A Year in Review • 1999

1925 - 2000
L

Year in Review

The Pacific Northwest (PNW) Research Station serves society by improvingunderstanding, use, and management of natural resources. Our service is basicand applied research and development. This report describes our contributionto society during fiscal year 1999.Contents

1 Director's Introduction3 About the Station4 Station Products6 Finances and Workforce8 Station Accomplishments

11 Ecosystem Processes Program29 Aquatic and Land Interaction Program41 People and Natural Resources Program50 Social and Economic Values Program56 Managing Disturbance Regimes Program70 Resource Management and Productivity Program78 Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

Appendix

88 Honors and Awards89 Technology Transfer91 Conservation Education92 Support From Clients93 Support to Cooperators96 Publications

109 Station Leadership Team of the Pacific Northwest Research StationCredits: Managing editor, Carolyn Wilson; editor, Karen Esterholdt. 

Design and production by Nancy L. Doerrfeld-Smith.
ch Station pro- 

entral to deci- 

nagement of

and. It assertively

ntific findings

aving scientific

ecisions about

research results

ding of natural

e consequences

ement strategies.

n provide a

es than land

n choose from.

arch on silvicul

an clearcutting

d Washington and

s begun to show

veloped which

ility among dif

rently is found 

ment practices.

We work hard to get our researchresults into the hands of people whoeither make decisions about how theland is managed or influence thosedecisions. We find innovative ways tocommunicate what we have learned.An example is the Station's ScienceFindings series that condenses key science results and their land management implications into a few concisepages; the publication is distributed toa mailing list of almost 8,000 people.Indicative of the Station's productivityare the 427 publications scientists produced this year. Of those, 16 percentwere Station reports that were distributed to more than 50,000 people. TheStation also sponsored field trips andworkshops attended by 3,782 people.Use of research information in landmanagement decisions is our ultimategoal. And the information is beingused. One example of contribution to 

on-the-ground management is researchon how the location of forest roadsinfluences water and sediment. Theinformation is being used to designrepairs to flood-damaged roads to minimize damage from future flooding andwill help in design of new roads andclosing of existing roads. In a policyrelated example, a Station scientist contributed an analysis of the economicand environmental consequences ofproposed international trade actionsthat was central to development of theU.S. forestry position for the 1999meeting of the World Trade Organization in Seattle. 

Director’s Introduction / 1

Director’s

Introduction

Thomas J. Mills

Review 

9
evelops cover a

ical decisions

and managers

wnerships and

e principal pri

theast Alaska, is

aluation model

on that blends

fe considerations.

el developed by

o generate 48-

anticipate smoke

 prescribed fires

oil tanker, the

grounded on the

. A forest stand

n model devel

ists was modified

 of stand growth

any private and

nagers through

and the world.

the applications

To help continue our focus on criticalissues for land managers, the Station isnow pursuing three initiatives. Eachinitiative will contribute to solutions forissues critical today that likely will beeven more contentious in the future.The initiatives are sustainable watermanagement, wood compatibility, andforest health and productivity. Eachbuilds on a solid base of fundamentalresearch to provide land managementoptions. Each embraces both ecologicaland economic dimensions. Each is builton the premise that more land management choices are possible and that newchoices might be able to enhance compatibility among otherwise competingvalues from the land. We appreciate the opportunity we havehad to contribute research informationrelevant to the management of PacificNorthwest forests. We also appreciatethe opportunity we have had to work

with our many collaborators in producing that research. We are alreadyembarking on another year of researchthat we hope will be even more productive for our customers.THOMAS J. MILLSStation Director
About The Station

The PNW Research Station was established in 1925. Re- search is conducted to provide scientific information for decisions about management of lands. The Station's scientific information is used by policymakers, resource managers,

and the public. The scientific information produced by theStation has application on public, private, and tribal lands inthe Pacific Northwest (Alaska, Oregon, and Washington) and,in some cases, elsewhere in the United States and other parts of the world.The Station has about 515 employees, of which about 234 arepermanent. Scientists represent many fields of expertise including botany, ecology, economics, entomology, fisheries biology,forestry, genetics, geology, hydrology, mycology, plant pathology,social science, and wildlife biology.The Station has its headquarters in Portland, Oregon, and ninelaboratories in Alaska, Oregon, and Washington. The Station has10 active experimental forests, watersheds, and ranges locatedmostly within National Forests in the three states. Research isconducted in more than 20 Research Natural Areas (RNAs).Although these formally designated research sites are critical tothe Station's research capacity, much of the Station's research isconducted on other lands managed by its partners, includingpublic, state, and private lands.The PNW Station is one of six research Stations in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service. Other ForestService research units include the Forest Products Laboratoryand International Institute of Tropical Forestry. USDA ForestService Research collectively conducts the most extensive andproductive program of integrated forestry research in the world.

About The Station / 3
Publications

Peer-reviewed research papers are the main outlet for communicating scientific findings.Publication of research papers is the primary method for quality control of scientific information as peers of the author examine an article for scientific merit. Peer-reviewed publications become part of the literature that other scientists draw on or challenge.In 1999, the Station published 427 publications. This is about the same number produced in 1998 (423). A peak number of publications was produced in 1997 (585). For several yearsprior to 1997, the number of publications ranged from about 325 to 461 per year; the average over the past 6 years was 455.In 1999, most publications were journal articles (38 percent). Forest Service series were 16 percent, up from 10 percent in 1996. This reflects a use of Station outlets for publications relatedto planning efforts including the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project.In 1999, about 50,000 hard copies of Station publications were distributed in response to requests from readers. In 1997, 147,100 copies were requested; again this is a reflection ofthe planning efforts that year that were relying on scientific assessments published by theStation. In 1996, 30,500 Station publications were requested. Journal article reprints alsoare requested from the scientists.Station publications are available on-line. It is anticipated that over the next several years,readers will increasingly download electronic copies, requesting fewer hard copies.

on

cts

earch

earch

ation

rnals.

ublish

eries,

ooks.

ware,

s, and

s. The

livers

rough

 field 

s, and 

pages.

A Year in Review 1999
Technology Transfer / 5

Alberta Nature Team

Workshops and symposia . . . . . . .1,834Field tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,948Conservation education . . . . . . . .1,366Broadcasts (cable TV) . . . . . . .Thousands

1999 Technology

Transfer Events

ogy 

one way to diffuse

 that decision

o influence deci

rent needs for

heir learning

owledge, and are

unique character

 an array of

nate technology.

de scientific 

akers on specific

s developed. Dir

tion to resource

anagers help sci

nd provide ad

ent of sites. Sta

vide scientific

ers and the pub

s, including the

ysis and modeling

ng opportunities

ds (CROP), adap

 (AMAs), Interior

stem Manage

), Northwest

ss land manage

Products On-LineThe Station's home page provides upto-date information on research projects, personnel, and expertise. Stationpublications, software, and databasesare placed on or otherwise linked to thehome page. The home page currentlyhas 96 Station publications available inportable document format. The homepage is part of a network that includesmore than a hundred program, laboratory, and team pages with links tothe pages of partners.In BriefIn 1998, the Station began publication of the PNW Science Findings.Each month the publication highlights findings from one of the Station's research projects. The publicationis distributed to about 8,000 people andis available on-line. 

