Drugs & Crime Data

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

September 1994, NCJ–149286

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Fact Sheet: Drug-Related Crime

Drugs are related to crime in multiple ways. Most

directly, it is a crime to use, possess, manufacture, or

distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse.

Cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and amphetamines are

examples of drugs classified to have abuse potential.

Drugs are also related to crime through the effects they

have on the user’s behavior and by generating violence

and other illegal activity in connection with drug trafficking. The following scheme summarizes the various ways

that drugs and crime are related.

A product of the Drugs & Crime Data Center & Clearinghouse 1–800–666–3332

Summary of drugs/crime relationship

Drugs and

crime

relationship Definition Examples

Drug-defined Violations of laws Drug possession or

offenses prohibiting or reg- use. Marijuana

ulating the possession, cultivation. Methamuse, distribution, or phetamine production.

manufacture of Cocaine, heroin, or

illegal drugs. marijuana sales.

Drug-related Offenses in which a Violent behavior

offenses drug’s pharmacologic resulting from drug

effects contribute; effects. Stealing

offenses motivated by to get money to

the user’s need for buy drugs. Violence

money to support against rival drug

continued use; and dealers.

offenses connected

to drug distribution

itself.

Drug-using Drug use and crime A life orientation

lifestyle are common aspects with an emphasis on

of a deviant lifestyle. short-term goals

The likelihood and supported by illegal

frequency of involve- activities. Opportuniment in illegal ties to offend resulting

activity is increased from contacts with

because drug users offenders and illegal

may not participate markets. Criminal

in the legitimate skills learned from

economy and are other offenders.

exposed to situations

that encourage crime.

This fact sheet will focus on the second and third categories. Drug-related offenses and a drug-using lifestyle are

major contributors to the U.S. crime problem.

Drug users in the general population are more

likely than nonusers to commit crimes

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

(HHS) National Household Survey on Drug Abuse asks

individuals living in households about their drug and

alcohol use and their involvement in acts that could get

them in trouble with the police. Provisional data for 1991

show that among adult respondents (ages 18–49), those

who use cannabis (marijuana) or cocaine were much more

likely to commit crimes of all types than those who did

Table 1. Criminal behavior and substance use

among 18- to 49-year-olds, 1991 provisional data

 Percent reporting alcohol and drug use in

past year

Got

drunk

Alcohol, Alcohol monthly

cannabis, and (no

 Criminal and cannabis illicit Alcohol

 activity cocaine* only* drug use) only None

Any violent

crime 26.1% 14.6% 6.3% 4.8% 2.7%

Any property

crime 24.7 13.0 8.0 3.8 1.7

Driving under

the influence 57.2 30.8 33.3 12.3 0.1

Sold drugs 15.1 2.2 0.2 0.1 0.0

* Indicates use of each of these substances some time during

the past year, not necessarily use of both/all at the same time.

Source: Harrison & Gfroerer, 1992
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24.5

60%

40%

20%

0%

Jail inmates

1989

30.9

38.9

28

35 37 39.9

59.3

Prison inmates

1991

Youth in custody

1987

Sources: BJS, Drugs and jail inmates, 1989; BJS, Survey of

State prison inmates, 1991; BJS, Survey of youth in custody,

1987

not use these substances (table␣1). Of those reporting use

of alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine during 1991, 26.1% also

report that they committed violent crimes during the year.

The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) National Crime

Victimization Survey (NCVS) asks the victims of violent

crimes who reported seeing the offender whether they

perceived the offender to be under the influence of drugs

or alcohol. According to the 1992 survey, about half the

victims could not determine whether the offender was

under the influence of a substance. Of those who could

make a determination, about 59% reported that the offender was under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs. The

most common substance identified was alcohol not

combined with other drugs. About 20% reported that

offenders were under the influence of drugs alone or in

combination with alcohol.

Arrestees frequently test positive for recent

drug use

The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) Program measures drug use among arrestees

by calculating the percentage of individuals with positive

urine tests for drug use. DUF data are collected voluntarily and anonymously at the time of arrest from arrestees in

booking facilities in selected U.S. cities.

Data collected from male arrestees in 1992 in 24 cities

showed that the percentage testing positive for any drug

ranged from 42% to 79% across the cities. Positive drug

tests for females arrested ranged from 38% to 85%. Male

arrestees charged with drug sale/possession were the

most likely to test positive for drug use. Female arrestees

charged with prostitution or drug sale/possession were

the most likely to test positive (table␣2). Both males and

females arrested for burglary and robbery had high

positive rates.

