1 Foreword

2 About the Station

4 Station Products

6 Finances and Workforce 

8 Initiative Accomplishments

12 Program Accomplishments

13 Ecosystem Processes Program

24 Aquatic and Land Interactions Program

32 People and Natural Resources Program

40 Social and Economic Values Program

47 Managing Disturbance Regimes Program

56 Resource Management and Productivity Program

67 Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

74 Special Event

75 Honors and Awards

77 Technology Transfer

78 Conservation Education

79 Support from Clients

81 Support to Cooperators

85 Publications

102 Station Leadership Team of the Pacific Northwest Research Station

Coordinating editors, Carolyn Wilson and Cynthia Miner. 

Graphic design and production by Nancy L. Doerrfeld-Smith. 

Contents
Foreword 1

Foreword

In 2000, the PNW Research Station celebrated its 75th anniversary. The Station started

from a handful of studies and has evolved through

the decades into a broad program of research—research that provides information vital to the wise

management of the forest resources of the Pacific

Northwest.

Major themes emerge over the course of the

Station’s history—themes that demonstrate our

response to evolving needs through use of the

Station’s unique advantages as a research organization.

The first theme is our increasingly unique

ability to study relations that can be observed only

over long periods. The Station has maintained

many long-term research studies that continually

reveal new insights. One example is the study on

Mount St. Helens that began with its eruption 20

years ago. In 2000, long-term study sites were remeasured, and a major synthesis will result to improve fundamental understanding of vegetation

and animal response to catastrophic disturbance.

The second theme is a shift in our audience

from almost exclusively land managers to all people who make or influence decisions about land

management. In response to this new audience,

we have developed abbreviated, more lay-oriented

descriptions of our scientific findings and their

management implications. The PNW Science

Findings series described in this annual report is

an example.

The third theme is our increasing study of

systems through integration across disciplines.

For example, a large-scale silvicultural study

known as DEMO is evaluating the ecological,

physical, and social effects of retaining green

trees in harvest units. The fourth theme is a

counterpart to the third and comes with the realization that some relations only reveal themselves when studied across broad landscapes.

Thus, our research increasingly addresses interactions at the landscape scale. An example is a

recent landscape assessment of the interior

Columbia River basin that describes trends in

vegetation patterns and watershed conditions.

This information is vital to setting priorities and

strategies for restoration efforts.

Fifth, in the competitive and combative dialogue about resource management, we are

searching for options that might enhance the

compatibility between wood production and

other resource values. For example, past thinning

studies with application of production possibilities show compatibility promise especially for

wildlife and timber tradeoffs.

These themes demonstrate our commitment to evolving in response to changing needs.

Identified from a look at our first 75 years, they

also set the foundation for the future.

To build on this, we have launched a review

of our strategic direction. We will revise our

strategic goals and research program priorities as

necessary to focus our energy on the future. 

All of us at the PNW Research Station appreciate the confidence that your support has

meant for our research services. We look forward

to new opportunities as we enter another year of

providing scientific information for decisions

about land management in the Pacific Northwest.

Thomas J. Mills, Station Director

Thomas J. Mills

Station Director
Station Priorities

The following priorities guide the kinds of

research the Station conducts. These priorities will be revised in 2001.

Biophysical, Social,

and Economic Processes

✦ Terrestrial ecological processes.

Advance the understanding of ecological

structure, function, and processes in terrestrial systems.

✦ Aquatic and riparian ecological processes.

Advance the understanding of ecological

functions and processes in aquatic and riparian systems.

✦ Social and economic processes.

Advance the understanding of social, cultural, and economic dimensions and the

consequences of natural resource management on these dimensions.

Management Issues

✦ Framework for integrated management.

Develop processes by which the diverse

physical, biological, social, and economic

dimensions of natural resources and resource management options can be integrated.

✦ Terrestrial ecological processes.

Advance the understanding of ecological

structure, function, and processes in terrestrial systems.

✦ Aquatic and riparian resource reserves.

Develop information for management of

cold water aquatic and associated riparian resources, including a process for assessing comparative risks and

uncertainties.

✦ Natural disturbance regime management.

Develop an understanding of how natural

disturbance elements can affect the biophysical integrity of forest ecosystems

and the related influences on the resiliency of social and economic systems.

✦ Threatened, endangered, and sensitive

species management. Determine habitat

requirements and limiting factors for

threatened, endangered, and sensitive

species to facilitate integrated resource

management and apply research results

to development of management guides.

✦Wood production consistent with sustainable ecosystems. Develop silviculture

options for growing and harvesting wood

in forest ecosystems that are consistent

with the goals of multiple-resource management and sustaining the integrity of

ecological processes and functions.

Inventory, Monitoring, and Policy

Applications

✦ Protocols to inventory and monitor

Federal lands. Support development of inventory and monitoring protocols, including those for aquatic, riparian, and

terrestrial systems and economic and social activities.

✦ Inventory and supply analysis. Conduct

broad-scale ecosystem inventories of all

lands outside national forests and analysis of forest resources on all lands in the

five Pacific Coast States.

✦ Application of science to policy issues.

Provide sound and impartial information

about the context and consequences of

various solutions to complex policy issues

for informed resolution of those issues.

About the Station

The PNW Research Station celebrated its 75th anniversary

in 2000. For 75 years, the Station has conducted research that

provides scientific information for decisions about management

of lands. Today, this information is used by policymakers, resource managers, and the public as they endeavor to resolve

critical issues arising from the many values and qualities attributed to forests and rangelands. Scientific information produced

by the Station is applied to public, private, and tribal lands in

the Pacific Northwest (Alaska, Oregon, and Washington) and,

in some cases, across the United States and in other parts of 

the world.

The 529 Station employees have expertise that includes

botany, ecology, economics, entomology, fisheries biology,

forestry, genetics, geology, hydrology, mycology, plant pathology, social science, and wildlife biology. 

Station employees conduct research from 10 laboratories 

in Alaska, Oregon, and Washington and the headquarters in

Portland, Oregon. The Station has 10 active experimental

forests, watershed, and range located mostly within national

forests in the three states. Research is conducted in more than

20 research natural areas (RNAs). Although these formally designated research sites are critical to the Station's research capacity, much of the Station's research is conducted on other lands

managed by its partners, including public, state, and private

lands.

The PNW Research Station is one of six research stations 

in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service.

Additional Forest Service research units are the Forest Products

Laboratory and International Institute of Tropical Forestry. The

USDA Forest Service Research program collectively conducts

the most extensive and productive program of integrated

forestry research in the world.

2 About the Station 
About the Station 3
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

'94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00

Total publications

Fiscal year

Publications

Other

24%

Theses 3%

Book

chapters

11%

FS series

13% Proceedings

11%

Journals

38%

Station Products

The PNW Research Station produces scientific information that is delivered in many forms. Essential and

unique to a science organization are peer-reviewed journal

articles. Scientists also develop information for Forest

Service series, proceedings, books, software, databases,

videos, and technical posters. The Station reaches an interested but less specialized audience through its monthly

PNW Science Findings, special publications, workshops,

field trips, seminars, and web pages—all of which serve the

scientific and technical community as well.

Some of the users of information from the PNW

Research Station include biologists, forest managers,

judges, landowners, policymakers, reporters, university professors, and others who make and influence decisions about

land management.

Publications

Peer-reviewed research papers are the main outlet for

communicating scientific findings. Publication of research papers is the primary method for quality control of scientific information with peers of the author examining an article for

scientific merit. Peer-reviewed publications become part of the

literature that other scientists draw on or challenge.

In 2000, the Station published 516 publications. This is

considerably more than was produced in 1999 (427). Since

1994, the number of publications has ranged from about 391

to 585 per year; the average over the past 7 years was 464.

In 2000, most publications were journal articles (38 percent). Forest Service series made up 13 percent. In addition, 10

issues of PNW Science Findings were published. 

In 2000, about 147,000 copies of publications were

distributed in response to requests from readers. Journal article reprints also are requested from the scientists, who collectively distributed between 5,000 and 10,000 copies. Station

publications also are available online.

4 Station Products

Types of publications
Technology Transfer

Publications are only one way the Station diffuses new knowledge. Given that decisionmakers and

those who influence decisionmakers have different

needs for information, differ in levels of knowledge,

and are in organizations with unique characteristics,

the Station uses various approaches to disseminate information and technology.

Station scientists provide scientific information

quickly to policymakers on specific issues as the information is developed through meetings and briefings.

Transfer of information to resource managers occurs

through publications, workshops, and consultation. In

some cases, information is transferred as managers help

scientists install studies and administratively manage sites. 

Station scientists also provide scientific findings

to land managers and the public through partnerships.

These partnerships provide mutual benefits as scientists

gain insight into the needs and questions of land managers and citizens, which will contribute to formulation

of study plans and development of products. Some examples of partnerships are the coastal land analysis and

modeling study (CLAMS), creating opportunities in

small-diameter stands (CROP), Interior Columbia

Basin Ecosystem Management Project (ICBEMP),

Northwest Forest Plan, and Tongass land management

plan (TLMP).

Online

The Station's Internet homepage provides up-todate information on research projects, personnel, and

expertise. Station publications, software, and databases

are placed on or otherwise linked to the homepage.

Currently, 155 Station publications are available in

portable document format and linked to the Station’s

home page. The home page is part of a network that

includes program, laboratory, and team pages with

links to the pages of partners. In fiscal year 2000, there

were 25,000 visits to our Station Web page.

PNW Science Findings

In 1998, the Station began publishing PNW

Science Findings to highlight research of interest to

people making or influencing decisions about land

management. Emphasis is on indepth but easily

read articles about scientists’ work and its implications for land management. This almost monthly

(10 to 12 issues each year) has about 10,000 readers per issue. In 2000, 10 issues were published.

To receive PNW Science Findings, contact the

PNW Research Station by writing to 

P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208-3890, 

desmith@fs.fed.us, or calling (503) 808-2127. 

You can also view or download publications at

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw.

2000 Technology

Transfer Events:

Number of Event participants

Workshops and symposia 2,088

Field tours 1,677

Conservation education 1,504

The PNW Research Station web page. 

Current information about the Station and 

publications that can be downloaded 

are online. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw 

Inner City Youth Institute.

Station Products 5
Finances and

Workforce

The PNW Research Station is supported by two funding sources. Major

funding comes from federal appropriations, which were about $33.8 million in

fiscal year 2000 (October 1, 1999, to

September 30, 2000). The other funding

source is direct client support; in fiscal

year 2000, this was about $8.0 million.

The direct client support came from various organizations needing scientific information. 

The two funding sources totaled

about $41.8 million in fiscal year 2000.

How was this total amount distributed?

Salaries required 46 percent, 31 percent

went to support and operations, and 23

percent was distributed to cooperators. Of

$9.6 million dollars that went to cooperators, 93 percent went to educational institutions.

Scientists made up 33 percent of the

permanent workforce of 246 employees.

The Station had 283 temporary employees

for a total of 529 employees in fiscal year

2000.

6 Finances and Workforce
0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Research

appropriated

dollars

Support

from

clients

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Incoming funds

Fiscal year

Dollars in millions

Cooperators

Salaries

Support

and

operations

Distribution of available funds

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Permanent

positions

Temporary

positions

'92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00

Permanent employees

Fiscal year

Number of employees

0

50

100

150

200

Permanent

support

Permanent

scientists

'92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00

Types of positions

Fiscal year

Number of employees

Finances and Workforce 7

9.6

million 13 

million

19.2

million
Initiative

Accomplishments

Initiatives are integrated programs of research and development

that produce outputs to address specific policy issues within 3 to 5 years.

They stress development and synthesis products rather than fundamental research, although they may draw from it. Importantly, the end focus

is the development of knowledge for the policymaker. The Station currently has three initiatives.

The initiatives focus efforts across the Station to produce scientific

information addressing current critical issues for land managers and policymakers. Each initiative brings together current related research, identifies areas for needed research, and coordinates new research efforts. The

initiatives are for relatively quick response to scientific needs of policymakers. They are intended to provide some findings immediately as well

as add additional information over several years. The Station’s three initiatives are described in this section. Research work is conducted for the

initiatives by programs, and later sections about program research will

provide further details on specific work. 

Wood Compatibility

The wood compatibility initiative seeks options that will increase

compatibility between wood extraction and other important values of

forest lands. The initiative builds on extensive past scientific work relative

to two current questions: First, how can various forest management practices relate to an array of goods and services? Second, what are the effects

of various forest management approaches across relatively large and complete ecosystems? The first question will be answered from research on

stand-level processes and links to tree and landscape levels. The second

question will focus on the province level and its links to lower scales, such

as subbasins and higher scales, such as ecoregions.

This effort recognizes that social values influence institutional policy, which then affects managerial decisions and actions, thereby resulting in changes to forest resource components and the associated mix of

outcomes. Many of the values are realized in different areas for various

lengths of time—resulting in complication. Following are significant

contributions from fiscal year 2000.

8 Initiative Accomplishments / Wood Compatibility Initiative
Synthesis of scientific knowledge on multiresource management.

Scientists working on this initiative have prepared a synthesis of past study

results that traces multiresource research from impact analysis to multiresource modeling with examples of true joint production of forest products,

goods, and services. The synthesis shows that few empirical true joint production studies have been done and none in the Pacific Northwest Region

during the past 20 years. Although there are many general multiresource

models, few lend themselves to empirical application. It is difficult to scale

from stand-level studies upward to watershed or larger scales. The results of

many thinning studies from the Pacific Northwest and the recent application of production possibilities show promise, especially for wildlife and

timber tradeoffs.

Experiments address joint social and ecological objectives. A lack of

research on alternatives to even-age plantation management has greatly

hampered efforts to meet changing objectives and public concerns. Seven

stand-level experiments with various types of partial cuts and retention levels are in early stages of many decades of study. These large experiments address some aspect of joint objectives for social and ecological values. One of

the more unusual and important aspects of this collection of studies is that

the treatment units are large enough to be commercially operational. The

studies are trials on viable alternatives to clearcutting and have well-designed replicated experiments evaluating various intermediate thinning levels. These long-term studies provide regional capability to provide scientific

information on a scientifically based mix of management options that

would produce commodities and maintain or enhance habitat, water quality, and aesthetics.

Red alder key to managing southeast Alaska forests for multiple resources.

In a study on managing young upland forests in southeast Alaska for wood

products, wildlife, aquatic resources, and fisheries, it is hypothesized that landscapes can be managed for multiple resources. Red alder

seems to influence the productivity of young-growth conifer forests and affect the major resources of timber, wildlife, and fisheries in the ecosystems.

Red alder may be useful in restoring important ecosystem functions in regenerating forests.

Initiative Accomplishments / Wood Compatibility Initiative 9

130 -

125 -

120 -

115 -

110 -

105 -

100 -

95 -

90 -

Ecological integrity

0 50 100 150

•

■

▲

Alt 1

Alt 2

Alt 3

•Continuation of current management

▲ Combined reserve and active restoration

■ Combined reserve and restoration

targeted at economic and social contributions

Tradeoff between indexes of ecological integrity and socioeconomic resiliency for management

alternatives by county population as a proportion of total population in the interior Columbia River

basin assessment area for each management alternative.
Improving Forest Ecosystem 

Health and Productivity

in Oregon and Washington

The risk of catastrophic disturbance from wildfire, insects, and disease is

increasing in eastern Oregon and eastern Washington. Research from the

PNW Research Station over the past 75 years has contributed to significant

advances in understanding and managing disturbance agents such as Douglasfir tussock moth, dwarf mistletoe, and fire. This research historically has been

directed at single disturbances and at mostly the stand or fine scales. Under

this initiative, information and technology are being developed to manage insects, disease, and fire, and more importantly, their interactions in maintaining ecosystem integrity at multiple scales. To understand the role of

disturbance regimes in ecological processes, resource managers need knowledge and tools to manage the beneficial aspects of disturbance while monitoring and reducing adverse effects. 

This initiative is developing knowledge and technologies to characterize

and manage risk and to establish management practices that work in concert

with natural disturbance regimens to restore and sustain ecosystem integrity.

The first steps to managing risk is to assess current environmental risks and

conditions and then evaluate the risks from treatment options. This initiative

will provide missing science information for developing management plans,

implementing them, measuring success, and making modifications for improvement. The end results will be improved east-side ecosystem health and

maintenance of ecosystem integrity. Although people cannot manage all aspects of disturbance or all ecosystem components, with existing and new information, managers will be able to influence insects, disease, and fire regimes

in ways to benefit ecosystem health and productivity. This initiative has over

30 ongoing studies with 20 Station scientists working with others from academia and state and federal agencies.

Current knowledge about disturbance on the east side is synthesized.

In fiscal year 2000, the initiative produced a synthesis of the current status of

knowledge of disturbance ecology and management on the east side of the

Cascade Range. A special edition of Northwest Science will publish a set of papers focusing on disturbance from insects, disease, fire, and grazing and their

effects on the ecosystem—including social and economic factors, management

of those agents, and effects of the management activities at multiple scales.

This synthesis of information for use by land managers indicates what treatment options exist, provides thresholds and other indicators of when treatments might be effective, and helps in weighing options.

Method can help restore vegetation patterns. A century of timber management, road construction and maintenance, and fire suppression and fire exclusion

has transformed patterns of forest landscapes. The initiative is developing knowledge of current landscape conditions and reference conditions so that spatial patterns of the most important changes can be characterized. This provides managers

with the ability to invest management resources strategically to modify patterns of

10 Initiative Accomplishments / Forest Health Initiative

Photos by Tom Iraci
Initiative Accomplishments / Sustainable Water Initiative 11

vegetation, habitats, fuel, and fire behavior to restore more natural vegetation

patterns and associated disturbance processes.

Technique measures downwood as both a risk for fire and a resource

for wildlife. New sampling techniques were developed for measuring down

log resources on the forest floor. It is a cost-efficient and precise sampling tool

that characterizes down wood as both a fire risk and a resource for wildlife and

soil development. Insect and disease outbreaks and wildfire often produce

large numbers of fallen trees and logs. Viewed in the past as only adding to the

risk of fire, down wood is now seen as a resource for soil development and

wildlife habitat. 

Changes in ecological and socioeconomic systems can be projected

under different forest management options. The initiative is producing analytical tools (called the interior landscape analysis system or INLAS) designed to project succession and disturbance dynamics across landscapes

and to project changes in ecological and socioeconomic systems under different forest management options across all ownership categories. The project focuses on the Blue Mountain watershed restoration demonstration

project, which includes more than 60 subwatersheds. The initiative will use

the upper Grande Ronde as its specific subwatershed. The national forests,

Oregon Department of Forestry, and Oregon State University are partners.

Sustainable Water Resource

Stewardship on Forested

Grassland Landscapes

This initiative examines the geographic and temporal aspects of hydrological systems affecting relatively large ecological and social systems. The

human dimension addresses emerging challenges posed by competing uses

and changing values, demographics, and technologies. From this, new approaches to sustainable management of water resources will be considered.

Four themes of research are being developed.

The spatial arrangement of water affects our ability to understand and

manage aquatic resources. Research is underway on the geography of water to depict water issues across large scales. This will help policymakers, water resource

managers, and others make choices based on an understanding of the distribution

of water production in relation to storage, geologic controls, climatic drivers, population and demographic trends, and water allocation infrastructure.

The causes and consequences of altered flow regimes to be studied.

Sound, contemporary water resource policy will benefit from those who make

the policy decisions having a comprehensive understanding and illustration of

the connections between social and ecological systems including regimes of

streamflow, sediment load, and water quality. This research will initially characterize flow regimes (annual and seasonal discharge, floods, and low flows)

and flow routing in forest landscapes under recent, unaltered conditions and

as modified by changes in upland and riparian vegetation, road networks,

reservoir management, and water extraction.

Recognize the competing demands, uses, and management opportunities to resolve conflict over water. To develop water resource strategies, a more

regional expression of the demands and uses for water (including attitudes and

values of users) is needed than currently exists. 

Tools and solutions for water sustainability. Conceptual and analytical

management tools will be developed to evaluate and help resolve competing

demands for water. Tools will include a synthesis of existing information on

effects, a critical analysis of existing allocation structures, and lessons learned in watershed councils.

A potential tool is being studied for integrating information into a model on the

location of water supplies, whose

water it is, and how much

there might be under various existing and potential water management strategies in

selected basins.
Program

Accomplishments

The programs are the organizational units by which almost all Station

research is conducted. They bring scientific expertise together to address

topics of concern to people who make and influence decisions about land

management. Programs produce scientific findings that improve fundamental understanding, describe trends, and provide options for management.

Several major efforts cross programs: the Interior Columbia Basin

Ecosystem Management Project, Northwest Forest Plan, and Tongass land

management plan. In 2000, the Station had three initiatives to address issues

and opportunities facing land managers: sustainable water, forest health, and

compatibility of wood production with other values.

12 Program Accomplishments 

Programs:

Ecosystem Processes

Aquatic and Land Interactions

People and Natural Resources

Social and Economic Values

Managing Disturbance Regimes

Resource Management and Productivity 

Forest Inventory and Analysis 
Ecosystem 

Processes Program

The mission of the Ecosystem Processes Program is to improve knowledge

of ecosystem processes at multiple scales for the forests of the Pacific Northwest,

the nation, and the globe and to develop approaches for applying this knowledge

to protect, use, and enhance forest resources for current and future generations. 

Program research addresses two goals central to achieving sustainable

ecosystems: understanding controls on ecological capacity and integrating societal needs with long-term ecological capacity. The program follows two primary

research approaches: (1) inquiry into fundamental processes of ecosystem function and (2) applying understanding of those processes to difficult and persistent issues relating to the sustainable use of our nation's forest resources.

Various ecosystem studies are conducted at scales ranging from microsites

to regions. Integrating studies at various scales is increasingly emphasized.

Examining ecosystem functions and patterns at different scales yields better understanding of both how the smaller pieces contribute to the whole, and how the

larger scale processes impact smaller areas (small watersheds, individual sites,

etc.). A key study involves integrating remotely sensed data with ecological modeling to forecast future conditions in the Oregon Coast Range under different

land management policies. Such work helps land managers understand and

communicate about the consequences of their actions.

Considerable research is being conducted within the Ecosystem Processes

Program that directly supports ongoing improvements in land management.

By developing a better understanding of how forests function as ecological systems, scientists are giving managers a more sophisticated set of tools, whereby

both structures and processes can be manipulated to meet sustainability objectives. This more holistic approach to management results in less unforeseen

problems and identification of more opportunities to achieve desired results.

For example, research is being pursued to understand how management of

both forest structure and successional processes (rather than structure alone)

can accelerate the recovery of certain old-growth functions in second-growth

stands. Other research within the Ecosystem Processes Program addresses the

need for adaptive management by developing protocols for monitoring key

features of ecosystems and by interpreting the results of such monitoring for

land managers.

Ecosystem Processes Program 13
Key Scientific Findings ✦ Multiple scales important in ecosystem management 

Choosing to emphasize a particular scale for land management can

lead to unforeseen consequences and lost opportunities. Understanding

ecosystem processes, interactions, and the hierarchical nature of self-organizing systems can make management more sustainable and effective.

✦ Type of thinning affects understory biodiversity

Conventional thinnings can have unintended consequences by 

favoring aggressive exotic understory species. Variable-density thinning

shows promise as part of holistic silvicultural systems applied across

landscapes as a restoration technique in second-growth forests.

✦ Legacies of the Vashon glaciation: we are losing them

The Vashon Stade of the continental glaciation more than 15,000

years ago left a complex set of soil conditions in the Puget Trough that

with the sheltering effects of mountain ranges, the climate-moderating

influence of Puget Sound, and management by indigenous peoples,

produce a diverse mosaic of oak woodlands, ponderosa-pine savannahs, kettle wetlands, and riparian hardwoods in a matrix of lowland

Douglas-fir forests. Urbanization and agriculture destroyed much of

this mosaic; invasion by exotic plants and exclusion of wildfire has 

degraded the remnants.

✦ Terrestrial amphibians occur in both managed and unmanaged forests

Terrestrial amphibians occurring in old forests also occurred in

managed forests in a western Washington study. Silvicultural strategies

that increase the percentage of rotation-age (older) forests in managed

landscapes likely will enhance the long-term habitat quality of intensively managed forest landscapes for terrestrial amphibians.

✦ Old-growth structure may not develop from present-day 

closed-canopy second-growth stands

Because of the importance of canopy gaps for the recruitment of

western hemlock, uniformly closed-canopy second-growth stands may

not develop multilayered canopies, such as those characteristic of old

growth. 

Photo by Tom Iraci

14 Ecosystem Processes Program
Old-growth forests are a primary component of our research. One facet

of old forests that is receiving considerable attention is the forest canopy, with

its important habitat functions for birds, small mammals, lichens, and

bryophytes. A novel research approach is the use of a construction crane, carefully erected in an old-growth forest to provide scientists with access to the forest canopy. Safely stowed in a "bucket" dangling from the crane’s cables,

scientists can study the full range of organisms that inhabit various canopy layers of the oldest trees. In addition, the crane has provided access to scientists

studying carbon storage and uptake in old-growth forests, through the installation of sophisticated gas flux measurement tools (in cooperation with the

Department of Energy). Preliminary results suggest that old-growth forests

may continue to take up and store carbon much longer than was previously

thought. This finding is of particular interest given the debate over possible

global warming. Another area of research related to global climate issues is the

potential for boreal forests and tundra systems to function as "early warning"

sites, where rapid changes occur first during a period of change in climate and

fire regimes.

Biodiversity is an important focus of our research. Key studies of organisms and their habitats are being conducted, including well-known species of

concern (such as spotted owls and marbled murrelets) and also the less-familiar fungi, amphibians, and other small creatures. Studies about how various

species participate in overall ecosystem function are underway, as are studies of

sustainable harvest of certain organisms (for example, edible mushrooms).

Another array of studies is examining how belowground organisms interact

with soil-forming processes and effect soil fertility. 

What scale of management (stand, landscape,

or region) is most appropriate?

Analysis of fine-scale variation in natural and managed forests, retrospective examination of historical stand management strategies, studies of wildlife responses to landscape mosaics, experimental manipulation of habitats, and

simulations of landscape management alternatives have demonstrated a hierarchy of ecosystem functions occurring along a continuum of spatial and temporal scales. Emphasizing a single scale in land management ignores these interscale

links, and precludes an efficient, holistic approach. Working with an understanding of ecosystem processes and interactions and the hierarchical nature of

self-organizing systems can increase the effectiveness of forest management.

Management that begins with emphasis on fine-scale heterogeneity and biocomplexity, and proceeds to larger scale processes that structure biotic communities, holds promise for sustainably providing both forest products and

environmental services.

Key old-growth features and processes 

can be achieved in second growth through 

silviculture

Old-growth forests are known for their capacity to support complex trophic pathways for diverse organisms, including spotted owls and other predators,

squirrels and other prey, and plants, fungi, and insects that support abundant

prey. Four structuring processes (crown-class differentiation, canopy stratificaEcosystem Processes Program 15

Photo by Tom Iraci
tion, understory development, and decadence) contribute to this productive biocomplexity and associated ecological services by creating spatial heterogeneity.

Silvicultural methods can be used to re-create the productive mosaic of vegetation associated with late-seral vegetation, through manipulation of crown-class

differentiation, canopy stratification, and understory development processes.

The process of decadence requires legacy retention and active management not

yet commonly practiced. Moving away from managing for particular structures

to managing ecosystem processes can result in achieving elements of the same

synergy among ecosystem components in second-growth forests that is achieved

naturally in many old-growth forests.

Type of thinning affects 

understory biodiversity

Thinning second growth to conserve biodiversity has been proposed by

foresters and conservation biologists. Conventional thinnings, however, can unintentionally favor aggressive, clonal native or exotic species by homogenizing

light and moisture conditions and disturbing the soil. This potentially can result

in degradation of plant community composition.

Conventional thinnings can favor aggressive, 

clonal native species and promote invasion by aggressive

exotic species: variable-density thinning may provide

a new option for restoration efforts.

Variable-density thinning in a western Washington study initially resulted in

overall decreased understory cover, increased importance of 11 exotics and 20

natives (including 2 trees), and decreased importance of 2 native species.

Within 3 years, understory cover recovered, and species richness increased by

>150 percent. Increases in abundance of four exotics and eight natives were

observed, whereas seven natives declined in abundance. Variable-density thinning shows promise as part of holistic silvicultural systems applied across landscapes throughout stand rotations and as a restoration technique for

second-growth forests.

16 Ecosystem Processes Program

Photos by Joe Kraft

DBH class (cm)

Percentage of trees in each diameter class
Thinning benefits

winter birds in

Washington

Wintering birds are one

of several groups of species

most likely to be influenced by

forest management activities.

We compared species richness

and proportion of stand area

used over time by wintering

birds in 16 second-growth

Douglas-fir stands subjected

to various silvicultural treatments. Treatments included

retention of legacies (large

live, dead, and fallen trees

from the previous old-growth

stand) with long rotations,

management for high-quality timber with multiple

thinnings and removal of

defective trees, and variabledensity thinning (thinning

with gaps). The latter were

designed to reduce intertree

competition and foster increased availability of light, moisture nutrients to understory species; to

replicate the within-stand spatial heterogeneity found in old-growth

forests; and to accelerate development of a diversity of habitats.

Proportion of area used and number of wintering bird species increased

with variable-density thinnings. No species exhibited higher use of unthinned stands over thinned stands. Variable-density thinnings, in conjunction with other conservation measures (legacy retention, decadence

management, and long rotations), is likely to provide habitat for abundant

and diverse bird populations.

Legacies of the Vashon 

glaciation: we are losing them

The Vashon Stade of the continental glaciation more than 15,000

years ago left a complex set of soil conditions in the Puget Trough that interacted with the sheltering effects of mountain ranges, the climate-moderating influence of Puget Sound, and management by indigenous peoples to

produce a mosaic of oak woodlands, ponderosa pine savannahs, kettle wetlands, riparian hardwoods, and Douglas-fir forests. This mosaic provided

habitat for diverse species, some of which are now rare; for example, the

small-flowered trillium, the western pond turtle, and the western gray

squirrel. 

Urbanization and agriculture has obliterated much of this mosaic.

Small remnants are protected within a few reserves; the largest is at the Fort

Lewis Military Reservation of the U.S. Army. 

Invasion by exotic plants and exclusion of wildfire throughout the

Puget Trough has degraded most of these remnants, and attempts to restore

them are threatened by relentless nonnative invaders such as Scot’s broom.

The large-scale mosaic of diverse habitats that was sustained in presettlement times by a variable fire regime has been substantially lost from the

Puget Trough ecosystem.

Summer differences among arctic 

ecosystems matter in regional climate 

Arctic vegetation has been considered to be sufficiently uniform that

only a single land surface type is sufficient for use in climate models. Field

measurements in northern Alaska, however, indicate large differences among

arctic ecosystem types in summer energy absorption and partitioning.