Current publications are now on-line 

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw 

NUMBER

EVENT OF PARTICIPANTS
ch Station is sup- 

nding sources. 

omes from

 which were

fiscal year 1999

ptember 30,

ng source is direct

l year 1999, this

 The direct client

ious organizations

mation. Most of

the Alaska and

on of the Forest

Service. Other supporting organizationsinclude other Federal agencies, universities, state agencies, and private and nongovernmental organizations.The two funding sources totaled about$40.8 million in fiscal year 1999. Howwas this total amount distributed?Salaries required 58 percent of this funding, another 18 percent went to supportand operations, and 24 percent was distributed to cooperators. Because a newfinancial system has been adopted by theForest Service, costs once considered

support and operation, such as transferof Station, have shifted to salary. Thesepercentages are, therefore, not comparable to figures shown in these categories in previous annual reports. Ofthe $9.9 million that went to cooperators, 92 percent went to educationalinstitutions. Scientists made up 32 percent of the permanent workforce of 234 employees. TheStation also had 281 temporary employees for a total of 515 employees in fiscalyear 1999.

nces and Workforce 

nces and Workforce
Finances and Workforce / 7

A Year in Review 1999

s of positions Incoming funds

Distribution of available funds
n Accomplishments 

n Accomplishments

mplishes its work through seven pro- 

ral major efforts that cross programs: the 

he Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem

Northwest Forest Plan, and Tongass land

management plan. The Station also has three initiatives thataddress issues and opportunities currently facing land managers: sustainable water, forest health and productivity, andwood compatibility for sustainable forest management.

s
Station Accomplishments / 9

Station PrioritiesThe following priorities guide the kinds of research theStation conducts. These priorities will be reviewed byresearch clients, customers, and employees in fiscal year2000.Biophysical, Social,and Economic ProcessesTerrestrial ecological processes. Advance the understanding of ecological structure, function, and processes in terrestrial systems.Aquatic and riparian ecological processes. Advance theunderstanding of ecological functions and processes in aquatic and riparian systems.Social and economic processes. Advance the understanding of social, cultural, and economic dimensions and the consequences of natural resource management on these dimensions.Management IssuesFramework for integrated management. Develop processes by which the diverse physical, biological, social, andeconomic dimensions of natural resources and resourcemanagement options can be integrated.Terrestrial ecological processes. Advance the understanding of ecological structure, function, and processes in terrestrial systems.Aquatic and riparian resource reserves. Develop information for management of cold water aquatic and associatedriparian resources, including a process for assessing comparative risks and uncertainties.

Natural disturbance regime management. Develop anunderstanding of how natural disturbance elements canaffect the biophysical integrity of forest ecosystems and therelated influences on the resiliency of social and economicsystems.Threatened, endangered, and sensitive species management. Determine habitat requirements and limiting factorsfor threatened, endangered, and sensitive species to facilitateintegrated resource management and apply research resultsto development of management guides.Wood production consistent with sustainable ecosystems. Develop silviculture options for growing and harvesting wood in forest ecosystems that are fully consistent withthe goals of multiple-resource management and sustainingthe integrity of ecological processes and functions.

Inventory, Monitoring,and Policy ApplicationsProtocols to inventory and monitor Federal lands.Support development of inventory and monitoring protocols, including those for aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial systems and economic and social activities.Inventory and supply analysis. Conduct broad-scaleecosystem inventories of all lands outside National Forestsand analysis of forest resources on all lands in the five PacificCoast States.Application of science to policy issues. Provide soundand impartial information about the context and consequences of various solutions to complex policy issues forinformed resolution of those issues.

 Iraci
ts
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 11

and effects of forest harvest 

ds modify the movement of water

ugh a watershed

ds alter water and sediment movement

ods, we can distinguish how roads in dif

ons (for example on ridgetops, in drainage

 valley roads) intercept subsurface water

e landslides and debris flows. Such infor

et road restoration efforts toward those

risks to streams and channels.

ysis of population trends of the

owl shows that survival and 

s are not declining, and the rate of

e has slowed

vival and reproduction rates of northern

 overall but that the population is decreas

ent per year, thereby suggesting improve

nalysis that indicated declining survival

n decrease of 4.6 percent per year.

• A golden-yellow ectomycorrhizal fungus, Piloderma

fallax, may be an important indicator of old-growth soilconditions in Pacific Northwest forests of North America

The frequent occurrence of golden-yellow mycelia of Pilodermafallax in older forests led to the recognition of P. fallax as a potential indicator of old-growth forest soil components. Such indicators are important in evaluating forest management protocols for

sustaining site productivity by maintaining old-growth components, such as coarse woody debris, in young managed stands.• Canopy structure now can be characterized 

volumetrically over large spatial extents

How vegetation is distributed in three dimensions may play akey role in defining habitat suitability for forest-dwelling faunaand in the susceptibility of forest stands to wildfire. Scanninglidar remote sensors provide three-dimensional, or volumetric,characterizations of vegetation structure. • Pioneer species speed the weathering release 

of essential nutrients

Studies in confined lysimeters and in the greenhouse confirmthat certain pioneering species are specially adapted to acquireessential nutrients directly from rock particles at a rate sufficient to allow rapid growth.

The mission of the Ecosystem Processes Program is to improve knowledge of ecosys- tem processes at multiple scales for forests

worldwide and to develop approaches for applyingthis knowledge to protect, use, and enhance forestresources for current and future generations. 

dresses two goals central to achieving sustainable ecosystems: understanding controls on ecological

ng societal needs with long-term ecological capacity. Two primary approaches are inquiry into funda

cosystem function and application of the findings of those inquiries to address difficult and persistent

inable use of forest resources.

stem 

sses Program

entific Findings
ts

 diverse ecosys

scales. At one

he study of struc

orest canopies.

to show the inter

ergy (sunlight),

 (carbon dioxide

s (soil resources),

pitation and sub

stand how a for

a whole. In

manage forest and

he landscape level

regional scale.

ts have been

h of the Nation's

ientists have been

ing and imple

nt regional plans

st: the Columbia

t east of the

e Northwest

e Cascade Range.

