind profilers, instrumented aircraft, and 

lightning-location networks. 

In FY 2010, NSSL helped lead the Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes 

Experiment 2 (VORTEX2)—the largest and most ambitious field experiment in history to 

explore tornadoes. VORTEX2 was a $14 million field program supported by NOAA and NSF. 

Nearly 100 scientists and students from 16 different universities and various other academic 

organizations in the United States took part in the experiment. VORTEX2 also involved 

forecasters from NWS WFOs, NCEP’s Storm Prediction Center, Environment Canada, the 

Australia Bureau of Meteorology, and Finland. The VORTEX2 teams were seeking to 

understand how, when, and why tornadoes form. Answers to these questions will give 

researchers a better understanding of tornadoes and should help increase warning time for those 

in the path of these deadly storms. In total, data was collected on 41 supercell thunderstorms, 

with 10 tornadoes observed with the experimental instrumentation. These data are now being 

analyzed for selected cases and will be used to study tornado development, evolution, and their 

associated signatures. 

NSSL is working with the NWS to develop a vision for the warning decision process, which 

continues to evolve as scientists and engineers work toward integrating the next-generation radar 

technology (e.g., rapid scanning phased array radar) and storm-scale numerical models to create 

a storm-scale prediction capability for the NWS. Beginning in FY 2010, NSSL received funding 

to support the “Warn on Forecast (WoF)” program. Within the next decade, NSSL envisions 

operational units using a WoF methodology; for example, a forecaster will use thunderstormresolving computer models for severe weather warnings in the same way as he/she does today 

with the current Doppler radar systems. NSSL believes that these enhancements to the 

operational weather capability will lead to a more accurate warning system that increases lead 

time and provides probabilistic information that enables the public to take the most reasonable 

action during a severe weather event. The WoF program is being conducting in collaboration 

with ESRL/GSD; NCEP’s Storm Prediction Center; NWS Norman, Oklahoma, WFO; and 

several academic partners. Data from VORTEX2 will be valuable in developing, testing, 

evaluating, and improving WoF computer models and techniques. 

Storm-scale Hydrometeorology Research. The Coastal-Inland Flood Observation and Warning 

(CI-FLOW) project uses NSSL’s multisensor rainfall estimates to drive an NWS distributed 

hydrologic model that predicts streamflow, which helps the NWS improve flash flood warnings. 

CI-FLOW is a major component of NOAA’s Integrated Water Forecasting program called 

Coastal, Estuary Resource Information System (CERIS). In addition to streamflow prediction, 

streamflow data from predictive models are used to drive storm surge models from North 

Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina. We believe this system of 

coupled models, tested during the 2010 hurricane season, can be used not only for inundation 
Basic Services 

66 

studies of landfalling tropical systems, but also for land-use studies, algal bloom studies, and 

water quality assessment studies. 

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) 

Two major areas of AOML research are ocean-observing technologies and tropical cyclone 

research. 

Ocean Observing Technologies. In addition to the many weather-related observing systems, 

OAR is dedicated to improving the development, deployment, and monitoring of oceanographicrelated observing technologies and related data. As part of this effort, AOML manages the 

deployment of drifting buoys around the world, deploying some 900 new drifters annually and 

tracking approximately 1,250 as part of the Global Drifter Program. Using research ships, ships 

of the Ship of Opportunity Program (SOOP), and U.S. Navy aircraft, Global Lagrangian Drifters 

(GLD) are placed in areas of interest. Once verified as operational, they are reported to AOML's 

Data Assembly Center (DAC). Incoming data from a drifter are then placed on the Global 

Telecommunications System (GTS) for distribution in real time to meteorological services 

everywhere. The primary goal of this project is to assemble and provide uniform quality control 

of sea surface temperature (SST) and surface velocity measurements. These measurements are 

obtained as part of an international program to improve climate prediction. Climate prediction 

models require accurate estimates of SST to initialize their ocean component. Drifting buoys 

provide essential ground truth SST data for this purpose. The models also require validation by 

comparison with independent data sets. Surface velocity measurements are used for this 

validation. Approximately 100 meteorological drifting buoys are maintained in the Southern 

Hemisphere as part of the Southern Hemisphere Drifting Buoy Program—a subset of the Global 

Drifter Program. 

NOAA supports measurements from thermosalinographs (TSGs) which are mounted close to the 

water intake of research and cargo ships and continuously measure the sea surface salinity and 

temperature along the track of the ship. NOAA operates and maintains AMVER SEAS 2K, a 

Microsoft Windows-based real-time ship and environmental data acquisition and transmission 

system. The AMVER software creates a series of reports that describe point of departure, route, 

and arrival of a ship. The SEAS 2K software acquires atmospheric and oceanographic data and 

transmits the data in real time to the GTS and to operational databases used by scientists. SEAS 

2K is employed on ships of the Volunteer Observing System (VOS), SOOP, NOAA, UniversityNational Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS), and U.S. Coast Guard vessels. SEAS 2K 

is now installed on more than 400 ships of the VOS and SOOP; and over 200,000 AMVER 

SEAS meteorological messages are transmitted each year and inserted into the GTS. 

AOML operates a global Expendable Bathythermograph (XBT) Program that utilizes 

approximately 30 ships of the SOOP and collaborates with international institutions that operate 

another 30 ships to monitor the global upper ocean thermal structure. TSG and XBT data are 

transmitted in real time into the GTS and are being used to initialize weather and climate forecast 

models. 

Tropical Cyclone Research. To improve tropical cyclone track and intensity forecast guidance, 

AOML’s Hurricane Research Division (HRD) uses in situ and remotely sensed data collected by 
Basic Services 

67 

aircraft, satellites, and buoys and computer model simulations of the inner core of tropical 

cyclones and their surrounding environment. An aircraft field program is used to gather datasets 

representing all stages of the storm’s lifecycle; these datasets are used to both support operational 

needs and provide the cornerstone of HRD’s research. The observations are primarily collected 

during the hurricane season using two NOAA turboprop aircraft and a Gulfstream-IV jet 

operated by NOAA’s AOC. Because of their extensive field experience, HRD scientists are 

recognized internationally for their knowledge of tropical cyclones, as well as their expertise in 

technological areas such as airborne Doppler radar, dropsondes, cloud microphysics, and air-sea 

interaction, to name a few. These assets make HRD unique worldwide and provide NOAA with 

a unique capability. 

On the left is an image of the flight patterns for five consecutive back‐to‐back WP‐3D Doppler mission around from  

00Z 19 August 2009 in Hurricane Bill. On the right is a depiction of the real‐time Doppler analyses for three legs on

the first of the five missions showing the flight track and Doppler analyses superposed over an IR satellite image

centered on the mission time. The Doppler radar data collected on these three legs were used to generate

superobs for assimilation into the ARW model running on TACC.  

Much of HRD’s hurricane research is based on analysis of in situ and remotely sensed 

observations of the core of tropical cyclones and their surrounding environment. These analyses 

are used to improve the general understanding of tropical cyclones and provide valuable 

information for the initialization and evaluation of next-generation numerical models. 

Observations are primarily collected as part of the NOAA Intensity Forecast Experiment (IFEX), 

a partnership involving HRD, TPC, EMC, and NESDIS. These observations are collected during 

hurricane season using the fleet of U.S. Air Force Reserve WC-130J aircraft, the two NOAA 

WP-3D turboprop aircraft, and the Gulfstream-IV jet operated by the AOC. The goal of IFEX is 

to collect observations that directly aid in the development and evaluation of HWRF, the nextgeneration tropical cyclone forecast modeling system, under the new NOAA Hurricane Forecast 

Improvement Project (HFIP). 
Basic Services 

68 

Real‐time maximum surface wind swath produced by the HWRFx model for Hurricane Bill on 0000 UTC 19 August

2008. The track is depicted in magentat with dots long the track every 3 h.  

HRD also maintains active research programs with other governmental agencies and arranges 

cooperative programs with scientists at NCAR and numerous universities. For example, in 

August-September 2010, HRD collaborated with NASA and NSF–supported researchers, 

combining observing capabilities to sample a number of tropical cyclone to address tropical 

cyclogenesis and rapid intensity change, which are key problems for NOAA operational 

forecasters. NASA conducted the Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP) field 

campaign to learn why a tropical storm forms and strengthens into a hurricane. NASA provided 

innovative instruments to record detailed atmospheric measurements through a tropical storm or 

hurricane for 20 hours by NASA’s Global Hawk UAS, flying above the disturbance, while 

additional observations were taken at different heights within the disturbance with NASA’s DC8 and WB-57 aircraft. The Pre-Depression Investigation of Cloud-systems in the Tropics 

(PREDICT) project, sponsored by NSF, focused on the pre-depression or genesis phases of 

tropical cyclones using NSF’s G-V sampling of synoptic-scale disturbances with GPS 

dropsondes. By combining resources, the three agencies could provide diverse observations of a 

single storm simultaneously from as many as six airborne systems, all transmitting high-quality 

observations to support operational needs at NHC and EMC.

The HFIP is a unified 10-year NOAA plan to improve the 1-day to 5-day forecasts for tropical 

cyclone activity, with a focus on rapid intensity change. Researchers at HRD, together with 2-3 

researchers at OAR’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), 5-6 researchers at 
Basic Services 

69 

ESRL, and 4-5 researchers at NCEP/EMC make up the NOAA core capability for hurricane 

R&D and play a major role in the HFIP. The HFIP is only feasible because of these core 

capabilities at HRD, AOML, GFDL, and ESRL. Within the NWS, NCEP/NHC, the Central 

Pacific Hurricane Center, and the hurricane-modeling group at NCEP/EMC comprise the NOAA 

core operational hurricane capability. 

HRD’s strengths in tropical cyclone research and longstanding collaboration with academia and 

other Federal agencies provide NOAA with a core capacity to address HFIP’s goals, which are 

grounded in the operational needs of the NWS. The goals of the HFIP are to improve the 

accuracy and reliability of hurricane forecasts; to extend lead-time for hurricane forecasts with 

increased certainty; and to increase confidence in hurricane forecasts. These goals will require 

major investments in enhanced observational strategies, improved data assimilation, numerical 

model systems, and expanded forecast applications based on high resolution and ensemble-based 

numerical prediction systems. The objectives of the HFIP are to coordinate hurricane-related 

R&D within the NOAA entities mentioned above and to broaden their interactions with the 

outside research community in order to address NOAA’s operational hurricane forecast needs. 

The expected outcomes of the HFIP are high quality information with associated probabilities on 

high impact variables such as wind speed, precipitation, and storm surge. These outcomes can be 

achieved by reducing the average errors of hurricane track and intensity forecasts by 50 percent, 

improving the skill in forecasting rapid intensity changes (both increases and decreases), and by 

improved storm surge forecasting. The benefits of HFIP will significantly improve NOAA’s 

forecast services through improved hurricane forecast science and technology. 

Specific metrics for HFIP include: 

 Reduce average track error by 50 percent for [forecast] Days 1 through 5. 

 Reduce average intensity error by 50 percent for Days 1 through 5. 

 Increase the probability of detection (POD) for rapid intensity change to 90 percent at 

Day 1 decreasing linearly to 60 percent at Day 5, and decrease the false alarm ratio 

(FAR) for rapid intensity change to 10 percent for Day 1 increasing linearly to 30 percent 

at Day 5. 

 Extend the lead time for hurricane forecasts out to Day 7. 

Although improving the POD and FAR for rapid intensity change within 1 day of landfall is a 

high priority, given the uncertainty in track forecasts of landfall, these improvements are needed 

at all lead times over the entire life span of the storm system. 

While the vast majority of HRD’s research efforts are directed through HFIP toward improving 

observations, analysis, and model guidance and transitioning those improvements into operation, 

a number of research areas are not as well developed and require more basic research, often in 

collaboration with university collaborators. HRD is pursuing three such efforts: (1) improved 

understanding of the air-sea energy transfer processes related to waves, spray, and upper-ocean 

mixed layer in partnership with collaborators from the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School 

of Marine and Atmospheric Science, the University of Rhode Island, and the Naval Research 

Laboratory (NRL); (2) improved understanding of the role of aerosol and microphysical 

processes in collaboration with NCEP/EMC, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NRL, the 
Basic Services 

70 

University of Rhode Island, and University of Tel Aviv; and (3) improved understanding of land 

surface impacts on rainfall and flooding through collaboration with NCEP/EMC and Purdue 

University. 

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory 

GFDL conducts long-lead-time research to understand the predictability of weather on both large 

and small scales and to translate this understanding into improved numerical weather and climate 

prediction models. Three groups at GFDL are engaged in weather research activities: Climate 

Dynamics and Prediction, Weather and Atmospheric Dynamics, and Atmospheric Physics and 

Chemistry. 

The Weather and Atmospheric Dynamics Group at GFDL improves our understanding of 

atmospheric circulations, ranging in scale from hurricanes to extratropical storms and the general 

circulation, with an emphasis on extreme weather events and the interplay between weather 

phenomena and climate variability and change. High resolution atmospheric modeling is the 

central tool in this work. Recent research using these models has exposed a potential 

breakthrough in predicting seasonal hurricane activity: atmospheric models forced with observed 

SST can skillfully predict the interannual variability of the number of hurricanes in the Atlantic, 

showing that the random part of this annual Atlantic hurricane frequency (the part not predictable 

given the SSTs) is relatively small. 

This effort is augmented by the Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry group, which performs 

research to improve our understanding of the interactive three-dimensional radiative-dynamicalchemical-hydrological structure of the climate system, from the surface and troposphere to the 

upper stratosphere and mesosphere, on various time and space scales. This is achieved by: (1) 

employing meteorological observations in conjunction with models for diagnostic analyses of 

atmospheric processes; (2) evaluating and improving parameterizations employed in weather and 

climate models; (3) modeling the interactions between clouds, convection, radiation and largescale dynamics to understand their roles in climate and climate change; and (4) modeling the 

physics, chemistry, and transport of atmospheric trace gases and aerosols to investigate the 

impact of future emissions on regional and global air quality and to investigate the regional and 

global climatic effects due to changes in natural and anthropogenic radiatively-active species. 

An understanding is being developed of the role of extreme events and abrupt change, their 

regional impacts, and their interactions with natural variability, so that decisions to prepare for 

and confront these effects can be made with the best possible scientific information. GFDL’s 

Climate Change, Variability, and Prediction group leads a vigorous research program on decadal 

variability, predictability, and predictions. At the heart of that program are efforts to better 

understand physical processes that contribute to decadal variations and predictability in the 

climate system, particularly in terms of the role of the ocean as a driver of decadal-scale 

variations. 

GFDL is conducting a very large set of decadal hindcast and prediction experiments, perhaps the 

largest set of any of the modeling centers around the world. These experiments are primarily 

using the GFDL CM2.1 climate model (atmospheric resolution of 200 Km, ocean resolution of 

100 Km). Using initial conditions from GFDL’s recently developed coupled-assimilation system, 
Basic Services 

71 

the decadal hindcast and prediction experiments yield model-produced “predictions” for each 

year from 1961 to 2011. These simulations seek to evaluate whether predictive skill for nearterm (decadal) climate forecasts is increased when starting from the observed state of the climate 

system, in addition to the predictive skill that arises from changing radiative forcing. Preliminary 

assessments of the predictive skill in these simulations reveal that they have skill that is at least 

comparable to other international efforts. The output from these simulations will be made freely 

available as part of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Coupled Model 

Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5). 

GFDL also has a vigorous effort to develop and use climate models of much higher spatial 

resolution to study issues of climate variability, predictability, and change. The GFDL CM2.5 

climate model has a 50 km atmospheric resolution and ocean resolution varying from 27 km near 

the Equator to 9 km at high latitudes. The GFDL CM2.6 climate model has an atmospheric 

resolution similar to that of the CM2.5 model, but its ocean resolution varies from 10 km at the 

equator to 3 km at high latitudes. These models use the very latest numerical techniques to 

provide extremely energetic, realistic simulations of the climate system. Such fine resolution 

ocean models are world leaders. Through their use, GFDL seeks to further scientific 

understanding of the role of the ocean in climate variability and change. Preliminary decadal 

prediction experiments with the CM2.5 model have begun, although the CM2.5 model is 

approximately 30 times more computationally expensive than the CM2.1 model. Despite this 

cost, GFDL scientists believe it is critical to move to high-resolution climate models to better 

understand the causes and predictability of decadal-scale climate fluctuations, as well as the role 

of the ocean in critical climate change issues, such as oceanic heat uptake. 

Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL) 

In FY 2012, GLERL’s planned research programs in coastal hydrodynamic modeling, 

hydrology, coastal buoy technology, regional climate modeling, and ice forecasting will directly 

support NOAA's meteorology mission through improved marine forecasts, more accurate 

watershed models, augmented real-time marine observations, better estimates of regional climate 

impacts on weather in the Great Lakes, and a whole new approach to ice forecasting. 

Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) 

Meteorological research at PMEL focuses on air-sea interaction research in the Gulf of Alaska 

and Bering Sea, as part of PMEL’s Ecosystem-Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated 

Investigations (EcoFOCI) project, conducted jointly with NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries 

Service/Alaska Fisheries Science Center. Financial support for the research is provided by 

NOAA, NSF, and the North Pacific Research Board. 

PMEL also collaborates with ESRL’s Chemical Science Division on the Health of the 

Atmosphere air quality research effort. In 2010, PMEL led the CALNEX marine sampling 

program aboard the R/V Atlantis off the southern and central California coasts. PMEL’s ocean 

climate research programs collect surface meteorological data from moored buoys and report in 

near-real time for ingest into global models. Data from PMEL’s PIRATA and RAMA tropical 

observing systems in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and from PMEL’s ocean climate stations at 

Ocean Weather Station Papa (Gulf of Alaska) and the Kuroshio Extension Observatory in the 
Basic Services 

72 

Northwest Pacific report surface meteorological data. A third ocean climate station was 

established early in 2011 in the Aghulas Current off the southeast coast of Africa. 

NASA Supporting Research for Basic Meteorological Services 

Research in Basic Meteorology and Atmospheric Science 

NASA aircraft and surface instruments calibrate, complement, and expand the value of satellite 

measurements. NASA supports computing capability and capacity for Earth system modeling. 

NASA missions produce nearly 4 terabytes of data daily, and NASA maintains the world’s 

largest scientific data and information system for processing, archiving, and distributing Earth 

system data to worldwide users. International collaborations, including collaborative space 

missions and joint research efforts, are essential components of NASA Earth Science. 

The FY 2012 Budget will fund research competitively selected in FY 2011 through NASA’s 

Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences 2011 (ROSES-11) grant application 

solicitation. Many of the research activities carried out in FY 2012 will be tasks initiated in FY 

2010 and FY 2011 based on the earlier ROSES-09 and ROSES-10 solicitations. Selections based 

on ROSES-09 and ROSES-10 are ongoing and are addressing diverse Earth Science research 

areas, including biodiversity, ocean salinity, hurricane and precipitation science, remote sensing 

of water quality, atmospheric composition, and interdisciplinary science. 

Technology Development 

Technology investments are aligned primarily with Decadal Survey activities, but may also 

support NASA’s foundational and climate continuity missions. Such investments focus on 

maturation of technologies to enable advanced space-based observations and modeling to 

improve understanding of the global integrated Earth system, including global and regional 

climate change. Earth Science Technology Program (ESTP) provides funding for instrument, 

component, and information technologies prior to mission formulation. Developing and 

validating technologies well in advance of a flight project help to improve acceptance and reduce 

costs. Projects are initiated each year through the ROSES solicitation, and the duration of each 

project is typically three years. 

For FY 2012, ongoing investigations will be managed in the Instrument Incubator, Advanced 

Information Systems Technology, and Advanced Component Technology areas. These 

investigations resulted from the ROSES-10 and ROSES-12 solicitations. ESTP will select 

Advanced Information Systems Technology projects from proposals submitted in response to the 

ROSES-12 solicitation. 

NASA Applied Sciences Program 

The Applied Sciences Program leverages NASA satellite measurements and new scientific 

knowledge to enable innovative and practical uses by public and private sector organizations. 

Projects, which are competitively selected through ROSES, are designed to discover and 

demonstrate new applications and facilitate adoption by non-NASA organizations. In FY 2012 

the Applied Sciences Program will continue and initiate projects across a range of application 
Basic Services 

73 

areas, including health and air quality, water resources, disasters, and ecological forecasting. The 

Program will feature joint solicitations with research and end-user organizations, contributions to 

mission science teams, and incorporation of applications requirements throughout the mission 

design process. NASA will continue the expanded Sistema Regional de Visualizacion y 

Monitoreo (SERVIR) network and enhance its scientific capabilities across a broader set of Earth 

science products. 

National Science Foundation 

To improve weather forecasts and public safety, the NSF supports basic research on 

observational systems, analysis techniques, and understanding of phenomena. Ongoing research 

on new observational systems includes techniques for using cosmic ray data to derive soil 

moisture and using distributed, short-wavelength radar systems for small-scale severe weather 

observations. Major field campaigns to understand tornadoes, hurricane genesis, and winter 

storms were conducted over the past few years, and ongoing analyses of these data aim to 

improve the ability of weather forecasters to relay high-impact weather information to the public. 
Basic Services 

74 
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

75 

AGRICULTURAL AND LAND MANAGEMENT 

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Services 

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Office of the Chief Economist (OCE) 

World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB) serves as the USDA focal point for economic 

intelligence and commodity outlooks for U.S. and world agriculture. The WAOB coordinates, 

reviews, and approves the World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report. 

The WASDE report provides USDA’s forecasts of supply and demand for major U.S. and global 

crops, as well as for U.S. livestock. The WAOB maintains the integrity of this report by ensuring 

all information used to prepare the report is consistent, objective, and reliable. The WAOB also 

coordinates all weather and climate information and monitoring activities within USDA. Because 

weather and climate have a significant impact on agricultural production, the WAOB employs 

meteorologists who specialize in preparing agricultural weather assessments. This activity is 

conducted at the Joint Agricultural Weather Facility (JAWF), which is located within the 

OCE/WAOB, and serves as the focal point for weather and climate information. 

The JAWF was created in 1978 as an operational unit and is a cooperative effort between the 

WAOB and the U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC)/National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA)/National Weather Service (NWS)/National Centers for Environmental 

Prediction (NCEP)/Climate Prediction Center (CPC). The primary mission of the JAWF is to 

routinely collect global weather data and agricultural information to assess the impact of 

growing-season weather conditions on crops and livestock. The WAOB/JAWF receives a full 

suite of meteorological data and products from the NWS. WAOB/JAWF meteorologists combine 

and carefully analyze these agrometeorological data daily, preparing real-time agricultural 

weather assessments in the process. Some of the meteorological information that the 

WAOB/JAWF meteorologists use include surface weather observations, radar data, satellite 

imagery, and model output. These meteorological data are regularly imported into a Geographic 

Information System (GIS) along with agricultural data to facilitate global agrometeorological 

assessments and to help identify regions of concern. These assessments keep USDA commodity 

analysts, the OCE, and the Secretary of Agriculture and top staff well informed of weather 

impacts on crops and livestock worldwide. In addition to providing routine agricultural weather 

assessments, WAOB/JAWF meteorologists prepare special assessments when extreme weather 

(e.g., droughts, heat waves, freezes, floods, and hurricanes) has been observed or is imminent. 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Agricultural and Land Management Meteorological Services are 

those services and facilities established to meet the requirements of the agricultural industries and 

Federal, state, and local agencies charged with the protection and maintenance of the Nation's land 

areas. Meteorological services specifically tailored for wildland fire management are reported under 

the Wildland Fire Weather service category.
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

76 

Many of these special assessments are also 

prepared using GIS to overlay agricultural 

and meteorological data. In recent years, 

the NWS/NCEP, which includes the 

National Hurricane Center, the CPC, the 

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center, 

and the Storm Prediction Center, have 

supported the WAOB/JAWF by providing 

an increasing number of their operational 

products in GIS-compatible formats. These 

NOAA GIS efforts have benefited the 

WAOB/JAWF significantly by increasing 

the speed and efficiency with which 

agricultural weather assessments can be 

prepared and enabling WAOB/JAWF 

meteorologists to more accurately access 

weather impacts on agriculture. When integrated with other data, these routine and special cropweather assessments and analyses provide critical information to USDA decision makers 

preparing crop production forecasts, formulating trade policy, and coordinating disaster relief. 

The JAWF serves as the USDA focal point for weather data received from the Global Observing 

System, a worldwide network of nearly 8,000 meteorological reporting stations managed by the 

World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Additionally, the WAOB/JAWF obtains data from 

the NWS Cooperative Observer Program (COOP) to support domestic agricultural weather 

applications. The WMO and COOP data are archived at the WAOB using an Oracle database 

management system. This sophisticated data warehouse helps WAOB/JAWF meteorologists 

manage the numerous agrometeorological data sets used for agricultural weather assessments. 

The JAWF prepares daily agricultural assessments, keeping USDA commodity analysts and the 

Secretary of Agriculture and top staff informed of worldwide weather conditions and their 

effects on crops and livestock. Each morning, a written summary of current weather, affecting 

agriculture in the United States, is sent to the Secretary’s office and posted on the JAWF Web 

site at http://www.usda.gov/oce/weather/pubs/index.htm. Furthermore, alerts of anomalous 

weather conditions impacting agriculture around the globe are included in a daily report of 

agricultural developments that is sent to USDA policy makers each afternoon. Inputs from the 

JAWF are integrated into USDA’s monthly foreign crop production estimates. The JAWF 

provides an objective procedure for translating the flow of global weather information into 

assessments of crop-yield potential, which are then integrated into USDA’s analytical process for 

estimation of global-area yield and production statistics. These data are then used to evaluate 

global supply and use estimates. 

The JAWF’s flagship publication is the Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin (WWCB). The 

WWCB is jointly produced by the WAOB, the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), 

and the NWS/NCEP/CPC. First published in 1872 as the Weekly Weather Chronicle, the 

publication provides a vital source of information on weather, climate, and agricultural 

developments worldwide. The WWBC highlights weekly meteorological and agricultural 

developments on national and international scales, via numerous maps, charts, tables, and text 

Illustration of a special assessment report GIS.
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

77 

products. These products combined provide a comprehensive illustration of the weather and 

climate conditions affecting agriculture, benefiting USDA decision makers and the agricultural 

community. The WWCB also provides timely weather and crop information relevant to the 

monthly Crop Production and WASDE reports, issued by USDA/NASS and 

USDA/OCE/WAOB, respectively. 

Weather conditions impact farming operations, such as planting and harvesting, and greatly 

influence yield at critical stages of crop development. A wet planting season may prompt farmers 

to switch to another crop. A poor grain harvest may affect livestock feeding patterns. A regional 

drought can boost planted acres elsewhere to offset the expected production decline, and 

government policymakers may adjust farm programs to accommodate changing conditions. As a 

result, crop and weather information provided in the WWCB keep crop and livestock producers, 

farm organizations, agribusinesses, state and national farm policy makers, government agencies, 

and foreign buyers of agricultural products appraised of worldwide weather-related 

developments and their effects on crops and livestock. 

Although the main emphasis of the WWCB is on current growing-season weather conditions and 

agricultural developments in the United States, real-time agricultural weather assessments are 

also provided for foreign countries that are either major exporters or importers of agricultural 

commodities. These crop-weather assessments keep the U.S. agricultural sector appraised of 

potential competitors and also influence production decisions at the farm level. 

Finally, while the WWCB was originally designed to maintain a current awareness of global 

weather and crop conditions, the long history of the WWCB provides an excellent climatological 

record. This extensive history provides a reference source that is rich in climate and agricultural 

information, which is essential for episodic-events monitoring and analog-year comparisons. 

Knowledge of historical weather and climate patterns and past agricultural production in major 

agricultural regions worldwide is critical to the success of the JAWF’s agrometeorological 

assessments. In September 1994, OCE/WAOB/JAWF published the Major World Crop Areas 

and Climatic Profiles (Agricultural Handbook No.664) book. This reference handbook provides 

the framework for assessing the weather’s impact on world crop production by providing 

information on climate and crop data for key producing regions and countries. An electronic 

version of the handbook was developed to provide periodic updates to the printed version as 

additional data become available. Coverage includes major agricultural regions and crops, 

including coarse grains, winter and spring wheat, rice, major oilseeds, sugar, and cotton. World 

maps show the normal developmental stage of regional crops by month. 

The Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin and Major World Crop Areas and Climatic Profiles book 

and other JAWF publications are available online at http://www.usda.gov/oce/weather. 

Drought is one of the most costly natural disasters affecting the United States. In the summer of 

1999, the U.S. Drought Monitor (USDM) was developed to help improve drought assessments in 

the United States. The USDM is a collaborative effort between Federal and academic partners, 

including the University of Nebraska-Lincoln National Drought Mitigation Center (NDMC), the 

JAWF, the CPC, the NOAA/NESDIS/National Climatic Data Center, and the Desert Research 

Institute. Approximately 11 lead authors, two of whom work for WAOB/JAWF, rotate the 

responsibility of preparing the USDM. Produced weekly, the USDM is a synthesis of multiple 
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

78 

indices and impacts depicted on a map and in narrative form. The NDMC hosts the USDM on its 

Web site at http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/monitor.html. The USDM is released each Thursday 

at 8:30 a.m. Eastern time. Because the USDM is prepared in GIS format, it is often overlaid on 

agricultural data to illustrate and quantify the spatial extent of drought, affecting various 

agricultural commodities. These agricultural weather products, along with the USDM, serve as 

the main source of information for briefing USDA top staff on U.S. drought developments. 

Similarly, the North American Drought Monitor (NADM) is a cooperative drought monitoring 

effort among drought experts in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. The NADM was 

initiated at a workshop in April 2002 and is part of a larger effort to improve the monitoring of 

North American climate extremes. Issued monthly since March 2003, the NADM is based on the 

end-of-month USDM analysis and input from scientists in Canada and Mexico. Major 

participants in the NADM program, include the USDM collaborators, as well as Agriculture and 

Agrifood Canada, the Meteorological Service of Canada, and the National Meteorological 

Service of Mexico. 

The NADM Web site is http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/temp-and-precip/drought/nadm/index.html. A 

U.S. Drought Monitor Forum and a North American Drought Monitor Forum are held in 

alternating years. These meetings provide an opportunity for Drought Monitor authors, 

stakeholders, and members of the drought community to discuss the latest drought monitoring 

tools, drought analyses, and requirements. The most recent U.S. Drought Monitor Forum was 

held on April 13-14, 2011, at George Mason University. The forum was organized by USDA’s 

OCE, NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center, and George Mason University’s Environmental 

Science and Technology Center. 

The National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS) builds upon existing drought 

monitoring tools and experiences, such as the USDM, to develop an early warning system that 

aids in drought preparation and mitigation. The recommendations for such an early warning 

system were outlined in a 2004 report from the Western Governors’ Association (WGA) entitled, 

Creating a Drought Early Warning System for the 21st Century: The National Integrated 

Drought Information System. Over the years, the OCE/WAOB played a lead role in developing 

the NIDIS, working closely with NOAA, the lead Federal agency, and the WGA, to address the 

specific needs of the agricultural community. Specifically, the WAOB represented USDA on the 

NIDIS program implementation team, which is comprised of Federal and state agencies, 

academia, and the private sector and was established to develop a NIDIS implementation plan. 

The NIDIS implementation plan was released in June 2007, describing the NIDIS 

implementation strategy and governance structure. One of the early deliverables of NIDIS was 

the Drought Portal (http://www.drought.gov), which serves as the Government’s multi-agency 

drought interface. The WAOB is working with other USDA agencies to provide relevant drought 

information to the public via the Drought Portal. 

The USDA’s Chief Meteorologist is currently serving as past-president on the Management 

Group of WMO’s Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM). In this position, he 

advises the current president on projects related to impacts of natural disasters and extreme 

events on agriculture, and adaptation of climate change/variability to agriculture. The Chief 

Meteorologist promotes the development of new technology and information services for 

agriculture. One major accomplishment is the World AgroMeteorological Information Service 
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

79 

(WAMIS), which is a dedicated web server that hosts agrometeorological bulletins and 

advisories issued by WMO members for the global agricultural community, and also provides 

training modules to aid members in improving their agrometeorological products. The WAMIS 

web site is http://www.wamis.net/. The Chief Meteorologist also serves as CagM’s Coordinator 

for Global Framework for Climate Services for agriculture. 

Bureau of Land Management, Land Management Services 

The Department of Interior’s (DOI) Bureau of Land Management (BLM) utilizes air-resourcerelated (air quality, weather, and climate) information in order to manage public lands in a 

manner consistent with Congressional direction as expressed in the Federal Land Policy 

Management Act (FLPMA). FLPMA directs the BLM to periodically and systematically 

inventory resources through a land-use planning process and to manage public lands in a manner 

that protects the quality of scientific, scenic, historical, ecological, environmental, air and 

atmospheric, water resources, and archaeological values. The BLM also requires air-resourcerelated information to conduct environmental analyses under the National Environmental Policy 

Act (NEPA) for agency-initiated activities and land-use authorizations and ensure compliance 

with pollution laws such as the Clean Air Act. The BLM must therefore obtain, collect, and 

analyze air-resource-related information to (1) determine baseline conditions of air and 

atmospheric values on the public lands; (2) evaluate changes in baseline conditions (trends); (3) 

understand the extent to which other natural resources (vegetation, hydrology, wildlife, range, 

minerals, etc.) are influenced by atmospheric conditions so that informed management decisions 

can be made; and (4) to assist in developing models to predict future conditions; such as, 

atmospheric dispersion models to assess air quality impacts. The BLM obtains information of 

acceptable quality collected from existing monitoring networks operated by other agencies and 

programs whenever possible to promote efficiency and avoid duplication of efforts. Examples of 

these networks include the National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Network, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) 

SNOw pack TELemetry (SNOTEL) and 

Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN) 

networks, the National Interagency Fire 

Center Remote Automated Weather 

Station (RAWS) network, the Bureau of 

Reclamation Agricultural Weather 

(AgriMet) networks, the Community 

Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow 

(CoCoRaHS) network, the National 

Atmospheric Deposition Program 

(NADP), the U.S. Geological Survey 

National Streamflow Information 

Program (NSIP), and individual state 

climate offices. A Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS).
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

80 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

USDA 

The USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA)—the former Cooperative State 

Research, Education, and Extension Service—was created by Congress through the Food, 

Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008. NIFA’s unique mission is to advance knowledge for 

agriculture, the environment, human health and well-being, and communities by supporting 

research, education, and extension programs in the Land-Grant University System and other 

partner organizations. NIFA doesn’t perform actual research, education, and extension, but rather 

helps fund it at the state and local level and provides program leadership in these areas. 

NIFA funding supports research projects that collect, analyze, and utilize short and long-term 

weather and climate data as a base of information for the projection and prediction of climatic 

trends related to environmental impacts on agro-ecosystems, forests, and rangelands and the 

development of adaptation and mitigation strategies for natural resources and production 

management. Research, education and extension projects address the contribution of human 

activities, soil management, and crop and animal production to atmospheric greenhouse gases. 

Broader areas of study involve climate variability; carbon, nitrogen, and water cycling; and their 

role in global change. The impact of changes in ultraviolet (UV) and ozone level studies also fit 

into this broad global category. 

Historical climate changes are derived from data gathering and modeling studies, enabling the 

prediction of future crop production and irrigation needs. NIFA funding supports studies on the 

impact of climate and weather on food, feed, and fiber production, and on natural resource 

protection and utilization. These studies relate to forest and agricultural plant growth, rangeland 

productivity, cropping system selection, livestock production practices, and natural resource 

management. 

Man’s impact on climate systems is also well represented in studies of both micro-and macroclimatic change. These studies address the climatic impact on air quality, water quality and 

quantity, and point/non-point pollution related to agricultural practices, and forest and urban 

development. NIFA funds also support climatic impact studies on nutrient cycling and carbon 

sequestration and emission. Additionally, NIFA supports research to quantify the impact of 

climate change on the incidence and severity of drought, extreme heat and cold, plant and animal 

diseases and pests, invasive species, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. 

The Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI) is NIFA’s flagship competitive grant 

program. AFRI has funded projects on a wide variety of weather- and climate-related research in 

collaboration with other U.S. Federal agencies. AFRI’s Climate Change Challenge Area is 

currently focused on regional climate studies in agriculture and forestry, plant breeding, animal 

health impacts, and mitigation and adaptation in agriculture and forestry. Other AFRI areas of 

research related to weather and climate change include organic agriculture, carbon cycling, agroecosystem modeling, and economic consequences of adaptation and mitigation strategies. 
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

81 

Emerging areas of research include the impact of climate on biofuel production, carbon cap-andtrade, and environmental markets. 

Weather and climate research is conducted by USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS) to 

provide decision-support tools for farmers, ranchers, and land managers that will enable 

sustainable production under conditions of drought, flood, high temperatures, and short-term 

temperature extremes. Climate change research is conducted to develop technologies for 

mitigation of the impacts of agriculture on climate, and from the perspective of adapting 

agricultural systems for resilience to the impacts of changing climate. 

The development of genetic resources for weather-tolerant crops is a foundational element of 

ARS research. This includes new plant varieties that will combat the insects, pathogens, and 

weeds that flourish under specific weather patterns and are being enhanced by changing climate. 

Identification, development, and distribution of genetic material that offers resistance to ozone 

damage continue to be a top priority. 

Since a significant amount of food production is currently made possible because of irrigation, 

ARS conducts weather research focused on irrigation scheduling, increased efficiency of water 

use, and watershed management. Also, evapotranspiration (ET) monitoring, and the 

incorporation of this information from in situ and remote sensing systems into irrigation 

scheduling algorithms, are under development at ARS. This work includes collaborative research 

with scientists at NOAA, NASA, OCE/WAOB/JAWF, and land grant universities to use 

satellite-based ET information for drought maps and to elevate the importance of ET as an 

important variable for climate change science. ARS scientists are also leaders in the development 

of algorithms for soil-moisture mapping satellites to be launched by NASA and international 

collaborators. ARS scientists also conduct research to understand and manage emissions of 

particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, greenhouse gases, and other materials from 

agricultural sources and landscapes that affect air quality. 

Weather and climate information needed to develop strategies for the reduction of soil loss and 

sedimentation of water bodies, and for prediction of flooding occurrence, is being investigated. A 

combined wind and water erosion model for nation-wide conservation management practice 

planning, that incorporates an ARS-developed wind erosion model, is being further developed 

and refined for operational use by NRCS. 

The ARS experimental watershed program actively participates in the NWS effort to modernize 

the COOP Network to ensure the information needs of agriculture are addressed by the national 

surface observation network. Discussions are underway to use ARS experimental watersheds as 

a baseline for the development of a Long-Term Agricultural Research network because of the 

strong emphasis on weather and climate research for agriculture by these locations. Data from 

the ARS experimental watershed program is being used in the development of weather 

generators needed for models used to simulate weather events for research and decision-support 

systems. 
 Agricultural and Land Management Services 

82 
 83 

AVIATION SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

U.S. Code Title 49 Section 44720 (49 U.S.C. 44720) designates the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) as the Meteorological Authority for aviation weather services for the 

United States. In this capacity, the FAA provides requirements for the provision of aviation 

weather services to the National Weather Service (NWS), which is designated as the National 

Meteorological and Hydrological Service Provider. The FAA is responsible for ensuring 

compliance with the services as defined and with maintaining International Civil Aviation 

Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices as specified in Annex 3, 

Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation. 

The Department of Defense (DOD) service branches (U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine 

Corps) provide their own aviation weather support services while abiding by Federal and 

international regulations. Each military service has its own meteorological support personnel 

except the Army, which is supported by the Air Force. Please refer to the Military Services 

section for details of military-unique aviation weather services. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Weather Service 

NOAA/NWS aviation weather projects support increasing and improving observation 

capabilities, forecast products and techniques, outreach and training, operational adaptation of 

applied research, and verification of forecast products. These projects have the goal of improving 

the safe and efficient flow of air traffic in the National Airspace System (NAS). In response to 

requirements from the FAA and the international community, aviation weather products issued 

by NWS span the globe. 

Under an international agreement through the ICAO, the United States meets its weather 

forecasting obligations to the aviation community through products and services of the Aviation 

Weather Center (AWC), one of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) The 

AWC prepares forecasts four times a day of globally significant thunderstorms, tropical 

cyclones, severe squall lines, moderate or severe turbulence and icing, and cumulonimbus clouds 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Aviation Services are those specialized meteorological services and 

facilities established to meet the requirements of general, commercial, and military aviation. Civil 

programs that are directly related to services solely for aviation and military programs in support of 

land-based aviation and medium- or long-range missile operations are included. Detailed aviation 

services/products for specific areas include, but are not limited to, ceiling and visibility, convective 

hazards, en route winds and temperatures, ground de-icing, in-flight icing, terminal winds and 

temperatures, turbulence, volcanic ash, and other airborne hazardous materials. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 84 

associated with these conditions. The forecast charts also include information on volcanic 

activity, radiological releases, jet streams, and tropopause heights. This information is 

transmitted by the International Satellite Communications System (ISCS), a satellite data 

distribution system operated by NWS, with coverage in the Americas, Caribbean, Atlantic, 

western portions of Europe, the Pacific, and Eastern Asia. 

The AWC, along with the 

Alaska Region’s Alaska 

Aviation Weather Unit 

(AAWU) and the NWS 

Weather Forecast Office 

(WFO) in Honolulu, 

Hawaii, provides wind, 

temperature, and flight 

hazard (e.g., icing, and 

turbulence) forecasts for 

flight planning and en 

route aircraft operations 

for the United States, the 

north Atlantic and north 

Pacific routes, and some 

routes in the southern 

hemisphere. This 

information is transmitted 

via the ISCS in support of 

the World Area Forecast 

System (WAFS) for ICAO 

aviation data needs and in 

support of World 

Meteorological 

Organization (WMO) Region IV (North America) data exchange requirements. Starting in 2011, 

the ISCS is being supplemented with the WAFS Internet File Service (WIFS) to provide WAFS 

products and services, as defined by ICAO Annex 3, in an Internet web-based medium. ISCS 

will be phased out in 2012. 

In addition to satisfying these global requirements for aviation weather, AWC hosts the Aviation 

Digital Data Service (ADDS), which makes available to the aviation community text, digital, and 

graphical forecasts, analyses, and observations of aviation-related weather variables. The ADDS 

serves as a platform for aviation weather products emerging from the FAA Aviation Weather 

Research Program and transitioning to operations. It has become an invaluable resource to users, 

especially in the U.S. general aviation community. In 2011, AWC launched a new website 

infrastructure that capitalizes on its FAA certification as a Qualified Internet Communications 

Provider. The enhanced web presence provides increased levels of data reliability for uses. 

The United States, in agreement with ICAO, operates two Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers 

(VAACs) as entities within NOAA. One of these, the Anchorage VAAC, is part of the AAWU 

located in Anchorage, Alaska, and works closely with the Alaska Volcano Observatory. The 

The Aviation Weather Center (AWC) has the responsibility, as part of the World Area

Forecast Center, Washington, to provide global weather forecasts of significant

weather phenomena. Presently, the AWC produces these High Level Significant

Weather charts covering two thirds of the globe, both northern and southern

hemispheres that are issued four times per day.
 Aviation Services 

 85 

second VAAC, which is part of NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, Data, and 

Information Service (NESDIS) and NCEP, is located in Camp Springs, Maryland. The VAACs 

monitor volcanic activity through satellite remote sensing, provide initial notification of a 

volcanic eruption upon detection, and forecast volcanic ash plume movement and evolution. 

Under an agreement with the FAA, NWS meteorologists are assigned to Center Weather Service 

Units (CWSUs) located in each of the 21 FAA Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs). 

The CWSUs are currently supported by 84 NWS meteorologists (4 at each of the 21 ARTCCs) to 

provide real-time support and decision assistance concerning weather impacts on air traffic. In 

addition to supporting the ARTCCs, the CWSUs provide meteorological support to en route 

centers, Terminal Radar Approach Control facilities, and airport towers. Because CWSU forecast 

support is embedded within the aviation mission, forecasters can focus on specific customer 

needs. In one example, a specialized marine stratus display system was developed to address the 

difficult issue of fog formation and dissipation in the San Francisco Bay Area. The San Francisco 

stratus system is used operationally by the CWSU forecaster, WFO aviation forecaster, FAA 

traffic managers, and airline meteorologists. 

To operationally support the needs of aviation users today, the NWS WFOs prepare Terminal 

Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) eight times daily, with amendments as needed, for more than 630 

public-use airports in the United States and its territories in the Caribbean and Pacific. 

Thus, the NWS, through the NCEP AWC, the AAWU, the two VAACs, and the Honolulu WFO, 

provides large-scale, global aviation functions that can be sensibly centralized, while the NWS 

WFOs discharge local aviation functions based on the centralized guidance provided by the 

AWC. Additionally, NCEP’s Environmental Modeling Center (EMC) supplies global gridded 

model data of temperature, winds, and humidity twice daily for flight levels from 5,000 to 

45,000 feet. 

NWS’s Aviation Weather Services Program funds a broad range of initiatives designed to 

improve the delivery of aviation weather information to NAS users. These initiatives include the 

acquisition of aircraft-mounted water vapor sensors; development of software, tools, and training 

programs to enhance forecaster effectiveness; and development of products to improve weather 

information availability to the aviation community. NWS’s NextGen Weather Program provides 

funds for the development and implementation of improvements to accuracy and accessibility of 

aviation weather information, aimed at meeting the goals of the Next-Generation Air 

Transportation System (NextGen). 

Federal Aviation Administration 

Aviation Weather Observations 

Automated Surface Weather Observation Network (ASWON) 

ASWON is the FAA’s overarching program for providing automated weather observations at 

airports. The system includes eight separate programs: (1) the Automated Weather Observing 

System (AWOS), (2) Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), (3) ASOS Pre-Planned 

Product Improvement (P3I) project, (4) Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS), (5) Stand 

Alone Weather Sensors (SAWS), (6) AWOS Data Acquisition System (ADAS), (7) F-420 Wind 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 86 

System, and (8) Digital Altimeter Setting Indicator (DASI). ASWON provides automated 

surface weather observations to meet the needs of pilots, operators, and air traffic personnel. 

The ASOS P3I is the only remaining active development program within the ASWON portfolio, 

whereas the other programs are in service. ASOS P3I consists of five efforts: (1) ASOS 

Processor Rehost, (2) Dewpoint Sensor Replacement, (3) Ice-Free Wind Sensor, (4) Enhanced 

Precipitation Identification (EPI) sensor, and (5) Ceilometer Replacement. Of these five efforts, 

only the Ceilometer Replacement and the EPI sensor remain in development. The ASOS P3I 

program is managed by the NWS under an Interagency Agreement. 

AWOS. The FAA’s AWOS provides basic aviation weather observations directly to pilots 

approaching the airport. The majority of the 182 AWOS units installed are located at nontowered airports. They enhance aviation safety and the efficiency of flight operations by 

providing real-time weather data at airports that previously did not have local weather reporting 

capability. AWOS units are built to the standards of quality necessary to ensure the safety of 

flight operations. 

ASOS. The tri-agency (FAA, NOAA/NWS, and DOD) ASOS program is described above, in the 

Basic Services section. As noted there, about 426 ASOS units are installed at towered airports 

where the FAA provides augmentation/backup for the observations (see Observation Service 

Levels discussion below). The remaining units are installed at non-towered airports (Observation 

Level D). 

AWSS. This automated observing system has capabilities similar to ASOS. However, the AWSS 

was a direct acquisition of the FAA rather than an acquisition through the joint ASOS program. 

Commissioning of the original 19 AWSS installations was completed in 2005. Observation 

Level C service is available at 7 airports, and Level D service is available at 12 airports. An 

additional 25 AWSS have been installed at airports in Alaska as part of the ADS-B/Capstone 

program. 

ADAS. ADAS functions primarily as a message concentrator, collecting observation data from 

AWOS, ASOS, and AWSS equipment located at controlled and noncontrolled airports within 

each ARTCC’s area of responsibility. ADAS distributes one-minute AWOS/ASOS observations 

to automated systems. It also collects data from a lightning vendor and enters the data into an 

ADAS module called the Automated Lightning Detection and Reporting System (ALDARS). 

ALDARS appends thunderstorm information to observations at 569 ASOS, 19 AWSS, and 180 

Federal AWOS locations. ADAS forwards the AWOS/ASOS/AWSS METAR and SPECI 

observations to the communications system for further distribution. 

Observation Service Levels 

The FAA has added services for aviation weather observations at many airports across the 

country. To provide the appropriate observational service, FAA is using automated systems, 

human observers, or a mix of the two. It has been necessary to place airports into four categories 

according to the number of operations per year, any special designation for the airport, and the 

frequency with which airport operations are affected by weather. 
 Aviation Services 

 87 

ASOS Level D Service. Level D Service is provided by a stand-alone ASOS. Level D service is 

available at 458 airports. 

ASOS Level C Service. Level C service includes the ASOS plus augmentation by tower 

personnel. Tower personnel add to the report their observations of thunderstorms, tornadoes, 

hail, tower visibility, volcanic ash, and virga when the tower is in operation. Level C service is 

available at 300 airports. 

ASOS Level B Service. Level B service includes all of the weather parameters in Level C service 

plus Runway Visual Range (RVR) and the following parameters when observed: freezing drizzle 

versus freezing rain, ice pellets, snow depth, snow increasing rapidly remarks, thunderstorm/ 

lightning location remarks, and remarks for observed significant weather not at the station. Level 

B service is available at 58 airports. 

