120 Years of

American Education:

A Statistical Portrait

Editor

Thomas D. Snyder

Center for Education Statistics
U.S. Department of Education

Lamar Alexander

Secretary

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

Diane Ravitch

Assistant Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics

Emerson J. Elliott

Commissioner

National Center for Education Statistics

‘‘The purpose of the Center shall be to collect, analyze,

and disseminate statistics and other data related to education in the United States and in other nations.’’—Section 406(b) of the General Education Provisions Act,

as amended (20 U.S.C. 1221e–1).

January 1993
iii

Foreword

Emerson J. Elliott

Commissioner of Education Statistics

NCES statistics and reports are used for myriad

purposes. Congress, federal agencies, state and

local officials, business leaders, scholars and researchers, the news media, and the general public

use our data to formulate programs, apportion resources, monitor services, research issues, and inform and make decisions.

Since 1870, the federal government has collected

statistics on the condition and progress of American

education. In the beginning, data were collected on

very basic items, such as public elementary and secondary school enrollment, attendance, teachers and

their salaries, high school graduates, and expenditures. Over the years, the level of detail has gradually increased. Today, the National Center for Education Statistics has a staff of approximately 130 who

collect information through nearly 40 surveys and

studies and produce more than 175 publications per

year.

Statistics paint a portrait of our Nation. By looking

at changes in the data over time—like number of

schools, participation rates, completion rates, and expenditures—we see how our Nation has progressed.

But the questions, too, have changed. Illiteracy, for

example, is defined differently today than it was in

earlier years. While we once looked only at whether

a person could read or write, today we are concerned with how well a person can function in a

modern society. Recent additions to the long-term

data series contain more qualitative information, especially on student performance and classroom activities.

During the period in which this report was prepared, Diane Ravitch, an educational historian by

profession, was Assistant Secretary for Educational

Research and Improvement. Dr. Ravitch knows the

importance of the record that America’s education

data collections form, and it was her personal interest and initiative that prompted preparation of this report. Her support, both as Assistant Secretary and as

an historian of education, has been invaluable to the

production of this volume and in all other efforts of

NCES.

The Assistant Secretary’s Introduction to this volume states that an historical perspective is indispensable for a full understanding of American education

and the changes it has undergone. Such a perspective will help supply that meaning, understanding,

and judgment needed to help improve education in

America.

I join her in thanking Vance Grant of OERI and

Tom Snyder of NCES for producing this work. We

will benefit from the better understanding of our past

that these education statistics bring to us.

This work supplements other major compilations of

education statistics, including the annual Digest and

the Condition of Education reports, and reaffirms the

mission of the National Center for Education Statistics to provide the Nation with data on the condition

and progress of education. Our goal is to make education data accessible, useful, and meaningful to our

many publics. I welcome comments for improvements to our data collections and publications.
v

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed in one way or another to the development of 120 Years of American

Education. Foremost among these contributors is W.

Vance Grant, who has served as an education statistics expert since 1955. Thomas D. Snyder was responsible for the overall development and preparation of 120 Years of American Education, which was

prepared under the general direction of Jeanne E.

Griffith, Associate Commissioner for Data Development.

William Sonnenberg served as a statistical consultant in all phases of 120 Years of American Education

and was responsible for chapter 2, ‘‘Elementary and

Secondary Education.’’ Irene Baden Harwarth developed a table on higher education enrollment and was

responsible for developing charts for the report.

Charlene Hoffman developed tables on degrees conferred and managed the typesetting. Carol Sue

Fromboluti managed the review process of the publication. Celestine Davis provided statistical assistance.

A number of people outside the Center also expended large amounts of time and effort on 120

Years of American Education. James J. Corina and

Robert Craig of Pinkerton Computer Consultants,

Inc., provided computer support. Louise Woerner,

Barbara Robinson, Jeannette Bernardo, and Jeffrey

Sisson of HCR provided research assistance. Nancy

Floyd copyedited this book, and Margery Martin and

Wilma Greene provided editorial assistance. Annie

Lunsford designed the cover. Jerry Fairbanks and

Kim Stiles of the U.S. Government Printing Office

provided typesetting assistance.

120 Years of American Education has received extensive reviews by individuals within and outside the

Department of Education. We wish to thank them for

their time and expert advice. In the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), Diane

Ravitch, Maris Vinovskis, Mary Frase, W. Vance

Grant, Fred Beamer, Frank Morgan, John Sietsema,

and Irene Baden Harwarth reviewed the entire manuscript. Rosemary Clark and Dave Fleck of the Bureau of the Census also reviewed the entire document. Agency reviews were conducted by the Office

of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, Office of Management and Budget, Office of

Policy and Planning, Office of Private Education, and

Office of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. Department of Education.

OERI Deputy Assistant Secretary Francie Alexander and NCES Chief of Staff Paul R. Hall provided

leadership and gave enthusiastic support to this

project.
vii

Introduction

Diane Ravitch

Assistant Secretary

As an historian of education, I have been a regular

consumer of education statistics from the U.S. Department of Education. For many years, I kept the

Department’s telephone number in my address book

and computer directory. It did not take long to discover there was one person to whom I should address all my queries: Vance Grant. In my many telephone calls for information, I discovered he is the

man who knows what data and statistics have been

gathered over the years by the Department of Education. No matter how exotic my question, Dr. Grant

could always tell me, without delay, whether the information existed; usually, he produced it himself.

When I asked a statistical question, I could often

hear the whir of an adding machine in the background, even after the advent of the electronic calculator.

Imagine my surprise, therefore, to find myself in

the position of Assistant Secretary of the Office of

Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), the

very home of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The latter agency is headed by Emerson Elliott, the first presidentially appointed Commissioner of Education Statistics. And imagine my delight when I encountered Vance Grant, face to face,

for the first time. The voice on the telephone, always

cheerful and confident, belonged to a man employed

by the Department or Office of Education since 1955.

Vance Grant, a Senior Education Program Specialist, and Tom Snyder, NCES’ Chief of the Compilations and Special Studies Branch in the Data Development Division, prepared 120 Years of American

Education: A Statistical Portrait. They did so enthusiastically, because—like me—they knew it was

needed. Historians of education customarily must

consult multiple, often disparate, sources to find and

collect the information in this one volume. They can

never be sure if the data they locate are consistent

and reliable. This compilation aggregates all relevant

statistics about the history of our educational system

in one convenient book. It will, I believe, become a

classic, an indispensable volume in every library and

on every education scholar’s bookshelf, one that will

be periodically updated. Vance Grant’s and Tom

Snyder’s careful preparation of this report substantially enriches our knowledge of American education.

But collecting these historical data in one volume

not only benefits professional historians. As a Nation,

we need to develop an historical perspective in analyzing change. Too often, newspapers report important political, economic, or social events without supplying the necessary historical context. We are all

now accustomed to reading headlines about the latest test scores. Whether up or down, they invariably

overstate the meaning of a single year’s change. And

the same short-sightedness often flaws journalistic

reports of other major educational trends.

Historical Context

One does not need to be an historian to recognize

the tremendous importance of historical context.

Each of us should be able to assess events, ideas,

and trends with reliable knowledge of what has happened in the past. If we cannot, our ability to understand and make sense of events will be distorted.

This volume would become a reference for all who

wish to make informed judgments about American

education. We must struggle mightily against the

contemporary tendency towards presentism, the idea

inspired by television journalism that today’s news

has no precedent. As we struggle to preserve history, we preserve our human capacity to construct

meaning and to reach independent judgment.

In an age when we are awash with information and

instantaneous news, it is meaning, understanding,

and judgment that are in short supply. This collection

of historical statistics about American education provides its readers with the perspective they need to

understand how far we have come in our national

commitment to education and how far we must still

go in pursuit of our ideals.

I especially thank Vance Grant and Tom Snyder

for their untiring efforts in assembling this book. Without their dedication, and without Emerson Elliott’s

support for the importance of this work, it would

never have happened.
ix

Contents

Page

Foreword, by Emerson J. Elliott ............................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... v

Introduction, by Diane Ravitch ................................................................................................. vii

Statistics in the U.S. Department of Education: Highlights from the Past 120 Years, by

W. Vance Grant. 1

Chapter 1. Education Characteristics of the Population, by Thomas D. Snyder ..................... 5

Chapter 2. Elementary and Secondary Education, by William C. Sonnenberg ...................... 25

Chapter 3. Higher Education, by Thomas D. Snyder .............................................................. 63

Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 95

Figures

1. Percent of 5- to 19-year-olds enrolled in school, by race: 1850 to 1991 ...................... 6

2. Percent of 20- to 24-year-olds and 25- to 34-year-olds enrolled in school, by sex:

1940 to 1991 .............................................................................................................. 7

3. Percent of persons 25 years old and over completing 4 years of high school, by sex

and race: 1940 to 1991 .............................................................................................. 8

4. Percent of persons 25 years old and over completing 4 years of college, by sex and

race: 1940 to 1991 ..................................................................................................... 8

5. Annual average income of high school and college graduates, 25 years old and

over, in constant 1991 dollars, by sex: 1959 to 1991 ................................................ 10

6. Enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools, by level: 1869–70 to

1992–93 ...................................................................................................................... 26

7. Elementary and secondary enrollment as a percentage of 5- to 17-year-olds, by

level: 1869–70 to fall 1991 ......................................................................................... 27

8. Average number of days per year attended by public school students: 1869–70 to

1980–81 ...................................................................................................................... 28

9. Pupil/teacher ratio in public elementary and secondary schools: 1869–70 to fall

1990 ............................................................................................................................ 29

10. Percentage of elementary and secondary school teachers, by sex: 1869–70 to fall

1990 ............................................................................................................................ 29

11. Number of public and private high school graduates per 100 17-year-olds: 1869–70

to 1991–92 .................................................................................................................. 31

12. Sources of revenues for public elementary and secondary schools: 1889–90 to

1989–90 ...................................................................................................................... 32

13. Current expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance, in constant 1989–90

dollars: 1919–20 to 1989–90 ...................................................................................... 33
x CONTENTS

14. Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by sex: 1869–70 to 1990–91 ................ 65

15. Percentage of students in institutions of higher education, by control, type, and

attendance status: 1931–32 to 1991–92 .................................................................... 66

16. Bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher

education: 1869–70 to 1989–90 ................................................................................. 67

17. Bachelor’s degrees per 1,000 23-year-olds: 1889–90 to 1989–90 ............................... 68

18. Percentage of higher education degrees conferred to females, by level: 1869–70 to

1989–90 ...................................................................................................................... 69

19. Bachelor’s degrees per 100 high school graduates 4 years earlier and master’s

degrees per 100 bachelor’s degrees 2 years earlier: 1869–70 to 1989–90 .............. 69

20. Sources of current-fund revenue for institutions of higher education: 1909–10 to

1989–90 ...................................................................................................................... 71

21. Expenditures of institutions of higher education per student in constant 1990–91

dollars: 1929–30 to 1989–90 ...................................................................................... 73

Tables

Education Characteristics of the Population

1. Population, by age and race, live births, and birth rate: 1790 to 1991 ......................... 11

2. School enrollment of 5- to 19-year-olds per 100 persons, by sex and race: 1850 to

1991 ............................................................................................................................ 14

3. School enrollment and school enrollment rates, by age and sex: 1940 to 1991 .......... 15

4. Years of school completed by persons 25 years old and over, by race and sex: April

1940 to March 1991 ................................................................................................... 18

5. Median years of school completed by persons age 25 and over and 25 to 29, by

race and sex: 1910 to 1991 ....................................................................................... 21

6. Percentage of persons 14 years old and over who were illiterate, by race and

nativity: 1870 to 1979 ................................................................................................. 21

7. Annual mean income of males and females 25 years old and over, by years of

school completed: 1939 to 1991 ................................................................................ 22

Elementary and Secondary Education

8. Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: 1869–70

to 1989–90 .................................................................................................................. 34

9. Enrollment in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools, by grade

level: 1869–70 to fall 1992 ......................................................................................... 36

10. Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by grade: 1910–11

to fall 1990 .................................................................................................................. 38

11. Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by state: 1870–71

to fall 1990 .................................................................................................................. 42

12. Children served in special education programs, by type of disability: 1921–22 to

1989–90 ...................................................................................................................... 44
CONTENTS xi

13. Public school pupils transported at public expense and current expenditures for

transportation: 1929–30 to 1989–90 .......................................................................... 45

14. Average daily attendance, instructional staff, and teachers in public elementary and

secondary schools: 1869–70 to 1990–91 .................................................................. 46

15. Catholic elementary and secondary enrollment, teachers, and schools, by level:

1919–20 to 1990–91 .................................................................................................. 49

16. Public school enrollment in grades 9 to 12, by subject: 1889–90 to fall 1981 ............. 50

17. Student proficiency in reading, writing, mathematics, and science, by age and

race/ethnicity: 1969–70 to 1989–90 ........................................................................... 51

18. Percentage of students at or above selected reading, mathematics, and science proficiency levels, by age and race/ethnicity: 1970–71 to 1989–90 ............................... 52

19. High school graduates, by sex and control of institution: 1869–70 to 1991–92 ........... 55

20. Public school districts and public and private elementary and secondary schools:

1929–30 to 1990–91 .................................................................................................. 56

21. Revenues for public elementary and secondary schools, by source of funds:

1889–90 to 1989–90 .................................................................................................. 57

22. Total and current expenditures and expenditure per pupil in public elementary and

secondary schools, by purpose: 1869–70 to 1989–90 .............................................. 59

Higher Education

23. Historical summary of higher education statistics: 1869–70 to 1989–90 ...................... 75

24. Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by sex, attendance status, and type

and control of institution: 1869–70 to fall 1991 .......................................................... 76

25. Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by state: 1869–70 to fall 1990 .............. 78

26. Number and professional employees of institutions of higher education: 1869–70 to

1991–92 ...................................................................................................................... 80

27. Number of permanent colleges and universities founded before 1860, by decade of

founding and by state ................................................................................................. 81

28. Degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by sex and level: 1869–70 to

1989–90 ...................................................................................................................... 82

29. Bachelor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study:

1959–60 to 1989–90 .................................................................................................. 85

30. Master’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study:

1959–60 to 1989–90 .................................................................................................. 86

31. Doctor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study:

1959–60 to 1989–90 .................................................................................................. 87

32. First-professional degrees conferred by institutions of higher education in dentistry,

medicine, and law, by sex: 1949–50 to 1989–90 ...................................................... 88

33. Current-fund revenue of institutions of higher education, by source of funds:

1889–90 to 1989–90 .................................................................................................. 89

34. Current-fund expenditures and educational and general expenditures per student of

institutions of higher education, by function: 1929–30 to 1989–90 ........................... 90
xii CONTENTS

35. Value of property and endowment, and liabilities of institutions of higher education:

1899–1900 to 1989–90 .............................................................................................. 92

Appendix

36. Gross domestic product, state and local expenditures, personal income, disposable

personal income, and median family income: 1940 to 1991 ..................................... 93

37. Gross domestic product deflator, Consumer Price Index, education price indexes,

and federal budget composite deflator: 1919 to 1992 ............................................... 94
1

1The statistical component of the Department of Education has had

many names. A staff member who joined this office in 1955 recalls

that in the past 37 years it has been called the Research and Statistical Services Branch, the Educational Statistics Branch, the Division

of Educational Statistics, the National Center for Educational Statistics, the National Center for Education Statistics, the Center for Statistics, the Center for Education Statistics, and, once again, the National Center for Education Statistics. For convenience it will be referred to in this paper as the National Center for Education Statistics

or simply National Center.

Statistics in the U.S. Department of Education:

Highlights from the Past 120 Years

W. Vance Grant

In 1867, the Congress of the United States passed

legislation providing ‘‘That there shall be established

at the City of Washington, a department of education, for the purpose of collecting such statistics

and facts as shall show the condition and progress

of education in the several States and Territories,

and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of schools and school systems, and methods of teaching, as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and

maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the

country.’’ The department was to be headed by a

Commissioner of Education. The Commissioner was

to be paid a salary of $4,000 a year, and he was authorized to appoint three clerks, at annual salaries of

$2,000, $1,800, and $1,600, to help him carry out his

duties.

Two years later, the name of the new department

was changed to the Office of Education, its budget

was cut back, and the Commissioner’s support staff

was reduced from three to two clerks. The Office of

Education became one of the constituent agencies

within the Department of the Interior in 1869, and it

remained there for 70 years. During most of those

years, it was known as the Bureau of Education, but

in 1929 its name was restored to the Office of Education. In 1939, it became part of the Federal Security Agency, and in 1953, it was assigned to the

newly established Department of Health, Education,

and Welfare. In 1980, education was separated from

health and welfare, and a new cabinet-level Department of Education came into existence.

Early in its history, the federal education agency

moved to fulfill its mandate to ‘‘collect’’ and ‘‘diffuse’’

statistics on education in the United States. The development of a statistical program proved to be a formidable task. The country was large, its educational

system was decentralized, and the staff available to

collect statistics was almost nonexistent.

In the beginning, no effort was made to estimate

for nonresponding institutions (probably because

there were no bench marks from which to make reasonable estimates). There were also some inconsistencies in the data obtained from the states and territories and from the various colleges and universities.

Early on, the compilers of education statistics learned

to look to the decennial censuses of population to fill

some of the gaps in the data reported to this office.

Some of the problems faced by the new agency,

along with some of the progress made in the early

years, are evident in a quotation from Commissioner

John Eaton, who wrote in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1875: ‘‘When the

work of collecting educational statistics was begun by

the Office, it was found that there was no authentic

list of the colleges in the United States, or of academies, or normal schools, or schools of science, law,

or medicine, or of any other class of educational institutions. The lists of nearly all grades of schools are

now nearly complete. Information on all other matters

relating to educational systems was equally incomplete and difficult of access.’’

The statistical surveys of what is now the National

Center for Education Statistics 1 date from 1870. The

first statistics were apparently the responsibility of the

chief clerk, but in 1872, Congress authorized the

agency to hire its first statistician at a salary of

$1,800 a year. In the beginning, data were collected

on basic items, such as public elementary and secondary school enrollment, attendance, teachers and

their salaries, high school graduates, and expenditures. At the higher education level, the data in the

early years included the number of colleges and universities, enrollment, faculty, and bachelor’s and

higher degrees conferred.

The level of detail obtained in the surveys of this

office gradually increased. By 1890, the data collection program had been expanded to include private
2 Highlights from the Past 120 Years

2Earlier, surveys of enrollment in the ‘‘third week of fall term’’ had

been conducted biennially.

elementary and secondary school enrollment, teachers, and graduates; enrollment by subject field in

public high schools; public school revenue receipts

by source; and income and value of physical plants

of institutions of higher education. By 1920, the statistical program included a detailed breakdown of

public school expenditures by purpose and of higher

education income by source of funds.

The statistical program of the National Center for

Education Statistics took a major step forward in

1923 when it was authorized to hire four new ‘‘Principal Statistical Assistants.’’ A major responsibility of

these new employees was to make visits ‘‘to the

field’’ every two years. During these field visits, they

worked with the state departments of education and

with the institutions of higher education that had not

responded fully to the Center’s requests for statistical

information. The field staff brought back a great deal

of information that would not have been available

otherwise, thus enabling the Center to report national

totals that were virtually 100 percent complete.

These field visits were made biennially for many

years. The last extensive use of a field staff was

made in 1962 when representatives of the National

Center visited every state department of education in

connection with the National Inventory of School Facilities and Personnel.

By 1930, the education data collected included the

number of public elementary and secondary schools,

the approximate number of private elementary and

secondary schools, the endowments of institutions of

higher education, and a breakdown of the expenditures of colleges and universities by purpose. The

collection of education statistics was curtailed during

the early and middle 1940s, as the office assumed

various responsibilities related to the war effort.

Following the end of World War II, there was a further expansion in the statistical information collected

by this office. College enrollment increased as many

war veterans took advantage of the G.I. Bill of Rights

to attend the Nation’s institutions of higher education.

The office responded with an annual survey of fall

enrollment in colleges and universities. 2 While there

have been some modifications in the coverage and

in the amount of detail requested over time, this survey continues in an unbroken series 47 years later.

A survey of earned degrees conferred by major

field of study was initiated in 1948, and it continues

today to provide annual data on the supply of trained

personnel coming out of colleges and universities

with bachelor’s, master’s, doctor’s, and first-professional degrees. This survey was extended to include

associate degrees and other awards below the baccalaureate in 1966. Data by sex have been collected

in the fall enrollment and earned degree surveys for

many years. Beginning in 1976, both surveys were

expanded to include the race/ethnicity of the students

and degree recipients. Statistics on the number of

foreign (nonresident alien) students and degree recipients have also been collected periodically since

1976.

An annual survey of public school enrollment,

teachers, and schoolhousing was begun in 1954.

This survey has continued through the years, but the

amount of information collected has increased substantially over time. Today, it is our primary source

of state and national data on the enrollment, staff,

graduates, and finances of public elementary and

secondary schools.

The professional and clerical staff of the National

Center had grown gradually from 16 in 1948 to 26 in

1956. A major expansion of its staff and responsibilities occurred in fiscal year 1957 when the Center

was authorized to increase its personnel to 76, including 32 statisticians and education specialists.

The increase in staff enabled the Center to collect

more statistical information and to process it more

expeditiously. The period from the late 1950s through

the early 1960s was a productive time for the Center.

The quantity and quality of the statistical publications

coming out of the Center in those years were quite

high.

In the mid-1960s, the National Center’s education

statistics were put to a new use—that of supporting

the education proposals that were making their way

through the legislative process on Capitol Hill. It is no

exaggeration to say that the Center’s statistics

played an indispensable role in the passage of a

number of acts of Congress which provided support

to elementary, secondary, and higher education. For

those staff members of the Center who were involved in preparing testimony and in supplying statistical analyses to Capitol Hill for legislative purposes,

it was a very exciting time indeed.

For many years, the National Center for Education

Statistics has prepared a directory of public school

districts in the United States. Recent editions of this

directory provide the name, address, and telephone

number, as well as statistics on the number of

schools, enrollment, teachers, high school graduates,

and grade span of each public school district. In

1967, the Center assumed the responsibility for the

preparation of a directory of institutions of higher

education. Today, this publication has evolved into a

two-volume Directory of Postsecondary Institutions:

Volume 1 provides data on 4-year and 2-year institutions (primarily colleges and universities); Volume 2

contains information about institutions that offer less

than 2 years of postsecondary education (mainly vocational schools).
Highlights from the Past 120 Years 3

3Early editions of the Digest of Education Statistics were called Digest of Educational Statistics.

4Early editions of the Projections of Education Statistics were called

Projections of Educational Statistics.

Traditionally the information collected by the National Center for Education Statistics emphasized inputs rather than outcomes. Recognizing the need to

provide data on the quality of education as well, the

Center in 1969 launched the National Assessment of

Educational Progress. For the past two decades, the

National Assessment surveys have measured the

achievement of a nationwide sample of students

aged 9, 13, and 17 in reading, writing, mathematics,

and science. Surveys of civics, history, and geography achievement also have been conducted on a

periodic basis. The Center also has participated in

several international studies which provide comparative data on student achievement in mathematics,

science, and reading.

The longitudinal surveys of the National Center for

Education Statistics date from 1972. In these surveys, a nationwide sample of students is tracked

over a period of years. Their educational and occupational experiences are recorded, and some information is collected on their family lives and other experiences and on their goals in life. The first series

began with a group of high school seniors in 1972,

and the second longitudinal series began with both

high school sophomores and seniors in 1980. A third

longitudinal study of students who were in the eighth

grade in the spring of 1988 will contribute to our

knowledge of when and why students drop out of

high school. Future longitudinal studies based on

other student levels are planned.

Among the new surveys added to the National

Center’s statistical program in recent years are the

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, the National Survey of Postsecondary Faculty, the Schools

and Staffing Survey, and the National Household

Education Survey. The Student Aid Study, first conducted in 1986–87, provides data on the proportion

of postsecondary students who obtain financial assistance, the kinds and sources of assistance they

receive, and the average amounts of aid awarded.

The National Survey of Postsecondary Faculty, first

conducted in 1987–88, collected information about

the characteristics of academic departments and college faculty members. The Schools and Staffing Survey, first conducted in 1987–88, provides a wealth of

information on elementary and secondary school

teachers, including their personal characteristics,

their teaching assignments, and their attitudes toward

the teaching profession. The data on teacher turnover and teacher characteristics, which are derived

from this study, make possible a variety of analyses,

such as a projection of the number of teachers that

will be needed in the years ahead. The National

Household Education Survey, first conducted in

1991, is used to collect data that are difficult to obtain through surveys of institutions. For example, this

system was used to collect information about the

day-care experiences and preparation of children for

elementary school.