Simulations with a regionally based climate model (arctic regional climate

system model) demonstrate that these variations in land surface parameters

and ecological processes cause variation in surface drivers that is sufficiently

large to affect regional climate. Changes in arctic and boreal vegetation in response to high-latitude warming would feed back positively to local summer

warming.

Ecosystem Processes Program 17

Wintering birds such as the black-capped chickadee

benefit from thinning.

Image from Corel Professional Photo CD-ROM series.
Different species of morels fruit at

different times

Morels are the most collected mushrooms in the intermountain West.

Sustainable management of morel harvest requires knowledge about both the biology of the organisms and their response to natural and human disturbances. In collaboration with Oregon State University and Portland State University scientists,

stand-level estimates of morel productivity were derived for wildfire- and insectkilled stands, and for undisturbed healthy forests. Results showed that different

species of morels (most not yet named) fruited in the same habitat, but at different

times, depending on the type of disturbance. Given the diversity of morel species,

their variety of ecological adaptations, and distinctive fruiting behaviors in response

to episodic disturbance, defining sustainable levels of harvest will be challenging.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi are key elements

of biodiversity in managed Douglas-fir forests

Ectomycorrhizal fungi provide essential nutrients to forest tree species and are

a food resource for large and small mammals, mollusks, and arthropods.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi depend on particular plant species and habitat conditions,

such as tree age and soil qualities for survival; these factors can be significantly altered by disturbance and forest succession. In turn, these changes in the ectomycorrhizal fungal community affect plant community development and the animals

dependent on mushrooms and truffles for food. Results of a recent 4-year study in 

the Cascade Range of Oregon show that the average number of mushroom and

truffle species was similar between old-growth and young managed stands of

Douglas-fir. About a third of the total species found, however, were unique to a

particular forest age class. A small number of species were dominant, and forest age

classes differed in the abundance of species shared in common. Mushroom and

truffle production was less in stands of old-growth compared to young. These results suggest that all age classes of forests are critical for maintaining the biodiversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi, the organisms they support, and ecosystem function.

Diverse age classes of forests are critical for maintaining 

the biodiversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi.

18 Ecosystem Processes Program

Given the complexity of the morel species, defining sustainable levels of harvest is challenging.

Photo by Randy Molina

Average cumulative no. of species by age class

Sporocarp type Total no. of species Old-growth Young

Mushrooms 216 63 58

(55, 70) (50, 65)

Truffles 48 17 17

(12, 22) (12, 23)

Numbers in parentheses are 95 percent confidence intervals.

Table 1. Total number of species and average cumulative numbers of species by

forest age class.
Monitoring methods for marbled murrelets 

are being refined

Over the past 5 years, Pacific Northwest (PNW) Research Station scientists

and cooperators from the Pacific Southwest Research Station and state agencies

have collaborated as an "at-sea monitoring group" for marbled murrelets in

coastal waters of California, Oregon, and Washington. Preliminary work emphasized testing details of survey methods. Based on these tests, the at-sea monitoring group developed a detailed survey protocol and, in 2000, implemented

this protocol over the coastline of the three states. 

The PNW Research Station led a survey of Puget Sound waters, a complex

area with over 1,158 square miles of surveyable water. Based on a preliminary

analysis of data for 2000, an average density of 0.4 marbled murrelets per square

mile was estimated, which translates to a population of about 1,200 birds (+/-

600 birds). We will refine our analytical techniques and assess whether the survey design will sufficiently detect long-term population trends.

Terrestrial amphibians occur in intensively

managed forests of western Washington

Based on previous work showing that old, natural forests provide high-quality habitat for amphibians in western Washington (probably because of abundant

key habitat elements), it was hypothesized that intensively managed forests would

provide poorer habitat because of reductions in logs, snags, litter, and organic soil layers. To test this hypothesis, amphibians were sampled for 3 consecutive years in four different age-structure classes of commercial forests managed

primarily for timber production in western Washington: clearcut (2 to 3 years

since harvest), precanopy (12- to 20-year-old precommercially thinned stands),

closed-canopy (30- to 40-year-old forests in the stem-exclusion phase of forest development), and rotation-age (50- to 70-year-old, commercially thinned stands

ready to be harvested). Results showed that all amphibians found in old mature

forests also were found in the managed forests. Amphibian abundance was not

strongly influenced by amounts of coarse woody debris. Closed-canopy stands

contained fewer species than other seral stages; rotation-age stands had the highest diversity and abundance. Increasing the proportion of the landscape in rotation age (or older) stands appears to enhance the resilience of amphibian

populations.

In western Washington studies, amphibians found in old

mature forests also were found in managed forests.

Timber harvests significantly increase 

sediment transport in small watersheds

Despite decades of paired-watershed studies in small experimental catchments worldwide, the magnitude, persistence, and mechanisms responsible for

peak-flow changes after timber harvest are still uncertain. Few studies have evaluated the geomorphic response to observed peak-flow changes--a question of

great interest in interpreting potential downstream consequences of forest management on channels and ecosystems. Interpreting the geomorphic effects of increases in peak flow is confounded by the fact that timber harvest typically

influences both the hydrologic regime and sediment supply of a watershed,

thereby making it difficult to isolate the peak-flow effect. 

In collaboration with Oregon State University, a novel approach to this

problem was developed by using paired-watershed data to predict streamflow response in the absence of cutting. This predicted hydrology was combined with

Ecosystem Processes Program 19

Roughly 1,200 (+/- 600) marbled murrelets are estimated to live in Puget Sound. 

Photo by Diane Evans Mack
observed relations between discharge and sediment transport to disentangle

the relative effects of changes in hydrology and sediment supply. Results indicate that although peak-flow increases alone can account for modest increases in both suspended and bedload transport, the peak-flow effect is

dwarfed by the increased supply of sediment accompanying most timber

harvest.

Sources of turbidity are concentrated 

in particular landforms and watersheds 

An emerging issue is the effects of logging and road construction on municipal water quality. Recent floods have heightened concern, as cities and water

treatment plants try to cope with extraordinary sediment loads and persistent

turbidity. The links among sediment production and transport, forest practices, 

reservoir operations, and downstream sediment and turbidity are being examined in the Willamette River drainage. 

Diffraction revealed by X-ray that smectite, primarily derived from

active or inactive earth flows, is the primary clay mineral contributing to

turbidity in downstream reaches. Downstream turbidity reflects a complex interplay among widely distributed source areas and processes delivering sediment to the channel and movement of sediment downstream. 

Forest practices may accelerate some sources (notably shallow landslides) but have limited effect on others (such as, earth flows). Reservoir

operation exerts a major control on persistent downstream turbidity by

both catching and storing sediment-laden waters during floods and then

releasing turbid waters for prolonged periods after the event. Reducing

risk to municipal water supplies during floods requires placing forest land

use activities within this larger context of reservoir regulation, water

treatment capacity, and frequency of flooding. Cooperators in this effort

include Oregon State University, University of Washington, and

EcoNorthwest.

Windthrow affects stream chemistry 

and temperature

A 4-year study of the effects of windthrow on streamflow and water chemistry in southeast Alaska was completed in cooperation with Oregon State

University and the Tongass National Forest.

Initial results suggest that mixing of soil horizons increases the

flow of water into mineral soil horizons and bedrock cracks. Lack of

mixing leads to thick organic horizons; resulting streamwater is highly

enriched in dissolved organic carbon, is 100 times more acidic, and has

about 20 percent of the base cations in solution relative to water from

watersheds with more windthrow. Small differences in peak flows were

noted; they were faster in less disturbed watersheds. A stream temperature effect was noted; mixing causes more contact between water and

deeper soils and bedrock, thereby leading to lower stream temperatures

in summer and higher temperatures in winter relative to undisturbed

Forest practices may accelerate some sources of turbidity but have limited effects watersheds.

on other sources.

Photo by Tom Iraci

20 Ecosystem Processes Program
Regional patterns of deadwood in Washington

and Oregon are influenced by climate and 

disturbances

Until now, little has been known about how characteristics of dead wood

differ across broad regions encompassing a range of ecological conditions and

disturbance histories. An analysis of deadwood patterns in Oregon and

Washington was recently completed by using field measurements collected on

over 16,000 plots from forest inventories across all ownerships. 

The strongest differences in deadwood were between habitat types that reflected strong regional gradients in physical environment. Within habitats, snags

and down wood generally increased with forest succession. Snag levels more

closely tracked recent disturbance and forest succession, whereas down wood

was more strongly associated with long-term history and site productivity. Large

snags were more than twice as dense in unharvested than in harvested forests.

Down wood abundance was similar in harvested and unharvested forests except

at high elevations, where volume was greater in harvested forests. The regional

summaries of deadwood are being integrated into the DecAID advisory model

for forest managers.

Old growth may not develop from present-day

closed-canopy stands lacking a western 

hemlock seed source

Western hemlock, a fire-sensitive, late-seral tree species, is generally an important component of old forests west of the Cascade crest, but is scarce or absent in many mature forests in the Oregon Coast Range. Low abundance of

western hemlock could be problematic in stands where the management objective is to encourage development of late-successional forest characteristics. 

We used a simulation model to explore the hypothesis that the patchy distribution of western hemlock is a result of historical fire patterns and seed source

limitations. The model showed that western hemlock populations were not only

highly sensitive to variations in fire-return interval and fire severity but also to

frequency of canopy gaps and probability of recruitment in canopy gaps. Short

periods of high fire frequency caused rapid and persistent declines in the amount

of western hemlock on the simulated landscapes. With the seed source limited

by large-scale disturbance, gap-scale factors such as resource levels, substrate

availability, and competition from other plants had relatively little influence on

distribution of western hemlock. 

Frequency and pattern of fire ultimately may thus control western hemlock

abundance distribution at the landscape scale. Current low levels of western hemlock in the Coast Ranges probably result from frequent fires that occurred in the

late 19th and early 20th centuries. Because of the slow rate of western hemlock

dispersal through uniformly closed-canopy forests, these young to mature stands

may not develop the multilayered canopies characteristic of old growth within the

timeframes of current management plans. To obtain accurate projections of future landscape conditions, researchers need to better integrate the influences of

disturbance and dispersal into existing models of forest dynamics.

Ecosystem Processes Program 21

Frequency and pattern of fire ultimately may control western hemlock abundance 

at the landscape scale. 

Photo by Tom Iraci
Canopy gaps increase diversity 

in plant communities even in old forests

Understanding how species diversity and spatial heterogeneity develop in

forests is important to developing management systems to maintain diversity.

Studies in eastern deciduous and tropical forests indicate that small canopy gap

disturbances are important to the development and function of these ecosystems. 

In 1990, small gaps of different sizes were created in Douglas-fir/western

hemlock forests. The growth and establishment of plant species were followed in

these gaps and controls for 10 years. Results suggest that small disturbances play

an important role in the development of structure, species diversity, and spatial

heterogeneity. Increases in species richness resulted from both invading "weedy"

species and forest species. Changes were greater in hemlock-dominated stands 

than in those dominated by Douglas-fir. Cover and diversity increased with gap

size up to gaps where diameters were 40 percent of the canopy height. Beyond

40 percent, increasing gap size had less effect than it did in small gap sizes.

Natural processes such as disease and windthrow 

create the heterogeneity of natural forest that many 

managers seek.

Gaps may be especially important in hemlock-dominated stands where

dense canopies and root systems can suppress understory development. The diversity of young conifer plantations may be enhanced through creation of small

gaps during thinning operations. Natural processes such as disease and windthrow, which traditionally have been viewed in a negative light, are now seen as

creating the heterogeneity of natural forests that many managers seek.

Squirrels cannot live by truffles alone

Forest squirrels in the Pacific Northwest are known for their avid consumption of truffles and their dissemination of the spores of these fungi that are

so important to the growth of many conifers. But the ability of squirrels to be

disseminators depends on more than just the abundance of truffles. Truffles

alone actually make for a poor, barely subsistence, diet. Other foods, such as

seeds, nuts, buds, and catkins, provide the extra energy and nutrients necessary

for high populations. 

Douglas’ squirrels eat the seeds of Douglas-fir and, especially avidly,

California hazel and bigleaf maple. Townsend’s chipmunks eat fir seed, but also

eat berries and maple seed. Flying squirrels eat mushrooms, poplar catkins, and

maple seeds. Large populations of several species of small mammals are associated with maples. Retention of deciduous shrubs and trees in judicious amounts

in conifer forests can greatly affect (1) the size of small-mammal populations

maintained; (2) the ability of small mammals to play their roles as prey, predators on insects, and disseminators of seeds and spores; and (3) the contribution

of second-growth stands to the landscape carrying capacity for top predators

such as the spotted owl, American marten, and long-tailed weasel.

22 Ecosystem Processes Program

Gaps may be especially important in hemlock-dominated stands. 

Photo by Tom Iraci
Ecosystem Processes Program 23

Small mammals, such as the

flying squirrel, disseminate

spores, which is important to

the growth of many conifers.

Large populations of several species of small mammals, such as Douglas’ and flying squirrels, Townsend’s chipmunks, martens, and weasels are associated with maple trees.

Bottom photo by Tom Iraci
Aquatic and Land 

Interactions Program

The mission of the Aquatic and Land Interactions Program is to increase

understanding of the effects of natural processes and human activities on the

interaction between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, with emphasis on understanding the effects of land management on watershed processes and associated biota in the Pacific Northwest.

The program also develops assessment tools to assist managers and decisionmakers in achieving sustainability at multiple spatial and temporal scales.

The scope and scale of natural resources research includes site- and process-specific studies that fill narrow gaps in knowledge, as well as watershed- and landscape-scale studies that address processes, functions, and structure of ecosystems.

An important element of the program mission is to discover general relations and processes not limited to a specific geographic locality. Applications of

the research will be most direct within the region where the work was done, but

much of the knowledge will be broadly applicable and transferable to other geographic regions and ecosystems.

24 Aquatic and Land Interactions Program
Watersheds are important units for understanding the use and

management of water and the associated land. Because water is a

strategic national resource and sustainable use of water resources is

a national priority, watershed management decisions should be

based on the best possible science. The program and scientists have

been acquiring fundamental basic knowledge of physical and biological processes to understand how these components, along with

economic and social processes, operate together within watersheds.

The role of natural physical processes (for example, landslides, waterflow, debris movement, and volcanic eruptions) and human influences (for example, land use practices, road building, timber

harvest, and resources subsistence) on the physical and biological

components of watersheds is being researched (rate of disturbance

and organism life history and population dynamics including amphibians, beavers, salmonids, small mammals, and birds). 

Habitats from the headwaters to flood-plain forests exhibit

various physical and biological characteristics. Despite the absence

of fishes in headwaters, these areas are important for the production of aquatic insects for organisms downstream, including amphibians and salmonids. Waterflow over and through soils

influences the transfer of sediments and nutrients to adjacent land

and water bodies and is critical to the productivity of aquatic and

terrestrial organisms. In addition, flood plains and riparian areas

can provide important habitat for small mammals and birds. In

general, watershed productivity can be maintained by ensuring the

link among land, fresh water, and ultimately marine systems.

Science issues continue to be linked to policy development.

Scientists have, for example, provided information to those who manage

land on approaches to road-impact assessment, mitigation, and restoration by quantifying the complexity of road and ground-water interactions. Similarly, through decision-support models, scientists and local

experts have developed an aquatic riparian effectiveness monitoring plan

to evaluate the condition of aquatic ecosystems. This plan is an important

component of the Northwest Forest Plan. Scientists within the program

continue to transfer and share information with federal, state, tribal, university, and others to ensure a continuous connection of science to local,

regional, and national needs. 

Aquatic and Land Interactions Program 25

Key Scientific Findings

✦ Beaver ponds provide important overwinter habitat for juvenile coho

salmon

In a study, in which fish were marked and tracked, a fall sample found

3,000 juvenile coho salmon in slough and beaver pond habitats versus less

than 100 found in the main stream.

✦ Fish and amphibian populations respond differently to forest management 

in riparian areas of the Pacific coast rain forest

Condition of riparian buffers did not strongly affect fish abundance 

or richness of aquatic vertebrate species in headwater streams on the

Olympic Peninsula. Some amphibians were adaptable to ecological perturbations, and others were more sensitive to disturbances.

✦ Flood-plain forests are productive habitats for wildlife, and riparian forest 

reserves may be important for maintaining some endemic small-mammal 

populations

Study results indicate that habitat heterogeneity within flood-plain

forests is a major factor affecting their quality as habitat for wildlife.

✦ Quantifying the complexity of road and ground-water interactions serves 

to better inform those needing to choose among management approaches

to road-impact assessment, mitigation, and restoration

Information about the effects of roads on ground water is essential for

determining overall impact of a transportation system on the hydrologic

function of a watershed. Such information is needed for ecological, watershed, fish habitat, and buffer strip analyses and is necessary input for optimizing transportation system development.

✦ The aquatic riparian effectiveness monitoring plan for the Northwest

Forest Plan will provide a valuable tool for managing and restoring aquatic ecosystems

In addition to being useful for assessing ecosystem condition, 

output from effectiveness monitoring models identified the variables

having the greatest influence on existing aquatic conditions, which can

be used in setting priorities for restoration efforts. Output also can be

used to select which watershed should receive highest priority for

restoration.
Beaver ponds and sloughs important 

to over-winter habitat 

Beaver have been described as a “keystone” species, and their ability to alter

ecosystems is apparent in many watersheds in southeast Alaska and throughout

the world. The factors affecting recruitment of fish into beaver ponds and the

productivity and suitability of these ponds as rearing habitat for juvenile

salmonids are not well understood. 

During spring, marked fish were recovered to determine movement.

Juvenile coho salmon were found in about the same numbers in pond, slough,

and main-stream habitats during summer. Differences appeared in age classes of

coho salmon with few coho salmon fry (age 0) found in beaver ponds. More juvenile (age 1+) coho salmon were found in ponds during midsummer. During

the fall sample, less than 100 juvenile coho salmon (age 1+) were found in the

stream; however, more than 3,000 juvenile coho salmon were found in slough

and beaver pond habitats. More than 150 fish marked in the main stream during fall 1998 were recaptured in pond and slough habitats during spring 1999,

whereas fewer than 5 fish marked in the pond were recaptured in the stream during the same period.

The movement pattern and hydrologic cycle suggests that fish movement

is closely linked to fall flood patterns that connect the main stream to offchannel habitats, such as beaver ponds and sloughs. Study results strongly

imply that beaver ponds provide important over-winter habitat.

Buffers not strongly influencing fish 

or amphibians

Field work was completed on 62 study sites in six forest management stand

types ranging from unmanaged old growth to young forests to those with variable buffers on Washington’s Olympic Peninsula. Most of the streams were

small headwater streams, 6 to 20 feet wide; a few larger stream sites were 20 to

31 feet wide.

Condition of riparian buffers did not strongly affect abundance of fishes or

the richness of aquatic vertebrate species in headwater streams on the Olympic

Peninsula. Fish population densities were highly variable from site to site and

probably were influenced more by the presence or absence of recent large disturbances than by the width and age of adjacent forest.

Some amphibians are adaptable generalists, whereas others are more sensitive to ecological perturbation resulting from timber harvest. The study suggests

that Van Dyke’s salamander,

tailed frogs, and Olympic

torrent salamanders may be

the species most at risk from

timber harvest in headwater

streams and associated riparian zones. Buffers along

streams (pre-Northwest Forest Plan prescriptions) are

generally ineffective at maintaining amphibian populations, although a buffer of

old trees would sometimes

provide refugia for animals

and could be valuable for recolonization. 

Forest reserves

may maintain 

viability of some

small mammals 

Flood-plain forests are

among the most species-rich

and productive habitats for

plants and animals, and yet

little is known about the ecological mechanisms responsible for their high levels of richness and productivity. Riparian habitats comprise relatively small proportions of landscapes and are

sensitive to the effects of timber management and road construction. Effects of

forest management therefore may be much greater in riparian than in upland

habitats.

Riparian forests are strongly affected by flood disturbance, and ecological

links between riparian and upland habitats have been hypothesized as being especially important in maintaining viability of populations of riparian wildlife.

Results of two 4-year studies of ecology and population dynamics of the Sitka

mouse in riparian and upland forests of Alaska did not indicate, however, that

links among these habitats are important for population viability.

26 Aquatic and Land Interactions Program

Fish and amphibian populations response to forest management is studied in Pacific coast rain forests. 

Photo by Tom Iraci
Riparian flood-plain habitats support abundant and productive populations of mice with little or no movement between upland habitats, despite frequent inundation by floodwaters. Food resources differ significantly in species

composition between riparian and upland habitats but do not differ in relative

abundance and quality. Food resources and mice populations fluctuate markedly between years. Results indicate that habitat heterogeneity within flood-plain

forests is a major factor affecting their quality as habitat for wildlife, and riparian forest reserves may be sufficient for maintaining population viability of some

endemic small mammals.

Interaction between forest roads and ground

water is complex and important

Roads on forest and other public lands can be a concern for managers

because of their effects on the dynamics of ground water and streamflow.

Road surfaces are relatively impermeable to rainfall, thereby causing rainwater to collect in a ditch. Water from road ditches is commonly routed

through culverts to the hillslope below or to stream channels. This concentration of water can reduce hillslope stability through soil saturation or increasing peak flows.

Scientists have determined that road cuts and ditches can intercept up to

100 percent of the rain falling on the upslope contributing area, thereby functioning as a small stream channel. Further routing of this water, however, is difficult to predict because it depends on local conditions and road construction

methods and materials. Where effects are measurable, they seem to be small and

limited to a distance of about 30 feet upslope and downslope of the road.

Understanding the effects of roads on ground water is important for determining the overall impact of a transportation system on the hydrologic

function of a watershed. This information is needed for ecological, watershed,

fish habitat, and buffer strip analyses and is necessary input for optimizing

transportation system development activities. Quantifying the complexity of

road and ground-water interactions provides helpful information to those

needing to choose management approaches to road-impact assessment, mitigation, and restoration.

Aquatic and Land Interactions Program 27

Quantification of road and ground-water interactions is important to those needing 

to make management decisions. 

Photo by Peter Rosen

Sitka mouse in riparian forests of Alaska.
Monitoring can help set 

restoration priorities 

Effectiveness monitoring is a cornerstone of the Northwest Forest Plan.

The aquatic riparian component focuses on the condition of aquatic ecosystems

and how it would change over time. The effectiveness monitoring plan assesses

the condition of aquatic ecosystems through decision-support models. The

models are built by scientists and local and provincial experts from empirical

data and expert opinion. They allow several variables to be considered concurrently and the aggregate of them to be assessed. This differs from previous methods where aquatic variables were considered separately. 

The decision-support models will be useful to managers and regulators

well beyond effectiveness monitoring. Besides assessing ecosystem condition, 

output from the models identified what variables had the greatest influence on 

Decision-support models identified what variables

had the greatest influences on existing

aquatic conditions.

existing aquatic condition. This information can be used to set priorities for

restoration efforts in a given watershed. Output from the assessment models also

can be used to determine which watersheds should receive high priority for

restoration. Work with decision-support models was done in partnership with

the Bureau of Land Management, National Marine Fisheries Service,

Environmental Protection Agency, and the Regional Ecosystem Office.

28 Aquatic and Land Interactions Program

Decision-support models allow managers and regulators to consider several variables concurrently and assess the aggregate of those variables.
Relations between resident and 

anadromous trout differ among river basins 

Rainbow trout exhibit two life histories. Resident rainbow trout migrate

within a river system. Steelhead trout are anadromous, migrating to the ocean to

grow and mature and returning to fresh water to reproduce. Interactions between the two life histories are mostly unknown. Understanding the relation is

important because resident fish may be able to contribute to the recovery of depressed steelhead populations. 

In the Deschutes River in central Oregon, interactions between the two

life histories were absent. Resident rainbow trout spawned later, in shallower water with smaller gravel, than did steelhead trout. Additionally, examination of the chemistry of the otolith (a small bone in the head of the fish)

found no evidence of one life history producing both types of offspring.

Otolith analysis from the Babine River, British Columbia, showed a different pattern. There, resident rainbow trout produced steelhead offspring and

vice versa.

Results from this study have implications for managing populations of

resident rainbow trout and for developing recovery plans for depressed steelhead trout populations. Resident rainbow trout might contribute to the recovery of steelhead in some situations. Where rainbow trout can contribute

to steelhead recovery, rainbow trout populations and their habitat must be

maintained in good condition.

Distinct assemblages of aquatic vertebrates

occur in headwater streams

Small headwater streams comprise a large portion of the stream

length in Pacific Northwest watersheds. They receive much attention because riparian buffers are required by the Northwest Forest Plan and

“survey and manage” requirements for species surveys. Scientists from

the Station, in partnership with the Bureau of Land Management, examined the types of organisms and habitats found in headwater streams in

western Oregon. Several distinct assemblages of aquatic vertebrates were

found. The protected torrent salamanders consistently were found in

managed forests in upper portions of headwater streams with discontinuous and intermittent channels. These streams also contained a greater

diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates than did other headwater

streams. The number of amphibians was greater near the stream (12)

than in adjacent upslope areas (2). There was greater physical habitat diversity and complexity and less variation in microclimate in and near the

stream than upslope.

Results from this study provide insight into potential options for

managing riparian zones along headwater streams. They also contribute

to the development of recommendations for inventorying and monitoring protocols and programs.

Aquatic and Land Interactions Program 29

In some situations, rainbow trout can contribute to steelhead recovery.

Photo by Brian O’Keefe
Field workshop marks the 20th anniversary 

of the eruption of Mount St. Helens 

May 18, 2000, marked the 20th anniversary of the 1980 eruption of

Mount St. Helens. During this anniversary year, the Pacific Northwest

(PNW) Research Station organized several activities that provided an updated assessment of 20 years of biological research at the volcano and promoted future research. One of the events contributing to this effort was a

scientific workshop, at which 70 scientists and their crews, representing 14

universities and several state and federal agencies, participated in a weeklong, field campaign from July 23 to 29. Scientists obtained 20-year benchmark measurements, shared research results, planned synthesis efforts, and

discussed future research opportunities. Forty scientists participated in a 1-

day tour of long-term study site locations to discuss their findings with the

group.

Huckleberry land exchange: 

initial study describes how large 

woody debris enters streams

In 1998, Weyerhaeuser and the USDA Forest Service completed a land-exchange agreement for lands in Weyerhaeuser’s Cascade operating region of

Washington. With the cooperation of the Cascade region staff, the PNW

Research Station and the Weyerhaeuser Western Timberlands Research group

initiated several stream and riparian studies in the upper Green River watershed.

The primary objectives of this research are to (1) provide an increased understanding of the fundamental relations between mature conifer-dominated riparian stands and adjacent aquatic systems (validation monitoring), (2) evaluate the

effectiveness of current riparian management prescriptions in maintaining desired conditions and meeting resource objectives (effectiveness monitoring), and

(3) provide a foundation for additional research in other areas. 

To assess the relation between aquatic systems and associated riparian areas,

channel unit, and large woody debris, scientists collected data on four study

streams. 

Reach Total Pieces per Average piece

Stream length pieces channel width diameter

Feet Inches

Humphrey 1,801 506 6.4 14.0

Sweeney 1,414 251 3.8 16.5

Gold 2,247 358 3.2 14.7

Wolf 817 211 7.6 17.8

Initial data suggest that a greater proportion of large woody debris is

recruited from areas closer to the channel. Within our study reaches, 92

percent of the source trees identified occurred within 66 feet of the stream.

Among source trees identified as having contributed large woody debris to

the channel, 61 percent had fallen because of windthrow (tree uprooted,

not owing to undercutting by stream). The relative contribution of wood

delivered by each recruitment mechanism differed with distance from the

stream channel. In the immediate vicinity of the stream channel (<15 feet),

undercutting and windthrow accounted for 89 percent of large woody debris re30 Aquatic and Land Interactions Program

Photo by Charlie Crisafulli
cruitment. Farther from the channel, windthrow and breakage were the dominant

mechanisms. Future harvest prescriptions will be guided by forest and fish legislation

(Washington) or supplemental agreements related to the Huckleberry land exchange.

Ecological processes of riparian forests 

surrounding streams 

Stewardship of water and

aquatic resources requires an understanding of the biological diversity, nutrient exchange, and

links to riparian forests found in

the zones of surface-subsurface

water exchange (hyporheic

zones) surrounding streams on

public lands. In many floodplain forests adjacent to streams,

extensive exchange zones link

stream surface water with subsurface volumes beneath.

Recently, the importance of

marine-derived nutrients from

returning salmon that spawn

and die in streams has been recognized. Scientists, working

with partners, are beginning to

understand hyporheic transfer

of marine- derived nutrients in

Alaska streams. Within streams

containing sockeye in the

Wood River Lakes region of

southwest Alaska, time of residence in the water in the hyporheic zone ranges from 24 to

48 hours, and uptake and retention of dissolved forms of nitrogen are high. Rapid removal of salmon biomass by

bear and other predators seems to eliminate marine-derived nutrients before it enters

the hyporheic zone or the streamwater in large amounts. Nitrogen transfers from upland alder forests seem to be more important than marine nitrogen; however, marine

phosphorus seems to be disproportionally important relative to other sources.

Scientists found at least 12 major taxa of invertebrate grazers in collections adjacent to a coastal, flood-plain river in the Olympic National

Park. Variable invertebrate distribution may be linked to hyporheic microorganisms, which respond different to inputs of dissolved organic matter.

Soils supporting older vegetation patches (conifer and old alder) are rich

in dissolved organic matter and an important source of growth substrates

for hyporheic microbes. Because microbial activity is critical to nutrient

exchange and is influenced by overlying forest patch type, a better understanding of what regulates microbial communities is necessary to predict

the effects of riparian forest management on off-channel productivity.

Headwater streams important in watershed

productivity for southeast Alaska

Recent changes in forest management recognize the significance of headwater

streams throughout the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. In Alaska, management activities, especially timber harvest and road building, are increasing in upslope areas of

many watersheds as high-quality timber supplies at lower elevations decrease.

Distribution and frequency of large woody debris in high-gradient headwater streams

is highly variable. Timber harvesting, soil mass movement, and subsequent riparian

regeneration influence the recruitment, distribution, and accumulation of woody debris in headwater streams. These interactions modify sediment storage and step morphology in headwater channels. Sediment storage was affected by the amount, size,

and distribution of large woody debris in the channels. Furthermore, effects on sediment storage and downstream habitats seem to differ between chronic annual small

events and acute decadal large events.

Headwater streams produce a substantial amount of invertebrate biomass

that is transported downstream. Aquatic and riparian arthropods originate from

both instream production and the riparian canopy. Higher densities of macroinvertebrates were observed in streams flowing through young-growth alder than

young-growth conifer forests; densities in old-growth streams and open-canopy

clearcut streams were not significantly different from those in young-growth

alder. Invertebrates of terrestrial origin composed almost 20 percent of the biomass captured in several old-growth streams throughout southeast Alaska.