ASOS Level A Service. Level A service includes all of the weather parameters in Level B service 

plus 10-minute averaged RVR for long-line transmission or additional visibility increments of 

1/8, 1/16, and 0 miles. Level A service is available at 72 airports. 

Stand Alone Weather Sensors 

The SAWS project was initiated in 1998 as one of eight projects for ASWON. SAWS systems 

provide temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, and barometric pressure for altimeter 

settings. The systems were installed primarily as a backup for AWSS/ASOS sensors at Service 

Level C airports where no other backup capability is available. In addition to serving as an 

AWSS/ASOS back-up, SAWS has been certified for operational use and may, at the local Air 

Traffic Manager’s discretion, be used to replace F-420 wind speed/direction indicators and 

DASIs. SAWS capability has been demonstrated, production is complete, and the FAA has 131 

SAWS systems installed and commissioned. 

AWOS for Non-Federal Applications 

Under the Airport Improvement Program (AIP), State and other local jurisdictions may justify to 

the FAA the need to enhance their airport facilities. Upon approval, these improvements can be 

partially funded by the FAA using resources from the Airway Trust Fund. The local airport 

authority becomes responsible for the remainder of the funding necessary to complete the 

procurement, as well as the funding for regular maintenance. Addition of an AWOS is one of the 

improvements that qualify for AIP funding assistance. Airports can also use State, local or 

private funds to purchase non-Federal AWOS. Systems that qualify must meet certain standards, 

which are defined in the FAA Advisory Circular on Non-Federal Automated Weather Observing 

Systems. There are more than 1,085 non-Federal AWOS locations. Non-Federal AWOS may be 

AWOS-A, A/V, I, II, III or IV variants. Some of these—the AWOS III and AWOS IV variants—

are capable of reporting through a geostationary communications satellite. These observations 

will be entered into the national network for use in support of the NAS and the national weather 

network. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 88 

Weather And Radar Processor (WARP) 

The WARP system was designed to close an identified performance gap in providing accurate 

and timely weather information by replacing the long-range surveillance radar weather 

reflectivity data with more accurate information from the Next Generation Weather Radar 

(NEXRAD; WSR-88D) system. Accurate weather information presented in an integrated manner 

in the en route environment gives air traffic controllers a comprehensive picture of where aircraft 

can safely fly while making the most efficient use of airspace. The WARP system enhances 

safety, reduces weather-related delays, and improves collaborative decision-making. 

The WARP system is operational at the 21 ARTCCs and at the Air Traffic Control System 

Command Center (ATCSCC). Each operational WARP system consists of a number of 

subsystems, which together perform the following primary WARP functions: 

 Integrate timely and accurate convective weather onto air traffic controller displays 

 Support to the Traffic Management Unit and to air traffic control specialists at the 

ARTCCs and the ATCSCC with a wide variety of weather data 

 Disseminate weather data to critical NAS subsystems 

 Provide current and forecast data to CWSU meteorologists, and a communications link to 

supported air traffic personnel 

These WARP weather functions furnish timely, accurate, and integrated weather products to 

other NAS systems. 

A WARP technical refresh is addressing the aging infrastructure of the existing WARP hardware 

and software systems. Refresh activities include communications upgrades, implementation of 

mandatory Security Certification and Accreditation Package (SCAP) mitigation activities, and 

the design and development of interfaces to critical NAS systems that require weather data such 

as the En Route Automation Modernization (ERAM) and Advanced Technologies and Oceanic 

Procedures (ATOP) systems. 

WARP maintenance and sustainment activities will continue, and efforts will be initiated for the 

incorporation of data format changes as well as ongoing required information systems security 

activities. The WARP system will continue to be sustained until the equivalent functionality in 

the NextGen Weather Portfolio is deployed. 

WARP continues to support the FAA goal of greater capacity, as set forth in Destination 2025: 

the FAA Strategic Plan: work with airspace users to provide increased capacity in the U.S. 

airspace system that reduces congestion and meets projected demand in an environmentally 

sound manner. 

Wind Shear Detection Services (WSDS) 

WSDS is a portfolio of ground-based wind shear technologies in the NAS, divided into two work 

packages (WPs). WSDS will sustain existing wind shear service until 2028 and also improve 

wind shear service by leveraging new wind shear technology such as Wind Hazard Detection 
 Aviation Services 

 89 

Equipment (WHDE, formally referred to as Light Detection and Ranging, or LIDAR) and by 

expanding wind shear service to unprotected and underprotected sites in a cost-effective and 

cost-efficient manner. 

The WP1 (Legacy) package contains the Low Level Wind shear Alerting System (LLWAS), 

Weather Systems Processor (WSP), and Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR). These three 

legacy wind shear technologies are nearing the end of their service life and are in need of either a 

Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) or a Technology Refresh to ensure that existing wind 

shear performance levels are sustained until the NextGen wind shear technology is available. 

WP2 consists of new and innovative wind shear technology such as WHDE and will expand 

wind shear service to unprotected and underprotected sites. 

The WSDS program will accomplish its goals by constructing a business case to evaluate the 

existing wind shear systems and determine how best to maintain wind shear service until the 

NextGen windshear service is fully implemented. After ensuring that existing wind shear service 

levels will be properly maintained, the WSDS program will turn its attention to modernizing, 

improving, and “right-sizing” wind shear service as a whole. 

The output of the business case will be recommendations to FAA executives on how to maintain 

existing wind shear service levels and how best to improve wind shear service in a cost-effective 

and cost-efficient manner that will translate into benefits that can be realized by both the FAA 

and the flying public. 

WSDS supports the FAA goal of Provide Weather Products: provide program management for 

capital acquisitions aimed at increasing safety. These investments for FY 2011 include WSDS 

portfolio, WP1. 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar 

The TDWR program consists of operational, 

dedicated aviation terminal weather radars that 

employ Doppler techniques to detect weather 

phenomena. TDWR units have been located to 

optimize the detection of microbursts and wind 

shear at selected airports with high operations and 

frequent weather impacts. In addition, TDWR has 

the capability to identify areas of precipitation and 

the locations of thunderstorms. The FAA has 45 

operational and 2 support TDWR systems. 

Microbursts are weather phenomena that consist 

of an intense downdraft with strong surface wind 

outflows. They are particularly dangerous to 

landing or departing aircraft. The TDWR 

scanning strategy is optimized for 

microburst/wind shear detection. The radars are 

A Terminal Doppler Weather Radar located near airport operating areas so as to 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 90 

provide the best scan of runways and the approach and departure corridors. System displays are 

located in the tower cab and Terminal Radar Approach Control Facility. 

The TDWRs provide wind shear alert conditions for airport approach and departure advisories. 

They also provide supplementary wind information that allows airport managers to turn the 

airports around in time to accommodate wind shifts predicted by the TDWRs. This increases 

airport capacities by reducing the delays traditionally associated with major wind shifts. The 

high-performance LLWAS Network Expansion (LLWAS-NE) systems supplement the 

microburst detection capabilities of the TDWRs at nine airports. 

The NWS developed an interface so the TDWR data can be displayed on the Advanced Weather 

Information Processing System (AWIPS) and shared through the NWS national collection point. 

A SLEP is underway to maintain and improve TDWR system capability. 

Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS) 

The FAA developed ITWS to help air traffic flow more efficiently during periods of bad 

weather. ITWS provides accurate, easy-to-understand, and immediately usable weather 

information on full-color graphic displays. It uses input data from TDWR, NEXRAD, Airport 

Surveillance Radar Models 9 and 11 (ASR-9, ASR-11), LLWAS, AWOS, and ASOS. Other 

inputs come from the National Lightning Detection Network, the NWS Rapid Update Cycle 

(RUC) forecast model, and aircraft reports from the Meteorological Data Collection and 

Reporting System. It combines these data with highly sophisticated meteorological algorithms to 

display current and predicted weather and warnings of potentially hazardous weather events, 

from the airport’s location out to 200 nautical miles. 

ITWS products include information on windshear, microbursts, gust fronts, storm cell motion 

and speed, terminal area winds aloft, lightning, hail, and tornadoes. A Terminal Convective 

Weather Forecast enhancement was added in 2006 to increase the forecast time of predictive 

products from 20 to 60 minutes. This enhancement provides additional data to assist air traffic 

personnel in using forecast information more effectively. 

The FAA installed and commissioned ITWS at 34 operational sites that serve 76 airports, 29 of 

which are Operational Evolution Partnership (OEP) Level 1 airports. ITWS Situation Displays 

are installed in 15 Secondary Reliever airports, and ITWS displays are located in air traffic 

control towers, terminal radar approach control facilities, and ARTCCs. ITWS Situation 

Displays, as well as intranet web-based ITWS products, are available to the ATCSCC, airline 

operations centers, and other approved users. Pilots can also receive ITWS information in the 

cockpit. 

FAA benefits studies have shown that the 34 installed ITWS systems are generating significant 

benefits for both traffic flow and airlines. FAA traffic managers and controllers, the airlines, 

pilots, and other airspace users can use ITWS information to improve the efficiency and safety of 

air traffic flow during convective weather. ITWS provides the benefits of common situational 

awareness, collaborative decision-making, and tactical planning for its users. For example, the 

current and future predicted locations of convective weather around airports, which affects both 

airborne and ground operations, can be used to keep runways open longer as the weather 
 Aviation Services 

 91 

approaches and then to reopen runways sooner after the weather passes, allowing more takeoffs 

and landings. These efficiencies increase effective capacity and reduce weather delays for 

airlines and the traveling public, saving time for the flying public and money for the airlines. 

In February 2010, ITWS successfully completed a Post Implementation Review, conducted by 

the FAA Joint Resources Council Investment Process Management Group, which concluded 

that: 

 ITWS achieved all of its performance goals, as documented in the Office of Management 

and Budget (OMB) Exhibit 300 FY 2011 submission; and 

 The original ITWS business case, which defines ITWS functionality, cost, and benefits, 

continues to be valid. 

ITWS is an FAA NextGen Contributor program and directly supports the Reduce Weather 

Impact (RWI) and NextGen Network Enabled Weather (NNEW) initiatives within NextGen. On 

behalf of the FAA, via an Intra-Agency Agreement, the John A. Volpe National Transportation 

Systems Center is leading the development effort for the Terminal Data Distribution System and 

hosting ITWS in order to facilitate the exchange of critical flight information as part of System 

Wide Information Management (SWIM). With ITWS, the Volpe Center successfully developed 

and delivered the first SWIM-compliant weather data feed, enabling traffic managers to adjust 

flight patterns at ITWS-equipped airports to accommodate changes in weather conditions. This 

ITWS-SWIM prototype has been operational since the end of FY 2008. ITWS-SWIM Segment 1 

capability became operational in January 2011. 

Via a separate Intra-Agency Agreement, the Volpe Center hosts the ITWS User II Web Site, 

which distributes ITWS data to external users. The availability of this enhanced weather 

information means that system users now will be able to employ these products in their flight 

planning and that FAA will be better equipped to manage the nation’s air traffic. 

Weather Camera Program 

The FAA has installed aviation weather cameras as an aid to Visual Flight Rules (VFR) pilots 

operating in Alaska. Through the cameras and the Internet, pilots get a current picture of the 

weather conditions to assist them in making flight decisions. There are over 150 camera sites 

installed and operating, with an additional 24 requested for FY 2012. 

Juneau Airport Wind System (JAWS) 

JAWS provides data on terrain-induced wind and turbulence to improve safety of flight and 

decrease the probability of experiencing unnecessary weather-related delays in and out of the 

Juneau International Airport, Alaska. JAWS data are provided to the aviation community as 

advisory because of the restrictive geographical features that affect approach and departure 

paths. JAWS measures and displays wind information to the Juneau Automated Flight Service 

Station for use in preparing pilot briefings. Alaska Airlines uses JAWS data to comply with its 

Operations Specification, the NWS uses JAWS data for weather forecasting, and other Alaska 

aviation users access JAWS data via the Internet. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 92 

JAWS supports the FAA goal of Provide Weather Products: provide program management for 

capital acquisitions aimed at increasing safety. The FY 2011 investments included JAWS–

Harden Prototype and Implementation. The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) 

developed the prototype JAWS and has been operating and maintaining the prototype since 

1998. A December 2008 investment decision approved implementing a hardened prototype as 

the end-state JAWS which is planned for completion in early 2012. The end-state JAWS will be 

operated and maintained by the FAA, with NCAR providing operations and maintenance history 

and technical support during the transition. 

National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation 

Under the auspices of the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and 

Supporting Research (OFCM), the following agencies participate in the interagency Working 

Group for Volcanic Ash (WG/VA) and Committee for Aviation Services and Research (CASR): 

FAA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), NOAA, U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), the U.S. Air Force, and the Smithsonian Institution. The WG/VA has prepared a 

National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation. The purpose of the plan is to provide 

operational guidance by documenting the required procedures and information products of the 

government agencies responsible for ensuring safety of flight operations when volcanic ash has 

erupted into the atmosphere. This document also provides information on how the FAA, as the 

U.S. metrological authority with regard to the ICAO, meets its obligations to the International 

Airways Volcano Watch, which is sponsored by the ICAO. There are several regional plans in 

addition to the national plan. The Regional Interagency Volcanic Ash Operating Plan for Alaska 

was updated in 2010, and the plan for the Pacific Northwest (Washington and Oregon) was 

completed in 2011. Regional plans typically also 

involve State and local agencies. 

USGS. Through its five Volcano Observatories, the 

USGS is responsible for monitoring volcanoes in the 

United States and issuing notifications about volcanic 

activity as it waxes and wanes at individual 

volcanoes. USGS Volcano Observatories use a 

combination of ground-based, airborne, and spacebased techniques to interpret precursory unrest and 

forecast expected volcanic activity (including when 

eruptions are not expected). Data and notifications of 

eruptive activity from USGS monitoring activities are 

supplied to FAA and DOD to provide warnings for 

pilots and aircraft operators and to NOAA/NWS to 

aid in its forecasting and tracking of ash clouds. 

Because of the proximity of Aleutian volcanoes to 

busy North Pacific air routes, the USGS’s Alaska 

Volcano Observatory (AVO) has been and continues 

to be a world leader in the integration of volcano 

observatory operations with efforts to mitigate the 

risk from airborne volcanic ash to en route. USGS 

notifications and warnings about current volcanic 

Volcanic ash hazards can be catastrophic to

aviation operations.
 Aviation Services 

 93 

activity throughout the United States are available to the public at http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/. 

The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland in the spring of 2010 and ensuing shutdown of 

European airspace focused attention on the global economic disruption that a volcanic ash cloud 

can have on the transportation of people and goods. USGS experts on the issue of airborne 

volcanic ash have been working with FAA, NOAA, and DOD colleagues, as well as with ICAO, 

to improve capabilities in mitigating the impact of the presence of volcanic ash in busy flight 

routes, both domestic and international. USGS also has established a new project that focuses 

exclusively on volcanic ash and brings together USGS efforts in research and development of 

new operational tools. One element of the new project is to collaborate with the NWS in Alaska 

on improving ash fall warnings for the public. The USGS has posted pages on its website 

devoted to practical guidance for dealing with ash hazards to transportation, communications, 

agriculture, water supplies, etc.; see http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash. 

Recognizing that many potentially dangerous volcanoes have inadequate or no ground-based 

monitoring, the USGS recently evaluated volcano-monitoring capabilities and published “An 

Assessment of Volcanic Threat and Monitoring Capabilities in the United States: Framework for 

a National Volcano Early Warning System (NVEWS)” (available online at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1164/). Results of the NVEWS volcanic threat and monitoring 

assessment are being used to guide long-term improvements to the national volcano-monitoring 

infrastructure operated by the USGS and affiliated groups. The most threatening volcanoes—

those near communities and transportation infrastructure (ground and air) and with a history of 

frequent and violent eruptions—need to be well monitored in real time with an extensive suite of 

instrument types to detect the earliest symptoms of unrest and to reliably forecast behavior of the 

volcano. Waiting until unrest escalates to augment monitoring capabilities at these high-threat 

volcanoes puts people (including scientists in the field) and property at undue risk. Remote, 

isolated, or less frequently erupting volcanoes that nevertheless can pose hazards to air-traffic 

corridors require sufficient monitoring capability with ground-based instruments to detect and 

track unrest in real time so that other agencies responsible for en route flight safety can be kept 

apprised of the potential for explosive, ash-cloud-forming eruptions. 

NASA. Through its fleet of satellite assets, NASA is able to rapidly generate and broadly 

disseminate imagery and data products on the location, heights, and densities of ash plumes and 

related hazards. These data products fuel a range of research and applications investigations that 

enhance our knowledge of solid Earth processes, atmospheric transport and composition, and the 

impacts that volcanic eruptions have on the Earth system. Although NASA does not have 

operational responsibility for observation and analysis of volcanic gas and aerosol emissions, its 

fleet of research spacecraft provides data that are directly applicable to the societal hazards 

presented by these phenomena. 

NASA's Earth Science Division currently operates three on-orbit sensors that monitor volcanic 

ash, gases, aerosols, and eruptions. NASA plans to launch a new satellite in 2011 to build on this 

capability. The three sensors currently on orbit are the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared 

Pathfinder Satellite Observation satellite (CALIPSO), a joint mission between NASA and the 

French space agency CNES; the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI)—a contribution of the 

Netherlands's Agency for Aerospace Programs (NIVR) in collaboration with the Finnish 

Meteorological Institute (FMI)—onboard the Aura satellite; and the Moderate Resolution 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 94 

Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) onboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. NASA-built sensors 

on NOAA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) and Polar Operational 

Environmental Satellites (POES) also support volcanic ash monitoring. NASA launched the 

NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) satellite on October 28, 2011. Onboard NPP are the Visible 

Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) and the Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS) 

to augment NASA’s current capabilities. 

NOAA. NOAA/NWS is responsible for volcanic ash services in the United States. The program 

is currently managed under the Aviation Services Branch at NWS Headquarters in Silver Spring, 

Maryland. Although the main focus has been and continues to be on the airborne ash hazards 

(mainly impacting aviation), there has been a move in the past several years to expand into an 

“all hazards” approach that incorporates both the NWS Public and Marine Services programs. 

The NWS is a co-lead in the development of regional volcanic ash response plans in the United 

States. Plans are currently in place for Alaska, the Pacific Northwest (Washington, Oregon), and 

the Northern Marianas Islands. Future plans are being developed for Hawaii, California, and 

Puerto Rico/Eastern Caribbean. These plans are available on the OFCM web site at 

www.ofcm.gov. As noted earlier, NOAA/NWS also operates the Anchorage VAAC and partners 

with NESDIS to operate the Washington VAAC—two of the nine such international centers. 

NOAA/NESDIS is responsible for providing satellite data used in detecting and tracking 

volcanic ash in the atmosphere and is dedicated to providing timely access to global 

environmental data from satellites and other sources to promote, protect, and enhance the 

Nation's economy, security, environment, and quality of life. Many of the operational 

environmental satellites operated by NESDIS (see NOAA/NESDIS in Basic Services section) 

have channels available to help forecasters detect and track volcanic ash. The GOES-R and JPSS 

programs are joint NOAA-NASA programs that will provide more frequent, higher resolution 

imagery for the detection and tracking of volcanic ash beginning in 2015. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

The National Airspace System of the Future 

To address the growing demands on the NAS for the future, the 108th Congress and the George 

W. Bush Administration promulgated and signed into law VISION 100 Century of Aviation 

Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-176). The Vision 100 Act calls for an integrated, multi-agency 

plan to transform the nation’s air transportation system to meet the needs of the year 2025 and 

beyond, while providing substantial near-term benefits. The resulting Next Generation Air 

Transportation System (NextGen) Initiative will address critical safety and economic needs in 

civil aviation, while fully integrating national defense and homeland security improvements into 

the future NAS. 

Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) 

The FAA, NASA, and the Departments of Commerce, Defense, Homeland Security, and 

Transportation, along with the private sector and academic community, are working together 

with the Office of Science and Technology Policy to design and build NextGen. To coordinate 

this work, VISION 100 created the JPDO, which reports to the Senior Vice President for 
 Aviation Services 

 95 

NextGen and Operations Planning within FAA’s Air Traffic Organization (ATO). Within the 

JPDO is the Weather Working Group, which facilitates integrating longer-term planning. 

NextGen Integration and Implementation Office 

Two principal FAA entities that report to the Senior Vice President for NextGen and Operations 

Planning are focused upon implementation of NextGen: the NextGen Integration and 

Implementation Office and the Aviation Weather Group (AWG). The role of the NextGen 

Integration and Implementation Office is to ensure that the plans for the several NextGen 

strategic thrusts, called solution sets, are coordinated and integrated for efficient near- and 

medium-term implementation across the FAA. These sets include NNEW and the RWI Solution 

Set. NNEW is a transformational program that will address the weather dissemination 

infrastructure within the Air Navigation Service Provider. RWI is focused on improving weather 

observations, weather forecasts, and operational decisions based upon that improved weather 

information by integrating it into manual and automated decision support tools in the NAS. In 

addition to working with the AWG, the RWI Solution Set coordinates the investment analysis 

and acquisition of new weather systems and services within the FAA’s Aviation Weather 

Services Directorate, NOAA/NWS, and other JPDO agencies. 

FAA AWG and AWSD Roles in NEXTGEN Transition 

The AWG and AWSD have important roles in the transition from today’s aviation weather 

services to future NNEW, RWI Weather Forecast Improvements, and other NextGen Weather 

Processing capabilities, as the FAA moves from air traffic control to air traffic management

(ATM). In the NextGen system, most communications will occur as digital data, much of it 

transferred directly from computer to computer. Relevant information will be shared easily 

among system users through network-enabled information access. 

The AWSD develops mission need and investment analysis for initial investment decisions for 

FAA aviation weather sensors, forecasting capability, dissemination systems, and integration of 

improved weather capability into the NAS. The focus is on NextGen, including collaboration 

with Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR), with ICAO for advanced aviation weather 

standards, and with all the U.S. agencies involved in NextGen. This work addresses the high cost 

of weather to today’s NAS, where weather is responsible for 70 percent of delays over 15 

minutes and contributes to 24 percent of accidents and 34 percent of fatalities. Up to two-thirds 

of weather delays are avoidable, but despite a continuous flow of improvements available 

through aviation weather science and implementation solutions aimed at providing better 

weather information, weather continues to have significant impacts on aviation costs and safety. 

The purposes of this program are to reduce the number of weather-related aviation accidents; 

reduce aviation flight delays, diversions, and cancellations; improve the operational efficiency of 

the NAS; and harmonize ICAO standard with U.S. practices in aviation weather. 

The NextGen program in AWSD is composed of three elements: 

1. The Concept Identification and Development component generates, analyzes, manages, 

allocates, and validates requirements in the NextGen aviation weather portfolio. It focuses 

on the early stages of requirements from their inception/generation to the investment 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 96 

analysis and subsequent requirements decision. It develops transformational (NextGen midterm and far-term capabilities), as well as evolutionary requirements (NextGen near-term 

capabilities). It formulates agreements between government and industry stakeholders on 

policies needed to meet requirements for airborne weather observations, including cost 

sharing, data access and distribution, data reporting frequency, aircraft equipage, and other 

technical issues. Finally, this program develops policies necessary for the allocation of 

roles and responsibilities in the provision of weather state information to meet requirements 

and U.S. commitments to ICAO. 

2. The Global Harmonization component carries out FAA’s role as the U.S. Meteorological 

Authority to ICAO. It promotes global harmonization through the development of ICAO 

Standards and Recommended Practices and manuals/guideline documents for surface and 

airborne observations/forecasts and global dissemination of aviation weather information 

that are supportive of NextGen. This work is accomplished through developing and 

presenting, to 12 ICAO planning, study, and operations groups, U.S. positions on issues 

arising from the ICAO Volcanic Ash program, the World Area Forecast System, the 

international Space Weather program, and amendments to ICAO Annex 3 and other 

guidance material to incorporate the NextGen concept of the 4-D Weather Data Cube. 

3. The System Performance component develops metrics that provide a framework for 

enabling the FAA to measure the benefits of weather information for air traffic operations. 

It maintains standards for surface observations for the backup and augmentation of ASOS. 

The development of NAS weather requirements under this program is an essential artifact of the 

following NextGen documents: the Weather Concept of Operations, the Mission Needs 

Statement for Weather (MNS-339), the Preliminary Portfolio Requirements, and the Final 

Portfolio Requirements. The requirements work in this program feeds later-stage activities, as 

defined by the FAA Acquisition Management System (AMS) lifecycle, of the RWI and NNEW 

portfolios. 

The Reduce Weather Impact Portfolio 

RWI is a planning and development portfolio to ensure NextGen operational weather capabilities 

utilize a broad range of weather improvements and technologies to mitigate the effects of 

weather in future NAS operations. This portfolio has two major elements: weather observation 

improvements and weather forecast improvements. RWI will address many weather problems 

including, but not limited to, rightsizing the observations network, transition of weather research 

to operations, development of weather impact metrics, development of weather decision support 

tools, integration of weather information into operations, weather processor architecture redesign 

and restructuring, and transition planning for legacy systems. RWI will conduct planning, 

prototyping, demonstrations, engineering evaluation, and investment readiness activities leading 

to an implementation of operational capabilities throughout the NextGen near, mid, and far 

terms. 

A consistent and effective weather observation sensor network will be a cornerstone to improved 

NextGen weather capabilities. Currently the United States has fielded multiple weather surface 

sensor networks that vary in age up to 30 years. Ongoing technical refreshes and SLEPs can keep 
 Aviation Services 

 97 

these sensors operating in the near to mid term. However as the demands of the NAS increase in 

the future, the present array of surface sensor systems will not be capable of delivering the 

required functionality. In addition, potential NextGen weather observation requirements might 

exceed current surface sensing capabilities (e.g., improved weather model initialization for 

increased weather forecast accuracy). Current surface observation systems also contain 

considerable overlap and waste that should be engineered out of the NAS. RWI weather 

observation improvements will explore concepts for a next-generation surface sensing capability 

that can satisfy all current surface sensing requirements in a single system and be easily 

expandable to meet any future NextGen requirements. 

The second RWI element, weather forecast improvements, addresses the need to enable better 

weather decision-making and use of weather information in the transformed NAS. This need 

includes: (1) integrating weather information tailored for decision support tools and systems into 

NextGen operations, (2) implementing improved forecasts by transitioning advanced forecast 

capabilities from aviation weather research, (3) developing and using metrics to evaluate the 

effectiveness of weather improvements in the NAS, (4) developing probabilistic forecasts that 

can be effectively used in air traffic and traffic flow management, and (5) determining the most 

effective solution for a processor architecture to support these capabilities. RWI will propose 

recommendations for near, mid, and far time frames, including a recommendation for transition 

of legacy systems. 

Collectively the effect of the NextGen RWI portfolio will result in aviation weather information 

no longer being just a stand-alone display, requiring cognitive interpretation and impact 

assessment, with limited ability to significantly mitigate delays. Instead, weather information is 

being designed to integrate with and support NextGen decision-oriented automation capabilities 

and human decision-making processes. 

The NextGen 4-Dimensional Weather Data Cube and Single Authoritative Source 

NextGen weather development activities will contribute to: (1) Expanded Capacity by providing 

air traffic managers the ability to better plan for predicted weather impacts on air travel, thus 

maximizing air space usage and optimizing flight routes; (2) Improved Safety by providing pilots 

and air traffic managers the ability to better assess and avoid hazards to air travel, such as severe 

turbulence, and (3) Protection of the Environment by enabling flight route optimization on the 

ground and in the air, thereby avoiding ground delays or holding patterns that require 

unnecessary jet fuel expenditure. 

NOAA’s commitment to the NextGen initiative will result in the development and deployment 

of the NextGen 4-Dimensional (4-D) Weather Data Cube. The “4-D” references weather from 

the surface up to aircraft flight altitudes, extending north-south and east-west, and including 

current and future conditions. This Data Cube is not a physical database; instead it refers to data 

having the following characteristics: 

a. Improvements to information technology infrastructure comparable to those already 

employed by other governmental agencies and by industry to provide greater and easier 

access to NOAA weather information for aviation decision-makers. Greater access to 

aviation-relevant weather information will facilitate better integration of this information 

into aviation users’ decision-making processes and systems. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 98 

b. More consistent aviation weather information, providing a complete picture of how 

weather will impact aviation across NAS. 

c. Improvements to the accuracy of weather information. More accurate aviation weather 

information, achieved through higher resolution weather models, will improve air traffic 

managers’ ability to fine-tune their assessment of the impact of the weather on airports 

and air routes to safely maximize available air space. 

d. Improvements to aviation forecast generation techniques. NWS meteorologists require 

advanced tools and techniques to enable faster, more accurate generation of aviation 

weather information. 

The NextGen Single Authoritative Source (SAS) identifies the preferred, consistent data source 

to be used to support collaborative air traffic management decisions. It is an optimal 

representation of all Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) weather state information derived 

from the NextGen 4-D Weather Data Cube. A subset of the data published to the 4-D Weather 

Data Cube will be designated as the SAS. The SAS will be consistent in time, space, and among 

weather elements and will be used directly or translated into products with operational impact by 

the ANSP. The SAS will be specified by the ANSP and will be accessible to all users of the 

NAS. The ANSP will specify characteristics of weather state information needed to support its 

ATM decision-making and the corresponding decision support tools. As NextGen capabilities 

mature, the ANSP requirements will evolve. The NWS will, in coordination with the U.S. Air 

Force and Navy weather services, determine what weather state information best meets the SAS 

requirements specified by the ANSP. Information from any source, including commercial 

sources, can be used to meet SAS requirements as long as it can be freely distributed to all. 

With rare exceptions, the SAS will be the only source of weather information for the ANSP’s 

ATM decisions; however, it will not necessarily be the only source for other decision-makers, 

such as pilots, dispatchers, and military operators. Making the SAS both a support tool for the 

ANSP’s ATM decisions and a NextGen resource provides both transparency and predictability in 

these decisions and shared situational awareness for all NextGen participants. 

The NextGen Network Enabled Weather Program 

NNEW is part of an interagency effort to provide quick, easy, and cost effective access to 

weather information by all aviation users. NNEW will define and provide the FAA’s portion of 

the interagency infrastructure used to support the 4-D Weather Data Cube, which will contain all 

relevant weather information needed to support operational aviation decisions by the FAA. The 

4-D Weather Data Cube consists of weather data published in various databases within FAA, 

NOAA, and DOD, as well as commercial weather data providers that may participate. NNEW 

provides: (1) registries/repositories needed to locate and retrieve published data in the Data 

Cube, (2) the capability to translate among various standards that will be employed and to 

provide data in user-required units and coordinate systems, and (3) the capability to support 

retrieval requests for data volumes (such as along a flight trajectory). 
 Aviation Services 

 99 

Weather Technology in the Cockpit (WTIC) Program 

One of the weather-related goals of NextGen is to reduce weather delays, allowing more efficient 

and flexible traffic management. The primary objectives of the WTIC program are to: (1) reduce 

workloads for pilots, flight crews, and the ATM in support of efforts to increase NAS capacity; 

(2) support NextGen and other near-, mid-, and far-term programs needs for the availability of 

enhanced meteorological (MET) information; (3) eliminate MET information gaps and meet user 

needs; to more efficiently use existing data link bandwidth; and (4) reduce ambiguity in 

transmitted MET information. Additional objectives are (1) to support increased efficiency via 

timelier decisions in adverse weather and more optimum routes from enhanced wind and 

temperature information and (2) to reduce the likelihood of recurrence of specific weatherrelated incidents, including those reported in the Aviation Safety Reporting System as well as 

other safety reporting systems. 

The initial WTIC research evaluated the overarching NextGen Concept of Operations and 

requirements for NextGen weather support on the flight deck, identified the current capabilities 

to meet NextGen requirements, evaluated planned and funded development of new weather 

support capabilities, and identified gaps between NextGen requirement and current developing 

weather support capabilities. Since WTIC requires data links to support the dissemination of 

MET information to users in various coverage environments, the program is researching required 

data link capability for bandwidth, security, quality of service, and reliability. Based on the 

results of this WTIC research, the program will develop functional and performance 

requirements for cockpit integration of MET information; guidance on the rendering of MET 

information in the cockpit; and recommended data link architectures for uplinking, downlinking, 

and crosslinking MET information. 

In addition, WTIC human factors research will enable the development of human performance, 

technology design, and human-computer interaction requirements and standards to enable safe, 

efficient, and cost-effective operations and training. The human factors research will attempt to 

identify shortcomings in current capabilities in order to focus weather technology advancements 

on optimizing safety and efficiency for flight operations under Parts 91, 121, and 135 of the 

Federal Aviation Regulations. 

The information management and human factors research deliverables will enable the 

development of Air Circulars and Orders for NextGen training, symbology, and information 

standards; support the development of aircraft certification standards for Minimum Aviation 

Safety Performance Standards (MASPS), Minimum Operations Standards (MOPS), and 

Technical Standard Orders (TSO) to support development, operations, and procedures for 

weather technologies in the cockpit. In addition, the WTIC program research will support the 

development of the communications information management to include storage and retrieval 

requirements and standards to acquire MET information from commercial and governmentprovided graphical and textual databases. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 100 

NextGen Wake Turbulence 

This research has the objective of determining the NAS infrastructure requirements (ground and 

aircraft) for implementing the NextGen trajectory-based operations and high density concepts 

within the constraints of aircraft-generated wake vortices and aircraft collision risk. 

FAA Research and Development: The Aviation Weather Research Program 

The Aviation Weather Research Program (AWRP) will continue research into understanding the 

geophysical phenomena in the atmosphere and around airports that present hazardous conditions 

for aircraft operations. These hazards include in-flight icing, convective weather, turbulence, low 

ceiling, restricted visibility, volcanic ash, summer and winter storm activity, and others. 

Additional work is being done to improve models and develop advanced weather radar 

techniques. 

In-Flight Icing 

This research is aimed at developing improvements to in-flight icing diagnosis, which includes 

detection and forecasting. The Current Icing Product (CIP) and Forecast Icing Product (FIP) 

have been developed to provide hourly updates of current and forecast conditions out to 12 

hours. These products include severity and probability of icing conditions and supercooled large 

drop potential. Planned efforts include expanding the CIP and FIP to Alaska and globally 

(oceanic routes). 

Convective Weather 

Research efforts for convective weather are targeted to developing an advanced storm prediction 

algorithm over the continental United States to provide more accurate structure depiction 

(including growth and decay), with longer lead times, of hazardous convection and winter storm 

activity so that ATM decision makers can make enhanced decisions relative to traffic flow. 

These efforts will also improve safety near thunderstorms. Fuzzy logic forecast technology, 

coupled with numerical weather predictions and climatology, is utilized to produce a blended 0-8 

hour and beyond forecast. These forecasts will also enhance the capability to predict storm 

growth, real extent, movement, and type of precipitation. Probabilistic forecasts are also being 

developed to enable more accurate traffic flow management decisions and more efficient use of 

the NAS. 

Turbulence 

This research has focused on producing a system of real-time turbulence nowcasts and 

probabilistic forecasts of turbulence. The approach includes a turbulence forecasting task in 

conjunction with two supporting sensor tasks: one for in situ detection of turbulence and the 

second for remote sensing of turbulence. The in situ task has resulted in the deployment of an 

aircraft-based turbulence detection algorithm on aircraft at United Airlines and Delta Airlines. 

Current efforts include deployment at Southwest Airlines. The remote-sensing task has targeted 

the use of data from the NEXRAD radar network. Data from the NEXRAD Turbulence 

Detection Algorithm, currently operational on NEXRAD, will be used as input in the production 

of the Graphical Turbulence Guidance Nowcast (GTGN) product. 
 Aviation Services 

 101 

National Ceiling and Visibility (NCV) 

The Ceiling and Visibility Product Development Team is developing automated ceiling and 

visibility products to support current needs and future NextGen requirements for improvements 

in general aviation safety and terminal area traffic flow efficiency. Current NCV work focuses 

on development of (1) a real-time deterministic nowcast presenting current ceiling, visibility, and 

flight category fields (the Ceiling and Visibility, Analysis; or CVA), and (2) hourly-updated 

probabilistic 1–10 hour forecasts of these same fields (the Ceiling and Visibility, Forecast; or 

CVF). 

Volcanic Ash Dispersion Forecasts 

Research efforts in this area target the development of enhanced forecasts of volcanic ash 

transport and dispersion in support of FAA traffic flow management and airline operations 

centers for flight planning, as well as for issuing in-flight advisories to alert aircraft of potential 

hazardous conditions. In addition, both the VAACs and Meteorological Watch Offices will have 

this information made available in support of their efforts to provide improved and timely 

products that show the location of the ash cloud. Enhancements will come through evaluating the 

ash transport/dispersion model and developing and validating a set of volcanic ash current 

performance parameters and requirements. The outputs of these requirements will be leveraged 

with other agencies toward developing an ensemble approach aimed toward implementation in 

ATM operations and other basic services. 

Quality Assessment 

This research team conducts verification and assessment activities to support all AWRP 

algorithm development activities and NextGen implementation. Quality Assessment evaluations 

of weather research capabilities use the Real-Time Verification System (RTVS). This system 

supports real-time forecast operations, development, and case study assessments. RTVS provides 

a mechanism for monitoring and tracking improvements to weather forecast products with an 

independent assessment of forecast quality. Its outputs are thus valuable as support for decisions 

on whether to move weather products into operations. 

Model Development and Enhancement 

This is a multi-agency task that has partial funding from Aviation Weather (see Basic Services 

for more information). 

Advanced Weather Radar Techniques (AWRT) 

This research is aimed at developing techniques for using weather radar data to improve aviation 

weather forecasting. Information developed by these efforts is used by the other AWRP weather 

research teams and other agencies to improve their forecast and nowcast products. Current 

AWRP funding is producing applications to enhance traditional ground-based observations and 

improve the monitoring and prediction of hazardous weather. With support from the emerging 

WTIC Program, new AWRT work will examine improving the availability of weather radar 

information in the cockpit. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 102 

Also receiving AWRP funds is the development of the Multi-Radar Multi-Sensor (MRMS) 

capability, which will provide high resolution 3-D radar grids for advanced weather detection 

and forecast applications. MRMS output is typically directed toward specific applications 

developed within other AWRP Product Development Teams, such as the In-Flight Icing, 

Modeling, Convective Weather, and Turbulence teams. The flexible and efficient MRMS 

software computing architecture allows for accommodation of rapid changes or additions to the 

NextGen objectives/requirements, while providing a straightforward research-to-operations 

integration platform for AWRP-funded, radar dependent, turbulence and icing solution portfolios 

without the system dependencies or delays associated with implementation within the WSR-88D 

system. The turbulence and icing solution portfolios can be implemented and configured to allow 

the creators to modify and improve solutions quickly, in addition to expanding the capability to 

utilize gap filling and international radars/networks. AWRT, via research and development 

funding, will continue to develop and enhance MRMS by applying: 

 Data quality enhancements—e.g., calibration improvements, timely updates; 

 More realistic depiction of storm structure, life cycle, and severity; 

 More precise qualification of cloud microphysics aloft and on the surface; and 

 Higher temporal and spatial resolution aviation centric products. 
 103 

CLIMATE SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

NOAA National Weather Service 

Climate services are provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s 

(NOAA) National Weather Service (NWS), through the National Centers for Environmental 

Prediction’s (NCEP) Climate Prediction Center (CPC), the NWS Climate Services Division 

(CSD), and more than 150 NWS regional and local offices nationwide. CPC provides a broad 

range of products and services related to climate monitoring, short-term climate fluctuation 

forecasts, and information on the impacts of climate patterns on the Nation. Its product suite 

spans time scales from a week to seasons, extending into the future as far as technically feasible, 

and covers the land, the ocean, and the atmosphere. CPC products and services are available to 

government, public, and private industry users, both in this country and abroad, and are used by 

NWS Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) to deliver climate services to local users. The regional 

and local offices also have responsibility for collecting climate data, developing locally-relevant 

products, and conducting local climate studies in response to user needs. Applications include 

the mitigation of weather-related natural disasters and uses for social and economic good in 

agriculture, energy, transportation, water resources, and health. 

CSD provides the strategic vision for climate services at NWS, oversees the climate program 

including the expanded regional and local climate services programs, and serves as steward of 

the climate observing system. CSD develops training, education, and outreach programs that 

provide state-of-the-art knowledge and tools to enhance the skill set of NOAA employees and 

users of climate information. CSD fosters ties with other countries, other NOAA offices, other 

Federal agencies, the university community, and the private sector. It encourages collaborative 

arrangements among Regional Climate Centers (managed by NOAA/National Environmental 

Satellite, Date and Information Service [NESDIS], State Climatologists, and NWS WFOs and 

regional headquarters to tailor climate forecasts for local users. Additionally, WFOs issue daily 

and monthly climate reports for their areas, providing localized information about temperature 

and precipitation records and extreme events such as droughts. WFOs serve as the local NOAA 

user interface for climate services, including outreach and education. They are also responsible 

for the integrity and continuity of the historical climate record for their area of responsibility. 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Climate Services are those specialized meteorological services and 

facilities established to meet the requirements of Federal, state, and local agencies for information 

about trends in seasonal, interseasonal, or longer aspects of the atmosphere-hydrosphere-land surface 

system. Climate services include information on both oscillatory patterns (cycles varying over periods 

of several years to several decades) and longer-term secular trends in climate. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 104 

NOAA/NESDIS National Climatic Data Center 

The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) receives, processes, archives, and disseminates 

surface, marine, upper-air, radar, satellite, and model output data. NCDC serves a large and 

diverse community, responding to more than one million information requests per year. It makes 

environmental data and information available through both the Internet and physical delivery of 

products and services. NCDC’s climate data products support decision making in many sectors 

of the economy, including energy, transportation, agriculture, insurance, engineering, health 

care, and manufacturing. 

NCDC also develops climatic applications for other government agencies, including the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

and the Departments of Defense (DOD) and Energy (DOE). In addition, NCDC scientists are key 

participants in numerous national and international climate assessments, including the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, the U.S. Climate Change Science 

Program’s Synthesis and Assessment Products, and the landmark 2009 report, Global Climate 

Change Impacts in the United States. These assessment activities exemplify the kind of work and 

impact through which NCDC carries out its mission. Through its participation in these 

assessments and through dialogue with users, NCDC actively identifies the needs of NOAA data 

users in addressing climate change. NCDC also works to implement and operate the nation’s 

premier surface climate observing system, the U.S. Climate Reference Network (USCRN), 

which operates 114 stations in the continental United States and accurately measures, with high 

precision, surface temperature, precipitation, soil moisture and temperature, and relative 

humidity. The expansion of the USCRN into Alaska has been underway since 2009 and will be 

completed by 2018. There are also 2 experimental stations in Hawaii.

NCDC teams developed business sector fact sheets that have been widely distributed for 12 

sectors, including Agriculture, Civil Infrastructure, Coastal Hazards, Energy, Health, Insurance, 

Litigation, Marine and Coastal Ecosystems, National Security, Tourism, Transportation, and 

Water Resources. During 2010 alone, sector team members participated in over 50 sectoral 

meetings and hosted or co-hosted nine workshops. Through these venues, the sector teams 

interact with users interested in climate data and applications for their sector, in order to better 

understand specific sector needs for climate information. This proactive approach increases 

NCDC’s ability to provide relevant climate data to address sector-specific needs. Sector 

customers such as the reinsurance and agriculture industries have noted that NCDC’s data 

holdings and expertise enable them to make better business decisions, save money, improve their 

products, expand their businesses, and reduce their impact on the environment. 

Release of the 2009 Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society State of the Climate 

Report. For the 22nd year, NOAA led the coordination, drafting, and communication of the 2010 

State of the Climate Report, published in July 2011 in the Bulletin of the American 

Meteorological Society. The State of the Climate Report documents the status of the climate 

system and the capacity to observe it. This assessment is based upon observed conditions in more 

than 40 aspects of the climate system. More than 365 authors from 45 countries contributed to 

the 2010 edition. NCDC scientists and graphics professionals led the editorial construction and 

composition of the 272-page report. The report and other related materials can be found on-line 

at www.ncdc.noaa.gov/bams-state-of-the-climate/2010.php. 
 Climate Services 

 105 

1981-2010 Climate Normals. NCDC released the 1981-2010 Climate Normals in 2011. In brief, 

Normals are three-decade averages of numerous climatological variables, most notably 

temperature and precipitation. Normals serve as a point of reference for “typical” climate 

conditions at a given location and are utilized in countless applications across a variety of 

sectors. The once-a-decade release in 2011 updated the Normals for more than 7,500 locations 

across the United States and added Normals data for over a thousand new stations. To prepare 

this release, NCDC produced hourly, daily, monthly, seasonal, and annual Normals for numerous 

climatological variables, including temperature, precipitation, and snowfall. Normals were also 

computed for derived quantities such as heating and cooling degree-days and the number of days 

per month above or below certain thresholds. NCDC made many improvements and additions to 

the scientific methodology used to calculate the 1981-2010 Normals, including improved 

scientific quality control and statistical techniques. Consistent with the principles of the proposed 

Climate Service, NCDC provided full-scale user engagement before and after releasing the 

Normals and incorporated new products based on stakeholder feedback. 

NOAA’s Climate Normals are used by numerous stakeholders. For instance, builders, insurers, 

and engineers use the Normals for planning and risk management. Energy companies use 

Normals to predict fuel demand. Farmers rely on them to help make decisions on both crop 

selection and planting times. Agribusinesses use Normals to monitor “departures from normal 

conditions” throughout the growing season and to assess past and current crop yields. Normals 

are also commonly seen on TV weather segments for comparisons with the day's weather 

conditions. 

U.S. Climate Reference Network. The USCRN is a network of 114 stations developed, 

deployed, managed, and maintained by the NCDC in the continental United States for the 

express purpose of detecting the national signal of climate change. The USCRN program began 

fielding stations in 2001, and the vision of the program is to maintain a sustainable high-quality 

climate observation network that 50 years from now can, with the highest degree of confidence, 

answer the question: “How has the climate of the nation changed over the past 50 years?” These 

stations were designed with climate science in mind. Three independent measurements of 

temperature and precipitation are made at each station, ensuring continuity of record and 

maintenance of well-calibrated and highly accurate observations. The stations are placed in 

pristine environments expected to be free of development for many decades. Stations are 

monitored and maintained to high standards and are calibrated on an annual basis. In addition to 

measurements of surface temperature and precipitation, these stations also measure solar 

radiation, surface skin temperature, and surface winds. 

Since 2009 the USCRN has been augmented by the implementation of triplicate measurements 

of soil moisture and soil temperature at five depths, as well the installation of atmospheric 

relative humidity sensors. Experimental stations have been located in Alaska since 2002 and in 

Hawaii since 2005, providing network experience in polar and tropical regions. Furthermore, as 

part of the most recent International Polar Year and in partnership with Roshydromet (the 

Russian Federation’s Federal Service For Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring), a 

USCRN station was installed in Tiksi, located in the Russian Arctic, to help address the need for 

reference surface climate observations in high latitude regions. Deployment of a complete 29-

station USCRN network into Alaska began in 2009. While the network is managed by 

NOAA/NCDC, the ongoing operation and continuous improvements in the system would not be 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 106 

possible without the work done in partnership with NOAA's Atmospheric Turbulence and 

Diffusion Division. Data from all stations, in addition to all system documentation, is available 

from the USCRN website at http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/crn/. 

Conversion of COOP Network Observations from Paper Records to Digital Entry. The 

Cooperative Observer Program (COOP) consists of more than 7,500 stations where volunteer 

observers typically record daily weather observations on paper forms. These data are typically 

received at NCDC up to 45 days after the observations are taken, following mail submission and 

offsite digital keying of the data. In 2010, NOAA and the Regional Climate Center Program 

partnered to develop a Web-based data entry and quality control system for COOP observations 

called WxCoder III. This interface system reduces observation network and data management 

expenses, removes the need for paper forms, and provides higher quality climate data in near real 

time. NOAA can now inject these valuable data into climate monitoring and analysis activities 

within 24 hours of observation. By the end of 2010, NOAA had converted nearly 50% of the 

COOP network to WxCoder III. Receiving this dense network of surface data in near real time 

provides higher quality data for climate monitoring, forecast warnings and verification, model 

initialization, and other public service programs. At NCDC, the data provide a reliable resource 

for climate monitoring and assessment of extremes up to 50 days earlier than previously used. 

This approach is being expanded rapidly with the goal of eliminating paper submissions entirely 

in the near future. 

Initiation of Operational Climate Data Records. In 2010, NCDC transitioned its first three 

satellite-derived Climate Data Records (CDRs) from research to operationally produced and 

sustained climate records. The CDRs provide objective climate information derived from 

weather satellite data that NOAA has collected over the past 30-plus years. Satellite-based 

climate measurements represent the longest measurement on record with global reach and reflect 

a national investment of billions of dollars. For the first time, NOAA is applying improved 

satellite analysis methods to this historical satellite data. This process shows the underlying 

climate trend and variability information, thereby providing increased value from this national 

investment. In parallel, NCDC will extend these records by applying the same methods to 

present-day and future satellite measurements. The results will provide trustworthy and 

consistent information on how, where, and to what extent the land, oceans, atmosphere, and ice 

sheets are changing. The three CDRs delivered in FY 2010 include calibrated global records of 

Earth-reflected solar radiation, Earth-emitted thermal energy from NOAA’s Polar Operational 

Environmental Satellite (POES) program, and Earth-emitted thermal energy from the 

international constellation of geosynchronous satellites. NCDC’s commitment to advancing CDR 

development is further leveraged by its sponsorship of over twenty grants to continue to develop 

new CDRs, including seven new ones in FY 2010. 