In addition to completely new survey systems,

other existing survey systems have been expanded

during the 1980s. For example, the new Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) was

designed to include all postsecondary education providers, rather than just colleges and universities.

A review of the statistical program of the Department of Education would not be complete without

mentioning a few of the major publications that cover

the field of education from a broad perspective. From

1870 through 1917, the statistics collected by this office appeared in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education. These impressive volumes, produced by a small but dedicated staff, provide the

framework for much of the National Center’s statistical program today.

From 1918 through 1958, the major surveys of this

office were collected and published as chapters in

the Biennial Survey of Education in the United

States. The Biennial Survey usually contained chapters on state school systems, city school systems,

and institutions of higher education, and a summary

chapter covering all levels of education. From time to

time, there were additional chapters covering a variety of subjects, including offerings and enrollments in

high school subjects, statistics of public secondary

schools, special education for exceptional children,

statistics of private elementary and secondary

schools, and library statistics.

After the demise of the Biennial Survey, a need

was felt for a publication that would bring together in

one convenient volume a summary of the different

kinds of data being collected by the National Center.

To fulfill this objective, the first Digest of Education

Statistics 3 was prepared and published in 1962. Thirty years later, a greatly expanded Digest continues to

meet the needs of thousands of users of education

statistics each year by providing numerous trend tables as well as the latest survey data.

In 1964, the National Center initiated a series entitled Projections of Education Statistics. 4 This report,

which is now prepared annually, provides projections

for each of the next 10 years of many key data items

collected by the National Center, including enrollment, instructional staff, high school and college

graduates, and educational finances. In recent years,

the report has been expanded to include some forecasts at the state level.

Responding to a congressional mandate expressed in the Education Amendments of 1974, the

National Center has prepared a report on the ‘‘condi-
4 Highlights from the Past 120 Years

tion of education’’ each year since 1975. The Condition of Education provides timely data on the status

and progress of education in this country. It uses an

‘‘indicators’’ approach to highlight specific issues with

relevant information. Recent editions of this report

have added a new dimension by comparing the educational attainment, achievement, and expenditures

in the United States with those in other countries.

From humble beginnings 120 years ago, the National Center for Education Statistics has emerged as

one of the major statistical agencies of the federal

government. Today, it is headed by a Commissioner

of Education Statistics and has a staff of approximately 130 people. It issues approximately 175 publications a year. These documents include early releases, bulletins, statistical reports, directories, and

handbooks of standard terminology. Electronic formats, including data tapes, diskettes, CD-ROMs, and

bulletin boards, are also used to make data available

to the public.

The demand for the National Center’s products

continues to grow. The number of requests for education statistics and related information directed to

the information office now averages close to 1,000 a

week. The requests come from a variety of sources,

including Members of Congress and congressional

committees, government agencies, state and local

school officials, institutions of higher education, organizations representing the education community, the

news media, business organizations, students, and

the general public. As the 21st century approaches,

the National Center will be looking for additional

ways to serve its wide audience of users of education statistics.

Bibliography

Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Education,

1870 to 1917. Bureau of Education, Washington,

D.C.: various years.

Biennial Survey of Education in the United States,

1916–18 to 1956–58. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.: various years.

Blauch, Lloyd E. To Promote the Cause of Education, A Review of Historic Background of Today’s

Office of Education. Office of Education, Washington,

D.C.: 1953.

Grant, W. Vance. Specialist in Education Statistics,

personal reminiscences.

Kappel, Joseph W. (1957) and Henry G. Badger

(1962), unpublished staff papers.

Lykes, Richard Wayne. Higher Education and the

United States Office of Education (1867–1953). Office of Education, Washington, D.C.: 1975.

Smith, Darrell Hevenor. The Bureau of Education,

Its History, Activities, and Organization. The Johns

Hopkins Press, Baltimore: 1923.

Sniegoski, Stephen J. The Department of Education. Chelsea House Publishers, New York: 1988.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. Historical Statistics of

the United States, Colonial Times to 1957. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.: 1960.
5

Chapter 1

Education Characteristics of the Population

‘‘. . . [I]t is believed that the most effectual means

of preventing [tyranny] would be, to illuminate, as far

as practicable, the minds of the people at large, and

more especially to give them knowledge of those

facts, which history exhibiteth, that . . . they may be

enabled to know . . .’’ Thomas Jefferson’s ‘‘Bill for

the more general diffusion of knowledge’’ (1779).

‘‘By the year 2000: . . .

Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete

in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. . . .’’

Goal #5, The National Education Goals (1990).

We are unable to know the level of enthusiasm

that the founding fathers actually had for public education. But it is clear that many Americans have

shared Mr. Jefferson’s vision of the need to have an

educated population in order to ‘‘exercise the rights

and responsibilities of citizenship.’’ Thus, even as

early as the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, the federal government set aside resources for education.

The creation of the federal Department of Education

in 1867, while not a cabinet level position, did reinforce the importance of education.

The Act of 1867 directed the Department of Education to collect and report the ‘‘condition and

progress of education’’ in annual reports to Congress. In the first report of 1870, the Commissioner

proudly reported that nearly 7 million children were

enrolled in elementary schools and 80,000 were enrolled in secondary schools. Also, some 9,000 college degrees had been awarded. This contrasts with

1990, when 30 million were enrolled in public elementary schools and 11 million were enrolled in secondary schools. Over 1.5 million bachelor’s and higher degrees were awarded.

What path has American education taken from

such modest beginnings to such an impressive

present? These and other questions prompted the

Office of Educational Research and Improvement to

review historical data and report on historical education statistics. This publication presents information

from the first Office of Education report for 1869–70

to current studies. It charts the development of the

U.S. education enterprise from its past to the

present, pointing toward its future.

One of the important determinants of the scope of

an education system is the size of the population

base. Changes in the birth rate and consequential

shifts in population profoundly influence society for

decades as larger or smaller groups (birth cohorts)

move through school, adulthood, work force, and finally into retirement. Larger birth cohorts can cause

pressure for building schools, hiring more teachers,

and expanding medical services; reduced cohorts

can have the opposite effect. During the historical

period covered by this publication, there have been

several of these population expansions and contractions that have impacted on public school systems.

The early years of the United States were marked

by very rapid population growth. Between 1790 and

1860, the U.S. population grew by about a third each

decade. This rate of growth is more than three times

the population growth that has occurred in the past

decade. These rises occurred despite the decline in

the birth rate during the 19th century. Increases in

immigration and in the number of women of childbearing age apparently compensated for the birthrate decline (table 1).

In the last decade of the 19th century, the population growth rate fell to 22 percent and the drops

continued into the first two decades of the 20th century. The 1920s marked a period of shifts in the population outlook. The birth rate continued to fall, dropping from 118 per 1,000 women 15 to 44 years old

in 1920 to 89 in 1930. Also, the actual number of

births fell by 11 percent during the 1920s, marking a

divergence from the relative stability of the teens.

The decline in the birth rate stabilized during the

1930s, and then rose dramatically following World

War II, reaching a peak of 123 births per 1,000

women in 1957. This post-war birth rate was nearly

as high as those registered in the early teens. After

this peak of the ‘‘baby boom,’’ the birth rate resumed

its historical decline. The low points in birth rates so

far this century were in 1984 and in 1986, when

there were 65 births per 1,000 women. The United

States is now experiencing a surge in the number of

births caused by the large number of ‘‘baby

boomers’’ at child-bearing age. The 4.1 million births
6 Education Characteristics of the Population

in 1991 is nearly as high as the peak of 4.3 million

in 1957.

The number of births and the population size are

important determinants of the scope of the school

system. But the relative size of the school-age population is also an important consideration when examining the impact of the cost of education on the adult

population. In 1870, about 35 percent of the population was 5 to 17 years old. This proportion fell rapidly to 28 percent at the turn of the century, but further changes in the beginning of the century were

very small. In the 1930s, the percentage of 5– to 17-

years-olds in the population began to decline, reaching a low point of 20 percent in 1947. During the late

1960s, the proportion of 5– to 17-year-olds rose to

26 percent. However, this proportion has fallen in recent years, hitting 18 percent in 1991. Thus, the proportion of the population requiring elementary and

secondary school services is at or near a record low

level. Given the recent rises in births, significant decreases in this proportion are not anticipated for the

near future.

Enrollment Rates

The proportion of young people enrolled in school

remained relatively low in the last half of the 19th

century. Although enrollment rates fluctuated, roughly

half of all 5- to 19-year-olds were enrolled in school

(table 2). Rates for males and females were roughly

similar throughout the period, but rates for blacks

were much lower than for whites. Prior to the emancipation of Southern blacks, school enrollment for

blacks largely was limited to only a small number in

Northern states. Following the Civil War, the enrollment rate for blacks rose rapidly from 10 percent in

1870 to 34 percent in 1880. However, in the ensuing

20 years there was essentially no change in the enrollment rate for blacks and the rate for whites actually fell. The beginning of the 20th century brought

sustained increases in enrollment rates for both white

and minority children. The overall enrollment rates for

5- to 19-year-olds rose from 51 percent in 1900 to 75

percent in 1940. The difference in the white and

black enrollment rates narrowed from 23 points in

1900 to 7 points in 1940.

Enrollment rates continued to rise in the post-war

period for all race groups. By the early 1970s, enrollment rates for both whites and blacks had risen to

about 90 percent, and these rates since have remained relatively stable. In the most recent 1991

data, the enrollment rate for 5- to 19-year-olds was

93 percent for blacks, whites, males, and females.

Figure 1.-- Percent of 5- to 19-year-olds enrolled in school,

by race: 1850 to 1991

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

White

Black and other races

Percent

enrolled

Year

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Current Population Reports, Series P-20,

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

Economic Characteristics of Students,

1991

and

School Enrollment - Social and various issues.
Education Characteristics of the Population 7

Figure 2.--Percent of 20- to 24-year-olds and 25- to 34-year-olds

enrolled in school, by sex: 1940 to 1991

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Percent

enrolled

Males, 20 to 24

Females, 20 to 24

Males, 25 to 34

Females, 25 to 34

Year

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Current Population Reports, Series P-20,

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; and

Economic Characteristics of Students,

1991

School Enrollment - Social and various issues.

While the enrollment rates for children of elementary school age have not shown major changes during the past 20 years, there have been some increases for younger students as well as for those

persons attending high school and college (table 3).

The enrollment rate for 7- to 13-year-olds has been

99 percent or better since the late 1940s, but the

rate for the 14- to 17-year-olds has exhibited significant increases since that period. During the 1950s,

the enrollment rate of 14- to 17-year-olds rose from

83 percent to 90 percent. Further increases during

the 1960s and 1980s brought the enrollment rate to

a high of 96 percent by the late 1980s. The rates for

5- and 6-year-olds also rose, from 58 percent in

1950 to 95 percent in 1991. Rates for those of college-age doubled or tripled throughout the 1950 to

1991 period, with much of the increase occurring

during the 1980s. In 1950, only 30 percent of 18-

and 19-year-olds were enrolled in school, compared

to 60 percent in 1991. The rate for 20- to 24-yearolds rose from 9 percent in 1950 to 30 percent in

1990.

Educational Attainment

The increasing rates of school attendance have

been reflected in rising proportions of adults completing high school and college. Progressively fewer

adults have limited their education to completion of

the eighth grade which was typical in the early part

of the century. In 1940, more than half of the U.S.

population had completed no more than an eighthgrade education. Only 6 percent of males and 4 percent of females had completed 4 years of college

(table 4). The median years of school attained by the

adult population, 25 years old and over, had registered only a scant rise from 8.1 to 8.6 years over

a 30-year period from 1910 to 1940 (table 5).

During the 1940s and 1950s, the more highly educated younger cohorts began to make their mark on

the average for the entire adult population. More than

half of the young adults of the 1940s and 1950s

completed high school, and the median educational

attainment of 25- to 29-year-olds rose to 12.3 years.

By 1960, 42 percent of males, 25 years old and over,

still had completed no more than the eighth grade,

but 40 percent had completed high school and 10

percent had completed 4 years of college. The corresponding proportion for women completing high

school was about the same, but the proportion completing college was somewhat lower (table 4).
8 Education Characteristics of the Population

Figure 3.--Percent of persons 25 years old and over completing

4 years of high school, by sex and race: 1940 to 1991

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percent

Year

White, females

White, males

Black and other races, males

Black and other races, females

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Current Population Reports, Series P-20,

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; and

the United States,

1991

Educational Attainment in various issues.

Figure 4.--Percent of persons 25 years old and over completing

4 years of college, by sex and race: 1940 to 1991

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1991

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Percent

White, males

White, females

Black and other races, females

Black and other races, males

Year

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Current Population Reports, Series P-20,

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; and

Educational Attainment in the United States, various years.
Education Characteristics of the Population 9

1 Includes other races.

During the 1960s, there was a rise in the educational attainment of young adults, particularly for

blacks. Between 1960 and 1970, the median years of

school completed by black males, 25 to 29 years old,

rose from 10.5 to 12.2. From the middle 1970s to

1991, the educational attainment for all young adults

remained very stable, with virtually no change among

whites, blacks, males or females. The average educational attainment for the entire population continued to rise as the more highly educated younger cohorts replaced older Americans who had fewer educational opportunities. In 1991, about 70 percent of

black males 1 and 69 percent of black females 1 had

completed high school. This is lower than the corresponding figures for white males and females (80

percent). However, the differences in these percentages have narrowed appreciably in recent years.

Other data corroborate the rapid increase in the education level of the minority population. The proportion

of black males 1 with 4 or more years of college rose

from 12 percent in 1980 to 18 percent in 1991, with

a similar rise for black females. 1

Illiteracy

Illiteracy statistics also give an important indication

of the education level of the adult population. Today,

illiteracy is a different issue than in earlier years. The

more recent focus on illiteracy has centered on functional literacy, which addresses the issue of whether

a person’s reading and writing levels are sufficient to

function in a modern society. The earlier surveys of

illiteracy examined a very fundamental level of reading and writing. (See Methodology for additional detail.) The percent of illiteracy, according to earlier

measurement methods, was less than 1 percent of

persons 14 years old and over in 1979 (table 6).

Modern measurements have suggested somewhat

higher levels of functional illiteracy.

For the major part of this century, the illiteracy

rates have been relatively low, registering only about

4 percent as early as 1930. However, in the late 19th

century and early 20th century, illiteracy was very

common. In 1870, 20 percent of the entire adult population was illiterate, and 80 percent of the black

population was illiterate. By 1900, the situation had

improved somewhat, but still 44 percent of blacks remained illiterate. The statistical data show significant

improvements for black and other races in the early

portion of the 20th century, as the former slaves who

had no educational opportunities in their youth were

replaced by younger individuals who grew up in the

post-Civil War period and often had some chance to

obtain a basic education. The gap in illiteracy between white and black adults continued to narrow

through the 20th century, and in 1979 the rates were

about the same.

Income

Education is generally considered important to individuals to help them obtain good jobs with relatively

high pay. More highly educated individuals are paid

more, on average, than less well educated persons.

The historical changes that have occurred in the relative incomes for different levels of education are

less well known.

Most of the increases in incomes for males over

the past three decades may be attributed solely to inflation. After adjusting for inflation, incomes for males

at all education levels rose rapidly during the 1950s

and 1960s (table 7). Incomes for males with lower

levels of education maintained pace with those with

higher levels of education. Between 1961 and 1971,

the incomes for males who had only 1 to 3 years of

high school rose by 14 percent after adjustment for

inflation, while incomes for those who completed high

school rose by 16 percent. For males who had 4

years of college, the increase was only 8 percent.

After peaking in the early 1970s, incomes for

males of all education levels suffered during the rest

of the decade, especially during 1974 and 1975. Between 1971 and 1981, incomes for males who had

not finished high school fell by 24 percent, while incomes for those who had completed high school fell

by 16 percent. Incomes for males who had completed 4 years of college fell by 20 percent during the

same period.

The 1980s showed some recovery in income for

more educated groups; however, those with lower

levels of education continued to suffer. For males

with 1 to 3 years of high school, the average income

fell by 13 percent between 1981 and 1991, after adjustment for inflation. The incomes for those who had

completed only high school fell by 6 percent. In contrast, the average income for males with 4 years of

college rose by 11 percent and the income of those

with 5 or more years of college rose by 20 percent.

Thus, in the 1980s there was a widening of the income gap between those with less education compared to those with more education. From an historical perspective over these three decades of

changes, the income gap between males with 4

years of college and those with 4 years of high

school has widened only slightly.
10 Education Characteristics of the Population

2For example, see Youth Indicators, 1991. The 1989 income for

male full-time year-round workers, 15 to 24 years of age was 13

percent higher than for females. Additional material appears in Digest of Education Statistics, 1992 and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Money Income of Households, Families and Persons in the United States.

1959

1969

1979

1989

1991

$60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

Income

Year

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; and

Money Income of Families and Persons in the United States;

Figure 5.--Annual average income of high school and college

graduates, 25 years old and over, in constant 1991 dollars,

by sex: 1959 to 1991

Males, 4 years of college

Male high school graduates

Females, 4 years of college

Female high school graduates

Historical

Current Population Reports, unpublished data.

The patterns in salary increases for females have

been somewhat similar to those for males. However,

the incomes for females continued to rise during the

1970s. For example, between 1971 and 1981, the

average income for females with a high school diploma rose by 19 percent compared to the 16 percent decline for males. The incomes for women with

4 or more years of college increased by 6 percent

during the period. During the 1980s, the growth in incomes for females continued to outpace those for

males. The incomes for women with less than 4

years of high school increased by 17 percent and the

incomes for women completing 4 years of high

school rose by 27 percent. Incomes for women with

4 years of college rose by 45 percent.

Despite very large increases for females, salaries

for males continue to be significantly higher than

those for females with equivalent levels of education.

For example, the salary for males with 4 years of college is 86 percent higher than that for women with

equivalent education, and the salary for males with 4

years of high school is nearly double that of women

with a similar level of education. More detailed statistics for specific age groups, and controlled for fulltime year-round workers, generally show smaller income gaps, but substantial differences remain.2

The historical data show large increases in enrollment ratios and rates over the past 140 years, with

some significant rises even in more recent years.

The higher levels of education attained by young

adults in the most recent decades suggest that the

overall education level of the population will continue

to rise slowly into at least the early 21st century.
Table 1.—Population, by age and race, live births, and birth rate: 1790 to 1991

[Population and births in thousands]

Year

Population, by age Population, by race 

Total Under

5 5 to 13 14 to 17 18 and 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 60 and over Total White Black 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

1790 ..................................... 3,929 — ————— ————— 3,929 3,172 751800 ..................................... 5,308 — ————— ————— 5,308 4,306 1,001810 ..................................... 7,240 — ————— ————— 7,240 5,862 1,371820 ..................................... 9,638 — ————— ————— 9,638 7,867 1,771830 ..................................... 12,866 — ————— ————— 12,866 10,537 2,321840 ..................................... 17,069 — ————— ————— 17,069 14,196 2,871850 4 ................................... 23,192 3,498 5 6,132 6 2,530 (7) 8 4,277 (9) 10 2,826 (11) 1,847 1,110 959 23,192 19,553 3,631860 4 ................................... 31,443 4,842 5 7,892 6 3,361 (7) 8 5,726 (9) 10 4,021 (11) 2,614 1,586 1,348 31,443 26,923 4,441870 4 ................................... 38,558 5,515 5 9,601 6 4,041 (7) 3,748 3,075 2,563 2,315 3,519 2,245 1,933 38,558 33,589 4,881880 ..................................... 50,156 6,915 5 12,195 6 5,011 (7) 5,088 4,081 3,369 3,000 4,558 3,111 2,828 50,156 43,403 6,581890 12 ................................. 62,622 7,635 5 14,608 6 6,558 (7) 6,197 5,228 4,579 3,866 5,917 3,999 3,875 62,622 54,984 7,471900 ..................................... 76,094 9,181 15,402 6,132 3,000 7,383 6,572 5,589 4,996 7,752 5,186 4,901 75,995 66,809 8,831901 ..................................... 77,584 9,336 15,572 6,228 3,056 7,544 6,729 5,713 5,126 7,939 5,324 5,017 — ——1902 ..................................... 79,163 9,502 15,750 6,333 3,119 7,713 6,890 5,847 5,261 8,138 5,472 5,138 — ——1903 ..................................... 80,632 9,645 15,893 6,433 3,180 7,876 7,048 5,971 5,394 8,324 5,610 5,258 — ——1904 ..................................... 82,166 9,791 16,044 6,539 3,245 8,047 7,210 6,105 5,530 8,518 5,757 5,380 — ——1905 ..................................... 83,822 9,944 16,210 6,654 3,313 8,237 7,382 6,249 5,677 8,724 5,914 5,518 — ——1906 ..................................... 85,450 10,092 16,365 6,769 3,383 8,414 7,553 6,399 5,823 8,925 6,069 5,658 — ——1907 ..................................... 87,008 10,220 16,513 6,878 3,448 8,584 7,715 6,542 5,967 9,124 6,224 5,793 — ——1908 ..................................... 88,710 10,364 16,687 6,999 3,516 8,764 7,888 6,697 6,121 9,343 6,388 5,943 — ——1909 ..................................... 90,490 10,509 16,888 7,123 3,587 8,943 8,063 6,860 6,281 9,571 6,564 6,101 — — — 1910 ..................................... 92,407 10,671 17,138 7,252 3,655 9,117 8,243 7,031 6,453 9,822 6,751 6,274 91,972 81,732 9,821911 ..................................... 93,863 10,796 17,379 7,319 3,679 9,192 8,371 7,159 6,598 10,038 6,904 6,428 — — — 1912 ..................................... 95,335 10,915 17,645 7,388 3,698 9,249 8,491 7,281 6,742 10,272 7,063 6,591 — — — 1913 ..................................... 97,225 11,082 18,016 7,477 3,727 9,333 8,634 7,436 6,920 10,555 7,262 6,783 — — — 1914 ..................................... 99,111 11,244 18,397 7,563 3,748 9,404 8,779 7,591 7,097 10,851 7,452 6,985 — — — 1915 ..................................... 100,546 11,347 18,717 7,619 3,752 9,416 8,873 7,707 7,241 11,098 7,615 7,161 — — — 1916 ..................................... 101,961 11,442 19,043 7,665 3,749 9,423 8,959 7,817 7,383 11,355 7,784 7,341 — — — 1917 ..................................... 103,268 11,527 19,380 7,715 3,740 9,370 8,997 7,916 7,526 11,609 7,957 7,531 — — — 1918 ..................................... 103,208 11,606 19,716 7,794 3,651 8,642 8,573 7,872 7,648 11,859 8,123 7,724 — — — 1919 ..................................... 104,514 11,536 19,834 7,737 3,672 9,071 8,918 7,994 7,715 11,997 8,208 7,832 — — — 1920 ..................................... 106,461 11,631 20,122 7,869 3,749 9,239 9,321 8,095 7,843 12,232 8,408 7,952 105,711 94,821 10,461921 ..................................... 108,538 11,879 20,426 8,079 3,827 9,323 9,505 8,242 7,942 12,492 8,662 8,161 — — — 1922 ..................................... 110,049 12,031 20,656 8,260 3,901 9,373 9,502 8,422 7,914 12,738 8,927 8,325 — — — 1923 ..................................... 111,947 12,119 20,913 8,454 3,996 9,524 9,458 8,773 7,929 13,078 9,172 8,531 — — — 1924 ..................................... 114,109 12,269 21,136 8,669 4,116 9,751 9,415 9,142 7,992 13,456 9,388 8,775 — — — 1925 ..................................... 115,829 12,316 21,364 8,825 4,209 9,907 9,350 9,370 8,076 13,804 9,579 9,029 — — — 1926 ..................................... 117,397 12,189 21,633 8,956 4,290 10,064 9,387 9,480 8,195 14,118 9,793 9,292 — — — 1927 ..................................... 119,035 12,111 21,853 9,093 4,378 10,258 9,473 9,475 8,424 14,397 9,997 9,576 — — — 1928 ..................................... 120,509 11,978 21,995 9,213 4,451 10,472 9,584 9,369 8,732 14,643 10,195 9,877 — — — 
Table 1.—Population, by age and race, live births, and birth rate: 1790 to 1991—Continued [Population and births in thousands] Year Population, by age Population, by race 