nformation is

ow to integrate

interlinked com

nal efforts is evolv

earch on how to

ation of knowl

 application is

rtaken. Working

s necessary to

eeded to manage

Much of the program's research operates at intermediate scales, such as biodiversity conservation. Some studiesclosely examine individual species—such as the northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, or fishers (members ofthe weasel family); whereas othersendeavor to understand the broaderrelations of habitat to the resilience and viability of whole assemblages ofspecies ranging from mushrooms andamphibians to moose.Recent improvements in our understanding of integrated research and itsapplication indicate that we havelearned much about the building blocksof healthy ecosystems. Successfulecosystem management will need clearand useful “building plans” that providea blueprint for how ecosystems work,how they can be managed, and howthey are sustained. Hence, the programstudies the role of human-made features and activities, such as roads,dams, the use (or excessive prevention)of fire, and other disturbances. Somestudies examine current forest conditions, whereas others reconstruct historical trends from fire histories or pastdistribution of permafrost in boreal forest systems. Remote sensing, theoreticaland empirical models, long-term plotstudies, rhizotrons and lysimeters for

belowground work, canopy cranes andtowers, radio collars on animals, andradar for tracking birds are some of thetools used in this work.

Bioregional assessments—changing relations of societywith natural resource systemsBioregional assessments deal with critical, even crisis-level natural resourceissues and have been important meeting grounds of science, management,and policy across the United States.These assessments are changing therelation of society to natural resourcessystems, such as forests, water, andfisheries. A critical, comparative analysis of case studies and broader syntheses led to these key findings: (a)bioregional assessments have playedcritical, nontraditional roles in recentchanges in management of naturalresource systems; (b) bioregionalassessments are commonly born in natural resource crises, which add greatlyto the challenge of conducting theassessments and developing sociallyacceptable management plans; and (c)no overall, standard blueprint exists toguide bioregional assessments, but procedures are available to help structurevarious stages of assessments—for
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 13

or 

cies that sustain

hile providing for

omic values of

s is a major chal

s and managers.

ssessments (subregion, region, or province scale) are needed to encompass the wide range of policies and processes that affect sus- tainability, few research efforts have examined the problem of integrating relevant disciplines at large spatial scales. The coastal landscape analysis and modeling study (CLAMS) uses such an integrated approach to develop tools for understanding the ecological and

socioeconomic consequences of alternative forest policies inlarge multiownershipareas.Thus far, some of theimportant challengesfaced and lessonslearned from theCLAMS approach arethat (1) it is important to adequatelydefine the problemand develop a conceptual model forlarge multidisciplinary studies; (2) policy questions must beidentified and policymakers included

early in the project;(3) spatial information about regions is

important but difficult to develop formany current ecological questions; (4) projecting future landscape conditions is a powerful way to communicate potential consequences of forestpolicies; (5) landscape- and provincescale ecological measures and indicators are lacking for most processes andspecies, thereby requiring scientists todevelop new models from limited data;

Using an integrated approach to develop tools for understanding the ecological and socioeconomic consequences of alternative forest policies in large multiownership areas is a

main focus of the coastal landscape analysis and modeling study.
ts

rts in nontradi

elps evaluate

olicies 

ners and decision

nformation about

s all ownerships

nformation on

s needed to evalu

 affect measures

as wildlife habitat,

production. A

ding this informa

d and applied in

vince. The me

ements of tree

ity from thou

ts across the re

rlaid in satellite

raphical information system (GIS), and a model relates the ground data to spectral data and other mapped data on climate and topography. The model is then used to predict detailed vegetation information for each stand across the province. The resulting maps provide the starting point for landscape-scale models that simulate forest stands into the future under various forest policies and will be used to assess regional patterns of

biodiversity. This work provides anunprecedented amount of detail aboutforest vegetation that is spatially explicit and regional in scope. Assessments of

several measures of forest sustainability will be possible forthe first time. Partners in thisresearch include Oregon StateUniversity and the OregonDepartment of Forestry. 

The location of forestroads strongly influencesthe movement of waterand sediment through a watershedWe can distinguish how roads in

different hillslope positions interceptsubsurface water and sediment movement during storms and floods, andhow they may initiate or capture landslides and debris flows. Such information will help to more efficiently targetroad design, restoration, or closureefforts. Ridgetop and midslope roadsproduce more sediment than they capture, and valley floor roads are moreeffective sediment traps. This informaDistinguishing how roads in different hillslope positions intercept subsurface water and sediment movement during storms and floods will help to more efficiently target road design, restoration, or closure efforts. 

Photos courtesy of USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region
er field studies

ads in different

tercept rain and

storms, and route

can increase peak

play widely differ

ses to similar

nts: some show

eak flows during

s others show lit

se mechanisms

th and low- to

ts in predictable

ng the ability to

fects of forest

By breaking down long-term streamflow data sets from 10 small experimental catchments in western Oregonwatersheds by season and storm typeand size, we have found that peak flowchanges result from the effects of forestharvest on underlying hydrologicprocesses, including evapotranspiration, snowmelt, canopy interception,and road drainage. The processes differfrom north to south across the region,from low to high elevations, anddepend in part on the rate at whichvegetation recovers after harvest.Similar trends and patterns arerevealed in a more extensive studycomparing streamflow response to harvest in experimental catchments ranging from Puerto Rico to California.This information may improve thenewest tools and procedures for evaluating the cumulative effects of forestpractices on landscapes and also helpto frame the emerging hybrid scienceof ecological hydrology. 

Photo by Tom Iraci

Being able to predict which logs are 

stable and which are likely to move under

different flow and channel condition is 

vital information needed for effective 

management of riparian stands and for

improving aquatic habitat.

Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 15

 display

 streamflow

milar types of

nts. These

ms differ

h-south

gh-elevation

nts.
ts

tructures 

n be

edictions 

les of physics to

l) modeling stud

ct which logs are

ikely to move

nd channel condi

on is vital to man

eeking to manage

 improve aquatic

eaving wood in

watershed

physics-based

e flow conditions

deposit wood.

 in a series of

using model logs.

ld accurately pre

s and where it

e it starts moving,

ditions and log

rmation is being

dscape level mod

 will help land

 more permanent

prove fish habitat

 to downstream

ng debris.

Not all dams are createdequal: the surprising case ofthe Deschutes River Predicting the consequences of damimposed regimes on downstreamresources is critical knowledge formanagers, power companies, and allusers of regulated rivers. Dams differwidely in their influence depending ontheir geologic and ecologic setting andin the degree to which their operationmodifies predam waterflow and sediment regimes. The Deschutes River isremarkably stable because of its geologic and hydrologic setting. Hence, thedams we studied have had almost no detectable effects on the physicalstructure of the downstream channel.In spite of this stability, the Deschuteshas experienced huge and previously

unrecorded floods in the past 100,000years or so because of large landslidesfrom the canyon walls that temporarilydammed the river. The islands and surrounding back channels created bythese extremely large and rare floodsprovide core habitats for diverse fishpopulations. The legacy of past geologicevents is thus strongly influencing thequality of fish habitat in one of the bestremaining fisheries in the ColumbiaRiver system.