Development of Next-Generation Geostationary Satellite Archive and Access Requirements.

The NOAA data centers, working with the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-R 

(GOES-R) program, completed archive and access requirements that make GOES-R the first 

new major observing system acquisition to comply with the new NOAA Administrative Order 

(NAO) on management of environmental and geospatial data and information. Long-term digital 

information preservation is challenging, as data can only be useful when interpreted by 

corresponding representation information. Preserving description information, as gathered in the 

archive and access requirements, is essential to ensure that future generations benefit from 
 Climate Services 

 107 

NOAA’s multibillion dollar investment in Earth observations. The NAO captures NOAA’s 

policy for end-to-end stewardship needs for major observing systems, while also adhering to 

Federal geospatial data and required records management regulations. Applying all these 

regulations and concepts to a fully digital archive required the application of the open archive 

information system reference model mapped to GEOS-R. In addition, the new NOAA procedure 

for scientific records appraisal and archive approval was also implemented. 

Climate Database Modernization Program (Kentucky, Maryland, West Virginia, and North 

Carolina). The Climate Database Modernization Program (CDMP) is a partnership between 

NCDC and private industry to image and digitize key paper and microfilm records and to make 

them available via the Internet. The CDMP enables the digitizing of important environmental 

data ranging from below the oceans to the top of the ionosphere. Projects range from historic 

sunspot images, ocean core research, and extending time series data of ocean tides and sea level. 

Over the past decade, CDMP has provided increased access to volumes of digitized historical 

records. This has greatly improved the ability of NOAA and others to monitor, assess, forecast, 

and predict environmental, solar, and geophysical events and to improve climate change 

projections. CDMP traditionally supported dozens of data rescue projects within NOAA. The 

imaging and keying is done in partnership with the private sector; the amount of data rescued and 

keyed each year is directly related to the yearly budget process. 

There are now more than 58 million images and over 15 terabytes of data available online 

because of CDMP efforts. CDMP supports the NOAA mission to collect, integrate, assimilate, 

and effectively manage Earth observations on a global scale, ranging from atmospheric, weather, 

and climate observations to oceanic, coastal, and marine life observations. Many of these 

records, part of the U.S. National Archives, were originally recorded on paper, film, and other 

fragile media and stored at various NOAA centers. Prior to CDMP, these valuable data sources 

were not readily available to users, and the paper and film media were deteriorating, threatening 

their loss. Hourly weather records keyed through CDMP continue to be integrated into NCDC’s 

long term historical climate records digital database holdings, extending the period of record for 

many stations into the latter 1800s. Daily paper data records, collected mainly by the 

Smithsonian Institution and U.S. Army Signal Service from stations across the country, are being 

digitized through the CDMP “Forts” project and will extend climate records back to the early 

1800s. 

Another major data integration task, the Surface Airways Observations project, has captured 410 

million observations from many Weather Bureau city offices and airports dating back to 1893. In 

addition, over 273,000 Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Ocean marine observations were keyed from 

cursive handwritten script in British East India Company logbooks dating from 1789 to1834. 

These data are the most significant early collection of ocean instrumental observations in the 

world and contain abundant observations of pressure and temperatures. These data will add 

significantly to the early historical marine record and enhance global climate analysis and the 

marine International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS.) Through many 

partnerships, the logbooks were imaged, then keyed into digital form to permanently preserve 

their contents and make the logs easily accessible for future generations. This collection will 

support regional and global climate research and reanalysis efforts dating to the late 18th century 

and will provide valuable clues to the earth’s climate during that period. CDMP is also 

coordinating several international projects, such as imaging and digitizing surface data from 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 108 

Central and South America and imaging and keying upper-air data from several countries in 

Africa. 

Record Setting Year for Online Data Access. NCDC provides a wealth of scientific data online 

in a variety of formats for quick and convenient access. These data and products support decision 

making for a wide variety of users across public, private, and academic interests. During FY 

2010, NCDC delivered 1,097 terabytes of data online via Web systems and services, compared 

to 618 terabytes in FY 2009, representing a 77% increase. This increase continues the sharp 

trend of growth seen over the past decade in data access via NCDC’s Web resources; it also 

reflects enhancements made to allow customers to download much larger volumes of model, 

radar, and satellite data. Over 2 petabytes, equal to 2 million gigabytes, of data are now 

accessible from NCDC’s Web site. This data growth maintains the rapid increase in the in situ, 

NEXRAD, satellite, and model data available online via NCDC’s services. To keep up with 

increasing data demand, NCDC continues to implement hardware upgrades able to manage the 

rapidly increasing system load and vast online data resources. 

Online Access for the Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR). In pursuit of understanding 

environmental change and impact, scientists and decision makers are increasingly seeking 

information that will help their communities plan and respond to climate variability and change. 

Uninterrupted climate observations are not available for all times or at every place on Earth, so 

scientists use climate models to “reanalyze” the existing data to fill in the gaps. The resulting 

datasets, called reanalysis data, allow for improved detection, analysis, and verification of 

climate variability indicators and improve scientists’ abilities to determine climate variation 

attribution. In 2010, NCDC became the primary provider to the public of the next-generation 30-

year CFSR dataset. This NCEP-developed dataset is the first major reanalysis generated in more 

than a decade and has met users’ request for easy access to the data. Once available via NCDC, 

CFSR data quickly became one of the most requested online datasets in NCDC’s history. 

To transfer the data, NCDC worked with NCEP to establish secure means of transferring more 

than 200 terabytes, equal to 200,000 gigabytes, of data. The data were quality-controlled and 

then ingested into NCDC’s information technology (IT) storage system, called the 

Comprehensive Large-Array data Stewardship System (CLASS), and rapidly made available to 

customers via the National Operational Model Archive and Distribution System (NOMADS) 

user access system. NCDC then used the NOMADS infrastructure to provide a user-friendly 

suite of tools and Web-based services to allow easy public access to the data. 

Global Observing Systems Information Center. The Global Observing Systems Information 

Center (GOSIC) provides access to data, metadata, and information from the Global Climate 

Observing System (GCOS), the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), the Global Terrestrial 

Observing System (GTOS) and the Regional Observing Systems such as the GOOS Regional 

Alliances (GRA). The GOSIC Portal can be accessed at http://gosic.org. This system provides 

efficient access to data and information and unique tools for searching and accessing data, such 

as matrices and data registry. It allows users to search for specific data, such as data located at 

NCDC and other global data centers. GOSIC serves the global observing system community and 

is a great tool for coordinating the various climate observing activities across NCDC and NOAA. 
 Climate Services 

 109 

GOSIC continues to play an important role in international and regional data access activities. As 

a formally registered service of the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) data 

access project, this role expanded in FY 2010. GEOSS is a comprehensive effort to focus on the 

societal benefits of Earth observations. Furthermore, as the World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO) moves toward a modernized and comprehensive WMO Information Service (WIS), 

GOSIC plays an important role in the overall WIS architecture. 

From a regional perspective, GOSIC continues to play a significant role in aiding various Pacific 

Island National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in a number of critical data access and 

communication functions related to meteorological and climatology data in the region. It serves 

as a capacity-building utility by providing Internet-based Web services in concert with the Asia 

Pacific Data Research Center, which is a NOAA/NCDC-funded activity at the University of 

Hawaii. The overarching goal of the GOSIC is to provide easy access to climate datasets in 

support of the GCOS Essential Climate Variables (ECV); the GCOS ECV matrix was updated on 

the GOSIC in August 2010 to incorporate new variables that were published in the latest GCOS 

Implementation Plan (GCOS-138) in August 2010. 

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) 

NOAA Ship Ka`imimoana primarily supports the research programs of NOAA's Tropical 

Atmosphere-Ocean (TAO) Project (real-time data from moored ocean buoys for improved 

detection, understanding and prediction of El Niño and La Niña). These research programs are 

designed to improve our understanding of the role of the tropical ocean in the world's climate. 

The ship deploys, recovers, and services deep sea moorings that measure ocean currents, ocean 

temperatures, and atmospheric variables throughout the equatorial Pacific Ocean. In addition to 

data from these moorings, the ship measures upper ocean currents, surface salinity, and carbon 

dioxide content. 

NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown, an oceanographic and atmospheric research platform, is the 

largest vessel in the NOAA fleet (274 feet). With its instruments and sensors, Ronald H. Brown

sails worldwide, supporting scientific studies to increase our understanding of the world's oceans 

and climate. Ronald H. Brown also carries a Doppler radar system to support at-sea 

meteorological observations. 

The Ronald H. Brown and Ka`imimoana annually support the TAO array by servicing 

approximately 60 Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition Systems (ATLAS) and current 

meter moorings in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. The Ronald H. Brown works in 

cooperation with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute to conduct mooring recovery and 

deployment operations of the Stratus Ocean Reference Station, located under the stratocumulus 

clouds off Chile and Peru. The ship conducts meteorological and air-sea flux observations to 

document and establish the accuracy of the moored metrological observations and to observe 

oceanic and atmospheric variability. This region is of critical importance to climate 

predictability. 

The Ronald H. Brown also conducts the Northwest Tropical Atlantic Station (NTAS) project, 

which investigates surface meteorological forcing and oceanographic response in a region of the 

tropical Atlantic Ocean with strong sea surface temperature anomalies on a decadal timescale. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 110 

These issues are addressed through the analysis of surface mooring observations from a site near 

15oN, 51oW. Ronald H. Brown also conducts the PIRATA Northeast Extension (PNE) project, a 

joint project of Brazil, France, and the United States. The overarching goal is to improve 

knowledge and understanding of ocean-atmosphere variability in the tropical Atlantic. 

United States Air Force 

Air Force Weather Agency, 14th Weather Squadron

The 14th Weather Squadron (14 WS) at Asheville, North Carolina, provides centralized 

climatological services, produces specialized weather-impact information for DOD and allied 

nations, and warehouses and distributes historical atmospheric technical information. The 14 WS 

provides decision-enabling products, allowing DOD command authorities to anticipate 

environmental impacts on all aspects of military operations worldwide. The squadron produces a 

suite of both standard and tailored products such as the Operational Climatic Data Summaries, 

Engineering Weather Data, Wind Roses, and Wind Stratified Conditional Climatologies, among 

others, as well as providing frequency of occurrence and duration for mission limiting factors. 

Yet, the 14WS mission is more than just climatology; it is also forensic weather. It is about 

analyzing the past to predict the future. Using emerging technologies to give military planners 

the data needed to successfully plan and execute operations, the bottom line is to give 

warfighters the environmental information when, where, and how it is needed to prosecute 

military operations. 

The 14 WS enhances the combat capability of the United States by delivering timely, accurate, 

and reliable environmental situational awareness worldwide to the USAF, the Army, Unified 

Combatant Commands, the Intelligence Community, and DOD. The 14 WS also collaborates 

with NCDC and other national climatic centers of expertise worldwide. Collocation with the 

NCDC in Asheville allows for data exchange as well as joint collaboration in areas such as data 

quality techniques, product development, and technology exploitation to facilitate both 

organizations’ missions. 

Long range outlook products and other services relate to time periods from a month to six 

months in the future, including seasonal forecasts and hazard assessments. The 14 WS produces 

6-month long range narrative-form outlooks derived by using statistical methods, with an 

ensemble of Global Climate Model forecasts, considering the El Nino–Southern Oscillation 

(ENSO), North Atlantic Oscillation, Southern Annular Mode, etc. In the area of climatology, Air 

Force Weather is developing a 6-month forecast capability by leveraging research conducted by 

Air Force and Navy officers at the Naval Postgraduate School and other national and 

international resources (including climatology work by NATO allies), as well as advances in 

understanding teleconnections (i.e., ENSO, North Atlantic Oscillation, Southern Annular Mode), 

with a goal of providing planners with a risk management tool to positively impact operations. 

To support Air Force training and exercises, the 14 WS is involved in several areas such as 

exploiting modeling and simulation technologies, including Advanced Climate Modeling and 

Environmental Simulations, to produce modeled climate statistics and gridded climatologies, and 

he Environmental Scenario Generator to produce simulated environmental scenarios. The 14 WS 

also oversees the 250,000 documents archived in Air Force Weather’s Technical Library. 
 Climate Services 

 111 

United States Navy 

The earth’s climate is changing, and the most rapid changes are occurring in the Arctic. Because 

the Arctic is primarily a maritime environment, the Navy must consider the changing Arctic in 

developing future policy, strategy, force structure, and investments for environmental assessment 

and prediction. These investments include research for and development of a next-generation 

environmental prediction capability applicable to the Arctic. The Oceanographer of the Navy 

serves as Director of Task Force Climate Change (TFCC) and develops comprehensive 

approaches regarding the Arctic and global climate change. TFCC recommends policy, strategy, 

and investments for the Navy regarding the Arctic and climate change that are consistent with 

existing National, Joint, and Naval guidance, including National Security Presidential Directive 

66/ Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25, Joint Vision 2020, Sea Power 21, a 

Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower, and the 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review. 

Recent TFCC accomplishments include the signing of the Navy's Arctic Roadmap in November 

2009 and the Climate Change Roadmap in March 2010 by the Vice Chief of Naval Operations 

and the signing of the Navy's Strategic Objectives for the Arctic by the Chief of Naval 

Operations in March 2010. 

Rear Adm. David Titley, second from left, Director of the U.S. Navy Task Force Climate Change (TFCC),

leads an onsite discussion of climate in the Arctic Ocean and its possible impacts on the Navy.

(http://www.navy.mil/view_galleries.asp)
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 112 

United States Geological Survey (USGS) 

The USGS is both a provider of and user of climate-related services, but the balance between 

these two activities is quite different from that of NOAA. The USGS provides climate data and 

models, like NOAA, that can be used by resource managers and policy makers to anticipate and 

adapt to climate change. The USGS climate and land use change science program, however, also 

has a strong emphasis on understanding relationships between climate change and hydrological, 

geologic, and biological processes. 

USGS has expertise and numerous research projects and products that describe long-term 

changes in the Earth’s climate. The climatic datasets developed by the USGS are based primarily 

on Earth surface and subsurface records, in contrast to the atmospheric records developed by 

NOAA. USGS climatic datasets are derived from ice sheets, glaciers, and permafrost; tree rings, 

landscape-scale phenology, and other biological data; and rock, sediments, and other 

paleodeposits, in addition to modern meteorologic, hydrologic, and remote sensing 

instrumentation. The USGS manages an international ice core facility in Denver, Colorado, and 

has numerous studies devoted to understanding the natural variability of climate and its attendant 

changes and to providing context for the development of mitigation and adaptation strategies. 

The Ice Core Laboratory is just one example of the services provided by the USGS to the 

scientific community engaged in understanding the Earth’s climate history. Another good 

example of the climate services provided by the USGS is the Department of the Interior’s 

network of regional Climate Science Centers. These centers are staffed by the USGS and have 

research and information delivery capabilities designed to respond to the needs of natural 

resource managers. 

Department of State (DOS) 

Stratospheric ozone depletion has been recognized as a critical health and environmental 

problem for more than two decades. Under DOS leadership, the United States worked to 

negotiate international agreements to phase out ozone-depleting substances, which should lead to 

a recovery of the ozone layer in the middle of this century. To date, these treaties have been 

signed and ratified by more than 193 countries, including the United States. These countries 

represent 99 percent of the world’s production of ozone depleting substances. The State 

Department makes annual contributions to the Vienna Convention’s efforts on scientific 

monitoring of the ozone layer. 

The IPCC, which was established by the WMO and the United Nations Environment Program 

(UNEP), held its first session in 1988. This organization serves as an intergovernmental forum to 

assess scientific, technical, and socioeconomic information relevant for the understanding of 

climate change, its potential impacts, and options for adaptation and mitigation. In doing so, the 

Panel draws on the expertise of thousands of scientists and technical experts. The IPCC is 

currently organized into three working groups, which examine (1) the state of the science, (2) 

impacts and adaptation, and (3) mitigation. In addition to preparing assessment reports, the IPCC 

also contributes to international negotiations through preparation and review of special reports 

and development of methodologies requested by the United Nations Framework Convention on 

Climate Change (UNFCCC). 
 Climate Services 

 113 

In addition to its primary role in the organizations and events listed above, DOS is active in 

several relevant Federal interagency processes, including the Committee on Environment and 

Natural Resources (CENR) of the National Science and Technology Council, the Climate 

Change Science Program (CCSP) and its Interagency Working Group on Climate Change 

Science and Technology (IWGCCST). The CENR was established in 1993 to coordinate 

scientific domestic programs. CCSP was created in 2001 to “integrate Federal research on global 

change and climate change” across 13 Federal agencies and is the umbrella to the IWGCCST, 

which was founded in 2002 and is a sub-cabinet level group that reviews all programs that 

contribute to climate change science and technology. In addition to the above, DOS 

responsibilities include, but are not limited to, international aspects of food policy, disaster 

warnings and assistance, WMO and UNEP activities, and international meteorological programs. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

NOAA/NESDIS National Climatic Data Center 

Supporting Federal Climate Assessment Services. NOAA established a Technical Support Unit 

at NCDC to provide critical information and capabilities to support the National Climate 

Assessment (NCA), being run by the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). The 

NCA is conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990, which 

requires a report to the President and Congress that evaluates, integrates, and interprets the 

findings of the USGCRP every four years. With the next Assessment due in 2013, the agencies 

participating in the USGCRP seek not only to deliver the assessment report, but also to establish 

an ongoing, sustainable assessment process, which will require a wide network of interagency 

and external support. A key component of this ongoing process will be an interactive Web 

presence for NCA queries at http://globalchange.gov/what-we-do/assessment. The NCA aims to 

incorporate advances in the understanding of climate science into larger social, ecological, and 

policy system understanding and with this, to provide integrated analyses of impacts and 

vulnerability. The NCA will help evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation 

activities in the face of a changing climate. 

Assuring the Reliability of the U.S. Surface Temperature Record. In January 2010, a paper 

entitled “On the reliability of the U.S. Surface Temperature Record" was published in the peerreviewed Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres. Conducted by NCDC scientists Dr. 

Matthew Menne, Claude Williams, and Dr. Michael Palecki, this important study addressed the 

impact of poor siting conditions at stations in the U.S. Historical Climatology Network 

(USHCN) Cooperative Observation (COOP) network. NCDC needed to assess if and how the 

site conditions, such as locations next to buildings or heat sources, impacted the long-term 

temperature record. Through their study, Menne, Williams, and Palecki found that continental 

U.S. temperature trends are not inflated due to poor exposure. Results indicated that there is a 

mean bias associated with poor exposure sites relative to good exposure sites; however, this bias 

is consistent with previously documented changes associated with the widespread conversion to 

electronic sensors in the USHCN COOP during the past 25 years. Homogeneity adjustments 

applied to USHCN Version 2 data were found to account for the impact of instrument and siting 

changes. The adjusted USHCN COOP temperatures were also found to be extremely well 

aligned with measurements from the U.S. Climate Reference Network, whose instruments and 

exposure characteristics meet the highest standards for climate monitoring. This work verifies 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 114 

the validity of analyses included in the 2009 report, Global Climate Change Impacts in the 

United States. It also shows that problems with station siting at USHCN COOP sites have been 

accurately addressed through application of the Menne and Williams Pairwise Homogeneity 

Adjustment algorithm and ensures the integrity of the U.S. surface temperature record. 

Tropospheric Temperature Trends. Scientists at NOAA, the NOAA-funded Cooperative 

Institute for Climate and Satellites (CICS), the United Kingdom Meteorological Office, and the 

University of Reading in the United Kingdom contributed to the paper, “Tropospheric 

Temperature Trends: History of an Ongoing Controversy,” a review of four decades of data and 

scientific papers. The paper was published in November 2010 by Wiley Interdisciplinary 

Reviews: Climate Change, a peer-reviewed journal. According to this extensive review of the 

scientific literature, the science conclusively states that the troposphere, the lower part of the 

atmosphere closest to the Earth, is warming and that this warming is broadly consistent with both 

theoretical expectations and climate models. In the 1990s, some observations did not show the 

troposphere, particularly in the tropics, to be warming even though surface temperatures were 

rapidly warming. This lack of tropospheric warming was used by some to question both the 

reality of the surface warming trend and the reliability of climate models as tools. In extensively 

reviewing the relevant scientific analyses—195 cited papers, model results, and atmospheric 

datasets—the paper states that the body of science shows there is no longer evidence for a 

fundamental discrepancy and that the troposphere is indeed warming. 

Development of GHCN-M Version 3 Monthly Mean Temperature Dataset. Since the early 

1990s the Global Historical Climatology Network-Monthly (GHCN-M) dataset has been an 

internationally recognized source of data for the study of observed variability and change in land 

surface temperature. It provides monthly mean temperature data for 7,280 stations from 226 

countries and territories, ongoing monthly updates of more than 2,000 stations to support 

monitoring of current and evolving climate conditions, and homogeneity adjustments to remove 

nonclimatic influences that can bias the observed temperature record. The release of Version 3 

Monthly Mean Temperature Data marks the first major revision to this dataset in over ten years. 

It introduces a number of improvements and changes that include consolidating “duplicate” 

series, updating records from recent decades, and the use of new approaches to homogenization 

and quality assurance. NCDC developed new quality control methodologies, applied a new 

homogeneity adjustment algorithm to extend and improve bias corrections to in situ stations on 

every continent, developed a new update system to ensure all updates to source datasets can be 

incorporated immediately, established a version control and data provenance system to improve 

the traceability of data, and made other changes in response to user requests to broaden the use of 

this dataset to a wider community. This new version provides a global dataset of higher quality 

for diverse user communities. The data are easier to access, easier to understand, and more 

complete. 

Global Tropical Cyclone Database Development. In FY 2009, NOAA unveiled the International 

Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) under the auspices of the World Data 

Center for Meteorology at NCDC. IBTrACS overcame data availability issues and freely 

disseminated this new and popular global data set. This was achieved by working directly with 

all the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers (RSMCs) and other international centers 

and individuals to create a global best track dataset, merging storm information from multiple 
 Climate Services 

 115 

centers into one product, and archiving the data for public use. The IBTrACS project portal 

(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ibtracs/): 

 Contains the most complete global set of historical tropical cyclones available; 

 Combines information from numerous tropical cyclone datasets; 

 Simplifies inter-agency comparisons by providing storm data from multiple sources in 

one place; 

 Provides data in popular formats to facilitate analysis; and 

 Checks the quality of storm inventories, positions, pressures, and wind speeds, passing 

the information on to the user. 

To ensure that the procedures and algorithms that IBTrACS employs meet the requirements of 

the international IBTrACS community and to coordinate with the various RSMCs and other 

international data centers involved in tropical cyclone best tracks, the IBTrACS team has held 

two very successful international workshops, one in 2009 in Asheville, North Carolina, the 

second in 2011 in Honolulu, Hawaii. 

Improving Hurricane Forecasts in the Atlantic. Atlantic hurricane forecasts from NOAA’s 

National Hurricane Center (NHC) include information on track and storm intensity. Over the 

past twenty years, errors in track have been cut in half, but intensity forecasting is still a key 

research area. Dr. Jim Kossin of NCDC is dedicated to improving intensity forecasts with the 

development of two experimental models: one for predicting hurricane eyewall replacement 

cycles (ERC) and one aimed at understanding rapid intensity changes. In 2010, the ERC model 

became fully operational during hurricane season and has the potential to improve not only 

forecasts but also storm surge predictions. Both projects are part of the Joint Hurricane Testbed 

research-to-operations project. 

Paleoclimatology Reconstructions Network. NOAA Paleoclimatology studies of drought 

records in Asia have led to extending the record farther back in time using tree ring records.

Natural variability in monsoon rainfall, including droughts and persistent heavy rainfall called 

“pluvials,” affects billions of people and entire economies across Asia. Tree ring data provides a 

much longer history of drought variations than the historical record does, bringing into sharper 

focus the decadal variability and revealing such extreme anomalies as “megadroughts,” or 

droughts of longer duration that were more severe than anything observed in the short 

instrumental record. Long climate records that resolve the natural variability are essential to 

improved prediction of the Asian summer monsoon. NCDC archived the Monsoon Area Drought 

Atlas (MADA) data and provides maps, visualizations, and data for droughts that occurred 

centuries ago. Via MADA, NCDC provides a gridded reconstruction of the Palmer Drought 

Severity Index, derived from 327 tree ring chronologies and extending back to 1300 AD. In 

addition to providing data files, NOAA also provides maps and interactive visualizations of 

major droughts and pluvials across monsoon Asia, such as the Ming Dynasty Drought (1638–

1641) and the East India Drought (1790, 1792–1796). 

Continued Growth of Cooperative Institute for Climate and Satellites North Carolina (CICSNC). Since the inauguration of CICS-NC on July 1, 2009, the CICS-NC team has grown to 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 116 

comprise 20 researchers (14 PhD and 6 MA/MS) supporting the NCDC mission with a focus on 

enhancing the collective interdisciplinary understanding of the state and evolution of the full 

Earth system. Focusing on seven research areas, from Climate Data Records to 

National/Regional Assessments, these researchers have published nearly 20 peer-reviewed 

papers since the institute’s inception. Over the past year, CICS-NC scientists led contributions to 

the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, edited a chapter of the authoritative 2009 State of the Climate 

annual report, and engaged in international management of the Global Climate Observing 

System Reference Observing Network and the recently instigated International Surface 

Temperature Initiative. CICS-NC scientists have presented at over 10 conferences, with nearly 

20 presentations on the topics of climate research and applications, satellite and observation 

monitoring, and climate modeling. CICS-NC is also spearheading outreach activities that 

enhance the value of science, innovation, research, and education. In 2010, CICS-NC established 

the “CICS Cluster” of 340 nodes used by researchers for collaborative development and software 

validation. CICS-NC has also initiated the planning for the “Summer Institute on Climate 

Adaptation” to be held in Asheville in June 2012. 

International Drought Workshops. Contributors to the North American Drought Monitor 

(NADM) have increasingly recognized that global-scale drought monitoring and mitigation and a 

drought response system would benefit all nations affected by drought, especially those in 

semiarid regions. In April 2010, NCDC scientists led three concurrent workshops aimed at 

identifying and addressing the unique needs of the international drought monitoring community. 

These three concurrent workshops in Asheville focused on better data sharing and information 

design. The result was improved bilateral drought monitoring arrangements between the United 

States and both Canada and Mexico, as well as a new vision for coordinating global drought 

monitoring efforts. The workshops also led to progress on creating drought early warning 

systems and regional drought monitoring centers in parts of many continents. All workshops 

noted the challenge of inadequate data and indices for detecting drought, which is a continuing 

area of international collaboration. 

USCRN Soil Sensor and Relative Humidity Sensor Installation. Begun in FY 2009 and 

completed at the end of FY 2011, NCDC, in partnership with NOAA’s Atmospheric Turbulence 

and Diffusion Division (ATDD) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, completed the installation of a 

triplicate set of soil moisture and temperature sensors at 5 standard soil depths from 5 to 100 cm 

deep, in addition to relative humidity sensors, at all 114 of the USCRN stations in the 

conterminous United States. 

Soil temperature and moisture (as well as relative humidity) are critical Essential Climate 

Variables (as defined by GCOS1

) for monitoring long-term drought and climate change. Given 

that the primary mission of the USCRN is to be able to detect and confirm long-term climate 

change, the implementation of these new soil and relative humidity sensors will vastly improve 

the network’s capability to fulfill this mission. 

NOAA’s National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS) recognized the need for and 

value of such a project and has provided the necessary support and resources to not only ensure 

project completion but also to support continued operations and maintenance and continuous 

 

1

 See http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/Publications/gcos-138.pdf
 Climate Services 

 117 

improvement. This support also enables ongoing science work to continue in a sustainable 

manner required by long-term climate observing systems. NCDC worked with ATDD to lay out 

a 3-year plan from 2009 through 2011 for installing these new sensors in a manner that would 

enhance the USCRN while not interrupting operations at network sites. In addition, NCDC 

worked to ensure that data from the new sensors were made immediately available via both the 

USCRN website and the NIDIS data portal2

 (the Federal government’s overall “Data.Gov” portal 

site). Since the installation of these new sensors requires the development of appropriate science 

products, work was begun in parallel to ensure that the maximum benefit from this project is 

achieved. 

The soil and relative humidity monitoring that is facilitated by this project is of key importance 

to a number of sectors of the economy. The benefits from the data span many science disciplines 

and technical applications including hydrology, climate, the Earth’s carbon cycle, and 

applications of value to the meteorological, environmental, and ecology communities. Economic 

sectors including agriculture and water resource management will be better able to serve their 

customers, on whom millions of Americans depend. Having these data available on a timely 

basis will be a great addition to the USCRN climate datastream. Data from USCRN soil sensors 

(at least down to the 5 cm level) will be of critical importance to the calibration and validation 

work (e.g., establishing ground truth) required by NASA’s Soil Moisture Active-Passive 

(SMAP) mission, which is scheduled for launch in the 2014 timeframe. 3 

NOAA/OAR Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) 

In an effort to better understand and forecast climate, AOML has been deploying a global array 

of profiling floats since 2000. The broad-scale global array of temperature and salinity profiling 

floats, known as Argo, has already grown to become a major component of the ocean observing 

system, with a deployment of 3000 floats. Argo floats are free-drifting profiling floats that spend 

most of their life “parked” at 1,000 or 2,000 meters depth in the ocean, regularly surfacing to 

make temperature and salinity profile measurements and transmitting those observations in real 

time. AOML is the U.S. Argo Data Assembly Center and the South Atlantic Argo Regional 

Center, in charge of all U.S. Argo deployments in the Atlantic. The Argo array is part of the 

GCOS/ GOOS and is a major contributor to the World Climate Research Programme’s (WCRP) 

Climate Variability and Predictability Experiment (CLIVAR) and the Global Ocean Data 

Assimilation Experiment (GODAE). Combined with satellites, Argo data provides a quantitative 

description of the changing state of the upper ocean and the patterns of ocean climate variability 

from months to decades, including heat and freshwater storage and transport. 

The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean/TRIangle Trans-Ocean buoy Network (TAO/TRITON) array 

consists of approximately 70 Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition System (ATLAS) and 

TRITON moorings in the tropical Pacific Ocean, telemetering oceanographic and meteorological 

data to shore in real time via the ARGOS satellite system. Designed to improve detection, 

understanding, and prediction of El Niño, TAO/TRITON is a major component of the El 

Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Observing System, GCOS, and GOOS. 

 

2

 See http://www.drought.gov/portal/server.pt/community/drought_gov/202/crn_soil_data?qid=01652419&rank=6

3

 See http://smap.jpl.nasa.gov/
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 118 

NOAA/OAR Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) 

The ESRL Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) climate services research provides an improved 

predictive capability through a better understanding of the connections between emissions, 

atmospheric composition, and Earth’s climate system. Research is focused on addressing two of 

the greatest uncertainties in current climate models: water vapor and aerosols (airborne fine 

particles), in addition to ongoing work on non-CO2 greenhouse gases. Work is underway to 

improve the measurement of water vapor and understanding its atmospheric distribution, with a 

focus on the upper atmosphere, where the water vapor abundance is a key factor in determining 

the amount of radiation lost to space and the heating of the lower atmosphere and Earth surface. 

A better quantification of water vapor and its distribution in this part of the atmosphere is needed 

to properly account for past changes in the Earth’s climate and reliably predict/project future 

changes. The IPCC has identified the role of atmospheric aerosols in climate change as the single 

greatest uncertainty in our ability to predict changes to the climate system. Research is 

addressing key uncertainties related to both absorbing (e.g., black carbon) aerosols that warm the 

atmosphere, and scattering (e.g., sulfate) aerosols that cool the atmosphere, in particular their 

emission/formation and evolution in the atmosphere, with a particular emphasis on quantifying 

the influence of aerosols on cloud formation, extent, and optical properties (Earth’s radiation 

balance) as well as on precipitation. CSD also places a high priority on communicating the 

results of its research in decision-support information products to underpin national and 

international decisionmaking. CSD's contributions include leadership and extensive participation 

in state-of-understanding assessments on climate, such as the IPCC assessments and special 

reports, synthesis and assessment reports of the USGCRP, and the Montreal Protocol assessment 

on the ozone layer. 

The ESRL Global Monitoring Division (GMD) conducts sustained observations and research 

related to global distributions, trends, sources and sinks of atmospheric constituents that are 

capable of forcing change in Earth’s climate. This research will advance climate projections and 

provide scientific policy-relevant, decision-support information to enhance society's ability to 

plan and respond. 

To slow the rate of anthropogenic-induced climate change in the 21st century and to minimize its 

eventual magnitude, societies will need to manage the climate forcing factors that are directly 

influenced by human activities, in particular greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions. For effective 

management of these species, a solid scientific understanding of their natural cycles and the 

processes that influence those cycles is necessary. Atmospheric measurements are the touchstone 

of theories or models describing these cycles. Providing a sound basis for important societal 

decisions requires a global effort, one that involves studying numerous gases, particles, and 

atmospheric radiation on appropriately designed spatial and temporal scales. 

The combined effects of climate forcing lead ultimately to alteration of the earth's radiation 

budget. Broadband irradiance, measured continuously at numerous locations around the globe, 

provides benchmarks of climatic processes. Forced changes in irradiance are not only affected by 

changing concentrations of constituents or other external sources but also by changes in water 

vapor and clouds. The longest continuous record of solar radiation at the surface (55 years and 

counting) comes from Mauna Loa Observatory measurements. The 31-year record of increasing 
 Climate Services 

 119 

stratospheric water vapor concentrations collected by balloon-borne instruments above Boulder, 

Colorado, is the sole such long-term record in existence. 

The Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, record of continuously increasing atmospheric carbon 

dioxide concentrations was begun in 1956 and continues today, the longest such record on Earth. 

NOAA/GMD measures nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ozone (O3), methane 

(CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), methyl halides, and sulfur 

hexafluoride (SF6) at up to 65 sites around the globe. Measurements of carbon isotopic ratios of 

CO2 and CH4 allow for understanding relative fossil fuel and natural sources for these gases. 

In addition to monitoring aerosol properties at remote Atmospheric Baseline Observatories, in 

response to the finding that anthropogenic aerosols create a significant perturbation in the earth's 

radiative balance on regional scales, ESRL/GMD expanded its aerosol research program (1992) 

to include continuous aerosol monitoring stations in regions where significant aerosol forcing 

was expected. The goals of this regional-scale monitoring program are to characterize the means, 

variabilities, and trends of climate-forcing properties of different types of aerosols and to 

understand the factors that control these properties. An important aspect of this sampling strategy 

is linking chemical measurements to physical measurements. ESRL/GMD's aerosol 

measurements also provide ground-truth data for satellite measurements and inputs for global 

models. 

United States Geological Survey 

Water Resources Monitoring. The effects of warming temperatures on water resources are 

among the most certain and costly consequences of climate change in some regions of the United 

States, and water resources information should be an important component of (or closely linked 

with) a new national climate services program. The USGS is the nation’s water resource 

monitoring agency, with one or more offices in every State and a National stream and 

groundwater monitoring network that supports water management efforts at State and local 

levels, as well as vast western water resources managed by two other Department of the Interior 

bureaus: the Bureau of Reclamation and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The USGS 

has a long-established hydroclimatology research program and is the primary Federal science 

agency for water resource information. The USGS monitors the quantity and quality of water in 

the Nation's rivers and aquifers and develops tools to improve the application of hydrologic 

information, including the effects of a changing climate. This broad, diverse mission cannot be 

accomplished effectively without the contributions of the Cooperative Water Program with the 

50 states. For more than 100 years, the Cooperative Program has been a highly successful costsharing partnership between the USGS and water-resource agencies at the State, local, and Tribal 

Nation levels. 

The USGS carries out research in climate change, regional hydrology, the carbon cycle, coastal 

erosion, and glaciology. The Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program is 

studying processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemical fluxes at five small research 

watersheds in the United States. This program includes research on the effects of atmospheric 

and climatic variables on watershed processes. There are also a number of ongoing studies to 

characterize trends in hydrologic data and to relate these trends to climatic variables. Researchers 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 120 

are also using global and regional climate models to enhance understanding of the potential 

effects of climate change and climate variability on U.S. land and water resources. 

Glacier Monitoring. As part of its glaciology program, the USGS maintains an observation 

program on three benchmark glaciers representative of different climatic zones of the western 

United States, one in Washington, one on the south coast of Alaska, and one in the interior of 

Alaska. At each glacier, the program measures the winter snow accumulation, summer snow and 

ice ablation, air temperature, and runoff in the glacier basin. Beginning in 1959, this is the 

longest such record in North America. Analysis of this record is providing a greater 

understanding of climate variability and its effects on water resources of the western United 

States. The record clearly shows the effects of changing winter precipitation patterns associated 

with atmospheric conditions in the northeast Pacific Ocean, including El Niño-La Niña events 

and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. 

To augment its glacier monitoring efforts, the USGS is using National Systems data to measure 

fluctuations of glaciers in Alaska, Washington, and Montana. Mountain glaciers are ideal 

subjects for these systems because they are remote, have an appropriate space scale, and require 

infrequent but repetitive observations. The observations have established a baseline of regional 

glacial conditions. The resulting archive of ongoing observations is being used to determine 

recent trends in glacier size and terminus location. In addition, techniques have been developed 

to generate derived products that provide critical glacial parameters, including DEMs, 

equilibrium line altitudes, and ablation rates. These products are being incorporated into a glacial 

runoff model of the South Cascade Glacier, Washington, where they are proving to be a valuable 

source of otherwise unavailable data. 

Snow and Ice Studies. The USGS, in cooperation with BLM, is using a variety of remote 

sensing data to monitor the rapid wastage of the piedmont lobe of Bering Glacier, Alaska. 

Landsat, Radarsat, ICESat, and Ikonos observations show that Bering Glacier is retreating 

rapidly and thinning in an accelerating retreat from an advanced position that resulted from a 

major glacial surge in 1993-95. The satellite data and ground-based observations have been 

combined to determine the surface flow velocities and calving rates of the glacier and to monitor 

the expansion of Vitus Lake and Berg Lake—two large lakes whose boundaries include the 

glacier terminus. The rapid change in glaciation is having a large impact on nearby terrestrial and 

aquatic ecosystems. 

Geological Investigations. The USGS has traditionally led the USGCRP projects devoted to 

understanding cycles in the Earth’s climate, abrupt climate change, ecological thresholds, and 

climate change in polar regions. These cycles are generally underrepresented in the available 

data from meteorological records. By combining paleoclimatic and instrumental data, USGS 

scientists have contributed substantially to understanding how past and current changes in the 

Earth’s climate affect water, land, and biological resources. 

Biological Indicators of Climatic Trends. The National Phenology Network, Breeding Bird 

Surveys, and Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative are examples of USGS biological 

science programs that provide national coverage and uniform protocols for reporting the 

occurrence of biological events that can augment analyses of changes in the physical climate 

system. 
 Climate Services 

 121 

USGS Role in National Climate Services. The USGS has several additional programs and 

projects that would directly support and complement an interagency national climate services 

program. The USGS develops global and regional climate models and contributes to 

international programs of model development (e.g., the WCRP and phase 3 of the Coupled 

Model Intercomparison Project [CMIP3]). It targets model applications to investigate past, 

present, and future climate change (mean and variability) and how those changes influence and 

are influenced by surface systems. Applications include surface and subsurface hydrology, 

terrestrial and marine ecosystems, glaciology, and wildland fire research. USGS model 

simulations are often targeted to specific natural resource response and management questions 

rather than production runs for activities such as the IPCC assessments. Its modeling activities 

are flexible, with quickly implemented experimental designs that are often modified through an 

iterative process involving cross-disciplinary researchers. 

The figure below depicts some of the potential areas of USGS collaboration and support toward 

a coordinated interagency national climate services program. 

National C limate

S ervices P rogram

USGS

Na tional

S treamflow

Informa tion

P rogram

US GS

National Water‐

Q uality

A ss essment

P rog ram

USGS    National

P henology

Network

US GS

Modern

B iological

R ecord

US GS

S trategy:

Decision

S upport

Hig hly S ens itiv e S ys tems

D rylands and D rought P rone

A reas

High  L atitudes and the

C ryos phere

C omplex C oas tal S ys team

US GS S trategy:

Impacts and Linkages

between

Water, L and Us e, S oil,

And E cos ystem

US GS

S trategy:

Abrupt C hange

and

E arth S ystems

Thresholds

USGS

E cos ys tem

S tudies

E xamples of USGS P otential Areas of C ontribution

US GS S trategy:

C limate C hange

Drivers and

F eedbacks
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 122 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Science Mission Directorate, Earth Science Division 

The 2010 National Space Policy stated that NASA plays a crucial role in global climate change 

research and sustained monitoring capabilities, and advances research into and scientific 

knowledge of the global integrated Earth system by accelerating development of new Earth 

observing satellites. The NASA program on global climate change research is comprehensive, 

encompassing continuous interactions between satellite mission development and formulation, 

satellite data analyses, Earth system modeling, new technology, and state-of-the-art scientific 

knowledge for applications. Scientific research and data analysis are conducted through 

competitive peer-reviewed opportunities offered through Research Opportunities in Space and 

Earth Science (ROSES) announcements. 

Climate services will require development and delivery of data, tools, and information that are 

science-based, user-responsive, understandable, credible, and relevant to decisionmakers. They 

will depend on an integrated system that links essential observations, data, research and analysis, 

and predictions to the iterative development of service-oriented information for societal benefits. 

NASA’s climate research program is unique because it encompasses the development of 

observational techniques and the instrument technologies needed to implement them; laboratory 

testing and demonstrations from an appropriate set of surface-, balloon-, aircraft-, and spacebased platforms; development and operation of satellite missions and production and 

dissemination of the data products resulting from these missions; research to increase basic 

process knowledge; incorporation of observations and research results into complex 

computational models that can be used to more fully characterize the present state of the 

environment and predict the future evolution of the Earth system; and development of 

partnerships with other national and international organizations that can use the generated 

information in environmental forecasting and in policy, business, and management decisions. 

NASA is the largest funding contributor to the 13-agency USGCRP and provides the bulk of the 

global observations and research by the USGCRP. NASA delivers much of the observations and 

research that forms the basis for international scientific assessments of climate change and other 

subjects such as ozone. In FY 2012, NASA will chair the Committee on Earth Observation 

Satellites Strategic Implementation Team (CEOS SIT). 

Satellite Missions. Satellites provide critical climate change measurements via global coverage, 

frequent sampling in both space and time, and near-uniform accuracy and stability. NASA 

initiated, and in selected cases sustained for more than a decade, many global, high accuracy, 

well-calibrated data records, such as total solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere; Arctic 

Ocean sea ice extent and thickness; Antarctic and Greenland ice-sheet thicknesses; global sea 

level and global ocean surface vector wind; global ocean near-surface chlorophyll-a

concentration; global land use and land cover; ozone in the stratosphere; and, global 

precipitation, including water vapor, rainfall and snow. These critical climate data records are a 

foundation for national and international studies of global and regional climate change. 
 Climate Services 

 123 

NASA has 14 on-orbit satellite missions: ACRIMSAT, Aqua, Aquarius/SAC-D, Aura, 

CALIPSO, Cloudsat, EO-1, GRACE Jason-1, Landsat-7, OSTM, SORCE, Terra, and TRMM. 

Table 1 lists the climate services themes supported by these missions. On March 4, 2011, 

NASA’s Glory satellite did not reach orbit altitude due to malfunction of the launch vehicle. On 

June 9, 2011, the Aquarius sea surface salinity instrument was launched on Argentina’s SAC-D 

satellite. 

Table 1. Correlation of NASA Earth Science Division operating satellite missions with OFCM 

themes of climate services. 

 Satellite Launch Date Climate Services Theme 

ACRIMSAT Dec 1999 Climate variability and change 

Aqua May 2002 Atmospheric composition; carbon cycle; climate variability and 

 change; water cycle 

Aquarius Jun 2011 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

Aura Jul 2004 Atmospheric composition 

CALIPSO Apr 2006 Atmospheric composition; water cycle 

CloudSat Apr 2006 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

EO-1 Nov 2000 Carbon cycle 

GRACE Mar 2002 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

Jason-1 Dec 2001 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

Landsat-7 Apr 1999 Carbon cycle 

OSTM Jun 2008 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

SORCE Jan 2003 Climate variability and change 

Terra Dec 1999 Atmospheric composition; carbon cycle; climate variability and 

 change; water cycle 

TRMM Nov 1997 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

A daunting challenge in supporting the complexity of global and regional climate change science 

is the huge number of biological, chemical and physical variables that must be measured 

simultaneously at all locations. To approximate a solution, NASA engineered constellations of 

satellites flying in close formation. NASA’s Aura, CALIPSO, CloudSat, and Aqua satellites, 

together with the French PARASOL satellite now placed at a lower orbit, are called the “ATrain” constellation and produce an unprecedented quantity of data for atmospheric chemistry 

and composition. The time separation between the front and rear of the A-Train is 7 minutes, less 

than the lifetime of most clouds; this important feature allows researchers to utilize multisatellite observations to examine processes related to cirrus cloud formation in large-scale 

models. 

NASA has 6 satellite missions in development (Table 2) for launch from 2011 to 2015. NPP, 

LDCM, and GPM Core are foundational missions, which the Decadal Survey by the National 

Research Council4 assumed would be precursors to Decadal Survey missions. SMAP and 

 

4

 National Research Council (2007) Earth Science and Applications From Space: National Imperatives for the Next 

Decade and Beyond, 428 pp. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 124 

ICESat-2 are Tier-I Decadal Survey missions. OCO-2 replaces the original OCO, which did not 

reach orbit in February 2009 due to a launch vehicle failure. 

The President’s FY 2012 Budget advances key elements of the program established in NASA’s 

2010 Climate Initiative. The budget enables launch of the first two Tier 1 Decadal Survey 

missions, SMAP and ICESat-2, in 2014 and 2016, respectively, and extends the Venture-class 

Table 2. Correlation of NASA Earth Science Division missions in development with OFCM 

themes of climate services. 

Satellite Planned Launch Theme 

NPP Oct 2011 Climate variability and change 

OCO-2 Feb 2013 Carbon Cycle 

LDCM Jun 2013 Carbon cycle 

GPM Jul 2013 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

SMAP 2014 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

ICESat-2 2016 Climate variability and change; water cycle 

competitive program with annual solicitations for facility-class instruments and alternating 

biennial solicitations for small missions and airborne investigations. The budget supports 

continued development of options for the Decadal Survey Tier-1 DESDynI radar satellite. Two 

climate-focused Tier-2 Decadal Survey missions, SWOT for insight into the movement and 

distribution of Earth surface waters including both freshwater and oceans and ASCENDS for 

atmospheric column CO2 abundance, have been initiated for launch in 2019-2020. Recognizing 

the broad societal and policy impact of NASA’s Earth observations, NASA will continue to 

develop the OCO-2 mission for launch in 2013, begin building the OCO-3 as a mission of 

opportunity, and initiate missions to continue climate time series. NASA will refurbish the 

SAGE-III instrument for flight on the International Space Station (ISS) as early as 2014, develop 

the PACE mission for ocean color, and initiate a GRACE-FO gap-filler mission for launch in 

2016 to continue the measurements, including observations of changes in terrestrial water 

storage and ice mass, now made by the aging GRACE mission. 

The following activities will be undertaken or accomplished in FY 2012. 

 The 2011 Senior Review, conducted at 2-year intervals, concluded that all 12 on-orbit 

satellite missions in extended operations (Aqua, Aura, CALIPSO, CloudSat, EO-1, 

GRACE, Jason-1, OSTM, QuikSCAT, SORCE, Terra and TRMM) would receive 

funding for continued operations and core-data products in FY 2012 and FY 2013 (either 

augmented, reduced, or no change) because of the missions’ contributions to science and 

the national interest and their cost-effectiveness in terms of technical performance and 

cost of mission extension. 

 GPM will complete its System Integration Review (SIR) and Key Decision Point (KDP)-

D. 

 NPP will complete all pre-launch activities, launch, and conduct the initial on-orbit 

checkout and instrument calibration and validation. 
 Climate Services 

 125 

 LDCM will complete the Flight Operations Review (FOR) and the integration and testing 

of the observatory. 

 SMAP will complete mission Critical Design Review. 

 ICESat-2 will complete KDP-B and initiate the spacecraft contract. 

 The GRACE-FO continuity mission will complete a pre-formulation phase and enter into 

Phase A formulation. 

 DESDynI will complete its pre-formulation pre-Phase A analysis of developmental 

options. 

 CLARREO will continue its pre-Phase A studies. 

 SAGE-III will complete its ISS accommodation assessment and initial refurbishment. 

 SWOT and ASCENDS will complete their pre-Phase A activities and enter into 

formulation with the completion of KDP-A for each 

 Aquarius/SAC-D will complete its on-orbit checkout and begin sustained observations. 

 OCO-2 spacecraft will be delivered and complete SIR. 

 Release of the first Earth Venture (EV) instrument Announcement of Opportunity (AO) 

for a facility-class instrument and selection of winning proposal(s). 