Aquatic and Land Interactions Program 31

Marine phosphorus from salmon seems to be important

relative to other sources of nutrients in Alaska streams. 

More macroinvertebrates occur in streams in young-growth

alder stands than in young-growth conifer forests.

Photo by John Hudson
People and Natural

Resources Program

The mission of the People and Natural Resources Program

is to develop models, knowledge, processes, and tools to facilitate integration of various diverse public values, uses, and concerns into natural resource policy, management, and research.

The People and Natural Resources Program is based on a simple idea: people are tied to natural resources (such as forests,

fisheries, and wildlife). They depend on the resources for jobs,

sustenance, recreation, inspiration, and learning. How we manage these resources will affect how well they meet these needs.

People themselves affect these resources: as population increases, as people move next to forests, as people demand more from

resources. The work of this program focuses on the effects of

people on forests and natural resources, and the effects of forests

and natural resources on people. 

The People and Natural Resources Program has five major

elements or issues that address strategic priorities in integrating

human and ecological values in natural resource planning and

management. These include (1) the knowledge and concerns

the public holds about its natural resources; (2) the relations between human communities and forests; (3) opportunities for including the public in decisions about natural resources; (4)

developing more effective means for integrating public values,

concerns, and uses into decisions at multiple scales; and (5) developing more effective institutions for responsive and responsible resource management and research. 

Debates about natural resource management—what should

be produced, how much, when, where, through what means, and

at what cost—are fundamentally social in nature. The controversy confronting public natural resources today illustrates that to be

implementable and sustainable, management decisions require

public understanding and support, in addition to sound economic and scientific analysis.

32 People and Natural Resources Program
Work in fiscal year 2000 focused on improving understanding of the nature of interactions between humans and their environment, and on developing tools to facilitate integration of social and cultural considerations with use

and management of biophysical resources. Several key conclusions emerged

from this work.

First, an understanding of “sense of place” in general terms, and the actual connection people experience with real on-the-ground places, should

help minimize or mitigate resource conflicts and can aid in design and implementation of planning and management activities. Conflicts over the appropriate use and management of natural resources usually are focused on

how citizens and agencies define specific geographic places and what is appropriate use of them. 

Second, successful collaboration between agencies and citizens is occurring.

It is becoming clearer that for on-the-ground management programs and practices to be implementable and sustainable, attention must be paid to not only

the outcomes people wish to see on the land but also the nature of interactions

between agency personnel and the public.

Third, whether people concerned about resource management accept programs and activities on the land depends on several factors including (1) an understanding of the effects of these practices on the natural characteristics of the

surrounding forest, (2) a belief in the information provided, (3) a sense that the

practice will produce benefits for the wider community, and (4) an opportunity

for a meaningful role in the planning process. These criteria provide further evidence and support for the need for planning processes that encourage collaboration, mutual learning, and trust building.

Fourth, for adaptive management to be effective, attention must be given

to both the process and outcome of its use. An adaptive management approach

can promote better informed and collaborative decisionmaking, but significant

barriers to its implementation must be recognized and overcome. Through design of management actions and programs to facilitate learning, understanding

of these complex systems can be improved, thereby leading to managers taking

the most appropriate management actions.

Understanding ever-changing relations between human and biophysical

resource systems—what they are, why they change, what the implications of

these changes are, and how conflicts might be mitigated or resolved—is a central focus for the People and Natural Resources Program. The challenge for society is to create information through research that can be used to develop

responsive policy and practices, rather than impediments to natural resource

management and use. 

People and Natural Resources Program 33

Key Scientific Findings

✦ Engaging citizens in research helps in understanding 

forest-human interactions

Participation of agency staff in communities and of the public in

agency decisionmaking and planning processes helps to build trust and

community capacity by providing the community with skills and confidence to engage effectively in resource management activities. For example, involving students from a small community in a study of the

relation between water and places important to the community for

recreation confirms that water has long been a critical factor in where

people choose to recreate. 

✦ Resource conflict often focuses on places important to people

Conflicts over appropriate use and management of natural resources often focus on how specific geographic places are defined

and what will occur there and why. Management of riparian areas and

restoration of complex ecosystems for multiple values, in particular,

concern recreationists because of the close association between

prime recreation opportunities and water. 

✦ Acceptability of forest management practices is influenced 

by both process and outcomes

Studies to determine the conditions under which forest management practices are acceptable to the public suggest that the level of

trust in resource managers and the presence of fair and open processes for citizen involvement are primary factors affecting whether specific practices will be accepted.

✦ Knowledge-based concepts and technology aid understanding 

of complex problems

Knowledge-based tools and concepts can help improve understanding of how the public makes judgments about the social acceptability of forest management practices and conditions. Using such tools

has proven effective for synthesizing and representing the knowledge

from which social acceptability judgments derive.
Public judgments of acceptability 

are affected by decisionmaking processes

and outcomes on the land 

Social acceptability has long underlain efforts to understand public concerns and support for management actions and programs. Work done in collaboration with Oregon State University reveals that public judgments about the

acceptability of resource impacts in recreational settings derive from two distinct, yet related, components: assessment of the magnitude of an impact (including extent, duration, level, or other condition of that impact) and the

importance associated with the impact. The latter is a subjective, personal assessment that can differ widely among people and across settings. For example,

the sound of a chain saw in a campground at 10:00 a.m. might simply be heard

and interpreted as an indication that someone is cutting firewood; the same activity occurring at midnight is considered objectionable and unacceptable noise.

The literature also shows the processes that affect the judgments of citizens

about the aesthetic impacts of timber harvesting practices. For example, the acceptability of such practices often is linked to an ability of people to visualize

how such practices would look on the land before they occur. Planning processes that encourage collaboration, mutual learning, and trust-building are important influences in how judgments are made.

The acceptability of timber harvest practices often 

is linked to an ability of people to visualize how such

practices would look on the land before they occur.

Finally, this research provides important insight on the role of scientific

and technical knowledge in affecting judgments of social acceptability. For example, research has shown that public knowledge of the role of fire in forests

seems to increase public support for programs such as fuel-reduction burning

and clearing and thinning of underbrush.

Understanding how the public makes 

judgments is aided by knowledge-based 

technology

A knowledge-based approach helps in understanding how the public makes judgments about the social acceptability of forest management practices and conditions.

Understanding is lacking about how such judgments take form; We also lack an

effective framework for organizing and integrating judgments into decisionmaking processes. This research examined the potential value of using the

NetWeaver1 knowledge-based development system to address such problems.

This system allows a graphic representation of factors that shape social acceptability judgments; it also is highly versatile, thereby permitting investigators to

account for many qualitative, complex issues, which other analytical systems

have difficulty accommodating.

The knowledge-based approach effectively synthesizes and represents the

knowledge from which social acceptability judgments derive. In particular, it potentially can account for the various factors shaping public judgments, such as

the levels of trust held by citizens in resource managers and the perceived risk associated with places, uses, and values of concern to them. Because NetWeaver

arranges the knowledge base into an easily understandable, hierarchical structure, it reveals relations and dependencies among key factors, as well as important research gaps that presently limit understanding of the social judgment

process. Another strength of NetWeaver is that it documents assumptions and

caveats that influence the knowledge-based process. This allows for subsequent

assessment of the validity of the underlying assumptions and sets the stage for

possible modifications in the knowledge base.

There are several caveats and limits to the use of the knowledge-based approach, however. We found, for example, that natural resource agencies focus

too greatly on the social acceptability of their decisions as opposed to the acceptability of their decisionmaking processes. The credibility of and trust in

these processes is critical, especially when decisions involve complex, value-laden

questions for which technical solutions are of only limited applicability.

Additionally, although the flexibility of the NetWeaver model is that it allows

adjustments in its knowledge-based design to fit a specific context, this can reduce the transparency of the process, especially when inadequate attention is

given to the documentation of how and why those adjustments were made.

34 People and Natural Resources Program

1

The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.
Dialogue is essential to achieve promises and

avoid pitfalls of science integration into policy

How can research scientists be successful in bringing their skills and knowledge to bear on controversial natural resource management policies? Research

scientists and the information they create can effectively contribute to resolving

natural resource management issues and help discover new opportunities.

Research scientists, however, must be careful because working within the science-policy interface is inherently an exercise in politics and far different from

the conduct of routine research. If not done thoughtfully, the credibility of research scientists and natural resource decisionmakers, and the work they do, can

be jeopardized.

Many points of view exist about the value and the problems associated

with integrating science information into policy. An open and critical dialogue

needs to occur to ensure that promises are achieved and pitfalls are understood

and avoided. 

Effective adaptive management requires 

attention to both processes and outcomes

The Northwest Forest Plan allocated 10 adaptive management areas across

three states. The fundamental premise of adaptive management is simple: policies are

experiments: learn from them. 

This research

assesses experiences

in applying the adaptive management

concept during implementation of the

adaptive management area program in

the Pacific Northwest. Key issues include a lack of shared

vision and agreement

among citizens, managers, and scientists

about what adaptive

management means.

Because experimentation often involves

high risk and uncertainty, there can be

resistance to such efforts, especially on

the grounds that endangered species or

valued uses and conditions might be

jeopardized. Within

both research and

management organizations, some point to a lack of leadership and support for

adaptive management and advocacy. The current regulatory and statutory environment seems to suppress experimentation and emphasize compliance with

rules, guidelines, and statutes that often were the product of limited, preliminary

information.

People and Natural Resources Program 35

Dialogue between research scientists and managers is essential for successfully implementing

science information into policy. 

Adaptive management areas allow opportunities 

for experimentation and learning.

Photo by Tom Iraci
Because experimentation often involves high risk and uncertainty, there can be resistance to such efforts, especially

on the grounds that endangered species or valued uses

and conditions might be jeopardized.

One condition required to revitalize an adaptive approach to management

includes leadership that provides motivation, permission, and support as adaptive approaches are implemented. Local advocates and champions must be in

place. Appropriate organizational support, in terms of motivated staff and the resources to support them, are essential. Citizens, managers, and scientists need to

acknowledge inherent risks and uncertainties that confront any action—including “no action”—and accept that errors and mistakes, often important sources

of learning, will occur. Partners in this research include Oregon State University,

Southern Oregon University, and the University of Washington.

Integrating different forms and sources of

knowledge aids understanding of complex

human and biophysical systems

Research done in partnership with Ecotrust showed that although people

agree that better knowledge is necessary for improved resource management decisionmaking, there is much less agreement on what constitutes knowledge, who

holds it, and how different forms of knowledge can be linked. Some knowledge

derives from conventional scientific investigations, but other knowledge can be

traced to the experiences and observations derived from living, working, and

playing in various environmental settings. Four key themes are associated with

linking these different forms of knowledge together and integrating them into

decisions: 

• Opportunities are needed for communication among different 

people that foster mutual learning among them.

• New forms of knowledge need to be validated.

• There must be a clear understanding of the context in which knowledge has been developed and applied.

• Irrespective of its source, knowledge is most valuable when its 

immediate application is clear and all stakeholders are involved in

the process of making decisions that rely on that knowledge.

Resource conflict focuses on places 

important to people 

This study proposes that people, however different, can discover a shared

stake in a particular place and, consequently, come together to address problems

that affect areas they are concerned about. Defining such critical places, and

bringing together people who care about them, is a first step in cooperative or

collaborative activities. If we broaden our thinking from a place simply being a

piece of ground to being a “repository of diverse values and meanings,” we can

expand our understanding of how natural resource conflicts arise, evolve, and

can be better managed. 

People, however different, can discover a shared stake 

in a particular place and, consequently, come together 

to address problems that affect areas they are 

concerned about.

Scientists found that conflicts over the appropriate use and management of natural resources usually are about how citizens and agencies define specific geographic

places. To uncover and map the meanings assigned to a geographic place requires research methods that enable scientists to understand diverse perspectives of people concerned about places of interest. Finally, to be more acceptable to the public, decision

processes must consider the social and geographical context of issues including analysis

of how the context may influence activities relative to the place of concern and the decisions being considered for its management. 

Forest planners, landscape architects, and recreation staff in the Pacific Northwest

are using these findings as they develop public participation processes and place-based

planning activities. This work was done in collaboration with Colorado State University.

36 People and Natural Resources Program
Collaboration builds trust 

and capacity to effectively engage in 

resource management activities

The central question of this study is, To what extent do communities differ in their capacity and resilience to changes brought about by shifts in forest

management? In social assessments and community-impact studies, capacity has

been linked to, but not integrated with, socioeconomic variables. The concept

of capacity has come to be used interchangeably with the more recent concept of

resiliency, thereby causing confusion about its meaning. How are capacity and resiliency different, or are they the same? This study examines the concept of capacity by investigating community dynamics at three levels:

individual, organizational, and community. 

Scientists found that in addition to increased risk, impacts of changing forest policy also foster opportunities for

personal advancement, including opportunities for growth,

adaptation, and innovation. Change in forest management

may affect employment opportunities, but impacts often

are mediated by personal attachment to the community, geographic place, occupation, family history, and lifestyle. We

also found that participation by agency staff in communities, and by the public in agency decisionmaking requires a

certain level of trust and contributes to building additional

community capacity.

Rural community assistance specialists are using this information to consider how to assist local communities, and researchers are extending this work to further expand understanding of the relation between capacity and

resilience and the factors that can be used to help define and predict resilience. This

research was done in collaboration with Southern Oregon University.

Population dynamics in the 

Pacific Northwest will make resource 

management increasingly challenging 

The rapidly changing nature of human populations in the Pacific Northwest

has significant implications for what the public does and will accept on its forest

lands. Using demographic data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census and the

Internal Revenue Service, scientists are analyzing population dynamics in three geographic areas in Washington and Oregon. This work is just beginning, but preliminary analyses suggest that population growth carries significant implications

for (1) changes in demand for recreation and in the character of demand itself, (2)

changes in the acceptability of forest management practices (changing demographics suggest changes in acceptability), (3) increasing fragmentation of wildlife

habitat and its management, and (4) increasing demand on federally administered

lands to maintain habitat for threatened and endangered species. Work was done

in collaboration with the University of Montana.

People and Natural Resources Program 37

Photos by Tom Iraci
Collaboration between agencies 

and among people concerned about 

resource management is occurring 

Although resource management agencies have been severely criticized for

their seeming failure to be responsive to the concerns of citizens, there are examples of successful collaboration between land management agencies and citizens. An increasing number of cases, many in the Pacific Northwest, are showing

that contentious, adversarial agency-public deliberations are not inevitable.

Examples were examined of successful undertakings in agencies across the

United States that demonstrate productive links between resource managers and

communities. These efforts were initiated for several reasons (for example to

solve specific problems or to test new ideas), but they illustrated several principles of workable collaboration

Results of this multiphased study, done in collaboration with the University

of Michigan, suggest that some situations were successful because they led to tangible action or benefits, overcame bureaucracy, provided better stewardship of resources, generated administrative resources, generated knowledge, built

understanding, improved relations, resolved short-term disputes, managed longterm conflict, and provided for dynamic and flexible working arrangements.

Collaboration may not be a central goal of resource management, but it

can help agencies and the public resolve complex problems. Such efforts build

understanding and set the stage for further successes.

Engaging citizens in research improves 

understanding of human interactions 

with water and forests

Water is a critical feature of many recreational experiences, whether boating, fishing, camping, hiking, or relaxing to the sound of moving water. Station

scientists developed a study in conjunction with 25 high school students who

were participating in a summer work-study program called the Discovery Team.

Engaging local residents as researchers gives scientists access to knowledge understood by local residents that researchers might otherwise overlook.

Most people contacted said that water was critical or necessary in their

choice of a recreation site. Most of the sites people listed as their favorite or most

frequently visited sites were located along lakes, rivers, creeks, or reservoirs.

These findings support earlier work that identified a “home range” where people tend to go for their recreation; that is, residents of one community frequently

visited sites that residents of the adjacent community did not use and vice versa.

Involving students in the research activity opened the door to involvement of

parents and other adults in the community. Holding community forums involving

these adults fostered support for the research and helped scientists learn about forest-community interactions hard to discern in more traditional research.

The local ranger district is interested in using the findings in making decisions about management of recreation in riparian areas. Local residents are interested in using the information to support their efforts to reestablish a

barrier-free fishing site and improve water-related recreation opportunities. The

White Pass High School and the Discovery Team program will use our findings

to plan future projects and make hiring decisions to better match students with

projects. The Discovery Team project will be highlighted at the National School

Board Association annual meeting in San Diego in March 2001. Partners in this

research effort include White Pass School District, Cowlitz Valley Ranger

District, and Gifford Pinchot National Forest.

The relation between recreation 

and riparian management 

The critical relation between recreational activities and water has been long

recognized. Today, however, people are being displaced from favorite recreation

sites because of riparian management decisions to protect or restore conditions

for other resource values. In this study, Station scientists are exploring how important water is in the choice of where to recreate and the conditions under

which public uses are consistent with other resource values in riparian areas. 

The relation between recreation use and water resources is complex, and

changes in the management or dynamics of one often directly affects the other.

For example, it is well understood that recreational motor boating significantly

impacts water quality and associated aquatic life because of emissions from motors. Conversely, changes in the management of the water resource can affect

recreation. For instance, changes in flow regimes from damming can change

white-water opportunities for kayaking into impounded recreational settings

that cater to canoes and rowboats. More recently, growing concerns about maintenance of riparian areas has led to closures of banks and shores along rivers,

which has adversely affected many long-term recreation sites for both day and

overnight use. Such a change leads to a displacement in use, with former users

of such sites now moving to other areas.

38 People and Natural Resources Program
To better understand how changes in water management strategies affect

the amounts, types, and distribution of recreational uses, exploratory work is

being done in several river drainages, which provides a range of spatial scales, to

evaluate how changes in management policies to maintain and enhance water resources have affected recreational use of an area. 

This study includes identification of a model of riparian impact management, a review of riparian restoration literature focusing on the concept of

restoration itself, and development of a description of riparian-recreation management processes that integrate differing spatial and temporal scales. Based on

our initial work with the University of Montana, we have found that there are

differing philosophies concerning management of recreation in riparian areas

that reflect varying interpretations of riparian reserves and ideologies toward the

public uses. 

Knowledge-based technology aids 

evaluation, monitoring, and prioritizing 

of restoration activities

The PNW Station’s ecosystem management decision-support (EMDS) system has been adopted as the primary decision-support tool for implementing

the evaluation monitoring program of the aquatic conservation strategy in the

Pacific Northwest. Key attributes of EMDS include (1) the logic-based framework approach of the system, which allows diverse types of information to be integrated in a single analysis; (2) clear and intuitive explanations of analytical

results, which make the products of analysis accessible to broad audiences; and

(3) the ability to make effective use of incomplete information. Use of the decision-support tool has demonstrated that decision models aid in setting priorities

for salmon habitat restoration. 

Models can help set priorities for ecosystem restoration.

These decision tools are readily adaptable to natural resource management,

where such models can help set priorities for ecosystem restoration. The approach assists managers in the decision process by helping organize priorities and

clearly documenting the rationale for conclusions. Monitoring, evaluation, and

planning phases of the adaptive management process can be linked through

complementary decision-support models. 

A prototype model for evaluating salmon habitat suitability was designed

and implemented in the Siuslaw National Forest as a proof of concept for the

Northwest Forest Plan’s evaluation monitoring program in the aquatic conservation strategy. Current collaborative work with the Fremont National

Forest and the Natural Resource Information System’s water group is underway to develop a general version, applicable throughout the Northwest. The

logic-based method provides an integrated, clear, consistent, repeatable, and

cost-efficient approach to assessing salmon habitat suitability. Partners in this

work include the Siuslaw and Fremont National Forests, aquatic-riparian

ecosystem management plan implementation team, Natural Resource

Information System’s water group, and Ecosystem Management in the

Washington office of the Forest Service.

People and Natural Resources Program 39

Closure of banks along rivers maintains riparian areas but adversely affects 

long-term recreation sites.

Photo by Tom Iraci
Social and Economic 

Values Program

The mission of the Social and Economic Values Program is to improve understanding of the values by which resource management decisions are judged.

Program findings for fiscal year 2000 cover a broad range of social, economic,

and forest management issues at various spatial and temporal scales.

Completed this year were an assessment describing social and economic

change in western Washington and Oregon, studies that describe opportunities

for joint production of mushrooms and timber, studies on shifts in land use in

several U.S. regions, policy-relevant work on trade and environment issues, draft

projections for the 2000 Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning

Act (RPA) timber assessment, and preliminary work addressing concerns about

sustainable forest management. Timber markets in the West continue to be

monitored, and the various broad trends in stumpage price data since 1909 that

help shape context for contemporary changes in timber markets continue to be

documented.

The fifth RPA timber assessment contains draft projections that show

the evolution of the U.S. forest sector from 1952 to 2050. The trends and

various projections generally show a forest products sector where both consumption of forest products and the demand on U.S. timberlands increases

by 23 percent by 2050. Rising consumption leads to many changes including a changing mix and location of forest products, relatively stable forest

products prices, small net changes in timberland area, and changes in the intensities of forest management for

private timberland owners. One significant management inference is

that stumpage markets in the West

will continue to be weak for smalldiameter logs.

Studies that contribute to the

coastal landscape analysis and modeling study (CLAMS) showed that

the spatial proximity of land to existing cities and projected population growth will be key drivers of

future land use change. These studies also showed that nonindustrial

timberland owners are motivated

more by nontimber objectives than

by an interest in commercial timber

production, thereby implying their

greater willingness to participate in

habitat enhancement activities.

An interagency study analyzed the

prospective economic and environmental effects of a trade agreement

and played a role in the subsequent

promulgation of an Executive order

40 Social and Economic Values Program
Social and Economic Values Program 41

requiring environmental review of all future trade agreements. Also, the

Intergovernmental Panel on Forests undertook work that summarized the supply

and demand for forest products, economic instruments for forest policies, valuation

of forests state, and the position of the U.S. government on various policy issues.

Research has increased understanding of social conditions and values in

southeast Alaska, and the implications for forest management of changes in both

conditions and values. Highlights this year include continuing documentation

of the nature and importance of subsistence use of natural resources, identification of the role of traditional knowledge in resource management, and extensions of the ability to quantify social conditions at the small-communities scale.

Data from southeast Alaska were used to test employment impact models

in the context of economic base theory contributing to a better understanding

of the dynamics of economic change at multiple scales. The results do not support the use of employment multipliers as derived from economic base concepts

and demonstrate the magnitude of structural economic change in Alaska. 

A comprehensive atlas of social and economic change in the Northwest

Forest Plan (NWFP) region (northern California, western Oregon, and western

Washington) was completed. It is a basic tool for planning and can be used for

monitoring the implementation of the NWFP. An assessment of the Northwest

economic adjustment initiative (NWEAI) highlighted both community economic development issues in the NWFP region and the potential for the

NWEAI model to be used as a resource-related economic development and mitigation effort in other regions. Work on the feasibility of management activities

involving removal of small trees was advanced through a test version of the software for financial evaluation of ecosystem management activities in western

Oregon and Washington. 

Work continues on resource characterization to provide information on

wood quality, product yields, and value from managed and unmanaged forests

in the Western United States. Research identifies potential financial, economic,

and ecological tradeoffs associated with joint production of goods and services

and often addresses questions raised in the development of management plans.

Work focusing on the opportunities for adding value is starting primarily in

Alaska. The emphasis is on value-added manufacturing opportunities, facilitating links between sustainable wood productions industries and various resource

owners and managers, and understanding the determinants of forest-based economic growth. Work this year emphasized the use of criteria and indicators from

the Montreal Process for Sustainable Forest Management to define both the

progress of the United States toward sustainable forest management and the

nature of the relation between biophysical and socioeconomic systems.

Key Scientific Findings

✦ U.S. forest products sector projections show a changing mix of products

and the location of production

The fifth Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act

Timber Assessment shows the evolution of the U.S. forest sector from

1952 to 2050. Various projections show a forest products sector changing

the mix of products and the location of production to meet rising consumption.

✦ Nonindustrial timberland owners are motivated more by nontimber objectives than an interest in commercial timber production

The preference of nontimberland owners for nontimber objectives 

suggest a willingness by nontimberland owners to participate in habitat

enhancement activities. 

✦ The Northwest economic adjustment initiative (NWEAI) serves as a successful example of a socioeconomic mitigation effort

Currently under the NWEAI, communities in the Northwest Forest 

Plan region are being used as a laboratory for refining community capacity

concepts for bioregional assessments. 

✦ Passive management of east-side Late-Successional Reserves may not 

maintain northern spotted owl habitat

Preliminary analyses in the 15,000-acre Gotchen Late-Successional

Reserve suggest that silcultural treatments designed to maintain late-successional habitat might also generate revenues for implementation and

monitoring.

✦ The United States can maintain current ecological conditions while 

experiencing continued economic progress

Preliminary broad-scale measures suggest that the United States can

sustain both recent timberland conditions and increasing ecosystem wealth

and that the often-asserted tradeoffs between ecological and socioeconomic

conditions do not exist.
42 Social and Economic Values Program

Indexes of timberland integrity and ecosystem wealth were developed that

represent summaries of the relative condition of U.S. timber resources and associated economic values. A comparison of the indexes suggests that current ecological

conditions can be maintained while economic progress continues. Other results

explore the compatibility of ecological integrity with socioeconomic conditions.

Data from the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project showed

that the often-asserted tradeoffs between ecological and socioeconomic conditions

do not exist. Rather the land management strategies improve both indexes although

improvements are faster for ecological integrity.

U.S. forest sector changing mix 

of products and production location 

to meet rising consumption

The fifth RPA timber assessment contains draft projections that show the

evolution of the U.S. forest sector from 1952 to 2050. The trends and various

projections generally show a forest products sector changing and expanding to

meet rising consumption, a changing mix of the types of forest products produced with increasing emphasis on engineered and fiber products, relatively stable forest products prices over the next five decades, shifts in the regional concentration of forest products production, small net changes in timberland area,

and significant changes in the modes and intensities of forest management by private timberland owners.

In the projection, both consumption of forest products and the demand on

U.S. timberlands increase by 23 percent. Total roundwood harvest in the United

States is projected to be 22.3 billion cubic feet in 2050. Comparing 1996 and

2050, softwood harvest is projected to increase 26 percent to 13.4 billion feet

and hardwoods 20 percent to 8.9 billion cubic feet. In addition, the consumption of hardwood agrifiber grows to more than 3 billon cubic feet. 

Softwood timber harvest increase by 36 percent, whereas U.S. softwood

inventories increase by 56 percent and hardwood by 19 percent. Although this

is true in general for softwoods, there are regional differences for hardwoods

where hardwood inventories decline in the South. Per capita consumption of

roundwood (measured in tonnage at about 1 ton per person per year) remains

constant over the projection period.

The United States will increase its dependence on domestic sources for most

of its roundwood needs. Imports will amount to 19 percent of consumption in

2050 as compared with 23 percent in 1996. Exports will amount to 11 percent

of production in 2050 as compared with 15 percent in 1996. 

Canada is expected to provide the primary source of imports (more than

75 percent), but imports from nontraditional sources also are expected to

increase. Canada will provide about one-third of U.S. lumber consumption over

the next 50 years, but imports from other countries (eastern Russia and the

Nordic countries) are expected to increase to 5 percent of U.S. softwood lumber

consumption. Canadian exports of newsprint are expected to decline with

declining U.S. newsprint consumption. Canadian exports of higher valued

printing and writing paper will increase. 

Sawtimber prices are expected to stabilize after having increased in the

1990s. Market-based adjustments mostly on private timberlands are able to

meet expected increases in U.S. consumption. Stumpage markets in the West

will continue to be weak for small-diameter logs.

This work has involved extensive collaboration with the American Forest

and Paper Association, the Southern Forest Resource Assessment Consortium,

the Forest Products Laboratory, and the National Forest System. These efforts

include the development of a comprehensive set of forest management (investment) assumptions, the development of land area and use assumptions, testing

a model of the U.S. pulp and paper sector, and the development of various

assumptions on the demand side. 

The fifth RPA timber assessment shows changes in the U.S. forest sector; for example, U.S. softwood timber harvest increased by 36 percent, and U.S. inventories increased by 56 percent. 
Social and Economic Values Program 43

Understanding the dynamics of changes 

in land use and cover

Key to transboundary assessments of future natural resource conditions is understanding the dynamics of changes in land use and cover.

Work this year addressed the intersections of scale pairs: the provincelandscape and national-regional scales.

Province-landscape scale. CLAMS studies showed that the spatial

proximity of land to existing cities and projected population growth will

be key drivers of future land use change. Nonindustrial timberland owners

were motivated more by nontimber objectives than by an interest in commercial timber production, thereby implying their greater willingness to

participate in habitat enhancement activities. Another inference is that

failure to recognize the influence of human-caused disturbances could lead

to understating the future amounts of Douglas-fir timber available for

either products or habitat. Results will be used by the partners in the

CLAMS project, planners in the Oregon state government, and nongovernment land use planning organizations.

Nonindustrial timberland owners were motivated

more by nontimber objectives than by an interest in

commercial timber production.

National-regional scale. An evaluation of the economic potential of

short-rotation woody crops on agricultural land for pulp fiber production

shows they can replace an equivalent of about 40 percent of current U.S. hardwood pulpwood output. As part of the national climate change assessment,

projected economic impacts of climate change are estimated to be small compared to those estimated for other types of forest policy issues. The reason

being that the forest sector has adjustment mechanisms that mitigate climate

change impacts, including land use shifts between forestry and agriculture,

interregional migration of production, substitution in consumption, and

altered stand management. Lastly, projections of land use and land cover

changes for the 2000 RPA timber assessment indicate a smaller private timberland base in the Pacific Northwest in the future, more Douglas-fir areas on

private lands, and more planted pine in the South will contribute a significant

share of U.S. timber harvest. Results will be used by agency and nongovernmental organizations interested in broad-scale forest policy.

Forestry information for debate about 

international trade and international policy

An interagency study analyzed the prospective economic and environmental effects of a trade agreement and played a role in the subsequent promulgation of an Executive order requiring environmental review of all future trade

agreements. The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests undertook work that summarized the supply and demand for forest products, economic instruments for

forest policies, valuation of forests state, and the position of the U.S. government

on various policy issues.

Much of this work was used to help define the positions

of the U.S. government on selected topics.

An evaluation of the economic potential of short-rotation woody crops on agricultural land 

for pulp fiber production shows they can replace an equivalent of about 40 percent of current 

U.S. hardwood pulpwood output. 