Blue River landscape studymay offer potential improvement in meeting goals of theNorthwest Forest Plan The Blue River landscape study seeksto develop and test an alternativeapproach to achieving the objectives ofthe Northwest Forest Plan by using natural disturbance regimes as a generalmodel for landscape managementrather than a strict matrix and riparianreserve system. The study lies withinthe Central Cascades AdaptiveManagement Area, an allocation of theNorthwest Forest Plan that encouragesinnovation and testing. Personnel fromthe Blue River Ranger District(Willamette National Forest) work to(1) implement the alternative landscapeplan on the ground, (2) collaborate

Dams we studied

have had almost no

detectable effects on the

physical structure of the

downstream channel.
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 17

tation and

ty scientists to

3) provide data to

more indepth

 assessments.

everal advantages

me-based

west Forest Plan

agement with an

d riparian

aptive manage

tches, greater

abitat diversity,

y of old-forest

features resulted from the landscapeplan, compared to the NorthwestForest Plan. The matrix and riparianreserve approach nearly eliminatesmature forest from the landscape in the

long term because of the combinationof extensive reserves and intensive timber management. Loss of mature forestfrom the landscape will leave futuremanagers and policymakers with fewoptions when old forests experiencesignificant mortality of early successional tree species, such as Douglas-fir.

A range-wide analysis of population trends of the northern spotted owl showsthat survival and reproductionrates are not declining, and therate of population decline has slowedManagement of northern spotted owlsis controversial because opinions differ as to the amount of habitat protection needed to provide for a viablepopulation. Banding studies are theprimary method used to assess population trends of northern spotted owls.The Forest Service, Bureau of LandManagement, and some private timber companies maintain an extensivenetwork of these studies, some ofwhich have been conducted since1985. A “metaanalysis” of all availablebanding data on northern spottedowls was conducted during a workshop held at Oregon State Universityin 1999. 

Recent results show several

advantages to a disturbance

regime-based approach over

the Northwest Forest Plan.

ndscape scenario comparison: management allocations.
ts

data from 16

bout 23 percent of

rn spotted owl.

y on Federal

 studies on

o on mostly pri

state lands.

icated that sur

rates are stable

pulation is declin

t per year. These

provement since

metaanalysis

rates were declin

opulation was

nt per year. Much

t the exact rate of

many biases can

survival and

 metaanalysis of

spotted owl banding data will be conducted in 2002, as scheduled in theinteragency monitoring plan for the owl. Assessing inland activity of thethreatened marbled murreletThe marbled murrelet is a threatenedseabird that nests in older forests ofthe Pacific Northwest. To manageforests to provide the murrelet nestinghabitat, managers need a better understanding of the landscape context andstructural composition of forest standsidentified as murrelet habitat. Linkingforest nesting habitat to murrelet activity in the past has been labor intensiveand focused primarily on identifyingthe specific habitat features associatedwith nests at the stand scale.Radar may prove to be one of the mostappropriate tools to monitor long-termpopulation changes at a broad scale, suchthat trends in numbers are linked tohabitat trends monitored at the samescale. If radar surveys show stable orincreasing population trends and habitattrends are also stable or increasing, managers will have evidence that the forestplan is having the desired effect. Ifdecreasing numbers are detected andhabitat remains stable, land managerswill have to consider whether the forestplan must be adjusted or other factors

(beyond forest management, such asmarine conditions) are responsible forthe decline.Research over the last 3 years hasproven radar to be an effective tool forassessing inland activity, with particular application at the scale of a riverdrainage or greater. Radar counts haveless daily variation, less observer bias,and fewer weather and time-of-dayrestrictions than the more widely usedsurveys employing a single humanobserver. Methods for evaluating habitat at the broad scale have been established by applying GIS-based spatialanalysis tools to vegetation modelsderived at the Olympic NationalForest. Preliminary results from an investigation into the correlation between radarcounts at specific river drainages andpotentially suitable nesting habitat (asdefined with GIS) found a strong positive correlation with the amount ofhabitat but not with the configurationof habitat. Radar counts were not correlated with landscape indices such aspatch size, the density of patches, andamount of edge. A 3-year study of predation on artificial nests also suggestedthat landscape fragmentation is not thedriving force of risk to predation. Standstructure had a greater influence on

sis” of all 

ing data on

tted owls 

ggest an

since 1994. 
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 19

entation indices

n activity, al

es strongly in

est 

hington 

m to depend

uctural 

 Pacific North

tle is known

about their ecology and habitat requirements. Information on both stand- andlandscape-scale habitat relations offishers in the Pacific Northwest is needed to evaluate the appropriateness andeffectiveness of management provisionsfor this species in the Northwest ForestPlan. In 1995, we established the firstlong-term field study of fishers in thePacific Northwest Region in cooperation with the Rogue River and UmpquaNational Forests, Oregon Departmentof Fish and Wildlife, PacifiCorp, BoiseCascade Corporation, Medford andRoseburg Districts of the Bureau ofLand Management, and WashingtonState University.

These studies have provided criticallyneeded information on juvenile dispersal, home range sizes, spacing patternsof male and female fishers, and longrange movements by adult males during the breeding season. Structuresused by fishers for den and rest sitesare those that typically occur in latesuccessional forests, including largediameter logs, snags, decadent trees,and platform branches in live trees.Fishers prey on various mammals,birds, and fruits; porcupines seem tobe preyed on during winter, when otherfood is scarce. These results will enableus to model habitat use and designmanagement strategies for fishersthroughout the Pacific Northwest. 

A golden-yellow ectomycorrhizal fungus,Piloderma fallax, may be an important indicator of old-growth soil conditions inPacific Northwest forests

Frequency of occurrence of golden-yellow mycelia of Piloderma fallax in older

forests led to the recognition of P. fallaxas a potential indicator of old-growthforest soil components. Such indicatorsare important in evaluating forest management protocols for sustaining siteproductivity through maintenance ofold-growth components, such as coarse

r.

Frequency of occurrence

of golden-yellow mycelia

of Piloderma fallax in

older forests led to the

recognition of P. fallax as

a potential indicator of

old-growth forest

soil components.
ts

g managed

-successional

 this region has

ion of this

d legal challenges

plans. These

development of

roaches that

ing and mainte

ts and processes

n specific habitat

e, decayed wood)

llax is critical to

nmental and

cing the occur

 ectomycorrhizal

ate-successional

ld-growth forest

 in young man

useful to evaluate

management plans for maintaining biodiversity. Indicator species can provideclues about the ways in which community structure is changing.Productivity of ediblechanterelle mushrooms sharplydeclines after thinning but mayrebound as trees regainvigorous growthManagers desire more informationabout the impact of thinning on theconcurrent production of nontimber forest products such as ornamentalbrush and edible mushrooms.