 Continuation of EV-1 sustained airborne science campaigns. 

 Selection of winning EV-2 proposals. 

 Selection of Advancing Collaborative Connections for Earth System Science (ACCESS) 

projects from proposals submitted in response to the FY 2011 ROSES (ROSES-11) 

solicitation. 

 Update Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS) to receive 

OCO-2, GPM, and Decadal Survey mission data. 

NASA Science Research 

NASA will continue implementation of the airborne IceBridge campaign to acquire essential 

polar ice data during the gap between the ICESat and ICESat-2 missions. This activity, focusing 

on changes in Greenland and Arctic ice, will continue in FY 2012 and each year until ICESat-2’s 

launch in 2016. 

The research program develops and tests experimental techniques and algorithms that contribute 

to future satellite missions. The FY 2012 President’s Budget enhances support for 

interdisciplinary science and NASA observational- and model-based contributions to national 

and international climate assessments, e.g., the US National Climate Assessment and the IPCC 

Fifth Assessment Report. 

The FY 2012 President’s Budget enhances support for interdisciplinary science; for 

observational and model-based contributions to national and international climate assessments; 

for work towards a Carbon Monitoring System (CMS), specifically the development of two pilot 

projects; and for a scoping study and increased investment in scientific computing and space 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 126 

geodesy. The two CMS pilot products are a terrestrial biomass pilot product and an integrated 

emission and uptake flux pilot product. For the former, NASA will demonstrate how well 

biomass can be quantified with high quality remotely sensed data from aircraft at selected sites 

representative of U.S. forest types and conditions. The pilot flux product will combine satellite 

data with modeled atmospheric transport to link the observations with surface exchange 

processes to estimate the atmosphere-biosphere CO2 exchange processes. 

The following research activities will be undertaken or accomplished in FY 2012: 

 Release request for proposals through ROSES 

 Increase supercomputing cycles 

 Continue IceBridge campaigns 

 Complete Impacts of Climate on Ecosystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific 

Environment (ICESCAPE) campaign 

 Select airborne mission teams for Mid-latitude Airborne Cirrus Properties Experiment 

(MACPEX) 

 Increase the number of science data products delivered to EOSDIS 

Department of Energy, Office of Science 

DOE’s Climate and Environmental Sciences Division (CESD) within the Office of Science 

focuses on a predictive, systems-level understanding of the fundamental science associated with 

climate change and DOE's environmental challenges; both key to support the DOE mission. 

CESD supports an integrated portfolio of research ranging from molecular to field scale studies 

with emphasis on the use of advanced computer models and multidisciplinary experimentation. 

As discussed next, CESD supports three research activities and two national scientific user 

facilities: 

Atmospheric System Research (ASR) 

The ASR activity seeks to resolve the two major areas of uncertainty in climate change 

projections: the role of clouds and the effects of aerosol emissions on the atmospheric radiation 

balance. Research from the ASR program results in improved physical formulations leading to 

state-of-the-art science related to clouds, aerosols, radiation, and precipitation. The program is 

geared to observe and advance understanding of the atmospheric system in a holistic, 

comprehensive fashion that addresses the full range of interrelated climatic processes. The 

anticipated end result is that climate models will have reduced uncertainty and improved climate 

simulation capability so that climate models can be used with increased confidence in decisionand policy making. 

Climate and Earth System Modeling 

Climate and Earth System Modeling in CESD focuses on development, evaluation, and use of 

Regional and Global Climate Modeling (RGCM), the development of Earth System Models
 Climate Services 

 127 

(ESM), and Integrated Assessment Models to determine the impacts and possible mitigation, of 

climate change. 

Achieving greater detail about uncertainty and future variability of the earth climate system is 

critical for decision-makers. There is a need to ascertain shifts in major modes of climate 

variability and climate extremes, to detect and attribute regional manifestations of climate 

change, and to conduct ever more thorough model validation. All these goals of the RGCM 

program remain significant challenges. This program also provides support for national and 

international climate modeling research and assessments. An understanding of the model biases 

seamlessly feeds back to the ESM program. 

RGCM activities are organized into several distinct but coordinated components: 

 The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (PCMDI) develops 

improved methods and tools for the diagnosis and intercomparison of climate and Earth 

system models. It provides major facilities for archiving climate model output, including 

frequently analyzed variables such as those used for the IPCC Assessment Reports. 

PCMDI makes such model output readily accessible to the climate modeling community. 

 The Climate, Ocean and Sea Ice Modeling Project (COSIM) continues to develop the 

ocean model POP (Parallel Ocean Program), its hybrid-coordinate successor (HYPOP), 

and a sea ice model (CICE). COSIM is also developing a new Community Ice Sheet 

Model (CISM), designed for use at high spatial resolutions and at high latitudes. The 

scientific thrust of this work is to understand the role of oceans and ice in climate change, 

including (1) future sea-level rise caused by thermal expansion of the ocean and by 

melting of land ice; (2) stability of the high-latitude ocean thermohaline circulation; and 

(3) the unique high-latitude marine and ice ecosystems that reside along the ice edge and 

how they respond to changes in sea ice extent, including consequences for carbon and 

sulfur uptake and exchange. 

 Multi-century simulations using the Climate Change Simulation Model (CCSM) are 

conducted by the DOE Climate Change Project at the National Center for Atmospheric 

Research (NCAR). Analysis of CCSM simulations provides insights into how natural and 

anthropogenic forcings affect the coupled climate system. 

Research from the ESM program results in improved state-of-the-science dynamically coupled 

models for understanding future variability and predictability of the climate system. Significant 

scientific challenges need to be addressed, such as future changes in major modes of climate 

variability, climate extremes in a changing climate, detecting and attributing the regional 

manifestations of climate change, and carbon-cycle interactions with climate. Improved climate 

information at high spatial and temporal resolution is of immense significance to society and 

decision-makers. 

Climate change is real, its effects are more immediate and profound than previously anticipated, 

and old questions (are humans the cause?) are yielding to new ones: What are the impacts? Who 

and what will be most vulnerable? What can we do about it, and how can we prepare? Against 

this backdrop, and with an eye toward: (1) regional and local scale insights; (2) quantitative 

predictions at the decadal, annual, and even shorter time scales; (3) policy-making, planning and 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 128 

decision-support tools; (4) impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability studies; and (5) highly 

integrated analyses spanning energy, environment, and economic security, new or vastly 

improved Integrated Assessment Models will inform some of the most significant U.S. energy 

and other infrastructure decisions and investments of this century. These models shape our 

fundamental understanding of climate change: the drivers of climate change; its pace and 

consequences; the implications and role for energy systems of the future; changes in availability 

of natural resources, food, and water; and shifts in global economies, vulnerabilities and overall 

national security. 

Environmental System Science 

The Environmental System Science activity in CESD seeks to advance a robust predictive 

understanding of energy-derived byproducts in terrestrial ecosystems extending from the bedrock 

to the top of the canopy and from molecular to global scales. This activity focuses on 

understanding the role of terrestrial ecosystems in a changing climate5

 and the role of subsurface 

biogeochemical processes in the fate and transport of heavy metal and radionuclide contaminants 

in subsurface systems.6

 DOE is responsible for what has been described as the largest, most 

complex, and diverse collection of environmental remediation challenges in the nation. While 

some of the problems are tractable and require only time and money to resolve, a large fraction 

of them cannot be resolved with existing knowledge and technology. The need for solutions to 

these challenging environmental remediation problems drives the Environmental System Science 

program. 

Future climatic changes will almost certainly affect many important organisms and processes in 

terrestrial ecosystems, and these ecosystems provide society with a host of essential goods and 

services. The Environmental System Science program's research is directed at obtaining and then 

disseminating scientific knowledge of the most important effects of climatic change on 

ecosystems so that society can understand the ecological implications of climatic change and 

then plan for those changes. While the program focuses on U.S. terrestrial ecosystems, much of 

the knowledge gained has global applicability. 

The terrestrial biosphere is a major factor influencing the transport and concentration of 

atmospheric greenhouse gases including carbon dioxide. Current limitations of our 

understanding of carbon cycling through terrestrial ecosystems account for significant 

uncertainties in projections of future climate scenarios. This program seeks to identify critical 

carbon cycle pathways, provide quantitative explanations for those pathways and integrate the 

resulting process understanding into coupled carbon-climate models. 

CESD National Scientific User Facilities 

Two scientific user facilities—the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research 

Facility (ARM) and the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (EMSL)—provide the 

scientific community with technical capabilities, scientific expertise, and unique information to 

facilitate science in areas of importance to DOE’s mission. The ARM is a multiplatform facility 

that supports research for addressing the major uncertainties of climate models: clouds and 

 

5

 See http://science.energy.gov/ber/research/cesd/terrestrial-ecosystem-science/. 6

 See http://science.energy.gov/ber/research/cesd/subsurface-biogeochemical-research/. 
 Climate Services 

 129 

aerosols. It provides the national and international research community unparalleled 

infrastructure for obtaining precise observations of key atmospheric phenomena needed to 

advance the understanding of understanding atmospheric process and improve climate models. 

The facilities and capabilities of EMSL are available to the general scientific and engineering 

communities to conduct research in the environmental molecular sciences and related areas. 

Within DOE, the ARM’s major clients are the ASR, RGCM, and ESM programs of CESD 

(described above). The primary ARM objective is improved scientific understanding of the 

fundamental physics related to interactions between clouds, aerosols, and radiative feedback 

processes in the atmosphere. In addition, the ARM has enormous potential to advance scientific 

knowledge in a wide range of interdisciplinary Earth sciences. The ARM was the first climate 

change field research facility to operate cutting-edge instrumentation on a long-term continuous 

basis and at both fixed and varying locations around the globe. The ARM field research sites are 

designed to study the effects of aerosols, precipitation, surface flux, and clouds on global climate 

change. The fixed sites are located in three diverse climate regimes representing mid-latitude, 

polar, and tropical environs (i.e., the Southern Great Plains and the North Slope of Alaska in the 

United States and the Tropical Western Pacific). With its aerial measurement capability and 

mobile ground facilities, ARM provides the world’s most comprehensive continuous 

observational capabilities for obtaining atmospheric data specifically for addressing the major 

scientific uncertainties in climate change. 

Each ARM site uses a leading-edge array 

of cloud-, aerosol-, and precipitationobserving instruments to record long-term 

continuous measurements of atmospheric 

and surface properties. ARM also provides 

shorter term (months rather than years) 

measurements with its two mobile ground 

facilities and aerial measurement 

capability. The combination of high 

temporal resolution at discrete locations 

makes ARM observations uniquely suited 

for studying local cloud processes, many 

aspects of which remain poorly represented 

in climate models. The resultant data are 

available through the ARM’s data archive. 

These data are used as a resource for over 

100 journal articles per year, which 

represent tangible evidence of the ARM's contribution to advances in most areas of atmospheric 

radiation and cloud research. Additional programmatic information is available via the ARM 

homepage on the Internet. 

EMSL offers users access to more than 60 major systems, including many one-of-a-kind 

analytical instruments for studying atomic to molecular to larger-scale processes, a 

supercomputing platform and associated computational chemistry software, and the in-house 

scientific expertise to help obtain high quality results in a timely fashion. By co-locating multiple 

types of capabilities and scientific expertise, EMSL serves as an ideal place for research teams 

Radar Wind Profiler and radio acoustic sounding

system (RASS), ARM site at Barrow, Alaska.
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 130 

interested in integrating theory with experiment, as well as a place to conduct a wide range of 

single-investigator studies. 

Detailed scientific knowledge of the physical, chemical, and biological processes occurring at the 

most fundamental levels is necessary to discover and fully utilize breakthroughs in areas such as 

hydrogen as a new energy source, improved catalysts and materials for industrial applications, 

insights into the factors influencing climate change and carbon sequestration processes, new 

approaches to managing legacy wastes such as radionuclide and heavy metal contamination, and 

making bioenergy sources a reality. The complex nature of DOE's energy, science, and 

environmental missions demands a wide range of leading-edge experimental and computational 

capabilities to enable scientists to conduct fundamental and multidisciplinary research using 

multiple experiment and computational approaches that will lead to scientific advances to help 

address the DOE missions. EMSL provides these leading-edge experimental and computational 

capabilities to the scientific community. 

DOE’s Next-Generation Ecosystem Experiments Project 

The Arctic is undergoing a system-wide reorganization in response to an altered climate. The 

mechanisms responsible for this change have 

been unpredictable and difficult to isolate due 

to a large number of interactions among 

individual components of the system. The 

Next-Generation Ecosystem Experiments 

(NGEE) project will quantify the complex 

physical, chemical, and biological behavior 

of terrestrial ecosystems in Alaska. The 

project will focus on interactions that drive 

ecosystem-climate feedbacks through 

greenhouse-gas fluxes and changes in surface 

energy balance associated with thawing 

permafrost and threshold-dominated 

permafrost degradation and thermokarst 

formation. Research sites will be located 

along a bioclimate gradient that spans tundra 

and shrub-tundra transition zones on the 

North Slope and Seward Peninsula. 

The vision for the NGEE project is to deliver a high-resolution terrestrial system model for 

coupled thermal, hydrological, geomorphic, biogeochemical, and vegetation processes as needed 

to predict the evolution of a warming Arctic landscape and its feedback to the global climate 

system. This vision includes field observations, laboratory experiments, and modeling of critical 

and interrelated water, nitrogen, carbon, and energy dynamics and the important interactions, 

from the molecular scale to the landscape scale, that drive feedbacks to the climate system. 

The new scanning precipitation radar at the

Barrow, Alaska, ARM site.
 Climate Services 

 131 

National Science Foundation (NSF) 

The National Science Foundation funds basic climate research, modeling, and process studies. 

This research portfolio includes support to individual investigators and to groups such as the 

Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies (COLA), the Center for Multiscale Modeling of 

Atmospheric Processes, and NCAR. With DOE as a partner, NSF funds NCAR to develop, 

maintain, and support the Community Earth System Model (CESM), a fully-coupled global 

climate model that provides state-of-the-art computer simulations of the Earth’s past, present, 

and future climate states. While basic climate research support has generally been directed 

through long-standing programs within the Directorate for Geosciences, a recent major new 

cross-directorate investment, Science, Engineering and Education for Sustainability (SEES), was 

introduced in FY 2010 and includes climate research topics such as decadal and regional 

prediction using DOE/CESD Earth System Models. SEES will continue over the next several 

years and will be at the nexus of NSF’s effort to address challenges in climate and energy 

research and education. 
Section 2. Federal Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Programs 

 132 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

133 

EMERGENCY RESPONSE AND 

HOMELAND SECURITY SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

FEMA’s mission is to support U.S. citizens and first responders to ensure that as a Nation we 

work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, 

respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards. In carrying out its role, FEMA works with the 

Federal scientific community and meteorological agencies to ensure that appropriate risk 

information for hazards, vulnerabilities, and consequences is used to execute this mission. 

FEMA’s Planning Division administers the National Hurricane Program, which conducts 

hurricane evacuation studies, provides evacuation decision-making training, and provides a range 

of hurricane evacuation decision support tools to State and local government emergency 

management officials to develop their hurricane evacuation plans. Under an Interagency 

Agreement with the National Weather Service’s National Hurricane Center (NWS/NHC), the 

NHC builds and utilizes its SLOSH 

(Sea, Lake and Overland Surges 

from Hurricanes) storm surge model 

as the hazard analysis basis for 

Hurricane Program studies, training, 

and decision support to State and 

local governments. . 

It is critical for FEMA to identify, 

develop, and/or utilize the most 

appropriate meteorological information to calibrate its preparedness, 

response, and recovery activities to 

build and deploy emergency 

management capability, and to 

design and implement mitigation 

measures which reduce the con–

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services are those 

specialized meteorological services and facilities established to meet the requirements of Federal, 

state, and local agencies responding to natural disasters and security incidents. This category includes 

the use of atmospheric transport and diffusion (ATD) models for predicting the dispersion of airborne 

toxic substances; it also includes natural disaster monitoring and prediction services and the transport 

of water-borne toxic substances not included in basic services. For example, numerical weather 

prediction models used to forecast the path, intensity, and storm surge of landfalling tropical cyclones 

are part of basic services. Downstream models of the effects of a landfalling tropical cyclone on the 

infrastructure and population of a particular populated area could be included in this service category. 

FEMA’s interagency collaboration and support is key to

disaster impact assessments and plans.
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

134 

sequences from emergencies and disasters. These interests extend to national standards for 

geographic information systems (GIS) used for delivery of meteorological products and services 

by other agencies. As administrator of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), FEMA 

publishes Flood Insurance Rate Maps for all flood-prone communities, which serve as the 

official demarcation for flood risk. 

FEMA actively supports the OFCM-sponsored Working Group for Disaster Impact Assessments 

and Plans: Weather and Water Data (WG/DIAP) and the WG/DIAP’s efforts to develop and 

implement the National Plan for Disaster Impact Assessments which outlines the interagency 

procedures to coordinate and support the collection of perishable data after major storms. These 

data have applications in post-disaster mitigation activities, the NFIP flood hazard analysis, the 

FEMA National Hurricane Program hurricane, and other FEMA risk analysis activities, such as 

the Multi-Hazard Loss Estimation Methodology (HAZUS). The National Hurricane Program is 

the principal FEMA contact point for most meteorological matters, while the FEMA Risk 

Analysis Division is the primary contact for NFIP flood risk analysis. 

Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center (IMAAC) 

Under the National Response Framework, the mission of the IMAAC is to provide a single point 

for the coordination and dissemination of Federal dispersion modeling and hazard prediction 

products that represent the Federal position, during an actual or potential incident. The IMAAC 

provides plume modeling analyses of the impacts of hazardous atmospheric releases to aid in 

protecting the public and the environment. 

The IMAAC is led by the Department of Homeland Security and supported by seven other 

Federal departments and agencies: Department of Defense, Department of Energy (DOE), 

Department of Health and Human Services, Environmental Protection Agency, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), and Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The DOE’s National Atmospheric Release 

Advisory Center at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory serves as the operations hub of the 

IMAAC. 

Decision makers and first responders need timely and accurate plume predictions to help guide 

emergency response decisions. The IMAAC provides a suite of plume modeling tools that 

incorporate meteorological, geographic, and demographic data, as well as hazardous material 

information, to predict the transport and potential downwind consequences of biological, 

chemical, radiological/nuclear, and natural releases. The IMAAC experts are available 24/7 to 

produce detailed quality-assured model predictions, utilize observations and field measurement 

data to refine analyses, and assist decision makers in product interpretation. 

The IMAAC produces both technical analyses and briefing products tailored for communicating 

with nontechnical decision makers. IMAAC plots and consequence reports show hazard areas, 

affected populations, potential casualties and/or fatalities, and damage estimates, including 

health effects, public protective actions, and worker protection levels based on Federal 

guidelines. The NWS is the primary source of meteorological observations and designated 

preferred model forecasts. The IMAAC also uses additional meteorological data from other 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

135 

sources and/or higher-resolution in-house model forecasts if determined to be more 

representative or if IMAAC does not have access to the preferred forecast data. 

The IMAAC has responded to numerous real-world events, including chemical fires and train 

derailments, in-situ burns from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and sulfur dioxide volcanic 

emissions in Hawaii. 

NOAA NWS 

National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP). The NWS has the operational 

responsibility for the NTHMP, the goal of which is to ensure adequate advanced warning of 

tsunamis along all U.S. coastal areas and appropriate community emergency response to a 

tsunami event. In response to the destructive Indian Ocean Tsunami (December 2004), the U.S. 

Tsunami Warning Program, including the NTHMP, was upgraded and expanded to enhance the 

monitoring, detection, warning, and communications capabilities designed to protect lives and 

property for all U.S. communities at risk. 

NOAA Weather Radio (NWR). NWR is used as a reliable, inexpensive means of communicating 

weather-related warnings directly to the public. 

FEMA Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS) and PLAN/CMAS. The NWS 

will begin pushing watches, warnings, advisories, and special statements in Common Alerting 

Protocol (CAP) format to the FEMA IPAWS Alert Aggregator by December 2011.Warnings that 

pose an “imminent threat” to the general public will be broadcast to cell phones in the threat area 

compatible with the Personal Localized Alert Network (PLAN) or Commercial Mobile Alert 

System (CMAS). Each PLAN/CMAS message will have a maximum length of 90 characters. 

The message notifies the recipient of the alert type, expiration time, a one word description of the 

action to be taken, and name of the alert originator (i.e., NWS). All major wireless carriers have 

opted-in to provide the PLAN/CMAS service. Rollout of PLAN/CMAS is scheduled to begin in 

December 2011 in New York City and Washington, DC. Rollout for the remainder of the Unites 

States is scheduled for April 2012. 

Other alerting systems, including the Emergency Alert System (EAS), may access NWS CAP 

messages in the Alert Aggregator for repackaging and/or redistribution. 

Interagency Activities. In partnership with the Department of Homeland Security, NWS 

forecasters provide meteorological support for response to terrorist acts and other homeland 

security concerns, as well as accidental releases/spills of hazardous chemical, biological, or 

radioactive materials or other environmental events. The NWS has a meteorologist permanently 

deployed at FEMA’s National Response Coordination Center (NRCC) as a liaison to provide 

real-time information to national decision makers. Similarly, NOAA has a liaison deployed to 

the DHS National Operations Center. 

NWS meteorologists provide forecasts in response to Incidents of National Significance such as 

the space shuttle Columbia recovery effort, Hurricane Katrina, volcanic eruptions in Iceland, and 

after major tornado events such as those in Tuscaloosa, Alabama and Joplin, Missouri during the 

spring of 2011. In addition, the NWS deploys a national cadre of specially trained Incident 

Meteorologists (IMETs) to provide onsite support for large wildfires and other homeland 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

136 

security concerns, as well as for accidental releases/spills of hazardous chemical, biological, or 

radioactive materials. 

NOAA National Ocean Service (NOS) 

Coastal Oceanographic Applications and Services for Tides and Lakes (COASTAL). The 

COASTAL program focuses on non-navigational applications of CO-OPS observing systems, 

data, and products for ecosystem restoration and management. COASTAL also provides 

decision-support tools to aid managers and restoration practitioners to plan for both current and 

future coastal conditions, and to anticipate and mitigate natural hazards. Real-time water level 

and meteorological information is critical for emergency managers to make decisions related to 

evacuation and warnings for coastal communities as well as to produce storm surge predictions. 

The Storm QuickLook product in particular incorporates water level and meteorological 

information measured at National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON) and Physical 

Oceanographic Real-Time System (PORTS®) stations. Storm QuickLook bulletins are posted for 

tropical cyclones that affect the United States coastline, but have also been created for the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill and, in FY 2011, for elevated water levels in the Mississippi River. 

These bulletins provide near real-time, continuously updating oceanographic and meteorological 

data measured at affected water level stations and are displayed on the CO-OPS website and on 

the NOAAWatch (the NOAA All-Hazard Monitor) page. FY 2012 goals for this product are to 

enhance displays and make the product more dynamic. Also, 6-minute interval GOES 

transmission capability supports the NWS storm surge warning program when expected water 

level elevations are predicted or observed during coastal storms and hurricanes. COASTAL also 

provides aid to Tsunami Warning Centers, by supplying one-minute water level observations at 

coastal NWLON stations, as well as 15-second data as requested after a tsunami event. These 

data are used to assess the impact and damage of a tsunami. In FY 2012, NOS will be ingesting 

and displaying NWS-operated tsunami station data on the CO-OPS web page with NOS oneminute data for NWS Tsunami Warning Centers to access together with the web page tools. 

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) 

Among the NOAA/OMAO airborne observing systems fleet, the King Air (N68RF) and AC695A Commander 1000 (N45RF) aircraft perform damage assessment flights following natural 

disasters. They provide high-resolution photographs to the public via the Internet. These 

photographs are extremely useful to local, county, and state government personnel, as well as to 

emergency managers and to the public at large, as they go about the business of assessing the 

damage and the nature and magnitude of the relief effort that will be required in the region. 

United States Air Force

Air Force Weather (AFW) enables Joint Warfighters to anticipate and exploit the weather for air, 

ground, space, cyberspace, and intelligence operations. As this applies to the ‘Emergency 

Response and Homeland Security Services’ category, AFW provides meteorological 

environmental information, products, and services required to support Air Force, Army, and 

other military operations in order to support the Nation’s emergency response and homeland 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

137 

security efforts. Different organizations within AFW support various aspects of the Nation’s 

homeland security efforts: 

 The Air Force Weather Agency’s (AFWA) 1st Weather Group produces environmental 

products used to support both the daily and emergency response and homeland security 

operations of the U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) and the North American 

Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). AFWA produces fine-resolution model and 

forecast products for use by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) in its hazard 

dispersion modeling and related emergency planning and response efforts. 

 AFWA produces both CONUS and worldwide geospatial representations of current and 

forecast weather used to support the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) in 

its homeland security mission. 

 AFWA provides backup to several NOAA operational centers, maintaining capabilities 

(for example) in severe weather, aviation, volcanic ash dispersion, and space weather, 

available if and when needed to support emergency response and homeland security. 

 The Air Force’s overseas Operational Weather Squadrons (the 17th OWS in Hawaii and 

the 21th OWS in Germany) may support emergency planning and response operations in 

their respective areas of responsibility. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), 

operated jointly with the Navy in Hawaii, routinely works with its sister US hurricane 

forecast centers to issue forecasts and warnings to protect US assets and interests across 

the Pacific and Indian Ocean basins. 

U.S. Marine Corps Chemical Biological Incident Response Force 

The Marine Corps’ Chemical Biological Incident Response Force was established in 1996 in 

response to Presidential Decision Directive 39 to manage the consequences of nuclear, 

biological, and chemical (NBC) materials or weapons used by terrorists. This national-level asset 

is part of the reactivated 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade–Anti-Terrorism, located at Indian 

Head, Maryland. It comprises specially trained and equipped Navy, Marine, and civilian 

personnel who can rapidly be forward deployed or otherwise respond to a credible threat of a 

chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive (CBRNE) incident in order to assist 

local, State, or Federal agencies and designated unified incident commanders in the conduct of 

consequence management operations. Within the S-2 (Security Section), permanently assigned 

METOC forecasters provide specialized NBC dispersion forecast products and services that aid 

this organization in accomplishing a mission. 

Department of Energy 

Operational Meteorological Services at DOE Facilities 

Site-specific meteorological services at DOE facilities date back to 1944 when the development, 

fabrication, and testing of atomic weapons and their accompanying national security and nuclear 

safety issues was in its infancy. Since that time, DOE has established, operated, and maintained 

operational meteorology programs and has also undertaken various atmospheric research projects 

at its field sites and offices. Early operational meteorology program requirements were 

augmented by the passage of the Clean Air Act and other Federal laws associated with 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

138 

environmental protection. These requirements have been more recently reinforced through 

various DOE Orders, Standards, and Handbooks, as well as national voluntary consensus 

standards that specify requirements for a variety of meteorological services. Consequently, a 

meteorological monitoring program, of varying complexity, has become an essential component 

at each DOE site. The collection of quality-assured meteorological data, provision of weather 

forecasting services, and development of site-specific climatology from these meteorological 

measurements are important elements of a DOE Integrated Safety Management System (ISMS). 

Successful implementation of a comprehensive DOE mission requires characterization of 

atmospheric processes. Meteorological data collection programs, diagnostic analytical 

assessments requiring meteorological information, and prognostic weather forecasting are 

integral to meeting DOE mission objectives. An understanding of the nature of the atmospheric 

domain, with its various dynamic and chemical aspects of energy-related phenomena, is vital to 

the successful implementation of DOE programs that address national energy security, scientific 

discovery and innovation, and environmental stewardship. As an example, a release of 

radioactive or chemically- or biologically-toxic material into the atmosphere may result in 

serious acute and chronic health effects on the workers and the public, as well as long-term 

environmental consequences. Various atmospheric processes play a role in determining the fate 

of hazardous materials released into the atmosphere which need to be accurately characterized. 

Consequently, a central theme of meteorology programs has been to protect worker and public 

health and safety, and the environment, on and around DOE facilities by accurately measuring 

and characterizing the relevant local atmospheric processes necessary to establish real-time and 

forecasted atmospheric transport and diffusion conditions. 

DOE administers its operational meteorology programs through its various offices—including 

the Office of Health Safety and Security, the National Nuclear Security Administration, and the 

Office of Environmental Management—that have missions, requiring knowledge of the 

atmospheric sciences. Activities at DOE sites include support to daily operations (e.g., workforce safety under hazardous weather and emergency conditions) and national defense programs 

that require fundamentally sound and well-managed meteorological monitoring programs. 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 

The NRC Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response coordinates NRC responses to 

nuclear facility emergencies through the activation of the NRC Operations Center. The 

Protective Measures Team dose analysts in the NRC Operations Center rely on the Radiological 

Assessment System for Consequence Analysis (RASCAL) model to assess offsite consequences 

in the event of a radiological accident at a NRC-licensed facility. 

The NRC also maintains an interest in the transport and dispersion of airborne hazardous and 

nonradioactive materials on the safe operation of nuclear facilities and uses SAFER Real-Time 

to assess protective action levels for making recommendations in the event of a non-radiological 

accident at an NRC licensee. 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

139 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Role in Emergency Response to Natural Hazards 

The USGS mission provides for "the classification of the public lands and the examination of the 

geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the National Domain.” The USGS serves 

the Nation by providing reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; 

minimize loss of life and property from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and 

mineral resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life. Among its broad responsibilities 

and efforts are identification, assessment, and monitoring of potentially hazardous areas; 

development of capabilities to predict the time, place, and the severity of hazardous geologic, 

hydrometeorologic, biologic, and chemical conditions or events; and dissemination of the 

findings and their implications, including the provision of technical and scientific advice to 

public officials. The USGS also maintains Bureau-wide efforts intended to educate the public 

about natural hazards. 

The USGS has been delegated the Federal responsibility to provide notification and warnings for 

earthquakes, volcanoes, and landslides. In addition, USGS data-collection networks provide realtime information needed by other agencies to issue forecasts and warnings related to a variety of 

hazards. For example, the USGS seismic network supports NOAA tsunami warnings; the USGS 

streamgage network supports NOAA flood forecasts (see Hydrometeorological and Water 

Resources Services); the USGS geomagnetic observations support solar storm forecasts (see 

Space Weather Services); USGS biologic monitoring of wildlife diseases enhances assessments 

of potential human pathogens such as the H1NI influenza virus; and USGS geospatial and 

remotely sensed information supports a broad spectrum of disaster-response activities and 

operations from an “all-hazards” perspective. 

The USGS established a secondary reception station for NOAA GOES at the USGS Earth 

Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux Falls, SD. Three new satellite 

antennas and an existing antenna at EROS are used in support of this effort. Three of these 

antennas support communications with the GOES East and GOES West satellites, along with a 

hot spare. The remaining antenna is designated for a DOMSAT link, which is used for data 

dissemination. EROS also receives streamgage data in real time from the GOES satellites and is 

making these data available to USGS and other stakeholders. The receive station at EROS serves 

as a backup to the primary site [station] at Wallops Island, Virginia, which otherwise would 

represent a single point of failure in this vital data collection and dissemination system. 

Beyond network operations, the USGS has the expertise and infrastructure to acquire, assess, 

disseminate, or preserve information that can be derived from the study of geological, 

hydrological, meteorological, chemical, or biological conditions before, during, or after an 

imminent or declared disaster or emergency. These capabilities can be tapped through mission 

assignments, interagency agreements, or third-party contracts, as provided by law and regulation. 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

140 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), Air Resources Laboratory 

(ARL) 

ARL Headquarters develops and improves dispersion and air quality models, collects researchgrade air quality and deposition measurements of select air quality parameters, and provides 

climate-relevant datasets and assessments of climate variability and trends. Some products 

developed by ARL augment the operational product suites of the NOAA service-oriented line 

offices, particularly the NWS. Other products are state-of-the art, web-based assessment tools 

that serve university researchers, Federal research agencies, and international partners. For 

instance, ARL continues to improve dispersion tools that provide forecast support to NOAA's 

emergency response activities with an emphasis on chemical, nuclear, and volcanic events. For 

this application, ARL develops and couples advanced dispersion models with the forecast 

products of the NWS to provide a basis for trajectory and dispersion calculations. The ARL 

Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model is operational at 

NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and serves as the national 

dispersion forecasting capability in several other countries. Registered users can also access 

HYSPLIT products via the Internet. HYSPLIT is the major product employed in the operations 

of the Regional Specialized Meteorology Center (RSMC) set up as a joint undertaking of ARL 

and NCEP under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The 

WMO/RSMC is the source of dispersion products in the event that a radioactive plume crosses 

international boundaries. 

ARL also conducts research and development to improve NOAA’s operational air quality 

forecast system. This includes extending the domain covered by operational ozone and wildfire 

smoke forecasts, improving wind-blown dust prediction capabilities, and working toward a 

future operational particulate matter prediction. 

The ARL Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division (ATDD) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 

conducts research and development in air quality, climate, and atmospheric dispersion, with an 

emphasis on understanding and predicting the behavior of the lowest portion of the atmosphere. 

The main research goals are to develop better methods for predicting transport, dispersion, and 

air-surface exchange of air pollutants and to improve reference-grade measurement of climate 

change and related physical and chemical processes. 

ARL Headquarters and ATDD jointly conduct world-class research on the atmospheric mercury 

cycle. While mercury emissions come from a variety of sources and media, the majority of 

mercury released to the environment occurs as atmospheric emissions. From the atmosphere, 

mercury is eventually deposited in watersheds and receiving waters, where it can be converted to 

methyl mercury, a highly toxic form, which bioaccumulates in the aquatic food chain leading to 

the fish used as human and livestock food sources. A cornerstone of ARL’s work is a state-ofthe-art modeling system that tracks mercury emission sources and links these emissions to 

atmospheric transport, transformation, and deposition. 

ARL also conducts long-term intensive monitoring of mercury in ambient air. Data collected are 

analyzed to gain useful insights into the origin, transport, and deposition of atmospheric mercury 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

141 

and for interpreting and evaluating ARL’s mercury modeling system. ARL’s mercury products 

and services directly support air quality decision makers, air quality forecasters, and the mercury 

research community. 

The ATDD also operates an intensive urban research meteorological network within the National 

Capital Region, called DCNet. The network has been in operation since 2003 and consists of 15 

stations that collect the standard meteorological parameters (temperature, wind speed, and 

direction) and also measure characteristics of atmospheric turbulence. DCNet provides critical 

data and insights that improve predictions of where airborne hazardous materials will go, thereby 

improving emergency managers’ ability to protect first responders and the public. With a strong 

focus on data quality, DCNet is designed to support development of urban monitoring 

methodologies and observation standards; evaluation of the utility of using private 

meteorological observing networks within urban environments; and accumulation of an intensive 

dataset for model evaluation and initialization, process studies, and decision support. DCNet 

observations are used by numerous government security and emergency management activities 

within the National Capital Region. 

The ARL Field Research Division (FRD), in Idaho Falls, Idaho, designs and conducts field 

studies to evaluate the performance of transport and dispersion models at local, regional, and 

continental scales. The FRD has also continuously observed and recorded meteorological 

conditions at the DOE Idaho National Laboratory (INL) and its environs since 1948. The FRD 

manages the 35-station NOAA/INL Meteorological Monitoring Network, an observing mesonet 

that includes advanced hardware and software. This network contributes to the generation of site 

forecasts and severe weather notices issued for special and routine INL operations. FRD 

meteorologists staff the DOE Emergency Operations Center during drills and emergencies, such 

as accidental toxic chemical releases and wildfires. 

The ARL Special Operations and Research Division (SORD) in Las Vegas, Nevada, conducts 

research on problems of mutual interest to NOAA and DOE that relate to the Nevada Test Site, 

its atmospheric environment, and its emergency preparedness and response activities. SORD is 

involved in research related to the desert environment, including improvements to the Weather 

Research and Forecasting (WRF) mesoscale model and research on the climate effects of the El 

Niño Southern Oscillation. 

SORD also participates in two air quality and visibility programs: The Interagency Monitoring of 

Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program is a Federal land management and 

Environmental Protection Agency air quality and visibility program focused on measuring 

particulate matter over the United States. The Rocky Mountain Atmospheric Nitrogen and Sulfur 

(ROMANS) study is examining increases in nitrogen deposition in the Rocky Mountains. 

ARL also participates in national networks that direct research attention on the needs of the next 

generation of predictive models. One of these is the Atmospheric Integrated Research 

Monitoring Network (AIRMoN), which is a nested network with sites of varying complexity that 

address scientific issues of wet and dry deposition from the atmosphere. A major current item for 

scientific attention is the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen compounds and its role in 

promoting eutrophication of ecosystems, primarily coastal systems. A second example is ARL’s 

collaboration with the Global Monitoring Division (GMD) of NOAA’s Earth System Research 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

142 

Laboratory (ESRL) in operating the Surface Energy Budget Network (SEBN) as a contribution 

to NOAA’s Climate Observing Systems. SEBN provides a complete set of data that describes the 

physics of energy exchange and feedbacks at the land-surface interface. Many of these stations 

are augmented with instrumentation to measure fluxes of sensible heat, latent heat, momentum, 

and carbon dioxide. SEBN provides valuable information for evaluating and improving the 

parameterization of the land-atmosphere interface in predictive models. 

DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council (DMCC) 

The DMCC was established in 1994 to coordinate meteorological activities among the field 

offices to enhance cost effectiveness and productivity and to leverage synergistic opportunities. 

DOE has delegated the operation of its site/facility meteorological programs to NOAA and to 

non-Federal for-profit management and operating contractors. The DMCC membership is 

therefore composed of subject-matter experts from within the DOE complex, representing the 

three components with operational responsibilities for the following programs: 

 Department of Commerce (DOC/NOAA) under an interagency agreement 

 Management and operating (M&O) contractors 

 Private contractors 

The DMCC operates as a subcommittee of the DOE Emergency Management Issues Special 

Interest Group (EMI SIG) and has a web page that can be accessed directly or through the web 

page of the Subcommittee for Consequence Assessment and Protective Actions (SCAPA). 

DMCC also issues an annual report as part of its presentation to the EMI SIG Steering 

Committee. 

A current DMCC project is to improve the provision of quality-assured meteorological 

information and execution of transport and diffusion models that meet software quality assurance 

requirements. Products of the DMCC include evaluations of meteorological requirements 

contained in DOE orders and guidance documents, site meteorological program peer reviews 

(i.e., meteorological program assist visits), and, as needed, customized technical assistance. The 

DMCC developed tools to enable DOE/NNSA sites to perform self-assessments of their 

individual meteorological monitoring programs and the meteorological aspects of consequence 

assessment. 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

The Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research (RES) plans, recommends, and implements a 

program of nuclear regulatory research for nuclear power plants and other facilities regulated by 

the NRC. RES provides technical support, technical tools, and information to identify and 

resolve safety issues for current and new designs and technologies through testing, data 

development, analysis, and national and international collaboration. RES also develops 

regulatory guidance and participates in the development of criteria and consensus standards 

related to the protection of the public health and safety and the environment. 

The NRC Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response (NSIR) has been evaluating 

performance of large scale (greater than 1000 people) evacuations due to natural and man-made 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

143 

causes in the contiguous 48 states. This is documented in NUREG/CR-6864, Identification and 

Analysis of Factors Affecting Emergency Evacuations. An additional study continues to analyze 

the large evacuations of 2005. NSIR is also planning to update its RASCAL dose assessment 

model to access NWS data via the internet. 

 
 Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services 

144 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

145 

HYDROMETEOROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

National Weather Service Forecast and Warning Services 

The National Weather Service (NWS) has the primary responsibility among Federal agencies to 

provide advanced alerts of hydrologic conditions via flood warnings and river forecasts in the 

United States. The 122 Weather Forecast Offices (WFO), 13 River Forecast Centers (RFC), and 

the National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s (NCEP) Hydrometeorological Prediction 

Center (HPC) and Climate Prediction Center (CPC) work as a team to provide hydrologic 

forecast and warning services to minimize loss of life and property from flooding and to meet the 

water resources service needs of our Nation. The WFOs work collaboratively with the RFCs to 

monitor hydrologic conditions around the clock. Using RFC guidance, Doppler weather radar 

(NEXRAD), and telemetered rain gauge observations, the WFOs continuously monitor the threat 

of flash flooding and urban flooding to provide timely flood watches and warnings. 

River and flood forecast services are provided in the form of daily river forecasts by the 13 

RFCs. The RFCs are responsible for calibrating and operating complex hydrologic models based 

on rainfall, soil characteristics, precipitation forecasts, reservoir regulations, and several other 

variables in order to provide objective simulations of future river flows. Some RFCs, especially 

those in mountainous regions, also provide water-supply volume and peak-flow forecasts based 

on snow pack in high elevations. These forecasts are used by a wide range of decision makers, 

including those in agriculture, hydroelectric dam operation and electricity generation, and water 

resources management. Information from the RFCs is also the basis for local flood and flash 

flood warnings, watches, and advisories issued by the WFOs. These products emphasize 

flooding impacts from meteorological events based on geographic area, land use, time of the 

year, and other changing factors. 

The HPC, located in Camp Springs, Maryland, is responsible for preparing quantitative 

precipitation forecasts (QPF), which are used by the WFOs to develop local rainfall, snow, and 

ice forecasts and by the RFCs to develop local river and flood forecasts. The HPC provides 

special QPFs and coordinates with other Federal agencies; such as, the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA), during major flood events. The HPC also provides an array of 

analysis products and forecasts of frontal systems, pressure patterns, temperature, and 

precipitation for use by the WFOs and the private-sector weather services community. 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services are those 

specialized meteorological services and facilities that combine atmospheric science, hydrology, and 

water resources in order to meet the requirements of Federal, state, and local agencies for information 

on the effects of precipitation events on infrastructure, water supplies, and waterways. These products 

and services also meet the needs of the general public in the conduct of everyday activities and for the 

protection of lives and property. 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

146 

The capabilities of NWS Hydrologic Services will be expanded by the Community Hydrologic 

Prediction System (CHPS)—a new operational framework, allowing for broad systems 

interoperability to include new water resources-related forecasts. CHPS will be fully 

implemented by January 2012. It will serve as the backbone for the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) national water information strategy, allowing NOAA’s 

research and development enterprise and operational service delivery infrastructure to be 

integrated and leveraged with other Federal water agency activities and the private sector. 

Through CHPS, NOAA will deliver a new suite of high-resolution forecasts (including estimates 

of uncertainty) for streamflow, soil moisture, soil temperature, and many other variables directly 

related to watershed conditions via collaboration and sharing of data and algorithms with other 

Federal, university, and private-sector experts. Furthermore, these activities will enable NOAA 

to deliver a national database of hydrologic analyses and predictions and generate user-friendly 

geographic information system (GIS) products for monitoring floods and drought. This activity 

contributes to the National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS). 

Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS). The NWS continues to implement AHPS to 

provide hydrologic forecasts with lead times ranging from minutes to months. AHPS builds on 

the existing NWS infrastructure, including the Advanced Weather Information Processing 

System (AWIPS), NEXRAD, and the NWS River Forecast System. AHPS also provides 

Ensemble Streamflow Prediction—a feature that allows the NWS to quantify forecast 

uncertainty. This lets decision makers apply risk-based analyses as they prepare for and respond 

to flooding and as they try to balance competing demands on water supply, especially during 

periods of drought. Another AHPS capability, known as Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction 

(FFMP), combines high-resolution radar rainfall observations with GIS technology to provide 

more accurate and much more precise flash flood detection. Flash floods, typically caused by 

intense, small-scale convective systems, are the leading cause of flood fatalities. The added 

precision provided by FFMP greatly reduces the false alarm rate of flash flood warnings, making 

them more credible and leading to better public response, which will ultimately save lives. AHPS 

also provides opportunities to improve NOAA’s analysis and forecast capabilities related to 

coastal water conditions, through joint efforts with other components of NOAA, like the 

National Ocean Service (NOS) and the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR). 

Integrated Water Resources Science and Services (IWRSS). A collaborative initiative between 

NOAA, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the U.S. Geologic Survey (USGS), 

IWRSS builds on progress made under AHPS and other NOAA water forecasting services. 

IWRSS will deliver new water resource information from the summit to the sea at higher spatial 

and temporal resolutions. This new information will include: coupled river, estuary, and lake 

forecasts; soil moisture; soil temperature; snow pack; and surface runoff volume. These services 

will enable NOAA to provide nationally consistent gridded forecasts of water quantity and 

quality via a national digital database that assimilates hydrometeorological data and a community 

hydrologic modeling system, which brings the current state of science to NOAA hydrology. The 

national digital database will integrate fresh water resource observations and analysis 

components such as precipitation estimates, snowpack analysis, and soil moisture data. The goal 

of this database is to increase the amount, type, and accuracy of water resources information for 

use within NOAA and by its partners and other users. 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

147 

NWS Partnerships for Hydrometeorological Products and Services. Partnerships with a variety of 

Federal, state, and local agencies are critical to the NWS Hydrologic Services Program. For 

example, the NWS works very closely on water-related issues with the USGS, the Bureau of 

Reclamation, and the Bureau of Land Management in the Department of the Interior; with the 

USACE in the Department of Defense; with the Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources 

Conservation Service (NRCS); and with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Among 

these partnering activities are stream gaging, flood inundation mapping, river and water supply 

forecasting, and water management. For example, river stage observations and stage discharge 

relationships provided by the USGS are critical to warning and forecast operations for the 

Nation’s rivers. 

NOAA Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) 

Within the NOAA/OMAO aircraft fleet, a NOAA AC-695A Commander 1000 (N45RF) is used 

annually to conduct important snow-pack surveys in the northern and western continental U.S., 

Alaska, and southern Canada. During these survey flights, the gamma radiation sensors aboard 

these aircraft measure the naturally occurring terrestrial radiation emitted from the ground to 

obtain snow water–equivalent estimates. The data are transmitted to the National Operational 

Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center (NOHRSC) up to three times a day, and, after further 

processing, the data are distributed to NWS field offices within five minutes of receipt from the 

aircraft. These data are used by the NWS to forecast river levels and potential flood events, 

resulting from snowmelt water runoff. Hydroelectric power interests and other water supply 

managers also use the data to regulate water storage and delivery. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

NRCS Hydrometeorological Observations 

Since snowmelt provides 50-80 percent of the water supply in the Western United States, having 

information on snowpack is critical for water management. The NRCS measures snowpack and 

collects hydrometeorological data in the 12 western states. Through the Snow Survey and Water 

Supply Forecasting Program (SSWSF), the NRCS conducts snow surveys at high elevations in 

the mountainous West. The data collection system includes more than 900 active manual snow 

courses and more than 800 automated Snowpack Telemetry (SNOTEL) monitoring stations. The 

NRCS collects data at the manual snow courses in cooperation and often with assistance from a 

number of different Federal, state, local, and private partners. These data, along with data from 

stream gages, major reservoirs, and climatological observation stations managed by other 

agencies, are merged into a hydroclimatic database that is used to produce real-time watershed 

analyses and water supply forecasts. This information is used at the farm level to manage 

irrigation, the municipal level to plan anticipated water supply, and at the international level as 

the basis for water management decisions under treaties with Canada and Mexico. 

The automated SNOTEL network mainly utilizes Meteor Burst technologies for transmitting 

data. This system provides near-real-time remote hydrometeorological data that significantly 

improve flood stage forecasts and the monitoring of other life-threatening snow-related events. 

The primary use of the Snow Survey data is the production of water supply forecasts for more 

than 700 western basins. The data are also used by irrigators, recreation users, researchers, 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

148 

Federal and state agencies, and a multitude of others. All SNOTEL data is sent hourly to the 

NWS to assist in forecasting flood events. SNOTEL information enables emergency 

management agencies to effectively mitigate drought and flood damages and to monitor and 

assess wildfire potential. 

Water supply forecasts are produced bi-monthly each year from January through June in 

partnership with the NWS. The NRCS furnishes snow measurements that are combined with 

advanced snow modeling and analysis provided by NOAA’s National Operational Hydrologic 

Remote Sensing Center to support this joint NWS-NRCS effort. The purposes of water supply 

forecasts are to: (1) help irrigators make the most effective use of limited water supplies for 

agricultural production needs; (2) assist the Federal government in administering international 

water treaties with Canada and Mexico; (3) assist state governments in managing intrastate 

streams and interstate water compacts; (4) assist municipalities in planning the early 

management of anticipated water supplies and drought mitigation; (5) operate reservoirs to 

satisfy multiple use demands, including hydropower generation; (6) mitigate flood damages in 

levied areas and downstream from reservoirs; and (7) support fish and wildlife management 

activities associated with species protection legislation. 

The NRCS typically develops more than 10,000 seasonal water supply forecasts for 705 stream 

flow forecast locations in 12 western states. In addition, the program provides daily water supply 

guidance forecasts for 138 western basins. These products provide information for water 

managers to adapt to weather changes as they occur. The web link for this information is 

http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/wsf/daily_forecasts.html. 

Historical snow survey data are valuable to climate change researchers and in developing reliable 

projections of climate change. It has been projected that changes to the hydrologic cycle in the 

western states, resulting from changes in snow pack, will increase the water supply challenges 

the states face. Monitoring data provides assistance to water managers at all levels to adapt to 

climate change impacts. 