Incarcerated offenders were often under the

influence of drugs when they committed their

offenses

Sentenced jail and prison inmates were asked whether

they were under the influence of drugs or drugs and

alcohol at the time they committed the offense that

resulted in their incarceration. The percentage of jail and

prison inmates who reported they were under the influence of drugs at the time of the offense varied across the

major offense categories. The 1991 BJS Survey of

Inmates in State Correctional Facilities found that drug

offenders, burglars, and robbers were the most likely to

report having been under the influence of drugs. Prison

inmates convicted of homicide, assault, and public order

offenses were among those least likely to report being

under the influence of drugs. The 1989 BJS Survey of

Inmates in Local Jails shows a similar pattern (figure␣1).

36.3

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Violent Property Drug

Percent of

offenders

Figure 1. Offenders reporting being under the

influence of drugs or drugs and alcohol at the time

of the offense

Table 2. Drug use by booked arrestees in 24

selected cities, by charge at arrest, 1991

Percent testing positive

Charge Males Females

Drug sale/possession 79% 79%

Burglary 68 63

Robbery 65 76

Larceny/theft 64 58

Probation/parole violation 61 60

Stolen property 58 74

Fraud/forgery 56% 51%

Fight/escape/warrant 52 66

Other 51 46

Weapons 49 62

Public peace/disturbance 48 61

Homicide 48 65

Assault 48% 50%

Prostitution 47 85

Damage/destruction of property 45 57

Traffic offense 42 48

Family offense 40 38

Sex offense 37 68

Note: Positive by urinalysis. Drugs tested for included

cocaine, opiates, PCP, marijuana, amphetamines,

methadone, methaqualone, benzodiazepines, barbiturates,

and propoxyphene. Female arrestees were not tested in

three cities.

Source: NIJ, Drug Use Forecasting, 1991 annual report
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The 1987 Survey of Youth in Custody findings are also

similar for violent and property offenses, but much higher

for drug offenses.

Offenders often commit offenses to support

their drug habit

Another dimension of drug-related crime is whether the

offense is committed to obtain money (or goods to sell to

get money) to support drug use. According to BJS

national surveys, the most comprehensive information

available, an estimated 17% of 1991 State prison inmates

and 13% of convicted jail inmates in 1989 reported

committing their offenses to get money to buy drugs

(table␣3). Offenders convicted of robbery, burglary, and

larceny/theft were most likely to commit their offense to

obtain money to buy drugs. Offenders convicted of sexual

assault and homicide were among the offenders least

likely to commit the offense to sustain their drug habit.

Drug trafficking generates violent crime

Trafficking in illicit drugs tends to be associated with the

commission of violent crimes. Reasons for the relationship of drug trafficking to violence include:

• competition for drug markets and customers

• disputes and ripoffs among individuals involved in the

illegal drug market

• individuals who participate in drug trafficking are prone

to use violence

• locations where street drug markets proliferate tend to

be disadvantaged economically and socially; legal and

social controls against violence in such areas tend to be

ineffective.

The proliferation of lethal weapons in recent years has

also likely made drug violence more deadly.

BJS examined homicides in the 75 most populous

counties in the United States in 1988. Many of the

homicides involved drugs or drug trafficking, including

the following: drug manufacture, dispute over drugs, theft

of drugs or drug money, a drug scam, a bad drug deal,

punishment for drug theft, or illegal use of drugs. One of

these circumstances was involved for 18% of defendants

and 16% of victims.

The drug/crime relationship should be

interpreted cautiously

The drug/crime relationship is difficult to specify

because—

Table 3. State prison and local jail inmates who

committed their offense for money to buy drugs

 Percent of inmates

Most serious offense State, 1991 Jail, 1989

All offenses 17% 13%

Violent offenses 12% 12%

Homicide 5 3

Sexual assault 2 2

Robbery 27 32

Assault 6 3

Property offenses 26% 24%

Burglary 30 31

Larceny/theft 31 28

Motor vehicle theft NR 7

Drug offenses 22% 14%

Possession 16 10

Trafficking 25 19

Public-order offenses 5% 3%

NR = Offense category not reported separately.

Sources: BJS, Survey of State prison inmates, 1991;

BJS, Drugs and jail inmates, 1989

• most crimes result from a variety of factors (personal,

situational, cultural, economic), so even when drugs are a

cause, they are likely to be only one factor among many

• what is meant by “drug-related” varies from study to

study; some studies interpret the mere presence of drugs

as having causal relevance while other studies interpret

the relationship more narrowly

• reports by offenders about their drug use may exaggerate or minimize the relevance of drugs; drug use measures, such as urinalysis that identifies only very recent

drug use, are limited.