Chanterelle mushrooms are the fruitingbodies of fungi that are symbiotic withDouglas-fir and western hemlock trees.The fungus derives nutrition from itsarboreal host through structures, onthe ectomycorrhizae, fine root tips ofthe tree. Thinning removes some of thehost trees, thus temporarily reducingnutrition for the fungus. Although rainpenetrates the opened canopy of thethinned forest more rapidly than adense forest, the forest floor dries morequickly during sunny weather. Thesechanges in humidity regimes on theforest floor likely affect the formationand growth of chanterelles. Soil dis

fallax.

Photo by Randy Molina

Chanterelle

mushroom. 
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 21

 may spread

he stand, soil

ir subsequent

n the soil, and

story brush

nterelles more

these factors

hanterelle pro

over from thin

change through

t of a long-term

oung-stand thin

dy) being con

e Willamette

t Service Pacific

d the Cascade

Management.

ogging, heavy

rcent reduction

ced chanterelle

0 percent, respec

utumn 1999 will

uctivity levels of

rd year after

 if fruiting has

emaining trees

s growth. In

e correlation

roductivity and

cumented, man

er tool for design

hat optimize the

s and amenities

cial forests.

Canopy structure can now becharacterized volumetricallyover large spatial extentsHow vegetation is distributed in threedimensions may be a key in defininghabitat suitability for various forestdwelling fauna and in the susceptibilityof forest stands to wildfire. Lidar remote sensing, an emerging technology,can be used to characterize the spatial

distribution of foliage and woody material in forest canopies.Scanning lidar remote sensing systemsrecently have become available for usein ecological applications. Unlike conventional microwave and optical sensors, lidar sensors directly measure thedistribution of vegetation material alongthe vertical axis and can be used to proMeasurements of canopy structure made by using NASA’s SLICER (scanning lidar imager of canopies by echo recovery) remote sensing device. SLICER operates by measuring the vertical distribution of energy returned to the sensor when a short-duration pulse of laser light is reflected off the forest canopy. Panel A shows the vertical distribution of the canopy along a 4-km transect in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest. Panels B-D show closeups of the canopies of three 550-m transects in young, mature and old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest stands.
 or volumetric,

getation structure.

onal analysis of

developed to

volume and spa

getation and

e forest canopy.

sis to 22 plots in

emlock stands

he Cascade

h plot had both

f the size and

dar measure

tructure of the

canopy. Using the lidar measurements, we were able to make accurateestimates of the total biomass and thenumber of layers of foliage in eachplot. These estimates were superior inseveral ways to those made with otherremote sensing technologies. Furthermore, we were able to make accurateestimates of other stand structureattributes. These measurements canbe directly related to indices of foreststand structural complexity, such asthose developed for old-growth forestcharacterization.

Photosynthetic rates were high in old-growth Douglas-fir canopy.

By some measures, the 

photosynthetic rates for

500-year-old trees are actually

higher than those previously

measured for young Douglasfir trees growing in

plantations.

ts
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 23

py trees

es of CO

2 

growing 

orest tree physi

questration

ast-growing

mospheric car

an will old

nd, however, by

ance system in

py crane in

, that after 1

, the old-growth

t sink for CO

2.

canopy foliage of

s in the Wind

ain much higher

than do saplings

or large gap con

tic rates meas

e towering

e high; by some

or 500-year-old

her than those

for young

wing in planta

ch contributes to

 the global car

quently the sus

and old-growth

his research

 Washington,

ity, Gifford

est, and the

Western Region of the NationalInstitute for Global and Environmental Change.

Simulation model estimatespast amounts of old-growthforestsBetter assessments of historical landscape dynamics are needed to providea baseline for comparison with currentconditions and a potential target forrestoration activities. Assessmentsshould quantify a range of possible historical conditions. An understanding ofthe historical range of variation oflandscapes aids in guiding ecosystemmanagement strategies.We developed a model to simulatevariability in the amount of oldgrowth and late-successional forestin the Oregon Coast Range over thepast 3,000 years. Parameters describing historical fire regimes were derived from several existing studies.Our results indicate that the historical age-class distribution was highlyvariable and that variability increaseswith decreasing landscape area. Themodel predicts that the percentageof old-growth in the Coast Range wasusually between 25 and 75 percent andnever fell below 5 percent. Estimates ofcurrent old-growth and late-successional

forest in the Coast Range were lowerthan expected under the simulated historical fire regime, even when uncertainty in our parameter estimates was considered.Our results suggest that in areaswhere historical disturbance regimeswere characterized by large, infrequent fires, landscape managementbased on ranges of historical variability may be feasible only at relativelylarge spatial scales. The results arebeing used in CLAMS to evaluatehow future landscapes and biologicaldiversity will differ from currentand past conditions. 

Linked changes in climate and permafrost regime at landscape scales may lead to major shifts on boreal forest ecosystemsAlaska's interior boreal forests lie within the zone of discontinuous permafrost, so at certain sites, the groundremains below 0 °C all year. Temperatures close to the boundary betweenthawing and freezing conditions createa strong instability in the soil and vegetation. Thawing of permafrost can leadto the development of thermokarst, surface depressions differing in size andintensity depending on location and ice
ts

ost. Warming in

decades has been

d in the last 200

he active layer

e temperatures to

This has caused

t the ground sur

active layer to

int in many areas

ozen. Permafrost

e sites only be

 effects of moss

ganic soil, but it

es, thereby creat

ant effects at the

own by compar

 biogeochemistry,

etween permafrost-dominated and permafrost-free watersheds. Streamflow from the per- mafrost-dominated watershed has more dissolved organic carbon but less dis- solved minerals. Permafrost acts as a partial barrier to percolation of water from organic soil horizons to underly- ing mineral soils and thus generates rapid storm flows rich in dissolved organic carbon but relatively impover- ished in dissolved minerals. Thermo- karst has been present in this region since the modern temperature regime was established, as it does to some degree in all permafrost terrain; but its frequency could increase substantially with the warming climate. Development of thermokarst causes major vegetation change locally, and massive thermo- karst potentially can lead to major shifts in ecosystem characteristics at large scales. Inclusion of snow cover and permafrost dynamics in ecosystem models greatly improves their ability to simulate recent changes in high-latitude carbon exchange. A partner in this work is the University of Alaska in Fairbanks. Pioneer species speed weathering release of essential nutrients Studies in confined lysimeters and in the greenhouse confirm that certain pioneering species are specially adapted to acquire essential nutrients directly from rock particles, at a rate sufficient to allow rapid growth. Red pine grew rapidly in 5 years on unweathered gla- cial outwash in a confined lysimeter, speeding the weathering of the outwash by more than tenfold over unvegetated lysimeters. Weathering of the primary minerals in the outwash released about three times more calcium and magne- sium than were needed for plant up- take. In greenhouse studies, pioneer species (red alder, Korean alder, and ponderosa and lodgepole pine) grew well or moderately well in the green- house on ground rock and water alone; midseral species (Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir) did not grow at all. The implication is that some pioneer species Speeding of weathering may prove important to long-term ecosystem productivity. 

n Alaska 

decades has 

nprecedented 

0 years and 

 active layer 

ost surface 

to increase 

2 °C.
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 25

ith abundant min

disturbances that

es by being able

nd increase nutri

ng of weathering

to long-term

y. 