The SSWSF Program provides a variety of climate and water supply products that are used to 

assess drought in the West. These include SNOTEL snowpack and precipitation analyses in the 

mountains, water supply forecasts, and State Surface Water Supply Indexes (SWSI). These 

products are critical to the weekly production of the interagency Drought Monitor, a web-based 

report. Separate from the SSWSF and SNOTEL network, the NRCS also manages a cooperative 

nationwide network of 180 Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN) sites in 40 states and U.S. 

territories. These SCAN sites monitor soil temperature and soil moisture, which support national 

drought monitoring, production agriculture, and climate change research. 

U.S Army Corps of Engineers 

In its civil operational activities, the USACE uses a network of about 10,850 land-based gages. 

About 55 percent of these sites collect meteorological data, 35 percent collect a combination of 

hydrologic and meteorological data, and 10 percent collect hydrologic or water quality data. The 

meteorological gages commonly measure precipitation and temperature. All data are used in the 

regulation of USACE dams and other water projects, for flood control, navigation, hydroelectric 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

149 

power, irrigation, water supply, water quality, and recreation. The USACE funds or partially 

funds nearly half of all the gages it uses. 

meteorological sites. The USACE also funds the NWS for hydrometeorological studies and 

funds the USGS for maintaining hydrometeorological data collection services for 2479 sites. The 

rest of the sites are maintained by the USACE. Services performed by USGS vary by site and by 

year, and can include site visits, maintenance of equipment, replacement of damaged equipment, 

field measurements for verification of data, and continuous monitoring of data results. About 90 

percent of all USACE sites provide real-time data via satellite, microwaves, meter bursts, 

landlines, or radio. Data from USACE gage sites are available to the NWS, and to other Federal, 

state, and local agencies.

U.S. Geological Survey 

Hydrometeorological Data Collection and Distribution 

The USGS’s Water Resources Discipline (WRD) collects streamflow, precipitation, water 

quality, ground-water level, and other water resources and climatological data as part of a 

national network and for a number of projects concerning rainfall-runoff, water quality, and 

hydrologic processes. Currently, the USGS collects continuous hydrologic and meteorological 

data at about 8,900 surface water sites, 2,700 ground water-level sites, and 1,600 water quality 

sites. Periodic records are collected at approximately 1,500 additional surface water sites, 20,200 

ground water sites, and 10,300 water quality sites. Precipitation records are collected at about 

800 sites. 

Data collected at most continuous-record USGS sites are transmitted from remote Data 

Collection Platforms to Wallops Island, Virginia, via a Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES). From the Wallops Island facility, data are rebroadcast to a domestic 

communication satellite (DOMSAT). Data are 

received from the DOMSAT by local readout 

ground stations (LRGS) procured by USGS. 

The USGS currently operates 21 LRGS which 

provide near-real-time data to the USGS’s 

computerized National Water Information 

System (NWIS). 

Near-real-time streamflow data and ancillary 

information are provided to NWS RFCs for 

river forecast points. Additional historical and 

real-time water resources data are available 

from the USGS database at NWIS web site

(http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/). During 

floods, these data are supplemented by 

additional flood flow measurements. For 

example, during the 2009 floods of the Red, 

Minnesota, Missouri, and James River basins, 

the USGS made over 1,200 streamflow 

The USGS has developed new rapidly deploy‐

able, mobile streamgages to provide short‐term

water‐level data to critical areas lacking perma‐

nent streamgages. Image provided by USGS

Office of Surface Water.
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

150 

measurements at more than 150 streamgages and installed Rapid Deployment Gages at 15 

locations, all in support of flood forecasting and/or emergency operations. During Hurricane 

Irene, the USGS deployed 260 temporary, mobile streamgages (storm-tide sensors) to observe 

water levels, resulting from storm-tide in coastal waters along the Atlantic Coast from South 

Carolina to Maine. The data are available at http://107.20.206.65/Irene2011/IreneMapper.html#. 

The USGS also collects precipitation samples at a number of sites to determine the atmospheric 

contribution of chemical constituent loads to runoff, and for defining the effect of atmospheric 

deposition on water quality and the aquatic environment. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research 

Hydrometeorological Testbed (HMT). The HMT is a national program aimed at accelerating the 

infusion of new technologies, models, and scientific results from the research community into 

daily forecasting operations of the NWS and its RFCs. Research at the HMT has focused on 

improving regional precipitation forecasts, particularly for heavy, flooding rains. Unlike typical 

research field projects, the HMT operates as an end-to-end demonstration project with 

forecasters and researchers joining forces in the operational setting. Through NOAA funding, the 

HMT will provide a foundation level of effort and infrastructure each year in a particular test 

region. It is expected that this foundation will be augmented by occasional ramping up to more 

intensive field programs that include additional participants and specialized instrumentation. 

The first regional implementation of the HMT, called HMT-West, targets California's floodvulnerable American River Basin. The two biggest water cycle challenges being addressed in 

HMT-West are QPFs and quantitative precipitation estimations (QPE). In 2010, HMT-West 

joined forces with the California Energy Commission and California universities to carry out the 

CALWATER study, which has two primary focus areas: the impact of atmospheric rivers 

(narrow regions of enhanced water vapor transport in winter storms) on California's precipitation 

and the impact of anthropogenic air pollution on the amount and distribution of precipitation. 

Both of these issues need to be addressed in reference to a changing climate. OAR’s Earth 

System Research Laboratory (ESRL) Global Systems Division (GSD) is the lead laboratory for 

HMT-West. ESRL/GSD and the ESRL Physical Sciences Division (PSD) are partnering to 

provide an HMT legacy capability in California through support from the California Department 

of Water Resources. 

Beyond 2012, if there is sufficient funding within NOAA to support it, the HMT will spin up a 

second regional implementation in the southeastern United States. 

Storm-scale Hydrometeorology Research. The Coastal-Inland Flood Observation and Warning 

(CI-FLOW) project uses the National Severe Storm Laboratory’s (NSSL) multi-sensor rainfall 

estimates to drive an NWS-distributed hydrologic model that predicts streamflow to help the 

NWS improve flash flood warnings. CI-FLOW is a major component of NOAA’s Integrated 

Water Forecasting program called the Coastal, Estuary Resource Information System (CERIS). 

In addition to streamflow prediction, streamflow data from predictive models are used to drive 

storm surge models from North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina. 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

151 

We believe this system of coupled models, tested during the 2010 hurricane season, can be used 

not only for inundation studies of landfalling tropical systems, but also for land-use studies, algal 

bloom studies, and water quality assessments studies. 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 

The NRC conducts meteorological research to support licensing activities. Current research 

activities include quantifying the storm surge from severe weather events, updating the baseline 

data used in hydrometeorological reports (HMR), and updating the methods used to estimate the 

effects of extreme precipitation events. The HMR work will be extended in FY 2012 to consider 

the influence of orographic features. In addition, new work will be initiated to start looking at 

flooding from a probabilistic perspective. This work is prioritized for those areas of the United 

States where new nuclear power plants are proposed and will provide the design basis for flood 

protection systems. The work will be done in cooperation with the Department of the Interior’s 

Bureau of Reclamation. 

 
 Hydrometeorology and Water Resources Services 

152 
 Military Services 

153 

MILITARY SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

For each of the military services with meteorological operational programs (U.S. Air Force, 

Navy, Army, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard), the discussion below first describes that service’s 

operational organizations, followed by a description of the principal meteorological products and 

services provided by these organizations. 

U.S. Air Force (USAF) 

Operational Organizations 

Air Force Weather (AFW). AFW enables Joint Warfighters to anticipate and exploit the 

weather...for air, ground, space, cyberspace, and intelligence operations. AFW forces provide 

mission-tailored terrestrial and space environment observations, forecasts, and services to the Air 

Force, U.S. Army (USA), and a variety of U.S. government departments and agencies. 

AFW is functionally organized under the Director of Weather (AF/A3O-W), Directorate of 

Operations (AF/A3O), Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations, Plans, and Requirements (AF/A3/A5), 

Headquarters Air Force. The Director of Weather oversees Air Force-wide training, organizing, 

and equipping of AFW organizations, to include the following functions: 

 Development of doctrine, policies, requirements, and standards for weather support for 

worldwide AF, Army, and Special Forces training and combat operations 

 Evaluation of weather support effectiveness for worldwide training and combat 

operations 

 Management of weather officer, enlisted, and civilian career fields 

 Development and implementation of mid- to long-range plans for the organization, 

equipment, manpower, and technology necessary to meet future Air Force, Army, Special 

Forces, and other DOD agency weather requirements 

 Advising Air Staff and subordinate headquarters weather functional managers, regarding 

manpower, career field management, personnel utilization, training, operations policy 

and procedures, and technology acquisition 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Military Services are those meteorological operations, services, and 

capabilities established to meet the unique requirements of military user commands and their 

component elements. Programs and services that are not uniquely military in nature are reported under 

another service category (e.g., Basic Services, Aviation Services [civilian], Surface Transportation 

Services, or Emergency Response and Homeland Security Services). 
 Military Services 

154 

 Advocating and fielding 

standardized weather 

equipment to support 

worldwide training and 

combat operations 

AFW operations provide a Total 

Force capability, employing over 

4,100 Active Duty (AD) and 

Reserve Component military and 

civilian personnel supporting Air 

Force and Army conventional 

and Special Operations Forces 

(SOF) worldwide. The majority 

of AFW personnel are focused 

on two distinct, yet related 

functions: characterizing the 

past, current, and future state of 

the natural environment, and exploiting environmental information to provide actionable 

environmental impacts information directly to decision makers. 

Air Force personnel in the weather career field act as “eyes forward” to collect, analyze, tailor, 

integrate and disseminate weather environmental information, including forecasts of future 

conditions, in support of military operations. Weather personnel must understand warfighter 

tactics, techniques, and procedures, and help decision makers mitigate weather impacts and take 

advantage of weather conditions. AFW personnel support Air Force, Army, Joint, and DOD 

conventional and special operations at various garrison and deployed locations worldwide. 

AFW personnel aligned with Army units directly support the G-2 intelligence centers and Amy 

Fire Support operations. Weather is a vital part of the intelligence estimate and is an essential 

element that supports the military rapid-response planning process. Weather personnel assigned 

to these commands provide expertise, products, and services that directly support the intelligence 

preparation of the battlespace (IPB) process by helping intelligence analysts to effectively 

evaluate, integrate, and synchronize weather effects for both enemy and friendly courses of 

action. 

The AFW support infrastructure is designed to readily deploy and operate in austere 

expeditionary environments. It is capable of providing sustained, comprehensive, and relevant 

weather support to all elements of an Air Expeditionary Force, as well as forward deployed air 

bases and stations of the establishment supporting that force. AFW is organized in a 3-tier 

structure to maximize capabilities that can be accomplished in the rear area via “reachback” 

technology. This minimizes forward presence on the battlefield, making a “light and lean” 

presence consistent with the overall USAF vision for contingency operations in the 21st century. 

Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA). AFWA is a Field Operating Agency, reporting to the 

USAF Director of Weather. It is the weather production center of the USAF in the first tier of the 

AFW organizational structure. The AFWA weather center delivers worldwide weather products 

                   Air Force Weather mission statement
 Military Services 

155 

to Air Force and Army warfighters, unified commands, National Programs, and the National 

Command Authorities. AFWA supplies weather products, training tools, and fields equipment to 

USAF Operational Weather Squadrons (OWS) and Weather Flights and provides 24-hour 

technical assistance on all standard weather systems and equipment. AFWA builds and maintains 

the world's most comprehensive weather database of observation, forecast, climatological, and 

space weather products available on the Worldwide Web. Per AFW’s 3-tier structure to support 

forward operations via reachback technology, AFWA’s 2nd Weather Squadron (2 WS) at Offutt 

AFB provides global coverage of forecaster-in-the-loop products to exploit environmental 

information necessary to effectively plan and conduct military operations at all levels of war, 

including providing dedicated support to the intelligence community, as well as backup for two 

national weather centers. 

 The 1st Weather Group aligns stateside weather operations with the USAF warfighting 

initiative overseeing the OWSs. The 1 WXG has three subordinate OWSs whose areas of 

responsibility are within the continental United States: the 15th, 25th, and 26th OWSs. 

They form the backbone of regionally focused, “reachback” weather operations for the 

continental United States, providing a variety of weather forecast products and support to 

units assigned to and/or deployed in their respective areas of responsibility. 

 The 2nd Weather Group delivers timely, relevant, and specialized terrestrial, space, and 

climatological global environmental intelligence to joint warfighters, U.S. Department of 

Defense (DOD) decision makers, national agencies, and allied nations for the planning 

and execution of missions across the complete spectrum of military operations through 

the operation, sustainment, and maintenance of AFW's $277 million strategic center 

computer complex, production network, and applications. 

Operational Weather Squadrons. Around the world, the OWSs are the second tier of the AFW 

organizational structure and provide continuous, complete environmental situational awareness. 

They are responsible for producing and disseminating mission-planning and mission-execution 

weather analyses, forecasts, and briefings for Air Force, Army, National Guard, and Reserve 

forces operating anywhere around the world.

 The 15th OWS's area of responsibility includes 120 installations/sites in a 22-state region 

of the northeastern United States. 

 The 17th OWS’s area of responsibility covers over 95-million square miles of the Pacific 

region including Australia, Korea and Japan. 

 The 21st OWS's area of responsibility includes Europe, Greenland, and most of Africa. 

 The 25th OWS's area of responsibility includes 68 installations/sites in an 11-state region 

of the western United States. 

 The 26th OWS's area of responsibility includes 70 installations/sites in a seven-state 

region of the south central United States. 

 The 28th OWS’s area of responsibility includes sites throughout the U. S. Central 

Command, including southwest Asia and the Horn of Africa. 
 Military Services 

156 

Weather Flights. Deployed in the field and focused on operational weather, USAF Weather 

Flights constitute the third tier of AFW and act as the prime interface with a USAF installation's 

flying and ground operations. Weather Flights are located at military installations around the 

world and are the “eyes forward” for the responsible OWS. 

Special Operations Weather. USAF special operations units provide limited forward weather 

observations in denied areas and transmit them to a Joint Special Operations task force or nextechelon weather element on an as-required basis. Their tailored weather information and 

knowledge enable planning, command decisions, and execution of SOF operations. USAF 

combat weather technicians assigned to SOF units are expected to know and keep current on the 

entire environment in the isolated locations to which their unit deploys.

USAF-Army Weather Organizations. Weather airmen aligned with Army units directly support 

the Army G-2 intelligence centers and Amy fire-support operations. Army weather organizations 

predict the impact weather will have on Army and joint operations, giving leadership at all levels 

the ability to adjust operational and tactical strategies helping to further mission success. (See 

section below on USA Weather Support Structure.) 

Combat weather technicians and meteorologists assigned to support Army units are expected to 

forecast the weather anywhere their Army unit deploys. Army-trained weather personnel can 

parachute behind enemy lines and travel with a small platoon of soldiers, providing on-the-scene 

weather information for a variety of missions. 

Combat Climatology. The 14th Weather Squadron is stationed in Ashville, North Carolina, 

where it is co-located with the National Climate Data Center, one of the environmental data 

centers under The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration’s (NOAA's) National 

Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS). Its traditional mission has 

focused on combat climatology products and services to support Air Force operations 

worldwide. For more information on the 14th Weather Squadron and the National Climate Data 

Center, see the Climate Services section of this Federal Plan. 

Space Weather Operations. AFW space weather forecasters provide space weather analyses, 

forecasts, and alert notification for all DOD agencies and U.S. Government systems. With 

observatories in Australia, Italy, Massachusetts, New Mexico, and Hawaii, USAF space weather 

technicians maintain a continuous observational watch on the Sun, which can emit 

electromagnetic energy and electrically charged particles capable of causing disturbances in the 

near-Earth environment and disrupting satellite operations and satellite-based communications. 

The mission of the AFW solar observatories is to monitor solar flares, noise storms, and other 

releases of energy from the Sun and, when necessary, notify military and civilian organizations 

concerned with space weather, power, and communications in countries throughout the world. 

For further discussion of the complementary roles of AFW space weather operations and the 

National Weather Service’s (NWS) Space Weather Prediction Center, see the section on Space 

Weather Services. 

AFW Reserve Component. The Reserve Component of AFW includes airmen in both the Air 

Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG). AFW continues to 

integrate these forces to more closely align with active duty weather force operations. AFRC 
 Military Services 

157 

weather personnel augment the active duty force at all three tiers. In some cases, the AFRC 

provides very unique weather-related services not duplicated in the active duty force, such as 

AFRC’s 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (53 WRS) (see “AFRC Hurricane Hunters,” 

below) and the ANG’s Weather Readiness Training Center. 

To augment AD OWS operations, AFRC organized two operational weather flights, each staffed 

by AFRC weather personnel, capable of augmenting an OWS either in the CONUS or overseas. 

Additional AFR weather personnel serve as individual mobilization augmentees assigned to 

various active AF weather organizations at all echelons, typically in staff, forecasting, or 

scientific roles. There are weather traditional reservists working with an AFRC Remotely Piloted 

Aircraft (RPA) unit. There are also AFR weather personnel in Air Reserve Technician positions, 

i.e., combined full-time Civil Service/AFR military positions, employed by HQ AFRC as a staff 

weather officer and by the 53rd WRS as aerial reconnaissance weather officers. Lastly, AFRC 

civil service and contract weather personnel provide weather services at AFRC-operated bases in 

the CONUS. 

The ANG traditional program consists of 27 numbered weather flights, ranging in size from 13 

to 25 personnel, who meet monthly to train for their wartime mission. These flights provide 

weather support to ANG and Army National Guard units. Air Combat Command (ACC)-gained 

ANG wings also have up to four traditional weather positions to provide weather operations for 

each wing’s flying mission. In addition, there are traditional weather positions in two ANG 

Special Tactics Squadrons (AF Special Operations Command), and four ANG RPA units (e.g., 

Predator). The ANG also has seven contract and four civil service locations where they are 

responsible for providing peacetime weather support to airfield operations. 

USAF Products and Services 

Satellite Services. AFW operates a satellite data processing center, ingesting and storing 

worldwide meteorological satellite (METSAT) data. 

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 

which provides cloud, upper air, and space 

environmental data, is a vital source of global weather 

data used to support combat operations and has been 

collecting weather data for U.S. military operations for 

more than five decades. Onboard sensors provide AFW 

and the Navy’s Fleet Numerical Meteorology and 

Oceanography Center (FNMOC) with visible, infrared, 

and microwave imagery, plus temperature and moisture 

sounding data. The DMSP also supplies direct, realtime readouts of regional imagery and mission-sensor 

data to DOD land-based and shipboard terminals 

located worldwide. 

There are two primary operational DMSP satellites in 

polar orbit at about 450 nautical miles (nominal) at all 

times. The primary weather sensor on DMSP is the 

Operational Linescan System, which provides 

DMSP captures aurora borealis, over the

Midwest. The aurora was pushed toward

the equator by a November 4, 2003

geomagnetic storm. Source: AFWA

Website.
 Military Services 

158 

continuous visual and infrared imagery of cloud cover over an area 1,600 nautical miles wide. 

Worldwide coverage of weather features is accomplished every 12 hours providing essential data 

over data-sparse or data-denied areas. Additional satellite sensors measure atmospheric vertical 

profiles of moisture and temperature. Military weather forecasters can detect developing patterns 

of weather and track existing weather systems over remote areas, including the presence of 

severe thunderstorms, hurricanes, and typhoons. 

In addition to DMSP polar-orbiting data, AFW receives stored data from NOAA’s Polar-orbiting 

Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) constellation and real-time high-resolution data 

from NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) East and West; 

European METSAT (EUMETSAT) -7, -8, and -9 geostationary satellites, and Meteorological 

Operational Polar (METOP) orbiters; as well as the Japanese Multifunctional Transport Satellite 

(MTSAT). (AFWA currently receives data from the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration’s (NASA) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Tropical 

Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), and Aqua Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-E 

(AMSR-E); NOAA’s Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC); and NOAA’s Space 

Weather Prediction Center (SWPC). 

Space Launch Support. USAF meteorological support for space launches is discussed in the 

Other Specialized Services section. 

Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation. The Air Force Director of 

Weather carries out the DOD Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation 

Executive Agent (ASNE MSEA) responsibilities of managing, coordinating, and implementing 

all aspects of modeling and simulation, relating to the Air and Space Natural Environment 

domain to include, but not limited to, planning, programming, monitoring, and reporting across 

all DOD components in accordance with the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, 

Technology, and Logistics Memorandum to the Secretary of the Air Force, designating the 

Department of the Air Force as the MSEA for air and space natural environment representations. 

The DOD ASNE MSEA ensures DOD communities who use simulations for their training, 

acquisition, testing, planning, experimentation, and analysis have the right tools, infrastructure, 

and databases necessary to represent the air and space natural environment and its effects. 

AFRC Hurricane Hunters. The AFRC’s 53 WRS, also known as the “Hurricane Hunters,” 

provides another means of collecting vital meteorological data, especially in and around tropical 

cyclones. Their specially equipped WC-130J aircraft collect temperature, moisture, wind, 

pressure, and visually observed information at the aircraft location as well as vertical profiles of 

the atmosphere collected by dropsondes. Hurricane Hunter aircraft penetrate the eyes of tropical 

cyclones to provide the National Hurricane Center very accurate center fix locations as well as 

other meteorological parameters, including sea level pressure. In addition to tropical cyclone 

reconnaissance, the 53 WRS collects meteorological information to improve wintertime West 

Coast forecasts and to support scientific field programs when possible. 
 Military Services 

159 

Air Force Aviation Weather 

Support. AFWA’s 1st Weather 

Group (1 WXG) has three 

subordinate CONUS OWSs which 

form the backbone of CONUS 

regionally focused, “reachback” 

weather operations, providing a 

variety of weather forecast products 

and support to units assigned to 

and/or deployed into their respective 

Areas of Responsibility (AORs). 

These three OWSs along with the 

USAFE and PACAF OWSs, the 21th

OWS and the 17th OWS 

respectively, provide operational 

weather support and resource 

protection for personnel and military installations in their respective AORs. The 28th OWS 

provides focused “reachback” weather operations in support of Air Force Central Command 

(AFCENT) operations in Southwest Asia. Operational support to the USAF, Army, Navy, 

Marine, Guard, Reserve and regional Combatant Commanders includes graphical analyses, 

aviation terminal aerodrome forecasts, severe weather watches/warnings and advisories, and 

mission execution forecasts, such as aviation hazards and enroute and target forecasts. 

Additionally, the OWSs provide flight weather briefings to aircrews, operating within their AOR 

without home station support or as requested by base or post-level weather forces. The 15th

OWS, located at Scott AFB, IL, provides short-term backup services for the National Weather 

Services’ Storm Prediction Center (SPC) and Aviation Weather Center (AWC). In the event of 

an extended or catastrophic outage at either SPC or AWC, essential staff would relocate to the 

The radar display on board a WC‐130J aircraft used by the 53

WRS Hurricane Hunters. Source: 53 WRS website.

Air Force Operational Weather Squadron (OWS) areas of responsibility (AORs) overlaid on geographic

combatant commander AORs.
 Military Services 

160 

AFWA facility at Offutt AFB, NE, where system and communications infrastructure exists to 

support relocation backup of these critical national missions. 

At AF bases and Army posts, AFW forces focus on their warfighter’s mission requirements. 

These units provide and disseminate observations and develop tailored mission execution 

forecasts based on centrally produced guidance. For AF operations, these weather professionals 

are normally assigned to a flight under an operations support squadron of an AF flying wing; 

however, individuals from the weather flight are integrated into flying squadron mission 

planning and execution processes. For Army operations, the Battlefield Weather Airmen 

professionals are normally assigned to combat weather teams at all levels of Army support. The 

weather airmen are integrated into all aspects of Army operations. In this capacity, weather 

forces supporting AF and Army aviation operations infuse critical weather information at key 

points in the decision cycle to help aircrews maximize wartime capabilities, enhance flight 

safety, and optimize training effectiveness. 

Volcanic Ash Surveillance and Analysis. One of the roles of the 2nd Weather Group at AFWA 

is to provide volcanic ash surveillance and analysis for DOD aviation operations worldwide. 

Analysts continuously monitor all active volcanoes, generating more than 4,000 bulletins per 

year. Tailored satellite imagery, graphical ash plume forecast, and text bulletins provide vital 

information needed to mitigate airborne volcanic ash as a threat to flight safety. The 2nd Weather 

Group also provides critical backup for NOAA’s Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center. 

Weather Specialty Teams. AFW experts are assigned to weather specialty teams in air and space 

operations centers. This crosscutting team integrates environmental information at key decision 

points of air and space operations planning, execution, and assessment. Armed with this 

information, decisionmakers can balance operational risks against mission need to optimize 

timing, tactics, target and weapons selection, and other factors affecting air and space operations. 

Air Force Aviation Weather Products and Services 

NextGen Development. AFW continues active collaboration with the Next Generation Air 

Transportation System (NextGen) program, which is described more fully in the Aviation 

Weather Services section of this Federal Plan. Experiences gained through implementation of 

DOD’s Joint METOC Data Base and machine-to-machine data services used by the Air Force’s 

primary automated mission planning systems are providing valuable lessons learned for 

NextGen’s development. AFW’s AFWA Ensemble Prediction System is also providing valuable 

path-finding insight into the utility and delivery of probabilistic aviation impacts that is a 

requirement of NextGen’s 4-D data cube. 

Weather System Upgrades. In FY 2012, AFW will continue to upgrade weather systems and 

processes that support all DOD aviation. The continued fielding of the Joint Environmental 

Toolkit and upgraded surface weather sensors will produce more accurate and timely weather 

observation and forecast products. 
 Military Services 

161 

U.S. Army 

USA Weather Support Structure 

Weather support within the Army is a mix of Army and Air Force personnel and equipment in 

accordance with a USA-USAF agreement: (Army Regulation [AR] 115-10/Air Force Instruction 

[AFI] 15-157 (IP), Weather Support for the U.S. Army, 6 January 2010). This interservice 

regulation describes the responsibilities of USAF support components and of the Army 

Commands and Army Service Component Commands (ASCC) for providing weather support. 

Under this agreement, the USAF provides the Army with the necessary labor and unique tactical 

and fixed weather equipment to meet Army tactical, installation, and airfield support 

requirements for both active and reserve components. The USAF assigns AFW personnel to 

provide direct and indirect weather support to the Army Commands, ASCCs, and installations. 

The Army provides assigned Air Force personnel the equipment necessary to perform their 

Army support mission in the tactical environment. The Army also provides facilities and host 

services to Air Force personnel assigned to Army installations. 

The U.S. Army Forces Command, U.S. Army Europe, U.S. Army Pacific, U.S. Army Special 

Operations Command, Eighth U.S. Army, and the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command 

(TRADOC) have Air Force weather personnel, providing daily installation and tactical weather 

support. The Army provides operational weather support to Army research development, test, 

and evaluation (RDT&E) ranges, centers, and other research facilities using the Developmental 

Test Command’s Meteorological Teams and USA Space and Missile Defense Command 

(SMDC) contractors. Developmental Test Command operational support is established under the 

Army Test and Evaluation Command. SMDC provides weather support to the Ronald Reagan 

Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site at Kwajalein Atoll through a Meteorological Environmental 

Test Support contractor. 

Headquarters, Department of the Army (HQDA.) The Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff 

(ODCS), G-2, establishes weather policy within the Army, coordinates on AF weather policy 

issues with the Air Force Director of Weather (HQ USAF/A3/5), submits validated Army 

weather requirements and priorities to the HQ USAF/A3/5, coordinates with the AF on ArmyAF and Joint Service weather operational concepts and doctrine, serves as the Army staff 

proponent for meteorological satellite capabilities and issues, and reviews and coordinates Armyrelated support issues with the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the Department 

of the AF, other Services, HQDA staffs, ACOMs, DRUs, ASCCs and other Federal agencies. 

HQDA, ODCS, G-2, employs two civilian meteorologists to formulate weather policy and work 

meteorological issues for the Army Staff. 

The Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, G-3, validates and prioritizes weather support 

requirements and programs to meet Army requirements, sets priorities for weather support for 

Army training and contingencies, coordinates with the HQ USAF/A3/5 on Army weather 

program and resource issues, Army Guard and Reserve weather issues, and Army installation 

weather support requirements. 

U. S. Army North (USARNORTH). USARNORTH employs one civilian meteorologist as an 

advisor to the Commander, USARNORTH on all issues involving meteorology, oceanography, 
 Military Services 

162 

and space weather. This individual applies meteorological and oceanographic policies and 

objectives to cover all USARNORTH mission requirements, and coordinates on USARNORTH 

exercise and contingency plans. 

Training and Doctrine Command. Headquarters, TRADOC, is responsible for leading the USA 

in development of USA-USAF interservice weather operations, services concepts, and doctrine 

required to conduct Army operations. TRADOC develops and manages USA weather training 

programs, documents standard USA equipment for use by AFW personnel in the Table of 

Organization and Equipment (TOE), and recommends modifications to the TOE and Common 

Table of Allowances to DCS, G-3/5/7 for validation. TRADOC processes tactical Army weather 

support requirements, represents the Army’s warfighting functions by determining needed 

weather capabilities and processing weather requirements found in Joint and USA conceptual 

documents and originating from TRADOC centers and schools. TRADOC collects and processes 

weather requirements from TRADOC schools/centers, USA Medical Command, and USA Corps 

of Engineers (USACE). It collaborates with HQDA and Headquarters, USAF, to recommend 

solutions to satisfy those requirements by processing tactical USA weather support requirements 

through the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System (JCIDS) process. 

Key mission areas for the next few years will be to assist the USAF with development and 

implementation of a new weather support concept to meet the needs of the USA’s modular force, 

including brigade combat teams; to update weather support doctrine, policy, organization, and 

concepts; update tactics, techniques, and procedures; ensure weather effects to USA operations 

are documented and communicated to soldiers and AFW support personnel; and ensure USA 

weather support processes and procedures are trained across the TRADOC schools and centers. 

These mission areas are accomplished in coordination with the USAF SWOs and USA and 

USAF civilians assigned within TRADOC. 

U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence. The U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence 

(USAICoE) is the functional proponent for USA tactical weather support. It represents the USA 

warfighter by processing weather support requirements and developing solutions to satisfy those 

requirements when they are the responsibility of the USA. The USAICoE employs one 

Department of the Army Civilian (DAC) to head the Weather Proponent Office. This DAC leads 

USAICoE weather proponent efforts in the JCIDS process, and in doctrine, organization, 

training, materiel, leadership, education, personnel, and facilities (DOTMLPF) work. This JCIDS 

and DOTMLPF work occurs within USAICoE and in conjunction with other USA Centers of 

Excellence and Army research and experimentation organizations. In FY 2010, the DAC led an 

Army-wide weather capabilities-based assessment to determine capability requirements, gaps, 

and possible solutions. The TRADOC Capability Manager for Sensor Processing employs one 

DAC to serve as the interface between the proponent (USAICoE) and the material developer to 

ensure as many requirements as possible are met by a developed solution. Currently, most of this 

work is directed toward the Program Manager for the Distributed Common Ground System. 

USAF SWO at the USA’s Combined Arms Center. The USAF SWO at the USA’s Combined 

Arms Center (CAC), located at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, provides oversight for the TOE 

anTOEs (MTOE) for AFW teams, supporting USA operations. The TOEs and MTOEs direct the 
 Military Services 

163 

type and amount of tactical equipment required by a weather team, indicating also the level of 

support needed for this weather team to accompany its host Army organization. The CAC SWO 

is the USAF’s weather point of contact for implementing MTOE structure changes for support to 

Army modular forces. The CAC SWO also arranges for or provides environmental data, 

concepts of operation, and weather subject- matter expertise for programs, projects, documents, 

and studies. Other key CAC SWO tasks are to develop weather/weather effects scripts and 

climatology packages to support modeling and simulation efforts of the Battle Command 

Training Program (BCTP) and the National Simulation Center, to provide weather support 

instruction at the Command and General Staff College, to provide climate expertise to all units 

assigned or attached to Fort Leavenworth, and to be the SWO to the U.S. Army Aviation Center 

of Excellence at Fort Rucker, Alabama. 

USA Products and Services 

U.S. Army Artillery. The Meteorological Measurement Set-Profiler (MMS-P) is a major 

improvement over the legacy MMS, AN/TMQ-41. The MMS-P design supports the new 

generation of indirect fire artillery weapons. The system is housed in a Standard Integrated 

Command Post Shelter (SICPS)/Command Post Platform (CPP), transported on a High Mobility 

Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle, and operated by a crew of two soldiers. The MMS-P provides 

highly accurate meteorological (MET) data to adjust artillery fire and achieve first round hits and 

fires for effect. The MMS-P uses the MM5 Mesoscale Meteorological Model to assimilate data 

from a variety of sources to provide the best meteorological messages to the user in a timely 

fashion. An operator interface, in conjunction with the message generation and formatting 

software, facilitates communication between the MMS-P and all other systems that require 

interoperability with the MMS-P. Existing systems are scheduled to be replaced by the next 

generation of Profiler (Computer Meteorological Data-Profiler [CMD-P]) beginning in FY 2013. 

The CMD-P is designed to reduce the logistics footprint to a laptop configuration that is located 

in the Tactical Operations Center (TOC), thus eliminating the SICPS/CPP, support vehicle, and 

crew. Additionally, the local ground sensor will be removed to further reduce the logistical 

footprint, and the system interface with the Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System will 

be a local area network (LAN) connection in the TOC. The system will no longer require the 

Global Broadcast Service (GBS) receiver suite as part of the profiler system but will rely on the 

GBS connection from the TOC LAN. The system software will be capable of providing Field 

Artillery Computer MET and Gridded MET messages on demand with or without an operator inthe-loop. The CMD-P will undergo development testing in FY 2011 and operational testing in 

FY 2012. Fielding is planned to begin in FY 2013. 

Distributed Common Ground System–Army Weather Services. The Distributed Common 

Ground System–Army (DCGS-A) is the Army’s premier intelligence, surveillance, and 

reconnaissance (ISR) enterprise for the analysis and processing, exploitation, and dissemination 

of information and intelligence data across all echelons. It is the Army component of the DOD 

Distributed Common Ground/Surface System and interoperable with Army, Joint, and Coalition 

battle command systems. The program of record Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS) is 

the Army’s current meteorological decision-aid support system. A key component of IMETS, the 

Integrated Weather Decision Aid (IWEDA) application, allows warfighters to display the effects 

of weather phenomena on weapon systems, personnel, and operations for mission planning. The 

Army, through the Program Manager DCGS-A, is integrating the AF Joint Environmental 
 Military Services 

164 

Toolkit into DCGS-A weather services and providing web-centric weather support for DCGS-A 

and Mission Control intelligence and command/control users. The DCGS-A will host weather 

capabilities, including JET, on common Army hardware systems and utilize the latest 

Ozone/Widget and DCGS-A Application framework dissemination technology. Initial fielding of 

DCGS-A weather services occurred as part of the ISR Surge software builds for DCGS-A V3.1 

in FY 2011. By the end of FY 2012, the remaining IMETS systems will be displaced with the 

fielding of weather services on DCGS-A V3.1 and the follow-on DCGS-A Software Baselines. 

U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC). The Developmental Test Command (DTC), 

a subordinate command of ATEC, is responsible for providing operational meteorological 

support to USA RDT&E. Under responsibilities established in AR 115-10/ AFI 15-157 (IP), the 

DTC meteorological units provide meteorological data collection and analysis, consultation, and 

weather forecast and warning services to support USA and other DOD RDT&E activities at eight 

USA installations. 

The Chief of the Meteorology Division at Dugway Proving Ground's West Desert Test Center 

serves as the DTC Program Manager for Meteorological Support to USA RDT&E. Specialized 

services provided by the division include: (1) technical assistance to the DTC operational 

meteorological teams/branches; (2) atmospheric model verification and validation, including 

algorithm evaluation and the generation of validation data sets; and (3) technical assistance to the 

DOD chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive (CBRNE) defense modeling 

community in the development of new CBRNE hazard assessment models. Division employees 

also serve on various national and international committees, addressing issues related to 

meteorological measurements, atmospheric dispersion modeling, CBRNE hazard assessment, 

and air quality. 

U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command Support to the Ronald Reagan Ballistic 

Missile Defense Test Site. A subcommand of SMDC provides operational support to the Ronald 

Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, including support for range activities (local and 

remote missile launches), missile weapons readiness testing, aviation and marine operations, and 

emergency operations. For further description of this support service, see “Other Specialized 

Services” in Section 2. 

Artillery Meteorological Education and Training. The U.S. Army Field Artillery School, Fort 

Sill, Oklahoma, is the proponent for upper air meteorological support to the Army and home of 

the Field Artillery Meteorology Course. The AN/TMQ-52A/B MMS-P is utilized to conduct 

surface and upper air observations. The MMS-P is a suite of meteorological sensors and 

associated software/models which will provide the field artillery with current and/or expected 

weather conditions at a point where the weapon munitions is expected to engage a target (Target 

Area Met). 

U.S. Navy 

Operational Organizations 

Oceanographer of the Navy. The Oceanographer of the Navy (OPNAV N2/N6E) is the Chief of 

Naval Operations’ (CNO) principal advisor on plans, requirements, resources, programs, and 
 Military Services 

165 

policies for Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC), Maritime Domain Awareness, and Navy 

Space (including Positioning, Navigation, and Timing). As the Oceanographer and Navigator of 

the Navy, he serves as the focal point for matters related to the Naval Oceanography Program 

(NOP) and related marine science fields. The expanded responsibilities enable the 

Oceanographer to directly integrate METOC knowledge into other Naval mission areas and 

major programs. He represents the research and development (R&D) requirements of 

Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command (CNMOC); his staff works 

closely with U.S. Fleet Forces Command (USFF), CNMOC’s Immediate Superior in Command, 

and the Office of Naval Research (ONR) to ensure the proper resources are available to advance 

mission requirements. As the functional manager for Geospatial Information and Services, he 

works within the National System for Geospatial-Intelligence and liaises with the National 

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. He acts as Naval Deputy to the NOAA Administrator and 

represents theNOP in interagency and international forums. He ensures Navy and Marine Corps 

equities, regarding remote sensing from space and through all manned and unmanned vehicle 

capabilities, effectively meet warfighter needs for maintaining Battlespace Awareness and 

Knowledge Superiority. 

The Oceanographer provides for the standardization of METOC, maritime geospatial 

information, astrometric and precise-time models, databases, and environmental predictive 

techniques. He coordinates NOP, Navigation Policy, and architectures with Navy and DOD 

science and technology and RDT&E, along with related efforts in civilian agencies and develops 

means for transition from research to operational applications. 

Task Force Climate Change. In May 2009, the Chief of Naval Operations appointed the 

Oceanographer of the Navy to head the Task Force Climate Change (TFCC). The TFCC 

addresses emerging Navy needs and develops 

comprehensive approaches, regarding Arctic 

and global climate change to guide future 

Navy public, policy, and strategy discussions. 

Further, the TFCC recommends policy, 

strategy, and investments for the Navy, 

regarding the Arctic and climate change that 

are consistent with existing national, joint, 

and naval guidance, including National 

Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland 

Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD66/HSPD-25), Joint Vision 2020, Sea Power 

21, the Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century 

Seapower, and the 2010 Quadrennial Defense 

Review. Recent TFCC accomplishments 

include the signing of the Navy's Arctic 

Roadmap in November 2009 and Climate 

Change Roadmap in March 2010 by the Vice 

Chief of Naval Operations and the signing of 

the Navy's Strategic Objectives for the Arctic 

by the Chief of Naval Operations in March 

2010. The Arctic and Climate Change 

Location of the Oceanographer of the Navy (OPNAV

N2/N6E) in the staff supporting the Chief of Naval

Operations.
 Military Services 

166 

Roadmaps provide holistic, chronological, science-based guidance for future Navy action from 

now through 2040. 

Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command. The Naval Meteorology and Oceanography 

Command (COMNAVMETOCCOM) conducts METOC operations through the Naval 

Oceanography Operations Command (NAVOCEANOPSCOM) located on the Stennis Space 

Center (SSC) complex in Hancock County, Mississippi. NAVOCEANOPSCOM consists of 

several geographically dispersed unit-level commands that provide small, agile forwarddeployed teams and reach-back services from their centers of excellence for Antisubmarine and 

Mine Warfare, Expeditionary Warfare, Weather Services, and Navigation. Precise Time and 

Astrometry services are provided from the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO) in Washington, DC. 

Naval METOC personnel (Navy and Marine Corps) are required to provide intelligence 

preparation of the environment (IPE) for operational decision makers by assessing the impact of 

atmospheric and oceanographic phenomena on platforms, sensors, and weapon systems. Navy 

and Marine Corp METOC personnel provide for safety of flight and navigation in support of 

naval, joint, and combined forces 

operating on and in the world’s 

oceans. 

COMNAVMETOCCOM serves as 

the operational arm of the NOP. 

COMNAVMETOCCOM is a third 

echelon command, reporting to 

USFF. COMNAVMETOCCOM's 

assets are globally distributed at 

shore facilities in fleet concentration 

areas and larger production centers in 

the U.S. COMNAVMETOCCOM 

forces also deploy as detachment 

teams to larger ships (aircraft 

carriers, amphibious ships, and 

command and control ships) as well 

as to forward operating areas as 

requested. 

COMNAVMETOCCOM is focused 

on providing critical environmental knowledge to the war fighting disciplines of Anti-Submarine 

Warfare; Naval Special Warfare; Mine Warfare; Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance; 

and Fleet Operations (Strike and Expeditionary), as well as to the support areas of Maritime 

Operations, Aviation Operations, Navigation, Precise Time, and Astrometry. 

Major activities and additional subordinates within the command currently include: 

 NAVOCEANOPSCOM, Stennis Space Center, MS 

 Fleet Weather Center Norfolk and Fleet Weather Center San Diego with subordinate 

units and detachments 

Organization for Operational Meteorology and Oceanography under

CNMOC. Source: U.S. Navy.
 Military Services 

167 

 Naval Special Warfare Oceanography Center in San Diego, CA, (with components and 

detachments in Stuttgart, Germany, Norfolk, and Pearl Harbor) 

 Naval Oceanography Anti-Submarine Warfare Centers in Yokosuka, Japan, and Stennis 

Space Center, MS (with subordinate detachments) 

 Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO), Stennis Space Center, MS 

 Fleet Survey Team, Stennis Space Center, MS 

 Naval Ice Center, Suitland, MD 

 Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC), Monterey, CA 

 USNO, Washington, DC 

 Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Professional Development Center, Gulfport, MS, 

with detachments in Norfolk, VA; San Diego, CA; Pearl Harbor, HI; and Yokosuka, 

Japan 

Naval Oceanography Operations Command. NAVOCEANOPSCOM, headed by the 

Commander, Naval Oceanographic Operations Command, is an echelon four command that 

serves as the principal operational organization, reporting to CNMOC and coordinates and 

manages efforts among field activities under the Operational Oceanography Program to optimize 

warfighting resources, support safe operations, and enhance decision superiority within the 

battlespace through superior understanding and exploitation of the environment. The Command 

encompasses the nine warfighting and enabling directorates: Aviation Operations, Maritime 

Operations, Fleet Operations, Precise Time and Astronomy, Navigation, ISR (Intelligence, 

Surveillance, and Reconnaissance), Mine Warfare, Naval Special Warfare, and Anti-Submarine 

Warfare. Each directorate determines how that directorate’s services are delivered globally. Each 

directorate reports to a single Navy Captain who functions as Naval Oceanography’s Chief 

Operating Officer. 

The Commander, NAVOCEANOPSCOM supports the combatant commanders and national 

missions, U.S. interagency and international partners. The major NAVMETOCCOM production 

centers (NAVOCEANO, FNMOC, and USNO) support the Commander, 

NAVOCEANOPSCOM with enabling capability. 

The command’s operational model is knowledge-centric, based on deploying small and agile 

specialized teams forward with 24/7 reach back to major production centers for data and 

expertise and to operational mission-specific centers of excellence. Emphasis is placed on 

standardizing service delivery models for each directorate, value added automation, and enabling 

decision superiority (i.e. turning forecasts into decisions). The operations support portion of 

USN/USMC FY 2012 budget funds the day-to-day environmental support to the DOD, the 

Active and Reserve Components of the Navy and Marine Corps, ten unified commands, and 

other agencies as directed by the Chief of Naval Operations. Over 1,228 military and civilian 

personnel conduct these activities at more than 22 locations worldwide. 

Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center. FNMOC, which is a echelon four 

activity reporting to CNMOC, is the NOP production center for meteorology. This center plays a 
 Military Services 

168 

significant role in the national capability for operational weather and ocean prediction through its 

operation of global and regional METOC models that extend from the top of the atmosphere to 

the bottom of the ocean. Through close collaboration with NAVOCEANO, FNMOC is also a 

key component in the Navy’s operational weather and ocean prediction program. This program 

provides information that helps give Naval forces an asymmetric advantage in speed, access, and 

persistence in any combat operation. 

Naval Oceanographic Office. NAVOCEANO is the NOP’s production center for oceanography. 

Since atmospheric conditions are inherently coupled to oceanographic conditions, the Navy’s 

program in meteorology is closely linked with oceanography, which is the focus of the 

NAVOCEANO, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi. NAVOCEANO’s primary responsibilities 

include the collection, processing, and distribution of oceanographic, hydrographic, and other 

geophysical data and products. NAVOCEANO is responsible for the administration of a fleet of 

seven ocean-class hydrographic survey vessels. 

United States Naval Observatory. USNO is the production center for precise time and 

astrometry. It is one of the oldest scientific agencies in the country, established in 1830 as the 

Depot of Charts and Instruments. Today, USNO is the national authority on Precise Time and 

Astrometry and distributes earth orientation parameters and other astronomical data required for 

accurate navigation and fundamental astronomy. USNO serves as the official source of time for 

the DOD and the standard of time for the United States. The atomic clock timescale of the 

observatory is based on an ensemble of cesium-beam frequency standards and hydrogen masers. 

USNO performs an essential scientific role for the United States, the Navy, and the DOD, as its 

mission includes determining the positions and motions of the Earth, Sun, Moon, planets, stars, 

and other celestial objects; providing astronomical data; determining precise time; measuring the 

Earth’s rotation; and maintaining the Master Clock for the United States. USNO astronomers 

formulate theories and conduct relevant research necessary to improve these mission goals. 

These astronomical and timing data, essential for accurate navigation and the support of 

communication on Earth and in space, are vital to the Navy and the DOD. They are also used 

extensively by other government agencies and the public at large. 

Navy Products and Services 

Surface Transportation Operations. Dangerous weather and safe navigation are the top two 

Fleet concerns. The Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command is actively engaged with 

Fleet forces to provide valuable physical environmental knowledge to aid warfighting decision 

making. Personnel are integrated with the Fleet, where they provide in situ observations, run 

tactical decision aids, and interpret environmental data to provide decision support to Fleet 

commanders. 

The onboard personnel work with reach-back cells to analyze and forecast environmental 

conditions from launch point to target and to determine optimum Fleet maneuvers, ingress and 

egress routes, amphibious landing points and times, flight operations, weapons load-outs, and 

target selection. 
 Military Services 

169 

Highly trained meteorology and oceanography specialists are deployed to support planning and 

operations. Reach-back teams work with onboard personnel to refine data, develop models, 

conduct forecast analyses, and deliver high-quality information to Fleet commands. 

Tailored Strike Group Oceanography Team 

(SGOT) detachments train, work-up, and 

deploy with carrier and expeditionary strike 

groups through each phase of the Fleet 

Readiness Training Program. Each SGOT 

detachment includes a team who forecast for 

the aircraft carriers, amphibious assault ships, 

and other vessels making up the strike group. 

In addition to flight deck weather, they 

forecast en route and target area METOC 

conditions which may vary greatly, 

considering the tremendous reach of Naval 

Aviation along the world’s dynamic coastlines. 

Maritime Weather Operations. Navy 

meteorologists and forecasters are assigned to 

Maritime Forecasting Centers in Hawaii and 

Virginia. Core maritime weather services 

include Optimum Track Ship Routing (OTSR) 

and weather forecasting services to support 

transoceanic voyages and coastal operations. 

OTSR services:

 Provide hazardous ocean and weather 

advisories and divert recommendations 

to ship Commanding Officers and 

Masters at sea 

 Include sortie recommendations for 

potentially damaging weather 

conditions in port 

 Provide preliminary climatologic 

outlooks for transit and mission 

planning 

 Routine ship weather forecasts and aviation weather forecasts for ship-based helicopters, 

to include high wind and seas warnings and local area warnings for Fleet Concentration 

Areas

Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). The JTWC, established by the U.S. Pacific Command, 

is jointly manned with U.S. Air Force personnel. JTWC services include tropical cyclone 

forecasts, warnings, and other products for DOD warfighters, operating in the Pacific and Indian 

Oceans. JTWC, located in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, is an internationally recognized tropical cyclone 

forecasting center. 

Aerographer's Mate 3rd Class Heath Collins uses a

dew point calculator in the Meteorology and

Oceanic Center aboard the Nimitz‐class aircraft

carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) Source:

http://www.navy.mil/view_galleries.asp.
 Military Services 

170 

Naval Oceanography Program. The NOP provides global meteorology, oceanographic, 

maritime geospatial-environmental information and services, and ocean surveillance critical for 

safe and effective operations of the Navy, Marine Corps, and DOD generally. Its mission is to 

protect the fleet, shape the battlespace and maximize warfighting capability. The program 

includes oceanography, bathymetry, hydrography, meteorology, acoustics, geophysics, 

astrometry, geospatial information, and precise time. 