Photo by Bill Schvette
Much of this work was used to help define U.S. government positions on

selected topics (through interagency processes) and articulate these positions in

the intergovernmental forum. The results have wide application for improving

forestry information in what has been largely a fact-free debate of various topics

on the international policy agenda.

Social science providing information 

for decisionmakers during implementation 

of the Tongass land management plan

Various social and economic science studies in southeast Alaska are being

conducted in support of the Tongass land management plan (TLMP).

Products of the social science research include descriptions of the social acceptability of alternatives to clearcutting, a review of literature, interviews with

Tlingit and Haida tribal leaders about traditional ecological knowledge, further expansion of the community profile database documenting subsistence

use of natural resources, and the development and pretesting of a survey

designed to assess attitudes and values of residents associated with the Tongass

National Forest.

Parts of southeast Alaska economy described:

timber-based manufacturing and tourism

Economics research in support of TLMP now focuses almost exclusively on recreation and tourism. Nevertheless, completed studies in fiscal year

2000 included an analysis of southeast Alaska’s competitiveness in timberbased manufacturing and a description of growth and change in southeast

Alaska economies. Collaborative social science and economics work

describes the tourism sector in southeast Alaska and provides preliminary

projections of its growth. A review of the literature and researchable questions related to the economics of ecotourism was completed. In fiscal year

1999, recreation and tourism work in Alaska was extended to include the

Chugach National Forest; this work in support of the plan revision relied on

cooperation with the University of Alaska Anchorage and the Southern

Research Station. Two primary studies and a synthesis were completed in fiscal year 2000.

Opportunities for adding value in Alaska

A network is being established in Alaska to identify viable opportunities to

use Alaska forest resources within primary and secondary wood products industries. The emphasis is on value-added manufacturing opportunities, facilitating

links between sustainable wood productions industries and various resource

owners and managers, and understanding the determinants of forest-based economic growth. Work also has started on understanding the roles that special forest products play in commercial and personal use and cultural applications.

Atlas interprets changes in key social and

economic indicators in the Pacific Northwest 

A comprehensive atlas of social and economic change in the Northwest

Forest Plan region (northern California, western Oregon, and western

Washington) was completed. The atlas and accompanying analysis includes an

interpretation of dynamic changes for key social and economic indicators for the

NWFP region and is a distillation of an extensive set of socioeconomic data. The

atlas is a basic tool for monitoring the implementation of the NWFP and provides a baseline that can be used by natural resource managers, economic development specialists, and local development groups in planning. 

Tourism is the focus of economics research in southeast Alaska in support of the 

Tongass land management plan. 

Photo by Robert Schroeder

44 Social and Economic Values Program
Social and Economic Values Program 45

The Northwest Economic Adjustment 

Initiative (NWEAI) is assessed

The assessment of the NWEAI highlighted both community economic development issues in the Northwest Forest Plan region and the

potential for the NWEAI model to be used as a resource-related economic development and mitigation effort in other regions. Work is currently

underway using communities in the region as a laboratory for refining

community-capacity concepts and developing measurements of community capacity for bioregional assessments. Various resource advisory councils

and provincial advisory committees were major cooperators and users of

this information.

Social and economic indicators 

identified and interpreted

The need to develop protocols for monitoring social and economic

systems has led to an interest in developing appropriate indicators. Work

this year has focused on identification, collection, and interpretation of

social and economic indicators. One completed publication identifies

trends in key economic and social indicators for Pacific Northwest states

and counties and provides the basis for annual updates of these indicators.

Another part of this work is construction of a database for the Northwest

Forest Plan region that will contain socioeconomic, spatial, and geographic

information about communities and can be used as a basis for developing

community characterizations and topologies and can readily incorporate

2000 census data. 

A key facet of the community capacity work involved developing

innovative strategies for defining meaningful communities in the

region. Work has been completed on a county database that includes 23

important social and economic indicators for all 133 counties in

California, Oregon, and Washington. Work in progress is defining and

understanding the statistical and operational relations between social

and economic indicators at different spatial and temporal scales. This

work sets the stage for dialogue, debate, and development of a set of

indicators to monitor the dimensions of well-being for sustainable

development.

Joint production issues 

in land management studied

Concerns continue about the economics of implementing ecosystem

management, especially that focused on joint production issues. Work on

the feasibility of implementing management activities to remove small trees

was advanced by testing a western Oregon and Washington version of the

software for financial evaluation of ecosystem management activities.

Harvesting cost equations were developed that can be used in the inland

West with the same software to evaluate activities with various harvesting

systems. 

Several studies focus on land management issues, including a synthesis

of inventory and monitoring methods for understory nontimber species. An

analysis of huckleberry species abundant in different stand conditions indicates that not all understory species respond favorably to stand thinning. A

paper about the value of wild edible mushrooms and the trees with which

they grow in association outlines the necessary assumptions for assessing the

value of trees and mushrooms in different habitat types. Another paper outlines the importance of recreational harvest of wild foods from the Gifford

Pinchot National Forest. 

An analysis of huckleberry species abundant 

in different stand conditions indicates 

that not all understory species respond favorably 

to stand thinning.

Program expertise in nontimber forest products markets and use

resulted in contributions to the Oregon forest assessment "Oregon's

Forests at the Millenium”; the forest communities international conference

on nontimber forest products in cold temperate and boreal forests in

Ontario, Canada; a national policy workshop in Washington, DC, on

management of nontimber forest products; and several scientific meetings

in the United States, including the national technical sessions on criteria

and indicators.
Resource characterization useful in 

answering ecological and economic questions 

Providing information on wood quality, product yields, and value from

managed and unmanaged forests in the Western United States is an ongoing

research area. Research identified potential financial, economic, and ecological tradeoffs associated with joint production of goods and services. Results

address questions raised by resource managers as they develop and implement

management plans. Recently, this has included studies of treatments to (1)

reduce fire hazard in forests of the interior West, (2) develop late-seral forest

structure, (3) evaluate the potential of byproducts from restoration activities

(for example, small-diameter trees), and (4) simulate the quality and quantity of various goods and services (for example, wood and wildlife habitat). A

combination of landscape- and stand-level analyses is being used to evaluate

the biological and financial effects of passive versus active management at mid

and fine scales.

Data from 40 years of wood product recovery studies track the processing

of forest products such as lumber and veneer from the tree to the end product and

provide a unique set of empirical data demonstrating how resource characteristics

have changed through time. This database contributes information about tree

characteristics from various stand ages and conditions that are useful in answering ecological and economic questions.

Sustainability and compatibility:

developing a factual context for 

criteria and indicators 

The use of criteria and indicators from the Montreal

process for sustainable forest management is being emphasized

to define both the progress of the United States toward sustainable forest management and the relation between biophysical and socioeconomic systems. In the first case, an index of

timberland integrity was developed that represents an overall

summary of the relative condition of U.S. timber resources.

This index combines six indicators of forest conditions and

status and shows that timberland integrity increased until

1976, fell in the period 1976-86, and stabilized in the 1990s.

Increases in inventory and fragmentation led to offsetting changes in the future

that resulted in relatively stable projections of timberland integrity. An index of

ecosystem wealth (based on timberland inventories and stumpage prices) also was

developed as a proxy for socioeconomic conditions. The index generally has and will

continue to experience upward growth. A comparison of the two indexes suggests

that current ecological conditions can be maintained along with continued economic progress. That is, continued increases in the worth of ecosystems do not lead

to reductions in ecological conditions, and the United States can sustain current timberland conditions.

The second area of results is a preliminary analysis that explores the

compatibility of ecological integrity with socioeconomic conditions. This

is at the heart of the Station’s wood compatibility initiative. Data from the

Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Program show that the

often-asserted tradeoffs between ecological and socioeconomic conditions

do not exist. Rather the land management strategies improve both indexes

but improve ecological integrity at a faster rate than socioeconomic

resiliency. Although this work is exploratory, it does start to provide a factual context in what has been a value-laden and often fact-free debate.

This index combines six indicators of forest conditions and status to summarize the relative condition of U.S. timber

resources. It shows timberland integrity increased until 1976, fell between 1976-86, and stabilized in the 1990s.

46 Social and Economic Values Program
Managing Disturbance Regimes Program 47

Managing Disturbance

Regimes Program

The mission of this program is to provide knowledge that improves the ability to manage disturbance

regimes for the benefit of society while restoring and

maintaining ecosystem integrity and productivity. New

insights and knowledge about the role of disturbance

regimes in ecosystems, and the degree to which they

may be effectively managed, will provide information

useful in developing solutions to complex science and

management problems. The Pacific Northwest Research

Station is unique among science institutions in the

breadth and magnitude of skills and the robust nature of

the information on the ecology, management, and

effects of disturbance processes at multiple scales (spatial

and temporal).

In 2000, the frontiers of landscape-scale science

were pushed both aboveground and belowground.

Landscapes can now be analyzed to determine where

old-growth forest refugia once were located. This

knowledge is critical to helping managers identify and

prioritize areas requiring restoration. Limited resources

can then be focused on locations having a high probability of attaining old-growth and other desired characteristics and not being prematurely destroyed by disturbance processes. Belowground, one of the largest

species in the world was discovered in northeastern

Oregon. It is an enormous fungus growing in the roots

of trees and is detected aboveground only by the presence of mushrooms that grew in moist years. Infected

tree roots are the growth medium for the 2,200-acre

fungus; the fungus expands under the forest floor

through interlacing roots of adjacent trees, slowly

adding one tree after another to its size.
48 Managing Disturbance Regimes Program

Global warming models are predicting that with each 1-  ̊C increase in

temperature, the risk of drought stress to trees increases by 17 percent. As temperatures and precipitation increase across the region from global warming,

more biomass is produced, thereby leading to considerably more biomass burning and being consumed by fire during dry years. As little as a 3- to 4-  ̊C change

may significantly affect the degree and scale at which disturbance agents operate

across forests and rangelands.

As fires increase across the West, because of the increase of small tree establishment and growth, fire and smoke managers and regulators are facing increasingly difficult circumstances. Prescribed fire is used to reduce the threat of catastrophic wildfire by burning when weather conditions permit fire to be controlled and when smoke emissions can be managed. For the first time, fire and

smoke managers in the Pacific Northwest will have a web-based modeling tool

that provides 48-hour forecasts, twice a day, of fire weather indexes, ventilation

indexes, and other weather variables important for smoke management.

Because the system uses and integrates information from various models (meteorological, dispersion, fuel consumption, emission, and fuel inventory), regional and local managers and regulators no longer have the arduous burden of having to create models themselves. 

“Attracticides” are a combination of an insect sex pheromone combined

with an insecticide. Tests designed to measure the effectiveness of an attracticide

to control moths revealed that it reduced the impacts of moth damage to trees.

In addition, we now know that smaller amounts of both the pheromone and the

insecticide are needed in the combined form than if used separately. Another

pheromone, an antiaggregation pheromone, was tested to see if fewer, more

widely spaced dispensers would work as efficiently as the current, more densely

spaced dispensers. Results showed that fewer will work, which implies a substantial reduction in costs of application to achieve the same effectiveness. 

Key Scientific Findings

✦ Elk and mule deer spatially segregate during foraging 

and nonforaging periods

Research that entailed monitoring the distribution of 45 mule deer and 

88 elk revealed that elk and mule deer spatially segregate during foraging

and nonforaging periods, and mule deer generally avoid areas used by elk. 

✦ Future biosphere-atmosphere carbon feedbacks could exhibit a threshold

change with increasing global temperatures

Simulations suggest there could be a temperature threshold between 3

and 4  ̊C of warming where the biosphere shifts from being a sink for carbon

to a source of carbon. Each degree of warming may increase the risk of

drought stress by an additional 17 percent of the U.S. forested area.

✦ Web-based fire weather and smoke dispersion prediction system launched

For the first time, fire and smoke managers in the Pacific Northwest will

have a Web-based modeling tool that provides 48-hour forecasts, twice a

day, of fire weather indexes, ventilation indexes, and other weather variables important in smoke management. 

✦ Effects of control measures on diffuse knapweed, plant diversity, 

and transitory soil seed banks in eastern Washington

Diffuse knapweed is most successfully controlled in north-central

Washington when herbicides are applied in spring and escaped knapweed

is pulled by hand for at least two seasons. This treatment, however,

adversely affected existing plant diversity on degraded sites in the short

term. 

✦ Enormous fungus discovered in eastern Oregon

An individual, or clone, of Armillaria ostoyae was discovered occupying

2,200 acres in the Malheur National Forest. This fungus causes Armillaria

root disease in many forests of the world. The clone is estimated to be about

2,400 years old and is the largest single organism ever documented in the

Mule deer generally avoid world.

areas used by elk. Photo by Tom Iraci
Mule deer avoid areas used by elk

To determine whether interspecific competition occurs between elk and mule

deer where the two species coexist in montane habitats, distributions of 45 mule

deer and 88 elk were monitored each spring from 1993 through 1995 at the USDA

Forest Service's Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeastern Oregon.

Thirty-four physical, vegetative, and human-related (road and traffic) variables

important to elk and mule deer were identified that described Starkey; the list was

then reduced to those variables not highly correlated. Models had predicted elk and

mule deer will spatially segregate during foraging and nonforaging periods; this was

confirmed through model validation. Mule deer generally avoided areas used by elk.

The results will be useful for building spatially explicit models to evaluate the effects

of human activities on the distributions, allocate forage, model nutrient cycling,

and estimate herbivory effects of ungulates in forest ecosystems.

Forage quality declines seasonally 

and influences livestock distribution 

A 5-year study was conducted on the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range

to determine whether grazing system and pasture aspect affect cattle distribution,

performance, and forage quality and whether forage quality drives pasture preference

within mountain upland pastures. Cattle performance and diet quality declined as

the grazing season progressed. Cattle allowed free choice between northern and

southern aspects favored northern aspects of the pasture late in the grazing season,

when forage of higher quality existed in those areas. Cattle in an adjacent pasture that

was fenced to restrict cattle to the southern aspect during the first half of the grazing

season and the northern aspect during the latter half had superior performance (total

weight gain for the season) in 2 of the 5 years of the study; no difference occurred in

the other 3 years. More variable

weight gains on all animals during

the latter half of the grazing season

suggested nutritional stress during

that period. 

This research has implications

for managing riparian areas in

terms of fence exclusion of riparian

zones and the design of efficient

pastures for improving beef production and offsetting the cost and

maintenance of fencing.

Dynamic general vegetation modeling: 

a new predictive technology

Large-scale, spatially explicit ecosystem models have traditionally been of two

types, those simulating vegetation distribution (biogeography models) and those

simulating vegetation nutrient cycling (biogeochemistry models). The mappedatmosphere-plant-soil system (MAPSS) team constructed one of the world’s first

dynamic general vegetation models (DGVM), which combines biogeographical

and biogeochemical capabilities with a third simulation skill, large-scale, processbased fire modeling. The MAPSS biogeography model and the CENTURY biogeochemistry model were combined with a new fire model to build the MC1

DGVM. The MC1 has joined the formal vegetation-ecosystem modeling and

analysis project, which strives for model intercomparison and validation while supplying assessment products to the U.S. Global Change Research Program

(USGCRP). The MC1 simulates an accurate distribution of vegetation across the

United States and captures historical fire patterns. The MC1 was used in the recent

USGCRP national assessment of the impacts of global warming and contributed to

an understanding of the role of U.S. ecosystems as carbon sources and sinks in past

and future climates and the potential for increased fire risk under future warming.

Cattle allowed free choice between aspects favored

the northern aspect later in the grazing season.

Photo by Tom Iraci

Potential change in biomass consumed by fire is shown for two future climate scenarios

as simulated by the MC1 dynamic general vegetation model.

Managing Disturbance Regimes Program 49
50 Managing Disturbance Regimes Program

Simulating fire disturbance at 

broad spatial scales

Simulation of fire over broad spatial scales is essential for simulating past and

potential future responses of ecosystems to climate variation and change. The MC1

DGVM contains a newly constructed, process-based fire model, MC-FIRE. The fire

model encompasses both U.S. and Canada fire danger rating systems with estimates of

live and dead fuel loads and moisture contents. The model also incorporates Rothermel

and van Wagner combustion algorithms for surface and canopy fuels, calculating biomass consumed from canopy, cambium, roots, and dead fuels. The MC1 has been

used to simulate spatially explicit (gridded) vegetation dynamics and fire over the historical period 1895-1993 for the conterminous United States. The catastrophic 1910

fire year was well captured, as were the Yellowstone fires of 1988 and other key fire

years. The Yellowstone fires were notable in that the model simulated fires only in

Yellowstone and not in the surrounding regions. Also notable about the Yellowstone

fires is that MC1 has no historical fire suppression, and yet it still burned most of

Yellowstone, thereby suggesting the park was victim to a focused climate stress.

Fuel consumption in new fuel types

The use of prescribed fire across the landscape for ecosystem management is projected to increase by threefold to tenfold during the next 10

years and occur across landscapes with fuel types having limited fuel consumption measurements. Because fuel consumption is the most critical

variable determining effects of a fire on the landscape, fuel consumption

models for these new fuel types will need to be developed for use in decisionmaking tools.

This is a 4-year project supported by the Pacific Northwest Region,

Southwestern Region, Department of the Interior, and the Joint Fire Science

Program to develop fuel consumption models for prescribed fires and wildfires

that occur in forested and nonforested types. Sixty prescribed fires in Alaska,

Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Minnesota, and Oregon have been monitored to

improve fuel consumption models for forested and nonforested fuel types.

Preliminary modeling has been completed, and the fuel consumption module is

being implemented into CONSUME (2.1).

Additional units (sagebrush, chaparral, hardwoods with conifer understory, mixed conifers with shrub understories, ponderosa pine, and black and white

spruce) will be monitored and added to the modeling database through 2003.

The fuel consumption models developed from this effort will be implemented

into the next generation of CONSUME (3.0)

Natural fuels photo series 

for major fuel types of the United States 

A simple means is needed to estimate natural vegetative biomass to better

predict fire behavior, fuel consumption, smoke emissions, large-scale biomass

assessment for global carbon inventory and fire effects from prescribed fire and

wildfire. To meet this need, a natural fuels photo series is being developed in

cooperation with the Department of the Interior, USDA Forest Service, Joint

Fire Science Committee, and Department of the Army. 

The PNW Research Station has embarked on a large project to develop an

array of photos representing different levels of live and dead biomass in similar

natural vegetation types across the United States including Alaska. The natural

fuels photo series is a collection of six volumes, each representing a region of the

United States (Southeast, Midwest, Rocky Mountains, Southwest, Pacific

Northwest, and Alaska). In addition, the Joint Fire Science Program, Pacific

Southwest Region, and the Department of the Army funded part two of the

photo series project that will add six fuel types to the series by 2002.

Model suggests that Yellowstone National Park fires of 1988 were the result 

of focused climate stress. 

Photo by Tom Iraci
Managing Disturbance Regimes Program 51

Nearly 200 sites have been inventoried and photographed for the

series in the Southeast (long-leaf pine, grasses, pocosin, and oak-hickory), Midwest (white and red pine and grasses), Southwest-Rocky

Mountains (chaparral, pinion-juniper, aspen, gamble oak, sage, and

lodgepole pine), Pacific Northwest (diseased mixed conifer, sage, grass,

and juniper), and Alaska (black and white spruce). The Pacific

Northwest and Alaska volumes were printed in fiscal year 1999, the

Midwest in fiscal year 2000. The remaining three volumes (Rocky

Mountains, Southeast, and Southwest) are scheduled for printing in fiscal year 2001. All volumes are being distributed through the National

Interagency Fire Center's publication management system in Boise,

Idaho.

The six additional fuel types include (1) birch and aspen with an

understory of spruce in Alaska; (2) hardwoods with understory of pine in

the Southeast; (3) mixed conifers with shrubs in the Pacific Northwest; (4)

tropical grass, shrub land, and woodlands in the Southeast and Hawaii; (5)

jack pine in the North Central, and (6) oak savanna in the Pacific

Northwest and California. Sites have been located and photographed, and

data have been collected for all additional fuel types except the oak savanna. All fuel types will be printed in the next 2 years. 

Fire history of the South Deep watershed,

Colville National Forest

The fire history of the South Deep watershed, part of the congressionally mandated CROP (creating opportunities in small-diameter

stands) research program, was reconstructed from tree, snag, and stump

cross sections and increment cores. The fire history encompasses two

periods: 1683-1859 (before Euro-settlement) and 1860-1910 (settlement). Before settlement, mean fire-frequency intervals (MFFI) were

5.9 years for the watershed as a whole. The watershed also was stratified

into aspect polygons and MFFIs calculated that ranged from 11 to 39.4

years. These MFFIs are much less than previously had been expected for

this area. 

Presettlement and settlement fire sizes also were calculated. Mean

fire size decreased from about 520 acres before settlement to about 337

acres during the settlement era. Fire sizes were extremely variable, ranging from under 50 to over 15,000 acres. Variability inherent within the

historical fire regime of the South Deep watershed suggests that historical vegetation patterns were correspondingly variable. This work was a

cooperative effort between the Station and the Pacific Northwest

Region.

Effect of fuel reduction by thinning 

in mixed-conifer stands of northeastern

Oregon

Reducing the risk of occurrence of wildfire and outbreaks of

insects and diseases through fuel reduction is a priority management

objective on federal lands in the Blue Mountains of northeastern

Oregon. Optimal methods to achieve desired levels of fuel in mixedconifer stands by mechanical means are as yet unknown. One factor

essential in evaluating optimal fuel-reduction methods is the damage to

residual trees and advance regeneration associated with specific combinations of stand condition, prescription, and harvesting system. 

Residual stem damage was compared after partial cutting and

yarding with either skyline cable or ground-based forwarder. The

most common types of damage were wrenching, scraped bark, and

bole scars. Grand and subalpine fir seedlings were more frequently

damaged than Engelmann spruce, western larch, and lodgepole pine

seedlings, and the most frequent damage to fir seedlings occurred in

units treated by the forwarder. More damage occurred to residual

large trees during yarding than to seedlings. 

Forwarder yarding resulted in slightly more damage to trees

than did skyline cable yarding. Wrenching was generally consistent

between residual seedlings and trees. Scarring occurred more frequently to residual trees than to seedlings. Despite slight differences

in stand damage, both yarding methods met the silviculture prescription of reducing fuel and protecting large western larch,

Engelmann spruce, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine stems targeted

for retention. This suggests that the decision by resource managers to

use one method of yarding over the other should probably be based

on considerations such as availability of equipment, costs, and soil

damage.
52 Managing Disturbance Regimes Program

Alternative fuel-reduction methods: 

the Hungry Bob and Mission Creek project

Forests with historically short-interval, low- to moderate-severity fire

regimes are often dense with excessive amounts of fuels. Widespread treatments

are needed to restore ecological integrity and reduce the high risk of destructive,

uncharacteristically severe fires in these forests. Among possible treatments,

however, the appropriate balance of cuttings, mechanical fuel treatments, and

prescribed fire is often unclear. For improved decisionmaking, resource managers need much better information about the consequences of alternative management practices involving fire and mechanical-manual “fire surrogates.”

Hungry Bob in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon and Mission

Creek in central Washington (part of a national effort to develop a standard

experimental design and protocol for a national study of the consequences of fire

and fire surrogate treatments) are 2 of 11 studies designed as long-term, interdisciplinary research efforts to quantify the consequences and tradeoffs of alternative fire and fire-surrogate treatments. Ecological, economic, and social

aspects will be included as integral components. 

To date, at Hungry Bob, all baseline assessment is complete, mechanical

thinning is complete, and burning was begun in September 2000. At Mission

Creek, all pretreatment data on wildlife, soils, vegetation, fuels, insects, and

pathology are currently being collected in anticipation of harvest activities in

2001 and burning activities in 2002.

Toward an integrated classification 

of ecosystems: defining opportunities 

for managing fish and forest health

Many of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems of the Pacific Northwest have

been simplified and degraded, in part through past land management activities.

Recent listings of fishes under the Endangered Species Act and major new initiatives for restoring forest health have precipitated contentious debate among managers and conservation interests in the region. Because aggressive management

activities proposed for forest restoration may directly affect watershed processes

and functions, the goals of aquatic and terrestrial conservation and restoration

generally are seen as conflicting. But inextricable links in ecological processes and

functions suggest the two perspectives should represent elements of the same

problem, that of conserving and restoring more functional landscapes.

Recent information on the status and distribution of forest and fish communities was used to classify subbasins across the region and explore the potential conflict and opportunity for a more integrated view of management. The

classification indicated that there are common trends in terrestrial and aquatic

communities that highlight areas of potential convergence in management goals.

Regions where patterns diverge emphasize the need for particular care and

investment in risk analyses. The spatially explicit classification of subbasin conditions provides a mechanism for progress in three areas: (1) communication

among disciplines, (2) prioritization of limited conservation and restoration

resources, and (3) a framework for experimentation and demonstration of commitment and untested restoration techniques.

Recent changes (1930s to 1990s) in spatial

patterns of interior Northwest forests 

The midscale landscape assessment of the interior Columbia River basin

(the basin), begun in fall 1993, was published in 1999 as part of the Interior

Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. The assessment was a quantitative characterization of vegetation change in terrestrial landscapes, associated

change in landscape vulnerability to fire and related smoke production, and

insect and pathogen disturbances. Significant changes in forest and rangeland

spatial patterns were presented by ecological reporting unit (ERU), and the management implications of changes were discussed. The assessment area (144,000

acres) included the Columbia River basin east of the crest of the Cascade Range

and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins in Oregon. 

Mechanical thinning

was performed on

the Hungry Bob site

in northeast Oregon

to help restore ecological integrity and

reduce the high risk

of destructive,

severe fires.

Photo by Andy Youngblood
Managing Disturbance Regimes Program 53

Twentieth-century management activities significantly altered spatial patterns of physiognomies, cover types and structural conditions, and vulnerabilities to fire, insect, and pathogen disturbances. Forest land cover expanded in several ERUs, and woodland area expanded in most. Of all physiognomic conditions, shrubland area declined most owing to cropland expansion, conversion to

seminative and nonnative herblands, and expansion of forests and woodlands.

Shifts from early- to late-seral conifer species were evident in forests of most

ERUs; patch sizes of forest cover types are now smaller, and current land cover

is more fragmented. Landscape area in old multistory, old single story, and

stand-initiation forest structures declined with compensating increases in area

and connectivity of dense, multilayered, intermediate forest structures. Patches

with medium and large trees, regardless of their structural affiliation are also currently less abundant on the landscape. Finally, basin forests are now dominated

by shade-tolerant conifers and exhibit elevated fuel loads and severe fire behavior attributes, which indicate expanded future roles of certain defoliators, bark

beetles, root diseases, and stand replacement fires. 

Vertebrate habitat trends and road effects

summarized for 145 million acres

The PNW Research Station’s continued involvement in science assessments for the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project has

resulted in a multispecies, broad-scale evaluation of habitat trends and road

effects for a large set of terrestrial vertebrates. Results of this evaluation are

shown in a recent publication entitled “Source Habitats for Terrestrial

Vertebrates of Focus in the Interior Columbia Basin: Broad-Scale Trends and

Management Implications.” This publication was used to develop terrestrial

strategies contained in the supplemental draft environmental impact statement

released earlier this year for public comment. 

Scientists estimated habitat requirements and trends for 91 terrestrial vertebrate species across 145 million acres of public and private land within the

basin. Scientists specifically focused on species for which previously collected

data indicated declines in populations, habitats, or both, and whose habitats

could be evaluated with broad-scale mapping techniques. Example species

whose habitats were evaluated include white-headed woodpecker, American

marten, northern goshawk, Canada lynx, wolverine, pronghorn, sage grouse,

and Columbian sharp-tailed grouse. Results indicated that habitats for species

associated with old forest, native grasslands, and native shrublands have undergone strong, widespread decline. 

Habitats for species associated with old forest,

native grasslands, and shrublands have undergone

strong, widespread decline.

Implications of these results for managing old-forest habitats include consideration of (1) conservation of habitats in regions where decline in old forests

has been strongest; (2) silvicultural manipulations, such as thinning or prescribed burning, of mid-seral forests to accelerate development of late-seral

stages; and (3) long-term silvicultural manipulations (for example, multiple

entries of thinning and prescribed burning) and the accommodation of natural

disturbance regimes in all forest types to hasten development and improvement

in the amount, quality, and distribution of old-forest conditions.

Implications for managing grasslands and shrublands include the potential to (1) conserve native grasslands and shrublands where this vegetation

remains, (2) control or eradicate exotic plants on native grasslands and shrublands where the potential for exotic plant invasion is high, and (3) restore

native plant communities by using intensive management practices (for exam-
54 Managing Disturbance Regimes Program

ple, changes in livestock grazing and fire management coupled with native

seedlings and plantings after disturbance events) where the potential for

restoration is high.

A synthesis of road-associated effects on terrestrial vertebrates also is

included in the publication. Results indicated that more than 70 percent of the

91 species evaluated are affected negatively by road-associated factors. A summary of these findings is reported in a national synthesis of road effects that

formed the basis for the national roadless environmental impact statement,

released in summer 2000 by the Forest Service.

In addition to national and regional EIS applications, Bureau of Land

Management and Forest Service field offices anticipate using results from the

source habitats publication as broad-scale context for conducting finer scale

habitat evaluations for individual species and groups of species. Local managers

will relate the findings to local conditions to more effectively conserve and

restore the habitats of these species of conservation focus.

Assessing log resources on landscapes

The perplexing issue of how management deals with immense acreages

of deadwood in the aftermath of widespread insect outbreaks and fires has

spurred interest in not only how much deadwood to remove by salvage harvests and prescribed burning but also in how much to leave. The latter is

partly a function of the needs of management to adhere to national, regional, and agency policies relating to providing habitat for various plants and

animals. This pioneering research into the values of log resources led to the

conclusion that some currently used sampling methods for logs lack precision, are time-consuming, and are inadequate to describe log resources in

sufficient detail for managers. These methods mainly treated logs as fuels

and did not yield quantitative data that were pertinent to the fact that logs

are a dynamic resource in forest productivity and continuity and not merely

attributes of fire hazard. 

“Attracticide” formulation of the insect

pheromone combined with an insecticide 

may help manage shoot-boring insects

Shoot-boring insects, such as the western pine shoot borer, cause

chronic growth loss in western pine plantations by suppressing or sometimes killing the leader shoots of young pines. Methods have been developed for controlling this insect by using insecticide sprays or pheromone

applications that block the reproductive behavior of the insect. Timing

of insecticide sprays to adequately control populations of the insect,

however, is difficult, and public sentiment is decidedly against the use of

insecticides.

The pheromone mating disruption approach is expensive and

requires the sponsoring company to obtain registration by the

Environmental Protection Agency. Combining the attractive pheromone

and an insecticide in a combined formulation reduces the necessary

quantities of the two active agents to a fraction of what would be needed if either were used alone. Initial field tests indicate that the combined

approach is feasible for the western pine shoot borer and the European

pine shoot moth. The method also may be effective in managing other

forest insects, such as those causing damage to seed production.