-quality 

etter mimic

 disturbance of

most common

vest in Alaska's

ut logging. Some

ts from this type

to the effects of

 not. Both wild

ng result in

 temperatures, a

ductivity in this

reas, however,

g dead boles that

ned sites. These

ous wildlife

 fall to the forest

providing a con

arse woody

dfires have irregu

pically leave

le of producing

ck such seed

 of high-quality

green trees in harvested areas can resultin harvested areas that better mimicburned sites. In interior Alaska, regularly spaced leave trees are subject tooccasional broken tops and windthrowduring sporadic wind events, therebyresulting in slow input of woody debristo the forest floor in the decades afterharvesting. On both upland and floodplain sites, retaining high-quality greentrees increases the number of naturalconifer seedlings and saplings. Thisresearch examines the long-term benefits and tradeoffs of the green-treeretention in boreal forest ecosystems.

Hardwood forest patches have declined over the last50 years in coastal landscapes Patches of deciduous and broad-leavedhardwood trees are important to biological diversity and economics ofcoastal regions of the Pacific Northwest. The size and spatial distributionof patches of these forest types cancontrol patterns of wildlife and aquatichabitat as well as the pattern and economics of resource extraction. Knowledge of the historical dynamics ofhardwood patches can be used bymanagers and policymakers to understand how current landscapes, ecosystems, and socioeconomic systems maychange in the future.Using historical aerial photos and GIS,we characterized changes in the arealextent, occurrence, size, and shape ofhardwood patches in the centralOregon Cascade Range from 1939 to1993. The total area and the number ofhardwood patches declined by 59 and 9percent, respectively. The greatestdecline in hardwood area occurred onForest Service lands, and the greatestincrease occurred on private nonindustrial lands. Hardwood patches werefound closer to streams in 1993 than in1939. Hardwood tree patches were notreplaced by shrub patches as some

The retention

of high-quality

green trees

in harvested areas

can result in

harvested areas

that better mimic

burned sites.
ts

harvested areas can result in harvested areas that better mimic burned sites.
Station Accomplishments

Ecosystem Processes Program / 27

This succession

have occurred

of conversion of

nifer stands

ment activities.

ing used to assess

 might change

ent, determine

hange as a func

treams, and un

de habitat condi

the Oregon Coast

ars. 

When prey to both bears and wolves, moose populationsmay be limited to less than ecological carrying capacityMoose are important consumers of vegetation in the boreal forest and serveimportant roles in ecosystem structureand function in areas where they reachhigh density. Recently, moose population management in several areas of

North America has focused on reducingpredation by bears and wolves to increase moose densities for hunters. Therole of predation in limiting moose density, however, has not been clear, andmanagement actions have not beenconsistent. A review of several case histories of moose-predator interactions andof cases where predators were experimentally reduced affirms the hypoth

a and the 

wood patches 

nd 9 percent, 

tween 1939 

he Oregon

Range.

Photo courtesy of Victor Van Ballenberghe

Moose in Alaska.
ts

ars and wolves

ronments lightly

moose densities

ibrium less than

carrying capacity.

predator-prey

moose; efforts to

t, therefore, are

more moose.

ical responses of

relative to moose

onal response

n modeling pre

 relatively con

ge of moose

nd functional

poorly docu

he case histories

dation is more

redation in limit

ment in recent

g ecological rela

nd their preda

arge carnivores is

 attempts to

ncrease moose

numbers may be publicly unacceptable.When this occurs, moose densities maydecline to levels where moose harvestsare small and restricted to males. Inenvironments where only one speciesof predator occurs, moose may not beheld at low densities for long periods,and management therefore may be lesscomplicated than when two predatorspecies are present.Amphibians are goodindicators of riparian health on the Olympic PeninsulaMost streams on Federal lands are protected by riparian reserve protectionbuffers, but the efficacy of buffers ofdifferent configuration on small headwater streams for protecting biodiversity and aquatic productivity is inadequately known. For the past 4 years, theriparian ecosystem management studyhas been investigating the effects oftimber harvest on animal communitieson Washington's Olympic Peninsula, aswell as the relative ability of riparianbuffers to protect aquatic and riparian

resources. Many of the more mobilespecies (most birds and mammals),particularly those not tied directly to anaquatic environment, seemed able torepopulate previously logged areas.Animals that were less mobile andmore closely tied to an aquatic environment, such as amphibians, were betterindicators of aquatic ecosystem healththan birds or mammals. Some amphibian species were able to adapt,whereas others experienced declinesor disappeared from previously loggedsites.Narrow buffers susceptible to windthrow offered little protection tostream-dwelling amphibians, but headwater stream fishes did not seem to bestrongly associated with buffer size;rather, their populations were highlyvariable and may have simply reflectedrecent natural disturbances. Biologicalindicators, such as amphibians, willprovide monitoring tools to assess theimpact of alternative silviculture practices on riparian health.
Station Accomplishments

Aquatic and Land Interaction Program / 29

e Aquatic and 

n Program is to 

 natural and

es and perturba

d riparian eco

and quality,

biota, with emphases on anadromous and resident salmonids and steam channel charac- teristics at the reach, watershed, and landscape scales. The program provides scientific find- ings that form the foundation for evalu- ating management options in riparian areas and the effect on riparian areas of managing upland terrestrial areas. These scientific findings provide the information to design and evaluate management options to protect and restore cold water streams and associ

atic and Land 

action Program 

atic and Land 

raction Program
ts

gram

while deriving

from the land.