Naval METOC underpins every aspect of naval operations and warfare. It provides an affordable 

and sustainable competitive advantage to the Nation and protects the substantial National 

investment in both afloat and ashore force structure. The NOP, which is supported by ocean 

engineering, operational supercomputing, and operations research, in recent years reinvented 

itself to meet the warfighting needs of the operators and the fiscal needs of today’s Navy. 

Increasingly, costs are leveraged in the Joint, interagency, and international arenas to deliver 

capabilities at a shared cost. The NOP provides the DOD’s global numerical weather forecasting 

capability and partners with AFW in flight weather forecasting, Joint operations, information 

management, and acquisition programs. It also has strong relationships with all five NOAA 

directorates. 

Battlespace On Demand (BonD). Naval oceanography is about generating competitive 

advantage across the warfighting and shaping spectrum by turning the physical environment into 

superior information that provides decision superiority to forces in the field. The Navy strategy 

to achieve this, Battlespace on Demand, consists of overlapping tiers (see figure) that build on 

the previous tiers to ultimately produce enhanced decision-making capabilities for the warfighter. 

The end result is decision superiority: making better decisions faster than the adversary. 

 Tier 0. Data from various sources are collected, assimilated, and fused to provide initial 

and boundary conditions that accurately describe the “as is” ocean and atmosphere 

The Battlespace on Demand operational concept.
 Military Services 

171 

environment, as well as the celestial and temporal reference frames. 

 Tier 1. Data from satellites, altimetry, gliders, buoys, and other collection methods are 

incorporated to initialize computations. Then, high performance supercomputers run 

complex models to continually forecast and verify the future state of the ocean and 

atmosphere. 

 Tier 2. The environment modeled in Tier 1 will influence sensors, weapons, platforms, 

and people, providing opportunities and restrictions for successful operations and 

warfighting. BonD defines the influences on planning, force structure, targeting, timing, 

maneuver, tactics, techniques and procedures. The result is a “performance surface” that 

accounts for both the predicted environment and the capabilities and behaviors of the 

force—both allies and adversaries. 

 Tier 3. Applications that run across the performance surface quantify risk at strategic, 

operational, and tactical levels. BonD provide actionable recommendations on force 

allocation and employment that directly enhance safety and warfighting effectiveness. 

Littoral Battlespace Sensing (LBS). LBS is the Department of the Navy’s IPE approach for 

atmospheric and oceanographic data collection, data processing, and data/product dissemination 

to users. LBS facilitates better tactical decision making by enabling a system of networked 

sensors to share information through interoperability with Naval and joint networks and 

information systems. It addresses gaps with respect to environmental data fidelity (in time and 

space) that have been shown to play a critical role in force disposition and force posture in 

current and future naval missions. LBS is a critical persistent IPE technology, a key component 

of the BonDd framework, supporting Battlespace Awareness Joint Capability Area through 2025 

and beyond. 

FNMOC Numerical Weather Prediction Systems. FNMOC has had a long and productive 

history of implementing, evaluating, operating, maintaining, and improving numerical weather 

prediction (NWP) systems specifically to meet U.S. Navy operational requirements. These 

requirements include the need for an accurate representation of coastal meteorology and the airsea heat fluxes and wind stresses required to drive the Navy’s ocean models. In support of these 

requirements, FNMOC acquires and processes over six million observations per day, creating 

one of the world’s most comprehensive real-time databases of METOC observations for realtime fusion and assimilation into its models. In addition, FNMOC is the designated DOD center 

for global NWP. 

FNMOC satisfies the military’s requirement for an operational global NWP capability based on 

software certified to DOD information assurance standards and operated in a secure classified 

environment with embedded protection from DOD-certified firewalls to prevent outside 

intrusions. This requirement is driven by the importance of weather and ocean conditions on 

modern military operations, the need to use classified weather observations to guarantee the very 

best weather and ocean predictions in theaters of conflict, and the imperative to produce and 

disseminate weather and ocean products to military decision makers without fear of interruption 

or compromise as a result of cyber terrorists or cyber warfare. 
 Military Services 

172 

In general, FNMOC strives to treat the air-ocean environment as a fully integrated system, from 

the top of the atmosphere to the bottom of the ocean, placing special emphasis on the air-ocean 

interface. FNMOC employs four primary models—the Navy Operational Global Atmospheric 

Prediction System (NOGAPS), the Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System 

(COAMPS), the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Navy (GFDN) model, and the Wave Watch III 

model (WW3)—along with a number of specialized models and related applications. 

 NOGAPS is a hydrostatic, global spectral model that drives nearly all other FNMOC 

models and applications in some fashion, and forms the basis for the FNMOC global 

Ensemble Forecast System. 

 COAMPS is a high-resolution, non-hydrostatic regional model, multiply nested within 

NOGAPS. It has proven to be particularly valuable for forecasting weather and ocean 

conditions in highly complex coastal areas. 

 GFDN is a moving-nest tropical cyclone model, nested within NOGAPS. It is used to 

forecast tropical cyclone tracks globally. 

 WW3 is a spectral ocean wave model that is employed both globally (driven by 

NOGAPS) and regionally (driven by COAMPS) in support of a wide variety of naval 

operations. 

Other models support and supplement the main models with predictions of ocean thermal 

structure, ocean currents, and other parameters. All of the models are configured, scheduled, and 

operated under the central control of FNMOC operations. COAMPS, however, can also be 

configured, scheduled, and operated remotely by users in the field as an on-demand modeling 

service. This is done over the Worldwide Web via the FNMOC Centralized Atmospheric 

Analysis and Prediction System. 

FNMOC Products and Services. FNMOC’s complex and robust operational prediction 

capability is designed to deliver, in conjunction with NAVOCEANO, 7x24x365 support 

organized along the warfare areas. For example, some FNMOC products consist of detailed 

forecasts of wind stresses and heat fluxes to drive very high-resolution ocean models at 

NAVOCEANO that provide ocean thermal structure and currents in support of anti-submarine 

and mine warfare operations, or near-shore wind, sea, and surf forecasts that directly support 

Fleet Operations through ship-to-objective maneuver. In many cases, the outputs of the FNMOC 

models feed directly into applications models, tactical decision aids, and other products that 

provide direct support to various weather-sensitive activities associated with the warfighting 

directorates identified above. These include optimum path aircraft routing, optimum track ship 

routing, issuance of high-winds and high-seas warnings, hurricane/typhoon sortie decisions, 

covert ingress/egress of Special Operations Forces, ballistic missile targeting, cruise missile 

launch and targeting, radar performance prediction in support of ship self defense, naval gunfire 

operations, understanding the threats posed by airborne nuclear/biological/chemical agents, 

search-and-rescue at sea, and many other activities. 

FNMOC also provides a wide-range of meteorological and oceanographic observations and 

satellite imagery to complement its models and applications products. These include on-demand 

extracts from its global observational database, a full range of DMSP Special Sensor 

Microwave/Imager products, ERS and QuikScat scatterometer wind products, a comprehensive 
 Military Services 

173 

view of tropical cyclones via the FNMOC TC Web Page, and various experimental satellite 

products fielded for evaluation in conjunction with the Naval Research Lab (e.g., satellite 

imagery that enhances the visualization of airborne sand and dust). FNMOC also hosts the 

USGODAE Monterey Data Server in support of the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment 

(GODAE). This system serves as a one-stop shop for METOC data and model products required 

to support global ocean modeling R&D. It also functions as one of two ARGOS Global Data 

Assembly Centers, hosting the complete collection of quality-controlled ARGOS 

temperature/salinity profiling float data. 

Many of FNMOC’s products are distributed to users over the Web via the PC-based METCAST 

system, and subsequently displayed and manipulated on the user’s PC with the Joint METOC 

Viewer (JMV) software. This includes all standard METOC fields, synoptic observations, and 

satellite imagery. For those who require only graphical display of model-predicted 

meteorological or oceanographic fields, FNMOC provides a Web-based capability called 

WxMap (i.e., “Weather Map”). WxMap, requiring only a Web browser for access, allows the 

user to select and quickly display predicted METOC fields for any user-defined geographical 

area. 

All of FNMOC’s production capabilities are fielded on a collection of computer hardware and 

software designated as the Primary Oceanographic Prediction System (POPS). POPS is 

organized into two subsystems: the Analysis and Modeling Subsystem (AMS) and the 

Applications, Transactions, and Observations Subsystem (ATOS). AMS is a cluster of SGI and 

IBM supercomputers on which the major NWP models run. ATOS is a large suite of IBM Linux 

clusters that ingests, decodes, and quality-controls data; does satellite data processing; hosts 

many of the applications models and products mentioned above; and supports data distribution 

via a services-oriented architecture and Web portal. Note that FNMOC also hosts a DOD High 

Performance Computing Modernization Program (HPCMP) Distributed Center, which is 

integrated closely with POPS. 

In addition to its primary role of focused support to the warfighter, FNMOC also plays a key role 

in the U.S. national program for weather prediction. In this regard, FNMOC’s tropical cyclone 

track predictions, widely recognized as among the best in the world, have proven to be especially 

valuable, with the National Hurricane Center (NHC) relying on them heavily. 

FNMOC benefits greatly from collocation with its supporting R&D activity, the Marine 

Meteorology Division of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL/MRY). NRL/MRY is a worldclass research organization, with focus on weather-related support to warfighting. FNMOC and 

NRL/MRY share space, data, software and computer systems, and together with the nearby 

Naval Postgraduate School represent one of the largest concentrations of weather-related 

intellectual capital in the Nation. Collocation and close cooperation between research and 

operations, such as exists between NRL/MRY and FNMOC, is the optimum arrangement for 

transitioning R&D quickly and cost effectively into new and improved operational weather 

prediction capabilities. 

NAVOCEANO Products and Services. NAVOCEANO is the Navy's center for operational 

oceanographic support and provides daily analyses and forecasts of the ocean state with a series 

of global, regional, and coastal ocean circulation and wave models. 
 Military Services 

174 

The core of the system is the dynamic Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM) which predicts 

three-dimensional ocean properties to 96 hours. The 1/8 degree (14km/7.5nm) resolution Global 

NCOM covers the world from pole to pole and is coupled with the Arctic Polar Ice Prediction 

System, which forecasts ice properties for the National Ice Center. 

Nested 1/36 degree (3km/1.7nm) regional NCOM domains of order 20 by 20 degree sizes 

provide high-resolution ocean forecasts in areas of Navy and national interest. Twelve regional 

NCOMs are on line with 24 planned by 2014. Global and regional NCOM products and data 

fields are shared with our NOAA partners. 

Nested in the regional NCOMs, NAVOCEANO runs a series of coastal, estuarine, and river 

domains with resolutions as fine as 1/360 degree (300 m, 1000 ft) or less in the support of mine 

warfare and homeland security efforts. When appropriate, coastal NCOMs are supplemented by 

other models including HYDROMAP, DELFT3D, and PCTIDES. These models are forced by 

global and regional atmospheric field data provided from FNMOC’s NOGAPS and COAMPS 

An oceanographer from NAVOCEANO establishes a satellite connection to the Glider

Operations Center at NAVOCEANO before launching the seaglider unmanned underwater

vessel from the Military Sealift Command oceanographic survey ship USNS Henson (T‐AGS 63).

At the time, the Henson, which is designed to collect physical oceanography data in deep

water, was conducting survey demonstrations with the Brazilian Directorate of Hydrograph

and Navigation as part of  Oceanographic‐Southern Partnership Station 2010, an

oceanographic surveying and information exchange program between subject matter experts

from partner nations. Source: http://www.navy.mil/view_galleries.asp.
 Military Services 

175 

runs. The NCOMs are initiated through the assimilation of ocean data from satellites (sea surface 

temperature and altimetry) and various surface and subsurface observing systems, including ship 

data, ARGO profiling floats, and gliders. Observations are also used to evaluate model products 

and estimate model skill. In the near future, the Global NCOM will be replaced by the 1/12-

degree resolution Global HYbrid Coordinate Ocean Model, which was developed under the 

National Ocean Partnership Program by a consortium of government and academic scientists, led 

by NRL Stennis and including NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). 

NAVOCEANO is the Navy's primary processing facility for a number of polar-orbiting and 

geostationary satellite collection systems from NOAA, the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), and international providers. It is nationally recognized for satellitederived sea-surface temperature and satellite altimeter-derived sea surface topography and wave 

height observations. These products are shared with NOAA partners and are critically important 

to successfully running both the NAVOCEANO ocean models and FNMOC's NOGAPS and 

COAMPS atmospheric models. NAVOCEANO houses a DOD Supercomputer Resource Center 

that provides the power to run the center's operational ocean models. This center provides a firm 

link between research and operations, facilitating the rapid transition of the latest ocean modeling 

capabilities. 

Naval Aviation Support. Many environmental conditions severely impact flight operations and 

mission accomplishment. These include: wind speed and direction, cloud ceiling, precipitation, 

turbulence, visibility, icing, and severe weather such as thunderstorms. An accurate forecast is 

often the deciding factor in mission success and for the safety of the pilot and their aircraft. Navy 

weather observers and meteorologists analyze current physical environmental conditions and 

forecast atmospheric and oceanographic phenomena, impacting naval flight operations, by 

leveraging state-of-the-art computer models. 

The Navy’s Hazardous Weather Display & Detection Capability adds low-cost Doppler weather 

sensing and warning capability to CVN, LHA, and LHD Class ships through AN/SPS-48E and G 

radar systems. It provides critical organic safety of flight and maritime sensing to afloat 

platforms. 

Meteorology and Oceanograpy Education and Training. Navy officers trained as 

meteorologists and oceanographers are all university graduates in meteorology, oceanography, or 

other earth sciences, with most attaining dual meteorology and oceanography advanced graduate 

degrees. Enlisted forecaster and/or briefers are trained in meteorological analysis and forecasting 

at military schools. Enlisted observers receive training at military schools. The enlisted 

Aerographer’s “A” (observer) and “C” (forecaster) schools are located at the Naval Technical 

Training Unit, which is collocated with USAF and Marine weather training at Keesler Air Force 

Base, Mississippi. Ongoing professional development for both officer and enlisted personnel is 

offered through the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Professional Development Center in 

Gulfport, Mississippi (with Pacific and Atlantic detachments). This development center offers 

directorate-specific training, as well as training on general oceanographic knowledge. 

Precise Time and Astronomy. This program provides astronomical and timing data for all DOD 

navigation and positioning activities as well as command, control, and communications 

architectures. This program funds upgrades and life-cycle replacements to the Master Clock at 
 Military Services 

176 

the USNO for Global Positioning System (GPS III) and maintenance of star catalogs and 

celestial reference frames for strategic systems. 

U.S. Marine Corps 

U.S. Marine Corps METOC Service 

The mission of the U.S. Marine Corps METOC Service is to provide meteorological, 

oceanographic, and space environmental information, products, and services in support of 

Marine Corps military operations and garrison activities. The Marine Corps METOC support 

infrastructure is designed to readily deploy and operate in austere expeditionary environments in 

support of Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF) operations. 

The Deputy Commandant for Aviation, Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, is the responsible 

office for Marine Corps METOC requirements and support. The Marine Corps METOC 

organization consists of two operational chains of command: one for Supporting Establishment 

METOC units and the other for the Fleet Marine Force (FMF). Supporting Establishment 

METOC units are located worldwide at Marine Corps air stations, facilities, air ground training 

centers, and base installations. These activities are manned and equipped to provide direct 

aviation METOC support to host and tenant units at seven major air stations in the continental 

United States, one in Hawaii, and two in Japan. Each Regional METOC Center began using 

WSI weather date services for aviation support in the fall of 2011. 

FMF METOC activities are organized, trained, and equipped to provide tailored support products 

and services to all combat elements of a MAGTF. METOC support focuses on projected 

consequences for expeditionary maneuver warfare operations, particularly operational maneuver 

from the sea. FMF METOC activities are fully interoperable with Joint Force operations, as part 

of a service or functional component command. When directed to stand up as part of a Joint Task 

Force headquarters, they are capable of planning, coordinating, and leading Joint METOC 

operations. Marine METOC forces can rapidly transition from a pre-crisis state to full 

operational capability in a distant theater, providing on-scene support to MAGTF, Joint, 

combined, allied, and coalition operations and other military operations as may be directed. FMF 

METOC assets are permanently assigned to Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) headquarters, 

intelligence battalions, Marine Wing Support Groups (MWSG), and Marine Wing Support 

Squadrons (MWSS). There are three MEFs strategically positioned for global response. The I 

MEF, which is based in southern California, and the III MEF, which is forward based in 

Okinawa, Mainland Japan, and Hawaii, report to the Commander, Marine Forces Pacific. The II 

MEF, which is located at bases in North and South Carolina, falls under the Commander, Marine 

Forces Command. 

MEF METOC personnel serve as special staff to the commanding general and are under the 

direction and cognizance of the intelligence division (G-2). The three intelligence battalions in 

the Marine Corps are co-located with respective MEF headquarters. They directly support the 

MEF G-2 and serve as MAGTF intelligence centers during operations. METOC is a vital part of 

the intelligence estimate and is an essential element that supports the Marine Corps Rapid 

Response Planning Process. METOC personnel assigned to these commands provide expertise, 

products, and services that directly support the IPB process by helping intelligence analysts to 
 Military Services 

177 

evaluate, integrate, and synchronize METOC effects for both enemy and friendly courses of 

action. 

METOC Support Team (MST). The MST is task-organized and task-equipped to provide a 

limited level of METOC support to combat elements other than an ACE (e.g., a Command 

Element, Ground Combat Element, or Combat Service Support Element) and is assigned in 

support of Marine Expeditionary Unit operations. It is capable of rapidly deploying as part of a 

first-in level of METOC support response to a crisis and can be easily integrated into an Air 

Contingency MAGTF. Additionally, the MST can be assigned to augment a Joint METOC 

Coordination Center during joint operations. MST elements can consist of two to five Marines, 

dependent on mission. When deployed, an MST will normally be assigned to the intelligence 

division/section (GS-2) of the supported combat element or Marine Expeditionary Unit. The 

MST deploys with rugged, ancillary environmental collection and data processing equipment. 

During operations, team members organically collect METOC products, data, and information 

from the nearest deployed Meteorological Mobile Facility-Replacement [MetMF(R)], Navy 

METOC OA Division afloat, host nation, or other METOC support organizations and agencies 

to satisfy METOC information requirements. 

Marine Corps Products and Services 

METOC Support Capabilities—Meteorological Mobile Facility-Replacement. The highest 

level of METOC support to the MAGTF and ACE-specific operations is the deployment of the 

MetMF(R). The MetMF(R) provides a METOC support capability similar to that found in 

garrison METOC facilities. The MetMF(R) is normally employed as part of MWSS to a forward 

operating base and is the only realistic option for large-scale MAGTF operations. Once 

established ashore, the MWSS may detach small METOC support teams with portable ancillary 

equipment to a forward base in support of ACE units that are separated from the main airbase. 

This redeployment also provides the MetMF(R) with a forward data collection capability that 

significantly enhances METOC situational awareness and overall support efforts to the entire 

MAGTF. With appropriate Service personnel augmentation, the MetMF(R) is also capable of 

serving as host for an in-theater Joint METOC Coordination Center, during joint operations and 

exercises. 

The MetMF(R) NEXGEN is a mobile system that provides tactical meteorological support to the 

Marine Air Ground Task Force. This system will replace the legacy MetMF(R) with current and 

emerging state-of-the-art technologies, offering a smaller overall size and increased mobility. 

These advancements will significantly enhance the meteorological capabilities of the Marine 

Corps Expeditionary Forces. 

Marine Corps Aviation Support. The Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW) conduct the complete range 

of air operations in support of the MEF, to include anti-air warfare, offensive air support, assault 

support, aerial reconnaissance, electronic warfare, and control of aircraft and missiles. The 

MAW serves as the principal headquarters for the ACE. Most of the MAGTF’s METOC support 

assets reside within the MAW, specifically at the MWSG and its subordinate MWSS. These 

assets are organized, structured, and capable of supporting a variety of MAGTF and ACEspecific operations as defined by the size, scope, and mission requirements. Dedicated METOC 

support is available for all MAGTF elements from within the MAW/ACE. 
 Military Services 

178 

Naval Integrated Tactical Environmental System (NITES IV). Each MWSS and METOC MST 

is equipped with a NITES-IV suite to provide forward METOC support. The NITES IV is a 

modular system, used to provide limited METOC support in a stand-alone mode with increasing 

capabilities realized with the addition of SIPRNET/NIPRNET connectivity. The NITES-IV suite 

consists of three laptops. Each laptop is designed to perform a different function, but all three are 

loaded with the same software and can perform the tasks of the others. Because of this 

redundancy, the NITES IV is often not deployed as an entire suite. Mission requirements, 

network availability, and embarkation space dictate how best to employ the NITES IV. 

Naval Integrated Tactical Environmental System (NITES-Next). NITES-Next will be the 

primary METOC processing, exploitation, and dissemination system, converting atmospheric 

and ocean weather information into warfighter impacts, closes capability gaps for safety and 

mission planning in degraded communication environments. 

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS). The AN/TMQ-53 AWOS is an autonomous, 

man-portable, cost-effective, and rapidly deployable environmental sensing capability that senses 

all the atmospheric parameters required to support tactical aviation operations and associated 

safety of flight concerns. 

U.S. Coast Guard 

The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) is a military, multi-mission maritime service and one of our 

Nation’s five armed forces. The USCG protects the public, the environment, and the economic 

interests in the Nation’s ports and waterways, along the coast, on international waters, and in 

other maritime regions, as required to support national security. The USCG has a long history of 

environmental observations and science support. Support for meteorological operations and 

supporting research is detailed in other sections of this plan. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

National Unified Operational Prediction Capability (NUOPC) Research Partnering 

Initiative 

The Navy, AFW, and NOAA/NWS partner in this tri-agency management organization. The 

NUOPC vision is a national NWP system with interoperable components built on common 

standards and a common framework (the Earth System Modeling Framework), with managed 

operational ensemble diversity and a national global NWP research agenda to accelerate science 

and technology infusion. NUOPC focuses on the next-generation systems for global NWP with 

full implementation by 2020, allowing for possible future expansion into other areas of 

numerical prediction. NUOPC established its Initial Operational Capability in January 2011, 

which provides a National multi-model global ensemble exchanged between NOAA, the Navy 

and the Air Force on a one degree grid for 72 variables out to 16 days. Upgrades to ensemble 

systems will continue and the resolution of the exchanged ensemble members will be doubled in 

2012 to one half degree, and doubled again to one quarter degree by 2015. 

The NUOPC multi-model global ensemble forecast system has the potential to establish the 

United States as the premier computer-modeling group in the world. Improvements in predictive 

capability will result in better severe weather warnings (hurricanes, tornadoes, snowstorms), 
 Military Services 

179 

better cost avoidance for weather sensitive industries (agriculture, transportation, utilities, 

defense), and better informed decision making for industry, defense, and the general public. 

Finally, NUOPC efforts are laying the ground work for the next generation environmental 

prediction system. 

U.S. Air Force Supporting Research Programs and Projects 

Technology Transition Initiatives. The overarching objective of the USAF meteorological and 

space environmental technology transition program is to give capability designers, operational 

weather personnel, and weather information users the technology and tools to gain and maintain 

the advantage over a potential adversary. AFW’s capability needs in the atmospheric and space 

environment sciences are articulated in the Initial Capabilities Document for the METOC 

Environment, Capability Review assessments, the AFW and AFWA Strategic Plans, the AFW 

Operations Functional Concept and Enabling Concepts (Characterize the Environment, Exploit 

Environmental Information, and Net-Centric Operations), and supporting concept and 

implementation plans. AFW also uses cooperative development and testing agreements with 

other governmental agencies and laboratories, as well as with for-profit companies. Both the Air 

Force Institute of Technology and the Naval Postgraduate School offer USAF and Navy graduate 

students in the atmospheric and space environmental sciences opportunities to research topics of 

immediate operational interest to U.S. military services. 

The Air Force Weather Web Services (AFW-WEBS) is a centralized web service capability, 

providing access to environmental information appropriate to all levels of operation and 

command. The program is designed to leverage net-centric capabilities and geospatial display 

services via AFW-WEBS to provide the operational warfighting community a single point of 

access to the total AF authoritative environmental content from sources across the AFW 

enterprise. By 2015, AFW-WEBS will have evolved into the single web site optimized for 

accessing authoritative AF meteorological information and services. All appropriate 

meteorological information will be serviced in geospatially enabled formats for direct integration 

into warfighter systems and decision cycles. Consistent environmental characterizations of key 

mission-impacting weather parameters improved by the FITL process will be used as a common 

source for both visualized web content and for direct M2M services accessed by warfighter 

systems. AFW forces will employ AFW-WEBS capabilities to improve the quality, accuracy, 

and effectiveness of all weather support processes. Finally, C2, ISR, and MP systems will 

employ AFW-WEBS products and services to help more decision makers maintain better BA 

and use the knowledge gained from this process to plan and execute more effective missions. 

Cloud Forecasting. In applied meteorological R&D, the AF is improving cloud forecasting 

techniques by increasing the resolution, using a new cloud interpretation/typing scheme, 

integrating available satellite (to include non-traditional METSAT) into the cloud analysis, 

incorporating cloud optical properties, and blending numerical weather prediction with forecast 

cloud advection techniques. The AF has transitioned key advances in tactical decision aids into 

operations, permitting improved forecasting of electro-optical system performance and 

generation of cloud and target scene visualizations for training, system development, and mission 

rehearsal.
 Military Services 

180 

Weather Forecast Modeling for Air Force and Army Operations. The Weather Research and 

Forecasting (WRF) model is the next generation community model and is another area of AFWA 

participation in research and development in collaboration with NCAR, NOAA’s NCEP, 

NOAA’s Earth Systems Research Laboratory (ESRL), the University of Oklahoma’s Center for 

the Analysis and Prediction of Storms, and others. AFWA initially implemented WRF 

operationally in 2006 and will continue with sponsorship and funding of development at NCAR 

and ESRL, along with test and evaluation of real-time runs of the WRF model runs as well as the 

WRF-Chem (which takes into account chemical and aerosol constituents). The Land Information 

System analyzes the current state of the land surface to provide information to DOD and civilian 

agencies, and through coupling with WRF, will improve forecasting performance near the 

surface and in the low levels of the atmosphere. This enables AFW forces to provide better 

battlespace characterization for missions such as (but not limited to) low-level aircraft 

operations, the dispersion of aerosol contaminants, and the employment of precision-guided 

munitions. It also allows for assessment of trafficability for ground forces. 

AFWA is in the process of developing a capability called the Air Force Weather Ensemble 

Prediction Suite (AFWEPS). AFWEPS output, at both the mesoscale and global scale, will 

provide better meteorological intelligence for the warfighter by objectively quantifying the 

forecast certainty of mission-impacting meteorological parameters to optimize operational risk 

management for all echelons of decision making. It will provide probabilistic algorithms for 

high-impact variables and quantify biases, allowing concise, focused products. The successful 

proof-of-concept Joint Ensemble Forecast System prototype laid the groundwork to construct an 

operational ensemble prediction capability and the prototype products are being produced and 

evaluated daily at AFWA as part of pre-operational RDT&E, and in parallel operations in the US 

Pacific Command and US Central Command AORs. 

Research Partnering Initiatives. AFW is partnering with the NWS and the Navy in the NUOPC 

project. This partnership exists to enable a tri-agency joint global atmospheric ensemble forecast 

system. NUOPC is an integration of ongoing efforts coordinated by a tri-agency management 

organization. The NUOPC vision is a National NWP system with interoperable components built 

on common standards and framework (Earth System Modeling Framework) with managed 

operational ensemble diversity and a national global NWP research agenda to accelerate science 

and technology infusion. 

Tactical Decision Aids. AFW collaborates in the development of several tactical decision aids, 

including the Target Acquisition Weapons Software (TAWS), the Infrared Target Scene 

Simulator (IRTSS), and the Tri-Service Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid (T-IWEDA). 

TAWS provides a joint mission-planning tool for combining platform, weapon, target, 

background, and weather factors to depict three-dimensional target acquisition and lock-on range 

and recognition range versus time. 

 TAWS can be used to predict environmental impacts on night vision goggles and low 

light-level systems used by air, naval, and ground forces to execute nighttime operations. 

 IRTSS uses detailed terrain information and multi-spectral imagery with TAWS weather 

inputs to generate forecast target scene images for mission rehearsal. 
 Military Services 

181 

 T-IWEDA uses environmental data with force, mission, and/or individual weapons rules 

of engagement or performance parameters to automatically generate mission-impact 

forecasts for large-scale planning efforts such as air tasking order preparation. It aids in 

selecting platforms, systems, or sensors, based on system rules with critical values and a 

forecast of weather conditions. Results are displayed on a red/yellow/green weather 

effects matrix and overlaid on a background map. 

TAWS, IRTSS, and T-IWEDA integrate environmental impacts into the mission execution 

forecasts for operations command and control and for mission planning systems throughout the 

military planning and execution cycle. AFRL, the Navy’s Space and Naval Warfare Systems 

Command, NRL, and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) are developing modular 

programs as part of the T-IWEDA initiative. The Tactical Decision Aids program continues 

adding weapons systems and targets to the inputs to these decision aids at the request of users 

from the Services. 

U.S. Army Supporting Research Programs and Projects 

Army Materiel Command (AMC) 

AMC is responsible for the RDT&E of equipment to satisfy the USA’s requirements for 

meteorological support. AMC provides meteorological and climatological support to RDT&E 

projects, involving electro-optical sensors and atmospheric and obscurant effects on systems and 

their performance. It is also responsible for determining weather-impact critical threshold values 

and the environmental sensitivities of battlefield systems, including soldiers. AMC has several 

major subordinate commands and elements carrying out weather R&D responsibilities, including 

the Research Development and Engineering Command, which has responsibility for the USA’s 

Research Development and Engineering Centers and ARL. 

Battlefield Environment Division, ARL Computational and Information Sciences Directorate. 

The Battlefield Environment Division of the Computational and Information Sciences 

Directorate in ARL develops environmental knowledge and technology for the warfighter 

through a robust R&D program aimed at characterizing and modeling the lower atmosphere and 

its effects on USA systems and personnel at very high spatial and temporal resolution. Current 

R&D includes basic research and experimental characterization of urban wind flow and 

atmospheric turbulence for its effects on systems, the investigation of battlefield aerosols and 

hazards relevant to soldier health, and the development of remote sensing capabilities to gather 

critical data. Numerical modeling R&D includes the assimilation of battlefield meteorological 

observations into diagnostic and prognostic numerical weather models that address fine-scale 

terrain and urban domain effects. This work includes the fusion of forward area observations into 

short-term Weather Running Estimate-Nowcasts (WRE-N). The applications and products 

developed from these efforts are often in the form of weather decision aids that compute weather 

effects and impacts on systems, sensors, personnel, and operations and include recommended 

course-of-action planning, such as optimizing mission flight profiles that avoid weather hazards 

and enhance the probability of mission success. 

The Battlefield Environment Division consists of three branches located at ARL Headquarters in 

Adelphi, Maryland, and at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. The division also 
 Military Services 

182 

administers a congressionally funded research program at Colorado State University. It provides 

a liaison to the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) program office located at the NASA Goddard 

Space Flight Center to coordinate on Army satellite data, information requirements, and 

applications development. The division works closely with the AFWA to provide new DODrelevant weather products for evaluation and operational hosting on AFWA’s web page and webenabled technologies, delivering meteorological products and databases to the warfighter. 

Furthermore, the division supports the field artillery community in the area of meteorological 

accuracy of artillery systems and related issues. 

Battlefield Environment Division, Atmospheric Modeling Applications Branch. The 

Atmospheric Modeling Applications Branch addresses the development of the next-generation 

mission execution forecast model (very short term forecasts) and web-enabled weather decision 

support tools. 

Meteorological forecast model applications are focused on Nowcast modeling and meso/microscale NWP development, improvements, and evaluation. The Nowcast modeling system will 

produce locally updated high-resolution meteorological data in 3-6 hour forecast blocks, tailored 

for execution-level planning and decision-making applications. As battlefield weather conditions 

change, the WRE-N will dynamically produce rapid and continuous “local corrections” to 

regional-scale mission planning operational forecasts, retain consistency with theater-wide 

operational forecast guidance from Air Force and joint DOD weather centers, and insure 

effective assimilation and fusion of local battlefield weather observations into each Nowcast 

modeling cycle. 

Warfighter Decision Aids developed in the branch utilize meteorological model gridded output at 

all scales to provide the commander a tactical advantage with validated and verified, webenabled decision support tools and associated databases. These databases describe the impacts 

expected and the resulting performance degradation due to weather for both friendly and threat 

systems, allowing for analysis and adjustments in tactics and weapon system selection before 

enemy engagement. Such decision tools play an important role in the mission planning and 

execution processes associated with both man-in-the-loop and autonomous command and control 

systems, presenting operators with simple color-coded weather impacts products, contributing to 

overall tactics and route-planning decisions at all echelons of the battlefield. 

Battlefield Environment Division, Atmospheric Dynamics Branch. The Atmospheric Dynamics 

Branch addresses basic research, atmospheric measurements, numerical modeling, and 

application development focused on fine-scale, high-resolution dynamics of the boundary layer 

atmosphere that impact the soldier and systems. Projects and capabilities in the branch include 

follow on research to the successful diagnostic 3D Wind Field (3DWF) model to produce an 

Atmospheric Boundary Layer Environment prognostic model for meteorology in urban and 

complex domains that addresses temperature, aerosol, and moisture dynamics as well as winds. 

The 3DWF model is applied as the core capability in the 24/7 detailed wind field and airborne 

hazard monitoring capability to support garrison emergency operations called the Local-Rapid 

Evaluation of Atmospheric Conditions system. 

Basic research in the Atmospheric Dynamics Branch also includes improved theoretical models 

for propagation through optical turbulence and fundamental characterization of mechanical 
 Military Services 

183 

turbulence for modeling wind gusts and its effects in urban domains. These models support 

research on biomimetic and biologically inspired methods for autonomous systems to sense and 

react to the local environment. Atmospheric effects are measured and modeled for emerging 

technologies in terahertz-band sensing and imaging, wide-band acoustics applications, and 

atmospheric propagation for emerging ground-based, solid-state, high-energy laser systems. 

Battlefield Environment Division, Atmospheric Sensing Branch The Atmospheric Sensing 

Branch develops technologies for scientific and operational sensing of the state of the 

atmosphere, electro-optical and acoustic propagation, and aerosols. Recent work has focused on 

exploiting ultra-compact Doppler LIDAR systems; experimental and theoretical developments to 

better understand electro-optical and acoustic propagation in urban environments; and aerosol 

characterization research. 

Models and codes under development will provide valuable tools for the investigation of 

environmental effects on acoustic sensor performance. The decision aid models created from 

new propagation models will be used to determine the impact of the environment on acoustic 

sensor systems and the detectability of acoustic signals on various military platforms. 

Remote sensing of the battlefield environment, either through active LIDAR (laser radar), 

passive infrared imaging, or passive spectral radiometric systems have significant importance for 

ISR operations. 

Aerosol research focuses on the ubiquitous, but relatively unknown, fraction of organic carbon 

aerosols and natural biological aerosols in the atmospheric boundary layer. Research to further 

develop and employ ultraviolet-laser induced fluorescence and two-dimensional angular optical 

scattering techniques will improve the understanding of both kinds of aerosols in natural 

atmospheric aerosols. 

ARL Army Research Office. The Army Research Office, Research Triangle Park, North 

Accurate wind forecasts are essential to deliver airdropped supplies to

the precise location. (U.S. Army photo)
 Military Services 

184 

Carolina, manages the Army's extramural basic research program in the atmospheric sciences. 

These programs are concerned with understanding the dynamical and physical processes of the 

atmospheric boundary layer at scales of interest to the Army (millimeters to 10s of kilometers) 

through measurements, simulations, and theoretical considerations. The basic research program 

is conducted through the peer-reviewed, individual investigator program and occasional special 

initiatives. The focus of the research is on the atmospheric processes and effects of the 

atmospheric boundary layer over land, where the Army operates. Objectives of the research are 

to develop, from first principles, the physical basis for understanding the boundary layer 

processes, thereby leading to better understanding, modeling, and quantifying of atmospheric 

effects on soldiers, materials, and weapon systems. The research examines quantification, 

classification, and dispersion of battlefield materials; the effects of heterogeneous terrain features 

on airflow; and the development of natural obscurations throughout the diurnal cycle. An 

essential element of the research is the development of instrumentation to measure the 

volumetric fields of wind velocity, temperature, and moisture of the boundary layer at turbulence 

time scales. Other areas of research focus on acoustic and electromagnetic energy propagation 

and detection/imaging techniques. Special funding areas are also managed. The Defense 

University Research and Instrumentation Program provides funds for instrumentation needed to 

support ongoing research activities. Also basic research under the Small Business Innovative 

Research Program is managed for selected topics. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers R&D 

The USACE is responsible for reviewing emerging Army systems for environmental effects, as 

stated in Army Regulation 70-1. The USACE Engineer Research and Development Center 

(ERDC) develops tactical decision aids (TDA) and geospatial analysis tools to interpret and help 

the warfighter to understand the impact of weather on terrain and provide actionable information 

of terrain, atmospheric, and weather effects on units, systems, platforms and soldiers in support 

of Mission Command and Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance planning. TDAs are 

transitioned to the Digital Topographic Support System (DTSS) and the Commercial Joint 

Mapping Tool Kit (CJMTK). 

ERDC supports Army weapon systems RDT&E with all-season solutions for mitigating adverse 

environmental effects on Army operations. Basic and applied research is conducted on energy 

and mass transfer processes at and near the terrain surface. ERDC develops databases and 

models for predicting the state of the terrain, including surface temperature, soil moisture, TDAs, 

and geospatial tools, supporting mobility analysis and sensor performance. These products 

transition to research and engineering programs, including advanced technology demonstrations 

and specific programs of record such as DTSS and CJMTK. 

Army Test and Evaluation Command 

ATEC is responsible for providing operational meteorological support to Army RDT&E. Under 

responsibilities established in AR 115-10/AFJI 15-157, ATEC meteorological units provide 

meteorological data collection and analysis, consultation, and weather forecast and warning 

services to support Army and other DOD RDT&E activities at eight Army installations.
 Military Services 

185 

Enhancements to ATEC Four-Dimensional Weather System. The Army RDT&E Meteorology 

Program is continuing to collaborate with the National Center for Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR) on enhancements to the ATEC Four-Dimensional Weather (4DWX) System, which is 

the backbone of the meteorological support infrastructure at the Army test ranges. ATEC 4DWX 

modeling capabilities include WRF-based real-time four-dimensional data assimilation at seven 

Army test ranges, and Global Meteorology on Demand, a globally relocatable mesoscale 

modeling system to support Army RDT&E (including ATEC distributed and virtual testing) at 

locations other than the Army ranges. Output from the 4DWX mesoscale model forecasts and 

analyses is used as meteorological input to atmospheric dispersion, noise propagation, ballistic 

trajectory, and other range applications models to simulate many tests and their associated 

impacts. The 4DWX system contributes to improved test planning and conduct, selection of 

more representative locations for test sensors, inclusion of realistic atmospheric effects in virtual 

testing, and forensic analyses of meteorological effects on test results. 

Major 4DWX system components include a central data archival/retrieval system for all range 

and external meteorological and model data, the WRF high-resolution mesoscale meteorological 

model, an innovative real-time data assimilation system, and a variety of user-configurable 

displays. The DOD High Performance Computing Modernization Office provided the 4DWX 

program with a high-performance computer which enables operational mesoscale ensemble 

forecasts to support Dugway Proving Ground (DPG) test operations. The DPG ensemble system 

uses both the Mesoscale Model Version 5 (MM5) and the WRF model as members of the 

ensemble set, which typically uses 30 members with varying physics packages, boundary or 

initial conditions, and model type. During FY 2011, the computers installed at each test center to 

execute the 4DWX models were replaced with a consolidated system located at DPG, with a 

backup to be located at another test center. The consolidated system was much less expensive 

than purchase of separate computers, and will provide easier and more consistent security 

upgrades and maintenance. 

System enhancements during FY 2011 included improvements to the WRF model’s capability 

for deterministic numerical weather prediction specific to each test range, continued work on a 

hybrid data assimilation system to accept new types of data, and continued development of 

ensemble and probabilistic techniques. Installation of the AutoNowcaster thunderstorm 

prediction system at the Redstone Test Center (RTC) was completed. System enhancements 

during FY 2012 will include continued WRF and data assimilation development focused on 

forecasting improvements at each range, in addition to advances which apply generally to all 

WRF applications, including continued work on the hybrid data assimilation approach. In 

addition, we will continue enhancements to the AutoNowcaster implementations at RTC and at 

White Sands Missile Range, and will evaluate additional AutoNowcaster implementations at 

ranges where radar data necessary for AutoNowcaster operations are available. 

Meteorology Division at DPG West Desert Test Center. The Chief of the Meteorology Division 

at DPG's West Desert Test Center serves as the ATEC Program Manager for Meteorological 

Support to Army RDT&E. Specialized services provided by the division include: (1) technical 

assistance to the ATEC operational meteorological teams/branches; (2) atmospheric model 

verification and validation, including algorithm evaluation and the generation of validation data 

sets; and (3) technical assistance to the DOD CB defense modeling community in the 

development of new CB hazard assessment models. Division employees also serve on various 
 Military Services 

186 

national and international committees, addressing issues related to meteorological measurements, 

atmospheric dispersion modeling, CB hazard assessment, mountain meteorology, and air quality. 

Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorological Support to the High Energy Laser Systems Test 

Facility (HELSTF). HELSTF, which is an ATEC directorate located on White Sands Missile 

Range, is an element of the DOD Major Range and Test Facility Base with the mission of highenergy laser (HEL) test and evaluation for future USA and sister-service HEL weapons. In 

addition to HEL systems test and evaluation, extensive use has been made of on-site laser 

systems to perform damage and vulnerability testing on laser-hardened materials, missile and 

aircraft components, and assorted battlefield equipment. The atmospheric 

sciences/meteorological mission is to support HEL testing by providing measurements of 

atmospheric conditions that are extremely important to propagation of any HEL beam through 

the atmosphere. Many unique meteorological instruments are maintained to support this critical 

data collection for HEL testing. The HELSTF meteorological team also supports critical safety 

analysis of atmospheric dispersion for the very toxic fuels used to power some HEL systems. 

Efforts for FY 2012 include work required to modernize the atmospheric measurements and data 

collection/analysis capabilities needed to support new laser testing facilities. 

 U.S. Navy Supporting Research Programs and Projects 

Program Alignment. The NOP is changing focus from an acquisition-based program to “instride” technology transition that will rapidly transition R&D into operations and will influence 

the Navy’s science and technology investments. Emerging R&D technologies will be tested in 

computational and operational environments and transitioned after an appropriate collaborative 

period. 

Earth System Prediction Capabilities. The Navy is partnering with NOAA and other agencies 

on ESPC (Earth System Prediction Capabilities). The ESPC focus is on next-generation systems 

for Global Numerical Weather Prediction, allowing for possible later expansion into other areas 

of numerical prediction with full implementation by 2020. The primary deliverable of ESPC is a 

multi-model global ensemble forecast system, coupling the domains of land, sea, atmosphere, 

ice, and space that has the potential to establish the United States as the premier computer 

modeling group in the world. Improvements in predictive capability are expected to result in 

better severe weather warnings (hurricanes, tornadoes, snow storms), better cost avoidance for 

weather sensitive industries (agriculture, transportation, utilities, defense), and better informed 

decision making for industry, defense, and the general public. 
 Space Weather Services 

187 

SPACE WEATHER SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center 

The National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s (NCEP) Space Weather Prediction Center 

(SWPC), within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National 

Weather Service (NWS), is the Nation’s official source of space weather alerts, watches, and 

warnings for extraordinary conditions in the space environment, solar radio noise, solar energetic 

particles, solar X-ray radiation, geomagnetic activity, and conditions of stratospheric warming. 

The SWPC provides real-time monitoring and forecasting of solar and geophysical events, 

conducts research in solar-terrestrial physics, and develops techniques for forecasting solar and 

geophysical disturbances. These observations and predictions are an effort to promote public 

safety and mitigate economic loss that could result from disruption of satellite operations, 

communications and navigation systems, and electric power distribution grids. The SWPC 

operates the national civilian Space Weather Operations Center, coordinating with Air Force 

Weather (AFW) personnel at Offutt Air Force base in the production of joint products, ensuring 

a consistent message on the space weather forecast across both civilian and Department of 

Defense (DOD) customer bases. The SWPC provides forecasts, alerts, and warnings to 

customers on a 24 hour-per-day, seven day-per-week basis. SWPC products are synthesized from 

over 1,400 data streams to provide observations of the solar terrestrial environment which 

include x-ray flux, charged particles, and magnetic field changes on the Sun and the Earth, and in 

interplanetary space. The SWPC also explores and evaluates new models and products and 

transitions them into operations. The SWPC takes a leading role in advocating and specifying 

new space-environment sensors for operational use. 

The SWPC provides services to a broad user community of government agencies, industries, 

public institutions, and private individuals involved in satellite operations, space exploration, 

radio navigation, high-altitude polar flights, high-frequency communications, remote intelligence 

gathering, long-line power and data transmissions, and geophysical exploration. The SWPC also 

serves as the primary international World Warning Agency for the International Space 

Environment Service (ISES). It exchanges international data (solar wind, X-ray, sunspot, corona, 

magnetic, and ionospheric measurements) in real-time and issues a consensus set of daily 

forecasts for international use. 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Space Weather Services are those specialized meteorological 

services and facilities established to meet the needs of users for information on extreme space weather 

events, also known as solar storms, which can affect terrestrial systems, the Earth’s atmosphere, and 

the near-Earth space environment. Space weather services include monitoring and reporting of solar 

storms and their effects on the Earth’s atmosphere and geomagnetic fields. Early warning of an 

approaching solar storm, so that timely protective response is possible, is an important part of space 

weather services. 
 Space Weather Services 

188 

United States Air Force 

The mission of AFW is to enable joint warfighters to anticipate and exploit the weather...for air, 

ground, space, cyberspace, and intelligence operations. As this applies to the ‘Space Weather 

Services’ category, AFW provides space environmental information, products, and services 

required to support DOD operations as required, providing actionable environmental impacts 

information directly to decision makers. 

AFWA’s Space Weather Flight is the DOD’s reachback center for space environmental services 

operations. These personnel apply a detailed understanding of the space environment to translate 

raw data into useful military intelligence information, which can be integrated into the Common 

Operating Picture. 

Forecasters in the Space Weather Flight, 2nd Weather Squadron (2 WS), 2nd Weather Group (2 

WXG) at the AFWA, monitor the Sun’s emissions and provide mission-tailored analyses, 

forecasts, and warnings. Their products are used for mission planning and environmental 

situational awareness by national agencies, DOD operators, warfighters, and decision makers. 

Solar emission of highly-energetic particles, X-rays, and radio bursts can produce the following 

effects on DOD operations: 

 Electrical anomalies and degrading of components to satellites and other equipment in 

orbit above the protective levels of the atmosphere. 

 Impacts on electromagnetic signals, influencing High Frequency (HF) communication, 

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) communication, and Global Positioning System (GPS) 

satellite navigation signals. 

 Increased drag on satellites in low-earth orbit. 

 Increased interference or false returns to sunward or poleward looking radars. 

 Potential health impact of radiation exposure to high-altitude aviators and those flying 

over polar regions. 

The 2 WS also provides both immediate and extended backup support for the SWPC. The 

backup may include the use of on-site personnel or augmentation from SWPC depending on 

severity and expected duration. 

The 2 WS space weather technicians located at Offutt Air Force Base (AFB), Nebraska, and at 

solar observatories around the globe never let the Sun slip from view. They provide timely, 

relevant, and accurate space weather information to DOD personnel, issuing approximately 

15,000 forecaster-in-the-loop and automated textual and graphical products warning of 

significant solar activity daily. 

Space environmental information is obtained through a combination of ground- and space-based 

systems. For the near-Earth environment; i.e., ionosphere, ground-based systems provide highly 

accurate point source verification and specification, whereas space-based systems enable global 

coverage and theater-wide situational awareness. For solar data, ground-based systems provide 

reliable observations of the sun in optical and radio frequencies, and space-based observations 

measure frequencies unobtainable from the ground. Space-based systems provide in situ 
 Space Weather Services 

189 

measurements of the space environment; i.e., solar wind and magnetosphere. AFW has outlined 

plans to modernize ground-based space sensing and is collaborating with U.S. and Allied 

government and civilian agencies to achieve a robust space-sensing capability. 