Douglas-fir beetle infestations are effectively reduced with adjustment in space intervals and

quantity of antiaggregant pheromone dispensed. 

Photo by Darrell Ross
Managing Disturbance Regimes Program 55

Antiaggregation pheromone can be dispensed 

at wider spacings than previously recommended

to manage the Douglas-fir beetle

The Douglas-fir beetle antiaggregation pheromone, 3-methylcyclohex-2-

en-1-one (MCH), is highly effective at preventing the infestation of high-risk

trees during beetle outbreaks. The currently recommended treatment calls for

dispersing MCH at point source intervals spaced 16 feet apart surrounding the

trees to be protected. The nominal release of MCH is 0.002 ounce per acre per

day. The results of this study showed that dispensers could be placed 49 feet

apart with each releasing a threefold greater quantity of pheromone, to compensate for the threefold fewer dispensers per acre, and still effectively prevent

Douglas-fir beetle infestations. Because of the large areas of trees to be protected, often located in steep, brushy locations, the fewer point sources necessary for

tree protection could substantially reduce treatment application costs.

The antiaggregation pheromone MCH is registered with the

Environmental Protection Agency for operational use and is available commercially. There is a growing use by forest managers to protect high-value Douglasfir from the beetle.

A database on forest insects, their hosts, 

parasitoids, and predators

Recent work has provided World Wide Web access to collection records

for forest insect specimens and damage samples in USDA Forest Service repositories nation-wide. A version of this database is available on the PNW

Research Station Web site. The database includes about 51,000 records for

specimens collected in forests of the West from the start of the 20th century

to about 1980. Currently, the database is d-base compatible and can be

imported into certain programs to generate specific queries and reports. By the

end of fiscal year 2000, the HUSSI index will have been built into a relational database that can be searched online. This format will permit queries that

can produce lists of plant and insect host, historical records, and information

on geographic ranges of insects.
56 Resource Management and Productivity Program

Resource Management 

and Productivity Program

The mission of the Resource Management and Productivity

Program is to increase understanding of the biology and productivity of forest ecosystems and develop management tools and

operational systems that enhance production of wood products

and other resource values.

Many significant accomplishments and innovative approaches to research were made in support of land managers and decisionmakers in 2000. Several large interdisciplinary silvicultural

studies are contributing valuable information to the ongoing

debate on management of public and private forest lands. We

addressed wood production, enhancement of riparian systems and

wildlife habitat, and conservation and restoration of biodiversity,

including several noncommercial woody and nonwoody plant

species. Much of this work is being accomplished in collaboration

with universities, native corporations, and land managers of

diverse ownerships in the Northwestern United States and western

Canada. With the biophysical research information, the economic performance and public acceptance of the various silvicultural

options and harvest patterns can be evaluated. 

Efforts are being expanded in forest genetics, soil-site productivity, and interrelations between silvicultural practices and

wood properties. These research capabilities are important for

management of federal lands but are especially needed to address

sustainability issues on state and private lands, where most of the

active management for long-term wood production occurs. In

addition, methods and tools are being developed to assist

research, monitoring, and management activities; these range

from data management systems to visualization models for stands

and landscapes. Many of these tools contribute to the precise

forestry technology needed by land managers and small nonindustrial landowners as they respond to new state forest practice

regulations.
Large-scale silvicultural experiments address

wood production and ecological objectives 

As the demands of society for wood and wood products continue to

increase, so do the demands for environmentally sensitive management and

additional forest resource values such as recreation, water quality, aesthetics,

and biodiversity. Several large integrated studies have been established to

emphasize active management and address some aspect of joint economic and

ecological objectives. These large-scale studies collectively are a major research

investment by the Station and land management organizations. Studies range

from young growth to old growth on natural and planted stands. The techniques and silvicultural options are operationally feasible so that studies will

yield information on an operational scale. These complex studies include silvicultural options for managing young-growth production forests (the Capitol

Forest Study), alternatives to clearcutting in the old-growth forests of southeast Alaska, and the density management and riparian buffer study. Together,

these studies are widely recognized by the science community as offering an

important strategic regional capability to provide a mix of management

options for producing commodities while maintaining or enhancing habitat,

water quality, and aesthetics.

Key Scientific Findings

✦ Research on testing and breeding has contributed to improved Douglas-fir

trees in the Pacific Northwest

The culmination of 35 years of research on testing and breeding of graftcompatible Douglas-fir rootstock has made a major contribution to improvement of Douglas-fir trees in the Pacific Northwest, with over 70 seed orchards

now producing seed for reforestation. 

✦ Pretreatment analysis of stands in the study of alternatives to clearcutting 

in the old-growth forests of southeast Alaska are yielding new insights into

old-growth forest conditions

Although wind is commonly thought to be the major disturbance agent in

southeast Alaska forests, the importance of wind-caused tree breakage may

be easily overestimated in these forests. Recent evidence highlights the role

of disease as an important agent of small-scale disturbance. 

✦ Using integrated approaches aids in restoring degraded sites

Restoring a degraded Shasta red fir barrens in the Siskiyou Mountains of

southern Oregon required an integrated approach be used that accounted for

climatic influences, soil characteristics, and the adaptive characteristics of

native plants. Characterizing important site parameters and plant adaptive

characteristics led to greater revegetation success and more efficient

restoration of this and other high-elevation landscapes. 

✦ Public acceptance of harvesting increases as more trees are retained

The Capitol Forest study of silvicultural options for managing younggrowth forests in Washington investigated many interrelated aspects of forest

management. Initial results indicate that although costs increase as more

trees are retained, public acceptance of harvesting also increases. These

factors are being used in conjunction with information about subsequent tree

growth and quality, soil disturbance, and bird populations to evaluate which

treatments are most appropriate in each portion of a forest. 

✦ Wetland boundaries can be determined with measurements 

of soil saturation and reduction

Wet-soil monitoring research in southeast Alaska suggests that wetland

boundaries can be determined with measurements of soil saturation and reduction. The visual indicators that are commonly used in delineation (the soil morphological indicators of saturation and reduction in spodosols), however, are not

reliable. More accurate wetlands delineation is possible with information on the

site factors of geology, topography, and soils, which are critical to understanding a broader scale hillside hydrology and subsequent soil saturation.

The alternative silvicultural regimes selected for the Capitol Forest study will produce 

different stand conditions over time. 

Resource Management and Productivity Program 57
58 Resource Management and Productivity Program

Visual impacts of harvesting operations

reduced while a productive forest is 

maintained 

State and private forest lands increasingly must provide various products

including wood and nonwood products, recreation, wildlife habitat, and water

quality. Such pressures and increasing constraints designed to minimize the impacts

of harvesting operations have led to a need to develop and evaluate alternative harvesting practices. This need has resulted in a unique study and partnership between

the Station and the State of Washington Department of Natural Resources with

assistance from the University of Washington and University of Idaho. The study,

silvicultural options for managing young-growth production forests, located in the

Capitol State Forest near Olympia, Washington, is unique because of its operational

size, scope of treatments, and joint design by managers and scientists.

The study evaluates forestry practices and silvicultural systems that can

reduce visual impacts of harvesting operations while maintaining a productive

forest for future generations. The study has received attention from executives,

managers, and foresters in many private and public forestry organizations. In

British Columbia, managers and scientists with the Ministry of Forests have

begun plans to replicate the study on Vancouver Island. The Canadian study, silvicultural treatments for ecosystem management, will use the same basic design

as the Capitol Forest study to facilitate sharing data and results. 

Different patterns and intensities of tree

removal affect harvest costs 

How do different patterns and intensities of tree removal affect the cost and

productivity of logging operations? To address this question, researchers from the

Station and the University of Idaho collected extensive production and cost data

associated with various forest operations of the Capitol Forest study. Electronic

data recorders and global positioning systems (GPS) were installed on logging

equipment to monitor the activities and positions of each machine. The electronic data recorders performed well for all stand treatments, thereby allowing estimates of productivity. Global positioning system receivers, however, could accurately track machine travel only in areas with low residual canopy (0 to 15 trees per

acre). Many Western states are implementing more rigorous forest practices that

will need better systems for monitoring machine movements and impacts in partial-cut treatments. The methods developed here form a core element of the precision forestry initiative underway at the University of Washington.

Results showed that logging costs differed considerably with the level of

tree removal. For harvest of stands of similar size, the cost of cutting, processing,

and stacking the trees at roadside was lowest when a stand was clearcut.

Conversely, the cost was highest when a stand was only thinned. This logging

cost information is used by forest managers in conjunction with product values

and estimated future tree-growth rates to determine the financial benefits associated with alternative silvicultural regimes.

Minimizing visual impacts: 

aesthetics in forestry operations 

The forest aesthetics component of the Capitol Forest study examines public

reaction to alternative silvicultural regimes and evaluates the economic, physical, and

biological tradeoffs of the visually preferred treatments. This project helps refine

understanding of what people like and do not like about harvest practices. Resource

managers can then better incorporate aesthetic principles into forestry operations to

mitigate negative visual impacts. Images have been collected annually of each unit in

an installation for a photo survey questionnaire. Recreationists, rural landowners,

teachers, foresters, and the general public will be asked to indicate their preference

for various harvest patterns and provide a rationale for their ratings. Preliminary findings from pretest surveys show a surprising similarity in relative rankings of forest

scenes by different groups, but responses differed among groups in the degree of positive or negative rating. Such differences were greatest for scenes depicting fairly

intensive harvest practices; respondents familiar with timber harvesting had a less

negative reaction.

Logging costs differed considerably with the level of tree removal. 
Resource Management and Productivity Program 59

Envisioning the effect of

management on future forest

conditions 

Public acceptance of forest management

practices is based largely on the appearance of the

landscape and of the individual forest stands after

management activities have occurred. Program

scientists have developed tools that enable computer visualization of forest scenes. Recently, a

new visualization tool called EnVision was developed to illustrate changes in conditions over time

for specific sites within a landscape context.

EnVision produces computer images of stands

and landscapes that range from simplified shaded

surfaces to near photo-quality renderings.

EnVision can produce images from ground-level

viewpoints showing structural changes that result

from a specific silvicultural treatment, images

from scenic vistas showing the effect of multiple

treatments over time on the aesthetic quality of a

landscape, or images from high overhead showing

the spatial arrangement and extent of management activities. Additional information about

this research can be found on the Web at

http://forsys.cfr.washington.edu.

Maintaining critical riparian habitats 

while producing sustainable amounts of 

merchantable wood

Much uncertainty exists over how best to manage headwater streams and

their drainages, which encompass large portions of the forests in the Pacific

Northwest. In response, the density management and riparian buffer study was

initiated in western Oregon to provide information on the use of riparian buffers,

upland leave areas, small clearcut patches, and forest density management treatments. This mosaic approach to forest management is designed to add complexity to forest structure and maintain critical habitats and key species in headwater

forests while producing sustainable amounts of merchantable wood. The study is

a cooperative project of the Station and the U.S. Geological Survey, National

Forest System, Bureau of Land Management, and Oregon State University. 

The role of density management in promoting structural and species diversity and its roles and impacts in areas designated as riparian reserves is being

addressed. The focus is on the impacts alternative density management options

occurring upslope have on the integrity of adjacent streamside habitat. Preliminary

findings within an unthinned study site suggest that the greatest change in microclimate (temperature and humidity) occurs within the first 16.4 feet from stream

center, with relatively small changes in microclimate at distances beyond the first

98.4 feet upslope from the stream. Light availability in many of these unthinned

stands is inadequate for the successful regeneration of many native tree species.

Computer image of proposed harvesting units.
60 Resource Management and Productivity Program

Insights for old-growth management 

in southeast Alaska

Started in 1994, the study alternatives to clearcutting in the oldgrowth forests of southeast Alaska includes a retrospective study of past

partial cutting and a long-term, operational-scale experimental study. The

experimental treatments test the effects of the amount of trees retained, the

pattern of retention (uniform, clumps, or gaps), and the size of the clumps

or gaps. The treatments span retention levels from 0 to 100 percent and

include both even- and uneven-age silvicultural systems. Nine treatments

are replicated in three blocks located in the Tongass National Forest. Two

of the nine blocks have been harvested to date.

Detailed pretreatment studies of the 27 stands used for the experiment

are yielding new insights into old-growth forest conditions. Wind, which

causes uprooting and breakage of trees, is commonly thought to be the

major disturbance agent in forests in southeast Alaska, but recent results

highlight the role of disease as an important agent of small-scale disturbance. Researchers examined over 3,400 dead trees, and among those large

enough to have created a canopy gap after dying, 21 percent were uprooted, 50 percent were broken, and 29 percent were relatively intact standing

snags. Among the trees that died recently, however, 19 percent were uprooted, broken trees declined to 22 percent, and standing dead trees increased

to 58 percent. This suggests that the importance of wind-caused breakage

may be easily overestimated in these forests as trees die standing, decay, and

subsequently break.

Timber harvesting by using alternatives to clearcutting is technically

feasible across various cutting intensities. Where group selection is used,

gaps should be greater then 100 feet in diameter to avoid problems during

tree falling and yarding. Harvest-related damage is greater to residual trees

where fewer are left. Where 75 percent of the trees were left, generally less

than 17 percent had damaged tops or boles; where only 25 percent of the

trees remained, up to 40 percent were damaged to some extent. The retention pattern strongly influenced damage rates: with 25 percent of the basal

area left in clumps, less than 5 percent of the remaining trees were damaged;

at 75-percent retention, the group selection cut damaged less than 4 percent

of the trees.

Increasing diversity of structure 

and species composition in young stands

Many forest plantations in the Pacific Northwest were established with

wood production as the primary management objective; these plantations generally have uniform spacing and species composition, and information is available to predict their stand development and yield. For some plantations, the primary objective has changed to include other values such as wildlife habitat and

recreation. These other values may best be met with treatments that increase

diversity in stand structure and species composition. Because these types of

stands or treatments were not studied in the past, little information is available.

In the past 5 years, several new trials have been established in 10- to 20-year-old

west-side plantations to study the long-term effects of these “diversity” treatments. Early results show differences among treatments in tree and stand growth

as well as in cover of shrubs, herbs, grasses, lichens, and mosses. Future assessments will include log quality and tree value as well as assessments of

wildlife habitat quality. Cooperators include the Gifford Pinchot National

Forest, Willamette National Forest, and the Washington Department of

Natural Resources.

Wind-caused breakage in southeast Alaska may be overestimated.

Photo by Mike McClellan
Resource Management and Productivity Program 61

Understanding development of high-elevation 

true fir-hemlock forests 

From 1987 to 1994, 18 precommercial thinning trials were established in true

fir-hemlock stands along the west side of the Cascade Range and in the Olympic

Mountains. The trials were intended to determine the effect of early spacing on subsequent development of these young high-elevation stands. There were substantial

differences in growth rates among Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and noble fir

during the first 5 or 10 years after thinning. As expected, diameter growth of all

species increased with increased spacing. Somewhat unexpectedly, however, height

growth of silver fir and noble fir decreased at wider spacings. In the future, data

from these installations is expected to provide a substantial part of the information

needed for modeling development of stands of these species.

Nondestructive evaluation of 

wood properties in standing trees

The long-term existence of a sustainable timber industry in southeast Alaska

depends on continued availability of wood of sufficient quality to compete in the world

marketplace. If recent trends continue, fewer and fewer old-growth forests will be available for timber harvesting, and harvest will shift to maturing even-aged young-growth

forests. Because of the limited local market, distance from export markets, and generally high production costs, southeast Alaska may compete effectively only in markets

for high-quality wood. A “well-managed” hemlock-spruce stand in southeast Alaska

under current management practices for wood production would be precommercially

thinned at 15 to 20 years. There has been a trend toward wider or variable spacing to

maintain or enhance understory plant cover, treatments that could increase taper, stimulate the production of epicormic branches, increase the size and longevity of branches, alter ring width, and perhaps, alter wood strength and stiffness—characteristics that

may radically reduce profitability in a quality-driven market.

The objective of this research is to quantify the relations between silvicultural

treatments, site conditions, and several measures of wood quality, including mechanical properties, by using a nondestructive stress wave technique recently developed in

cooperation with the USDA Forest Products Laboratory. Initial results indicate that

in situ stress wave measurements can provide relatively accurate and reliable information that enables nondestructive evaluation of wood properties in standing trees.

Research on wet, forested soils helps land

managers delineate wetland boundaries 

Forested wetlands are extensive in southeast Alaska and are a research priority

because of their occurrence on ecologically valuable land. In collaboration with the

Natural Resources Conservation Service, wet-soil research has resulted in improving

wetland delineation, providing information on soil hydrology, and establishing baseline information for nutrient cycling studies (redox potential, pH, and soil saturation). Significant findings are that saturation and reduction in wetland soils is long

term with little indication of oxyaquic conditions; the saturated soils were by and

large anerobic. Wetland boundaries can be determined through measurements of soil

saturation and reduction; however, soil morphological indicators of saturation and

reduction in spodosols, the visual indicators commonly used by land managers, are

not reliable. More accurate wetlands delineation is possible with information on the

site factors of geology, topography, and soils, which are critical for a comprehensive

understanding of hillslope hydrology and subsequent soil saturation. Thinned noble fir stand. 

Photo by Tom Iraci
62 Resource Management and Productivity Program

An ecological basis for successful 

restoration of Shasta red fir barrens 

Restoring degraded barrens in the Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon

requires an integrated approach be used that accounts for climatic influences,

soil characteristics, and the adaptive characteristics of native plants. In the past,

nonnative grasses or poorly adapted plants often were introduced on soils along

with applications of fertilizers and amendments that were ineffective. These failures occurred over a span of 20 years and cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. 

The study examined planted and naturally growing native plants including

Shasta red fir, native shrubs, grasses, and herbs, as well as soil properties and

physical site properties. Characterizing important site parameters and plant

adaptive characteristics led to greater revegetation success and more efficient

restoration of this and other high-elevation landscapes. Shasta red fir growing on

the Siskiyou crest is a successful colonizer because it is adapted to poor soil, high

soil surface temperatures, heavy snow layers, and summer drought. It also modifies the microsite for other species. As species colonize the barrens, soil characteristics change. These data provide a reference for measuring soil quality and

indicating which species are tolerant of this particular soil type, which is low in

key nutrients and organic matter. Development of Shasta red fir forests with

large downed wood and complex root systems provide natural dams and slow

high-energy waterflow, which reduces erosion. This research project was completed in cooperation with the Rogue River National Forest and the Jobs-in-theWoods program. 

The value of genetic diversity conservation 

in forest management

Conservation of genetic diversity has been recognized in many international forums as an important requirement of sustainable forest management.

The spatial distribution of genetic resources conserved in both native stands (in

situ) and off-site collections or plantings (ex situ) was summarized to identify

areas where genetic resources may be inadequately conserved. Results indicate

that the eight conifer species considered in this study are well protected in in

situ reserves throughout most of their range in western Oregon and

Washington. The extent and importance of ex situ resources differs widely

among the species studied. For western white pine and sugar pine, species heavily impacted by blister rust in native stands, ex situ resources may be particularly important. For those species with large tree improvement programs, such

as Douglas-fir, the first-generation progeny tests represent an extensive and valuable ex situ genetic resource, and a representative sample of them should be

maintained.

Douglas-fir tree improvement a reality

In the 1960s, mortality in Douglas-fir seed orchards from graft incompatibility ranged from 30 to 60 percent, greatly limiting the possibility of delivering

genetic gain from tree improvement programs and reducing genetic diversity in

seed from seed orchards. The culmination of 35 years of research on testing and

breeding of graft-compatible Douglas-fir rootstock indicates that graft compatibility as evaluated by anatomical tests of the graft union is highly heritable and

that breeding for graft compatibility rootstock is possible. Crossings among 27

parents of high graft compatibility produced 226 control-pollinated families with

an average compatibility of 91 percent compared to 65 percent in native populations. Crossings among the 10 most compatible parents showed 96-percent compatibility. This research has made a major contribution to Douglas-fir tree

improvement in the Pacific Northwest with over 70 seed orchards now producing seed for reforestation. This research has been beneficial in establishing seed

orchards around the world where Douglas-fir is an introduced species, including

Europe and New Zealand.

Douglas-fir seed orchard. 

Photo by Brad St. Clair
Resource Management and Productivity Program 63

Improving our ability to breed for tolerance 

to Swiss needle cast disease

Swiss needle cast, a native foliage disease that causes chlorosis and needle

loss in Douglas-fir, has escalated into a severe forest health problem along the

Oregon and Washington coast. Growth rate reductions of 30 percent occurred

in stands that are holding only 1-1/2 to 2 years of foliage. Work with older progeny test data suggests that breeding for tolerance to Swiss needle cast may

increase basal area growth rates by 30 percent, thereby offsetting some of the

growth reduction caused by the disease. Additional research has shown that 2-

or 3-year-old seedlings might be used to screen families for tolerance to Swiss

needle cast. This procedure would allow breeders to decrease the evaluation time

needed to choose tolerant families, thus improving the ability to breed for disease tolerance. These results support the recommendation of the Swiss Needle

Cast Cooperative that Douglas-fir should contribute 20 percent or less of the

planting stock used on high-hazard sites. 

Research supports that Douglas-fir stocking should

contribute 20 percent or less of the planting stock

used on high-hazard sites.

Increasing genetic gains through 

cost-effective modification of mating designs

The number of families tested in second-generation Douglas-fir breeding

programs is limited by the expense of progeny trials. Considerably fewer families are being tested in the second generation compared with the first, which can

result in achieving less gain in the next generation. This work examined the efficiency of creating additional families by using parents already in the existing second-generation programs, but planting the additional families in low-cost, pure

family blocks where within-family selections could be made in the next generation. Breeding values would be obtained from related families tested in replicated field trials. Results indicate the additional gains may be achieved for a relatively small investment. 

Ecological processes critical for establishment

and growth of alder-conifer forests

Red alder appears to influence the productivity of young-growth

conifer forests and the major resources of timber, wildlife, and fisheries of

forested ecosystems in southeast Alaska. Recent studies have indicated

that mixed alder-conifer stands have both species-rich and highly productive understory vegetation with biomass similar to that of old-growth

stands of the region. Habitat quality for small mammals in even-aged

alder-conifer stands may be equal to that of old-growth forests. Red alder

has potential for restoring important ecosystem functions in younggrowth, even-aged forests. An integrated, comparative study of red alderconifer stands versus pure conifer stands has been established to assess differences in stand structure; tree mortality; understory vegetation; arthropod, bird, and bat communities; and food resources for fish, birds, and

bats. This study is the first step in a broadly integrated research program

to address ecological processes critical for establishment and growth of

alder-conifer forests. 

Teaming with industry to address 

long-term site productivity

Is long-term site productivity influenced by the removal of small

branches and needles from a site at the time of timber harvest? How does

removal of large woody material influence site productivity? Is nutrient

removal the most important factor influencing productivity, or are factors such as alteration of microclimate or soil compaction more important? If these factors are important, can they be ameliorated by practices

such as vegetation management, fertilization, or tillage? To answer these

questions, researchers from the Station have collaborated with

Weyerhaeuser Company and the University of Washington to work on

the Fall River long-term site productivity research study. The study is in

a productive, intensively managed forest in Pacific County, Washington.

Twelve treatments were installed in 1999, and researchers from all three

organizations have been involved in collecting baseline information on

nutrients and organic matter and in monitoring the microclimate, nutrient cycles, soil disturbance, seedling water relations, and vegetation

development after harvest.
64 Resource Management and Productivity Program

Evaluating the ecological, physical, and social

effects of retaining green trees in harvest

units through a demonstration of ecosystem

management options (DEMO)

The Pacific Northwest Region of the USDA Forest Service received congressional direction in 1993 to establish a large-scale silvicultural experiment.

The region, in cooperation with the PNW Research Station, subsequently

established a collaborative research effort with the Washington State

Department of Natural Resources, University of Washington, Oregon State

University, and the University of Oregon. The DEMO study is designed to

provide information on developing harvest strategies (range of green-tree

retention) that will retain or accelerate the recovery of some of the species and

key ecological features found in mature and old-growth forests in western

Oregon and Washington. Additional information can be found on the web at

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/demo/. 

Key findings are:

✦ Public favors new forestry over traditional clearcutting

A public opinion survey conducted in western Washington and Oregon

found that “new forestry” is favored over traditional clearcutting and plantation silviculture if it is applied outside old-growth forests. There is not a 

consensus in favor of stopping all timber harvests in second-growth forests. 

✦ More ground disturbance occurred at lower levels of tree retention on

aggregated cutting units

Significantly greater ground disturbance was found at lower levels of

tree retention (15 percent) and on aggregated versus dispersed cutting

units with even greater differences evident among blocks, thereby reflecting the predominant influence of initial site differences and yarding

methods (ground based, suspension cable, or helicopter). 

✦ Red tree vole occur in sites outside of Northwest Forest Plan 

survey guidelines

New information on the distribution of the red tree vole, a Northwest

Forest Plan “survey and manage” species, was collected at one of the Oregon

DEMO study sites. The red tree vole was captured 984 feet higher in elevation than previously reported, thereby indicating that current guidelines for

red tree vole surveys may not include all areas where the species occurs. 

✦ Maintaining root structure may be critical to diverse fungus populations

Maintaining root structure in forested stands may be critical to maintaining diverse ectomycorrhizal fungus populations after disturbance.

Individual green trees can harbor occasional fruitings of ectomycorrhizal

fungi, thereby contributing to recovery after disturbance. 

✦ Many textbooks incorrectly report the snow water holding capacity of

conifers as being limited to about 0.12 inch

Studies show that in the Pacific Northwest, over 0.98 inch of snow

water equivalent can be stored in the coniferous canopy. Limited data also

indicate that tree species does not affect how much can be stored, with all

species tested to date storing the same amount when the data are adjusted 

for canopy area. 

Six treatments used in the DEMO study. 
Resource Management and Productivity Program 65

Social perceptions of forest management 

A public opinion survey was conducted in western Washington and

Oregon. Sampling balanced several people favoring forest production, forest

protection, or neither of these points of view. Members of the first two groups

consistently held opposed views of acceptable costs in saving the northern

spotted owl. There is strong consensus across these groups that clearcutting

should be regulated, and that conventional forestry is unpopular. The weight

of the opinions of the group indicated that replanting clearcuts and hiding

them from view is not enough to make them acceptable; “new forestry” should

not be done in old growth, and foresters should attend more to wildlife concerns. There is no clear weight of opinions that forest harvests should be eliminated or that clearcutting should be banned. There was distrust of foresters

among most protectionists, and many of those respondents who did not favor

either forest production or forest protection, but these same people support

new forestry intentions. There is a consensus in favor of “new forestry” rather

than traditional clearcutting and plantation silviculture if it is applied outside

old-growth forests.

Invertebrate response 

to DEMO treatments monitored

The invertebrate project is continuing to sample Douglas-fir, understory hemlock, and vine maple in all plots and to monitor over 100 taxa, although only 20 or

so are abundant enough for separate analyses of responses. Several taxa and functional groups differ in abundance by latitude and precipitation level within the

DEMO forests. Aphids, predators, and detritivores were more abundant at northern

and wetter sites, although several species of oribatid mites were more abundant at the

southern, drier sites. Preliminary data suggest that bark lice are more abundant in

interior forest than at edges, but comprehensive analysis is still in progress. Related

research suggests that the 2.47-acre aggregates in the DEMO units may not be large

enough to sustain epigeal (ground surface-dwellers) arthropod communities.

Arboreal species, however, may be less sensitive to environmental changes because of

their greater degree of exposure to environmental changes in the forest canopy.

Coarse woody debris is an important predictor

of small terrestrial vertebrate diversity 

Debate and controversy continues over the amount and types of deadwood

to maintain in managed forests. Because of the range of deadwood conditions in

the preharvest replicates of the DEMO project, a significant contribution was

made to the collective database on vertebrate-deadwood relations used to develop targets for deadwood targets in managed forests. Results from the study suggest that coarse woody debris volume is a better predictor of stand-level diversity in small terrestrial vertebrates than either snag or total deadwood volumes,

and that capture-noncapture information provides a different view of coarse

woody debris relations than abundance data do.

Red tree vole occurs beyond designated areas

New information has been obtained on the distribution of small mammals

in the Pacific Northwest. Preharvest vertebrate sampling in the Diamond Lake

Ranger District of the Umpqua National Forest resulted in the capture of a red tree

vole at a new location and at a higher elevation than previously recorded for the

species. This finding shows that the red tree vole occurs outside current survey and

management areas designated for its protection in Oregon federal forests. During

the small-mammal work in Washington, several records for the coast mole were

recorded in Skamania County, including eight records east of the Cascade Range,

which represent new distribution records for the coast mole in Washington. 

Photo provided by Charles Peterson
66 Resource Management and Productivity Program

Maintenance of root structure critical 

to ectomycorrhiza fungus diversity 

The 15-percent, evenly dispersed, green-tree retention treatment was used

to document the contribution of individual green trees to site biodiversity. We

examined ectomycorrhizal fungus diversity on roots of Douglas-fir trees in relation to distance from the bole and two proxy measures of productivity: fine roottip density and sapwood area at breast height of the host trees. Ectomycorrhizal

fungus diversity was highest at the edge of a tree’s crown (drip line), significantly

lower at a distance 0.5 times the distance from a bole to the edge of the drip line,

and lowest outside the drip line; diversity was lower still in open areas. The same

pattern also was observed for the fine root-tip density, and a significant, positive

linear relation was found between ectomycorrhizal fungus diversity and root

density in the soil. As ectomycorrhizal fungus diversity has declined in clearcuts,

the maintenance of root structure in forested stands may be critical to maintaining diverse ectomycorrhizal fungus populations after disturbance. Individual

green trees can harbor occasional fruitings of ectomycorrhizal fungi, thereby

contributing to recovery of the community after disturbance.

Overstory characteristics can be used 

to track understory development

Researchers in Washington used DEMO vegetation data to model the relations between overstory characteristics (canopy cover, stand density, and tree-size

distributions) and understory abundance in mature forest stands. These analyses

suggest that overstory measurements, such as stand density or tall shrub cover,

can serve as surrogates for ecological limiting factors (for example, light and

growing space). The nature of these relations seems to differ for plants belonging to different functional groups, for example, common forest herbs such as

salal and Oregongrape reached their maximum abundance at intermediate levels of stand density and mean overstory tree size, whereas late-successional herbs

were most abundant at lower stand densities with larger tree sizes. The contrast

between these results suggests that empirical measures of the overstory can be

used to track successional time in the understory. 