al units for deal

ent of water and

es. The program

and scientists have been acquiring fundamental basic understanding of physical and biological processes of watersheds to better understanding howthese components, along with economic and social processes, operate together. The role of natural physical process- es and human influences on the physi- cal and biological components of watersheds is being researched (for example, rate of disturbance, organism life history, and population dynamics including salmonids, amphibians, bears, deer, moose, squirrels, and migratory birds). The entire continuum from headwaters to estuaries is being addressed. By examining variable riparian buffers in headwater streams, we are able to eval- uate the changes in terrestrial and aquatic microclimates and their effects on macroinvertebrate, fish, and amphibian populations. The condition of systems that link land and water (for example, flood plains) affects our abili- ty to sustain, manage, and restore healthy watersheds. Watershed produc- tivity can be maintained by ensuring the link among land, freshwater, and marine systems. We are linking science issues to policy development. For example, the program has assisted on a National Research Council study to examine watershed management in the United States, and on independent scientific advisory boards (to the Northwest Power Plan- ning Council and National Marine Fisheries Service). We also have devel- 

ses strongly influence survival and recovery processes 

, such as timing of events, can have a strong influence on sur- 

ery processes of species. In particular, volcanism can alter 

ulation dynamics, and assemblage structure for decades and 

amander populations are affected 

h species 

in formerly fishless lakes can have profound effects on 

ander populations through predation. 

uctivity of bears are affected by availability of meat 

ility and consumption of meat (including salmon) is an 

he growth and productivity of bears. 

tions require different management 

ns than other fish species 

ns respond differently to disturbance and therefore require 

nt and recovery plans than other fish species. Dolly Varden 

have different life-history patterns that affect postdisturbance 

ally may mitigate habitat losses from clearcutting 

er in a regenerating stand may result in greater understory 

re conifer stands in southeast Alaska. This has important 

dlife habitat in terms of food and cover. 

y Scientific Findings
Station Accomplishments

Aquatic and Land Interaction Program / 31

he influence of

ent, and debris

eveloped analyti

sing forest roads

watershed

silience

assemblage

astrophic 

y disturbance

orthwest, yet few

its role in shaping

s. The 1980 erup

ens provided an

unity to study the

mphibians to this

e and document

very. From 1981

 habitats (terres

d lake) were sur

to assess patterns

ndergoing both

y succession.

ssumed to be in

bance. In the

d areas (about

 species survived.

 are the most suc

ize these sites,

pecies possible

 Nineteen years

restrial, seep, and

Graph and photos by Charlie Crisafulli

A

B

C

No. of species

Years since eruption

Secondary succession Primary succession

(A) The Northwestern salamander is the most common and widespread salamander in the Mount St. Helens volcanic landscape. (B) The Pacific treefrog is the mostwidespread amphibian species in the Mount St. Helens posteruption landscape.(C) Mount St. Helens amphibian recovery.
t colo

ccession

survived

ughout

5.1

f the 12

ell dis

e second

and, in

oped

ons.

ssociat

s: seep

hree

n

species

en extir

nt from

nic

are

e 

ating

sh

on

as of the

ey origi

termit

e into

eams.

vely

abitat.

Fish habitats can be overwhelmed with sediments orscoured to bedrock by landslides. Management and regulatory agencies have formulatedpolicies and managementdirections to reduce the likelihood of landslides on publicand private lands.

On the other hand, researchin Oregon found that naturallandslides may be importantfor creating and maintainingfish habitat. Landslides can bemajor sources of large wood,which influences the quantityand quality of fish habitat.Scientists found that 48 percent of wood was deliveredby landslides in a wildernessarea stream along the centralOregon coast. Restorationactivities might focus on establishing large trees alongthese streams so that futurelandslides could deliver largewood to the channel and havepositive long-term effects.Alternatively, there may be latitude for other managementactivities in channels that haveless likelihood of delivering

materials to fish-bearingstreams.

The woody debris deposited in streams after landslides

can have both positive and adverse effects on fish

and fish habitat.

Landslides can be major sources of large

wood, which influences the quantity and

quality of fish habitat.

ts

gram
Station Accomplishments

Aquatic and Land Interaction Program / 33

ntists analyzed a

mple of landslides

orm at Prince of

lysis indicated a

ndform with land

 complicates

agement effects

f land use is com

n landforms.

iation, runout,

ns indicates an

andslides and

tion. Erosion rate

pears to be

s than in other

nt classes, and

rowth forests con

on of woody

. Most landslides

y impact anadro

arly all, however,

e channel network

 with no tributar

setting the stage

main-channel

oduced

akes affects

ions

nteractions

bians and intro

ade Range of

on. The primary

objective is to assess how introducedtrout influence Northwestern salamander populations. We are finding that theimpacts of fish introductions on nativeamphibians are important considerations in fisheries management.Aquatic funnel trapping shows thatbrook trout exert a strong influence onNorthwestern salamander larval densities. In lakes without fish, larval salamander capture rates are greater thanin lakes with fish.The dietary analysis of fish and riparianzone surveys indicates that brook troutreadily prey on adult Northwesternsalamanders during their aquatic breeding activities. Fifteen percent of the fish

assayed had one or more adultNorthwestern salamanders in theirgullet. When fish size is taken intoaccount, the influence of fish predationis more pronounced. Ninety percent ofthe brook trout that were greater than9 inches snout-fork length had salamanders in the digestive tract. Salamanderscaptured in the riparian zone of lakeswith fish had an injury rate of 30 percent compared to zero for lakes withoutfish. Injuries typically included lacerations to the head or tail but most oftenincluded severe wounds to theabdomen.

Salmon important tonutritional status andproductivity of brown bearBrown bear is a game species of muchpublic interest and concern. Brownbear sightings are frequently listed asthe peak experience of tourists in southeast and south-central Alaska. Forestmanagement affects brown bear habitatthrough road construction (humanaccess) and changes in food resources,chiefly salmon. The significance ofsalmon to bears, however, has not beenmeasured relative to other potentialfood resources such as vegetation,fruits, and berries. A quantitativeunderstanding of the importance ofsalmon to bears is important to both

We are finding that the

impacts of fish introductions

on native amphibians are

important considerations in

fisheries management.
ts

gram

forest management (through protection of riparianfeeding habitat) and allocation of salmon fisheries(to commercial and sports interests, subsistence,and escapement).We quantified the importance of meat, includingfish, relative to vegetation in the diets of bothbrown and black bears in western North America.Although the relative availability of meat differedamong habitats and populations, meat was consistently consumed in greater quantities by brownthan by black bears, and greatest quantities wereconsumed by large, adult, male brown bears. Otherresearch demonstrated that the relative availabilityand consumption of meat (including salmon) is theforemost environmental factor determining bothbody size and population productivity of brownbear. Wherever salmon are available, they are ofmajor importance to the nutritional status and productivity of brown bear. Prince William Sound Dolly Varden and cutthroat trout populations responddifferently to disturbanceDolly Varden and cutthroat trout are foundthroughout Prince William Sound in freshwaterand near-shore environments. Examination of theeffects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill determined thatpopulations of these fishes were injured. Near-shore

Salmon are a keystone species that isimportant to many other species includingbrown bears.
Station Accomplishments

Aquatic and Land Interaction Program / 35

ound were heavily

urvival and

 in oiled areas are

populations in

techniques to

ns among popula

was required to

 Dolly Varden

gh degree of

ontrast, cutthroat

much less similar,

 unique genetic

es are attributa

he migratory

f homing to natal

ut do not move

reams and seem

ams to reproduce.

occurs among

den make more

in salt water and

cy to stray to new

portant implica

of management

 the species. Dolly

maged by the oil

e quickly than

t populations.

ual Dolly Varden

s likely will pro

uals to injured

populations. These migrants will bemore genetically similar to individualsof a damaged population and will havea greater likelihood of producing viableoffspring. Damaged cutthroat trout populations are likely to recover more slowly. The likelihood of individuals fromoutside populations migrating to damaged populations is low. Also, because ofgenetic differences among populations,likelihood that an individual from anoutside population would be able toproduce viable offspring is reduced.