Total Under

5 5 to 13 14 to 17 18 and 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 60 and over Total White Black 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

1929 ..................................... 121,767 11,734 22,131 9,283 4,513 10,694 9,729 9,212 9,032 14,865 10,410 10,164 — — — 1930 ..................................... 123,077 11,372 22,266 9,370 4,567 10,915 9,894 9,145 9,218 15,128 10,718 10,484 122,775 110,287 11,891931 ..................................... 124,040 11,179 22,263 9,389 4,592 11,003 10,051 9,191 9,170 15,402 11,006 10,793 — — — 1932 ..................................... 124,840 10,903 22,238 9,404 4,611 11,077 10,195 9,289 9,069 15,689 11,267 11,099 — — — 1933 ..................................... 125,579 10,612 22,129 9,445 4,625 11,152 10,326 9,424 8,974 15,969 11,504 11,418 — — — 1934 ..................................... 126,374 10,331 21,964 9,526 4,637 11,238 10,448 9,574 8,941 16,228 11,729 11,759 — — — 1935 ..................................... 127,250 10,170 21,730 9,652 4,643 11,317 10,558 9,717 8,973 16,437 11,941 12,112 — — — 1936 ..................................... 128,053 10,044 21,434 9,784 4,659 11,375 10,660 9,845 9,051 16,596 12,148 12,459 — — — 1937 ..................................... 128,825 10,009 21,082 9,858 4,701 11,411 10,768 9,955 9,164 16,714 12,366 12,797 — — — 1938 ..................................... 129,825 10,176 20,668 9,908 4,772 11,453 10,892 10,061 9,306 16,828 12,622 13,140 — — — 1939 ..................................... 130,880 10,418 20,253 9,898 4,850 11,519 11,013 10,163 9,446 16,944 12,903 13,472 — — — 1940 ..................................... 132,122 10,580 19,942 9,846 4,916 11,689 11,157 10,290 9,597 17,097 13,182 13,826 131,669 118,215 12,861941 ..................................... 133,412 10,851 19,697 9,753 4,909 11,810 11,280 10,413 9,741 17,326 13,425 14,207 — — — 1942 ..................................... 134,865 11,300 19,460 9,618 4,883 11,953 11,374 10,536 9,869 17,562 13,668 14,642 — — — 1943 ..................................... 136,755 12,020 19,378 9,477 4,850 12,065 11,511 10,684 10,012 17,806 13,902 15,050 — — — 1944 ..................................... 138,398 12,525 19,302 9,361 4,846 12,061 11,670 10,838 10,157 18,049 14,134 15,455 — — — 1945 ..................................... 139,924 12,979 19,378 9,133 4,754 12,036 11,796 10,938 10,312 18,282 14,376 15,940 — — — 1946 ..................................... 141,392 13,246 19,664 8,915 4,645 12,003 11,893 11,060 10,459 18,509 14,600 16,398 — — — 1947 ..................................... 144,122 14,405 20,094 8,868 4,604 11,812 12,038 11,193 10,657 18,714 14,846 16,891 — — — 1948 ..................................... 146,634 14,919 20,949 8,705 4,510 11,795 12,156 11,336 10,873 18,920 15,089 17,382 — — — 1949 ..................................... 149,199 15,609 21,631 8,592 4,420 11,700 12,254 11,475 11,099 19,141 15,361 17,917 — — — 1950 ..................................... 151,689 16,328 22,266 8,445 4,392 11,614 12,314 11,614 11,301 19,385 15,597 18,435 150,697 134,942 15,041951 ..................................... 154,283 17,248 22,786 8,521 4,247 11,462 12,284 11,788 11,397 19,773 15,806 18,975 — — — 1952 ..................................... 156,947 17,211 24,279 8,723 4,154 11,266 12,184 12,006 11,434 20,173 15,993 19,522 — — — 1953 ..................................... 159,559 17,528 25,452 8,864 4,216 11,005 12,023 12,212 11,456 20,566 16,183 20,057 — — — 1954 ..................................... 162,388 17,941 26,645 8,993 4,315 10,762 11,870 12,368 11,524 20,944 16,396 20,627 — — — 1955 ..................................... 165,276 18,448 27,716 9,221 4,333 10,633 11,728 12,434 11,648 21,281 16,629 21,202 — — — 1956 ..................................... 168,225 18,869 28,776 9,526 4,430 10,558 11,603 12,427 11,829 21,582 16,886 21,739 — — — 1957 ..................................... 171,278 19,362 29,539 10,148 4,564 10,554 11,434 12,344 12,056 21,838 17,155 22,287 — — — 1958 ..................................... 174,154 19,745 30,559 10,606 4,597 10,698 11,209 12,205 12,274 22,055 17,430 22,775 — — — 1959 ..................................... 177,080 20,031 31,683 10,951 4,695 10,921 11,001 12,064 12,433 22,273 17,737 23,291 — — — 1960 ..................................... 179,979 20,341 32,965 11,211 4,886 10,868 10,823 11,905 12,481 22,539 18,130 23,828 179,979 159,381 18,961961 ..................................... 182,992 20,522 33,217 12,046 5,411 11,222 10,756 11,738 12,481 22,792 18,518 24,290 182,992 161,891 19,381962 ..................................... 185,771 20,469 33,897 12,751 5,617 11,653 10,740 11,547 12,413 23,053 18,915 24,717 185,771 164,185 19,791963 ..................................... 188,483 20,342 34,578 13,492 5,461 12,397 10,848 11,348 12,294 23,322 19,295 25,108 188,483 166,413 20,191964 ..................................... 191,141 20,165 35,244 14,265 5,429 12,941 11,051 11,144 12,133 23,562 19,648 25,560 191,141 168,577 20,611965 ..................................... 193,526 19,824 35,754 14,145 6,450 13,404 11,226 11,040 11,952 23,751 19,957 26,023 193,526 170,499 20,991966 ..................................... 195,576 19,208 36,283 14,398 7,183 13,615 11,521 10,962 11,763 23,909 20,226 26,510 195,576 172,111 21,341967 ..................................... 197,457 18,563 36,629 14,729 6,928 14,566 11,943 10,953 11,569 24,061 20,458 27,058 197,457 173,562 21,671968 ..................................... 199,399 17,913 36,804 15,170 6,988 15,054 12,624 11,076 11,356 24,144 20,667 27,602 199,399 175,096 21,98
Table 1.—Population, by age and race, live births, and birth rate: 1790 to 1991—Continued

[Population and births in thousands]

Year

Population, by age Population, by race 

Total Under

5 5 to 13 14 to 17 18 and 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 60 and over Total White Black 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

1969 ..................................... 201,385 17,376 36,836 15,550 7,119 15,767 13,119 11,287 11,155 24,141 20,888 28,147 201,385 176,641 22,301970 ..................................... 203,984 17,166 36,672 15,921 7,410 16,579 13,604 11,505 11,079 24,099 21,167 28,783 203,984 178,703 22,681971 ..................................... 206,827 17,244 36,236 16,326 7,644 17,703 13,927 11,842 11,052 23,957 21,461 29,433 206,827 180,938 23,141972 ..................................... 209,284 17,101 35,679 16,637 7,854 17,865 15,142 12,321 11,105 23,700 21,803 30,077 209,284 182,799 23,571973 ..................................... 211,357 16,851 35,046 16,864 8,044 18,273 15,694 13,094 11,222 23,472 22,074 30,724 211,357 184,316 23,951974 ..................................... 213,342 16,487 34,465 17,033 8,196 18,758 16,428 13,644 11,400 23,197 22,344 31,388 213,342 185,745 24,321975 ..................................... 215,465 16,121 33,919 17,125 8,418 19,317 17,183 14,131 11,585 22,953 22,617 32,095 215,465 187,216 24,691976 ..................................... 217,563 15,617 33,516 17,117 8,604 19,794 18,177 14,428 11,883 22,793 22,853 32,780 217,563 188,693 25,071977 ..................................... 219,760 15,564 32,855 17,042 8,613 20,311 18,180 15,661 12,310 22,685 23,059 33,480 219,760 190,271 25,471978 ..................................... 222,095 15,735 32,094 16,944 8,617 20,748 18,585 16,218 13,052 22,673 23,239 34,189 222,095 191,960 25,881979 ..................................... 224,567 16,063 31,431 16,610 8,698 21,096 19,077 16,961 13,592 22,734 23,306 35,000 224,567 193,736 26,311980 ..................................... 227,255 16,458 31,095 16,140 8,713 21,380 19,697 17,754 14,080 22,774 23,314 35,849 227,255 195,208 26,781981 ..................................... 229,637 16,931 30,754 15,598 8,553 21,614 20,200 18,786 14,381 23,011 23,195 36,611 229,637 196,774 27,201982 ..................................... 231,996 17,298 30,614 15,041 8,425 21,587 20,753 18,808 15,599 23,478 22,965 37,429 231,996 198,321 27,631983 ..................................... 234,284 17,651 30,410 14,720 8,204 21,489 21,202 19,211 16,165 24,361 22,741 38,131 234,284 199,849 28,051984 ..................................... 236,477 17,830 30,238 14,704 7,818 21,328 21,535 19,696 16,932 25,077 22,476 38,843 236,477 201,290 28,451985 ..................................... 238,736 18,004 30,110 14,865 7,500 21,000 21,758 20,269 17,708 25,701 22,286 39,535 238,736 202,769 28,871986 ..................................... 241,107 18,154 30,351 14,797 7,322 20,411 22,005 20,773 18,722 26,274 22,162 40,136 241,107 204,326 29,301987 ..................................... 243,419 18,276 30,824 14,467 7,315 19,791 21,979 21,333 18,737 27,919 22,051 40,727 243,419 205,827 29,741988 ..................................... 245,807 18,456 31,406 13,982 7,480 19,184 21,877 21,798 19,140 29,150 22,033 41,301 245,807 207,377 30,201989 ..................................... 248,239 18,752 31,834 13,496 7,644 18,702 21,699 22,135 19,621 30,403 22,101 41,851 248,239 208,961 30,661990 ..................................... 249,415 18,874 32,000 13,312 7,697 19,131 21,229 21,907 19,976 31,608 21,840 41,842 — — — 1991 ..................................... 252,177 19,222 32,500 13,423 7,191 19,194 20,718 22,159 20,518 32,848 22,068 42,336 — — — 

1 Data for 1790 through 1950 are from the decennial Census. These figures differ from the age data tabulated from

1900 to 1950 because of data calculation and timing differences. 2 Number of live births per 1,000 women, 15 to 44 years old.

3 Data are for white women only.4Total includes persons not identified by age.5 Data for persons 5 to 14 years old.6 Data for persons 15 to 19 years old.7 Data included column in 5.8 Includes persons 25 to 29 years old.9 Data included in column 7.10 Includes persons 35 to 39 years old.11 Data included in column 9.12Excludes population (325,464) in the Indian Territory and on Indian reservations.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Population data for 1790 through 1959 include U.S. population oversea

resident population only. Population data for 1790 through 1890 are from decennial are estimates of population for July 1, but race data are from decennial censuses 1990 and 1991 are consistent with the 1990 Census, as enumerated. Data for ealation. Excludes Indians living in Indian Territory or reservations until 1890. Beginand Hawaii. Beginning in 1959, birth data include Alaska. Because of rounding, deta

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Popu

States Population Estimates, various years, and unpublished data; Historical Stati

Times to 1970; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center 

Statistics Report, various years. (This table was prepared October 1992.)
14 Education Characteristics of the Population

Table 2.—School enrollment of 5– to 19–year-olds per 100 persons, by sex and race: 1850 to 1991

Year

Both sexes Male Female

Total White Black and

other races 1 Total White Black andother races 1 Total White Black andother races 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1850 .......................... 47.2 56.2 1.8 49.6 59.0 2.0 44.8 53.3 1.8

1860 .......................... 50.6 59.6 1.9 52.6 62.0 1.9 48.5 57.2 1.8

1870 .......................... 48.4 54.4 9.9 49.8 56.0 9.6 46.9 52.7 10.0

1880 .......................... 57.8 62.0 33.8 59.2 63.5 34.1 56.5 60.5 33.5

1890 .......................... 54.3 57.9 32.9 54.7 58.5 31.8 53.8 57.2 33.9

1900 2 ........................ 50.5 53.6 31.1 50.1 53.4 29.4 50.9 53.9 32.8

1910 2 ........................ 59.2 61.3 44.8 59.1 61.4 43.1 59.4 61.3 46.6

1920 2 ........................ 64.3 65.7 53.5 64.1 65.6 52.5 64.5 65.8 54.5

1930 2,3 ...................... 69.9 71.2 60.3 70.2 71.4 59.7 69.7 70.9 60.8

1940 .......................... 74.8 75.6 68.4 74.9 75.9 67.5 74.7 75.4 69.2

1950 .......................... 78.7 79.3 74.8 79.1 79.7 74.7 78.4 78.9 74.9

1954 .......................... 86.2 87.0 80.8 87.5 88.4 80.9 84.8 85.4 80.7

1955 .......................... 86.5 87.0 82.9 88.4 88.9 84.6 84.5 85.0 81.2

1956 .......................... 87.2 87.8 83.6 88.6 89.4 83.6 85.8 86.1 83.5

1957 .......................... 87.8 88.2 85.3 89.4 90.0 85.6 86.2 86.4 85.0

1958 .......................... 88.4 88.9 85.1 90.1 90.5 87.2 86.7 87.2 82.9

1959 .......................... 88.5 88.8 85.9 89.7 90.2 86.8 87.1 87.5 85.0

1960 4 ........................ 88.6 89.0 86.1 90.0 90.6 86.6 87.1 87.3 85.7

1961 .......................... 88.5 88.9 86.3 90.2 90.5 87.7 86.9 87.2 84.9

1962 .......................... 89.1 89.6 86.3 90.8 91.3 87.6 87.4 87.8 85.0

1963 .......................... 89.6 89.8 88.0 91.1 91.5 88.7 88.0 88.1 87.3

1964 .......................... 89.6 89.8 88.4 91.1 91.4 89.2 88.1 88.2 87.6

1965 .......................... 89.6 89.8 88.5 91.0 91.2 89.8 88.3 88.5 87.2

1966 .......................... 89.7 89.9 88.5 91.2 91.5 89.9 88.2 88.4 87.2

1967 .......................... 90.5 90.8 88.6 91.9 92.2 89.8 89.0 89.3 87.4

1968 .......................... 90.8 91.0 89.4 92.2 92.5 90.5 89.3 89.5 88.4

1969 .......................... 90.9 91.1 89.5 92.1 92.5 90.0 89.5 89.7 88.9

1970 .......................... 90.6 90.8 89.4 91.6 91.9 89.6 89.6 89.7 89.1

1971 .......................... 90.9 90.9 90.8 91.9 92.0 91.3 89.9 89.8 90.3

1972 .......................... 90.0 90.0 90.1 91.0 91.0 90.9 89.0 89.0 89.3

1973 .......................... 89.3 89.4 88.9 90.3 90.4 90.1 88.2 88.3 87.7

1974 .......................... 89.4 89.2 90.1 90.1 89.9 90.9 88.6 88.5 89.3

1975 .......................... 89.9 89.8 90.4 90.7 90.6 91.1 89.1 89.0 89.6

1976 .......................... 89.6 89.4 90.8 90.4 90.1 91.9 88.9 88.7 89.6

1977 .......................... 89.6 89.3 91.1 90.3 89.9 91.9 89.0 88.8 90.2

1978 .......................... 89.2 89.0 90.6 89.8 89.5 91.6 88.6 88.4 89.7

1979 .......................... 89.0 88.8 90.2 89.7 89.4 91.5 88.3 88.1 88.8

1980 .......................... 89.1 88.9 90.4 89.5 89.3 90.4 88.8 88.4 90.4

1981 .......................... 89.6 89.4 90.5 90.0 89.8 91.4 89.2 89.1 89.7

1982 .......................... 89.6 89.5 90.0 90.0 89.9 90.6 89.1 89.1 89.4

1983 .......................... 90.3 90.3 90.3 90.4 90.3 90.8 90.2 90.2 89.8

1984 .......................... 90.3 90.3 90.2 90.7 90.6 90.9 89.9 90.0 89.5

1985 .......................... 91.0 91.1 90.7 91.2 91.2 91.4 90.7 90.9 89.9

1986 .......................... 91.4 91.3 91.6 92.0 91.8 92.6 90.8 90.8 90.7

1987 .......................... 91.7 91.5 92.3 92.4 92.2 93.2 90.9 90.8 91.4

1988 .......................... 91.8 91.7 92.2 92.1 91.6 94.5 91.5 91.4 91.9

1989 .......................... 91.8 91.7 92.1 92.1 92.1 92.2 91.5 91.3 92.0

1990 .......................... 92.6 92.5 92.8 92.9 92.6 93.8 92.2 92.3 91.8

1991 .......................... 93.1 93.1 93.2 93.4 93.1 94.2 92.8 93.0 92.2

1For 1971 to 1990, black and other races is calculated by subtracting whites from

total. 2Enrollment rates are for 5– to 20–year-olds.

3 Revised to include Mexicans as white persons.

4 Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.

NOTE.—Data for 1850 through 1950 are based on April 1 counts. Data for 1954 to

1991 are based on October counts.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics

of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; and Current Population Reports, Series

P-20, School Enrollment - Social and Economic Characteristics of Students, various

years. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
Table 3.—School enrollment and school enrollment rates, by age and sex: 1940 to 1991

Year

Males and females, by age Males, by age Females, b

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 to

17

18 and

19

20 to

24

25 to

34

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 to

17

18 and

19

20 to

24

25 to

34

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 

17

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 

Enrollment, in thousands

1940 2 ......... 26,759 1,805 15,035 7,709 1,449 761 — 13,615 901 7,607 3,870 770 467 — 13,145 904 7,428 3,81945 ........... 25,515 2,833 14,747 6,956 668 311 — 12,660 1,423 7,456 3,475 192 114 — 12,855 1,410 7,291 3,41946 ........... 26,924 3,030 14,966 6,900 884 1,144 — 13,941 1,514 7,585 3,435 469 938 — 12,983 1,516 7,381 3,41947 ........... 27,746 3,069 15,302 6,737 1,007 1,183 448 14,635 1,549 7,781 3,364 587 947 407 13,111 1,520 7,521 3,31948 ........... 28,390 3,237 15,688 6,824 1,134 1,103 405 14,991 1,628 7,990 3,436 682 898 358 13,399 1,608 7,698 3,31949 ........... 29,283 3,487 16,374 6,778 1,028 1,041 576 15,489 1,807 8,330 3,447 593 827 487 13,794 1,679 8,045 3,31950 ........... 30,073 3,304 17,222 6,988 1,199 1,001 3 360 15,736 1,649 8,773 3,568 680 733 3 333 14,337 1,655 8,449 3,41951 ........... 30,466 3,196 17,946 7,216 974 846 3 288 15,774 1,648 9,148 3,614 534 602 3 228 14,692 1,548 8,798 3,61952 ........... 31,980 3,732 18,414 7,440 1,062 904 428 16,644 1,912 9,382 3,758 612 630 350 15,336 1,820 9,032 3,61953 ........... 32,796 4,038 18,525 7,538 1,180 981 534 16,974 2,035 9,405 3,844 642 636 414 15,822 2,003 9,120 3,61954 ........... 36,083 5,443 19,952 7,784 1,268 999 635 18,759 2,746 10,138 4,002 730 677 465 17,324 2,697 9,813 3,71955 ........... 37,426 5,520 21,028 7,970 1,232 1,010 667 19,573 2,821 10,725 4,096 752 686 494 17,853 2,700 10,304 3,81956 ........... 39,353 5,597 21,946 8,413 1,407 1,192 798 20,522 2,839 11,179 4,275 809 830 620 18,801 2,758 10,767 4,11957 ........... 41,166 5,829 22,705 9,067 1,409 1,336 820 21,509 2,963 11,584 4,646 780 897 639 19,657 2,866 11,121 4,41958 ........... 42,900 6,101 23,623 9,446 1,564 1,307 858 22,497 3,123 12,059 4,854 898 915 648 20,404 2,978 11,564 4,51959 ........... 44,370 6,222 24,626 9,839 1,601 1,283 799 23,192 3,158 12,556 5,041 918 892 627 21,178 3,064 12,070 4,71960 ........... 46,259 6,438 25,621 10,240 1,817 1,350 792 24,234 3,292 13,074 5,247 1,063 936 621 22,025 3,146 12,547 4,91961 ........... 47,708 6,638 25,801 11,163 1,952 1,468 686 24,944 3,402 13,167 5,705 1,170 989 511 22,764 3,236 12,634 5,41962 ........... 48,704 6,651 25,634 11,740 2,144 1,725 810 25,452 3,399 13,003 6,032 1,212 1,177 629 23,252 3,252 12,631 5,71963 ........... 50,356 6,768 26,203 12,517 2,061 2,014 793 26,243 3,440 13,280 6,402 1,180 1,365 576 24,113 3,328 12,923 6,11964 ........... 51,660 6,842 26,725 13,014 2,196 2,048 835 26,851 3,478 13,548 6,658 1,238 1,332 597 24,809 3,364 13,177 6,31965 ........... 53,769 6,995 27,450 13,033 2,930 2,360 1,001 28,059 3,555 13,932 6,613 1,689 1,559 711 25,710 3,440 13,518 6,41966 ........... 55,070 7,156 27,895 13,293 3,176 2,547 1,003 28,733 3,619 14,139 6,770 1,841 1,667 697 26,337 3,537 13,756 6,51967 ........... 56,511 7,352 28,286 13,638 3,026 3,002 1,207 29,368 3,719 14,342 6,975 1,637 1,862 832 27,144 3,632 13,944 6,61968 ........... 57,564 7,241 28,620 14,118 3,317 2,988 1,280 30,051 3,683 14,513 7,199 1,892 1,867 897 27,513 3,558 14,106 6,91969 ........... 58,718 7,155 28,844 14,452 3,351 3,380 1,536 30,583 3,623 14,620 7,374 1,886 2,070 1,011 28,135 3,532 14,223 7,01970 ........... 58,896 7,000 28,943 14,796 3,322 3,359 1,477 30,642 3,545 14,688 7,531 1,821 2,062 996 28,254 3,455 14,255 7,21971 ........... 59,630 6,818 28,823 15,144 3,557 3,606 1,682 31,114 3,450 14,633 7,720 1,939 2,217 1,155 28,515 3,368 14,190 7,41972 ........... 58,486 6,340 27,907 15,267 3,458 3,692 1,822 30,505 3,220 14,195 7,795 1,857 2,243 1,195 27,980 3,120 13,712 7,41973 ........... 57,703 6,228 27,289 15,354 3,284 3,659 1,889 30,012 3,162 13,884 7,845 1,783 2,118 1,220 27,689 3,066 13,405 7,51974 ........... 58,252 6,421 26,833 15,529 3,375 3,816 2,278 30,178 3,280 13,650 7,906 1,731 2,202 1,409 28,075 3,140 13,183 7,61975 ........... 58,867 6,590 26,104 15,698 3,765 4,121 2,589 30,502 3,346 13,267 8,042 1,940 2,334 1,573 28,365 3,244 12,837 7,61976 ........... 58,533 6,701 25,455 15,649 3,768 4,379 2,581 30,209 3,422 12,951 8,014 1,907 2,358 1,557 28,323 3,279 12,503 7,61977 ........... 58,078 6,433 25,052 15,529 3,762 4,390 2,912 29,831 3,246 12,751 7,934 1,919 2,401 1,580 28,246 3,187 12,301 7,51978 ........... 56,544 5,997 24,597 15,356 3,700 4,245 2,649 29,002 3,054 12,514 7,814 1,902 2,290 1,428 27,544 2,944 12,083 7,51979 ........... 55,717 5,846 24,145 14,970 3,693 4,290 2,773 28,459 3,003 12,285 7,680 1,874 2,229 1,388 27,258 2,843 11,860 7,21980 ........... 55,068 5,853 23,751 14,411 3,788 4,446 2,819 27,952 2,971 12,110 7,321 1,879 2,299 1,372 27,115 2,882 11,641 7,01981 ........... 56,057 5,955 24,025 14,373 3,976 4,700 3,028 28,577 3,051 12,253 7,309 2,018 2,467 1,479 27,482 2,904 11,771 7,01982 ........... 55,483 6,070 23,654 13,928 3,837 4,897 3,097 28,255 3,093 12,075 7,108 1,937 2,534 1,508 27,227 2,977 11,579 6,81983 ........... 55,120 6,214 23,278 13,791 3,938 4,720 3,179 28,230 3,166 11,887 7,021 1,956 2,582 1,618 26,891 3,048 11,391 6,71984 ........... 54,704 6,332 22,854 13,793 3,724 4,886 3,115 28,013 3,220 11,665 7,018 1,924 2,651 1,535 26,690 3,112 11,190 6,7
Table 3.—School enrollment and school enrollment rates, by age and sex: 1940 to 1991—Continued Year Males and females, by age Males, by age Females, b