Significant differences in ground conditions 

Research into disturbance and postharvest ground conditions in a structural retention experiment examines disturbance patterns with respect to levels

(15 versus 40 percent) and patterns (dispersed versus aggregated) of live-tree

retention, by using data from all six DEMO blocks. Significantly greater disturbance was evident at lower levels of retention (15 percent) and on aggregated cutting units over dispersed cutting units, but even greater differences were

evident among blocks, thereby reflecting the predominant influence of initial

site differences and yarding methods (ground-based, suspension cable, or helicopter). We expect that both block- and treatment-level effects will have important short-term consequences for tree regeneration and understory composition

in these forests. We also conclude that conventional strategies used to minimize

soil disturbance and to manage slash accumulation should be applicable to variable retention systems.

New finding on holding limit 

of snow water by conifers 

Concerns about the extent to which major Pacific Northwest floods in the

1990s might have been exacerbated by logging have heightened the need for better scientific understanding of the role of forest maturity on snow accumulation

and melt. To address this need, a multiscale field and modeling study of the

effects of forest canopies on snow accumulation and melt was conducted. Data

on snow interception and continuous observations of below-canopy snowpack

evolution were gathered, along with ancillary observations including standard

micrometeorology, and used to construct, calibrate, and test an energy balance

model of snow as affected by forest canopy. The studies show that in the Pacific

Northwest, over 0.98-inch water equivalent of snow can be stored in the coniferous canopy. This finding is in contrast to what many textbooks report, that

snow holding limit of conifers is about 0.12-inch water equivalent. Limited data

also indicate that the species of tree does not affect how much water equivalent

can be stored. All species tested to date store the same amount when adjusted for

canopy area.
Forest Inventory and Analysis Program 67

Forest Inventory 

and Analysis Program

The mission of the Forest Inventory and Analysis Program is to improve the

understanding and management of Pacific Coast forest and range ecosystems by

developing and applying inventory and monitoring technology to maintain comprehensive inventories and assessment of the status, trends, and prospective futures

of the region’s ecosystems, their use, and their health. The information collected by

the Forest Inventory and Analysis Program is the only scientifically sound forest

resource information available for state and private lands.

The program successfully implemented national inventory standards on the

first 10-percent panel (10 percent of the full set of plots distributed across the state)

of annual plots in Oregon in 2000 and developed transition plans for Alaska,

California, and Washington. Additional planning and evaluation of the national

inventory system as it applies to the tropical islands of the Pacific and Caribbean

were done in collaboration with the Southern Research Station, representatives of

the national Forest Inventory and Analysis program and key partners from the

Pacific and Caribbean Islands. The annual client meeting focused on research plans,

products, and client needs. In addition, field data collection was completed in

Alaska, Oregon, and Washington on over 58 million acres (26 million forested) and

data were compiled and released from the last periodic inventory of Oregon. The

program has continued to support conservation education.

Research results this year found that the area of productive forest land in

southeast Alaska has been reduced by about 15 percent and the land shifted into

wilderness. In Oregon, the recent mill survey showed almost a 50-percent decline

in the number of processing facilities as well as the number of logs consumed.

Climate change information has been used to predict tree growth within a growing season and between seasons, and fire occurrence over decades. Patterns of El

Niño and La Niña have contributed to an abundance of fuel and then conditions

favorable to burning. Residents of the wildland interface in jack pine forests in central Michigan believe that large fires are, for the most part, uncontrollable.

Residents therefore only weakly support supplemental investment in firefighting

infrastructure. Analysis of coarse woody debris has shown more snags in wilderness

than in harvested areas, no differences in amount of down woody debris between

harvested and nonharvested areas at low elevations, and large areas of California

woodland that have no coarse woody debris.
68 Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

Much of the research and analysis done within the Forest Inventory and

Analysis program in fiscal year 2000 was directed at providing answers to technical questions related to inventory design, protocols, and methods. This work

is important because it lays the groundwork for information collected in the

next decade or longer. In 2000, the focus was on evaluating options for nontimber information, such as understory vegetation and structure of old-growth

stands. In addition, alternatives were evaluated for the transition to annual

inventory that will be economically viable and provide the status, trend, and

condition information expected by clients.

Timberland base is shrinking 

in southeast Alaska

Preliminary results from inventory of unreserved lands in the Stikine and

Ketchikan Areas of the Tongass National Forest, begun in 1995 and completed

in 2000, show productive timberland estimated at 2,367 thousand acres. When

compared with estimates from an inventory conducted by the National Forest

System in 1985, this represents a possible reduction of 393,000 acres; from

2,760 thousand acres in 1985. Increases in wilderness area account for much of

this change. Pure stands of Sitka spruce, although rare (about 3 percent of timberland area by forest type), have the highest volumes per acre (about 9,200

cubic feet per acre), exceeding stands of Sitka spruce mixed with western hemlock by about 2,000 cubic feet per acre. Sitka spruce trees alone account for over

22 percent of total net cubic volume on timberland.

Forest cover, forest type, 

and stand size maps for coastal Oregon

Various PNW clients have long asked for less generalized forest type maps

to support forest policy and management, ecological assessment, and visualization of forest resources. A digital forest type map for the Oregon coast ecological province using Landsat 5 imagery and Forest Inventory and Analysis inventory plot data was produced this year. The Oregon coast map predicts forest

cover, forest type (hardwood or conifer), and stand size (quadratic mean diameter of trees). This is the first step in a collaborative Forest Service and Bureau

of Land Management effort to produce forest type maps across all lands in western Oregon and Washington. One major use of these maps will be in the evaluation monitoring phase of the Northwest Forest Plan. 

Key Scientific Findings 

✦ Regional patterns of deadwood in forested habitats of Oregon and

Washington are varied and complex

Deadwood abundance increased with successional stage in most habitats; abundance was greater in west-side conifer-hardwood habitats than in

east-side ponderosa pine and juniper habitats. Large snags (greater than 20

inches in diameter at breast height) were more than twice as dense within

wilderness areas than outside wilderness areas, but downed wood was more

abundant outside wilderness areas.

✦ Timberland base in southeast Alaska is shrinking

Preliminary results from inventory of unreserved lands in the Stikine and

Ketchikan Areas of the Tongass National Forest show a 15-percent loss in

productive timberland when compared with estimates from an inventory conducted by the National Forest System in 1985. Increases in wilderness area

account for much of this change. 

✦ Log consumption in Oregon dropped by almost half

Although the forest products industry contributes significantly to the

states economy, the total number of mills has dropped by 50 percent in the

last 10 years from 360 in 1988 to 183 in 1998, and log consumption dropped

from 8.8 billion board feet in 1988 to 4.5 billion by 1998.

✦ Historical range of variability is key to sustainability

Changes in the 20th century profoundly impacted forest structure and

stand sizes, ages, and density. Impacts on insects and disease outbreaks are

more difficult to evaluate as being outside the historical range of variability.

✦ Homeowner perspectives on fire in the wildland interface

Residents living in the wildland interface of the jack pine forests of central Michigan believe that large fires are, for the most part, uncontrollable.

Residents therefore only weakly support supplemental investment in firefighting infrastructure, and few are likely to take all possible steps to fireproof

their homes, although this would be simple and inexpensive; most prefer

reducing ignitions through enforcement, education, and advertising.
Forest Inventory and Analysis Program 69

Climate change affects tree growth

Much speculation has occurred about likely responses of tree growth to

climate change. By the time it is feasible to discern such responses from inventory data remeasured on permanent plots, the responses may be substantial. An

alternate approach, multisite, multicentury record of interannual tree-growth

variation, was developed and related to instrumental records of temperature,

precipitation, and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) from central

Colorado. Both short- and long-term climate trends influence the growth of

forests. Tree growth responds positively to measured spring-summer precipitation and negatively to summer temperatures. Higher growth rates also correspond to El Niño events, which are associated with wet spring-summers and

cool springs in central Colorado. Additionally, tree growth responds to longterm cycles of climatic variation, thereby allowing the prediction of future

growth rates in changing climates.

Climate change affects fire frequency and

extent at the landscape level

Current ecosystem management efforts are attempting to mitigate the

risks of natural hazards by reintroducing historical disturbance levels. In fireprone, Western United States ecosystems, prescribed fire and stand thinning

are being used for hazard abatement. Reintroducing disturbance efforts

requires knowledge of the historical range of variability so that resources are

managed within the historical bounds of disturbance frequency, timing,

intensity, spatial extent, and distribution. In central Colorado, annually dated

fire scars from 11 sample sites were used to determine exact fire dates for

comparison to tree-ring proxies of moisture availability and the influence of

ENSO. Fire in the region tends to occur during dry, warm, spring-summer

La Niña events and follows cool, wet El Niño events by 2 to 4 years. Rapid,

high-amplitude cycling between fuel-promoting El Niño events and fire-promoting La Niña events seems to create conditions favorable to extensive

burning. Long-term declines in the amplitude of ENSO correspond to periods of reduced fire frequency. During Euro-American settlement in the

region (around 1850-1900), fire frequency dramatically increased followed

by a rapid decline during the fire-suppression era (1920 to present).

Understanding the relations between climate shifts and historical management regimes allows managers to use both reintroduction of fire and stand

thinning along with natural climate changes to effectively manage the natural resources while minimizing risks.

Historical range of variability 

is key to sustainability

Historical range of variability (HRV) is a critical, and often missing,

information asset for ecosystem management. A recent study of HRV was

conducted to provide a baseline assessment of forest conditions of the PikeSan Isabel National Forest during the last few centuries. Findings include

that the most important coarse-scale disturbances triggering succession in

the Rocky Mountains in Colorado are fire, insect outbreaks, windstorms,

and in particular habitats, flooding, and snow avalanches. 

Profound changes in the historical variability of ecosystems conditions

over the last century and a half can be attributed to both direct and indirect

human impacts. Logging, human-set fires, livestock grazing, and mining

were major disturbances in the 19th century. Burning increased in the second half of the 19th century but was reduced in the 20th century because of

fire exclusion. The impacts associated with Euro-American settlement created landscape level changes in forest structure for some cover types that are

outside the HRV. Other forest conditions outside the HRV include abundance of sharp edges and edge effects, smaller patch sizes, increased homogeneity of trees sizes and ages, reduced abundance of old-growth stands, and

generally younger tree populations. Fire exclusion has led to a buildup in

fuels and increased risk of fire and fire intensity. Changes in stand structure

and increased stocking also have increased susceptibility to insects and disease, but it has not been determined that modern levels of infestations are

significantly outside the HRV. 

Profound changes in the historical variability 

of ecosystems conditions over the last century 

and a half can be attributed to both direct 

and indirect human impacts.
70 Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

Homeowner perspectives 

on fire in the wildland interface

Fire and forest managers have sought to address the problem of large,

damaging wildfires at wildland-urban and wildland-rural interfaces

through fuel management and defensible space initiatives. The success of

such initiatives has been limited by failure to seek the opinions of residents living in the interface about these approaches. Results from a recent

study in jack pine forests of Michigan show that because most residents

believe that large fires are uncontrollable, they only weakly support supplemental investment in firefighting infrastructure. Few residents are likely to take all or even most possible steps to fireproof their homes, even

though this would be simple and inexpensive; most prefer strategies that

emphasize reducing ignitions through regulation and education. Contrary

to data in fire incident databases, most residents believe fires are started

by outsiders. Their universally negative impressions of prescribed fire

present a significant challenge to managers interested in using this fuelmanagement technique.

Role of natural resources in community and

regional economic stability

The economy of the West Coast states has evolved from timber dependency to a broad base of industrial and nonindustrial companies. Even within

forests, demands have shifted from timber extraction to tourism, recreation,

seasonal home development, and nontimber resources. A recent study of similar changes on the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan provides insights into

public perception of the need for balance between development and resource

protection. Although timber harvest was broadly supported, people were concerned about clearcutting. Tourism linked to outdoor recreation has grown rapidly, and residents place a high value on outdoor recreation, self-sufficiency,

independence, a work ethic, and the natural world. Natural resources are closely integrated into the lives of most area residents, and regional characteristics

reported as greatly satisfying are peace and quiet, small population, and lack of

development. Residents are deeply concerned about declines in fish stocks,

encroachment of seasonal homes, increasing automobile traffic, and commercial development.

Primary manufacturing mill survey 

for 1998 in Oregon 

Oregon produced 5.5 billion board feet of lumber in 1998, or about 15

percent of the nation’s lumber. Although the forest products industry contributes significantly to the state’s economy, the number of mills dropped by 50

percent from 360 in 1988 to 183 in 1998. Log consumption was 8.8 billion

board feet in 1988 and by 1998 had decreased to 4.5 billion. Public lands were

the source for 14 percent of the log consumption, and national forests provided

35 percent of the logs from public lands. Sixty-four percent of the consumption

went to sawmills, and 24 percent to veneer plants; the remainder was processed

primarily by chip and pulp mills. 

The total number of mills dropped by 50 percent 

from 1988 to 1998.

Closed mill.

Photo by Tom Iraci
Forest Inventory and Analysis Program 71

Regional patterns of deadwood 

in Washington and Oregon

Until now, little has been known about how deadwood characteristics

differ across broad regions encompassing multiple ecological conditions, disturbance histories, and land ownerships. An analysis of deadwood patterns in

Washington and Oregon was recently completed from field measurements collected on over 16,000 plots in regional forest inventories. The strongest differences in deadwood were among habitat types that reflect strong regional

gradients in physical environment. Within habitats, snags and down wood

generally increased with forest succession. Snag levels more closely tracked

recent disturbance and forest succession, whereas down wood was more

strongly associated with long-term history and site productivity. Large snags

were more than twice as dense in unharvested than in harvested forests. Down

wood abundance was similar in harvested and unharvested forests except at

high elevations, where volume was greater in harvested forests. The regional

summaries of deadwood are being integrated into an advisory model

(DecAID) for forest managers.

Coarse woody debris 

in oak woodlands of California 

Oak woodlands in California are widely recognized for their value as recreational sites, open space and view sheds, watersheds, and wildlife habitat, and

they provide food and cover for over 300 terrestrial vertebrate species. Habitat

structures created when standing trees fall are highly correlated with wildlife

abundance in the oak woodlands. Although coarse woody debris (CWD) is considered critical for many wildlife species, few empirical data are available on

occurrence of CWD statewide. A study analyzed CWD data collected from 495

inventory plots. The first statewide assessment of the amount, distribution, and

characteristics of CWD was estimated on 5.8 million acres of California’s oakwoodlands outside of national forests. An average of 21 logs per acre, 115 cubic

feet per acre, and 56.8 linear feet per acre were estimated across all woodland forest types. Almost 3 million acres of woodland, however, were estimated to have

no CWD present. Knowledge of this component of the ecosystem will provide

baseline information to landowners, biologists, and resource planners.

Pacific Islands information 

needs assessment

In 2000, Forest Inventory and Analysis assessed forest inventory and forest

health monitoring needs of the Pacific Islands of American Samoa, Maui,

Marshall Islands, and Guam. Forest health monitoring needs identified by island

forestry staff, environmental organizations, and residents included damage by

insects and diseases, abundance and diversity of native and introduced vegetation damage caused by typhoons, and loss of forest through development, agriculture, erosion, and landslides. Sampling design, training, use of local crews,

and inaccessible areas were other areas of concern.

Understory vegetation

A recent study of a vegetation measurement method was based on six

observers remeasuring 20 plots in one vegetation type. The results showed the

method was not sufficiently repeatable. Four other methods of vegetation cover

measurement were tested, and the data currently are being compiled and analyzed. This study should produce answers about what kind of understory information can be reliably collected, and at what cost, as well as population-level

estimates of measurement error by forest type. This work will impact the selection of national Forest Inventory and Analysis vegetation protocols, as well as

studies being conducted by other research stations. 

Down wood abundance was similar in harvested and unharvested forests except at high elevations, where volume was greater in harvested forests.

Photo by Tom Iraci
72 Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

Plot size for measuring large trees and snags.

Managers of public and private land need to know the abundance of oldforest habitat elements, such as large conifers and snags, to manage for commodities and wildlife. This study analyzed large tree-map plots (maintained by

the H.J. Andrews long-term ecological research program) and inventory data to

determine the most efficient plot size for measuring large trees and snags on

inventory plots across the Pacific Northwest. Results indicated that a cluster of

four 1

/4-acre plots could provide accurate data for trees and snags 30 inches in

diameter in most stands. The analysis will ground discussions with regional collaborators (the Pacific Southwest and Pacific Northwest Regions of the National

Forest System and the Bureau of Land Management in Oregon) as uniform sampling designs are implemented on all forest lands in California, Oregon, and

Washington.

Annual inventory transition

The most efficient way to assess current status and trends of forest

resources in Washington needed to be determined as a transition occurs from

periodic to annual inventories. Analysis of accuracy of the data from the most

recent inventory (1988) indicated that remeasurement of three of five subplots

on 60 percent of the plots would provide sufficient information and allow field

crews to complete sampling in one and a half field seasons. This sample design

was implemented in summer 2000 in cooperation with the state of Washington

Department of Natural Resources.

Forest health monitoring 

on the west coast

The west coast forest health monitoring (FHM) program continued to collect ecological data on both public and private forested land in California,

Oregon, and Washington. West coast FHM is a part of a national program

designed to monitor, assess, and report on the long-term status, changes, and

trends in the health of the nation’s forested ecosystems. Progress also was made

in developing a pollution and climate gradient model for lichen communities

west of the Cascade Range in northern California, Oregon, and Washington.

This model will allow lichen data collected on plots to be accurately interpreted.

Another facet of the FHM program, the survey component, is conducted

by forest health protection staff in state forestry agencies and Forest Service

regions. In 1999, over 102 million acres of forested land in Alaska, California,

Oregon, and Washington were surveyed by airplane for defoliation and mortality. A similar amount of acreage was expected to be surveyed in 2000. A

report, Forest Health in West Coast Forests, was prepared by the west coast

FHM state and federal cooperators and published in 2000 by the Oregon

Department of Forestry. The report highlights several forest health issues and

summarizes several years of FHM plot and survey data.

Alaska update

Field data were collected on over a million acres of forest land in 2000, and

two major inventory projects were completed. First, the grid inventory plot

installation was completed of southeast Alaska with plots installed in Yakutat

area. Second, remeasurement of plots on the Kenai Peninsula was finished.

Original measurements were taken in 1987, and this current information will

provide an assessment of the spruce beetle outbreak on the Kenai Peninsula.

California, Oregon, and Washington update

Field inventory data collection efforts occurred in California, Oregon, and

Washington. Traditional inventory plot work included installation of the first

10-percent panel (10 percent of the full set of plots distributed across the state)

of non-National Forest System and non-Bureau of Land Management (west

side) in Oregon by using the national design four-point plot. In western

Washington, 60 percent of the timberland plots measured at the last occasion

were revisited, and three of the five subplots were remeasured. Through an agreement with the State of Washington Department of Natural Resources, contractors were used to complete a portion of these plots. 

A 20-percent panel of extended plots was remeasured in California,

Oregon, and Washington. Field crews collected information on indicators of

forest health including crown condition; tree damage, growth, regeneration,

and mortality; abundance and diversity of lichen species; ozone injury to susceptible plants; and soil condition. One hundred and ninety-five plots were

measured. 

During winter, western Washington primary grid photopoints were set

up based on aerial photography for interpretation in fiscal year 2001. A portion of the west-side Oregon and Washington plots were classified by using

procedures developed for the interagency vegetation mapping project. Plot

ownership information was collected, and landowner contact was started.

Field manuals for the Oregon annual inventory and the western Washington

inventory were written.
Forest Inventory and Analysis Program 73
74 The PNW Research Station Turns 75

-Special EventThe PNW Research Station

Turns 75

The Pacific Northwest Forest Experiment

Station moved into its headquarters in downtown Portland in 1925. The headquarters consisted of an eight-person staff working in four

rooms in a building at the corner of Fourth and

Oak Streets—not far from where it is today. The

Station turned 75 in 2000, and that occasion

was kicked off with a special anniversary event at

the Wind River Experimental Forest, Gifford

Pinchot NF, Washington, on August 24, 2000.

About 200 employees, retirees, partners, and friends of the Pacific Northwest

(PNW) Research Station gathered at the

Wind River Experimental Forest for the

celebration. The day included several field

trips to nearby research sites. Field trip

topics included dynamics of streams, thinning and alternative silviculture, and the

ecological benefits of mixed planting.

There were also canopy gap research tours

as well as a tour of the old arboretum.

There was even a virtual reality video of

tree canopy research, which was viewed on

a computer inside the canopy hut at Wind

River showing examples of old-growth

forest canopies and related research.

There was an awards ceremony, remarks from Robert Lewis,

Deputy Chief of Research

Development, and a Gifford

Pinchot interpretation by Tony

Farque (Willamette NF).

Harpreet Sandhu, Director of

Planning and Community

Development, welcomed the

audience to Skamania County,

Washington.

Photo by Tom Iraci
Honors and Awards 75

Honorary Member of the

American Association of

Avalanche Professionals

Given by

The American Association of

Avalanche Professionals

Recipient: Sue A. Ferguson, for bringing

new tools to the field of avalanche forecasting; founding The Avalanche Review,

leading the initial organization of the

American Association of Avalanche

Professionals; contributing many lay articles on snow, avalanches, and glaciers;

helping to organize the 1998 international snow science workshop; and continuing to assist in avalanche research coordination and program development.

Toward a Multicultural

Organization Award 

Given by The Pacific Northwest

Research Station

Recipient: Linda Kruger, a research

soil scientist, for her work with the

White Pass Discovery Team, support

for and facilitation of civil rights and

other training at the Seattle

Laboratory, and her efforts to assure

diversity of both speakers and participants at the eighth international

symposium on society and resource

management. 

Editor for the journal

Tree Physiology

Given by The journal

Tree Physiology

Recipient: Rick Meinzer, research ecologist, a 3-year appointment as an editor.

Bullard Fellowship Award

Given by Harvard University

Recipient: Fred Swanson, research

geologist, for writing and study in

landscape history at Harvard

University.

Honors and Awards

The Station takes pride in reporting the following honors and awards for fiscal year 2000.
76 Honors and Awards

PNW Science Findings Award

The Station awards highlight outstanding science findings produced by the PNW

Research Station. The studies are highlighted

in the Station publication PNW Science

Findings, to communicate research results that

have important implications for management,

integrate research among disciplines, enhance

compatibility among competing interests in

land management, and demonstrate collaboration with partners.

Recipient: A. Ross Kiester, for “A

Hierarchical Framework for Conserving

Biodiversity.”

Recipient: Andrew B. Carey, for “If You 

Take a Stand, How Can You Manage an

Ecosystem?”

Recipients: Dean DeBell, Brad St.Clair,

Gordon Bradley, Al Wagar, Anne Kearney,

Leonard Johnson, Roger Fight, Andrew

Carey, and Todd Wilson, for “Developing

New Silvicultural Regimes—The Eyes

Have It!”

Recipients: Eini Lowell, Glenn Christensen,

and Jim Stevens, for “The Young, the Small,

the Dead and the Expensive—Alaska's Next

Forests?”

Recipients: Fred Swanson and Sarah Greene,

for “Bioregional Assessments—Changing

Relations of Society with Natural Resource

Systems.”

Recipients: Gordon Grant, Jim O'Connor,

Heidi Fassnacht, Ellen McClure, and Janet

Curran, for “Not All Dams Are Created

Equal: The Surprising Case of the Deschutes

River.”

Recipients: Jeffrey Kline and Ralph Alig, for

“Where Will They All Live? Predicting Forest

and Farm Land Development.”

Recipients: John G. Cook and John G. Kie,

for “Like an Elk in Winter: The Truth About

the Need for Thermal Cover.”

Recipient: Linda Kruger, for “Getting to

Know You: Accessing Community

Knowledge.”

Recipient: Mark S. Wipfli, for “Trophic

Processes Regulating Productivity of Riverine

Food Webs.”

Recipient: Ralph Alig, for “Sustainability on

a Fixed Land Base—Compatibility Options

with 100 Million More of Us.”

Recipients: Susan Alexander and David Pilz,

for “Mushrooms and Trees: Symbiosis and

Synergism.”
Technology Transfer 77

Technology Transfer

Symposia and Workshops

The following are technical and scientific events sponsored by the PNW

Research Station with partners, including universities, colleges, and other federal

agencies, during fiscal year 2000. These events reached about 2,088 individuals,

including resource managers, landowners, policymakers, and interested citizens.

Views from the ridge: considerations for planning at the landscape

scale. November 2-4, 1999. Vancouver, Washington. Landscape studies

from aquatic, terrestrial, and social-economic perspective were presented with case studies, landscape methods, and examples of applications

of landscape-related scientific information. 150 participants.

Links between mass wasting and channel processes in the coastal

ranges of the Pacific Northwest. February 3-4, 2000. Blue River, Oregon.

This workshop brought together researchers looking at Coast Range geomorphic processes to examine the coupling among hillslope and mass movement

processes and channel response. The focus was on understanding underlying

physical causes and mechanisms of landscape change, including effects of vegetation on hillslope and channel processes. 35 participants. 

Ecology and management of terrestrial amphibians. March 16, 2000. Ocean

Shores, Washington. Participants discussed basic ecology of habitat and management

for terrestrial amphibians in the Pacific Northwest. The talks and presentations were

particularly relevant to “survey and manage” species issues. 100 participants.

Natural catastrophe and environmental change in the Pacific Northwest.

March 20 and May 15, 2000. Vancouver, Washington. Presentations were made

on lessons learned from the past of natural catastrophe and environmental

change in the Pacific Northwest. 200 participants.

Young stand thinning and diversity study—3-year results. April 27, 2000.

Springfield, Oregon. A 1-day workshop was held to summarize findings from year

3 posttreatment sampling in this long-term silviculture study. 140 participants. 

Monitoring commercially harvested forest mushrooms. May 3, 10, and 17,

2000. Olympia, Washington; Eugene, Oregon; and Redding, California. Three

regional workshops informed managers and interested members of the public

about monitoring protocols for commercially harvested forest mushrooms. The

meetings also facilitated potential collaboration among multiple stakeholders to

implement mushroom monitoring projects. 78 participants.

Mount St. Helens: 20 years of biological research and lessons learned. May 13,

2000. Vancouver, Washington. This was a 1-day symposium with eight speakers

from around the Western United States, all of whom have been conducting

long-term research at Mount St. Helens. Each speaker gave a 30-minute presentation on what they have learned throughout the years of studying ecological

recovery at the volcano. A synthesis of the work of each scientist was presented

with emphasis on the key lessons learned. 250 participants.

Muddy waters workshop. May 24, 2000. Corvallis, Oregon. This workshop was conducted to review sources, delivery processes, and transport of sediment in western

Oregon and included land managers interested in reducing water quality impacts.

Case studies from (mostly) Willamette River basins highlighted key issues and links

between forest practices and increased sediment load in streams. 40 participants.

The Alaska Reforestation Council, Inc. proceedings. May 24, 2000. Anchorage,

Alaska. A presentation was given on opportunities for atmospheric carbon dioxide sequestration in Alaska. 40 participants.

Eighth international symposium on society and resource management. June 17-

22, 2000. Bellingham, Washington. The symposium focused on how social science

research is being brought to bear on the exploration of “boundary issues” in resource

management. Papers focused on challenges of working across conceptual, cultural,

and political boundaries in making sense of resource issues. 700 participants. 

Mount St. Helens science field pulse. July 23-29, 2000. Vancouver, Washington. 

Scientists and field technicians spent a week sharing findings about 20 years of

ecosystem recovery at Mount St. Helens and collecting year 20 data. 70 participants.

Advancing our understanding of selected rangeland issues within the

Columbia basin. August 28-30, 2000. Spokane, Washington. Science members

recognized the need to explore key rangeland relations concerning altered ecological states, population change projections, and options for managing and

restoring rangeland environments. A group of scientists and professionals gathered to discuss and provide a synthesis of current understanding and to advance

our interpretation of rangeland relations. 35 participants.
78 Technology Transfer

Fourth international conference on integrating GIS and environmental modeling. September 3-8, 2000. Banff, Alaska. Scientists gave presentations on using

artificial neural network methods to predict forest characteristics in southeast

Alaska. 250 participants.

Tours

About 1,677 individuals participated in tours sponsored by the Station.

Starkey tours. October 1, 1999, to September 30, 2000. La Grande, Oregon. 97

participants.

Capitol Forest tours. Various dates from October 16, 1999, to July 26, 2000.

Near Olympia, Washington. In the past year, the silviculture team hosted 12

tours of more than 200 people to the first replication of the study. These included tours for the Washington State Land Commissioner’s staff, the Oregon

Department of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, the Society of American

Foresters, the Farm Forestry Association of southwest Washington, and international groups from Canada and Japan. Forest managers from the Capitol Forest

also have led an additional 10 tours with over 120 people. 320 participants.

H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest tours and workshops. October 1, 1999, through

September 30, 2000. Various locations. Over 30 tours and workshops were conducted on ecosystem research and stand and landscape management. 1,200 participants.

Tour of landscape management practices in northern Coast Range. October

18-21, 1999. Near Tillamook, Oregon. Scientists and technicians in the

CLAMS project met with state and private forest land managers and watershed

councils. 60 participants.

Conservation Education

The PNW Research Station contributed to the following projects in natural resources conservation education. A total of 1,504 students participated.

Alberta Nature Team. The team sponsored week-long summer camp sessions to

provide inner city youths with conservation education. This is a collaborative

effort with the Portland Community Tree House Project and the Audubon

Society of Portland, Oregon. 79 participants.

Edible wild mushrooms: gustatory delights from around the world. A Station

scientist presented this session at the Multicultural Center, Food, and Culture

Series, Linn Benton Community College in Albany, Oregon. 30 participants.

Forest Camp Outdoor School. This conservation education program was established to provide environmental education to sixth grade students. The camp

provides an intensive 5-day, 4-night hands-on module-based experience where

students can acquire knowledge about natural resources and make informed

decisions about those resources. 160 participants.

Inner City Youth Institute. The Station provided financial support for this project that encourages underrepresented youths to learn about the environment and

related careers. Activities by employees included establishment of ecology clubs

in inner city schools, various school presentations, and assistance at the Inner

City Youth camp in Corvallis in summer 2000. 30 participants.

Nature talks. This popular natural and cultural history presentation series shares

research from the nearby H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest. About 500 participants.

Sea Week. This week-long session provides hands-on experience for grade school

students to facilitate understanding of wetland and intertidal ecosystems. 450

participants.

Water-Watch program. This is a collaborative program to develop curriculum

for environmental education programs in the Juneau School District. The Alaska

Discovery Foundation and the Alaska Department of Environmental

Conservation are collaborators. 225 participants.

Wolftree. The Station participated in a highland ecology day program with

Portland area middle and high schools. Also, Station employees participated in

a 10-day science expedition with high school students into the Montana Rocky

Mountains. 30 participants.
Support from Clients 79

CD-ROM 

Visualization of Forested Stands and Landscapes. 2000.