These results suggest that differentrecovery strategies are required foreach species. Damaged Dolly Vardenpopulations are likely to recover relatively quickly on their own. Cutthroattrout populations damaged by theExxon Valdez oil spill will requiregreater levels of protection in the nearterm for harvest management and habitat protection. 

Juvenile steelhead overwinterin tributaries in southeastAlaskaSteelhead are one of the least abundantanadromous salmonids in southeastAlaska, with small runs of generally lessthan 1,000 fish scattered throughoutstreams of the Tongass National Forest.A review of the status of steelheadstocks in southeast Alaska revealed alack of good data on run sizes, escapements, and biological data. Althoughstocks with a sufficient database toevaluate were not at risk, their smallrun sizes make them more vulnerableto poor land management practices aswell as overexploitation. Studies of seasonal habitat use andmovement of juvenile steelhead showthem occupying main stream habitatsduring summer but not in the tributaries. During fall, large numbers of juveCutthroat trout do not move far from their home streams and seem to return to those streams to reproduce. Thus, little exchange occurs among populations. Dolly Varden make more extensive movements in salt water and have a greater tendency to stray to new streams to reproduce.
ts

gram

to the tributaries

trasts with results

hington. The

bserved in the

 related to the

he main stream

g spring, most

butaries either as

nagement prac

gned road cross

nnectivity of

ant to juvenile

habitat structure

ffects on species

Ecology of deer hasimplications for managementBlack-tailed deer is the principal biggame species for both sport huntingand rural subsistence in southeastAlaska. Forest managers must be ableto evaluate habitat quality for blacktailed deer and quantitatively comparealternative management policies.Research of deer-habitat relations insoutheast Alaska in the late 1970s identified the importance of old-growth forest as habitat. An integrated researchprogram of deer nutrition, protein and

energy balance, foraging efficiency, andforest habitat conducted in the 1980sresulted in quantitative guidelines andmodels for evaluating deer habitat fornutrition. That research was conductedas a series of independent studies, andtheir integration was accomplishedthrough computer modeling and synthesis. Resulting conclusions have hadimportant implications and utility forforest management, but their strengthsdepend on untested assumptions aboutlinks between problem components andhypothetical calculations of protein andenergy balance. A definitive test required detailed study of black-taileddeer in a natural forest environment to

Results suggest

that different recovery

strategies are required

for Dolly Varden

and Cutthroat trout

populations damaged

by the Exxon Valdez

oil spill.

Juvenile steelhead trout.
Station Accomplishments

Aquatic and Land Interaction Program / 37

nd blood 

ey lived, died, and

wn with no sup

stance from the

k was conducted

e same time,

deer (cohorts of

d group) was

uneau, Alaska,

ious diet ad libi

ded a comparison

al variation in

 weight unrelated

Results from both groups of deer werecompared with each other and withpredictions from modeling. Results confirmed the validity of conclusionsdrawn from the earlier, independentstudies and their integration. Furthermore, changes in body mass and composition were directly related to theratio of energy intake to requirement.Body reserves accumulated during summer with abundant digestible energywere critical to winter survival, exactlyas predicted or assumed in the habitat

evaluation models.Continuing interest inthe deer-habitat evaluation models wasdemonstrated withtheir use by the principal private land ownerin southeast Alaska(Sealaska Corporation) in 1999.

How do patternsof tree removalaffect bird habitat?The alternatives toclearcutting study is

an interdisciplinarystudy of the effects ofdifferent patterns of

tree removal (patch and selectivetimber harvest) on various resources,including understory vegetation, treegrowth and regeneration, forest birdhabitat, woody debris and sedimentation into streams, aquatic insectproductivity, and fish (salmonid)habitat. It involves nine treatments(harvest types) repeated at three different geographic sites in southeastAlaska. In 1999, we recensussed thefirst installment of study grids at thefirst of the three 2-year postharvestsites. 

Patterns of tree removal that create forest edges can lead to higher nest

predation and thus lower nesting success of some birds.

Photo courtesy of Mike McClellan
ts

gram

edges in some landscapes leads to

and thus lower nesting success of

 of forest fragmentation). In 1999, we

 the influence of nest predators on

d nest-site selection of understory

ka. As part of a retrospective portion

learcutting project, we evaluated the

winter wren, an understory forest

ka. This bird chooses a diverse and

 and its reproductive ecology differs

ny important ways (size of breeding

ates, nest placement, and nesting

that the winter wren could be a

ling and evaluating bird habitat

nt harvesting treatments.

ed alder

tat losses from clearcut 

ast Alaska

een the prevalent timber harvest

 Alsaka. Clearcutting, however, is

road negative consequences for

rily because of dense conifer regen

rate understory in the stand from

ars. Silvicultural thinnings have

maintaining or reestablishing

at depauperate stage. 

Red alder, although traditionally

idered a “weed” species, might mitigate

habitat losses from clearcut logging. 
Station Accomplishments

Aquatic and Land Interaction Program / 39

all-mammal pop

 indicate that 40-

ands, regenerated

g of spruce-hem

abundant under

bitat of similar

-growth forest.

ly has been con

cies by timber

oncept could

an be used to

itat losses from

Scientists have quantified overstoryunderstory relations and understoryspecies composition and biomass of 16even-aged (28 to 39 years) stands ofmixed red alder-Sitka spruce-westernhemlock forest. The study showsspecies-rich and productive understories, especially beneath red alder trees.This work augments current understanding of secondary succession afterclearcutting in southeast Alaska byrevealing that (1) inclusion of red alderin the regenerating stand may result in

much greater understory biomass thanoccurs in pure conifer stands; and (2)extrapolation of data from small, uniform, fully stocked research stands tothe landscape level may underestimateunderstory biomass from poorly stockedpatches. Both conclusions have important implications for wildlife habitat interms of understory vegetation for foodand cover. An understory-exclusionarystage of secondary succession is notnecessarily the only successional pathafter clearcutting in southeast Alaska.
ts

ogram