Total, 5 to 34 1 5 and

6

7 to

13

14 to

17

18 and

19

20 to

24

25 to

34

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 to

17

18 and

19

20 to

24

25 to

34

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 

17

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 

1985 ........... 55,214 6,697 22,849 14,016 3,716 4,776 3,160 28,087 3,422 11,666 7,186 1,852 2,467 1,494 27,125 3,274 11,182 6,81986 ........... 55,340 6,917 22,987 13,868 3,872 4,584 3,112 28,262 3,544 11,768 7,095 1,998 2,305 1,552 27,079 3,373 11,221 6,71987 ........... 55,943 6,956 23,521 13,532 3,982 4,792 3,160 28,547 3,580 12,057 6,928 2,047 2,469 1,466 27,396 3,376 11,463 6,61988 ........... 56,049 7,044 24,044 13,042 4,059 4,816 3,044 28,483 3,573 12,329 6,679 2,032 2,448 1,422 27,565 3,471 11,714 6,31989 ........... 56,338 6,990 24,431 12,747 4,125 4,837 3,208 28,539 3,551 12,509 6,583 2,061 2,339 1,496 27,798 3,439 11,922 6,11990 ........... 57,297 7,207 25,016 12,653 4,044 5,083 3,294 29,077 3,705 12,832 6,491 2,038 2,552 1,459 28,222 3,502 12,184 6,11991 ........... 58,208 7,178 25,445 12,789 3,969 5,406 3,422 29,612 3,655 13,033 6,584 1,976 2,710 1,653 28,596 3,522 12,412 6,2

Percent of population enrolled

1940 2 ......... 57.7 43.0 95.0 79.3 28.9 6.6 — 58.6 42.3 94.8 78.9 30.8 8.2 — 56.9 43.7 95.2 791945 ........... 64.0 60.4 98.1 78.4 20.7 3.9 — 72.7 59.6 97.7 78.0 21.6 5.6 — 57.3 61.3 98.4 781946 ........... 61.1 62.0 98.3 79.6 22.5 10.1 — 64.9 60.8 98.0 79.2 29.0 17.7 — 57.5 63.3 98.5 801947 ........... 41.1 58.0 98.5 79.3 24.3 10.2 2.0 44.3 57.4 98.6 78.9 31.4 17.0 3.8 38.0 58.7 98.5 791948 ........... 41.5 56.0 98.1 81.8 26.9 9.7 1.8 44.8 55.1 98.3 81.9 34.3 16.5 3.3 38.4 56.8 98.0 811949 ........... 42.4 59.3 98.6 81.6 25.3 9.2 2.5 45.8 60.2 98.5 82.5 31.6 15.4 4.5 39.2 58.4 98.7 801950 ........... 51.6 58.2 98.7 83.4 29.7 9.2 3 3.0 54.8 56.8 98.7 84.4 35.7 14.3 3 5.9 48.4 59.5 98.7 821951 ........... 52.8 54.5 99.1 85.2 26.2 8.6 3 2.5 56.8 55.1 99.1 85.2 32.4 14.3 3 4.2 49.1 54.0 99.1 851952 ........... 45.4 54.7 98.8 85.2 28.8 9.7 1.8 49.4 54.8 98.7 85.4 37.2 16.9 3.2 41.9 54.6 98.9 851953 ........... 46.4 55.7 99.4 85.9 31.2 11.1 2.3 50.2 55.0 99.2 86.8 37.7 18.5 3.7 43.0 56.6 99.6 851954 ........... 50.0 77.3 99.4 87.1 32.4 11.2 2.7 54.0 76.3 99.2 88.7 40.6 19.1 4.2 46.3 78.3 99.6 851955 ........... 50.8 78.1 99.2 86.9 31.5 11.1 2.9 54.9 78.1 99.2 88.6 42.5 18.1 4.5 47.0 78.1 99.1 851956 ........... 52.3 77.6 99.3 88.2 35.4 12.8 3.5 56.3 77.1 99.1 89.1 45.1 20.6 5.7 48.7 78.2 99.4 871957 ........... 53.6 78.6 99.5 89.5 34.9 14.0 3.6 57.5 78.3 99.5 91.1 43.3 21.3 5.9 50.0 79.0 99.5 871958 ........... 54.8 80.4 99.5 89.2 37.6 13.4 3.8 58.7 80.6 99.5 90.7 47.5 21.0 6.0 51.0 80.2 99.4 871959 ........... 55.5 80.0 99.4 90.2 36.8 12.7 3.8 59.1 79.5 99.3 91.4 45.6 19.6 5.9 52.0 80.5 99.6 891960 ........... 56.4 80.7 99.5 90.3 38.4 13.1 3.6 60.0 80.8 99.5 91.3 47.8 19.9 5.9 52.8 80.6 99.6 891961 ........... 56.8 81.7 99.3 91.4 38.0 13.7 3.2 60.4 82.0 99.3 92.2 48.6 20.2 4.9 53.4 81.4 99.3 901962 ........... 57.8 82.2 99.3 92.0 41.8 15.6 3.8 61.7 82.6 99.2 93.7 51.2 23.4 6.2 54.0 81.7 99.4 901963 ........... 58.5 82.7 99.3 92.9 40.9 17.3 3.7 62.3 82.7 99.1 94.2 51.0 25.6 5.7 54.9 82.6 99.6 911964 ........... 58.7 83.3 99.0 93.1 41.6 16.8 3.9 62.3 83.4 98.8 94.4 50.9 23.8 5.9 55.3 83.2 99.2 911965 ........... 59.7 84.4 99.4 93.2 46.3 19.0 4.7 63.5 84.4 99.3 93.6 55.6 27.6 7.0 56.0 84.4 99.4 921966 ........... 60.0 85.1 99.3 93.7 47.2 19.9 4.6 64.1 84.5 99.2 94.4 57.8 29.2 6.8 56.1 85.7 99.5 921967 ........... 60.2 87.4 99.3 93.7 47.6 22.0 5.4 64.1 86.6 99.1 94.7 56.3 30.6 7.8 56.5 88.2 99.4 921968 ........... 60.1 87.6 99.1 94.2 50.4 21.4 5.5 64.3 87.3 98.9 95.0 60.4 30.5 8.1 56.1 88.0 99.3 931969 ........... 60.1 88.4 99.1 94.0 50.2 23.0 6.4 64.1 87.7 98.9 95.0 59.4 32.0 8.9 56.3 89.1 99.5 931970 ........... 59.0 89.5 99.2 94.1 47.7 21.5 6.0 62.6 88.9 99.0 94.8 54.4 29.3 8.4 55.5 90.2 99.4 931971 ........... 58.6 91.6 99.1 94.5 49.2 21.9 6.6 62.1 90.9 98.9 95.3 55.4 29.2 9.4 55.2 92.3 99.4 931972 ........... 56.9 91.9 99.2 93.3 46.3 21.6 6.8 60.1 91.7 99.1 94.0 51.2 27.8 9.2 53.8 92.2 99.3 921973 ........... 55.4 92.5 99.2 92.9 42.9 20.8 6.7 58.3 92.2 99.2 93.7 47.9 25.2 9.0 52.6 92.9 99.3 921974 ........... 55.3 94.2 99.3 92.9 43.1 21.4 7.8 57.9 94.4 99.2 93.3 45.8 25.8 10.0 52.7 93.9 99.5 92
Table 3.—School enrollment and school enrollment rates, by age and sex: 1940 to 1991—Continued

Year

Males and females, by age Males, by age Females, b

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 to

17

18 and

19

20 to

24

25 to

34

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 to

17

18 and

19

20 to

24

25 to

34

Total, 5

to 34 1

5 and

6

7 to

13

14 

17

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 

1975 ........... 55.1 94.7 99.3 93.6 46.9 22.4 8.5 57.7 94.4 99.0 94.6 49.9 26.4 10.7 52.6 95.1 99.6 921976 ........... 54.3 95.6 99.2 93.7 46.2 23.3 8.2 56.6 95.6 99.0 94.6 48.2 26.0 10.2 52.1 95.5 99.3 921977 ........... 53.6 95.8 99.4 93.6 46.2 22.9 9.0 55.6 94.7 99.3 94.3 48.4 25.9 10.0 51.7 96.9 99.5 931978 ........... 52.2 95.3 99.1 93.7 45.4 21.8 8.0 54.0 95.1 99.0 93.9 47.8 24.3 8.8 50.4 95.5 99.3 931979 ........... 51.2 95.8 99.2 93.6 45.0 21.7 8.1 52.8 96.3 99.0 94.5 46.6 23.3 8.3 49.7 95.2 99.4 921980 ........... 50.4 95.7 99.3 93.4 46.4 22.3 7.9 51.6 95.0 99.2 93.7 47.1 23.8 7.9 49.2 96.4 99.3 931981 ........... 49.7 94.0 99.2 94.1 49.0 22.5 8.0 51.0 94.2 99.1 94.3 50.5 24.4 8.0 48.4 93.8 99.4 931982 ........... 49.3 95.0 99.0 94.4 47.8 23.5 8.0 50.5 94.7 99.1 94.9 48.9 25.0 8.0 48.1 95.3 99.3 941983 ........... 49.0 95.5 99.2 95.0 50.4 22.7 8.1 50.4 95.1 99.1 95.1 50.5 25.5 8.4 47.6 95.8 99.3 941984 ........... 48.6 94.5 99.2 94.7 50.1 23.7 7.7 50.0 94.0 99.1 94.7 52.4 26.3 7.8 47.3 95.1 99.4 941985 ........... 48.9 96.1 99.2 94.9 51.6 24.0 7.7 50.1 95.3 99.2 95.4 52.2 25.6 7.5 47.8 97.0 99.3 941986 ........... 48.8 95.3 99.2 94.9 54.6 23.6 7.4 50.0 96.0 99.1 94.9 57.1 24.5 7.5 47.6 94.6 94.5 901987 ........... 49.3 95.2 99.5 95.0 55.6 25.5 7.5 50.5 95.7 99.7 95.3 57.9 27.2 7.0 48.1 94.6 99.4 941988 ........... 49.3 96.0 99.7 95.1 55.6 26.1 7.1 50.4 95.9 99.7 95.4 56.2 27.6 6.8 48.3 96.0 99.7 941989 ........... 49.7 95.2 99.3 95.7 56.0 27.0 7.5 50.4 95.1 99.2 96.1 56.6 26.9 7.1 48.9 95.2 99.4 951990 ........... 50.6 96.5 99.6 95.8 57.2 28.6 7.7 51.4 96.5 99.6 95.9 58.2 29.6 6.9 49.8 96.4 99.7 951991 ........... 51.4 95.4 99.6 96.0 59.6 30.2 8.1 52.3 95.0 99.8 96.4 59.8 31.0 7.9 50.5 95.8 99.5 95

1 Data for 1940 through 1946 are for ages 5–24. Data for 1950 and 1951 are for ages 5–29.2As of April 1.3 25 to 29 years old.

—Data not available.NOTE.—Unless otherwise noted, data are for October.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Stat

Times to 1970; and Current Population Reports, Series P-20, School Enrollment - S

of Students, various years. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
Table 4.—Years of school completed by persons 25 years old and over, by race and sex: April 1940 to March 19

Year 1 and race Percent of male population completing — Median school years com- pleted, males Percent of female population completing — 

Elementary school High school College Elementary school High school 

0–4 years 5–7 years 8 years 1–3 years 4 years 1–3 years 4 years or more 0–4 years 5–7 years 8 years 1–3 years 4 years 

y

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Total 1940 2,3 ........................... 15.1 19.0 28.8 14.5 12.2 4.9 5.5 8.6 12.4 18.0 27.5 15.9 16.4 

1950 2,3 ........................... 12.2 16.9 21.4 16.9 18.2 7.0 7.3 9.0 10.0 15.8 20.3 17.9 23.2 1960 3 ............................. 9.4 14.6 17.8 18.7 21.2 8.6 9.7 10.3 7.4 13.1 17.3 19.7 27.8 1962 ................................ 8.7 12.2 16.7 17.4 24.7 8.9 11.4 11.1 6.9 11.2 16.5 17.9 31.6 1964 ................................ 8.1 11.4 16.1 17.4 26.3 9.0 11.7 11.5 6.3 10.8 15.6 18.5 33.4 1966 ................................ 7.3 10.7 15.6 17.4 27.7 8.8 12.5 11.8 5.7 10.2 14.6 18.8 34.4 1967 ................................ 6.8 10.5 15.1 17.0 28.2 9.6 12.8 12.0 5.4 9.8 14.5 18.5 34.8 1968 ................................ 6.5 10.3 14.3 16.9 28.9 9.8 13.3 12.1 5.3 9.4 13.9 18.1 35.7 1969 ................................ 6.1 9.9 14.0 16.4 29.7 10.3 13.5 12.1 5.1 9.0 13.5 17.9 36.9 1970 ................................ 5.9 9.5 13.6 16.1 30.1 10.8 14.1 12.2 4.7 8.7 13.1 17.9 37.5 1971 ................................ 5.6 8.9 13.4 15.8 30.6 11.1 14.6 12.2 4.5 8.5 12.7 17.7 37.8 1972 ................................ 5.0 8.6 12.1 16.1 31.4 11.4 15.4 12.3 4.2 8.1 11.8 17.8 38.7 1973 ................................ 4.9 8.2 11.5 15.3 32.1 12.0 16.0 12.3 4.2 7.7 11.3 17.2 39.2 1974 ................................ 4.9 7.7 11.1 14.7 32.3 12.5 16.9 12.4 4.1 7.4 10.7 16.9 39.4 1975 ................................ 4.7 7.5 10.2 14.5 32.3 13.2 17.6 12.4 3.8 7.2 10.4 16.6 39.7 1976 ................................ 4.2 7.4 9.5 14.2 32.3 13.8 18.6 12.5 3.5 6.8 9.8 16.3 39.9 1977 ................................ 4.0 7.0 9.4 14.0 32.1 14.2 19.2 12.5 3.5 6.8 9.2 16.2 39.6 1978 ................................ 3.9 6.9 9.0 13.5 32.1 14.9 19.7 12.5 3.4 6.5 9.1 15.9 39.6 1979 ................................ 3.7 6.3 8.6 12.9 32.6 15.4 20.4 12.6 3.2 6.1 8.6 15.0 40.2 1980 ................................ 3.6 6.0 8.1 13.1 32.7 15.6 20.9 12.6 3.2 6.0 8.2 14.5 40.4 1981 ................................ 3.4 5.8 7.5 12.9 33.6 15.6 21.1 12.6 3.1 5.8 7.8 14.1 41.1 1982 ................................ 3.3 5.6 6.9 12.5 34.1 15.7 21.9 12.6 2.8 5.5 7.3 14.0 41.4 1983 ................................ 3.2 5.2 6.7 12.1 33.9 15.9 23.0 12.7 2.8 5.3 7.0 13.4 41.1 1984 ................................ 2.9 5.1 6.5 11.8 34.6 16.1 22.9 12.7 2.6 4.9 6.6 12.9 41.8 1985 ................................ 2.9 5.0 6.3 11.5 34.8 16.5 23.1 12.7 2.5 4.5 6.5 12.9 41.3 1986 ................................ 2.8 4.7 6.0 11.3 34.9 17.1 23.2 12.7 2.5 4.6 6.0 12.5 41.6 1987 ................................ 2.5 4.6 5.7 11.2 35.4 17.1 23.6 12.7 2.4 4.4 5.8 12.1 41.6 1988 ................................ 2.6 4.5 5.0 11.5 35.7 16.8 24.0 12.7 2.3 4.2 5.5 12.0 41.8 1989 ................................ 2.7 4.3 4.8 11.0 35.4 17.4 24.5 12.8 2.4 4.0 5.2 11.9 41.3 1990 ................................ 2.7 4.2 4.6 10.7 35.5 17.8 24.4 12.8 2.2 3.9 4.9 11.5 41.0 1991 ................................ 2.7 3.9 4.5 10.4 36.0 18.2 24.3 12.8 2.1 3.7 4.4 11.4 41.0 

White

1940 2,3 ........................... 12.0 18.1 30.5 15.1 13.0 5.3 5.9 8.7 9.8 16.7 29.0 16.5 17.5 1950 2,3 ........................... 9.8 15.9 22.4 17.4 19.3 7.4 7.9 9.3 8.1 14.4 21.1 18.2 24.6 1960 3 ............................. 7.4 13.7 18.4 18.9 22.2 9.1 10.3 10.6 6.0 11.9 17.8 19.6 29.2 1962 ................................ 6.9 11.4 17.0 17.3 25.8 9.4 12.2 11.6 5.6 10.3 16.8 17.4 33.1 1964 ................................ 6.5 10.5 16.5 17.1 27.6 9.4 12.3 11.9 5.2 9.7 15.9 18.1 34.8 1965 ................................ 6.1 10.3 16.4 17.0 28.2 9.3 12.7 12.0 4.9 9.3 15.4 18.2 35.6 1966 ................................ 5.7 10.1 15.8 17.1 28.8 9.2 13.3 12.0 4.7 9.1 14.9 18.2 35.9 1967 ................................ 5.3 9.7 15.4 16.8 29.1 10.0 13.7 12.1 4.4 8.8 14.9 18.0 36.2 1968 ................................ 4.9 9.5 14.7 16.6 29.9 10.3 14.1 12.1 4.3 8.5 14.1 17.7 37.2 1969 ................................ 4.8 9.1 14.3 16.1 30.6 10.8 14.3 12.2 4.2 8.1 13.7 17.3 38.5 1970 ................................ 4.5 8.8 13.9 15.6 30.9 11.3 15.0 12.2 3.9 7.8 13.4 17.3 39.0 
Table 4.—Years of school completed by persons 25 years old and over, by race and sex: April 1940 to March 1991—Co

Year 1 and race

Percent of male population completing — Median

school

years

completed,

males

Percent of female population completing — 

Elementary school High school College Elementary school High school 

0–4

years

5–7

years 8 years 1–3 years 4 years 1–3 years 4 years or more 0–4 years 5–7 years 8 years 1–3 years 4 years 

y

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

1971 ................................ 4.4 8.1 13.7 15.3 31.3 11.6 15.5 12.3 3.8 7.5 12.9 17.0 39.2 1972 ................................ 3.9 7.8 12.4 15.6 32.2 12.0 16.2 12.3 3.4 7.1 12.0 17.0 40.2 1973 ................................ 3.9 7.5 11.7 14.8 32.8 12.5 16.8 12.4 3.4 6.9 11.5 16.5 40.7 1974 ................................ 3.7 7.0 11.3 14.3 33.0 12.9 17.7 12.4 3.3 6.6 11.0 16.1 40.8 1975 ................................ 3.6 6.8 10.5 14.0 33.1 13.6 18.4 12.5 3.0 6.4 10.6 15.9 41.1 1976 ................................ 3.2 6.6 9.7 13.8 32.9 14.2 19.6 12.5 2.9 6.2 9.8 15.6 41.2 1977 ................................ 3.1 6.3 9.6 13.5 32.7 14.6 20.2 12.5 2.8 6.1 9.3 15.3 40.9 1978 ................................ 2.9 6.2 9.2 13.0 32.7 15.2 20.7 12.6 2.8 5.9 9.2 15.0 40.9 1979 ................................ 2.8 5.7 8.7 12.4 33.1 15.8 21.4 12.6 2.6 5.5 8.6 14.1 41.6 1980 ................................ 2.7 5.5 8.3 12.5 33.1 15.8 22.1 12.6 2.5 5.3 8.4 13.7 41.6 1981 ................................ 2.7 5.3 7.7 12.3 34.1 15.7 22.2 12.6 2.5 5.0 8.1 13.3 42.4 1982 ................................ 2.6 5.1 7.1 11.9 34.5 15.8 23.0 12.7 2.3 4.9 7.4 13.1 42.7 1983 ................................ 2.6 4.8 6.8 11.5 34.3 16.1 24.0 12.7 2.3 4.8 7.1 12.7 42.2 1984 ................................ 2.3 4.7 6.6 11.1 35.1 16.3 23.9 12.7 2.1 4.4 6.6 12.2 42.8 1985 ................................ 2.3 4.6 6.3 10.8 35.3 16.7 24.0 12.7 2.1 4.1 6.6 12.1 42.4 1986 ................................ 2.4 4.2 6.1 10.8 35.2 17.3 24.0 12.8 2.1 4.2 6.1 11.8 42.5 1987 ................................ 2.1 4.2 5.8 10.6 35.6 17.2 24.5 12.8 2.0 4.0 6.0 11.4 42.6 1988 ................................ 2.1 4.1 5.1 10.9 35.9 16.9 25.0 12.8 1.9 3.8 5.4 11.2 42.8 1989 ................................ 2.2 3.9 4.8 10.4 35.7 17.6 25.4 12.8 1.8 3.5 5.2 11.2 42.3 1990 ................................ 2.2 3.9 4.7 10.1 35.7 18.0 25.3 12.8 1.8 3.5 5.0 10.8 41.9 1991 ................................ 2.2 3.6 4.5 9.9 36.1 18.4 25.4 12.8 1.8 3.3 4.5 10.5 41.8 

Black and other races

1940 2,3 ........................... 46.2 28.1 11.4 7.4 3.8 1.7 1.4 5.4 37.5 31.8 12.4 9.9 5.1 1950 2,3 ........................... 36.9 27.1 11.3 12.1 7.5 2.9 2.1 6.4 28.6 29.3 12.5 14.8 9.2 1960 3 ............................. 27.7 23.0 12.3 17.0 12.1 4.4 3.5 7.9 19.7 23.7 13.3 20.2 15.2 1962 ................................ 26.1 19.3 13.2 18.2 14.5 4.8 4.0 8.3 18.5 19.3 13.9 22.1 18.2 1964 ................................ 22.2 19.7 12.2 20.1 15.3 4.9 5.6 8.7 15.4 20.7 12.9 22.0 20.2 1966 ................................ 22.5 16.6 13.1 20.1 17.4 5.3 5.0 8.8 14.0 19.4 11.5 24.0 21.2 1967 ................................ 21.2 18.2 12.0 18.9 19.3 5.2 5.2 8.9 14.1 18.5 11.7 22.7 22.3 1968 ................................ 20.4 17.3 10.6 20.2 20.3 5.6 5.7 9.2 14.6 17.5 12.6 22.0 22.5 1969 ................................ 17.5 17.5 10.8 19.8 21.8 6.0 6.7 9.7 13.3 17.4 11.8 23.0 23.5 1970 ................................ 17.9 15.3 10.9 20.6 22.4 6.2 6.8 9.9 11.9 16.7 11.3 23.5 24.6 1971 ................................ 16.3 16.3 10.3 20.2 23.8 6.3 6.8 10.2 10.7 16.7 10.8 24.1 25.9 1972 ................................ 15.3 15.9 9.4 20.6 24.3 6.5 8.0 10.3 10.8 15.9 9.5 24.4 26.5 1973 ................................ 13.8 14.3 9.7 20.0 25.3 7.9 9.0 10.7 10.5 14.0 9.3 23.4 27.4 1974 ................................ 14.6 14.0 8.8 18.2 25.9 9.1 9.4 11.0 10.1 13.8 8.2 23.8 28.7 1975 ................................ 14.1 13.4 7.4 18.6 25.5 10.2 10.7 11.3 9.7 13.1 8.6 22.2 29.3 1976 ................................ 13.1 13.8 8.1 17.6 27.1 9.9 10.3 11.5 8.7 11.9 9.6 21.7 30.0 1977 ................................ 11.4 13.0 7.9 18.4 27.2 11.5 10.5 11.9 8.2 12.4 8.7 22.8 29.6 1978 ................................ 11.3 12.4 7.1 17.7 27.7 12.7 11.0 12.1 8.2 11.0 8.4 22.5 29.8 1979 ................................ 11.0 11.7 7.1 17.1 28.8 12.4 12.0 12.1 7.8 10.2 8.3 21.7 30.4 1980 ................................ 10.3 9.7 6.8 17.9 29.3 14.1 11.9 12.2 7.6 11.0 6.9 20.4 31.6 
Table 4.—Years of school completed by persons 25 years old and over, by race and sex: April 1940 to March 1991—Co