Author: Robert J. McGaughey 

Demonstration of various stand and landscape visualization tools. Featured

software includes stand visualization system (SVS), UTOOLS/UVIEW landscape analysis and visualization system, FireFX fire effects simulator, and

EnVision environmental visualization system. CD-ROM.

Videos 

Following are videos featuring research from PNW Research Station

Building Toward The Future.

Discusses research done by the Station in the last 75 years. 17 minutes.

Produced by Sight and Sound Services, Welches, Oregon.

Freshwater Ecology of Pacific Salmon in Coastal Oregon. 2000.

Provides an introduction to the freshwater ecology of juvenile and adult

Pacific salmon in coastal Oregon streams and rivers. It was designed to be used

by watershed councils and other lay organizations. The video is available from

the Oregon Sea Grant Program. 20 minutes. Produced by Oregon Sea Grant,

Oregon State University.

Integrated Pest Management and the Forest Ecosystem.

Video deals with integrated pest management using the spruce beetle situation in Alaska as its basis. 9 minutes. Produced by U.S. Department of the

Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Haskell Indian Nations University,

Television Production Services, Lawrence, Kansas.

Tall Trees and Test Tubes. 2000.

Documents the start of federal forestry research in the United States and

the Pacific Northwest Research Station’s history as seen through the eyes of the

Station Directors, past and present. 40 minutes. Produced by Don Gedney

Production, Portland, Oregon.

Support from Clients

In 2000, the PNW Research Station received about $8.0 million in

support from clients. 

Federal Agencies

BONNEVILLE POWER ADMINISTRATION

•Lumber recovery: old cedar transmission poles

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

•Cooperative research natural area program coordination 

•National policy workshop on nontimber forest products 

•Effects of watershed disturbance 

•Arthropod guilds in the southern range of the northern spotted owl 

•Report on “survey and manage” amphibian strategic surveys for 

fiscal year 2000 

•Effectiveness monitoring of the northern spotted owl and marbled 

murrelet pursuant to requirements under the Northwest Forest Plan 

•Tree improvement progeny data analysis 

•Smolt traps in the Clackamas basin 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

•Multiscaled characterization, assessment, and modeling of ecological, hydrologic, and aquatic systems 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

•Integration of Landsat, lidar, ground, and environmental data to improve

characterizations of forest structure and composition 

NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM

Alaska Region

•Alaska grid inventory and forest health monitoring

•Analysis of watershed disturbance

•Aquatic and wildlife (Tongass land management plan [TLMP])

•Forest management and silviculture (TLMP)

•Landslides, channel morphology, and salmon populations in the Margaret

Creek Watershed

•Social science and economics (TLMP)
80 Support from Clients

Pacific Northwest Region 

•Blue River landscape study

•Changes in northern spotted owl habitat associated with western spruce 

budworm defoliation in the eastern Cascade Range 

•Cascade Center for Ecosystem Management Education and 

Technology Transfer

•Genetic variation across the landscape of perennial rye Grass, Elymus glaucus

•Human encroachment on forest landscapes

•Land use and land cover modeling: 2000 RPA assessment

•Northwest Forest Plan Blue River landscape plan and study

•Red tree vole strategic survey

•South Deep Creek Watershed (Colville NF) CROP Project: evaluation of 

adaptive riparian buffers

•Spotted owl demographics

•Survey and manage

U.S. ARMY

•Wildlife habitat and biodiversity on Fort Lewis, Washington 

U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

•Skull and mandible variation in Columbian white-tailed deer 

•Genetic variability and population characteristics of the Columbia 

spotted frog 

•Surveys on wolverines and female fishers in southern Oregon 

•Study of salamanders 

Private Industry

CHAMPION PACIFIC TIMBERLANDS, INC.

•Laminated root rot: progression of disease in two successive stands and a test

of nitrogen and potassium fertilization as a mitigative 

COLUMBIA BASIN FISH AND WILDLIFE FOUNDATION

•Independent scientific advisory board 

ECONORTHWEST

•Estimating the economic impacts of development differences 

on forest productivity 

PORTLAND GENERAL ELECTRIC

•Clackamas tagging and tracking 

•Geomorphology and salmon habitat in the lower Deschutes River 

SIMPSON TIMBER COMPANY

•Riparian potential natural vegetation study 

WEYERHAEUSER COMPANY

•Use of ground-penetrating radar to map tree root system 

Universities

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

•Bullard fellowship 

MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY

•Causes and consequences of land cover in a greater ecosystem: trend 

assessment, monitoring, and outreach 

UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA

•Analysis and assessment of military and nonmilitary impacts on 

biodiversity in the California Mojave Desert 

State Agencies

WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

•Method to analyze highway barrier effects on animal populations 

and wildlife-vehicle collisions, I-90 highway corridor 

WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

•Review, develop, and deliver curriculum to implement ecosystem 

management
Support to Cooperators 81

Support to Cooperators

In 2000, the PNW Research Station distributed about $9.6 million 

to cooperators.

Universities

EASTERN OREGON UNIVERSITY

•Collect, document, and compile information about invasive plant species 

in northeast Oregon 

•Variation within and between populations of Douglas-fir beetle 

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

•Geographical and geostatistical analysis of factors affecting understanding

and acceptance of fuel management

•Invertebrate colonization of woody debris and leaf litter in young-growth

forested uplands: contrasting alder and conifer 

OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY

•Oregon marbled murrelet database management; geographical information

system (GIS) and habitat modeling 

•Examination and synthesis of tools for quantifying runoff and flow regimes

for use in land and resource planning 

•New metaphors for restoration 

•Silvicultural practices for riparian forests in the Oregon Coast Range 

•Underplanting and natural regeneration in commercially thinned 

Douglas-fir stands in the Oregon Coast Range 

•Sustainable water research initiative: a review and synthesis of relevant 

literature 

•Compatibility of timber and conservation: tracing the tradeoff frontier 

•Landscape-level predictive economic models and resulting 

ecological patterns 

•Effect of local land use regulations on deforestation and farm land losses 

•Policy analysis applications of the 2000 timber assessment projection model

and extensions for 2003-5 update 

•Modeling private nonindustrial forest landowners and conservation

incentives 

•Toward an integrated framework for research and management of humanwildland interactions 

•Ecological roles of old-forest remnant stands 

•Development and modeling of multiscaled, spatially explicit landscape 

information 

•An evaluation of the compatibility of wood production and ecological

integrity at the province level 

•Determining the accuracy and cost effectiveness of performing the 

Forest Inventory and Analysis phase-1 land classification 

•Spatial analysis of variability in forest composition and structure 

among ownership and land allocations

•Analysis and validation of habitat suitability models 

•Coast Range spatial databases and economic analyses 

•Second phase of dynamic vegetation models development: including 

human impacts 

•Invasive plant research program for Blue Mountains demonstration area 

•Survey, document impacts, and collect biological control agents 

of invasive plants 

•Interior Northwest landscape analysis system midscale simulation model 

•Beef cattle grazing, Meadow Creek: effects of beef cattle performance 

and vegetation trends 

•Regional economic impact model of invasive plants for Blue Mountains

demonstration area 

•Infrastructure for technology and information dissemination to forest 

products manufacturers and service providers in Alaska 

•The role of the private sector in forestry: comparative study of conditions,

policies, and institutions 

•Characterization of forest canopy structure and wildlife habitat in western

Oregon from regional inventory data 

•An evaluation of aerial digital imagery collected to assess juniper density 

and cover on sites in eastern Oregon 

•Coastal cutthroat trout in Prince William Sound, Alaska 

•Ecology of spotted owls on the Willamette National Forest 

•Thermal remote sensing in stream temperatures 

•Water sample analysis 

•Survey of record of decision for fungi associated with coarse woody debris 

in the Pacific Northwest 

•Research support for the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest 

•Invertebrate responses to alternative forest thinning practices 

(demonstration of ecosystem management options [DEMO]) 

•Assessment of overstory and understory vegetation, Umpqua National 

Forest (DEMO) 

•Community structure and dynamics of ectomycorrhizal fungi in 

managed forest stands (DEMO) 

•Wildlife studies (DEMO) 

•Data management services (DEMO) 

•Causes and consequences of land cover in a greater ecosystem: trend 

and risk assessment, monitoring, and outreach 

•Longitudinal research: examining change in socioeconomic patterns 

and forest ecosystems 

•Development and validation of dynamic global vegetation models 

•Aquatic and riparian response to disturbance in mountain streams 

of the west side of the Cascade Range, Oregon 
82 Support to Cooperators

•Integration of Landsat, lidar, ground, and environmental data to improve

characterizations of forest structure and composition 

•Reconstructing watershed and meadow formation processes: geology 

and soil controls of fire responses in the Blue Mountains 

•Design of management strategies for achieving stand landscape structural 

targets on the east side of the Cascade Range and in the Blue Mountains 

•Tree characteristics and wood quality as related to silviculture options 

•Litter invertebrate responses to forest thinning and woody debris removal 

•Long-term studies of forest dynamics in the Pacific Northwest 

•Effect of windthrow disturbance on decomposition-weathering feedback 

•New approaches for evaluating watershed response to changing flow 

and sediment regimes 

•Local area network connection between Oregon State University 

and the Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon 

•Young-stand thinning and diversity study 

•Coarse woody debris and riparian biodiversity patterns in coastal 

Oregon forests 

•Development of old-growth and riparian forests in the Cascade 

and Coast Ranges 

•Patterns and processes controlling soil water content dynamics 

within a mature forest 

•Development of protocol to identify Armillaria clones through culture 

pairings and DNA analysis 

•Forest management patterns and processes: a case study in the 

Big Elk Creek watershed, Oregon 

•Long-term ecosystem productivity: small-mammal and 

detritus inventory 

•Predicting abundance and demographic performance of spotted owls 

from vegetative characteristics 

•Analysis of trends in habitat condition and application for restoration of

aquatic ecosystems

PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY

•State of the environment report (Oregon) 

PURDUE UNIVERSITY

•Parentage analysis in elk 

UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, ANCHORAGE

•Strategic database development: Alaska timber industry harvests 

and products 

•Tourism and recreation in south-central Alaska: patterns and prospects 

UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, FAIRBANKS

•Spatial and temporal variations in ungulate herbivory effects on ecosystem

processes and disturbance regimes 

•Research associated with the long-term ecological research program 

•Modeling the mechanisms linking stream habitat characteristics 

to the distribution and growth of juvenile coho salmon 

•Economic development and technology diffusion for forest products 

of interior Alaska 

•Mushrooms and other fungi of southeast Alaska 

•Moose and flood-plain community dynamics 

UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA SOUTHEAST—SITKA

•Analysis, synthesis, and integration of scientific literature on the effect 

of riparian corridors on aquatic habitats 

•Synthesis of scientific literature on water resource stewardship and 

conservation on forested and grassland landscapes 

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

•Reconstructing historical forest patterns and hydrologic processes

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

•Molecular systematics of the Plethodon elongatus-P. stormi species complex 

•Consequences of fire and fire surrogate treatments at Blodgett study site 

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

•Phylogenetic data and biodiversity prioritization 

UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO

•Projecting stand development of late-successional and old-growth stands 

•Evaluation of timber harvesting options for riparian zones and other 

low-impact areas 

•Improve sampling methods for describing wildlife-log relations 

on landscapes for wildlife management 

UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS (UNITED KINGDOM)

•Biodiversity analyses of southeast Alaska grid inventory data 

UNIVERSITY OF MAINE

•Impacts of large-scale afforestation programs on wildlife habitat 

and populations 

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

•Salmonids in tributaries of an intensively logged watershed 

•Using travel cost method to assess impacts to recreation cooperative 

•Remote sensing and GIS analysis of environmental data to support regional

terrestrial and hydrologic assessment 

•Assessing the need, costs, and potential benefits of prescribed fire and

mechanical treatments to reduce fire hazard 
Support to Cooperators 83

•Understanding human population dynamics and the implications for public

use and values of national forests in the Pacific Northwest 

•Enhancing understanding of the integration of natural resources and the

social environment in forest management 

•Classification and analysis of environmental biophysical and 

socioeconomic data

•Effects of intensive salvage logging on elk, mule deer, and cattle 

UNIVERSITY OF OREGON

•Critical public perceptions of forest successional pathways two (DEMO)

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON

•Shorebird migration 

•Hydrologic, sediment, and climate modeling within the interior 

Columbia River basin 

•Application of a PC-based information system to assist in managing,

researching, and communicating forest conditions 

•Integrated research and management: science, institutions, and policy 

•Effects of forest management on mineralization of organic matter in a

coastal Douglas-fir stand 

•Phenotypic variation and reproduction success in Pacific salmon 

•Sociopolitical forces and changing forest land use 

•The influence of timber management proximity on human activity and forest fragmentation on corvid abundance 

•Development of radar as a tool to increase efficiency and accuracy of the

marbled murrelet inland forest survey protocol 

•Nutrient dynamics, energy flow, and food webs in small, forested watersheds: influence of riparian vegetation 

•Regulation of riparian nutrient inputs to rivers: microbial and invertebrate

interactions 

•Nonpoint source pollution in riparian areas: social and economic dynamics

along urban-rural gradients 

•Ecosystem management (canopy crane recovery) 

•Assessment of overstory and understory vegetation, Gifford Pinchot

National Forest (DEMO) 

•Wildlife response to varying levels and patterns of green-tree retention in

harvesting units (DEMO) 

•Interactions of flood-plain forest, log jams, and channel dynamics in the

Nisqually River 

•Long-term effects of broadcast burning on forest composition and structure 

•A competitive assessment of the Japanese market for Alaska forest products 

•Precipitation probabilities from remotely sensed data for burn agreement: 

a feasibility study 

•Effect of marine-derived nutrients on macroinvertebrate production in

salmon spawning streams 

•Influence of riparian red alder on nutrient dynamics, energy flow, 

food webs, and salmon production 

•Conference to explore social, political, and organizational challenges for

monitoring and adaptive management 

•Conference to present results of salmon conservation validation monitoring,

scientific panel deliberations 

•Understanding the risk of nest predation to marbled murrelets 

•Clearinghouse for natural resource data on the Olympic Peninsula 

•Investigation of high-resolution, remotely sensed data for analysis of forest

structural characteristics and terrain 

•Wood compatibility initiative 

•Biomass combustion and flammability limits to forest ecosystem 

•A study of Pacific Rim trade patterns 

•Long-term effects of vegetation change along the Columbia River 

•Fire and fire surrogate study, Mission Creek site

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

•Ecological and economic implications of uneven-age management of

Douglas-fir forests: analysis and predictions with Forest Inventory and

Analysis 

•Alternative projections of trade 

UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING

•Hyporheic storage of marine-derived nitrogen in streams 

•A competitive assessment of the market for Alaska forest products 

•An examination of development paths of resource abundant regions

UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY

•Assessing effects of watershed and stream alteration on biological 

integrity of streams in eastern Oregon and Washington 

•Development and testing of a procedure for conducting integrated 

riparian corridor assessments: phase 1 

•Habitat associations and spatial distribution of Larch Mountain salamander

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY

•Assess the competitiveness of noble fir boughs in the overall U.S. market for

Christmas greenery products 

•Active riparian management impacts on aquatic habitat quality: South Deep

Creek, Colville National Forest 

•Fritz demonstration, technology transfer 

•Develop and evaluate noble fir bough management scenarios for public 

and private lands
84 Support to Cooperators

Nongovernmental Organizations 

EARTH SYSTEMS INSTITUTE

•Mass wasting in the context of a dynamic landscape 

FOUNDATION FOR SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

•Investigating fire severity in tropical ecosystems 

PINCHOT INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION

•Nontimber forest products national assessment workshop 

•Special forest products national workshop proceedings 

•Diversifying forest outputs and stakeholder support 

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY

•Consequences of fire and fire-surrogate treatments on avian abundance 

and diversity at the Hungry Bob site 

Other Federal Agencies

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

•Effectiveness monitoring of the northern spotted owl and marbled murrelet

pursuant to requirements under the Northwest Forest Plan 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

•Geographic information system maps

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

•Forest plant responses to ozone exposure, Mount Rainier National Park 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

•Development of spatial resource databases and application of remote 

sensing and GIS technology in support of natural resources 

•Development and evaluation of different methods for studying genetic 

variation in the red tree vole

State Agency

WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

•Forest Inventory and Analysis program 

•Research associated with the long-term ecological research program 

•Modeling the mechanisms linking stream habitat characteristics 

to the distribution and growth of juvenile coho salmon 

•Economic development and technology diffusion for forest products 

of interior Alaska 

•Mushrooms and other fungi of southeast Alaska 

•Moose and flood-plain community dynamics 

Other

CANADIAN FOREST SERVICE

•Land management effects on how people value and use places

JUNEAU ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL

•Investigate feasibility and develop business plan for a longitudinally 

sliced veneer facility in southeast Alaska
Publications

Adams, Darius M.; Alig, Ralph J.; McCarl, Bruce A. [and others].

1999. Minimum cost strategies for sequestering carbon in forests.

Land Economics. 75(3): 360-374.

Adams, Darius M.; Haynes, Richard W. 1999. Forest sector modeling: current state and promise for the future. In: Yoshimoto, Atsushi; Yukutake,

Kiyoshi, eds. Global concerns for forest resource utilization: sustainable

use and management. Japan: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 151-168.

Adams, Michael J. 1999. Correlated factors in amphibian decline:

exotic species and habitat change in western Washington. Journal

of Wildlife Management. 63(4): 1162-1171.

Adams, Michael J. 2000. Pond permanence and the effects of exotic vertebrates on anurans. Ecological Applications. 10(2): 559-568.

Aerts, R.; Chapin, Stuart F., III. 2000. The mineral nutrition of wild

plants revisited: a re-evaluation of processes and patterns.

Advances in Ecology Research. 33: 1-45.

Ahn, SoEun; Plantinga, Andrew J.; Alig, Ralph J. 2000. Predicting

future forestland area: a comparison of econometric approaches.

Forest Science. 46(3): 363-376.

Alexander, Susan J.; McLain, Rebecca J.; Kim, Yeon-Su; Johnson,

Rebecca. 1999. Recreational harvest of wild foods on the Gifford

Pinchot National Forest: resources and issues. In: Proceedings of

the Society of American Foresters 1999 national convention; 1999

September 11-15; Portland, OR. Bethesda, MD: Society of American

Foresters: 180-185.

Alig, Ralph J.; Adams, Darius M.; Haynes, Richard W. 2000. Largescale forest scenario analysis in the United States: comparison of

approaches [Abstract]. In: Abstracts of group discussions: 2000 21st

IUFRO world congress; 2000 August 7-12; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

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Daly, Christopher; Bachelet, Dominique; Lenihan, James M. [and

others]. 2000. Dynamic simulation of tree-grass interactions for global change studies. Ecological Applications. 10(2): 449-469.

Daterman, G.E.; Wenz, J.M.; Sheehan, K.A. 2000. Pheromone

technologies for managing Douglas-fir tussock moth in western

North America [Abstract]. In: Gazzoni, Decio Luiz, ed. Abstracts:

XXI international congress of entomology; 2000 August 20-26;

Iguassu Falls, Brazil. Londrina, Brazil: Embrapa Soja: [Pages

unknown].

Daterman, Gary; Wenz, John; Sheehan, Katherine. 1999. Monitoring

Douglas-fir tussock moth with pheromone-baited traps: 1979-1999

[Abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 5th joint meeting of the Western

international forest disease work conference and Western forest

insect work conference; 1999 September 13-17; Breckenridge, CO.

Central Point, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Southwest Oregon Forest Insect and Disease Service Center: 45-46.

De Groot, Rodney C.; Woodward, Bessie; Hennon, Paul E. 2000. Natural

decay resistance of heartwood from dead, standing yellow-cedar

trees: laboratory evaluations. Forest Products Journal. 50(1): 53-59.

DeBarr, Gary L.; Hanula, James L.; Niwa, Christine G.; Nord, John C.

2000. Synthetic pheromones disrupt male Dioryctria spp. moths in a

loblolly pine seed orchard. The Canadian Entomologist. 132: 345-351.

DeBell, Dean S.; Curtis, Robert O.; DeBell, Jeffrey P.; McGaughey,

Robert J. 1999. Comparing options for harvesting Douglas-fir forests.

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15-19; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University: 591-607.

DeBell, Dean S.; Harrington, Constance Ann. 2000. Ten lessons

learned from ten years of research in Populus production systems

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the international poplar commission (IPC-2000): poplar and willow

culture: meeting the needs of society and the environment; 2000

September 24-28; Vancouver, WA. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-215. St. Paul,

MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central

Research Station: 44.

DelCurto, T.; Johnson, B.K.; Vavra, M. [and others]. 2000. The influence of season on distribution patterns relative to water and

resource use by cattle grazing mixed forested rangelands. In:

Proceedings: western section of the American Society of Animal

Sciences; 2000 June 21-23; Davis, CA. [Place of publication

unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 171-175.

de Negreiros, Gustavo Hees; Nepstad, Daniel C.; Sandberg, David V.

[and others]. 1998. Fire along the transition between the Amazon forest and the cerrado ecosystems. In: Proceedings: 13th conference

on fire and forest meteorology; 1996 October 27-31; Lorne, Australia.

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Wildland Fire: 63-67.

Dieterich, Martin; Anderson, N.H. 1998. Dynamics of abiotic parameters, solute removal and sediment retention in summer-dry headwater streams of western Oregon. Hydrobiologia. 379(0): 1-15.

Dieterich, Martin; Anderson, N.H. 2000. The invertebrate fauna of

summer-dry streams in western Oregon. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie.

147(3): 273-295.

Donnegan, Joseph. 1999. Climatic and human influences on fire

regimes in Pike National Forest. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado.

111 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

88 Publications
Donoghue, Ellen M. 2000. Community-based forest management in

the Philippines: the role of non-governmental organizations in the

implementation of comanagement strategies [Abstract]. In: Book of

abstracts: 8th international symposium on society and resource

management; 2000 June 17-22; Bellingham, WA. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-497. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 83.

Donoghue, Ellen M. 2000. Elements of support in community-based

forest management strategies: contract NGOs in the Philippines. In:

The 8th biennial conference of the International Association for the

Study of Common Property; 2000 May 31-June 4; Bloomington, IN.

[Location of publisher unknown]: [Publisher unknown]. 28 p.

http://www.indiana.edu/~iascp/2000.html.

Donoghue, Ellen M. 2000. Non-commercial values of NTFRs in the

Pacific Northwest: an overview [Abstract]. In: Book of abstracts: 8th

international symposium on society and resource management; 2000

June 17-22; Bellingham, WA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-497.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station: 84.

Donoghue, Ellen M. 2000. Understanding measurements of community capacity [Abstract]. In: Book of abstracts: 8th international symposium on society and resource management; 2000 June 17-22;

Bellingham, WA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-497. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station: 85.

Donoghue, Ellen M.; Christensen, Harriet H.; Saranich, Ron. 1999.

The Northwest economic initiative: lessons learned and questions

remaining. In: Northwest Forest Plan: outcomes and lessons

learned from the Northwest economic adjustment initiative. Gen.

Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-484. Portland, OR: Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station:

59-64. Chapter 8.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Adaptive management: Good business or good

buzzwords? Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

September (7): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Biodiversity and intentional management: a renaissance pathway. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

November (9): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. It's not easy being green: the tricky world of

small-diameter timber. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. May (4): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Landslides through the fish-eye lens. Science

Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. March (2): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Lessons from a flooded landscape. Science

Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. February (1): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Military maneuvers and biodiversity: strange

arrangements in southern California. Science Findings. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. December (10): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Resiliency of small rural communities in the

interior Columbia basin. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. August (6): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Supply and demand for wood: A worldwide perspective? Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

October (8): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. Tackling risks at the broad scale in the interior

Columbia basin. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

July (5): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1998. The owl: Spotted, listed, barred, or gone?

Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. April (3): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Alternatives to clearcutting of old growth in

southeast Alaska. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

October (19): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Confronting illusions of knowledge: How should

we learn? Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

February (11): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Dead and dying trees: essential for life in the

forest. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

November (20): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Home on the range: Might the cattle peacefully

graze? Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

August (17): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Messy world: managing dynamic landscapes.

Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. September (18):

1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. More rain, more drought: Will the forests thrive or

die? Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. May (14): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Mushrooms in the mist: stalking the wild

chanterelle. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

March (12): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Openings in the forest: the Andrews story.

Forest History Today. Durham, NC: Forest History Society. Fall: 20-28.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Pixel by pixel: the evolving landscapes of

remote sensing. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

June (15): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. The fish-based food web: when the predator

and prey connect. Science Findings: Portland, OR: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

April (13): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 1999. Wisdom from the little folk: the forest tales of

birds, squirrels, and fungi. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. July (16): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. Beyond the limits of traditional science: bioregional assessments and natural resource management. Science

Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. September (24): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. Community, know thyself: caring about place.

Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. August (26): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. Developing new silvicultural regimes: the eyes

have it. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

January (21): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. If you take a stand, how can you manage an

ecosystem? the complex art of raising a forest. Science Findings.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. September (27): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. Seen one dam, seen 'em all? the surprising

story of the Deschutes River. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. June (25): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. Where will they all live? the enduring puzzle of

land use change. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

April (23): 1-5.

Duncan, Sally. 2000. Why do elk seek shelter? The case against the

need for thermal cover. Science Findings. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. February (22): 1-5.

Publications 89
Dwyer, John F.; Nowak, David J.; Noble, Mary Heather; Sisinni,

Susan M. 2000. Connecting people with ecosystems in the 21st century: an assessment of our nation's urban forests. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-490. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 483 p.

Eberhart, Joyce; Luoma, Daniel; Pilz, Dave.; Amaranthus, Michael.

1999. Effects of harvest techniques on American matsutake

(Tricholoma magnivelare) production [Poster]. In: Proceedings: 9th

international congress of mycology; 1999 August 16-20; Sydney,

Australia. [Place of publication unknown]: International Union of

Microbiological Societies: 238.

Elias, Scott A.; Hamilton, Thomas D.; Edwards, Mary E. [and others].

1999. Late Pleistocene environments of the western Noatak basin, northwestern Alaska. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 111(5): 769-789.

Emmingham, Bill; Chan, Sam; Mikowski, Dan [and others]. 2000.

Silviculture practices for riparian forests in the Oregon Coast Range.

Res. Contrib. 24. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University College of

Forestry. 34 p.

Epstein, Howard E.; Walker, Marilyn D.; Chapin, Stuart, III [and others].

2000. A transient, nutrient-based model of arctic plant community

response to climatic warming. Ecological Applications. 10(3): 824-841.

Everett, Richard L.; Schellhaas, Richard; Keenum, Dave [and others].

2000. Fire history in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests on the

east slope of the Washington Cascades. Forest Ecology and

Management. 129: 207-225.

Fahey, Timothy J.; Bledsoe, Caroline S.; Day, Frank P. [and others].

1999. Fine root production and demography. In: Robertson, G. Philip;

Coleman, David C.; Bledsoe, Caroline S.; Sollins, Phillip, eds.

Standard soil methods for long-term ecological research. New York:

Oxford University Press: 437-455. Chapter 20.

Faustini, John M. 2000. Stream channel response to peak flows in a

fifth-order mountain watershed. Corvallis, OR. Oregon State

University. 339 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Ferguson, S.A. 2000. Climatology of biomass smoke in wildland areas

of the United States. In: Proceedings: 3rd symposium on fire and forest meteorology; 2000 January 9-14; Long Beach, CA. Boston:

American Meteorological Society: 43-48.

Ferguson, S.A. 2000. Real-time mesoscale model forecasts for fire

and smoke management: an update. In: Proceedings: 3rd symposium

on fire and forest meteorology; 2000 January 9-14; Long Beach, CA.

Boston: American Meteorological Society: 61-65.

Ferguson, Sue A.; Sandberg, David V.; Ottmar, Roger. 2000. Modelling

the effect of land use changes on global biomass emissions. In:

Innes, John L.; Beniston, Martin; Verstraete, Michel M., eds.

Biomass burning and its inter-relationships with the climate system.

Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 33-50.

Fight, Roger D.; Kruger, Linda E.; Hansen-Murray, Christopher [and

others]. 2000. Understanding human uses and values in watershed

analysis. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-489. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. 16 p.

Fight, Roger D.; Weigand, James F. 1998. Issues in developing and

managing nonwood forest products in the United States. In:

Proceedings of the Forest Products Society annual meeting; [Dates

of meeting unknown]; Merida, Mexico. Madison, WI: Forest

Products Society: 51-57.

Filip, Greg; Kanaskie, Alan; Kavanagh, Kathleen [and others]. 2000.

Silviculture and Swiss needle cast: research and recommendations. Res.

Contrib. 30. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University College of Forestry. 16 p.

Fink, Jonathan H.; Connor, Charles B.; Ernst, W. Gary. 2000. Review

of the U.S. Geological Survey's volcano hazards program.

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 138 p.

Fluharty, David L. 2000. Characterization and assessment of economic systems in the interior Columbia basin: fisheries. Gen. Tech.

Rep. PNW-GTR-451. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 114 p. (Quigley,

Thomas M., ed.; Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management

Project: scientific assessment).

Foster, John S. 1999. Fire regime parameters and their relationships

with topography in the east side of the southern Cascade Range.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 125 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Franklin, Jerry F.; Harmon, Mark E.; Swanson, Frederick J. 1999.

Complementary roles of research and monitoring: lessons from the

U.S. LTER program and Tierra del Fuego. In: Aguirre-Bravo,

Celedonio; Franco, Carlos Rodriguez, comps. North American science symposium: toward a unified framework for inventorying and

monitoring forest ecosystem resources; 1998 November 2-6;

Guadalajara, Mexico. Proceedings RMRS-P-12. Fort Collins, CO: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Research Station: 284-290.

French, Nancy H.F.; Kasischke, Eric S.; Stocks, Brian J. [and others].

2000. Carbon release from fires in the North America boreal forest.

In: Kasischke, Eric S.; Stocks, Brian J., eds. Fire, climate change, and

carbon cycling in the boreal forest. New York: Springer-Verlag: 377-

388. Chapter 21.

Fridley, James L.; Leefers, Larry; Vasievich, Mike. 2000. Seventh

symposium on systems analysis in forest resources. Gen. Tech. Rep.

NC-205. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

North Central Research Station. 470 p.

Fried, Jeremy S. 1999. Requirements and realization of GIS education. In: [Title in Finnish; translation not available]; 1999 May 21;

Helsinki, Finland. Helsinki, Finland: University of Helsinki, Department

of Forest Resource Management: 21-26.

Fried, Jeremy S. 2000. Geospatially enabled information systems

supporting forest decisions at the millenium: a U.S perspective. In:

Joint week of information and logistics systems in the forest sector;

2000 May 19; Hyytiala Field Station, Finland. [Place of publication

unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: [Not paged].