AFWA’s 2 WS operates the Solar Electro-optical Observing Network (SEON), a network of five 

ground-based observing sites located around the globe providing 24-hour coverage of solar 

phenomena at optical and/or radio wavelengths. The network sites are: 

 Detachment 1, Learmonth, Australia 

 Detachment 2, Sagamore Hill, Massachusetts 

 Detachment 4, Holloman AFB, New Mexico (relocating to Kirtland AFB, New Mexico) 

 Detachment 5, Kaena Point, Hawaii 

 San Vito, Italy (contract site) 

The SEON network sites 

utilize the Radio Solar 

Telescope Network 

(RSTN) and/or the Solar 

Observing Optical 

Network (SOON). The 

RSTN is composed of the 

Radio Interference 

Measuring Set (RIMS) and 

the Solar Radio 

Spectrograph (SRS) and is 

used to monitor solar radio 

bursts at eight specific 

frequencies as well as a 

spectral band. The SOON 

is used to monitor solar 

flare activity, which can 

trigger coronal mass ejections that may interact with the Earth’s magnetic field to create 

geomagnetic storms. The SOON images the Sun in the hydrogen-alpha wavelength, which 

reveals the complex solar activity in the lower atmosphere or chromosphere, as well as imaging 

the Sun in the continuum (pseudo-white-light), which shows sunspots on the Sun's surface or 

photosphere. The SOON also creates magnetograms by analyzing right-hand and left-hand 

circularly polarized light to image the line-of-sight component (Doppler shifting) of the magnetic 

field in the photosphere. When solar emissions are observed over threshold levels, solar analysts 

transmit activity messages that are used to prepare mission-tailored analyses, forecasts, and 

warnings used for mission planning, mission execution, and environmental situational 

awareness. 

AFWA employs a worldwide network of ground-based ionosondes and other sensors to provide 

environmental data in the ionosphere. They manage the NEXt-generation IONosonde (NEXION) 

fielding that started in summer of 2009, which will culminate in 30 NEXION sites worldwide. 

Solar optical and radio telescopes at Learmonth, Australia. Source: U.S. Air

Force.
 Space Weather Services 

190 

AFWA funds a database of 27 International Ionosonde sites at the National Geophysical Data 

Center (NGDC) in Boulder, Colorado. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory operates a 

complementary global network of over 125 sensors, deriving ionospheric line-of-sight total 

electron content from GPS signals and provides these data to AFWA. The Air Force Research 

Laboratory (AFRL) at Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts, provides ionospheric scintillation data 

from a global network of 22 UHF and L-Band receivers, supporting AF command and control 

satellite systems and strategic long-range radar systems. Additional data are provided by the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS), which operates a network of ground-based magnetometers, 

primarily in the northern hemisphere, that provide AFWA with critical measurements of the 

Earth’s geomagnetic field and its variances. 

From space, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Special Sensor-Auroral 

Particle Sensor measures low energy precipitating electrons that interact with the auroral 

boundary, causing the aurora and other high latitude phenomena. The DMSP Special SensorsIons, Electrons, and Scintillation sensor provides top-side measurements of the ionospheric 

environment, complementing ground-based sensors. These data are utilized to assess the impact 

of ionospheric conditions on ballistic-missile early warning radar systems and long-range 

communications. Additionally, the data are used to monitor global auroral activity and to predict 

the effects of the space environment on satellite operations. The Solar X-Ray Imager aboard 

NOAA’s GOES-14 satellite monitors solar X-ray emissions and provides near real-time display 

at AFWA and the SWPC in Boulder, Colorado. AFW also leverages space-based data from 

NASA and other agencies. 

AFW will continue to lead the DOD in space weather operations in FY2012 and beyond. In FY 

2012, AFW will maintain its aggressive posture to upgrade its solar equipment and processes, 

along with providing new or upgraded facilities for some solar locations. 

U. S. Geological Survey 

The Geomagnetism Program (http://geomag.usgs.gov) of the USGS Geologic Hazards Science 

Center provides real-time, ground-based measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field, which are 

an important contribution to the diagnosis of conditions in the near-Earth space environment of 

the Sun, the solar wind, the magnetosphere, the ionosphere, and the thermosphere. During 

geomagnetic storms, brought about by the complex interaction of the Earth’s magnetic field with 

that of the Sun’s, both high- and low-frequency radio communications can be difficult or 

impossible, global positioning systems (GPS) can be degraded, satellite electronics can be 

damaged, satellite drag can be increased, and astronauts and high-altitude pilots can be subjected 

to enhanced levels of radiation. 

Ground-based geomagnetic observatory data are complementary to those collected by spacebased satellites; indeed, most of the hazardous effects on technological systems brought about by 

magnetic storms occur at or near the Earth’s surface. Therefore, the Geomagnetism Group 

monitors the surficial magnetic field by operating 14 magnetic observatories in the United States 

and its territories. The data from these observatories, plus 15 foreign observatories, are 

transmitted to the group’s headquarters in Golden, CO, where they are processed and analyzed. 

Data are then transmitted to the SWPC and AFWA. 
 Space Weather Services 

191 

USGS observatories are operated in cooperation with Intermagnet (http://www.intermagnet.org), 

an international consortium overseeing the operation of over 100 geomagnetic observatories 

distributed around the globe. The USGS Geomagnetism Program is an integral part of the 

National Space Weather Program (NSWP). 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 

FEMA has initiated an Interagency Planning effort to develop a Concept of Operations Plan 

(CONPLAN) that will identify roles and responsibilities of each agency during a Space Weather 

Event. FEMA is working with their interagency partners to define the scope of this CONPLAN 

and to create a workable scenario on which to base the plan. Currently, this effort is in its infancy 

stage and participants in this effort are still being identified. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center 

The SWPC conducts applied research in solar-terrestrial physics and develops techniques for 

forecasting space weather storms. Research and development at SWPC emphasizes the 

utilization of fundamental research to improve operational space weather forecast capabilities. 

The activities are intended to foster and enable focused research in order to identify, investigate, 

and recommend new modeling capabilities, research results, and observational advances to 

improve SWPC forecasts, products, and services. Through these activities it achieves its 

principal objective of infusing the benefits of new research and technology developments into 

operational space weather products and services, in order to improve the utility and capabilities 

of the SWPC alerts, watches, warnings, and forecasts for its customers. 

Activities include: 

 Maintaining awareness of scientific advances and new techniques being developed to 

identify improved data-analysis techniques, forecast models, and observational systems 

that have potential for significantly improving the forecast guidance provided by space 

weather forecasters; 

 Conducting, supporting, and managing focused research on data-analysis techniques/ 

algorithms, forecast models, and observational systems that have the potential to 

significantly improve the forecast guidance provided to space weather customers; 

 Developing, testing, validating, and verifying promising numerical codes and forecast 

techniques, emerging from the research community to determine their potential benefits 

for possible use in operations; 

 Communicating priorities and operating procedures to maintain fair and open interactions 

with all stakeholders (operational, research, academic, international, and commercial) and 

to stimulate improvements in space weather analysis and forecasting applications; 

Current projects at SWPC include the following: 
 Space Weather Services 

192 

 Improvements to the definition and parameterization of coronal mass ejections (CME) for 

input into operational solar-heliospheric models that forecast the propagation of solar 

disturbances through interplanetary space from the Sun to the Earth. 

 Testing of geospace/magnetosphere models with the goal of transitioning research 

models into operations so that SWPC can provide customers with regional forecasts and 

specifications of space weather impacts. 

 Development of the Whole Atmosphere Model by extending the NCEP Global Forecast 

Systems weather model up to the near-space environment thereby providing specification 

and forecasts of the impacts of the lower atmosphere weather systems on space weather. 

USGS 

Research conducted within the USGS Geomagnetism Program targets space-weather 

applications that use ground-based magnetic-observatory data. Recent work has concentrated on 

the development of a real-time, storm-time disturbance index, Dst, which serves as a standard 

proxy measure of the magnetospheric equatorial ring-current intensity and is an important input 

to numerous operational physics-based models of the coupled magnetospheric-ionospheric 

system. Ongoing work is aimed at developing real-time, mid-latitude magnetic-disturbance 

indices needed for measuring localized magnetic disturbances across the contiguous United 

States; real-time, high-latitude auroral-zone indices needed for monitoring geomagnetic 

substorms; and real-time estimates of geomagnetically induced currents that represent a hazard 

for electric power grids. All of these projects are part of a larger project for developing timedependent geomagnetic-disturbance hazard maps. Other current research projects are focused on 

analysis of individual historical magnetic storms, long-term changes in geomagnetic activity, and 

long-term changes in solar-terrestrial interaction, all of which are important for understanding 

the potential hazard posed by magnetic storms that will occur in the future. The research staff of 

the USGS Geomagnetism Program provides leadership and technical guidance to Intermagnet, 

an international consortium that is dedicated to promoting the global integration of magneticobservatory operations. They also represent the USGS in numerous other national and 

international forums. The role of the USGS Geomagnetism Program within the larger NSWP 

was recently summarized in a feature article in the journal Space Weather which is published by 

the American Geophysical Union and is co-sponsored by the ISES. 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

The Heliophysics Division of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate (SMD) is organized to 

discover and communicate new scientific knowledge, concerning the magnetic variability of the 

Sun, the effect of this variability on the planets of the solar system including the Earth, and the 

dynamic structure of the particle and field configurations of interplanetary space. The three areas 

of concentration in the Heliophysics Division’s research program are theory, data, and modeling. 

To support the data collection effort that characterizes the heliophysical environment, the 

division operates a fleet of 17 missions involving 26 spacecraft. The region of space 

characterized is huge, extending from the Sun itself to the outer edges of the solar system and the 

heliosphere. To extend the research effort, as part of the Living With a Star Program, NASA is 

developing the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission for launch in 2012. 
 Space Weather Services 

193 

Currently, four NASA research missions contribute data to the national space weather 

community. This is done by either direct broadcast from the satellite to a combination of NASA 

and non-NASA ground stations, or by near real-time level zero data processing from the satellite 

and rapid, periodic updates of NASA data bases that are accessible to the public or other 

governmental agencies via the Internet. The Advance Composition Explorer (ACE) spacecraft, 

an Explorer program research activity in extended mission status, provides data on the condition 

of the solar wind upstream of the Earth’s magnetic field. The ongoing success of the use of ACE 

data, concerning the characteristics of the solar wind flowing toward the Earth, has made this 

research mission a vital resource for the Nation. Other such missions are the Solar and 

Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), a joint program with the European Space Agency, and the 

Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO), a Solar Terrestrial Probes Program mission. 

The successful use of the direct broadcast modes of ACE and STEREO has led to the inclusion 

of this type of mode into the RBSP project. The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), the newest 

member of the fleet of Heliophysics spacecraft, has a separate, high-speed, data link that makes 

near real-time solar data from this mission available to interested users with a few minutes delay 

between collection and delivery to Internet customers. 

NASA also supports the development of models and new theories within the research and 

analysis program and the Targeted Research and Technology portion of the Living with a Star 

Program. The Supporting Research and Technology Program funds instrument development that 

improves observing capabilities towards better resilience against extreme space weather 

conditions, ultimately feeding models with the most reliable data. As a quality assurance activity 

to validate the national research community model development, the agency operates the 

Community Coordinated Modeling Center (CCMC), an interagency collaborative activity that 

includes NOAA, DOD, and the National Science Foundation (NSF). The CCMC is located at the 

Goddard Space Flight Center. The output of standard and requested computations, using 

community provided models, is available in near real-time via the Internet. A yearly conference 

entitled R2O (Research to Operations) is held to ensure the effective utilization of the supported 

models within the broad range of national space weather activities. The intent of this effort is to 

transfer the tools and techniques of CCMC research into the operational arena—the ultimate 

objective of the NSWP. 

Department of Energy National Nuclear Security Administration 

The U.S. Department of Energy National Nuclear Security Administration (DOE/NNSA) 

supports the NSWP through the collection and distribution of operational data, through 

participation in research missions with space weather applications, and through the development 

of space weather models such as DREAM and AE/AP-9. One of the most significant 

contributions is the collection and distribution of space weather data from 

DOE/NNSA instruments on U.S. government satellites in geosynchronous and GPS orbits. 

DOE/NNSA geosynchronous observations have been available continuously since 1979 and, 

since 1989, measurements span energies from a few electron volts (eV) to tens of MeV. 

Geosynchronous observations are also available in real time from multiple satellites which 

constitutes an important (but under-exploited) resource for driving real-time specification and 

forecast models. DOE/NNSA space weather resources on GPS satellites, include both particle 

measurements for the space radiation environment and impulsive RF measurements that provide 

important (but under-exploited) information on ionospheric structure and density with global 
 Space Weather Services 

194 

coverage (24 satellites). GPS observations cover the time period from 1983 to present so, as with 

other geosynchronous measurements, they provide an important resource for space weather 

climate models and for validation and testing of specification and forecast models. 

DOE/NNSA, through the national laboratories, has also provided important space weather 

capabilities through the construction and operation of scientific instruments that also provide 

important space weather information. These include the plasma spectrometer on ACE (L1 solar 

wind), particle detectors on RBSP (ring current, radiation belts, solar particles), Forté 

(ionospheric structure and density), and others. DOE/NNSA has also supported the development 

of space weather models. These include the next-generation climatology model (AE/AP-9) for 

spacecraft design and the DREAM model which is a real-time assimilative model for the 

radiation belts. Both models rely heavily on geosynchronous and GPS observations. A third is 

RAM-SCB which is a model of the ring current. DOE/NNSA strives to partner with other 

entities with space weather interests and is exploring new ways in which its data, models, and 

space weather services can be more fully utilized to support the national space weather 

enterprise. 

National Science Foundation 

The NSF supports the NSWP in pursuing the program’s objective to perform the research and 

technology transfer needed to improve the specification and forecasts of space weather events 

that can cause disruption and failure of space-borne and ground-based technological systems and 

that can endanger human health. Examples of NSF support of space weather include conducting 

a highly successful competition for space weather research grants and providing support for the 

Center for Integrated Space Weather Modeling (CISM), a multi-institutional effort led by Boston 

University and dedicated to providing advance warning of potentially harmful space weather 

events. NSF NSWP support in FY 2011 was estimated at $14 million and is expected to be 

around the same level in FY 2012. 

Air Force Research Laboratory 

AFRL supports AFW’s space weather mission by executing research conducted by external 

agencies and by conducting in-house research on space weather. In space weather research, 

AFRL programs focus on ionospheric impacts to radio frequency systems, charged particle 

specification and forecasts, solar disturbance prediction, and neutral density effects on low-Earth 

orbiting spacecraft. Working closely with the DMSP System Program Office at the Space and 

Missile Systems Center, under a Memorandum of Agreement, AFRL supports the development 

and upgrading of operational space weather sensors, models, and software products to include: 

space environment sensors on the DMSP spacecraft, state-of-the-art ground-based scintillation 

detectors, total electron content sensors, ionospheric characterization, solar radio and optical 

emissions observing, and the Operational Space Environment Network Display suite of webbased products. 
 Surface Transportation Services 

195 

SURFACE TRANSPORTATION SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

National Weather Service (NWS) 

NWS Marine and Coastal Weather Services is the lead for the Nation’s marine and coastal 

weather services, encompassing a vast area from intercoastal waterways and near-shore bays and 

inlets to the open oceans spanning much of the northern and western hemispheres. The program 

is aimed at promoting safe and efficient transportation, in support of both commercial and 

recreational interests, and with consideration of the expanding and weather-sensitive U.S. coastal 

population. Forty-seven coastal Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) and three components of the 

National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) provide forecasts, analyses, watches, 

warnings and advisories of maritime conditions as well as coastal and tropical hazards. These 

services are provided for coastal waters, offshore high seas waters, and Great Lakes nearshore 

and open lake waters. Coastal WFOs have responsibility for forecasts and warnings extending 

nearly 100 nautical miles from the shore. The centralized Ocean Prediction Center of NCEP has 

responsibility for offshore and high seas waters, meeting U.S. international meteorological 

obligations to marine interests under the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea, to 

which the United States is a signatory. 

Using observational data sources such as buoy observations and satellite imagery, plus numerical 

prediction models, NWS forecasters monitor weather conditions continuously over marine zones. 

Routine forecast products and analyses, watches, warnings, and advisories are disseminated to 

describe maritime conditions and tropical-storm and coastal hazards. Marine and coastal 

products describe wind, waves, visibility, icing, coastal flooding, severe weather, high surf, and 

rip currents. Tropical-storm products describe hazards associated with tropical cyclones such as 

storm surge, wind, waves, and inland impacts. 

The Marine and Coastal Services program collaborates widely within and outside of NOAA. The 

program works with the Office of Operational Systems for the collection of marine and coastal 

observations and the delivery of marine and coastal products to users. It works with NOAA’s 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Surface Transportation Services are those specialized meteorological 

services and facilities established to meet the weather information needs of the following surface 

transportation sectors: roadways, long-haul railways, the marine transportation system, rural and urban 

transit, pipeline systems, and airport ground operations. The roadway sector includes State and Federal 

highways and all State and local roads and streets. The marine transportation system includes coastal and 

inland waterways, ports and harbors, and the intermodal terminals serving them. Rural and urban transit 

includes bus and van service on roadways and rail lines for metropolitan subway and surface “light-rail” 

systems. Operational and supporting research programs for Aviation Services are often also relevant to 

airport ground operations, but program budgets counted in Aviation Services are not double-counted here 

under airport ground operations, and vice versa. 
 Surface Transportation Services 

196 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. 

Coast Guard (USCG) to provide ice warning and advisory services through the joint National Ice 

Center. It works with the Navy, the USCG, the U.S. Maritime Administration, and the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to operate the Nation’s Marine Transportation System 

safely. It works with the DOD, FEMA, and USACE to provide tropical cyclone services; with 

the USCG, Navy, Air Force, and private entities to disseminate weather to mariners; with 

NOAA’s National Ocean Service (NOS) on the PORTS and TIDES programs; and with the 

World Meteorological Organization to provide services to the international community. It also 

works in cooperation with NOAA’s Office of Response and Restoration, Department of Defense, 

and Department of Homeland Security for forecasting services in support of hazardous material 

spill response; marine area search, rescue, and recovery operations; and security needs. 

National Ocean Service, Marine Transportation System Services 

NOS is the primary civil agency within the federal government responsible for the health and 

safety of our nation's coastal and oceanic environment. Largely through the Center for 

Operational Oceanographic Products and Services (CO-OPS) program line, NOS acquires water 

levels, currents, and other physical oceanographic and meteorological data and distributes these 

data and circulation predictions as elements of an integrated NOS program. This program 

provides a comprehensive science-based suite of information required by the marine 

transportation community to ensure safe and efficient transportation, including the transport of 

hazardous materials. NOS also provides coastal oceanographic and meteorological products 

required by the NWS to meet its short-term weather and forecasting responsibilities, including 

tsunami and storm surge warnings. NOS manages several observing systems and programs; 

however, four in particular are heavily linked to the capability of NOAA to meet the marine 

transportation needs of the nation: 

National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON). NOS manages the NWLON, which 

officially consists of 210 stations located along the coasts of the United States and the Great 

Lakes, from which water level data as well as other oceanographic and meteorological data are 

collected and disseminated. NWLON provides data and supporting information to a number of 

NOAA and other federal programs, such as the NOS Nautical Charting Program, NOS Shoreline 

Mapping Program, NWS Tsunami Warning System, NWS storm surge warning/forecast 

activities, and the Climate Services Program. Approximately 182 of the 210 NWLON stations 

contain at least one meteorological sensor (an anemometer, a barometer, an air temperature 

sensor and at some Great Lakes stations a relative humidity sensor), and 150 stations are 

outfitted with a full suite, which includes dual anemometers, a barometer and an air temperature 

sensor. Water level and meteorological data are automatically formatted into SHEF bulletin 

format for inclusion into the NOAA AWIPS system. By FY12, two NWLON stations in Texas 

will be upgraded to Sentinels, which are specially-designed water level stations that are built to 

withstand a Category 4 hurricane, and these stations will include a full suite of meteorological 

sensors. The President’s FY12 Budget Request proposed reduced funding for NWLON 

meteorological sensors; therefore, there will not be any further upgrades of NWLON stations to 

include meteorological sensors.

Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System (PORTS®). PORTS® is a decision support tool 

which improves the safety and efficiency of maritime commerce and coastal resource 
 Surface Transportation Services 

197 

management through the integration of real-time environmental observations, forecasts, and 

other geospatial information. PORTS® measures and disseminates observations and predictions 

of water levels, currents, salinity, bridge air gap and many meteorological parameters, needed 

and requested by the mariner to navigate safely. There are 20 existing PORTS® systems that 

comprise a total of 84 PORTS® water level stations. Currently, 66 of these stations contain at 

least one meteorological sensor (anemometer, barometer, air temperature sensor or a visibility 

sensor). 

The PORTS® systems come in a variety of sizes and configurations, each specifically designed 

to meet local user requirements. PORTS® is a partnership program in which local operating 

partners fund the installation and operation of the measurement systems. The largest of NOS' 

existing installations is composed of over 100 separate instruments. The smallest consists of a 

single water level gauge and associated oceanographic and meteorological instruments. 

Regardless of its size, each PORTS® installation provides information that allows shippers and 

port operators to maximize port throughput while maintaining an adequate margin of safety for 

the increasingly large vessels visiting United States ports. In addition, prevention of maritime 

accidents is the most cost effective measure that can be taken to protect fragile coastal 

ecosystems. One major oil spill can cost billions of dollars and destroy sensitive marine habitats 

critical to supporting coastal marine ecosystems. PORTS® provides information to make 

navigation safer, thus reducing the likelihood of a maritime accident, and also provides the 

information necessary to mitigate the damages from a spill, should one occur. An extensible 

PORTS® can be integrated with other marine transportation technologies such as Automated 

Identification System, Electronic Chart Display Information Systems ECDIS, and Vessel Traffic 

Systems VTS. Visibility sensors are the most recent sensor type to be integrated into the 

PORTS® systems, and there are currently two visibility stations installed in Mobile Bay 

PORTS®. More visibility installations are planned for Narragansett Bay and Chesapeake Bay 

PORTS® in FY12. 

National Operational Coastal Modeling Program (NOCMP). NOCMP serves a variety of users 

with oceanographic nowcast and forecast products for ports, estuaries and the Great Lakes. The 

integration of PORTS® technology and numerical circulation models allows nowcasts and 

predictions of up to five parameters (water level, current speed and direction, winds, water 

temperature and salinity) within the boundaries of the eleven models at locations where physical 

measurements are not available. In FY11, Chesapeake Bay Oceanographic Forecasting System 

was upgraded from a two-dimensional to a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model, and the 

Delaware Bay and Tampa Bay models became operational. Three new models planned for 

release in FY12 are the Northern Gulf of Mexico (including Galveston Bay and Mobile Bay), 

Columbia River and San Francisco Bay models. Ongoing developments will enable the 

operational forecast systems to incorporate ecological forecast models and integrate the output 

with circulation measurements to provide information on transports of materials in the ecosystem 

essential for effective marine resource management and homeland security. 

The NOS Continuous Real-Time Monitoring System (CORMS). CORMS was designed to 

operate on a 24 x 7 basis to ensure the accuracy and working status of oceanographic and 

meteorological observations acquired via the NWLON and PORTS® programs. CORMS 

improves the overall data quality assurance of real-time measurements, reduces NOAA's 

potential liability by not publicly disseminating inadequate data, and makes the observations 
 Surface Transportation Services 

198 

more useful for all applications. CORMS ingests real-time data from all field sensors and 

systems, including the operational nowcast/forecast models, determines data quality, and 

identifies and communicates the presence of invalid or suspect data to real-time users/customers 

who rely on the data. CORMS is especially vigilant during storm and tsunami events to ensure 

the full set of products and services is being disseminated in a timely fashion. An advanced 

version of this system, CORMS 3, provides personnel with alerts as soon as any sensor data are 

suspect or any communications problems arise. This enables speedier communication to 

instrument labs and field crews who may fix the station remotely or initiate emergency 

maintenance, thereby decreasing downtime of a particular station or sensor. FY12 plans for 

CORMS 3 include additional enhancements to render internal reports on station statistics and 

tighter quality control threshold values used to flag questionable data. 

United States Coast Guard 

Although no Coast Guard cutters or shore units are solely dedicated to meteorology, they 

collectively perform a variety of functions in support of the national meteorology program. 

USCG ocean-going cutters and coastal stations provide weather observations to the NWS. Coast 

Guard communications stations broadcast NWS marine forecasts, weather warnings, and weather 

facsimile charts. They also collect weather observations from commercial shipping for the NWS. 

USCG conducts the International Ice Patrol (IIP) under the provisions of the International 

Convention for Safety of Life at Sea. The IIP uses sensor-equipped aircraft to patrol the Grand 

Banks of Newfoundland to locate and track icebergs that pose a hazard to North Atlantic 

shipping. Direct observations are supplemented and extrapolated using a numerical iceberg drift 

and deterioration model. IIP determines the geographic limits of the iceberg hazard and, twice 

daily, broadcasts iceberg warning bulletins and ice facsimile charts which define the limits of the 

iceberg threat during the iceberg season (spring and summer). IIP annually archives data on all 

confirmed and suspected icebergs, and forwards these data to the National Snow and Ice Data 

Center. These data can be accessed via the IIP web page, 

www.uscg.mil/lantarea/iip/home.html. Archived data contains all iceberg sighting data along 

with the last model-predicted position of each berg. 

The Coast Guard participates with the Navy and NOAA in supporting the National Ice Center, a 

multi-agency operational center that produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great 

Lakes, and coastal ice conditions. The Coast Guard also collaborates with NOAA in operating 

the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) which deploys and maintains NOAA’s automated 

network of environmental monitoring platforms in the deep ocean and coastal regions. Five 

Coast Guard personnel fill key technical and logistics support positions within the NDBC. Coast 

Guard cutters support the heavy lift deployment and retrieval of data buoys and provide periodic 

maintenance visits to both buoys and coastal stations, expending approximately 180 cutter days 

annually. Coast Guard aircraft, small boats, and shore facilities also provide direct NDBC 

support. 

Meteorological activities are coordinated by the Office of Marine Transportation Systems at 

Coast Guard Headquarters. Field management of Coast Guard meteorological support services is 

performed at the Coast Guard Area and District levels. 
 Surface Transportation Services 

199 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) 

FHWA Road Weather Management Program 

The FHWA coordinates a number of research and development activities aimed at improving 

safety, mobility, environmental quality, and national security on the nation's highways. These 

activities include identification and mitigation of weather impacts on the roadway environment. 

The FHWA does not operate either the highway or their supporting weather systems but seeks to 

improve operations in partnership with other public agencies, national laboratories, private firms, 

and universities. Since 1999, FHWA's weather-related research activities have been centered in 

the Road Weather Management Program (RWMP) within the Office of Transportation 

Operations in coordination with the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Joint Program 

Office. 

With funding authorized under the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity 

Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) at nearly 5 million dollars per year, the goals of the 

RWMP are limited but span many areas to include: improve understanding of weather impacts 

on highway transportation systems, demonstrate a nation-wide system for observed road weather 

data, research new environmental data sources, enhance road weather (e.g. pavement 

temperature) and traffic modeling with weather inputs, enhance mechanisms for communicating 

road weather information to users, and develop decision support tools. For FY2011 and FY2012, 

RWMP major research projects include expanded road weather observed data management and 

decision support applications, weather and road data from vehicles or mobile devices (mobile 

data), and weather-responsive traffic management. 

Road Weather Observing, Data Collection and Management – The Clarus System 

Known as Environmental 

Sensor Stations (ESS), 

the standard method for 

observing road weather 

conditions is with fixed 

sensors near and/or 

actually embedded in the 

road surface that report 

common atmospheric 

weather variables plus 

pavement and subsurface 

road temperature, road 

wetness and pavement 

chemical concentration. 

Owned and operated by 

state, provincial or local 

transportation agencies, 

nearly 2,500 ESS are 

Participation Status for Clarus

as of June 30, 2011

Canadian

Participation

Clarus Connection Status

Local Participation

City of Indianapolis, IN

McHenry County, IL

City of Oklahoma City, OK

Kansas Turnpike Authority 

Parks Canada

Sensor & Station Count

2,253 Sensor Stations (ESS)

52,471 Individual Sensors

Connected

(38 States, 5 Locals,

4 Provinces)

Pending

(4 States, 3 Locals, 

1 Province)

Considering

(3 States, 1 Local)
 Surface Transportation Services 

200 

deployed across North America and together comprise one of the largest weather observing 

networks. 

Since 2006, a U.S. DOT-sponsored experimental system entitled Clarus (http://www.clarussystem.com/) has been collecting, formatting, quality checking, and displaying ESS road weather 

data from across North America. (Clarus Status Map) This "one-stop-shop" makes observed 

road weather more effectively shared by members of both the weather and the transportation 

communities. The long-term plan of the Clarus System is to transition the capability to the NWS. 

FHWA and NWS signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) in November 2010 to 

establish a framework for cooperation and coordination for projects like the Clarus transition to 

operations. In FY2011, NWS and FHWA completed a system and requirements comparison of 

the Clarus System versus NOAA’s Meteorological Assimilation Data Ingest System (MADIS). 

In FY 2011 and 2012, these agencies will collaborate to develop a transition plan. An important 

area of current research for both agencies is the gathering of weather and road data from 

vehicles. 

USDOT Connected Vehicle Research – Vehicle Weather Observations 

Connected Vehicles Research is a multimodal initiative that aims to enable safe, interoperable 

networked wireless communications among vehicles, the transportation infrastructure, and 

personal communication devices.1

 This research aims to leverage the potentially transformative 

capabilities of wireless technology to gather much more system data ultimately making surface 

transportation safer, smarter, and greener. Far beyond reliance on fixed or passive sensors, this 

emerging mobile technology has the potential to provide more extensive real-time travel and 

weather information to both the public sector and private industry. 

Because vehicles were not designed as weather stations, direct weather sensor readings from 

original vehicle equipment are limited to mostly air temperature and pressure, but when 

combined with other vehicle data they could prove useful. Some of the inferred weather 

variables from vehicle data are precipitation rate, visibility, and road surface condition. The 

RWMP is currently working on a Vehicle Data Translator to process weather-related data from 

cars and trucks in order to better characterize the driving conditions along standard distance (e.g. 

one mile) or user-defined road segments. 

In partnership with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the states of 

Nevada and Minnesota, the FHWA began an expanded project in FY2010 to demonstrate how 

data already resident on state fleet vehicles may be collected, processed, transmitted and used for 

maintenance decision making in existing decision and management software tools. The project 

will help determine requirements, standards, and procedures for the collection and processing of 

weather, road condition, and vehicle status variables from mobile sources. Mobile weather and 

road condition data will also be integrated into the Clarus System. The vision is for both public 

and private decision-makers to have the benefit of decision support tools that are supported by 

data from millions of vehicles through the connected vehicle initiative. 

 

1

 See http://www.its.dot.gov/connected_vehicle/connected_vehicle.htm. 
 Surface Transportation Services 

201 

Road Weather Information Applications 

Building on the successful prior work of a tool called the Maintenance Decision Support System, 

which provides winter maintenance recommendations (i.e., the mechanical removal of snow/ice 

(plowing) and/or application of chemical anti-icers or deicers), several projects in 2011 

developed new road application and weather information services using Clarus System data from 

two multi-state regions across the western and mid-west US. These applications include 

enhanced road weather forecasting; a seasonal load restriction decision support tool; a nonwinter maintenance and operations decision support tool; a multi-state control strategy tool; and 

enhanced road weather content for traveler advisories. 

In FY 2012, five universities and three private companies under FHWA contract will complete 

their work to develop additional road weather tools and applications that further exploit Clarus

System data. This research seeks to foster interdisciplinary collaboration, improve surface 

transportation weather management and operations, create innovative interfaces, and/or develop 

new applications. The eight projects focused on using Clarus System data are as follows: 

 A Real-time Weather Responsive Traffic Signal System (University of Idaho) 

 Improve weather information in the Regional Integrated Transportation Information 

System for the DC metropolitan area (University of Maryland) 

 Passenger Bus Industry Weather Information Application (GST, Inc) 

 Determination of Mobile Data Quality (UND) 

 New Brunswick-Nova Scotia Clarus Integration Plus (AMEC, Ltd) 

 One-Stop Shop For Rural Traveler Information (Western Transportation Institute) 

 New York 511 Travel System Road Segment Alerting (Telvent, Inc) 

 Integration of Weather and State Crash Data for a Travel Decision Support Tool 

(Michigan Technological University) 

Note the passenger bus project will be accomplished by the same contractor that was awarded 

the National Mesonet Pilot and MoPED projects by the NWS. These cross-agency efforts have 

already shown great promise. 

Weather Support for Traffic Managers 

Unlike the national aviation system which has been a heavy user of weather information for 

decades, ground traffic management centers have been slow to integrate weather information. 

Since 2006, the RWMP focused a series of research projects on Weather-Responsive Traffic 

Management (WRTM) specifically addressing four areas: data collection and integration, human 

factors, WRTM strategies, and traffic analysis and modeling. 

Initial research has been completed in many areas such as driver behavior in inclement weather; 

traffic speed and volume adjustment guidelines for various precipitation and visibility 

conditions; WRTM state of the practice review and concept of operations development, and 

message guidance for road weather advisory and control information. 
 Surface Transportation Services 

202 

The RWMP continues to work with several traffic management centers (TMCs) around the 

country using the FHWA Weather Integration Self-Evaluation Guide for TMC’s. The guide steps 

the TMC through a self-assessment of its weather integration needs and identifies ways to 

improve the use of weather information in daily operations. In FY2012, the RWMP will begin a 

study to identify, develop, and test improvements to existing WRTM strategies. This task will 

also assess their benefits. 

Only until the last few years have traffic models incorporated weather data or the effects of 

weather. The RWMP completed research on the integration of weather into several traffic 

models including dynamic traffic prediction and assignment systems. In FY 2012, validation 

should be complete for initial implementation and deployment to begin on a limited basis in 

some US cities. Research will also begin on the use of mobile weather data for traffic 

management 

The FHWA will continue participation in several OFCM projects including the WIST Working 

Group and the Committee on Integrated Observing Systems (CIOS), among others. The FHWA 

is also participating in NOAA efforts to explore the development of a national mesonet system. 

Nearing the end of several research projects on data management and applications, the RWMP 

has begun to look at other problem areas and update the program’s research agenda. For 

example, research has begun on the impact of weather on trucking, especially in the area of delay 

costs. The RWMP looks forward to building on past successes and partnering with organizations 

that share the same passion for reducing the impact of weather on the nation’s road systems. 

Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) 

The FRA has outlined plans to support research on improving the collection, dissemination, and 

application of weather data to enhance railroad safety through its Intelligent Weather Systems 

project included in the FRA’s 5-year Research and Development Strategic Plan. These programs 

address safety issues for freight, commuter, intercity passenger, and high-speed passenger 

railroads. Intelligent weather systems for railroad operations consist of networks of local weather 

sensors and instrumentation—both wayside and onboard locomotives—combined with national, 

regional, and local forecast data to alert train control centers, train crews, and maintenance crews 

of actual or potential hazardous weather conditions. 

FRA intends to examine ways that weather data can be collected on railroads and moved to 

forecasters, and ways that forecasts and current weather information can be moved to railroad 

control centers and train and maintenance crews to avoid potential accident situations. This is 

one of the partnership initiatives identified in the National Science and Technology Council’s 

National Transportation Technology Plan. 

Operationally, the FRA relies on the meteorological data streams coming for the National 

Weather Service’s Storm Prediction Center when issuance of regulatory waivers to railroads 

during times of severe weather is necessary. 

NOS Marine Transportation Research 

Ocean Systems Test and Evaluation Program (OSTEP). OSTEP facilitates the transition of new 

oceanographic and meteorological sensors and systems to an operational status, in support of the 
 Surface Transportation Services 

203 

NWLON and PORTS® programs. OSTEP tests instruments to ensure that they meet NOS 

requirements, develops operational deployment and implementation processes, and establishes 

quality-control criteria. OSTEP also develops defensible justification for the selection of 

instruments used for CO-OPS installations, and subsequent validation procedures for the devices 

traceable to U.S. National Standards or other accepted standards. OSTEP is conducting a shortterm anemometer study with USACE over FY11 and FY12 to explore a new technology for 

possible deployment at NWLON and PORTS® stations. Also, ongoing testing will reveal 

correlations of visibility data to other meteorological data types, and will result in a possible 

change in the standard sensor configuration of PORTS® visibility stations. 

 
 Surface Transportation Services 

204 
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

205 

WILDLAND FIRE WEATHER SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

Fire Weather Services in the National Coordination Structure for Wildland Fire 

Management 

Just as the service category for aviation weather derives from the need to understand and prepare 

for the influences of weather and other atmospheric conditions on the activity of flying aircraft, 

wildland fire weather services are needed to understand and predict the influences of weather and 

other atmospheric conditions on fire in the environment, particularly with the objective of 

assisting in the activity of managing and controlling such fires. Wildland fire weather services 

are therefore an integral part of the larger activity of wildland fire management. 

National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) 

During 2008-2009, the interagency governance and coordination structure for wildland fire 

management was extensively streamlined and reorganized. This restructuring strengthened the 

policy and program implementation role of the NWCG. There are two levels of oversight and 

policy coordination/strategic direction above the NWCG: the Wildland Fire Leadership Council 

at the most senior Federal agency level (directors of the wildland management agencies) and the 

Fire Executive Council (FEC) for executives of offices directly responsible for wildland fire 

management. The Executive Board of the NWCG includes the Fire Directors of the five Federal 

wildland fire management agencies: the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and National Park Service (NPS) in the U.S. 

Department of the Interior and the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) in the Department of Agriculture. 

The Executive Board also includes representatives from the U.S. Fire Administration within the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, Department of Homeland Security, and two entities 

with responsibility for wildfire management on non-Federal forest lands: the National 

Association of State Foresters and the Intertribal Timber Council. 

Much of the restructuring effort in 2008–2009 focused on the system of committees and 

subcommittees chartered under the NWCG. The NWCG has been organized into three branches, 

each with a full-time Branch Coordinator: Policy, Planning, and Management Branch; 

Equipment and Technology Branch, and Preparedness Branch. The NWCG committee most 

directly and frequently involved with capabilities for informing the wildland fire community 

about fire weather is the Fire Environment Committee in the Equipment and Technology Branch. 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Wildland Fire Weather Services are those specialized meteorological 

services and facilities established to meet the requirements of the wildfire management community at the 

Federal, state, tribal, and local levels. The primary areas of service are to support the reduction of wildfire 

initiation potential and the mitigation of both human and environmental impacts once initiation does 

occur. Services can include support to first responders and land managers and climate services tailored to 

wildland fire management. 
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

206 

Five permanent subcommittees are currently chartered under the Fire Environment Committee: 

Fire Weather, Fire Danger, Fire Behavior, Fire Reporting, and National Predictive Services. The 

last of these subcommittees oversees and provides guidance to the Predictive Services Program, 

which provides an important range of fire weather capabilities to the wildland fire community 

through the Predictive Services Units discussed below. 

National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) 

The NIFC, located in Boise, Idaho, is the Nation's support center for wildland firefighting. Eight 

different agencies and organizations are part of NIFC: the five wildland management agencies, 

the National Weather Service (NWS) in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), the National Association of State Foresters, and the U.S. Fire Administration. 

Decisions are made using the interagency cooperation concept because NIFC has no single 

director or manager. 

The National Interagency 

Coordination Center (NICC), 

located at the NIFC, is the 

focal point for overseeing all 

interagency wildland fire 

coordination activities 

throughout the United States. 

Wildfire suppression is built 

on a three-tiered system of 

support: the local area, one 

of the 11 geographic areas, 

and finally, the national 

level. When a fire is 

reported, the local agency 

and its firefighting partners 

respond. If the fire continues 

to grow, the agency can ask 

for help from its Geographic Area Coordinating Center (GACC). When a geographic area has 

exhausted all its resources, it can turn to the NICC for help in locating what is needed, from air 

tankers to radios to firefighting crews to incident management teams. 

National Predictive Services Program 

Under the Predictive Services Program, meteorologists who specialize in fire weather services 

team with intelligence specialists and wildland fire analysts at the GACCs and the NICC to form 

Predictive Services Units. Each GACC and the NICC has a Predictive Services unit staffed with 

one or two meteorologists and an intelligence specialist. The NICC unit and Pacific Northwest 

GACC include a wildland fire analyst, and some of the GACC units add a fire behavior specialist 

during fire season. The Predictive Services units act as centers of expertise to produce integrated 

planning and decision support tools that enable more proactive, safe, and cost-effective fire 

management. The Predictive Services Program functions under the guidance of the National 

Predictive Services Subcommittee of the NWCG. 

Entrance to the NIFC in Boise, showing the logos of the participating

Federal agencies and the National Association of State Foresters.
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

207 

National Weather Service 

NWS Fire Weather Services support Federal, state, and local land management agencies such as 

the BLM and the USFS. On the national level, the NWS Storm Prediction Center issues 

assessments in advance of the development of critical fire weather patterns up to 8 days in 

advance. NWS also issues a complete Fire Weather Forecast twice daily, with updates as needed. 

The forecast contains weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the 

next 36-48 hours. The appropriate dispatch zones and crews use this information to plan staffing 

levels, equipment placement, prescribed burn conditions, and to assess the daily fire danger. 

Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue forecasts for specific wildland observation sites for 

input into the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS). NFDRS determines land use 

restrictions and informs the public of the daily fire danger via the Smokey Bear awareness 

campaign. The WFOs also determine if a Fire Weather Watch or a Red Flag Warning needs to be 

issued. These products alert the public and other agencies that conditions are creating the 

potential for extreme fire behavior. 

Upon request, NWS also provides on-scene assistance at large wildfires or other disasters, 

including HAZMAT incidents, by deploying Incident Meteorologists (IMET) to work with 

Incident Management Teams. These forecasters come from many different WFOs of all major 

NWS regions, and frequently support incidents more than a thousand miles from their home 

station. IMETs travel quickly to the incident site and then assemble a mobile weather center 

capable of providing continuous meteorological support for the duration of the incident. They 

gather other weather information through a remote connection and provide stand-up and on-thespot forecasts/analysis to firefighters and agency heads. The IMET program is coordinated and 

implemented nationally by the National Fire Weather Operations Coordinator and the National 

Fire Weather Program Manager, located at the NIFC. 

In the past two years, NWS has implemented regional digital weather files to complement 

currently-provided spot forecasts. The weather output enables Fire Behavior Analysts to directly 

input weather data into their fire gridded fire weather element forecasts to be used as input into 

more accurate fire danger assessments. These improvements are particularly important near 

zones where planned communities meet the wildland forests (known as the Wildland-Urban 

Interface or WUI). FY 2011 improvements also include an improved spot forecast program, 

allowing spot forecast for fires, hazardous spills, search and rescue and marine/coastal incidents. 

In addition, NWS will continue excellent interagency relations with the wildland fire community 

through implementation of a new Interagency Agreement for Meteorological Services. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service 

The U.S. Forest Service uses meteorological data and interpretation skills data for decision 

making regarding wildland fire management. The Forest Service Fire and Aviation Management 

program operates a network of approximately 920 remote automated weather stations (RAWS) 

in a national network of over 2800 stations. The network provides real-time information which is 

key in the highly utilized weather information management system (WIMS) used by fire 

agencies across the country. The data collected is crucial to supporting active wildfire decisionmaking including use in the Wildland Fire Decision Support System and associated fire 

modeling tools as well as for decision-making for prescribed fire operations. 
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

208 

The program provides liaison with the Satellite Telemetry Interagency Working Group (STIWG) 

and its associated Technical Working Group and with the NWS, the wildland fire management 

agencies in the Department of the Interior (BLM, FWS, BIA, and NPS), State fire protection 

agencies, and the NWCG on the delivery of fire weather data and forecasting, critical for safety 

and effectiveness of firefighting and for flash flood warnings. The RAWS Program oversees the 

standards for over 2800 remote automated weather stations across the country and manages the 

Interagency RAWS Website to support the program. The website address is 

http://raws.fam.nwcg.gov/. These stations form the basis for the assessment of fire danger, the 

pre-positioning of firefighting resources and the conducting of prescribed fire operations. The 

costs include maintenance support contracts, maintenance training sessions, contracts for the 

delivery of this information to agency personnel, fire weather forecasters, and state forestry 

agencies that use the data in real-time for critical decisions. An independent assessment of the 

RAWS network, under a contract with NWCG, was completed by the Desert Research Institute 

in FY 2011. 

The agency weather program works with the National Predictive Services Group at the NIFC to 

provide technical support and oversight to the 10 GACCs. It also works closely with the Forest 

Service Research and Development staff in the oversight of the five Fire Consortia for Advanced 

Modeling of Meteorology and Smoke (FCAMMS) locations. This effort, in cooperation with 

NOAA and EPA, provides valuable fire weather, smoke forecasting and air quality information 

to fire and air quality programs. The FCAMMS and Predictive Services Group provide critical 

information for both planning of wildland fire activities 

as well as operational decision-making. 

The Wildland Fire Decision Support System (WFDSS) 

integrate emerging science and technology in support 

of risk-informed decision making. This system 

possesses many attributes that exclusively differentiate 

it from other wildland fire decision systems. It is a 

web-based system for documenting decisions, 

supporting analyses, and completing operational plans 

applicable to and used for all wildland fires. It 

promotes access to numerous information analysis 

tools in the areas of fire behavior modeling, fire 

weather information, economic principles, air quality 

and smoke management, and information technology 

to support effective wildland fire decisions consistent 

with Land and Resource Management Plans and Fire 

Management Plans. The WFDSS greatly reduces text 

input requirements by using spatially oriented and 

graphically displayed information. The system 

incorporates a progressive decision documentation and 

analysis process that can be scaled and adapted to 

match situational changes. Through WFDSS, 

information is assembled, consolidated, and processed 

for decision makers in a way that fosters collaboration 

Wildland fires in the wildland‐urban

interface are a continuing threat to lives

and property.  
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

209 

and, ultimately, provides better opportunities to improve large wildland fire strategic decision 

making. 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

The USGS, in cooperation with the USFS, routinely provides weekly forecasts of fire danger for 

the conterminous US and provides these forecasts to the National Interagency Fire Center. The 

forecasts are derived from an integration of vegetation condition observed from satellite and 

meteorological forecasts provided from the NWS’s National Digital Forecast Database (NDFD). 

The NDFD forecasts provide meteorological information necessary for the calculation of live 

and dead fuel moisture, a critical element in determining wildland fire danger. 

For active fire, the Basic Fire Behavior and Short-Term Fire Behavior components of the 

WFDSS use forecasted weather from the NDFD. NDFD incorporates Remote Access Weather 

Station location to derive forecasted weather data. This forecast information, along with 

geospatial data provide by the USGS are used to derive live and dead fuel moisture 

characteristics and wind conditions to aid in the prediction of fire behavior.

Landslides Hazards Program. Debris flows and flash floods that originate from steep 

watersheds burned by wildfire pose considerable hazards to downstream communities and 

structures. Fires throughout the western U.S. have impacted hundreds of thousands of acres of 

public land and made it susceptible to increased runoff and debris-flow activity. Science-based 

information on post wildfire debris-flow hazards is critically needed by Federal, State, and local 

agencies to issue warnings and to mitigate the impacts of post-fire hazards on people, their 

property, and natural resources. A joint NOAA/USGS, flash flood and debris flow warning 

system for recently burned basins in southern California was established in 2005 by linking the 

existing NWS Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction (FFMP) system with rainfall intensityduration thresholds for burned areas developed by the USGS. Such a system is being used to 

issue Outlooks, Watches and Warnings that are disseminated to emergency-management 

personnel and the public through the NWS existing protocol. The USGS has also developed 

models for characterizing potential post-fire debris flow susceptibility that, when compared with 

forecast or measured precipitation, have been used to generate maps of potential hazards in realtime, which have been disseminated to the Federal Emergency management Agency (FEMA) 

and the public through existing NWS protocol. The USGS has also developed models for 

characterizing potential post-fire debris flow susceptibility that, when compared with forecast or 

measured precipitation, have been used to generate maps of potential hazards in real- time, which 

have been disseminated to FEMA and to State and local agencies. Since its inception, numerous 

advisories have been given to residents and public officials, resulting in saved lives and reduced 

property damage. 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service 

The research and development (R&D) mission of the USFS is to develop and deliver knowledge 

and innovative technology to improve the health and use of the Nation’s forests and grasslands—

both public and private. R&D provides this information to landowners, managers, policymakers, 
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

210 

and the American people to help inform their decisions and actions. USFS researchers work 

independently and with a range of partners to provide land managers with information and 

technology to make management and land use decisions on issues such as invasive species, 

healthy watersheds, wildfires, climate change, and traditional and alternative forest products. The 

USFS R&D workforce includes scientists and technicians in the biological, physical, and social 

science fields, working in partnership with researchers from other agencies, academia, nonprofit 

groups, and industry. 

Air pollution effects (primarily nitrogen and sulfur deposition and ozone) remain a serious threat 

to forest health and aquatic systems in many parts of the U.S. Forest Service Research (FSR) is 

studying the long-term effects of air pollution on forests and water resources of the Sierra 

Nevada, Rocky Mountains in Colorado, the Appalachian Ridge in the east, and Cascades of the 

Pacific Northwest. Nitrogen and sulfur atmospheric deposition have been studied for many years 

in eastern forest watersheds, but these areas have only recently been studied. FSR has completed, 

in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), NPS, National Forest 

System Air Program, and the European Union International Co-operative Programme on 

Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests, a mock national assessment of 

critical loads of atmospheric deposition on ecosystems known to be sensitive to air pollution. 

Based on this experience FSR is working closely with other USFS collaborators and academic 

institutions to assess the uncertainty of these critical load measurements and to determine gaps in 

available data. 