Year 1 and race Percent of male population completing — Median school years com- pleted, males Percent of female population completing — 

Elementary school High school College Elementary school High school 

0–4 years 5–7 years 8 years 1–3 years 4 years 1–3 years 4 years or more 0–4 years 5–7 years 8 years 1–3 years 4 years 

y

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

1981 ................................ 8.9 9.5 6.4 18.0 30.0 14.4 12.8 12.2 7.4 11.0 6.1 20.2 31.9 1982 ................................ 8.5 9.3 5.9 16.6 31.0 15.0 13.7 12.3 6.4 9.9 6.8 19.9 32.5 1983 ................................ 7.9 8.6 5.9 16.8 30.9 14.3 15.6 12.4 6.1 8.8 6.5 18.5 34.1 1984 ................................ 7.8 8.1 6.0 16.8 31.2 14.2 15.6 12.4 5.8 8.1 6.4 17.4 35.0 1985 ................................ 6.9 8.0 5.7 16.3 30.9 15.1 17.0 12.4 5.3 7.6 6.0 17.8 34.6 1986 ................................ 6.0 8.1 5.1 15.2 33.1 15.6 16.9 12.5 5.1 7.3 5.7 16.7 35.7 1987 ................................ 5.5 7.6 4.7 14.9 33.8 16.2 17.2 12.5 4.8 7.0 5.2 16.8 35.9 1988 ................................ 5.6 7.4 4.3 15.1 34.0 16.0 17.7 12.5 4.8 6.7 5.6 17.0 35.8 1989 ................................ 5.8 6.7 5.0 14.9 33.5 16.0 18.3 12.5 5.4 6.8 4.6 16.3 35.3 1990 ................................ 5.9 6.2 4.0 14.8 34.1 16.7 18.3 12.6 5.0 6.3 4.3 16.0 35.9 1991 ................................ 6.0 5.6 4.0 14.3 35.7 16.6 17.8 12.6 4.1 6.4 3.7 16.7 35.9 

1 Unless otherwise indicated, surveys were conducted in March of the years shown.2Excludes population for whom school years were not reported.3As of April.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Stat

Times to 1970; and Current Population Reports, Series P-20, Educational Attain

years. (This table was prepared October 1992.)
Education Characteristics of the Population 21

Table 5.—Median years of school completed by persons age 25 and over and 25 to 29, by race

and sex: 1910 to 1991

Year

Age 25 and over 25 to 29 years old

Total

Male Female

Total

Male Female

White Black 1 White Black 1 White Black 1 White Black 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1910 2 ........................ 8.1 —————————

1920 2 ........................ 8.2 —————————

1930 2 ........................ 8.4 —————————

1940 .......................... 8.6 8.7 5.4 8.8 6.1 10.3 10.5 6.5 10.9 7.5

1950 .......................... 9.3 9.3 6.4 10.0 7.2 12.1 12.4 7.4 12.2 8.9

1960 3 ........................ 10.5 10.6 7.9 11.0 8.5 12.3 12.4 10.5 12.3 11.1

1969 .......................... 12.1 12.2 9.4 12.2 9.9 12.6 12.7 12.2 12.5 12.1

1970 .......................... 12.2 12.2 9.6 12.2 10.2 12.6 12.7 12.1 12.5 12.2

1971 .......................... 12.2 12.3 9.9 12.2 10.3 12.6 12.8 12.1 12.6 12.3

1972 .......................... 12.2 12.3 10.1 12.3 10.5 12.7 12.8 12.3 12.6 12.4

1973 .......................... 12.3 12.4 10.3 12.3 10.8 12.7 12.8 12.3 12.6 12.4

1974 .......................... 12.3 12.4 10.5 12.3 10.9 12.8 12.9 12.5 12.7 12.4

1975 .......................... 12.4 12.5 10.7 12.3 11.1 12.8 13.0 12.5 12.7 12.5

1976 .......................... 12.4 12.5 10.8 12.4 11.4 12.9 13.2 12.5 12.8 12.5

1977 .......................... 12.4 12.5 11.3 12.4 11.4 12.9 13.2 12.6 12.8 12.5

1978 .......................... 12.4 12.6 11.7 12.4 11.7 12.9 13.3 12.7 12.8 12.6

1979 .......................... 12.5 12.6 11.9 12.5 11.9 12.9 13.2 12.6 12.9 12.6

1980 .......................... 12.5 12.6 12.0 12.5 12.0 12.9 13.0 12.6 12.8 12.6

1981 .......................... 12.5 12.6 12.1 12.5 12.1 12.8 12.9 12.6 12.8 12.6

1982 .......................... 12.6 12.7 12.2 12.5 12.1 12.8 12.9 12.7 12.8 12.7

1983 .......................... 12.6 12.7 12.2 12.6 12.2 12.9 12.9 12.6 12.8 12.6

1984 .......................... 12.6 12.7 12.2 12.6 12.3 12.8 12.9 12.6 12.9 12.7

1985 .......................... 12.6 12.7 12.3 12.6 12.3 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.7

1986 .......................... 12.6 12.8 12.3 12.6 12.4 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.7

1987 .......................... 12.7 12.8 12.4 12.6 12.4 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.7

1988 .......................... 12.7 12.8 12.4 12.6 12.4 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.6

1989 .......................... 12.7 12.8 12.4 12.7 12.4 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.7

1990 .......................... 12.7 12.8 12.4 12.7 12.4 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.7

1991 .......................... 12.7 12.8 12.4 12.7 12.5 12.9 12.9 12.7 12.9 12.7

1 Data for years 1940 through 1960 include persons of ‘‘other’’ races.

2Estimates based on retrojection, by the Bureau of the Census, of 1940 census data

on education by age. 3 Denotes first year in which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Data for 1940, 1950, and 1960 are for April 1. Data for later years are as

of March.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics

of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Current Population Series, P-20, Educational Attainment of the United States Population, various years; and ‘‘Education of the

American Population,’’ by John K. Folger and Charles B. Nam. (This table was prepared

February 1998.)

Table 6.—Percentage of persons 14 years old and over who were illiterate, 1 by race and nativity:

1870 to 1979

Year Total

White

Black and other

Total Native Foreign born

1 23456

1870 .............................. 20.0 11.5 — — 79.9

1880 .............................. 17.0 9.4 8.7 12.0 70.0

1890 .............................. 13.3 7.7 6.2 13.1 56.8

1900 .............................. 10.7 6.2 4.6 12.9 44.5

1910 .............................. 7.7 5.0 3.0 12.7 30.5

1920 .............................. 6.0 4.0 2.0 13.1 23.0

1930 .............................. 4.3 3.0 1.6 10.8 16.4

1940 .............................. 2.9 2.0 1.1 9.0 11.5

1947 .............................. 2.7 1.8 — — 11.0

1950 .............................. 3.2 ————

1952 .............................. 2.5 1.8 — — 10.2

1959 .............................. 2.2 1.6 — — 7.5

1969 .............................. 1.0 0.7 — — 2 3.6

1979 .............................. 0.6 0.4 — — 2 1.6

1Persons are counted as illiterate if they cannot read or write in any language.

2Based on black population only.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics

of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; and Current Population Reports, Series

P-23, Ancestry and Language in the United States: November 1979. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
22 Education Characteristics of the Population

Table 7.—Annual mean income of males and females 25 years old and over, by years of school

completed: 1939 to 1991

Year

Males

Elementary school High school College

Less than 8

years 8 years 1 to 3 years 4 years 1 to 3 years 4 or more years 4 years only 5 or more years

1 23456789

Current dollars

1939 ...................................... — — $1,379 $1,661 $1,931 $2,607 — —

1946 ...................................... $1,738 $2,327 2,449 2,939 3,654 4,527 — —

1949 ...................................... 2,062 2,829 3,226 3,784 4,423 6,179 — —

1956 ...................................... 2,574 3,631 4,367 5,183 5,997 7,877 — —

1958 ...................................... 2,530 3,677 4,452 5,257 6,272 8,643 $7,565 $9,178

1961 ...................................... 2,998 4,206 5,161 5,946 7,348 9,817 9,342 9,987

1963 ...................................... 3,078 4,410 5,348 6,557 7,633 9,811 9,392 10,353

1964 ...................................... 3,298 4,520 5,653 6,738 7,907 10,284 9,757 11,004

1966 ...................................... 3,520 4,867 6,294 7,494 8,783 11,739 11,135 12,563

1967 ...................................... 3,540 5,002 6,258 7,515 8,713 11,753 11,022 12,639

1968 ...................................... 4,135 5,689 6,454 7,688 8,890 11,851 11,086 12,794

1969 ...................................... 4,679 6,170 7,063 8,313 9,553 12,644 12,111 13,274

1970 ...................................... 4,948 6,674 7,575 8,998 10,554 14,018 13,434 14,727

1971 ...................................... 5,175 6,901 7,941 9,321 10,942 14,563 13,634 15,687

1972 ...................................... 5,436 7,088 8,273 9,741 11,205 15,017 14,192 15,983

1973 ...................................... 6,101 7,729 8,755 10,591 11,934 15,993 15,189 16,966

1974 ...................................... 6,422 8,559 9,526 11,408 12,640 16,769 15,859 17,817

1975 ...................................... 6,581 8,604 10,019 11,983 13,317 16,996 16,194 17,912

1976 ...................................... 6,673 8,957 9,920 12,559 14,104 18,750 17,599 20,141

1977 ...................................... 7,306 9,679 10,690 13,334 14,674 20,114 18,857 21,553

1978 ...................................... 7,841 10,131 11,400 14,312 15,728 21,464 20,056 23,103

1979 ...................................... 8,347 10,991 12,361 15,440 16,781 22,922 21,669 24,343

1980 ...................................... 8,757 12,050 12,956 16,657 18,232 24,417 22,949 26,065

1981 ...................................... 9,263 12,350 13,578 17,496 19,362 25,816 24,545 27,313

1982 ...................................... 10,151 13,214 14,362 18,468 20,889 28,896 26,612 31,434

1983 ...................................... 9,593 13,124 14,131 18,750 21,212 30,489 28,058 33,240

1984 ...................................... 9,944 13,451 14,529 19,289 22,219 31,969 29,530 34,731

1985 ...................................... 10,832 14,049 15,479 20,763 23,334 34,992 32,266 38,211

1986 ...................................... 10,401 14,193 15,722 21,265 25,046 36,883 33,793 40,732

1987 ...................................... 11,078 14,756 16,606 21,848 26,197 38,627 35,454 42,414

1988 ...................................... 12,184 14,787 17,350 22,747 27,383 39,241 35,800 43,487

1989 ...................................... 12,063 16,017 17,191 23,855 28,050 41,484 37,648 46,189

1990 ...................................... 12,446 15,754 17,331 24,940 29,792 44,257 40,384 49,085

1991 ...................................... 12,582 15,525 17,702 24,737 30,650 44,485 40,750 49,259

Constant 1991 dollars

1939 ...................................... — — $13,512 $16,275 $18,921 $25,545 — —

1946 ...................................... $12,139 $16,253 17,105 20,528 25,522 31,619 — —

1949 ...................................... 11,800 16,189 18,461 21,655 25,311 35,360 — —

1956 ...................................... 12,889 18,182 21,867 25,953 30,029 39,443 — —

1958 ...................................... 11,923 17,329 20,981 24,775 29,559 40,733 $35,652 $43,254

1961 ...................................... 13,656 19,159 23,509 27,085 33,471 44,718 42,555 45,493

1963 ...................................... 13,700 19,629 23,804 29,185 33,974 43,669 41,804 46,081

1964 ...................................... 14,490 19,859 24,837 29,604 34,740 45,183 42,868 48,347

1966 ...................................... 14,797 20,459 26,458 31,503 36,921 49,347 46,808 52,811

1967 ...................................... 14,436 20,397 25,519 30,645 35,530 47,927 44,946 51,540

1968 ...................................... 16,184 22,266 25,260 30,089 34,794 46,382 43,388 50,073

1969 ...................................... 17,365 22,898 26,212 30,851 35,453 46,924 44,946 49,262

1970 ...................................... 17,369 23,428 26,591 31,586 37,048 49,208 47,157 51,696

1971 ...................................... 17,403 23,208 26,705 31,346 36,798 48,975 45,851 52,755

1972 ...................................... 17,713 23,095 26,957 31,740 36,510 48,931 46,243 52,079

1973 ...................................... 18,715 23,709 26,857 32,489 36,608 49,060 46,593 52,044

1974 ...................................... 17,742 23,646 26,317 31,517 34,920 46,327 43,813 49,223

1975 ...................................... 16,660 21,782 25,364 30,336 33,713 43,027 40,997 45,346

1976 ...................................... 15,973 21,440 23,745 30,062 33,760 44,881 42,126 48,211

1977 ...................................... 16,420 21,754 24,026 29,968 32,980 45,207 42,382 48,441

1978 ...................................... 16,380 21,163 23,814 29,897 32,855 44,837 41,896 48,261

1979 ...................................... 15,659 20,619 23,190 28,966 31,482 43,002 40,652 45,668

1980 ...................................... 14,475 19,918 21,415 27,533 30,136 40,359 37,933 43,083

1981 ...................................... 13,879 18,505 20,345 26,215 29,011 38,681 36,777 40,924

1982 ...................................... 14,327 18,650 20,271 26,066 29,483 40,784 37,560 44,366

1983 ...................................... 13,118 17,947 19,324 25,640 29,007 41,693 38,368 45,455

1984 ...................................... 13,035 17,633 19,046 25,285 29,126 41,907 38,710 45,528

1985 ...................................... 13,711 17,783 19,593 26,282 29,536 44,293 40,842 48,367

1986 ...................................... 12,925 17,638 19,538 26,426 31,125 45,835 41,995 50,618

1987 ...................................... 13,282 17,692 19,910 26,195 31,409 46,312 42,507 50,852

1988 ...................................... 14,028 17,024 19,975 26,189 31,526 45,179 41,217 50,067

1989 ...................................... 13,250 17,593 18,882 26,202 30,810 45,565 41,352 50,733

1990 ...................................... 12,970 16,417 18,060 25,990 31,046 46,119 42,083 51,151

1991 ...................................... 12,582 15,525 17,702 24,737 30,650 44,485 40,750 49,259
Education Characteristics of the Population 23

Table 7.—Annual mean income of males and females 25 years old and over, by years of school

completed: 1939 to 1991—Continued

Year

Females

Elementary school High school College

Less than 8

years 8 years 1 to 3 years 4 years 1 to 3 years 4 or more years 4 years only 5 or more years

1 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Current dollars

1939 ...................................... ————————

1946 ...................................... ————————

1949 ...................................... ————————

1956 ...................................... ————————

1958 ...................................... ————————

1961 ...................................... ————————

1963 ...................................... ————————

1964 ...................................... ————————

1966 ...................................... ————————

1967 ...................................... ————————

1968 ...................................... $1,039 $1,323 $1,550 $1,879 $2,297 $3,862 $3,210 $5,667

1969 ...................................... 1,205 1,515 1,701 2,099 2,468 4,063 3,266 5,977

1970 ...................................... 1,274 1,621 1,825 2,280 2,753 4,610 3,824 6,479

1971 ...................................... 1,406 1,731 1,905 2,452 3,006 5,056 4,241 6,900

1972 ...................................... 1,458 1,766 2,075 2,577 3,087 5,310 4,450 7,250

1973 ...................................... 1,559 1,916 2,219 2,819 3,285 5,502 4,587 7,544

1974 ...................................... 1,792 2,058 2,395 3,026 3,761 5,807 4,909 7,682

1975 ...................................... 1,999 2,315 2,709 3,314 4,133 6,313 5,371 8,175

1976 ...................................... 2,054 2,456 2,835 3,611 4,548 7,213 6,086 9,381

1977 ...................................... 2,225 2,725 3,057 4,044 4,858 7,616 6,449 9,894

1978 ...................................... 2,448 3,082 3,330 4,455 5,514 8,114 6,834 10,412

1979 ...................................... 2,840 3,250 3,718 5,063 6,181 9,007 7,601 11,389

1980 ...................................... 2,926 3,639 4,228 5,844 7,325 10,305 8,848 12,798

1981 ...................................... 3,314 4,025 4,562 6,535 8,389 11,500 10,066 14,013

1982 ...................................... 3,650 4,554 4,848 7,119 9,055 12,673 10,912 15,543

1983 ...................................... 3,610 4,662 5,090 7,682 9,707 14,113 12,243 17,061

1984 ...................................... 3,876 4,991 5,400 8,122 10,440 15,372 13,237 18,813

1985 ...................................... 4,278 5,408 5,991 8,788 11,394 16,743 14,517 20,366

1986 ...................................... 4,230 5,314 6,129 9,333 12,212 17,979 15,739 21,721

1987 ...................................... 4,526 5,268 6,380 9,751 12,746 19,365 17,197 22,939

1988 ...................................... 4,685 5,727 6,749 10,419 14,021 20,375 17,982 24,237

1989 ...................................... 5,026 5,577 6,952 11,114 15,159 21,827 19,570 25,462

1990 ...................................... 5,224 6,201 7,575 11,791 15,681 23,478 20,837 27,843

1991 ...................................... 5,583 6,298 7,987 12,429 16,310 24,684 21,859 29,466

Constant 1991 dollars

1939 ...................................... ————————

1946 ...................................... ————————

1949 ...................................... ————————

1956 ...................................... ————————

1958 ...................................... ————————

1961 ...................................... ————————

1963 ...................................... ————————

1964 ...................................... ————————

1966 ...................................... ————————

1967 ...................................... ————————

1968 ...................................... $4,066 $5,178 $6,066 $7,354 $8,990 $15,115 $12,563 $22,179

1969 ...................................... 4,472 5,622 6,313 7,790 9,159 15,078 12,121 22,182

1970 ...................................... 4,472 5,690 6,406 8,004 9,664 16,183 13,423 22,743

1971 ...................................... 4,728 5,821 6,406 8,246 10,109 17,003 14,262 23,204

1972 ...................................... 4,751 5,754 6,761 8,397 10,059 17,302 14,500 23,623

1973 ...................................... 4,782 5,877 6,807 8,647 10,077 16,878 14,071 23,142

1974 ...................................... 4,951 5,686 6,617 8,360 10,390 16,043 13,562 21,223

1975 ...................................... 5,061 5,861 6,858 8,390 10,463 15,982 13,597 20,696

1976 ...................................... 4,917 5,879 6,786 8,644 10,886 17,266 14,568 22,455

1977 ...................................... 5,001 6,125 6,871 9,089 10,918 17,117 14,494 22,237

1978 ...................................... 5,114 6,438 6,956 9,306 11,519 16,950 14,276 21,750

1979 ...................................... 5,328 6,097 6,975 9,498 11,596 16,897 14,260 21,366

1980 ...................................... 4,836 6,015 6,989 9,660 12,108 17,033 14,625 21,154

1981 ...................................... 4,966 6,031 6,835 9,792 12,570 17,231 15,082 20,996

1982 ...................................... 5,152 6,428 6,842 10,048 12,780 17,887 15,401 21,937

1983 ...................................... 4,937 6,375 6,960 10,505 13,274 19,299 16,742 23,330

1984 ...................................... 5,081 6,543 7,079 10,647 13,686 20,151 17,352 24,662

1985 ...................................... 5,415 6,845 7,583 11,124 14,423 21,193 18,376 25,779

1986 ...................................... 5,257 6,604 7,617 11,598 15,176 22,343 19,559 26,993

1987 ...................................... 5,426 6,316 7,649 11,691 15,282 23,218 20,618 27,503

1988 ...................................... 5,394 6,594 7,770 11,996 16,143 23,458 20,703 27,904

1989 ...................................... 5,520 6,126 7,636 12,207 16,650 23,974 21,495 27,967

1990 ...................................... 5,444 6,462 7,894 12,287 16,341 24,466 21,714 29,015

1991 ...................................... 5,583 6,298 7,987 12,429 16,310 24,684 21,859 29,466

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics

of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Current Population Reports, Money Income

of Families and Persons in the United States, and unpublished data. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
25

Chapter 2

Elementary and Secondary Education

William C. Sonnenberg

Several cities in the colonies, particularly in Massachusetts, set up a variety of elementary schools.

These efforts were often modest, taught by housewives, clergy, or missionaries in their spare time, with

sparse resources. Boston, and several other large

cities, did provide some structure and some resources for their schools. But no colony centralized

control of education. As towns prospered, the need

for public education standards became a concern of

colonial governments. Thus, in 1642, the General

Court of Massachusetts enacted into law a condemnation of parents and masters who did not take

steps to guarantee that their children could ‘‘read &

understand the principles of religion & the capitall

lawes of this country.’’ It is important to note that the

responsibility for providing education was placed on

parents rather than borne by the government.

Perhaps in response to a lack of direction in the

above legislation, albeit a clear expression of concern, Massachusetts enacted provisions in 1647 for

the creation of grammar schools in any town which

attained a population level of 100 families or households. The stated aim of these schools was to ‘‘instruct youth so farr as they shall be fited for y university Harvard.’’ These Massachusetts laws served as

models for other colonies.

Boston also took the lead in establishing the first

public secondary school, Latin Grammar School, in

1635. This institution focused primarily on college

preparatory studies, such as mathematics and ancient languages. In subsequent years, the concept

spread throughout the Massachusetts colony, especially with the acts of the legislature in 1647.

The Northwest Ordinances of 1787 represent a

significant federal step in providing education. This

legislation authorized grants of land for the establishment of educational institutions. The Continental

Congress stated, ‘‘Religion, morality and knowledge

being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.’’

Other governmental efforts also followed independence, as many local legislatures moved to establish

the concept of a uniform public system of elementary

education. This was necessary to guarantee such essentials as a common language and technical and

agricultural training. In 1805, New York City adopted

a concept known as monitorial schools which were

designed to provide mass education to large numbers of children. However, success was limited when

teachers had to try to teach hundreds of children at

once using better students as helpers. But the stage

was set for what has been termed the ‘‘educational

awakening,’’ a movement strongly influenced by Horace Mann. As Secretary of the State Board of Education of Massachusetts, he presided over the enactment of the first compulsory elementary school attendance law in 1852. Although significant progress

was made in providing formal education to residents

in some states, such as Massachusetts, there were

wide variations in the availability of education services.

From colonial times, America has recognized the

value, both individually and collectively, of a basic

education. By the time of the first national surveys of

education statistics in 1869–70, millions of young

people were enrolled in public elementary schools.

Statistical Trends

Enrollment

The most fundamental measure of the scope of an

education system is a measure of enrollment. Over

the period covered in this report, total enrollment in

U.S. public elementary and secondary schools rose

from 7.6 million in 1870–71 to 41.2 million in 1990–

91. This increase may be attributed to growth in the

population, as well as to increases in the proportion

of young people attending school. Detailed information on the increases in the enrollment rates can be

found in chapter 1. The pattern of the rise in public

school enrollment has not been consistent. Enrollment increases have occurred at different rates, and

there have been two periods of enrollment declines:

the first, from the mid-1930s to the mid-1940s; and

the second, from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s

(table 9).

Public school enrollment expanded rapidly during

the late 19th century, with a particularly large increase of 44 percent during the 1870s. The increases of the 1870s and 1880s were fueled by increases in the school-age population and increases
26 Elementary and Secondary Education

in the enrollment ratios. Some of the apparent increase, particularly during the 1870s, may be due to

improvements in the relatively primitive data collection systems. Enrollment growth continued in the

1890s and the early 20th century, primarily driven by

population increases. Between 1889–90 and 1909–

10, the ratio of enrollment to the number of 5- to 17-

year-olds rose only slightly, from 77 percent to 81

percent. Enrollment growth accelerated again between 1909–10 and 1919–20, especially at the secondary level. Between 1909–10 and 1919–20, the

ratio of high school enrollment to the 14- to 17-yearold population rose from 14 percent to 31 percent.

The enrollment ratio for the younger 5- to 13-year-old

children was over 100 percent, indicating both the

high enrollment rate for the age group and the number of older students attending below ninth grade.