Fried, Jeremy S.; Brown, Daniel G.; Zweifler, Mark O.; Gold, Michael

A. 2000. Mapping contributing areas for stormwater discharge to

streams using terrain analysis. In: Wilson, John P.; Gallant, John C.,

eds. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John

Wiley and Sons, Inc.: 183-203. Chapter 7.

Fried, Jeremy S.; Winter, Greg J.; Gilless, J. Keith. 1999. Assessing

the benefits of reducing fire risk in the wildland-urban interface: a

contingent valuation approach. International Journal of Wildland

Fire. 9(1): 9-20.

Galliano, Steven J.; Loeffler, Gary M. 1999. Place assessment: how

people define ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-462. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 31 p.

Galliano, Steven J.; Loeffler, Gary M. 2000. Scenery assessment:

scenic beauty at the ecoregion scale. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR472. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 30 p.

Gardner, Jennifer J. 1999. Charcoal accumulation in lake sediments

following a modern fire in the central Cascade Range, Oregon.

Eugene, OR: University of Oregon. 88 p. M.S. thesis.

Garman, Steve L. 2000. Response of ground-dwelling vertebrates to

thinning young stands: the young stand thinning and diversity study.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University; final report. 34 p.

Garman, Steven L.; Swanson, Frederick J.; Spies, Thomas A. 1999.

Past, present, and future landscape patterns in the Douglas-fir

region of the Pacific Northwest. In: Rochelle, James A.; Lehmann,

Leslie A.; Wisniewski, Joe, eds. Forest fragmentation: wildlife and

management implications. Leiden, Germany; Boston: Brill: 61-80. 

Gatziolis, Demetrios; Fried, Jeremy S.; Ramm, Carl W. 2000.

Monitoring the impacts of tracked vehicle training area use at Fort

Hood, Texas: a GIS approach. In: 2nd international conference on

geospatial information in agriculture and forestry; 2000 January 10-

12; Lake Buena Vista, FL. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher

unknown]: 542-549.

Gedney, Donald R.; Azuma, David L.; Bolsinger, Charles L.; McKay,

Neil. 1999. Western juniper in eastern Oregon. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNWGTR-464. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 53 p.

Gerson, Elizabeth A.; Kelsey, Rick G. 1999. Foliar storage and extraction methods for quantitative analysis of piperidine alkaloids from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Phytochemical Analysis. 10: 322-327.

90 Publications
Gilless, J. Keith; Fried, Jeremy S. 1999. Stochastic representation of

fire behavior in a wildland fire protection planning model for

California. Forest Science. 45(4): 492-499.

Graham, Russell T.; Harvey, Alan E.; Jain, Theresa B.; Tonn, Jonalea

R. 1999. The effects of thinning and similar stand treatments on fire

behavior in western forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-463.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 27 p.

Graham, Russell T.; Jain, Theresa B.; Haynes, Richard W. 2000.

Assessments for ecological stewardship. In: Sexton, W.T.; Malk,

A.J.; Szaro, R.C.; Johnson, N.C., eds. Ecological stewardship: a

common reference for ecosystem management. [Publisher

unknown]: 535-549.

Grant, Gordon E. 1999. Reply to: comment on “critical flow constrains

flow hydraulics in mobile-bed streams: a new hypothesis” by G.E.

Grant. Water Resources Research. 35(3): 907.

Grant, Gordon E. 2000. Wolman receives 2000 Robert E. Horton

medal. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 81(31): 351.

Gray, A.N. 2000. Sampling structure and diversity of old-growth

forests in the Pacific Northwest: effect of plot size [Poster]. In:

Ecological Society of America 2000 annual meeting; 2000 August 6-

10; Snowbird, UT. Washington, DC: Ecological Society of America:

[Not paged].

Greenland, David. 1999. Effect of forest management practices on

solar heat absorption at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest,

Oregon. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, Department of

Geography. 24 p.

Gregory-Eaves, Irene; Smol, John P.; Finney, Bruce P. [and others].

2000. Characteristics and variation in lakes along a north-south transect in Alaska. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie. 147(2): 193-223.

Gregory-Eaves, Irene; Smol, John P.; Finney, Bruce P.; Edwards,

Mary E. 1999. Diatom-based transfer functions for inferring past climatic and environmental changes in Alaska, U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic,

and Alpine Research. 31(4): 353-365.

Grigal, David F.; Bell, James C.; Ahrens, Robert J. [and others]. 1999.

Site and landscape characterization for ecological studies. In:

Robertson, G. Philip; Coleman, David C.; Bledsoe, Caroline S.; Sollins,

Phillip, eds. Standard soil methods for long-term ecological

research. New York: Oxford University Press: 29-52.

Groffman, Peter M.; Holland, Elisabeth A.; Myrold, David D. 1999.

Denitrification. In: Robertson, G. Philip; Coleman, David C.; Bledsoe,

Caroline S.; Sollins, Phillip, eds. Standard soil methods for long-term

ecological research. New York: Oxford University Press: 272-288.

Grogan, P.; Chapin, Stuart F., III. 1999. Arctic soil respiration: effects

of climate and vegetation depend on season. Ecosystems. 2: 451-459.

Gulledge, Jay; Schimel, Joshua P. 2000. Controls on soil carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in a variety of taiga forest stands in interior

Alaska. Ecosystems. 3: 269-282.

Gurung, Janita; Adams, A.B.; Raphael, Martin G. 1999. A review

of Pacific madrone utilization by nesters, pollinators and frugivores [A review of the use of the Pacific madrone by nesting, pollinating and frugivorous birds]. In: Proceedings of a symposium

held at the Center for Urban Horticulture University of

Washington; 1995 April 28; Seattle. [Place of publication

unknown]: Ecosystems Database Development and Research:

25-32.

Halpern, Charles B.; Evans, Shelley A.; Nielson, Sarah. 1999. Soil

seed banks in young, closed-canopy forests of the Olympic

Peninsula, Washington: potential contributions to understory reinitiation. Canadian Journal of Botany. 77: 922-935.

Halupka, Karl C.; Bryant, Mason D.; Willson, Mary F.; Everest, Fred

H. 2000. Biological characteristics and population status of anadromous salmon in southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-468.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 255 p.

Han, Han-Sup; Kellogg, L.D. 2000. A comparison of sampling methods for measuring residual stand damage from commercial thinning.

Journal of Forest Engineering. 11(1): 63-71.

Han, Han-Sup; Kellogg, L.D. 2000. Damage characteristics in young

Douglas-fir stands from commercial thinning with four timber harvesting systems. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 15(1): 27-33.

Han, Han-Sup; Kellogg, Loren D.; Filip, Gregory M.; Brown,

Terence D. 2000. Scar closure and future timber value losses from

thinning damage in western Oregon. Forest Products Journal.

50(1): 36-42.

Hanley, Thomas A.; Barnard, Jeffrey C. 1999. Food resources and diet

composition in riparian and upland habitats for Sitka mice, Peromyscus

keeni sitkensis. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 113: 401-407.

Hanley, Thomas A.; Barnard, Jeffrey C. 1999. Spatial variation in population dynamics of Sitka mice in floodplain forests. Journal of

Mammalogy. 80(3): 866-879.

Harmon, Mark E. 2000. Decomposition of the third kind: results from

the LIDET project [Abstract]. In: Communicating and advancing

ecology: The Ecological Society of America 85th annual meeting;

2000 August 6-10; Snowbird, UT. Washington, DC: The Ecological

Society of America: 114.

Harmon, Mark E.; Bible, Ken; Shaw, David C. [and others]. 1999.

Permanent plots surrounding the Wind River canopy crane: permanent plots of the Pacific Northwest, USA. Rep. 1. Available:

http://www.fsl.orst.edu/lter/pubs/permplot/windriv.htm. [1999

December 8].

Harmon, Mark E.; Krankina, Olga N.; Sexton, Jay. 2000.

Decomposition vectors: a new approach to estimating woody detritus decomposition dynamics. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.

30: 76-84.

Harmon, Mark E.; Lajtha, Kate. 1999. Analysis of detritus and organic horizons for mineral and organic constituents. In: Robertson, G.

Philip; Coleman, David C.; Bledsoe, Caroline S.; Sollins, Phillip, eds.

Standard soil methods for long-term ecological research. New York:

Oxford University Press: 143-165.

Harmon, Mark E.; Nadelhoffer, Knute J.; Blair, John M. 1999.

Measuring decomposition, nutrient turnover, and stores in plant litter. In: Robertson, G. Philip; Coleman, David C.; Bledsoe, Caroline S.;

Sollins, Phillip, eds. Standard soil methods for long-term ecological

research. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press: 202-240.

Chapter 11.

Haynes, Richard W.; Adams, Darius M. 1999. Have forest sector

models changed forest policy in the United States? In: Yoshimoto,

Atsushi; Yukutake, Kiyoshi, eds. Global concerns for forest resource

utilization: sustainable use and management. Japan: Kluwer

Academic Publishers: 267-274.

Haynes, Richard W.; Stevens, John H.; Barbour, R. James. 2000.

Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management at the

U.S.A. national and regional level. In: Krishnapillay, Baskaran;

Soepadmo, E.; Arshad, Najib Lotfy [and others], eds. Forests and

society: the role of research: 21st IUFRO world congress; 2000

August 7-12; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. [Place of publication

unknown]: International Union of Forestry Research Organizations:

238-250.

Heckman, Charles W. 1999. The encroachment of exotic herbaceous

plants into the Olympic National Forest. Northwest Science. 73(4):

264-276.

Helmer, E.H.; Brown, Sandra; Cohen, Warren B. 2000. Mapping montane tropical forest successional stage and land use with multi-date

Landsat imagery. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 21(11):

2163-2183.

Hemstrom, Miles; Raphael, Martin G. 2000. Late-successional

forests and northern spotted owls: How effective is the Northwest

Forest Plan? In: Hansen, Mark; Burk, Thomas, eds. Integrated tools

for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: Proceedings of

the IUFRO conference, August 16-20, 1998, Boise, Idaho, USA. Gen.

Tech. Rep. NC-212. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 283-291.

Hennon, Paul E. 1999. Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg., 1898. In:

Schutt, Peter; Schuck, Hans Joachim; Lang, Ulla M.; Roloff, Andreas,

eds. Enzklopadie der Holzgewachse: Hanbuch und Atlas der

Dendrologie. Landsberg am Lech, Germany: Ecomed

Verlagsgesellschaft AG und Co. KG: 1-8.

Publications 91
Hennon, Paul E.; McWilliams, M.G. 1999. Decline symptoms do not

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Skog, Kenneth E.; Ince, Peter J.; Haynes, Richard W. 1998. Wood

fiber supply and demand in the United States. In: Proceedings of the

Forest Products Society annual meeting; [Dates of meeting

unknown]; Merida, Mexico. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society:

73-89.

Smith, Douglas A.; DeRoo, Thomas G.; Anderson, Douglas A. 1997.

Landslide frequency in the Fish Creek and Roaring River watersheds,

Clackamas River subbasin: a validation of watershed analysis? In:

Laenen, Antonius, ed. The Pacific Northwest floods of February 6-11,

1996: Proceedings of the Pacific Northwest water issues conference; 1997 October 7-8; Portland. American Institute of Hydrology:

St. Paul, MN: 95-106.

Smith, Winston P. 2000. A unique observation of a fisher (Martes

pennanti) in Grand Teton National Park. Northwestern Naturalist. 80

(1): 33-34.

Smith, Winston P. 2000. Relations of small mammal populations to

even-aged shelterwood systems: a comment. Journal of Wildlife

Management. 63(4): 1376-1380.

Sollins, Phillip; Glassman, Carol; Paul, Eldor A.; Swanston,

Christopher [and others]. 1999. Soil carbon and nitrogen: pools and

fractions. In: Robertson, G. Philip; Coleman, David C.; Bledsoe,

Caroline S.; Sollins, Phillip, eds. Standard soil methods for long-term

ecological research. New York: Oxford University Press: 89-105.

Chapter 5.

Sorensen, F.C. 1999. Effect of dry storage on germination rate of

seeds of coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco

var. menziesii). Seed Science and Technology. 27: 91-99.

Spies, T.A. 2000. The struggle to integrate science and policy at

regional scales: lessons from the Pacific Northwest [Abstract]. In:

Communicating and advancing ecology: The Ecological Society of

America 85th annual meeting; 2000 August 6-10; Snowbird, UT.

Washington, DC: The Ecological Society of America: 34.

Spies, Thomas A. 1998. Forest structure: a key to the ecosystem.

Northwest Science. 72(2): 34-39.

Spies, Thomas A.; Turner, Monica G. 1999. Dynamic forest mosaics.

In: Hunter, Malcolm L., Jr., ed. Maintaining biodiversity in forest

ecosystems. [Cambridge, England]: Cambridge University Press: 95-

160.

St. Clair, Brad; Lipow, Sara. 2000. Pacific Northwest forest tree gene

conservation group. Western Forester. [45(2)]: 17.

98 Publications
St. Clair, J. Bradley; Sniezko, Richard A. 1999. Genetic variation in

response to shade in coastal Douglas-fir. Canadian Journal of Forest

Research. 29: 1751-1763.

Stein, William I. 1999. Six-year growth of Douglas-fir saplings after

manual or herbicide release from coastal shrub competition. Res.

Pap. PNW-RP-500. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 55 p.

Stouder, Deanna J.; Bisson, Peter A.; Naiman, Robert J. 1997. Where

are we? resources at the brink. In: Stouder, Deanna J.; Bisson, Peter

A.; Naiman, Robert J., eds. Pacific salmon and their ecosystems: status and future options. New York: Chapman and Hall: 1-10.

Stratton, L.; Goldstein, G.; Meinzer, F.C. 2000. Stem water storage

capacity and efficiency of water transport: their functional significance in Hawaiian dry forest. Plant, Cell, and Environment. 23:

99-106.

Strzelczyk, Edmund; Li, Ching-Yan. 2000. Bacterial endobionts in the

big non-mycorrhizal roots of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.).

Microbiological Research. 155: 1-4.

Suominen, Otso; Danell, Kjell. 1999. Indirect effects of mammalian

browsers on vegetation and ground-dwelling insects in an Alaska

floodplain. Ecoscience. 6(4): 505-510.

Swanson, Fred; Jones, Julia; Wemple, Beverley; Snyder, Kai. 2000.

Roads in forest watersheds-assessing effects from a landscape perspective. In: Slaughter, Charles W., ed. Western watersheds: science, sense, strategies: Proceedings of the 7th biennial watershed

management council conference; 1998 October 19-23; Boise, ID.

Water Resour. Cent. Rep. 98. Riverside, CA: Centers for Water and

Wildland Resources: [Page numbers unknown].

Swanson, Frederick J. 2000. Advocacy by scientists—a federal scientist's view. In: Special issue 4. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State

University, Department of Philosophy: 12.

Swanson, Frederick J. 2000. Review of Jane Claire Dirks-Edmunds:

1998—not just trees: the legacy of a Douglas-fir forest. Oregon

Historical Society; Oregon Historical Quarterly. 100(4): 462-463.

Swanson, Frederick J. 2000. Rocks, paper, soil, trees: the view from

an experimental forest. In: Schneiderman, Jill S., ed. The Earth

around us: maintaining a livable planet. New York: W.H. Freeman and

Company: 136-143. Chapter 11.

Swanson, Nicola L.; Liss, William J.; Ziller, Jeffrey S.; Wade, Mark G.;

Gresswell, Robert E. 2000. Growth and diet of fish in Waldo Lake,

Oregon. Lake and Reservoir Management. 16(1-2): 133-143.

Tague, Christina. 1999. Modeling seasonal hydrologic response to

forest harvesting and road construction: the role of drainage organization. Toronto: University of Canada. 214 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Tappeiner, John C.; Olson, Deanna H.; Thompson, Charles R.

1999. Density management studies of western Oregon. In:

Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters 1999 national convention: pioneering new trails; 1999 September 11-15;

Portland, OR. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters:

556-557. http://www.safnet.org/pubs/abstracts99.html.

Tausend, Peter C.; Goldstein, Guillermo; Meinzer, Frederick C. 2000.

Water utlization, plant hydraulic properties and xylem vulnerability in

three contrasting coffee (Coffea arabica) cultivars. Tree Physiology.

20: 159-168.

Tausend, Peter C.; Meinzer, Frederick C.; Goldstein, Guillermo. 2000.

Control of transpiration in three coffee cultivars: the role of hydraulic

and crown architecture Trees. 14: 181-190.

Theriot, E.C.; Fritz, S.C.; Gresswell, R.E. 1997. Long-term limnological

data from the larger lakes of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming,

U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research. 39(3): 304-314.

Thies, Walter G.; Niwa, Christine G.; Westlind, Douglas J.; Loewen,

Mark D. 1999. Prescribed fire effects on incidence of root disease

and bark beetle attacks in ponderosa pine stands. In: Proceedings of

the 5th joint meeting of the Western international forest disease

work conference and Western forest insect work conference; 1999

September 13-17; Breckenridge, CO. Central Point, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwest Oregon Forest

Insect and Disease Service Center: 25-30.

Thomlinson, John R.; Bolstad, Paul V.; Cohen, Warren B. 1999.

Coordinating methodologies for scaling landcover classifications

from site-specific to global: steps toward validating global map products. Remote Sensing of Environment. 70: 16-28.

Thysell, David R.; Carey, Andrew B. 2000. Effects of forest management on understory and overstory vegetation: a retrospective study.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-488. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 41 p.

Tiedemann, Arthur R.; Klemmedson, James C.; Bull, Evelyn L. 2000.

Solution of forest health problems with prescribed fire: are forest productivity and wildlife at risk? Forest Ecology and Management. 127: 1-18.

Trappe, James M.; Castellano, Michael A. 2000. New sequestrate

ascomycota and basidiomycota covered by the Northwest Forest

Plan. Mycotaxon. 75: 153-179.

Turner, David P.; Acker, Steven A.; Means, Joseph E.; Garman, Steven

L. 2000. Assessing alternative allometric algorithms for estimating

leaf area of Douglas-fir trees and stands. Forest Ecology and

Management. 126: 61-76.

Turner, David P.; Cohen, Warren B.; Kennedy, Robert E. 2000.

Alternative spatial resolutions and estimation of carbon flux over a

managed forest landscape in western Oregon. Landscape Ecology.

15: 441-452.

Turner, David P.; Cohen, Warren B.; Kennedy, Robert E. [and others].

1999. Relationships between leaf area index and Landsat TM spectral vegetation indices across three temperate zone sites. Remote

Sensing of Environment. 70: 52-68.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1999. Roads analysis: informing decisions about managing the national forest transportation system. Misc. Rep. FS-643. Washington, DC. 222 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2000. CLAMS:

changing the way we learn: CLAMS and the future of land use.

[Brochure]. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. [Unpaged].

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. [2000]. Fish and forest: ecological links between water and land [Brochure]. Portland,

OR: Pacific Northwest Research Station. [Not paged].

Uliassi, Daniel D.; Huss-Danell, Kerstin; Ruess, Roger W.; Doran,

Kathleen. 2000. Biomass allocation and nitrogenase activity in Alnus

tenufolia: responses to successional soil type and phosphorus availability. Ecoscience. 7(1): 73-79.

Urban, Dean L.; Acevedo, Miguel F.; Garman, Steven L. 1999. Scaling

fine-scale processes to large-scale patterns using models derived

from models: metamodels. In: Mladenoff, David J.; Baker, William L.,

eds. Spatial modeling of forest landscape change: approaches and

applications. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press: 70-

98. Chapter 4.

Valentine, Theresa; Keon, Dylan. 2000. Developing interactive internet mapping capability for the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest

[Abstract]. In: Communicating and advancing ecology: The

Ecological Society of America 85th annual meeting; 2000 August 6-

10; Snowbird, UT. Washington, DC: The Ecological Society of

America: 403.

Vance, Nan C. 2000. Nontimber forest products. In: Gucinski,

Hermann; Furniss, Michael J.; Ziemer, Robert R.; Brookes, Martha H.,

eds. Forest roads: a synthesis of scientific information. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 54-56.

Vanderbilt, Kristin. 2000. Metadata for long-term ecological

research. In: Lajtha, Kate; Vanderbilt, Kristin, eds. Cooperation in

long term ecological research in central and eastern Europe:

Proceedings of the ILTER regional workshop; 1999 June 22-25;

Budapest, Hungary. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University: 45-46.

van Hees, Willem W.S.; Mead, Bert R. 2000. Ocular estimates of

understory vegetation structure in a closed Picea glauca/Betula

papyrifera forest. Journal of Vegetation Science. 11: 195-200.

Veblen, Thomas T.; Kitzberger, Thomas; Donnegan, Joseph. 2000.

Climatic and human influences on fire regimes in ponderosa pine

forests in the Colorado Front Range. Ecological Applications. 10(4):

1178-1195.

Publications 99
Vihnanek, R.; Ottmar, R.; Miranda, H. 1998. Development of a photo

series for aboveground biomass in the Brazilian cerrado [Abstract].

In: Proceedings: 13th conference on fire and forest meteorology;

1996 October 17-31; Lorne, Australia. [Place of publication unknown]:

International Association of Wildland Fire: 431.

von Hagen, Bettina; Fight, Roger D. 1999. Opportunities for conservation-based development of nontimber forest products in the

Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-473. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. 18 p.

Waide, R.B.; Willig, M.R.; Steiner, C.F. [and others]. 1999. The relationship between productivity and species richness. Annual Review

of Ecology and Systematics. 30: 257-300.

Walker, Loren W. 2000. St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.

clusiaceae): biochemical, morphological, and genetic variation within and among wild populations of the Northwestern United States.

Portland, OR: Portland State University. 162 p. M.S. thesis.

Walker, Marilyn D.; Walker, D.A.; Welker, A.M. 1999. Long-term

experimental manipulation of winter snow regime and summer temperature in arctic and alpine tundra. Hydrological Processes. 13:

2315-2330.

Walsh, M.E.; Ince, P.J.; De La Torre Ugarte, D. [and others]. 1999.

Potential of short rotation wood crops as a fiber and energy source

in the U.S. In: Proceedings of the 4th biomass conference of the

Americas; [Dates of meeting unknown]; [Meeting location unknown].

Oxford, England: Elsevier Science Ltd.: 63-68.

Wang, Xiping; Ross, Robert J.; McClellan, Michael [and others].

2000. Strength and stiffness assessment of standing trees using a

nondestructive stress wave technique. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-585.

Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest

Products Laboratory. 9 p.

Ward, Franklin R.; Lettman, Gary J.; Hiserote, Bruce A. 2000.

Oregon's forest products industry: 1998. [Salem, OR]: [Oregon

Department of Forestry]. 82 p.

Warner, W.S.; Reutebuch, S.E. 1999. Application and accuracy of two

fixed base camera systems. Photogrammetric Record. 16(93): 423-432.

Warren, Debra D. 2000. Production, prices, employment, and trade in

Northwest industries, all quarters 1998. Resour. Bull. PNW-GTR-231.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 171 p.

Wessell, Stephanie J. 2000. Terrestrial amphibian responses to aerially applied forest fertilizers [Abstract]. Northwestern Naturalist.

81(2): 92.

White, T.L.; Matheson, A.C.; Cotterill, P.P. [and others]. 1999. A nucleus breeding plan for radiata pine in Australia. Silvae Genetica. 48: 3-4.

Whitworth, Darrel L.; Nelson, S. Kim; Newman, Scott H. [and others].

2000. Foraging distances of radio-marked marbled murrelets from

inland areas in southeast Alaska. The Condor. 102: 452-456.

Willson, Mary F.; Gende, Scott Michael. 2000. Nesting biology of forest birds in southeast Alaska and adjacent Canada. The Condor. 102:

314-325.

Wilson, M.V.; Ingersoll, C.A.; Thies, W.G. 1999. Testing for effects of

stump fumigation with chloropicrin on vegetation in an early seral

Douglas-fir stand. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 29: 1254-

1258.

Wilson, Suzanne M.; Carey, Andrew B. 2000. Legacy retention versus thinning: influences on small mammals. Northwest Science.

74(2): 131-145.

Wilson, Todd M. 1999. Population analysis of northern flying squirrels in the Puget Trough, Washington, using microsatellite DNA.

Olympia, WA: The Evergreen State College. 50 p. M.S. thesis.

Wimberly, Michael C.; Spies, Thomas A.; Long, Colin J. [and others].

2000. Simulating historical variability in the amount of old forests in

the Oregon Coast Range. Conservation Biology. 14(1): 167-180.

Winter, Greg J.; Fried, Jeremy S. 2000. Homeowner perspectives on fire hazard, responsibility, and management strategies

at the wildland-urban interface. Society and Natural Resources.

13: 33-49.

Winter, Linda Ellen. 2000. Five centuries of structural development in an old-growth Douglas-fir stand in the Pacific

Northwest: a reconstruction from tree-ring records. Seattle,

WA: University of Washington. 134 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Winterberger, Kenneth C. 2000. Virtual tour of the Wind River

canopy crane [CD-ROM]. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station.

Wipfli, Mark S.; Hudson, John P.; Chaloner, Dominic T.;

Caouette, John P. 1999. Influence of salmon spawner densities

on stream productivity in southeast Alaska. Canadian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 56: 1600-1611.

Wisdom, Michael J.; Cook, John G. 1999. North American elk.

In: Demarais, Stephen; Krausman, Paul S., eds. Ecology and

management of large mammals in North America. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.: 694-735. Chapter 32.

Wisdom, Michael J.; Holthausen, Richard S.; Wales, Barbara C.

[and others]. 1999. Wildlife habitats in forests of the interior

Northwest: history, status, trends, and critical issues confronting land managers. Transactions of the 64th North

American wildlife and natural resources conference: 79-93.

Wisdom, Michael J.; Holthausen, Richard S.; Wales, Barbara C.

[and others]. 2000. Source habitats for terrestrial vertebrates of

focus in the interior Columbia basin: broad-scale trends and management implications. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-485. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. 529 p.

Wisdom, Michael J.; Mills, L. Scott; Doak, Daniel F. 2000. Life stage

simulation analysis: estimating vital-rate effects on population

growth for conservation. Ecology. 81: 628-641.

Wondolleck, Julia M.; Yaffee, Steven L. 1997. Sustaining the success

of collaborative partnerships: revisiting the “Building Bridges”

cases. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan, School of Natural

Resources and Environment. 22 p.

Wondolleck, Julia M.; Yaffee, Steven L. 1999. Making collaboration

work. Washington, DC: Island Press. 277 p.

Woodcock, Curtis E.; Macomber, Scott A.; Song, Conghe [and

others]. 1999. Regional to continental monitoring of change in

temperate conifer forests. In: Proceedings of 3rd Pecora 14,

LandSatellite Information; 1999 December 6-10; Denver, CO. Falls

Church, VA: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote

Sensing: 322-327.

Wurtz, Tricia L. 2000. Interactions between white spruce and

shrubby alders at three boreal forest sites in Alaska. Gen. Tech.

Rep. PNW-GTR-481. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

29 p.

Yaffee, Steven L.; Wondolleck, Julia M.; Lippman, Steven R. 1997.

Factors that promote and constrain bridging: a summary and analysis of the literature. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan. 43 p.

Youngblood, A.; Newton, M.; Cole, E.C. 1999. Adaptability of spruce

seedlings for forest restoration in interior and south central Alaska.

In: Stocking standards and reforestation methods for Alaska:

Proceedings of the Alaska Reforestation Council April 29, 1999 workshop; 1999 April 29; Anchorage, AK. Misc. Publ. 99-8. Fairbanks, AK:

Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, University of Alaska

Fairbanks: 51-56.

Youngblood, Andrew. 2000. Damage to residual trees and advance

regeneration from skyline and forwarder yarding in mixed-conifer

stands of northeastern Oregon. Western Journal of Applied Forestry.

15(2): 101-107.

Youngblood, Andrew P.; Riegel, Gregg. 2000. Reintroducing fire

in eastside ponderosa pine forests: long-term silvicultural

practices. In: Proceedings of the Society of American

Foresters 1999 national convention; 1999 September 11-15;

Portland, OR. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters:

291-298.

100 Publications
Zaborske, Richard R.; McClellan, Michael; Barbour, Jamie [and others]. 2000. The southeast Alaska timber resource and industry: What

might the future hold? In: Laufenberg, Theodore L.; Brady, Bridget K.,

eds. Proceedings: linking healthy forests and communities through

Alaska value-added forest products. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-500.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station: 23-26.

Zenner, Eric K. 2000. Do residual trees increase structural complexity in Pacific Northwest coniferous forests? Ecological Applications.

10(3): 800-810.

Zollner, Patrick A.; Smith, Winston P.; Brennan, Leonard A. 1999.

Home range use by swamp rabbits (Sylvilagus aquaticus) in a frequently inundated bottomland forest. American Midland Naturalist.

143: 64-69.

Publications 101
Station Leadership Team of the Pacific Northwest Research Station

Cynthia Miner

Director of

Communications

Marty

Santiago

Director of

Operations

Gaston Porterie

Budget

Coordinator

Shared Services, Region 6

Human Resources, Roy Roosevelt

Fiscal & Public Safety, Dan Nichols

Information Resources Mgmt., Marcia

Scutvick

Civil Rights, April Willson

Engineering, Richard Sowa

Procurement & Property Mgmt., Mike Wolfe

Law Enforcement, Tom Lyons

Susan Willits

Program Manager

Forest Inventory and

Analysis Program

Richard Haynes

Program Manager

Social and Economic

Values

Program Manager

Ecosystem

Processes

(Vacant)

Roger Clark

Program Manager

People and Natural

Resources

Charles Peterson

Program Manager

Resource

Management

and Productivity

Deanna Stouder

Program Manager

Aquatic and Land

Interactions

Thomas Quigley

Program Manager

Managing

Disturbance

Regimes

*Anna Clark *Vacant

*Susan

 Stevens

 Hummel

*Term SLT appointments

Shared Services, Region 10

Human Resources, (Vacant)

Fiscal & Public Safety, (Vacant)

Acquisition Mgmt. (Procurement), Steve

Zeckser

Information Resources Mgmt., Mary Cummins

Engineering, Keith Simila

Thomas Mills

Station Director

Assistant Director for

Program Implementation

(Vacant)

Robert Szaro

Deputy Station

Director

3/2001
If you are interested in more information about the PNW Research Station;

would like to receive copies of publications, software, or videos mentioned in this report; or would like to 

receive a quarterly list of publications written by Station scientists, please contact:

Cynthia L. Miner

Communications Director

Pacific Northwest Research Station

P.O. Box 3890

Portland, OR 97208-3890

(503) 808-2135

clminer/r6pnw@fs.fed.us

or

browse PNW Research Station

on the web at:

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw

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A Year in Review • 2000

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