Smoke from forest fires and other biomass burning is a national concern as use of prescribed fire 

in ecosystem management increases. Exposure of fire fighters and citizens to forest fire smoke, 

changes in visibility and haze, and smoke contributions to regional and local air pollution are of 

concern. FSR is the world leader in developing emissions factors from fires and modeling its 

dispersion. FSR has conducted research on impacts of smoke on human health; relationships 

between on-site meteorology and smoke dispersion; consequences of smoke to visibility in Clean 

Air Act Class I Areas; the chemical nature of black carbon emissions from fire, and the potential 

of smoke to exacerbate particulate matter and ozone episodes. FSR has provided basic research 

to support State air regulatory programs and EPA’s development of both primary and soon to 

come secondary air quality standards. Through FCAMMS, real-time smoke and fire weather 

research products are supplied nationally to fire and air quality managers continuously with 

predictions of impacts made out to 7 days in the future. A key development in smoke and fire 

weather research products is the development of the WFDSS Air Quality Portal, which provides 

access to historic, real-time and forecasted air quality and meteorological information using a 

stand-alone web portal. Eight air quality and emissions tools provide information about the 

current smoke situation, climatological statistics, and weather forecasts. Five tools are available 

for immediate and short term smoke assessments. Two smoke guidance tools provide firespecific tabular point forecasts and regional maps of air quality metrics. 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

NASA supports innovative, near-term demonstrations of its scientific results, technology 

developments, and satellite observations for societal benefit. These projects serve as a bridge 

between NASA-generated data and knowledge and the information and decision-making needs 

of public and private organizations. End-users of NASA’s products are able to apply Earth 
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

211 

observations and model results to support activities that influence productivity, enhance quality 

of life, and strengthen the economy. 

The Wildfire Research and Applications Partnership (WRAP) project is a collaboration between 

NASA, USFS, NIFC, and the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection to explore, 

develop, mature, demonstrate and operationalize NASA data, models, and technologies to 

improve wildfire observations and management practices in the United States. The goals are to 

improve on existing capabilities and models employed by the National Interagency Command 

Center and the Incident Command Structure, which are responsible for day-to-day wildfire 

management and suppression. WRAP is transferring a number of capabilities to operations 

including the Collaborative Decision Environment, real-time data telemetry, sensor systems, 

small unattended aerial vehicle use for tactical mapping, and procurement of new manned 

aircraft assets to further support the nation for disaster response. Technologies enhanced through 

WRAP include the NASA Autonomous Modular Sensor (AMS) airborne imaging spectrometer, 

collaborative software tools for improved wildfire intelligence and visualization, unique 

unattended platform, real-time data communications and sensor web technologies. AMS is 

capable of peering through thick smoke and haze to record hot spots and the progression of 

wildfires over a lengthy period. AMS observations are transmitted in real-time to the incident 

command posts to assist firefighting situational awareness. 

 
 Wildland Fire Weather Services 

212 
 Other Specialized Services 

213 

OTHER SPECIALIZED SERVICES 

OPERATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

NASA provides operational weather support to spaceflight operations through the Space 

Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD). 

Kennedy Space Center Weather Office 

The SOMD Weather Office at NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSCWO) has oversight 

responsibility for operation and maintenance of the weather information infrastructure required 

for NASA’s Space Shuttle, Constellation, and Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV) programs. 

The infrastructure is a multi-agency partnership between NASA, the Department of Defense 

(DOD), and the Department of Commerce (DOC), and includes KSCWO, NASA’s Marshall 

Space Flight Center (MSFC) and Johnson Space Center (JSC), the DOD’s US Air Force (USAF) 

45th Space Wing, and the DOC’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

National Weather Service (NWS) Spaceflight Meteorology Group (SMG). 

Manned flights launch and land at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) adjacent to Cape Canaveral 

Air Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida and also land at Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) in 

California. KSCWO provides daily staff meteorological support to KSC and the Space Shuttle 

and Constellation programs. 

The ELV program operates from many locations, including CCAFS, Vandenberg AFB in 

California, NASA Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, and the US Army Ronald Reagan Ballistic 

Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Island. KSCWO ensures that DOD weather support at 

DOD sites meets NASA requirements through training, technology, and tools. The KSCWO 

works with non-DOD sites and their weather service providers (such as the NWS or commercial 

companies) to provide similar assurance at those sites for NASA launches. 

KSCWO is the NASA lead for the joint NASA and USAF Lightning Advisory Panel (LAP), 

which provides independent scientific assessments of changes to the lightning launch commit 

criteria (LLCC) and technical guidance about lightning-related issues on facilities and ground 

For purposes of this Federal Plan, Other Specialized Services include weather and climate 

information services and facilities established to meet the special needs of user agencies or 

constituencies not included in basic services or the preceding service categories. This service category 

includes any efforts to integrate the social sciences into meteorological operations, applications, and 

services not already described in the preceding sections. 
 Other Specialized Services 

214 

operations. The Department of Transportation (DOT) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

utilizes the same crlteria for lightning flight commit at commercial spaceports. 

In FY 2011, the KSCWO conducted the following activities: 

 Supported Space Shuttle missions: STS-133 through STS-135. 

 Supported Space Shuttle Transition and Retirement (T&R). 

 Supported the Constellation and its follow-on programs through infrastructure and 

requirements concept studies for the Space Launch System, Multipurpose Crew Vehicle 

(MPCV), 21st Century Ground Systems, and Orbital Flight Test 1. 

 Completed formal publication and public distribution of the history and rationale behind 

the lightning launch commit criteria. 

 Supported NASA ELV launches from the Eastern and Western ranges as well as 

commercial and DOD launches from the Eastern Range. 

 Supported infrastructure and concept of operations development for commercial launch 

programs and the NASA launch facility at Wallops Island, VA. 

 Assisted the FAA in developing, finalizing, and implementing Lightning Flight Commit 

Criteria (14 CFR 417, Appendix G) for commercial spaceflight. 

 Began updating the KSC on-line Weather Archive website (http://trmm.ksc.nasa.gov/). 

In FY 2012, the KSCWO will perform the following activities: 

 Continue to support the ELV and Space Shuttle T&R programs. 

 Continue to support Wallops Island, Kodiak, and other launch facilities in addition to the 

DOD ranges. 

 Continue to support commercial launch operators in developing weather infrastructure, 

requirements, and concepts of operation. 

 Continue assisting the FAA with the development of Lightning Flight Commit Criteria 

for the commercial sector. 

 Support the Constellation program or its successors or replacements, and continue 

support for planning and design of the test flight programs. 

 Support the transition and retirement activities of the Space Shuttle Program. 

 Work with the Eastern Range to define the requirements and infrastructure for weather 

support at KSC and CCAFS in the post-Shuttle era. 

 Complete the upgrade of the KSC Weather Archive website. 

Spaceflight Meteorology Group 

The SMG is located at JSC. In FY 2011, the SMG conducted the following activities: 

 Supported Space Shuttle missions STS-133, STS-134, STS-135 with weather analyses, 

forecasts, briefings, consultations, and documentation. 
 Other Specialized Services 

215 

 STS-135 was the last Shuttle mission for NASA. This concluded SMG support for the 

30-year Shuttle program. 

 Supported the International Space Station with daily Soyuz contingency landing forecasts 

for worldwide locations. 

 Provided an average of 35 unscheduled face-to-face weather briefings per Space Shuttle 

flight, in addition to normal activities. 

 Provided consultation on the Orion Flight Test program, OFT1, being renamed as MultiPurpose Crew Vehicle. 

 Provided weather support and consultation for the HYTHIRM project based at NASA 

Langley for STS-133 and STS-134. 

 Provided mentoring and training to several Southern Region NWS offices for developing 

local simulations. 

 Upgraded AWIPS workstations to OB 9.2.12. 

 Reduced staff per NASA’s directive, in preparation for ending of Shuttle program. 

 Supported several educational outreach events. 

FY 2012 activities for the SMG include the following: 

 Provide inputs and consultation for weather requirements for landing and recovery of the 

Orion MPCV spacecraft, focusing on Orion/MPCV Flight Test 1 (OFT1). 

 Provide local hazardous weather support, including tropical storms and hurricane support 

to JSC Center Operations and to the International Space Station flight controllers. 

 Upgrade AWIPS to AWIPS 2. 

 Archive Shuttle weather history after the end of the Space Shuttle Program. 

 Provide limited educational outreach. 

Marshall Space Flight Center 

The Natural Environments Branch (NEB) at MSFC develops and implements weather support 

requirements for the Space Shuttle and other programs, including development and evaluation of 

launch constraints. 

FY 2011 activities of the NEB include the following: 

 The NEB supported three Space Shuttle missions: STS-133 (24 February 2011), STS-134 

(16 May 2011) and STS-135 (8 July 2011) by performing day-of-launch analyses of 

upper air winds for evaluation of Space Shuttle vehicle ascent loads. 

 The NEB developed or improved wind climatological data sets for safety margin analyses 

and day-of-launch procedures, relating to upper air wind requirements for the Space 

Shuttle and Constellation programs. 
 Other Specialized Services 

216 

Activities for FY 2012 include the following: 

 The NEB will support the Space Launch System by developing and interpreting the 

terrestrial environment specifications, requirements, data, and models. 

 The NEB will continue to develop and improve wind climatological data sets and models 

for future programs. 

U.S. Air Force Space Launch Support 

Air Force Weather (AFW) provides meteorological and space weather products to the Nation’s 

space and missile programs, including a wide range of weather observing services at the Air 

Force Eastern Range and KSC. AFW also provides tailored forecasting for NASA’s manned and 

unmanned launches and for commercial launches from KSC. In addition, AFW provides 

specialized meteorological information for the Air Force Western Range at Vandenberg AFB, 

California; the Pacific Missile Range, which includes Point Mugu and San Nicholas Island, 

California, and Barking Sands, Hawaii; White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico; Kwajalein 

Missile Range, Republic of the Marshall Islands; and other DOD research and test facilities as 

directed. 

AFW at Patrick AFB, the Florida Air National Guard's 114th Range Operations Squadron 

directly supports the 45th Space Wing of the Air Force Space Command at both Patrick AFB and 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. 

U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (USASMDC) 

Support to the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site (RTS) 

Army Kwajalein Atoll, a subcommand of USASMDC, provides operational support to the RTS. 

The RTS meteorological services contractor provides support for range activities, including local 

and remote missile launches, missile weapons readiness testing, aviation and marine operations, 

and emergency operations. 

A full suite of meteorological surface, 

upper air, satellite, radar, and lightning 

observing systems are available. 

Surface systems include an intra-atoll 

mesonet and an FAA-approved 

Automated Weather Observing 

System (AWOS III-P/T), supporting 

range and International Civil Aviation 

Organization Army Airfield operations 

at Kwajalein. Upper air sounding 

systems (1680 MHz), utilizing Global 

Positioning System (GPS) radiosondes, are located on Kwajalein and 

Roi-Namur. One portable GPS upper 

air system (403 MHz) is available to A rocketsonde launch on Kwajalein Atoll. U.S. Army Photo.
 Other Specialized Services 

217 

provide soundings at remote locations. A dual-polarized Doppler S-band weather radar provides 

weather surveillance from Kwajalein Island, and a Doppler C-band weather radar is available for 

operations at Wake Island. Both are volume-scanning radars that support prediction of lightning 

events. Two Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) satellite receivers (one 

mobile) and one geostationary satellite receiver provides access to satellite imagery, cirrus cloud 

detection, and cloud height, with data processing and analysis provided through McIDAS 

management and display systems. A lightning detection network of four sensors is available to 

the RTS meteorologist at Kwajalein. A thunderstorm sensor that includes a field mill supports 

lightning prediction and detection at Wake Island. One thunderstorm sensor is attached to the 

AWOS III-P/T. RTS provides rocketsondes locally and at remote locations where radar tracking 

can support. 

In cooperation with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, RTS Weather continues to support 

global climate studies through the Tropical Rainfall Measurements Mission and the follow-on 

program of Global Precipitation Measurement. Solar-Earth radiation fluxes monitoring with a 

suite of radiation measurements systems have continued since 1989 in support of work at 

NOAA’S Earth Systems Research Laboratory (ESRL). 

National Park Service (NPS)/Fish and Wildfire Service (FWS) 

NPS Air Quality and Visibility Monitoring 

NPS monitors air quality and visibility in a number of national parks and monuments. Gaseous 

pollutant data are collected on continuous and integrated (24-hour to weekly) bases. Surface 

meteorological data are collected and analyzed for hourly averages. Precipitation chemistry is 

determined on week-long integrated rainfall samples. Twenty-four-hour-average particle 

concentrations (mass, elemental analyses, some chemical constituent analyses) are measured 

every third day. Atmospheric light extinction is measured continuously and relayed to a central 

location for analyses. 

Joint Air Quality Monitoring 

The FWS Air Quality Branch and the NPS Air Resources Division operate under an interagency 

agreement and are located in Lakewood, Colorado. Expertise from both agencies is pooled to 

address the air quality issues that are the responsibility of the Assistant Secretary of the Interior 

for Fish and Wildlife and Parks. 

The NPS oversees the operation of the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments 

(IMPROVE) network and the IMPROVE Protocol network in cooperation with the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), NOAA, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), the FWS, the 

Bureau of Land Management, and various State organizations. Currently, the network has about 

170 sites, mostly funded by the EPA in support of its regional haze regulations and through other 

cooperators. The enhanced network allows a better characterization of visibility and fine particle 

concentrations throughout rural and remote areas of the country (see figure below). 
 Other Specialized Services 

218 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

Assessments and evaluations of radiological impacts. 

At the present time, the NRC is a user of meteorological information rather than a performer of 

research in this field. Meteorological data are used to assess radiological impacts of routine 

airborne releases from facilities and to evaluate the impact of proposed changes in plant design 

or operation on unplanned releases. The NRC also maintains an interest in the effects of extreme 

meteorological events on the safe operation of nuclear facilities. The NRC uses current 

meteorological information and climatological predictions of long-term (100 years) extreme 

meteorological events to evaluate new reactor designs and sites. Information of this type is also 

important for developing scenarios of climatological impacts on the isolation of long-lived 

nuclear wastes. 

Within the NRC, the Offices of Nuclear Reactor Regulation and New Reactors conduct reviews 

of nuclear power plant siting, design, construction, and operation, while the Offices of Nuclear 

Material Safety and Safeguards and Federal and State Materials and Environmental Management 

Programs conduct similar reviews of materials and waste facilities. All these reviews include 

consideration of meteorological factors. Employees of these NRC offices also conduct 

rulemaking activities to establish regulatory requirements, and the NRC Regional Offices assure 

that NRC licensees comply with the regulatory requirements. 

Map of three‐year average standard visual range (SVR) from 2005‐2008, in kilometers, calculated from

IMPROVE particle concentrations. Also shown are the locations of most of the IMPROVE and IMPROVE

protocol sites.
 Other Specialized Services 

219 

SUPPORTING RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 

NASA 

Applied Meteorology Unit 

The Applied Meteorology Unit (AMU) is a joint venture between KSCWO, the USAF 45th 

Space Wing, and the NWS. The AMU is collocated with the 45th Weather Squadron located at 

CCAFS. The AMU develops, evaluates, and transitions weather technology into operations. 

In FY 2011, the AMU performed the following activities: 

 Updated the Climatology of Lightning Probabilities by adding National Lightning 

Detection data from the 2008-2010 warm seasons (May-September) to create a 22-year 

lightning climatology and expand the number of sites supported by NWS MLB and SMG 

from 8 to 34. In addition, stratifications using Thompson Index for atmospheric stability 

and Precipitable Water for moisture were added to help operationally separate lightning 

days that are more active from those that are less active within the same flow regime. 

 Conducted a Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) North Base Wind Study to assess 

terrain effects that possibly influence wind towers during Great Basin High regimes with 

northeasterly winds occurring across VAFB. The study reviewed and analyzed the 

synoptic conditions for those days that winds at towers 70 and 71 met or exceeded the 35 

knot warning threshold. 

 Updated the MesoNAM verification by adding one year of data to the existing 3.5 year 

database and updated the GUI with the new statistics. 

 Updated the Severe Weather Tool in MIDDS by adding the 2010 warm season data to 

increase the Period of Record to 22 years and use statistical logistic regression to develop 

a new forecast tool. 

 Modified the Peak Wind Tool for User Weather Launch Commit Criteria cool season 

climatologies by adding 3 years of observations to increase the POR to 16 years and 

stratify the data by onshore/offshore flow rather than by month. Updated the Excel 

graphical user interface. 

 Supported launch operations for three Space Shuttle, two Atlas V, three Delta IV, and 

one Falcon 9 missions. 

In FY 2012: 

 For FY 2012, the status of the AMU is unknown because funding for the AMU is still 

uncommitted at the time this is being written (4 August 2011). If the AMU is funded, this 

section of the KSC input will be supplemented with the FY 2012 plans. 
 Other Specialized Services 

220 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Air Quality Research 

Meteorological support to the EPA’s Office of Research and Development and Office of Air and 

Radiation, EPA regional offices, and to State and local agencies includes the following activities: 

 Conducting basic and applied research in air quality modeling 

 Conducting field studies for air quality model development and air quality model 

evaluations 

 Developing and applying multi-scale and multi-pollutant air quality models for pollution 

control, direct and indirect exposure assessments, and emission control strategy 

assessment 

 Reviewing of meteorological aspects of environmental impact statements, state 

implementation plans, and pollution variance requests 

 Providing Air Quality Index forecasts to state and local agencies for health advisory 

warnings 

 Understanding the relationships between air quality and human health 

 Understanding the atmospheric loading of pollutants to sensitive ecosystems 

 Understanding the interactions of global climate change and air quality 

 Emergency response planning in support of homeland security 

Meteorological expertise and guidance are also provided for developing the national air quality 

standards, modeling guidelines, and policy development activities of the EPA. In light of the 

1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act and the recent national rules, air quality models and the 

manner in which they are used are expected to continue to grow over the next few years. In the 

area of pollutant deposition, the evaluation of nitrogen, oxidant, sulfur, and aerosol chemistries 

will help to clarify the roles of model formulation, cloud processes, aerosols, radiative transfer, 

and air/surface exchanges in air quality model predictions, leading to a better understanding of 

model predictions relative to control strategy assessments. Further development and evaluation 

of existing air quality models will take place to accommodate the inter-pollutant effects, resulting 

from the variety of control programs that are now or may be in place, such as the new National 

Ambient Air Quality Standards for ozone and particulate pollution. These inter-pollutant effects 

include trade-offs among controls on ozone, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic 

compounds, as well as developing predictable methods of forecasting the impacts on various 

measures of air quality. 

With respect to the fine particulate model development, air quality models are being enhanced to 

accurately predict aerosol growth from precursors over local and regional-scale transport 

distances. As the concentration thresholds for the standards decrease, it will be important to 

understand intercontinental transport of pollution and how this would affect our ability to meet 

and maintain standards in the future. To assist in the evaluation of the contribution of various 

sources to regional air degradation, inert tracer and tagged species numerical models have been 

developed. These models will introduce separate calculations for inert or reactive chemical 
 Other Specialized Services 

221 

species emitted from a particular source or region. The calculations will proceed to simulate 

transport and transformation to a receptor point, where the contribution of emission sources can 

be discerned. 

Atmospheric research, regarding the effects of climate change on regional air quality, involves 

both analytical and statistical climatology as well as linking global climate models with regional 

chemical transport models, and the development of coupled models to better simulate the 

interactions between meteorology and atmospheric chemistry. Currently research is underway to 

test the efficacy of these models to accurately simulate the effects of aerosols on radiation. 

Research in human exposure modeling includes both micro-environmental monitoring and 

modeling and the development of exposure assessment tools. This research entails linking air 

quality models to exposure models to understand the relationships between air quality and 

human health. Micro-environmental algorithms are being developed based on field data to 

predict air quality in buildings, attached garages, and street canyons. These improved algorithms 

are then incorporated into micro-environmental simulation models for conducting human 

exposure assessments within enclosed spaces in which specific human activities occur. 

In addition to the above major areas, dispersion models for inert, reactive, and toxic pollutants 

are under development and evaluation on all temporal and spatial scales; i.e., indoor, urban, 

complex terrain, mesoscale, regional, and global. Other efforts include modeling nutrient 

deposition to the Chesapeake Bay and Gulf Coast, mercury deposition to the Florida Everglades, 

and the determination of meteorological effects on air quality. Atmospheric flow and dispersion 

experimental data obtained from wind tunnel and convection tank experiments in the EPA Fluid 

Modeling Facility will be used to continue development and evaluation of these models along 

with providing researchers with insight into the basic physical processes that affect pollutant 

dispersion around natural and man-made obstacles. For example, the transport and dispersion of 

airborne agents in the Manhattan, New York, and the Pentagon were simulated in the wind 

tunnel to help build confidence in the modeling assessment of the source-receptor relationships 

for horrific events such as the one that occurred on September 11, 2001. The impacts of roadway 

configuration, noise barriers, and vegetation on air quality near roadways are being assessed, and 

improvements are being made to the EPA’s AERMOD model to better simulate the transport and 

dispersion of pollutants from roadways. 

Over the past 25 years, numerous air quality simulation models have been developed to estimate 

reductions in ambient air pollutant concentrations, resulting from potential emission control 

strategies. Separate models were developed, for example, for tropospheric ozone and 

photochemical smog, for acid deposition, and for fine particles. Distinct models also existed for 

addressing urban scale problems and the larger regional scale problems. It has been recognized, 

however, that the various pollutant regimes are closely linked chemically, spatially, and 

temporally in the atmosphere. The principal purpose of the Community Multi-scale Air Quality 

(CMAQ) modeling project was to develop a “one-atmosphere,” flexible environmental modeling 

tool that integrates the major atmospheric pollution regimes in a multi-scale, multi-pollutant 

modeling system. This system will enable high-level computational access to both scientific and 

air quality management users for socio-economic applications in community health assessments 

and ecosystem sustainability studies. 
 Other Specialized Services 

222 

The CMAQ model (first released in June 1998) is used by Federal and state agencies, industry, 

and academia and is updated periodically to reflect the state-of-science. The latest version of 

CMAQ, which includes science enhancements and computational efficiencies, was released in 

September 2011. It is also intended to serve as a community framework for continual 

advancement and for use in conducting environmental assessments. To this end, EPA has 

established a Community Modeling and Analysis System at the University of North Carolina in 

Chapel Hill, North Carolina, to provide user support and training to modelers at the state 

agencies and universities. CMAQ, configured for the Windows-NT computer system, is 

available on tapes from the National Technical Information Service. It is accompanied by an 

Installation and Operations Manual, a User Manual, a Science Document, and a tutorial, 

providing step-by-step instructions for use of the modeling capabilities. Additional information is 

available on the division web site at http://www.epa.gov/amad. 

From FY 2005 to FY 2008, the EPA worked closely with the NWS National Centers for 

Environmental Prediction (NCEP) in the continued development, evaluation, and use of a 

coupled meteorological-chemical transport model (WRF-CMAQ) for predicting ambient air 

quality over the continental United States. NWS implemented the CMAQ modeling system, to 

provide daily forecast guidance for ozone nationwide. In the next few years, the operational 

forecast capability is projected to be able to forecast fine particulate matter. State and local air 

quality management agencies are responsible to forecast local air quality and provide health 

advisory warnings. 

The EPA, through participation in the interagency Information Technology Research and 

Development (IT R&D) Program, is developing a modeling framework that supports integration 

of diverse models (e.g., atmospheric, land surface, and watershed). The EPA’s IT R&D work 

also enables increased efficiency in air quality-meteorological modeling through research on 

parallel implementation of the CMAQ modeling system. The evolving research seeks to improve 

the environmental management community’s ability to evaluate the impact of air quality and 

watershed management practices, at multiple scales, on stream and estuarine conditions. The 

following primary objectives are directed toward this goal: 

 Developing a prototype multiscale integrated modeling system with predictive 

meteorological capability for transport and fate of nutrients and chemical stressors 

 Enabling the use of remotely sensed meteorological data 

 Developing a computer-based problem-solving environment with ready access to data, 

models, and integrated visualization and analysis tools for water and air quality 

management, local and regional development planning, and exposure-risk assessments 

A variety of research areas are being pursued such as the integration of the NWS Next 

Generation Radar (NEXRAD) Stage IV data into watershed modeling applications; enhanced 

atmospheric dry deposition models; multi-scale and spatially explicit watershed modeling tools; 

and model-coupling technology for integrating media and scale-specific models. 

The EPA also maintains good working relationships with foreign countries to facilitate the 

exchange of research meteorologists and research results, pertaining to meteorological aspects of 

air pollution. For example, agreements are currently in place with Canada, the United Kingdom, 
 Other Specialized Services 

223 

Greece, Japan, Korea, China, India, and Mexico, and with several European countries under the 

NATO Committee for Science for Peace. 

National Park Service 

NPS Air Quality Research 

NPS conducts and contracts research to develop and test air quality models to assess long-range 

transport, chemical transformation, and deposition of air pollutants. These models are used to 

estimate source contributions to, and to identify source regions responsible for, observed 

pollutant loadings. 

NPS is conducting research in the area of atmospheric nitrogen loading to high-elevation 

ecosystems in the Rocky Mountains, which have documented effects from nitrogen deposition. 

Measurements taken at Rocky Mountain National Park, in Colorado, indicate that routine 

monitoring networks may underestimate nitrogen deposition on the order of 30 percent by not 

analyzing for organic nitrogen and not routinely monitoring for ammonia gas. Source 

apportionment analyses indicate that under high loadings in the spring season, much of the 

nitrogen deposited at the park originates in the urban and agricultural areas of Colorado to the 

east of the park. By contrast, nitrogen loadings during the summer months had a significant 

contribution from Colorado, but higher loadings were noted from source regions out of the state. 

NPS is continuing this line of research in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming, where some 

effects on aquatic ecosystems from nitrogen deposition have also been documented. A suite of 

field measurements of atmospheric reactive nitrogen was completed in 2011 and is currently 

being analyzed. 

 
 Other Specialized Services 

224 
 A-1 

APPENDIX A 

ACRONYMS 

3DWF 3D [three dimensional] Wind Field [model] 

4DWX Four-Dimensional Weather System 

AAWU Alaska Aviation Weather Unit 

ACC [USAF] Air Combat Command 

ACCESS Advancing Collaborative Connections for Earth System Science 

ACE Advance Composition Explorer 

AD Active Duty 

ADA Air Domain Awareness 

ADAS AWOS Data Acquisition System 

ADDS Aviation Digital Data Service 

AFB Air Force Base 

AFCENT Air Force Central Command 

AFI Air Force Instruction 

AFRC Air Force Reserve Command 

AFRI Agriculture and Food Research Initiative 

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory 

AFW Air Force Weather 

AFWA Air Force Weather Agency 

AFWEPS Air Force Weather Ensemble Prediction Suite 

AFW-WEBS Air Force Weather Web Services 

AgriMet [Bureau of Reclamation] Agricultural Weather 

AHPS Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service 

AIP Airport Improvement Program [FAA] 

AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network 

AMC U.S. Army Materiel Command 

AMS American Meteorological Society; [FAA] Acquisition Management System; 

Autonomous Modular Sensor; Analysis and Modeling Subsystem 

AMSR Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 

AMSR-E [Aqua satellite] Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-E 

AMU Applied Meteorology Unit 

ANG Air National Guard 

ANSP Air Navigation Service Provider 

AO Announcement of Opportunity 

AOC [NOAA] Aircraft Operations Center 

AOML Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory 

AOR Area of Responsibility 

ARL [NOAA] Air Resources Laboratory 

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility 

ARS Agricultural Research Service 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-2 

ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Center 

ASCC Army Service Component Commands 

ASNE MSEA [DOD] Air and Space Natural Environment Modeling and Simulation Executive Agent 

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System 

ASR Atmospheric System Research [activity in DOE/CESD]; Airport Surveillance Radar 

ASR-11 Airport Surveillance Radar Model 11 

ASR-9 Airport Surveillance Radar Model 9 

ASWON Automated Surface Weather Observation Network 

ATCSCC Air Traffic Control System Command Center 

ATD atmospheric transport and diffusion 

ATDD Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division [NOAA] 

ATEC U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command 

ATLAS Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition System 

ATM Air Traffic Management 

ATO Air Traffic Organization [FAA] 

ATOP Advanced Technologies and Oceanic Procedures 

ATOS Applications, Transactions, and Observations Subsystem 

AWC [NOAA/NECEP] Aviation Weather Center 

AWG Aviation Weather Group [FAA] 

AWIPS Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System 

AWOS Automated Weather Observing System 

AWOS III-P/T Automated Weather Observing System [variant of AWOS] 

AWRP Aviation Weather Research Program [FAA] 

AWRT Advanced Weather Radar Technique 

AWSD Aviation Weather Services Directorate 

AWSS Automated Weather Sensors Systems 

BASC Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate 

BCTP Battle Command Training Program 

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs 

BLM Bureau of Land Management 

BonD Battlespace on Demand 

CAC [U.S. Army] Combined Arms Center 

CAgM [WMO] Commission for Agricultural Meteorology 

CALIPSO Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations 

CAP Civil Air Patrol; Common Alerting Protocol 

CASR Committee for Aviation Services and Research 

CBRNE chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive 

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

CCMC Community Coordinated Modeling Center 

CCSP U.S. Climate Change Science Program 

CDMP Climate Database Modernization Program 

CDR climate data record 
 Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-3 

CEISC Committee on Environmental Information Systems and Communications 

CENR [NSTC] Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 

CENRS [NSTC] Committee on Environment, Natural Resources, and Sustainability 

CERIS Coastal, Estuary Resource Information System 

CESD Climate and Environmental Sciences Division [DOE Office of Science] 

CESM Community Earth System Model 

CESORN Committee on Environmental Services, Operations, and Research Needs 

CFC chlorofluorocarbon 

CFSR Climate Forecast System Reanalysis

CHPS Community Hydrologic Prediction System 

CI-FLOW Coastal-Inland Flood Observation and Warning 

CICE DOE/OS/CESD sea ice model 

CICS Cooperative Institute for Climate and Satellites 

CICS-NC Cooperative Institute for Climate and Satellites North Carolina 

CIOS Committee for Integrated Observing Systems 

CIP Current Icing Product 

CISM Community Ice Sheet Model (DOE/OS/CESD) 

CJMTK Commercial Joint Mapping Tool Kit 

CLASS Comprehensive Large-Array data Stewardship System 

CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability Experiment 

CMAQ Community Multi-scale Air Quality 

CMAS Commercial Mobile Alert System 

CMD-P Computer Meteorological Data-Profiler 

CME coronal mass ejection(s) 

CMIP5 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 

CMS Carbon Monitoring System 

CNMOC Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command 

CNO Chief of Naval Operations 

COAMPS Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System 

COASTAL Coastal Oceanographic Applications and Services for Tides and Lakes 

CoCoRaHS Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow [network] 

COLA Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies 

COMNAVMETOCCOM Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command 

CONPLAN Concept of Operations Plan 

COOP Cooperative Observer Program 

CO-OPS Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services 

COPC Committee for Operational Processing Centers 

CORMS Continuous Operational Real-time Monitoring System 

COSIM Climate, Ocean and Sea Ice Modeling Project 

COSMIC-2 Constellation Observing System for Meteorology Ionosphere and Climate-2 

CPC Climate Prediction Center 

CPP Command Post Platform 

CSD [NOAA/NWS] Climate Services Division 

CSESMO Committee for Space Environmental Sensor Mitigation Options 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-4 

CVA Ceiling and Visibility, Analysis [FAA/AWRP] 

CVF Ceiling and Visibility, Forecast [FAA/AWRP] 

CWSU Center Weather Service Unit 

DAC [AOML] Data Assembly Center; Department of the Army Civilian 

DAPE Data Acquisition, Processing, and Exchange 

DASI Digital Altimeter Setting Indicator 

DATMS Defense Information Switched Network Asynchronous Transfer Mode System 

DEM digital elevation model 

DHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security 

DMCC DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council 

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

DOC U.S. Department of Commerce 

DOD U.S. Department of Defense 

DOE U.S. Department of Energy 

DOI U.S. Department of the Interior 

DOMSAT domestic communication satellite 

DOS U.S. Department of State 

DOT U.S. Department of Transportation 

DOTMLPF doctrine, organization, training, materiel, leadership, education, personnel, and facilities 

DPG Dugway Proving Ground 

DSCOVR Deep Space Climate Observatory 

DTC Developmental Test Center; [U.S. Army] Developmental Test Command 

DTRA Defense Threat Reduction Agency 

DTSS Digital Topographic Support System 

EAS Emergency Alert System 

EcoFOCI Ecosystem-Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated Investigations 

ECV Essential Climate Variables 

EdIWG [CCSP] Education Interagency Working Group 

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle(s) 

EMC [NOAA/NCEP] Environmental Modeling Center 

EMI SIG Emergency Management Issues Special Interest Group 

EMSL Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory 

EOSDIS Earth Observing System Data and Information System 

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

EPI Enhanced Precipitation Identification 

ERAM En Route Automation Modernization 

ERC [hurricane] eyewall replacement cycles 

ERDC [USACE] Engineer Research and Development Center 

EROS [USGS] Earth Resources Observation and Science [center] 

ESM [DOE/OS/CESD] Earth System Models 

ESRL Earth System Research Laboratory 

ESS Environmental Sensor Station(s) 
 Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-5 

ESTP [NASA] Earth Science Technology Program 

ET evapotranspiration 

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 

FAA Federal Aviation Administration 

FAR false alarm rate 

FCAMMS Fire Consortia for Advanced Modeling of Meteorology and Smoke 

FCMSSR Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 

FEC Fire Executive Council 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FFMP Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction 

FHWA Federal Highway Administration 

FIP Forecast Icing Product 

FMF Fleet Marine Force 

FNMOC Navy Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center 

FOR Flight Operations Review 

FPAW Friends/Partners in Aviation Weather 

FRA Federal Railroad Administration 

FRD [NOAA/ARL] Field Research Division 

FSR Forest Service Research 

FTE full-time equivalent 

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

FY fiscal year 

GACC Geographic Area Coordinating Center 

GBS Global Broadcast Service 

GCOS Global Climate Observing System 

GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems 

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory [NOAA-associated] 

GFDN Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Navy [model] 

GHCN-M Global Historical Climatology Network-Monthly 

GIS geographic information system 

GLD Global Lagrangian Drifters 

GLERL Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory 

GLOBE Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment 

GMD [NOAA/OAR/ESRL] Global Monitoring Division 

GODAE Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment 

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

GOES-R Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite R 

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System 

GOSIC Global Observing Systems Information Center 

GPS Global Positioning System 

GPS-Met GPS-Meteorology 

GRA GOOS Regional Alliances 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-6 

GRIP Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes [NASA project] 

GSD [ESRL] Global Systems Division 

GTGN Graphical Turbulence Guidance Nowcast 

GTOS Global Terrestrial Observing System 

GTS Global Telecommunications System 

HALE high altitude, long-endurance [UAS] 

HAZUS Multi-Hazard Loss Estimation Methodology 

HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon 

HEL high-energy laser 

HELSTF High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility 

HF high frequency 

HFIP Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project 

HFPP HRD Field Program Plan 

HHWWS Heat Health Watch Warning Systems 

HMR [Nuclear Regulatory Commission] hydrometeorological report(s) 

HMT Hydrometeorological Testbed 

HPC [NPAA/NCEP] Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 

HPCMP [DOD] High Performance Computing Modernization Program 

HQDA Headquarters, Department of the Army 

HRD [NOAA/OMAO] Hurricane Research Division 

HSPD Homeland Security Presidential Directive 

HWRF Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting 

HYPOP Hybrid Coordinate Parallel Ocean Program [DOE model] 

HYSPLIT Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory [ATD model] 

IBTrACS International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship 

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization 

ICESCAPE Impacts of Climate on Ecosystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific Environment 

ICMSSR Interdepartmental Committee for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 

ICOADS International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set 

IFEX Intensity Forecast Experiment 

IHC Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference 

IIP International Ice Patrol 

IMAAC Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center 

IMET Incident Meteorologist 

IMETS Integrated Meteorological System 

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments [program] 

INL Idaho National Laboratory 

IPAWS Integrated Public Alert and Warning System 

IPB intelligence preparation of the battlespace 

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPE intelligence preparation of the environment 

IRTSS Infrared Target Scene Simulator 
 Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-7 

ISCS International Satellite Communications System 

ISES International Space Environment Service 

ISMS [DOE] Integrated Safety Management System 

ISR intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance 

ISS International Space Station 

IT information technology 

IT R&D Information Technology Research and Development [Program] 

ITS Intelligent Transportation Systems 

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System 

IWEDA Integrated Weather Decision Aid 

IWGCCST Interagency Working Group on Climate Change Science and Technology 

IWRSS Integrated Water Resources Science and Services 

JAG Joint Action Group 

JAG/ADM Joint Action Group on Architecture and Data Management ( 

JAG/CCM Joint Action Group for Centralized Communications Management 

JAG/JUTB Joint Action Group for Joint Urban Test Beds 

JAG/MD Joint Action Group on Metadata 

JAG/OCM Joint Action Group for Operational Community Modeling 

JAG/ODAA Joint Action Group for Operational Data Acquisition for Assimilation 

JAWF Joint Agricultural Weather Facility 

JAWS Juneau Airport Wind System 

JCIDS Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System 

JCSDA Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation 

JHT Joint Hurricane Testbed 

JPDO Joint Planning and Development Office 

JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System 

JSC [NASA] Johnson Space Center 

JTWC Joint Typhoon Warning Center 

KDP Key Decision Point 

KSC [NASA] Kennedy Space Center 

KSCWO SOMD Weather Office at NASA Kennedy Space Center 

LAN local area network 

LAP Lightning Advisory Panel 

LBS Littoral Battlespace Sensing 

LDCM Landsat Data Continuity Mission 

LIDAR light detection and ranging 

LLCC lightning launch commit criteria 

LLWAS Low Level Wind shear Alerting System 

LLWAS-NE LLWAS Network Expansion 

LRGS [USGS] local readout ground station(s) 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-8 

M&O management and operating 

MACPEX Mid-latitude Airborne Cirrus Properties Experiment 

MADA Monsoon Area Drought Atlas 

MADIS Meteorological Assimilation Data Ingest System 

MAGTF Marine Air Ground Task Force 

MALE medium altitude, long endurance [UAS] 

MASPS Minimum Aviation Safety Performance Standards 

MAW Marine Aircraft Wing 

MEF Marine Expeditionary Force 

MET meteorological; Meteorology and Oceanography 

MetMF(R) Meteorological Mobile Facility-Replacement 

METOC meteorological and oceanographic 

METOP Meteorological Operational Polar 

METSAT meteorological satellite 

MM5 Mesoscale Model Version 5 

MMS-P Meteorological Measurement Set-Profiler 

MOC [NextGen] Mid-term Operational Capability 

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer 

MOPS Minimum Operations Standards 

MOU memorandum of understanding 

MPAR multifunction phased array radar 

MPCV Multipurpose Crew Vehicle 

MRMS [FAA/AWRP] Multi-Radar Multi-Sensor [capability] 

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center 

MST METOC Support Team 

MTOE Modified Table of Organization and Equipment 

MTSAT [Japanese] Multifunctional Transport Satellite 

MWPI Microburst Windspeed Potential Index 

MWSG Marine Wing Support Group 

MWSS Marine Wing Support Squadron 

NADM North American Drought Monitor 

NADP National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

NAO NOAA Administrative Order 

NAS National Airspace System 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service 

NAVOCEANO Naval Oceanographic Office 

NAVOCEANOPSCOM Naval Oceanography Operations Command 

NBC nuclear, biological, and chemical 

NCA National Climate Assessment 

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research 

NCDC National Climatic Data Center 

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction 
 Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-9 

NCOM Navy Coastal Ocean Model 

NCV National Ceiling and Visibility [FAA/AWRP Product Team] 

NDBC National Data Buoy Center 

NDFD National Digital Forecast Database 

NDMC National Drought Mitigation Center 

NEB Natural Environments Branch [MSFC] 

NESDIS [NOAA] National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

NEXION NEXt-generation IONosonde 

NEXRAD Next-Generation Weather Radar 

NextGen Next Generation Air Transportation System 

NFDRS National Fire Danger Rating System 

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program 

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency 

NGDC National Geophysical Date Center 

NGEE Next-Generation Ecosystem Experiments 

NHC [NCEP] National Hurricane Center 

NICC National Interagency Coordination Center 

NIDIS National Integrated Drought Information System 

NIFA National Institute for Food and Agriculture 

NIFC National Interagency Fire Center 

NITES Navy Integrated Tactical Environmental System 

NNEW NextGen Network Enabled Weathe 

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOCMP National Operational Coastal Modeling Program 

NODC National Oceanographic Data Center 

NOGAPS Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System 

NOHRSC National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center 

NOMADS National Operational Model Archive and Distribution System 

NOP Naval Oceanography Program 

NOPC National Operational Processing Centers Program Council 

NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command 

NOS National Ocean Service 

NOWCON Network of Weather and Climate Observing Networks 

NPDIA National Plan for Disaster Impact Assessments: Weather and Water Data 

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System 

NPP NPOESS Preparatory Project 

NPRB North Pacific Research Board 

NPS National Park Service 

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission; National Research Council 

NRCC [FEMA] National Response Coordination Center 

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service 

NRL Naval Research Laboratory 

NRL/MRY Marine Meteorology Division of the Naval Research Laboratory [NRL Monterey] 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-10 

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSIP National Streamflow Information Program 

NSIR Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response 

NSPD National Security Presidential Directive 

NSSL [NOAA] National Severe Storm Laboratory 

NSWP National Space Weather Program 

NSWRC NextGen Surveillance and Weather Radar Capability 

NTAS Northwest Tropical Atlantic Station 

NTHMP National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program 

NUOPC National Unified Operational Prediction Capability 

NWCG National Wildfire Coordinating Group 

NWIS National Water Information System 

NWLON National Water Level Observation Network 

NWP numerical weather prediction 

NWR NOAA Weather Radio 

NWRT National Weather Radar Testbed 

NWS [NOAA] National Weather Service 

OAR [NOAA] Office of Atmospheric Research 

OCE (USDA) Office of the Chief Economist 

ODCS [U.S. Army] Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff 

OEP Operational Evolution Partnership [FAA airport designation] 

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 

OGC Open Geospatial Consortium 

OMAO [NOAA] Office of Marine and Aviation Operations 

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

ONR Office of Naval Research 

OPC Ocean Prediction Center 

OSSE observing system simulation experiment 

OSTEP Ocean Systems Test and Evaluation Program 

OSTM Ocean Surface Topography Mission 

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy 

OTN [Defense Information Systems Agency] Optical Transport Network 

OTSR Optimum Track Ship Routing 

OWS [USAF] Operational Weather Squadron 

P3I Pre-Planned Product Improvement 

PACAF Pacific Air Forces 

PARISE Phased Array Radar Innovative Sensing Experiment 

PCMDI Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison 

PLAN Personal Localized Alert Network 

PMEL Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory 

PNE PIRATA Northeast Extension [project] 

POD probability of detection 
 Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-11 

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite 

POP Parallel Ocean Program [DOE/OS/CESD model] 

POPS Primary Oceanographic Prediction System 

PORTS® Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System 

PREDICT Pre-Depression Investigation of Cloud-systems in the Tropics 

PSD [ESRL] Physical Sciences Division 

PTWC Pacific Tsunami Warning Center 

QPE quantitative precipitation estimation(s) 

QPF quantitative precipitation forecast 

R&D research and development 

R2O Research to Operations 

RASCAL Radiological Assessment System for Consequence Analysis 

RAWS Remote Automated Weather Stations (network) 

RBSP Ring Current, Radiation Belts, Solar Particles [satellite] 

RDT&E research development, test, and evaluation 

RES Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research 

RFC [NWS] River Forecast Center 

RGCM Regional and Global Climate Modeling [in DOE/OS/CESD] 

RIMS Radio Interference Measuring Set 

ROMANS Rocky Mountain Atmospheric Nitrogen and Sulfur 

ROSES [NASA] Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences 

RPA Remotely Piloted Aircraft 

RSMC Regional Specialized Meteorological Center 

RSTN Radio Solar Telescope Network 

RTC Redstone Test Center 

RTS Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site 

RTVS Real-Time Verification System 

RUC Rapid Update Cycle [NWS forecast model] 

RVR Runway Visual Range 

RWI Reduce Weather Impact 

RWMP Road Weather Management Program 

SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users 

SAS [NextGen] Single Authoritative Source 

SAWS Stand Alone Weather Sensors [FAA] 

SCAN Soil Climate Analysis Network 

SCAP Security Certification and Accreditation Package 

SCAPA Subcommittee for Consequence Assessment and Protective Actions 

SDO Solar Dynamics Observatory 

SDR [CENRS] Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction 

SEBN Surface Energy Budget Network 

SEES Science, Engineering and Education for Sustainability 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-12 

SEON Solar Electro-optical Observing Network 

SERVIR Sistema Regional de Visualizacion y Monitoreo [NASA network] 

SESAR Single European Sky ATM Research 

SFMR stepped frequency microwave radiometer 

SGOT Strike Group Oceanography Team 

SICPS Standard Integrated Command Post Shelter 

SIP Societal Impacts Program 

SIR System Integration Review 

SLEP Service Life Extension Program 

SLOSH Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes [storm surge model] 

SMAP [NASA] Soil Moisture Active-Passive [Satellite Mission] 

SMD [NASA] Science Mission Directorate 

SMDC [U.S. Army] Space and Missile Defense Command 

SMG [NWS] Spaceflight Meteorology Group 

SNOTEL SNOw pack TELemetry 

SOF Special Operations Forces 

SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

SOMD [NASA] Space Operations Mission Directorate 

SOON Solar Observing Optical Network 

SOOP Ship of Opportunity Program 

SORD [NOAA/ARL] Special Operations and Research Division 

SPC [NCEP] Storm Prediction Center 

SRS Solar Radio Spectrograph 

SST sea surface temperature 

SSWSF Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Program 

STAR Center for Satellite Applications and Research 

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics 

STEREO Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory 

STIWG Satellite Telemetry Interagency Working Group 

SWEF Space Weather Enterprise Forum 

SWIM [NextGen] System Wide Information Management 

SWPC Space Weather Prediction Center 

SWSI State Surface Water Supply Index(es) 

TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast 

TAO Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean [Project] 

TAO/TRITON Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean/TRIangle Trans-Ocean buoy Network 

TAWS Target Acquisition Weapons Software 

TDA Tactical Decision Aid 

TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather Radar 

TFCC Task Force Climate Change 

T-IWEDA Tri-Service Integrated Weather Effects Decision Aid 

TMC traffic management center 

TOC Tactical Operations Center 
 Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-13 

TOE Table of Organization and Equipment 

TRADOC U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command 

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

TSG thermosalinograph 

TSO Technical Standard Order [FAA] 

UAS unmanned aircraft systems; unmanned aerial systems 

UHF ultrahigh frequency 

UNEP United Nations Environment Program 

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

UNOLS University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System 

UNSWC Unified National Space Weather Capability 

URI University of Rhode Island 

USA U.S. Army 

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

USAF U.S. Air Force 

USAICoE U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence 

USARNORTH U. S. Army North 

USASMDC U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command 

USCG U.S. Coast Guard 

USCRN U.S. Climate Reference Network 

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture 

USDM U.S. Drought Monitor 

USFF U.S. Fleet Forces Command 

USFS U.S. Forest Service 

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program 

USGS U.S. Geological Survey 

USHCN U.S. Historical Climatology Network 

USNO U.S. Naval Observatory 

USNORTHCOM U.S. Northern Command 

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program 

UV ultraviolet 

VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Center 

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base 

VFR visual flight rules 

VORTEX2 Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment 2 

VOS Volunteer Observing System 

WAFS World Area Forecast System 

WAMIS World AgroMeteorological Information Service 

WAOB World Agricultural Outlook Board 

WARP Weather And Radar Processor [FAA] 

WASDE World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates [report] 
Appendix A. Acronyms 

 A-14 

WC/ATWC West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center 

WEBB Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets 

WFDSS Wildland Fire Decision Support System 

WFIP Wind Forecast Improvement Project 

WFO National Weather Service Forecast Office 

WG/DIAP Working Group for Disaster Impact Assessments and Plans: Weather and Water Data ( 

WG/TBC Working Group for Test Bed Coordination 

WG/UM Working Group for Urban Meteorology 

WG/VA Working Group on Volcanic Ash 

WG/WIST Working Group on Weather Information for Surface Transportation 

WGA Western Governors’ Association 

WHDE Wind Hazard Detection Equipment 

WIFS WAFS Internet File Service 

WIMS weather information management system 

WIS WMO Information Service 

WMO World Meteorological Organization 

WoF Warn on Forecast [Program] 

WP Work Product 

WRAP Wildfire Research and Applications Partnership 

WRD [USGS] Water Resources Discipline 

WRE-N Weather Running Estimate-Nowcasts 

WRF Weather Research and Forecasting 

WRTM Weather-Responsive Traffic Management 

WS [USAF] Weather Squadron 

WSDS Wind Shear Detection Services 

WSP [FAA] Weather Systems Processor 

WSR-88D Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler 

WTIC Weather Technology in the Cockpit 

WUI Wildland-Urban Interface 

WW3 Wave Watch III [model] 

WWCB Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin 

WWLLN World Wide Lightning Locator Network 

WXG [USAF] Weather Group 

XBT Expendable BathyThermograph [Program]