Enrollment growth continued during the 1920s aided

by further increases in the high school enrollment ratios. During the mid 1930s, changes in enrollment ratios moderated and enrollments began to decline as

the number of 5- to 13-year-olds declined. Between

1933–34 and 1944–45, public school enrollment fell

by 12 percent.

After World War II, public school enrollment began

increasing again. The 1950s were a period of dynamic growth, with public school enrollment jumping

by 44 percent. The enrollment increase was driven

by the entry of the ‘‘baby boomers’’ into elementary

schools, as well as by the increase in the high school

enrollment ratio of 14- to 17-year-olds. During the

rush to accommodate the growing numbers of students during this period, school buildings were constructed in expanding suburban areas, and teacher

demand rose dramatically. Enrollment increases continued through the 1960s and until 1971. Since 1971,

enrollment ratios have been relatively stable, showing an increase only at the elementary level in the

1980s. The enrollment declines after 1971 were due

to a decline in births following the end of the ‘‘baby

boom.’’ Between 1971 and 1984, public school enrollment declined by 15 percent. The increase in enrollment from 1985 to 1992 has been driven by increases in population and, to a smaller extent, by

rises in the enrollment rate of prekindergarten and

kindergarten pupils.

Figure 6.--Enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools,

by level: 1869-70 to 1992-93

Year ending

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

50

40

30

20

10

0

Millions

Total

Elementary

Secondary

1993

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and
Elementary and Secondary Education 27

Figure 7.--Elementary and secondary enrollment as a percentage of

5- to 17-year-olds, by level: 1869-70 to fall 1991

Year ending

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1992

Elementary enrollment/5- to 13-year-olds

Secondary enrollment/

Percent

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Elementary and secondary

5- to 17-year-olds

enrollment/

14- to 17-year olds

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and

School Attendance

Enrollment figures show the progress made in encouraging students to participate at the secondary

education level, but they do not fully illustrate the

progress that has been made in the amount of education provided to students. The average number of

days that students attended school increased substantially during the late 19th century and early 20th

century (table 14).

In 1869–70, the school year was only about 132

days long compared to about 180 today. Not only

was the year much shorter, but the attendance rate

of 59 percent was much lower than the 90 percent

figure calculated for 1979–80. The net result of these

factors is that students in 1869–70 attended school

for an average of only 78 days compared to 161

days in 1979–80. In the early years, students were

likely to take time off to help with harvests or other

farm work. Also, the less advanced state of medicine

and hygiene left students more susceptible to longterm illnesses that prevented school attendance. The

length of the school year and the average number of

days attended rose slowly during the late 19th century, but rapid increases did not occur until the

1920s. Between 1919–20 and 1929–30, the average

number of days attended rose from 121 to 143. During the 1930s, the average number of days attended

increased to 152, and the school year lengthened to

175 days, almost as long as today. Since then the

changes have been relatively small. The increase in

the number of school days for the average student

during the early 20th century meant that a more extensive instructional program could be provided.
28 Elementary and Secondary Education

Figure 8.--Average number of days per year attended

by public school students: 1869-70 to 1980-81

Year ending

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1981

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Number of

days per

year

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and

Pupil/Teacher Ratios

As might be expected, the increases in enrollment

were mirrored by rises in the number of teachers employed in public school systems. During the late 19th

and early 20th centuries, the number of teachers

rose at almost exactly the same rate as enrollment

(table 14). A steady pupil/teacher ratio of about 34 to

37 resulted. During the mid 1920s, a long-term pattern developed of a slowly falling pupil/teacher ratio.

This slow movement picked up in the 1960s, when

the pupil/teacher ratio fell from 27 to 23. During the

1970s, the number of teachers remained relatively

steady during the enrollment decline, causing the

pupil/teacher ratio to drop to 18 in 1984-85. By 1990,

2.4 million Americans, an all-time high, were elementary-secondary teachers (nearly one percent of the

population). More complex and diverse school offerings, including special education and enrichment programs, required increasing numbers of specialized

teachers.

Over the past 120 years, there have been several

shifts in the proportion of female teachers. During the

late 19th and early 20th centuries, the proportion of

female teachers increased steadily, from 57 percent

in 1879–80 to 86 percent in 1919–20. This shift in

the composition of the teacher force was brought

about by the extensive hiring of women teachers to

provide instruction for the rising enrollment and the

22 percent decline in the number of male teachers.

During the 1920s and 1930s, the proportion of female teachers dipped to a slightly lower level, before

returning to the 85 percent level during World War II,

when many young men left their positions to enter

the military. After the war, the proportion of female

teachers began falling, as the number of male teachers increased more rapidly than the number of female teachers. In 1959–60, about 71 percent of the

teachers were women. After dipping to a slightly

lower proportion during the late 1960s and 1970s,

the proportion of women returned to the 1959–60

level during the late 1980s (table 14).
Elementary and Secondary Education 29

Figure 9.--Pupil/teacher ratio in public elementary and secondary

schools: 1869-70 to fall 1990

Year ending

Pupil/teacher

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

ratio

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics,

1991

Historical

and U.S. Department Digest of Education various issues.

Figure 10.--Percentage of elementary and secondary school teachers, 

by sex: 1869-70 to fall 1990

Year ending

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Male

Female

Percent

1991

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and
30 Elementary and Secondary Education

Student Assessment

The overall trends in science, mathematics, and

reading suggest few changes in levels of educational

achievement across the two decades covered by the

National Assessment of Educational Progress

(NAEP). Although students appear to be mastering

the lower-level skills and virtually all students appear

to have grasped mathematics, science, and reading

fundamentals, few demonstrate competency with

more sophisticated materials and tasks.

In 1990, science achievement was no better at

ages 9 and 13 and somewhat worse at age 17 than

in 1969–70 (table 17). At all three ages, across the

20-year span, performance declined significantly in

the 1970s, but improved significantly during the

1980s. At ages 9 and 13, these recent gains returned performance to levels observed two decades

earlier. However, at age 17, average proficiency in

1990 remained significantly below that in 1969. In

addition, science proficiency did not improve during

the 1980s for the lower-performing 25 percent of the

17-year-olds.

Average mathematics proficiency improved between 1973 and 1990 at ages 9 and 13. For 17-yearolds, statistically significant declines in performance

between 1973 and 1982 were followed by recovery

during the 1980s to the original level of performance.

At all three ages, students’ average proficiency was

significantly higher in 1990 than in 1978.

The reading achievement of 9- and 13-year-olds in

1990 was unchanged from 1971, but 17-year-olds

were reading better. However, the pattern at age 9

is the reverse of that found for science and for mathematics at age 17. Significant improvement during

the 1970s has been all but eradicated by commensurate declines during the 1980s. Little change occurred for 13-year-olds. Seventeen-year-olds showed

relatively steady progress across the assessments.

The call for improved education and equal opportunity for all students is at the heart of many education reform recommendations. Across the NAEP

assessments, both black and Hispanic students

have, on average, demonstrated significantly lower

proficiency than white students.

The 1990 results show that white students consistently had higher average achievement than their

black and Hispanic counterparts at all three ages in

all three curriculum areas. The trends, however, do

indicate a lessening of the achievement gap. For example, between 1969–70 and 1990, science proficiency has remained stable for white 9- and 13-

year-olds but decreased at age 17. In contrast, black

and Hispanic students showed gains at ages 9 and

13, and these students maintained their initial levels

of achievement at age 17.

In mathematics, the only significant progress by

white students since 1973 was at age 9. In comparison, black students showed significant improvements

at all three ages, as did Hispanic students at ages

9 and 13. The reading results show a similar pattern.

Although the proficiency of white 17-year-olds has

improved significantly since 1971, 9- and 13-yearolds were reading at about the same level in 1990

as nearly two decades ago. Black students, however,

demonstrated significantly higher proficiency in 1990

at all three ages. Hispanic students also showed

gains at age 17, yet their reading performance did

not change significantly at the younger ages.

High School Graduates

The large enrollment in high schools is one of the

many success stories of American education during

the 20th century. Not surprisingly, the high enrollment ratios have resulted in the growth in the number of high school graduates. An indicator of high

school graduation success can be measured by comparing the number of high school graduates to the

17-year-old population. This measurement does not

account for students receiving their diplomas through

GED programs, night schools, or other special programs; however, this ratio does allow rough historical

comparisons to be made over the past 120 years.

In 1869–70, there were only about two persons receiving high school diplomas per 100 17-year-olds

(table 19). While this ratio increased to 9 per 100

during the ensuing 40 years, high school graduation

remained an atypical occurrence, at least in most

areas of the country. It should be noted that graduation ratios for females have consistently been higher

than those for males. In 1909–10, about 60 percent

of the graduates were women. During the 1910s, the

1920s, and the 1930s, the graduation ratios increased rapidly. In 1939–40, the ratio rose above 50

percent for the first time. In that year, about 53 percent of the graduates were females. During World

War II, the graduation ratio dipped as some young

men left school to join the armed forces.

Immediately after the war, the graduation ratio resumed its upward trend, reaching 70 percent in

1959–60. A peak ratio of 77 percent was attained at

the end of the 1960s. After falling to around 71 percent in 1979–80, the ratio has returned to about the

same level as the late 1960s. More students now obtain diplomas through non-traditional programs than

in the earlier years. If these graduates were included,

the total graduation ratio for young adults might now

be higher than ever.
Elementary and Secondary Education 31

Figure 11.--Number of public and private high school graduates

per 100 17-year-olds: 1869-70 to 1991-92

Year ending

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Graduates

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Current Population Reports, Series P-25; and U.S. Department of Education, 

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

National Center for Education Statistics,

various issues.

per 100

1992

17-year-olds

and

Digest of Education

Statistics,

Public Elementary and Secondary School

Revenues

Today, public schools derive most of their funds

from state and local governments. Smaller amounts

of federal funds are directed to specific programs,

such as those for disabled or educationally disadvantaged children. Prior to the Great Depression of the

1930s, most of the funding came from local (county

and city) sources. From 1889–90 until the mid 1930s,

local governments provided over three-quarters of financial support for elementary and secondary education. In 1935–36, local governments provided 70

percent of the revenues for public schools and 29

percent came from state governments (table 21). The

federal government provided less than 1 percent.

During the post-war period, the proportions from

state and federal governments began to rise, while

the local proportion declined. By the early 1970s, the

federal government proportion had risen to 9 percent,

and it remained around this level until the early

1980s. The state proportion continued to rise in the

1970s and, in 1978–79, exceeded the local proportion for the first time. During the 1980s, the proportion from the federal government declined, while the

proportion from state governments continued to increase, reaching a high of 50 percent in 1986–87.

During the late 1980s, the local proportion began

growing again, while the state proportions dipped

slightly.
32 Elementary and Secondary Education

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Figure 12.--Sources of revenues for public elementary and secondary schools: 1889-90 to 1989-90 Percent

State

Local

Federal

Year ending

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Systems; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary 

Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education; 

and Secondary Education; and Common Core of Data survey.

Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Statistics of State School 

Public Elementary and Secondary School

Expenditures

Current expenditures are those costs associated

with providing educational services to children (e.g.,

instruction, transportation, and administration). Two

of the most important factors that affect school costs

are the relative number and pay of teachers. If there

is a drop in the pupil/teacher ratio, school expenditures per student will rise if other factors are held

constant. Consistent price indexes to adjust older

historical education finance data are not available.

However, an examination of the 1869–70 to 1909–10

data indicates an increase in per student funding.

The total expenditure (including current expenditures,

plus capital outlay and interest on school debt) per

student rose from $16 to $33 during the 40-year period (table 22). This increase in spending would not

indicate a real increase if even very modest levels of

inflation occurred during the 40 years. Also, the stable pupil/teacher ratio during this period suggests

that little additional resources on a per student basis

were devoted to education.

In 1919–20, current expenditure per student in average daily attendance stood at about $53, or about

$355 after adjusting to 1989–90 dollars. The expenditure per student jumped 81 percent in the 1920s,

after adjusting for inflation. The real value of teacher

salaries rose by 82 percent during this economic

boom period, while pupil/teacher ratios changed little

(table 14). During the Depression of the 1930s, expenditures per student continued to increase, registering a rise of 24 percent by the end of the decade.
Elementary and Secondary Education 33

Figure 13.--Current expenditure per pupil in average daily

Year ending

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

$6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

attendance, in constant 1989-90 dollars: 1919-20 to 1989-90 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics,

Expenditure

per pupil

and

various years.

Large rises in current expenditure per pupil have

occurred in every decade since World War II, even

after adjusting for inflation. The 45 percent boost in

the 1950s and the 69 percent jump in the 1960s are

particularly impressive considering the rapidly rising

enrollment that occurred during these decades. During the 1970s and 1980s, the rate of increase in expenditures per student slowed to a more moderate

rate of 35 percent and 33 percent, respectively. The

steady increase in expenditure per pupil has been interrupted only twice during the past 70 years, during

the periods 1931–32 to 1933–34 and 1978–79 to

1980–81. In each case, the Nation was experiencing

economic difficulties. In 1989–90, the current expenditure per student in the public schools was nearly $5,000.

These historical elementary and secondary education statistics depict a great achievement during

the first half of the 20th century in the development

of high schools. Enrollment in high school, once limited to the elite, is now an opportunity that is shared

by nearly all America’s young people. A higher proportion of students are graduating than ever, and

education funding and teacher salaries are at historic

highs.
Table 8.—Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: 1869–70 to 1989–90 Item 1869–70 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 1959–60 1969–70 1979–8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

Population, pupils, and instructional staff Total population, 1 in thousands .................................... 38,558 50,156 62,622 75,995 90,490 104,514 121,767 130,880 149,199 177,080 201,385 224,

Population aged 5–17 years, 1 in thousands ................. 11,683 15,066 18,473 21,573 24,011 27,571 31,414 30,151 30,223 42,634 52,386 48,Percent of total population 5–17 .................................... 30.3 30.0 29.5 28.4 26.5 26.4 25.8 23.0 20.3 24.1 26.0 2Total enrollment in elementary and secondary schools, in thousands 2 .............................................. 3 7,562 9,868 12,723 15,503 17,814 21,578 25,678 25,434 25,111 36,087 45,550 41,

Kindergarten and grades 1–8, in thousands2 ........ 3 7,481 9,757 12,520 14,984 16,899 19,378 21,279 18,832 19,387 27,602 32,513 28,Grades 9–12 and postgraduate, in thousands 2 ..... 3 80 110 203 519 915 2,200 4,399 6,601 5,725 8,485 13,037 13,

Enrollment as a percent of total population ................... 17.8 19.7 20.3 20.4 19.7 20.6 21.1 19.4 16.8 20.4 22.6 1Enrollment as a percent of 5– to 17–year-olds ............. 57.0 65.5 68.9 71.9 74.2 78.3 81.7 84.4 83.1 84.6 87.0 8Percent of total enrollment in high schools (grades 9–

12 and postgraduate) .................................................. 1.2 1.1 1.6 3.3 5.1 10.2 17.1 26.0 22.8 23.5 28.6 3

High school graduates, in thousands ............................ — — 22 62 111 231 592 1,143 1,063 1,627 2,589 2,Average daily attendance, in thousands ....................... 4,077 6,144 8,154 10,633 12,827 16,150 21,265 22,042 22,284 32,477 41,934 38,Total number of days attended by pupils enrolled, in

millions ......................................................................... 539 801 1,098 1,535 2,011 2,615 3,673 3,858 3,964 5,782 7,501 4 6,

Percent of enrolled pupils attending daily ..................... 59.3 62.3 64.1 68.6 72.0 74.8 82.8 86.7 88.7 90.0 90.4 4 9Average length of school term, in days ......................... 132.2 130.3 134.7 144.3 156.8 161.9 172.7 175.0 177.9 178.0 178.9 4 17Average number of days attended per pupil ................. 78.4 81.1 86.3 99.0 112.9 121.2 143.0 151.7 157.9 160.2 161.7 4 16Total instructional staff, in thousands ............................ — — — — — 700 892 912 962 1,464 2,253 2,

Supervisors, in thousands .......................................... — — — — — 7 7 5 9 14 32 Principals, in thousands ............................................. — — — — — 14 31 32 39 64 91 Teachers, librarians, and other nonsupervisory instructional staff, 5 in thousands ................................ 201 287 364 423 523 680 854 875 914 1,387 2,131 2,

Men, in thousands ................................................ 78 123 126 127 110 96 142 195 195 4 402 4 691 4 Women, in thousands .......................................... 123 164 238 296 413 584 712 681 719 4 985 4 1,440 4 1,Percent men ......................................................... 38.7 42.8 34.5 29.9 21.1 14.1 16.6 22.2 21.3 4 29.0 4 32.4 4 3

Amounts in millions of current dollars

Finance

Total revenue receipts ................................................... — — $143 $220 $433 $970 $2,089 $2,261 $5,437 $14,747 $40,267 $96,

Federal government ................................................... — — — — — 2 7 40 156 652 3,220 9,State governments ..................................................... — — — — — 160 354 684 2,166 5,768 16,063 45,Local sources, including intermediate ........................ — — — — — 808 1,728 1,536 3,116 8,327 20,985 42,

Percent of revenue receipts from

Federal government ................................................... — — — — — 0.3 0.4 1.8 2.9 4.4 8.0 State governments ..................................................... — — — — — 16.5 16.9 30.3 39.8 39.1 39.9 4Local sources, including intermediate ........................ — — — — — 83.2 82.7 68.0 57.3 56.5 52.1 4

Total expenditures for public schools ............................ $63 $78 $141 $215 $426 $1,036 $2,317 $2,344 $5,838 $15,613 $40,683 $95,

Current expenditures 6 ................................................ — — 7 114 7 180 7 356 861 1,844 1,942 4,687 8 12,329 8 34,218 8 86,Capital outlay 9 ........................................................... — — 26 35 70 154 371 258 1,014 2,662 4,659 6,Interest on school debt ............................................... — — — — — 18 93 131 101 490 1,171 1,Other expenditures 10 ................................................. — — — — — 3 10 13 36 133 636 11 

Percent of total expenditures devoted to

Current expenditures 6 ................................................ — — 7 81.3 7 83.5 7 83.6 83.1 79.6 82.8 80.3 9 79.0 9 84.1 9 9Capital outlay 8 ........................................................... — — 18.7 16.5 16.4 14.8 16.0 11.0 17.4 17.0 11.5 Interest on school debt ............................................... — — — — — 1.8 4.0 5.6 1.7 3.1 2.9 Other expenditures 10 ................................................. — — — — — 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.6 11 
Table 8.—Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: 1869–70 to 1989–90—Continu

Item 1869–70 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 1959–60 1969–70 1979–8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

Amounts

Annual salary of instructional staff 12 .............................. $189 $195 $252 $325 $485 $871 $1,420 $1,441 $3,010 $5,174 $8,840 13 $16,Personal income per member of labor force 1 ............... — — — — — — 1,634 1,356 3,400 5,413 8,750 19,Total school expenditures per capita of total population 1.59 1.56 2.23 2.83 4.71 9.91 19.03 17.91 39 88 202 National income 1 per capita .......................................... — — — — — — 667 587 1,520 2,272 3,829 9,Current expenditure 14 per pupil in A.D.A. 15 ................. — — 7 13.99 7 16.67 7 27.85 53.32 86.70 88.09 209 375 816 2,Total expenditure 16 per pupil in A.D.A. ......................... 15.55 12.71 17.23 20.21 33.23 64.16 108.49 105.74 259 472 955 2,National income per pupil in A.D.A. .............................. — — — — — — 3,845 3,502 10,312 12,547 18,656 53,Current expenditure per day 17 per pupil in A.D.A. ....... — — 7 0.10 7 0.12 7 0.18 0.33 0.50 0.50 1.17 2.11 4.56 12Total expenditure per day per pupil in A.D.A. ............... 0.12 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.21 0.40 0.63 0.60 1.46 2.65 5.34 13

Amounts in constant 1989–90 dollars

Annual salary of instructional staff 12 ............................. — — — — — $5,803 $10,534 $13,093 $16,138 $22,359 $29,714 13 $27,Personal income per member of labor force 1 ............... — — — — — — 12,121 12,320 18,229 23,392 29,412 31,Total school expenditures per capita of total population — — — — — 66 141 163 210 381 679 National income 1 per capita .......................................... — — — — — — 4,948 5,333 8,149 9,818 12,871 14,Current expenditure 14 per pupil in A.D.A. 15 ................. — — — — — 355 643 800 1,120 1,621 2,743 3,Total expenditure 16 per pupil in A.D.A. ......................... — — — — — 427 805 961 1,388 2,040 3,210 4,National income per pupil in A.D.A. .............................. — — — — — — 28,522 31,819 55,287 54,220 62,709 87,Current expenditure per day 17 per pupil in A.D.A. ....... — — — — — 2.20 3.71 4.54 6.27 9.12 15.33 20Total expenditure per day per pupil in A.D.A. ............... — — — — — 2.67 4.67 5.45 7.83 11.45 17.95 22

1 Data on population and labor force are from the Bureau of the Census, and data on personal income and national

income are from the Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce. Population data through 1900 arebased on total population from the decennial census. From 1909–10 to 1959–60, population data are total population,including armed forces overseas, as of July 1. Data for later years are for resident population, excluding armed forcesoverseas. 2 Data for 1869–70 through 1959–60 are school year enrollment. Data for later years are fall enrollment.

3 Data for 1870–71.4Estimated by the National Center for Education Statistics.5Prior to 1919–20, data are for the number of different persons employed rather than number of positions.6Prior to 1919–20, includes expenditures for interest.7 Includes interest on school debt.8Because of the modification of the scope of ‘‘current expenditures for elementary and secondary schools,’’ data

for 1959–60 and later years are not entirely comparable with prior years. 9Beginning in 1969–70, includes capital outlay by state and local school building authorities.

10 Includes summer schools, community colleges, and adult education. Beginning in 1959–60, also includes community services, formerly classified with ‘‘current expenditures for elementary and secondary schools.’’11Excludes community colleges and adult education.12Average includes supervisors, principals, teachers, and other nonsupervisory instructional staff.

13Estimated by the National Education Association.14Excludes current expenditures not allocable to pupil costs.15 ‘‘A.D.A.’’ means average daily attendance in elementary and secondary schools16The expenditure figure used here is the sum of current expenditures allocable 

interest on school debt.

17Per-day rates derived by dividing annual rates by average length of term.