Conclusion

The evidence indicates that drug users are more likely

than nonusers to commit crimes, that arrestees and

inmates were often under the influence of a drug at the

time they committed their offense, and that drug trafficking generates violence. Assessing the nature and extent of

the influence of drugs on crime requires that reliable

information about the offense and the offender be available, and that definitions be consistent. In face of problematic evidence, it is impossible to say quantitatively

how much drugs influence the occurrence of crime.
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Homicide statistics illustrate the difficulties in quantifying

the drug-crime relationship. Homicide, like most types of

crime, can be related to drugs in any of the ways described above. Data on homicides are more complete than

for other offenses, because homicides are more likely to

be reported to the police and tend to be more thoroughly

investigated. The two examples of drug-related homicide

statistics given here demonstrate some of the difficulties

of quantifying the relationship between drugs and murder.

The FBI Uniform Crime Reports present data on two

types of drug-related homicides: murders that occur—

• during a felony narcotics offense (such as drug

trafficking)

• during brawls due to the influence of narcotics.

Why statistics on drug-related crime are difficult to interpret: Homicide as an example

Type of drugrelated homicide 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Narcotic drug laws 5.6% 7.4% 6.7% 6.2% 5.7%

Brawl due to

influence of

narcotics 1.1 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.1

Source: FBI, Crime in the U.S., 1992, table 2.13, p. 21

The FBI does not include as drug-related a murder that

occurs during a robbery or a burglary committed by

someone under the influence of drugs, or a murder that

occurs during a robbery committed to obtain money to

buy drugs. In these cases, the homicide is recorded in

terms of its relationship to the most serious offense only,

and robbery and burglary are more serious than drug

trafficking in the FBI offense classification and in most

State laws. Thus, current FBI homicide information may

not categorize a large number of drug-related murders as

so related. However, the FBI is developing an enhanced

reporting system, the National Incident-Based Reporting

System, that would involve reporting all crimes committed during an offense. This system has been implemented

in only a few States so far.

The percentage of homicides thought to be drug-related

reflects both the frequency of such murders as well as

how the relationship is specified.

 “What proportion of homicides is drug-related?”

This simple question is difficult to answer. The FBI’s

definition is consistent, but limited. Cities or police

departments may have broader but inconsistent definitions. For offenses not as reliably reported or as

thoroughly investigated as homicides, the question is

even more difficult because no complete information is

systematically available at the national level for any

definition of “drug-related.”

 Percent drug-related

City 1 City 2 City 3 City 4

Definitional criteria 36.0% 25.7% 39.0% 44.6%

Committed during x x x

commission of a

narcotics felony

Dispute between dealers x x

Offender under the x

influence of drugs

Victim under x x

the influence of drugs

Note: Data were obtained by the ONDCP Drugs & Crime

Clearinghouse.

The following example further illustrates the difficulties

of estimating drug-related homicides.

Drug-related homicide rates as defined using differing

criteria in four cities, 1990
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Sources used to produce this report

U.S. Department of Justice

Bureau of Justice Statistics:

Survey of State prison inmates, 1991, NCJ–136949,

March 1993

Criminal victimization in the United States, 1992,

NCJ–145125, March 1994

Drugs and jail inmates, 1989, Special Report

NCJ–130836, August 1991

Murder in large urban counties, 1988, Special Report

NCJ–140614, May 1993

Survey of youth in custody, 1987, Special Report

NCJ–113365, September 1988

Federal Bureau of Investigation:

Crime in the United States, 1992.

National Institute of Justice:

Drug use forecasting 1992 annual report, NCJ–142973,

October 1993

Drug use forecasting 1991 annual report, NCJ–137776,

December 1992

Other sources:

Harrison, Lana and Joseph Gfroerer. 1992. “The intersection of drug use and criminal behavior: Results from the

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse.” Crime and

Delinquency, 38(4): 422–443.

This fact sheet was prepared by Amy Craddock, Ph.D.,

James J. Collins, Ph.D., and Anita Timrots at the

ONDCP Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse. The Bureau of

Justice Statistics manages this data center and clearinghouse to support drug control policy research. For

further information concerning the contents of this fact

sheet or other drugs and crime issues, call:

1–800–666–3332

or write ONDCP Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse,

1600 Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850.

ONDCP Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse

National Criminal Justice Reference Service

P.O. Box 6000

Rockville, MD 20849–6000

Fact Sheet: Drug-Related Crime
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