—Data not collected.NOTE.—Kindergarten enrollment includes a relatively small number of nursery s

details may not add to totals. Some data have been revised from previously pub60, data include Alaska and Hawaii.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary School Systems; Revenues and Exp

Secondary Education, FY 1980; Common Core of Data survey; Council of Econo

and National Education Association, Estimates of School Statistics (copyright by th(This table was prepared October 1992.)
36 Elementary and Secondary Education

Table 9.—Enrollment in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools, by grade level:

1869–70 to fall 1992

[Enrollment in thousands]

Year

All schools Public schools Private schools 1 All public and private schools

Total

Kindergarten to

grade 8

Grades 9

to 12 Total

Kindergarten to

grade 8

Grades 9

to 12 Total

Kindergarten to

grade 8

Grades 9

to 12

Ratio of

kindergarten to

grade 12

enrollment

to 5– to

17-yearolds

Ratio of

kindergarten to

grade 8

enrollment

to 5– to

13-yearolds

Ratio of

grades 9

to 12 enrollment to

14– to 17-

year-olds

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1869–70 .....................——— 6,872 ————— 2 57.0 — —

1870–71 .....................——— 7,562 7,481 80 ——————

1871–72 .....................——— 7,815 ————————

1872–73 .....................——— 8,004 ————————

1873–74 .....................——— 8,444 ————————

1874–75 .....................——— 8,786 ————————

1875–76 .....................——— 8,869 ————————

1876–77 .....................——— 8,965 ————————

1877–78 .....................——— 9,439 ————————

1878–79 .....................——— 9,504 ————————

1879–80 .....................——— 9,868 9,757 110 — — — 2 65.5 — —

1880–81 .....................——— 10,001 ————————

1881–82 .....................——— 10,212 ————————

1882–83 .....................——— 10,652 ————————

1883–84 .....................——— 10,982 ————————

1884–85 .....................——— 11,398 ————————

1885–86 .....................——— 11,664 ————————

1886–87 .....................——— 11,885 ————————

1887–88 .....................——— 12,183 ————————

1888–89 ..................... 13,661 — — 12,392 — — 1,269 —————

1889–90 ..................... 14,334 14,036 298 12,723 12,520 203 1,611 1,516 95 77.3 — —

1890–91 ..................... 14,541 14,231 310 13,050 12,839 212 1,491 1,392 98 — — —

1891–92 ..................... 14,556 14,215 340 13,256 13,016 240 1,300 1,199 101 — — —

1892–93 ..................... 14,826 14,470 356 13,483 13,229 254 1,343 1,240 102 — — —

1893–94 ..................... 15,314 14,906 408 13,995 13,706 289 1,319 1,200 119 — — —

1894–95 ..................... 15,455 14,987 468 14,244 13,894 350 1,211 1,093 118 — — —

1895–96 ..................... 15,834 15,347 487 14,499 14,118 380 1,335 1,228 107 — — —

1896–97 ..................... 16,140 15,623 517 14,823 14,414 409 1,317 1,209 108 — — —

1897–98 ..................... 16,459 15,904 555 15,104 14,654 450 1,355 1,250 105 — — —

1898–99 ..................... 16,474 15,894 580 15,176 14,700 476 1,298 1,194 104 — — —

1899–1900 ................. 16,855 16,225 630 15,503 14,984 519 1,352 1,241 111 78.1 — —

1900–01 ..................... 17,072 16,422 650 15,703 15,161 542 1,370 1,262 108 79.3 106.6 10.6

1901–02 ..................... 17,126 16,471 655 15,917 15,367 551 1,209 1,104 105 78.6 105.8 10.5

1902–03 ..................... 17,205 16,511 694 16,009 15,417 592 1,196 1,094 102 77.9 104.8 11.0

1903–04 ..................... 17,560 16,821 739 16,256 15,620 636 1,304 1,201 103 78.7 105.8 11.5

1904–05 ..................... 17,806 17,019 787 16,468 15,789 680 1,338 1,231 107 78.8 106.1 12.0

1905–06 ..................... 18,056 17,231 824 16,642 15,919 723 1,414 1,312 102 79.0 106.3 12.4

1906–07 ..................... 18,292 17,444 848 16,891 16,140 751 1,402 1,305 97 79.1 106.6 12.5

1907–08 ..................... 18,537 17,675 862 17,062 16,292 770 1,475 1,383 92 79.2 107.0 12.5

1908–09 ..................... 18,917 17,982 935 17,506 16,665 841 1,411 1,317 94 79.9 107.8 13.4

1909–10 ..................... 19,372 18,340 1,032 17,814 16,899 915 1,558 1,441 117 80.7 108.6 14.5

1910–11 ..................... 19,636 18,349 1,288 18,035 16,878 1,157 1,601 1,471 131 80.5 107.1 17.8

1911–12 ..................... 19,830 18,488 1,342 18,183 16,982 1,201 1,647 1,506 141 80.3 106.4 18.3

1912–13 ..................... 20,348 18,866 1,482 18,609 17,276 1,333 1,739 1,591 148 81.3 106.9 20.1

1913–14 ..................... 20,935 19,348 1,587 19,154 17,722 1,432 1,781 1,626 155 82.1 107.4 21.2

1914–15 ..................... 21,474 19,758 1,717 19,704 18,143 1,562 1,770 1,615 155 82.7 107.4 22.7

1915–16 ..................... 22,172 20,306 1,866 20,352 18,641 1,711 1,820 1,665 155 84.2 108.5 24.5

1916–17 3 .................. 22,344 20,392 1,952 20,603 18,808 1,795 1,741 1,584 157 83.7 107.1 25.5

1917–18 ..................... 22,516 20,423 2,093 20,854 18,920 1,934 1,662 1,504 159 83.1 105.4 27.1

1918–19 3 .................. 22,897 20,643 2,253 21,216 19,149 2,067 1,681 1,495 186 83.2 104.7 28.9

1919–20 ..................... 23,278 20,863 2,414 21,578 19,378 2,200 1,699 1,486 214 84.4 105.2 31.2

1920–21 3 .................. 24,049 21,292 2,757 22,409 19,872 2,537 1,640 1,420 220 85.9 105.8 35.0

1921–22 ..................... 24,820 21,721 3,099 23,239 20,366 2,873 1,581 1,355 226 87.1 106.3 38.4

1922–23 3 .................. 25,418 22,047 3,371 23,764 20,633 3,131 1,654 1,414 240 87.9 106.7 40.8

1923–24 ..................... 26,016 22,372 3,644 24,289 20,899 3,390 1,727 1,473 254 88.6 107.0 43.1

1924–25 3 .................. 26,733 22,807 3,926 24,650 20,999 3,651 2,083 1,808 275 89.7 107.9 45.3

1925–26 ..................... 27,180 23,127 4,053 24,741 20,984 3,757 2,439 2,143 296 90.0 108.3 45.9

1926–27 3 .................. 27,495 23,342 4,153 24,961 21,126 3,834 2,535 2,216 318 89.9 107.9 46.4

1927–28 ..................... 27,810 23,558 4,252 25,180 21,268 3,911 2,631 2,289 341 89.9 107.8 46.8

1928–29 3 .................. 28,070 23,573 4,497 25,429 21,274 4,155 2,641 2,300 341 89.9 107.2 48.8

1929–30 ..................... 28,329 23,588 4,741 25,678 21,279 4,399 2,651 2,310 341 90.2 106.6 51.1

1930–31 3 .................. 28,695 23,553 5,142 25,977 21,207 4,770 2,719 2,346 372 90.7 105.8 54.9

1931–32 ..................... 29,061 23,518 5,543 26,275 21,135 5,140 2,786 2,383 403 91.8 105.6 59.0

1932–33 3 .................. 29,112 23,326 5,786 26,355 20,950 5,405 2,757 2,375 382 92.0 104.9 61.5

1933–34 ..................... 29,163 23,133 6,029 26,434 20,765 5,669 2,729 2,368 360 92.4 104.5 63.8

1934–35 3 .................. 29,084 22,889 6,196 26,401 20,579 5,822 2,684 2,310 374 92.4 104.2 65.0

1935–36 ..................... 29,006 22,644 6,362 26,367 20,393 5,975 2,639 2,251 387 92.4 104.2 65.9

1936–37 3 .................. 28,834 22,316 6,518 26,171 20,070 6,101 2,663 2,246 417 92.4 104.1 66.6

1937–38 ..................... 28,663 21,989 6,674 25,975 19,748 6,227 2,687 2,241 447 92.6 104.3 67.7

1938–39 3 .................. 28,354 21,487 6,866 25,704 19,290 6,414 2,649 2,197 452 92.7 104.0 69.3
Elementary and Secondary Education 37

Table 9.—Enrollment in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools, by grade level:

1869–70 to fall 1992—Continued

[Enrollment in thousands]

Year

All schools Public schools Private schools 1 All public and private schools

Total

Kindergarten to

grade 8

Grades 9

to 12 Total

Kindergarten to

grade 8

Grades 9

to 12 Total

Kindergarten to

grade 8

Grades 9

to 12

Ratio of

kindergarten to

grade 12

enrollment

to 5– to

17-yearolds

Ratio of

kindergarten to

grade 8

enrollment

to 5– to

13-yearolds

Ratio of

grades 9

to 12 enrollment to

14– to 17-

year-olds

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1939–40 ..................... 28,045 20,985 7,059 25,434 18,832 6,601 2,611 2,153 458 93.0 103.6 71.3

1940–41 3 .................. 27,910 20,726 7,184 25,296 18,582 6,714 2,614 2,143 470 93.7 103.9 73.0

1941–42 ..................... 27,179 20,308 6,871 24,562 18,175 6,388 2,617 2,133 483 92.3 103.1 70.5

1942–43 3 .................. 26,709 20,135 6,574 24,155 18,033 6,122 2,554 2,102 452 91.9 103.5 68.4

1943–44 ..................... 25,758 19,783 5,974 23,267 17,713 5,554 2,491 2,070 421 89.3 102.1 63.0

1944–45 3 .................. 25,884 19,830 6,053 23,226 17,666 5,560 2,658 2,165 493 90.3 102.7 64.7

1945–46 ..................... 26,124 19,937 6,187 23,300 17,678 5,622 2,825 2,259 565 91.6 102.9 67.7

1946–47 3 .................. 26,598 20,177 6,421 23,659 17,821 5,838 2,939 2,355 584 93.1 102.6 72.0

1947–48 ..................... 26,998 20,743 6,256 23,945 18,291 5,653 3,054 2,451 602 93.2 103.2 70.5

1948–49 3 .................. 27,694 21,398 6,296 24,477 18,818 5,658 3,217 2,580 637 93.4 102.1 72.3

1949–50 ..................... 28,492 22,095 6,397 25,111 19,387 5,725 3,380 2,708 672 94.3 102.1 74.5

1950–51 3 .................. 29,301 22,831 6,470 25,706 19,900 5,806 3,595 2,931 664 95.4 102.5 76.6

1951–52 ..................... 30,372 23,834 6,538 26,563 20,681 5,882 3,809 3,154 656 97.0 104.6 76.7

1952–53 3 .................. 31,581 24,997 6,584 27,507 21,625 5,882 4,074 3,373 702 95.7 103.0 75.5

1953–54 ..................... 33,175 26,138 7,038 28,836 22,546 6,290 4,339 3,592 747 96.7 102.7 79.4

1954–55 3 .................. 34,569 27,210 7,359 30,045 23,471 6,574 4,524 3,739 785 97.0 102.1 81.8

1955–56 ..................... 35,872 28,177 7,696 31,163 24,290 6,873 4,709 3,886 823 97.1 101.7 83.5

1956–57 ..................... 37,303 29,107 8,195 32,334 25,016 7,318 4,968 4,092 877 97.4 101.2 86.0

1957–58 ..................... 38,756 29,966 8,790 33,529 25,669 7,860 5,227 4,297 931 97.7 101.4 86.6

1958–59 ..................... 40,290 31,040 9,250 34,839 26,581 8,258 5,451 4,459 993 97.9 101.6 87.2

1959–60 ..................... 41,762 32,242 9,520 36,087 27,602 8,485 5,675 4,640 1,035 98.0 101.8 86.9

1960–61 ..................... 43,070 33,191 9,879 37,260 28,439 8,821 5,810 4,752 1,058 97.5 100.4 89.0

1961–62 ..................... 44,146 33,451 10,694 38,253 28,686 9,566 5,893 4,765 1,128 97.5 100.7 88.8

1962–63 ..................... 45,798 34,224 11,574 39,746 29,374 10,372 6,052 4,850 1,202 98.2 101.0 90.8

1963–64 ..................... 47,199 34,825 12,375 41,025 29,915 11,110 6,174 4,910 1,265 98.2 100.7 91.7

1964–65 ..................... 48,580 35,652 12,928 42,280 30,652 11,628 6,300 5,000 1,300 98.1 101.2 90.6

Fall 1965 .................... 48,368 35,366 13,002 42,068 30,466 11,602 6,300 4,900 1,400 96.9 98.9 91.9

Fall 1966 .................... 49,242 35,962 13,280 43,042 31,162 11,880 6,200 4,800 1,400 97.2 99.1 92.2

Fall 1967 .................... 49,890 36,243 13,647 43,890 31,643 12,247 6,000 4,600 1,400 97.1 98.9 92.7

Fall 1968 .................... 50,703 36,581 14,123 44,903 32,181 12,723 5,800 4,400 1,400 97.6 99.4 93.1

Fall 1969 .................... 51,050 36,713 14,337 45,550 32,513 13,037 5,500 4,200 1,300 97.5 99.7 92.2

Fall 1970 .................... 51,257 36,610 14,647 45,894 32,558 13,336 5,363 4,052 1,311 97.5 99.8 92.0

Fall 1971 .................... 51,271 36,218 15,053 46,071 32,318 13,753 5,200 3,900 1,300 97.5 100.0 92.2

Fall 1972 .................... 50,726 35,579 15,148 45,726 31,879 13,848 5,000 3,700 1,300 97.0 99.7 91.0

Fall 1973 .................... 50,445 35,101 15,344 45,445 31,401 14,044 5,000 3,700 1,300 97.2 100.2 91.0

Fall 1974 .................... 50,073 34,671 15,403 45,073 30,971 14,103 5,000 3,700 1,300 97.2 100.6 90.4

Fall 1975 .................... 49,819 34,215 15,604 44,819 30,515 14,304 5,000 3,700 1,300 97.6 100.9 91.1

Fall 1976 .................... 49,478 33,822 15,656 44,311 29,997 14,314 5,167 3,825 1,342 97.7 100.9 91.5

Fall 1977 .................... 48,717 33,172 15,546 43,577 29,375 14,203 5,140 3,797 1,343 97.6 101.0 91.2

Fall 1978 .................... 47,637 32,195 15,441 42,551 28,463 14,088 5,086 3,732 1,353 97.1 100.3 91.1

Fall 1979 .................... 46,651 31,734 14,916 41,651 28,034 13,616 5,000 3,700 1,300 97.1 101.0 89.8

Fall 1980 .................... 46,208 31,639 14,570 40,877 27,647 13,231 5,331 3,992 1,339 97.8 101.7 90.3

Fall 1981 .................... 45,544 31,380 14,164 40,044 27,280 12,764 5,500 4,100 1,400 98.3 102.0 90.8

Fall 1982 .................... 45,166 31,361 13,805 39,566 27,161 12,405 5,600 4,200 1,400 98.9 102.4 91.8

Fall 1983 .................... 44,967 31,296 13,671 39,252 26,981 12,271 5,715 4,315 1,400 99.6 102.9 92.9

Fall 1984 .................... 44,908 31,205 13,704 39,208 26,905 12,304 5,700 4,300 1,400 99.9 103.2 93.2

Fall 1985 .................... 44,979 31,229 13,750 39,422 27,034 12,388 5,557 4,195 1,362 100.0 103.7 92.5

Fall 1986 .................... 45,205 31,536 13,669 39,753 27,420 12,333 5,452 4,116 1,336 100.1 103.9 92.4

Fall 1987 .................... 45,486 32,162 13,324 40,007 27,930 12,077 5,479 4,232 1,247 100.4 104.3 92.1

Fall 1988 .................... 45,430 32,535 12,896 40,189 28,499 11,690 5,241 4,036 1,206 100.1 103.6 92.2

Fall 1989 .................... 45,898 33,314 12,583 40,543 29,152 11,390 5,355 4,162 1,193 101.3 104.6 93.2

Fall 1990 .................... 46,450 33,978 12,472 41,224 29,888 11,336 5,226 4,090 1,136 102.5 106.2 93.7

Fall 1991 3 ................. 47,032 34,447 12,585 41,839 30,378 11,461 5,193 4,069 1,124 102.4 106.0 93.8

Fall 1992 3 ................. 47,601 34,855 12,746 42,250 30,663 11,587 5,351 4,192 1,159 — — —

1For 1958–59 and 1960–61 through 1963–64, numbers were estimated using linear

interpolation. Data for most years are at least partially estimated. 2 Data are for public elementary and secondary schools only.

3Estimated.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Prior to 1965, enrollment data include students who enrolled at any time during the school year. Enrollment ratios based on cumulative enrollment figures tend to

be approximately 1 to 2 percentage points higher than counts based on fall enrollment.

In later years, data for grades kindergarten through 8 include a relatively small number

of prekindergarten students. Data for grades 9 to 12 contain a small number of postgraduate students. Population data for 1870 through 1961 include U.S. population overseas; data for later years are for U.S. resident population only. Population data for 1870

to 1890 are from the decennial census. Data for later years are based on counts of population for July 1 preceding the school year. Because of rounding, details may not add

to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Statistics of State School Systems; Digest of Education Statistics; and U.S.

Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P20, and unpublished data. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
38 Elementary and Secondary Education

Table 10.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by grade:

1910–11 to fall 1990

Year Total

Kindergarten through grade 8

Total Kindergarten 1 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1910–11 .......... 18,035,118 16,878,123 326,883 3,889,542 2,449,584 2,300,622 2,201,315 1,870,290 1,522,714

1911–12 .......... 18,182,937 16,982,139 348,303 3,875,684 2,445,174 2,295,469 2,212,300 1,879,624 1,546,947

1912–13 .......... 18,609,040 17,275,684 369,723 3,922,183 2,468,270 2,316,117 2,248,493 1,910,374 1,589,160

1913–14 .......... 19,153,786 17,721,691 391,143 3,986,026 2,495,599 2,374,285 2,287,632 1,975,683 1,663,733

1914–15 .......... 19,704,209 18,142,653 409,083 4,043,254 2,535,900 2,411,766 2,340,831 2,021,627 1,720,156

1915–16 .......... 20,351,687 18,640,815 434,022 4,114,735 2,585,365 2,476,124 2,403,297 2,075,574 1,784,266

1916–17 3 ........ 20,602,602 18,807,710 433,700 4,224,907 2,600,418 2,503,813 2,425,708 2,104,986 1,814,236

1917–18 .......... 20,853,516 18,919,695 433,377 4,323,170 2,607,727 2,524,215 2,440,871 2,128,086 1,838,770

1918–19 3 ........ 21,215,916 19,148,811 457,322 4,321,996 2,622,775 2,510,915 2,498,633 2,140,588 1,864,631

1919–20 .......... 21,578,316 19,377,927 481,266 4,320,823 2,637,822 2,497,615 2,556,395 2,153,091 1,890,492

1920–21 3 ........ 22,408,773 19,872,124 505,252 4,248,745 2,743,417 2,606,922 2,558,036 2,221,331 1,974,256

1921–22 .......... 23,239,227 20,366,218 529,235 4,176,567 2,849,013 2,716,229 2,559,677 2,289,571 2,058,019

1922–23 3 ........ 23,764,017 20,632,624 569,447 4,180,450 2,831,210 2,755,947 2,634,084 2,365,065 2,089,418

1923–24 .......... 24,288,808 20,898,930 609,659 4,184,232 2,813,409 2,795,665 2,708,491 2,440,558 2,120,817

1924–25 3 ........ 24,650,291 20,999,078 599,684 4,048,598 2,799,520 2,730,383 2,696,479 2,514,493 2,186,346

1925–26 .......... 24,741,468 20,984,002 673,231 3,976,750 2,819,896 2,729,252 2,662,205 2,473,053 2,234,246

1926–27 3 ........ 24,960,582 21,126,210 684,360 4,073,894 2,818,218 2,695,615 2,647,339 2,454,260 2,238,844

1927–28 .......... 25,179,696 21,268,417 695,490 4,171,037 2,816,540 2,661,977 2,632,474 2,435,466 2,243,443

1928–29 3 ........ 25,428,856 21,273,505 709,467 4,160,978 2,809,727 2,697,108 2,615,851 2,408,979 2,249,846

1929–30 .......... 25,678,015 21,278,593 723,443 4,150,919 2,802,914 2,732,239 2,599,229 2,382,491 2,256,249

1930–31 3 ........ 25,976,728 21,207,007 712,423 4,040,558 2,789,646 2,697,881 2,594,164 2,422,527 2,267,081

1931–32 .......... 26,275,441 21,135,420 701,403 3,930,196 2,776,378 2,663,524 2,589,098 2,462,563 2,277,913

1932–33 3 ........ 26,354,817 20,950,229 649,001 3,826,112 2,704,053 2,637,885 2,581,054 2,448,002 2,282,982

1933–34 .......... 26,434,193 20,765,037 601,775 3,716,852 2,631,728 2,612,246 2,573,010 2,433,441 2,288,051

1934–35 3 ........ 26,400,646 20,578,799 604,264 3,623,589 2,594,659 2,568,491 2,535,875 2,433,216 2,303,760

1935–36 .......... 26,367,098 20,392,561 606,753 3,530,325 2,557,589 2,524,736 2,498,741 2,432,991 2,319,470

1936–37 3 ........ 26,171,103 20,070,368 606,893 3,423,735 2,522,070 2,484,558 2,450,679 2,387,710 2,286,096

1937–38 .......... 25,975,108 19,748,174 607,034 3,317,144 2,486,550 2,444,381 2,402,617 2,342,428 2,252,722

1938–39 3 ........ 25,704,325 19,290,136 600,841 3,167,803 2,409,813 2,387,970 2,362,242 2,295,060 2,214,428

1939–40 .......... 25,433,542 18,832,098 594,647 3,018,463 2,333,076 2,331,559 2,321,867 2,247,692 2,176,133

1940–41 3 ........ 25,296,138 18,582,225 613,213 2,991,738 2,285,614 2,263,315 2,270,749 2,211,285 2,155,538

1941–42 .......... 24,562,473 18,174,668 625,783 2,930,762 2,215,100 2,175,245 2,196,732 2,166,018 2,124,494

1942–43 3 ........ 24,155,146 18,033,080 664,915 2,919,242 2,228,945 2,179,843 2,148,889 2,101,723 2,071,396

1943–44 .......... 23,266,616 17,713,096 697,468 2,878,843 2,220,739 2,162,878 2,079,788 2,016,635 1,997,806

1944–45 3 ........ 23,225,784 17,665,594 733,974 2,881,849 2,265,796 2,173,078 2,083,552 2,007,988 1,950,624

1945–46 .......... 23,299,941 17,677,744 772,957 2,894,588 2,318,502 2,190,617 2,094,352 2,006,120 1,910,028

1946–47 3 ........ 23,659,158 17,821,481 872,835 2,896,451 2,319,772 2,204,573 2,119,377 2,012,212 1,907,319

1947–48 .......... 23,944,532 18,291,227 988,680 2,951,300 2,363,477 2,258,858 2,183,171 2,055,115 1,939,500

1948–49 3 ........ 24,476,658 18,818,254 1,016,186 3,067,375 2,502,828 2,314,645 2,220,554 2,088,826 1,994,735

1949–50 .......... 25,111,427 19,386,806 1,034,203 3,170,343 2,644,707 2,395,904 2,254,028 2,150,678 2,055,741

1950–51 3 ........ 25,706,000 19,900,000 941,138 3,052,806 2,739,176 2,600,440 2,357,752 2,211,306 2,117,360

1951–52 .......... 26,562,664 20,680,867 1,272,127 2,957,485 2,670,162 2,717,947 2,559,115 2,320,132 2,165,741

1952–53 3 ........ 27,506,630 21,624,682 1,399,064 3,357,598 2,638,816 2,633,457 2,684,145 2,520,163 2,275,680

1953–54 .......... 28,836,052 22,545,807 1,474,007 3,666,466 2,940,285 2,569,243 2,565,345 2,606,983 2,449,174

1954–55 3 ........ 30,045,000 23,471,000 1,415,000 3,518,000 3,391,000 2,896,000 2,535,000 2,523,000 2,584,000
Elementary and Secondary Education 39

Table 10.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by grade:

1910–11 to fall 1990—Continued

Year

Kindergarten through grade 8 Grades 9 through 12 and postgraduate

Grade 7 Grade 8

Elementary

unclassified 2Total Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Postgraduate

Secondary

unclassified 2

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1910–11 .......... 1,257,894 1,059,279 — 1,156,995 495,194 308,918 208,259 144,624 — —

1911–12 .......... 1,280,805 1,097,833 — 1,200,798 500,733 325,416 218,545 156,104 — —

1912–13 .......... 1,318,665 1,132,699 — 1,333,356 546,676 358,673 248,004 180,003 — —

1913–14 .......... 1,369,113 1,178,477 — 1,432,095 584,295 383,801 266,370 197,629 — —

1914–15 .......... 1,418,686 1,241,350 — 1,561,556 638,677 416,935 287,326 218,618 — —

1915–16 .......... 1,474,750 1,292,682 — 1,710,872 692,903 460,225 316,511 241,233 — —

1916–17 3 ........ 1,481,027 1,218,915 — 1,794,892 743,064 476,406 324,163 251,259 — —

1917–18 .......... 1,482,675 1,140,804 — 1,933,821 816,396 506,974 341,534 268,917 — —

1918–19 3 ........ 1,537,385 1,194,566 — 2,067,105 866,519 541,462 368,888 290,236 — —

1919–20 .......... 1,592,095 1,248,328 — 2,200,389 916,642 575,950 396,242 311,555 — —

1920–21 3 ........ 1,668,158 1,346,007 — 2,536,649 1,065,177 678,752 455,842 336,878 — —

1921–22 .......... 1,744,222 1,443,685 — 2,873,009 1,213,713 781,553 515,542 362,201 — —

1922–23 3 ........ 1,795,314 1,411,689 — 3,131,393 1,271,062 850,766 583,386 426,179 — —

1923–24 .......... 1,846,407 1,379,692 — 3,389,878 1,328,412 919,979 651,329 490,158 — —

1924–25 3 ........ 1,930,732 1,492,843 — 3,651,213 1,424,304 970,415 715,978 540,516 — —

1925–26 .......... 1,927,265 1,488,104 — 3,757,466 1,425,204 1,004,503 736,254 591,505 — —

1926–27 3 ........ 1,974,451 1,539,229 — 3,834,372 1,450,564 1,025,030 751,980 606,798 — —

1927–28 .......... 2,021,636 1,590,354 — 3,911,279 1,475,924 1,045,558 767,706 622,091 — —

1928–29 3 ........ 2,025,686 1,595,863 — 4,155,351 1,551,374 1,118,871 823,616 661,490 — —

1929–30 .......... 2,029,736 1,601,373 — 4,399,422 1,626,823 1,192,185 879,525 700,889 — —

1930–31 3 ........ 2,041,280 1,641,447 — 4,769,721 1,702,216 1,289,758 973,140 786,337 18,270 —

1931–32 .......... 2,052,825 1,681,520 — 5,140,021 1,777,608 1,387,331 1,066,755 871,786 36,541 —

1932–33 3 ........ 2,119,972 1,701,168 — 5,404,588 1,816,317 1,463,793 1,137,967 938,580 47,931 —

1933–34 .......... 2,187,119 1,720,815 — 5,669,156 1,855,026 1,540,254 1,209,180 1,005,375 59,321 —

1934–35 3 ........ 2,184,553 1,730,392 — 5,821,847 1,912,549 1,580,058 1,229,295 1,034,922 65,023 —

1935–36 .......... 2,181,987 1,739,969 — 5,974,537 1,970,072 1,619,862 1,249,409 1,064,469 70,725 —

1936–37 3 ........ 2,177,580 1,731,047 — 6,100,735 1,974,726 1,644,571 1,314,404 1,107,487 59,547 —

1937–38 .......... 2,173,173 1,722,125 — 6,226,934 1,979,379 1,669,281 1,379,398 1,150,506 48,370 —

1938–39 3 ........ 2,140,420 1,711,559 — 6,414,189 1,995,360 1,718,297 1,432,500 1,216,121 51,911 —

1939–40 .......... 2,107,667 1,700,994 — 6,601,444 2,011,341 1,767,312 1,485,603 1,281,735 55,453 —

1940–41 3 ........ 2,049,791 1,690,982 — 6,713,913 2,034,316 1,792,615 1,517,344 1,322,641 46,997 —

1941–42 .......... 2,060,752 1,679,782 — 6,387,805 1,927,040 1,705,746 1,450,788 1,273,141 31,090 —

1942–43 3 ........ 2,022,880 1,695,247 — 6,122,066 1,897,750 1,653,586 1,374,470 1,170,319 25,941 —

1943–44 .......... 1,964,997 1,693,942 — 5,553,520 1,774,593 1,519,638 1,230,168 1,009,611 19,510 —

1944–45 3 ........ 1,897,743 1,670,990 — 5,560,190 1,742,873 1,529,857 1,236,883 1,015,959 34,618 —

1945–46 .......... 1,836,897 1,653,683 — 5,622,197 1,728,499 1,555,302 1,255,907 1,032,420 50,069 —

1946–47 3 ........ 1,850,394 1,638,548 — 5,837,677 1,761,020 1,583,245 1,308,592 1,119,968 64,852 —

1947–48 .......... 1,897,740 1,653,386 — 5,653,305 1,672,920 1,502,743 1,271,645 1,130,805 75,192 —

1948–49 3 ........ 1,919,462 1,693,643 — 5,658,404 1,708,838 1,499,477 1,267,483 1,126,022 56,584 —

1949–50 .......... 1,947,227 1,733,975 — 5,724,621 1,760,740 1,513,086 1,275,295 1,133,673 41,827 —

1950–51 3 ........ 1,995,238 1,884,784 — 5,806,000 1,780,738 1,547,895 1,313,207 1,127,527 36,633 —

1951–52 .......... 2,082,533 1,935,625 — 5,881,797 1,819,732 1,582,142 1,337,930 1,110,638 31,355 —

1952–53 3 ........ 2,143,106 1,972,653 — 5,881,948 1,861,411 1,579,177 1,306,615 1,107,884 26,861 —

1953–54 .......... 2,242,116 2,032,188 — 6,290,245 1,944,357 1,716,758 1,411,722 1,190,138 27,270 —

1954–55 3 ........ 2,432,000 2,177,000 — 6,574,000 2,028,000 1,765,000 1,520,000 1,246,000 15,000 —
40 Elementary and Secondary Education

Table 10.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by grade:

1910–11 to fall 1990—Continued

Year Total

Kindergarten through grade 8

Total Kindergarten 1 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1955–56 .......... 31,162,843 24,290,257 1,564,396 3,494,997 3,242,407 3,290,740 2,847,741 2,481,210 2,470,310

1956–57 .......... 32,334,333 25,015,873 1,675,373 3,491,387 3,240,771 3,183,406 3,237,852 2,808,290 2,442,701

1957–58 .......... 33,528,591 25,668,820 1,771,753 3,586,683 3,213,900 3,175,704 3,127,702 3,180,952 2,758,859

1958–59 .......... 34,838,641 26,580,774 1,834,014 3,678,772 3,345,722 3,179,087 3,141,825 3,099,426 3,135,641

1959–60 .......... 36,086,771 27,601,902 1,922,712 3,732,924 3,436,173 3,302,366 3,146,168 3,117,885 3,069,692

1960–61 3 ........ 37,260,000 28,439,000 2,000,000 3,822,000 3,502,000 3,405,000 3,278,000 3,131,000 3,095,000

1961–62 .......... 38,252,673 28,686,420 2,064,852 3,857,075 3,567,852 3,428,206 3,342,980 3,218,277 3,064,577

1962–63 3 ........ 39,746,000 29,374,000 2,162,000 3,928,000 3,630,000 3,518,000 3,391,000 3,332,000 3,190,000

1963–64 3 ........ 41,025,000 29,915,000 2,177,000 4,023,000 3,705,000 3,560,000 3,467,000 3,366,000 3,299,000

1964–65 3 ........ 42,280,000 30,652,000 2,250,000 4,014,000 3,800,000 3,662,000 3,523,000 3,465,000 3,362,000

Fall 1965 ......... 42,068,117 30,465,838 2,259,978 3,914,890 3,644,283 3,595,485 3,475,718 3,376,965 3,311,608

Fall 1966 ......... 43,042,127 31,162,189 2,370,462 3,954,328 3,696,457 3,615,340 3,580,280 3,462,525 3,369,162

Fall 1967 ......... 43,889,800 31,643,017 2,420,163 3,979,641 3,722,925 3,658,900 3,579,595 3,562,040 3,449,982

Fall 1968 ......... 44,903,166 32,180,510 2,510,856 3,926,204 3,758,260 3,692,353 3,628,751 3,572,609 3,555,465

Fall 1969 ......... 45,550,284 32,513,403 2,544,675 3,868,874 3,715,875 3,720,273 3,660,367 3,621,198 3,568,291

Fall 1970 ......... 45,893,960 32,558,308 2,563,579 3,816,598 3,654,267 3,662,935 3,675,187 3,635,354 3,597,730

Fall 1971 ......... 46,071,327 32,318,229 2,483,175 3,569,907 3,586,811 3,611,940 3,623,135 3,662,163 3,622,049

Fall 1972 ......... 45,726,408 31,878,600 2,503,475 3,351,551 3,381,182 3,532,508 3,553,633 3,596,637 3,638,617

Fall 1973 ......... 45,444,787 31,400,809 2,654,770 3,239,246 3,191,806 3,335,705 3,505,015 3,538,470 3,592,162

Fall 1974 ......... 45,073,441 30,970,723 2,800,625 3,198,255 3,106,126 3,169,434 3,344,721 3,510,207 3,558,679

Fall 1975 ......... 44,819,327 30,515,131 2,971,538 3,238,299 3,027,189 3,038,127 3,112,233 3,281,102 3,476,322

Fall 1976 ......... 44,310,966 29,996,835 2,918,189 3,332,225 3,086,214 2,986,432 3,024,788 3,116,272 3,298,200

Fall 1977 ......... 43,577,373 29,374,503 2,741,820 3,294,755 3,199,609 3,059,474 2,979,007 3,018,803 3,111,480

Fall 1978 ......... 42,550,893 28,463,348 2,652,467 3,062,180 3,148,000 3,158,000 3,046,000 2,980,000 3,036,000

Fall 1979 ......... 41,650,712 28,034,345 2,674,708 2,936,788 2,908,724 3,119,639 3,147,912 3,054,764 2,999,408

Fall 1980 ......... 40,877,481 27,646,536 2,689,243 2,894,473 2,799,593 2,893,007 3,107,126 3,129,864 3,037,601

Fall 1981 ......... 40,044,093 27,280,220 2,687,151 2,950,609 2,782,406 2,806,394 2,917,954 3,126,877 3,180,311

Fall 1982 ......... 39,565,610 27,160,518 2,845,402 2,937,054 2,790,497 2,763,006 2,797,859 2,911,721 3,141,580

Fall 1983 ......... 39,252,308 26,980,962 2,858,783 3,079,916 2,781,355 2,772,025 2,758,011 2,797,905 2,928,288

Fall 1984 ......... 39,208,252 26,904,517 3,009,630 3,112,800 2,904,385 2,764,966 2,771,972 2,760,549 2,830,629

Fall 1985 ......... 39,421,961 27,034,244 3,192,406 3,238,855 2,940,995 2,894,524 2,771,015 2,776,402 2,788,817

Fall 1986 ......... 39,753,172 27,420,063 3,309,782 3,357,949 3,054,039 2,933,018 2,895,932 2,774,856 2,805,770

Fall 1987 ......... 40,007,022 27,930,296 3,387,202 3,407,072 3,172,777 3,046,374 2,937,636 2,900,558 2,811,047

Fall 1988 ......... 40,188,690 28,499,136 3,433,124 3,460,049 3,223,428 3,167,036 3,050,506 2,945,065 2,936,696

Fall 1989 ......... 40,542,707 29,152,224 3,486,358 3,484,789 3,289,081 3,234,961 3,182,098 3,066,633 2,987,333

Fall 1990 ......... 41,223,804 29,887,650 3,611,561 3,499,091 3,328,109 3,298,633 3,249,437 3,197,495 3,111,713
Elementary and Secondary Education 41

Table 10.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by grade:

1910–11 to fall 1990—Continued

Year

Kindergarten through grade 8 Grades 9 through 12 and postgraduate

Grade 7 Grade 8

Elementary

unclassified 2Total Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Postgraduate

Secondary

unclassified 2

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1955–56 .......... 2,541,719 2,356,737 — 6,872,586 2,142,573 1,848,570 1,542,646 1,325,726 13,071 —

1956–57 .......... 2,475,610 2,460,483 — 7,318,460 2,367,969 1,973,829 1,614,593 1,349,315 12,754 —

1957–58 .......... 2,457,872 2,395,395 — 7,859,771 2,479,588 2,193,739 1,736,180 1,431,302 18,962 —

1958–59 .......... 2,785,211 2,381,076 — 8,257,867 2,412,495 2,317,913 1,954,578 1,537,872 35,009 —

1959–60 .......... 3,172,798 2,701,184 — 8,484,869 2,412,413 2,258,010 2,063,322 1,747,311 3,813 —

1960–61 3 ........ 3,123,000 3,083,000 — 8,821,000 2,750,000 2,252,000 1,997,000 1,820,000 2,000 —

1961–62 .......... 3,121,946 3,020,655 — 9,566,253 3,155,544 2,594,694 2,017,988 1,790,759 7,268 —

1962–63 3 ........ 3,140,000 3,083,000 — 10,372,000 3,172,000 2,981,000 2,348,000 1,866,000 5,000 —

1963–64 3 ........ 3,241,000 3,077,000 — 11,110,000 3,190,000 3,006,000 2,747,000 2,160,000 6,000 —

1964–65 3 ........ 3,363,000 3,212,000 — 11,628,000 3,198,000 3,085,000 2,778,000 2,560,000 7,000 —

Fall 1965 ......... 3,296,830 3,185,613 404,468 11,602,279 3,215,090 2,993,191 2,740,889 2,477,142 6,563 169,404

Fall 1966 ......... 3,408,884 3,271,929 432,822 11,879,938 3,318,359 3,110,920 2,755,522 2,507,943 8,117 179,077

Fall 1967 ......... 3,454,124 3,356,821 458,826 12,246,783 3,395,030 3,221,364 2,879,107 2,525,408 16,266 209,608

Fall 1968 ......... 3,552,276 3,423,191 560,545 12,722,656 3,508,374 3,310,258 2,986,249 2,650,172 16,701 250,902

Fall 1969 ......... 3,666,623 3,519,625 627,602 13,036,881 3,567,783 3,404,835 3,047,342 2,731,777 20,680 264,464

Fall 1970 ......... 3,661,771 3,601,368 689,519 13,335,652 3,653,691 3,458,001 3,127,721 2,775,013 28,002 293,224

Fall 1971 ......... 3,710,030 3,635,020 813,999 13,753,098 3,781,001 3,571,024 3,200,171 2,863,832 9,037 328,033

Fall 1972 ......... 3,713,030 3,648,987 958,980 13,847,808 3,779,014 3,648,083 3,248,310 2,873,311 9,527 289,563

Fall 1973 ......... 3,741,103 3,675,682 926,850 14,043,978 3,800,743 3,650,445 3,323,148 2,917,920 3,695 348,027

Fall 1974 ......... 3,711,508 3,708,183 862,985 14,102,718 3,832,324 3,675,111 3,302,021 2,954,753 12,524 325,985

Fall 1975 ......... 3,618,952 3,635,697 1,115,672 14,304,196 3,878,760 3,723,241 3,353,888 2,986,296 22,598 339,413

Fall 1976 ......... 3,572,142 3,578,411 1,083,962 14,314,131 3,825,463 3,738,005 3,372,577 3,015,123 23,222 339,741

Fall 1977 ......... 3,384,593 3,533,583 1,051,379 14,202,870 3,779,103 3,686,352 3,387,650 3,026,115 12,732 310,918

Fall 1978 ......... 3,228,000 3,355,000 797,701 14,087,545 3,726,000 3,610,217 3,312,222 3,023,181 — 415,925

Fall 1979 ......... 3,127,695 3,170,749 893,958 13,616,367 3,526,450 3,531,995 3,240,825 2,968,747 — 348,350

Fall 1980 ......... 3,085,185 3,086,215 924,229 13,230,945 3,376,921 3,367,839 3,194,840 2,925,093 — 366,252

Fall 1981 ......... 3,182,613 3,058,995 586,910 12,763,873 3,286,288 3,217,564 3,038,979 2,907,276 — 313,766

Fall 1982 ......... 3,287,557 3,123,326 562,516 12,405,092 3,248,270 3,137,434 2,916,632 2,787,292 — 315,464

Fall 1983 ......... 3,247,425 3,222,136 535,118 12,271,346 3,330,074 3,102,912 2,860,892 2,678,093 — 299,375

Fall 1984 ......... 3,035,837 3,186,075 527,674 12,303,735 3,440,090 3,145,206 2,819,417 2,599,348 — 299,674

Fall 1985 ......... 2,938,307 2,981,883 511,040 12,387,717 3,438,951 3,230,130 2,866,025 2,549,614 — 302,997

Fall 1986 ......... 2,899,352 2,869,754 519,611 12,333,109 3,256,407 3,214,941 2,953,561 2,600,516 — 307,684

Fall 1987 ......... 2,910,432 2,838,513 518,685 12,076,726 3,143,179 3,020,018 2,935,626 2,680,825 — 297,078

Fall 1988 ......... 2,905,036 2,853,007 525,189 11,689,554 3,106,280 2,894,602 2,748,750 2,649,674 — 290,248

Fall 1989 ......... 3,027,491 2,853,464 540,016 11,390,483 3,141,456 2,867,522 2,629,483 2,473,278 — 278,744

Fall 1990 ......... 3,067,077 2,980,984 543,550 11,336,154 3,169,211 2,896,670 2,612,157 2,380,470 — 277,646

1 In later years, data contain a relatively small number of prekindergarten students.

2Prior to fall 1965, enrollment in ungraded and special classes was prorated among

the regular grades. 3Estimated.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Prior to 1965 enrollment data include students who enrolled at any time during the school year.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Statistics of State School Systems; and Digest of Education Statistics. (This

table was prepared February 1998.)
Table 11.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by state: 1870–71 to fall 1990 State Students enrolled at any time during the school year 

Estimated 1870–71 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 1959–60 1969 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

United States 1 ................................................ 7,561,582 9,867,505 12,722,581 15,503,110 17,813,852 21,578,316 25,678,015 25,433,542 25,111,427 36,086,771 45,550,284 41,6

Alabama .................................................................. 141,312 179,400 301,615 376,423 424,611 569,940 622,988 686,767 680,066 787,269 826,237 7Alaska 1 .................................................................... ————— 3,360 3,436 6,312 13,910 44,450 76,828 Arizona .................................................................... — 4,212 7,989 16,504 31,312 76,505 103,806 110,205 139,244 302,672 418,069 5Arkansas ................................................................. 69,927 81,972 223,071 314,662 395,978 483,172 456,185 465,339 407,084 424,206 460,115 4California ................................................................. 91,332 158,765 221,756 269,736 368,391 696,238 1,068,683 1,189,106 1,757,424 2 3,199,455 4,597,700 4,Colorado .................................................................. 4,357 22,119 65,490 117,555 168,798 220,232 240,482 221,409 229,196 393,690 538,175 5Connecticut ............................................................. 113,588 119,694 126,505 155,228 190,353 261,463 319,453 281,032 273,015 476,828 646,393 5Delaware ................................................................. 20,058 27,823 31,434 36,895 35,950 38,483 42,360 44,046 46,055 3 80,874 130,471 District of Columbia ................................................. 15,157 26,439 36,906 46,519 55,774 65,298 80,965 96,170 96,323 122,486 149,054 Florida ..................................................................... 14,000 39,315 92,472 108,874 148,089 225,160 346,434 369,214 449,836 993,496 1,408,095 1,5Georgia .................................................................... 49,578 236,533 381,297 482,673 555,794 690,918 713,290 737,979 718,037 949,099 1,112,416 1,0Hawaii 1 .................................................................... ————— 41,350 71,657 91,821 89,820 2 139,429 178,448 Idaho ....................................................................... 906 5,834 14,311 36,669 76,168 115,192 120,947 120,987 122,259 162,839 179,873 2Illinois ...................................................................... 672,787 704,041 778,319 958,911 1,002,687 1,127,560 1,395,907 1,248,827 1,153,683 1,787,869 2,324,516 2,0Indiana ..................................................................... 450,057 511,283 512,955 564,807 531,459 566,288 667,379 671,364 689,808 989,259 1,223,747 1,0Iowa ......................................................................... 341,938 426,057 493,267 566,223 510,661 514,521 554,655 503,481 477,720 598,103 660,389 5Kansas .................................................................... 89,777 231,434 399,322 389,582 398,746 406,880 431,166 376,349 347,626 478,630 518,867 4Kentucky .................................................................. 178,457 4 276,000 399,660 500,294 494,863 535,332 588,354 604,064 562,883 631,412 703,720 6Louisiana ................................................................. 57,639 77,642 120,253 196,169 263,617 354,079 434,557 473,020 483,363 693,202 853,766 8Maine ....................................................................... 152,600 149,827 139,676 130,918 144,278 137,681 154,455 163,640 158,247 195,325 240,169 2Maryland .................................................................. 115,683 162,431 184,251 222,373 238,393 241,618 277,459 287,225 335,018 596,375 891,981 7Massachusetts ........................................................ 273,661 306,777 371,492 474,891 535,869 623,586 759,492 700,305 632,285 2 860,667 1,147,561 1,0Michigan .................................................................. 292,466 362,556 427,032 504,985 541,501 691,674 970,582 970,188 1,069,435 2 1,625,247 2,138,979 1,8Minnesota ................................................................ 113,983 180,248 280,960 399,207 440,083 503,597 551,741 512,224 481,612 681,938 913,915 7Mississippi ............................................................... 117,000 236,654 334,158 386,507 469,137 4 412,670 595,449 594,799 527,440 566,421 575,284 4Missouri ................................................................... 330,070 482,986 620,314 719,817 707,031 672,483 656,073 700,640 644,457 820,724 1,077,288 8Montana .................................................................. 1,657 4,270 16,980 39,430 66,141 126,576 120,337 107,302 105,917 144,998 174,784 1Nebraska ................................................................. 23,265 92,549 240,300 288,227 4 281,375 311,821 325,216 276,188 227,879 282,721 330,990 2Nevada .................................................................... 3,106 9,045 7,387 6,676 4 10,200 14,114 18,041 20,746 25,144 66,415 123,663 1New Hampshire ....................................................... 71,957 64,341 59,813 65,688 63,972 64,205 74,240 75,697 71,733 105,827 152,188 New Jersey ............................................................. 169,430 204,961 234,072 322,575 429,797 594,780 792,012 716,527 674,915 1,051,079 1,454,378 1,2New Mexico ............................................................. 1,320 4,755 18,215 36,735 56,304 81,399 102,084 132,589 148,978 231,004 276,286 2New York ................................................................. 1,028,110 1,031,593 1,042,160 1,209,574 1,422,969 1,719,841 2,141,479 2,227,870 1,998,129 2,828,853 3,442,809 2,9North Carolina ......................................................... 115,000 252,612 322,533 400,452 520,404 691,249 866,939 886,484 884,733 1,105,412 1,185,592 1,North Dakota ........................................................... 1,660 13,718 35,543 77,686 139,802 168,283 169,277 140,126 114,661 136,766 147,782 Ohio ......................................................................... 719,372 729,499 797,439 829,160 838,080 1,020,663 1,277,636 1,213,978 1,202,967 1,905,995 2,423,831 2,0Oklahoma ................................................................ — — — 99,602 422,399 589,282 682,650 611,818 441,263 533,928 612,374 5Oregon .................................................................... 21,000 37,533 63,254 89,405 118,412 151,028 202,595 188,876 255,032 388,772 478,923 4Pennsylvania ........................................................... 834,614 937,310 1,020,522 1,151,880 1,282,965 1,610,459 1,937,433 1,851,780 1,550,286 1,927,832 2,346,002 1,9Rhode Island ........................................................... 34,000 40,604 52,774 67,231 80,061 93,501 118,704 114,161 96,305 133,317 180,285 South Carolina ........................................................ 66,056 134,072 201,260 281,891 340,415 478,045 469,370 481,750 494,185 610,099 648,182 6South Dakota .......................................................... (5) (5) 78,043 98,822 126,253 146,955 165,624 136,447 117,675 153,596 166,693 Tennessee ............................................................... 140,000 300,217 447,950 485,354 521,753 619,852 627,747 648,131 659,785 810,300 891,414 8Texas ....................................................................... 63,504 4 220,000 466,872 659,598 821,631 1,035,648 1,308,028 1,328,822 1,354,167 2,068,158 2,754,600 2,8Utah ......................................................................... 16,992 24,326 37,279 73,042 91,611 117,406 138,046 136,519 153,648 235,934 302,394 3
Table 11.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by state: 1870–71 to fall 1990—Contin

State

Students enrolled at any time during the school year 

Estimated

1870–71 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 1959–60 1969 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Vermont ................................................................... 65,384 75,328 65,608 65,964 66,615 61,785 65,976 64,911 61,143 2 72,822 99,957 Virginia .................................................................... 131,088 220,736 342,269 370,595 402,109 505,190 562,956 568,131 597,867 841,574 1,076,749 1,0Washington ............................................................. 5,000 14,780 55,964 115,104 215,688 291,053 344,731 331,409 400,867 2 609,035 820,482 7West Virginia ........................................................... 76,999 142,850 193,064 232,343 276,458 346,256 395,505 452,821 438,498 460,429 401,366 3Wisconsin ................................................................ 265,285 299,457 351,723 445,142 464,311 465,243 564,022 535,880 493,949 2 698,509 980,064 8Wyoming ................................................................. 450 2,907 7,052 14,512 24,584 43,112 54,505 56,199 59,585 81,431 86,440 

1 National totals include data for Alaska and Hawaii beginning in 1959–60.2 Includes only students enrolled on a specific date.3 Includes an estimate for kindergarten.4Estimated.5 Included in North Dakota.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statist

sioner of Education, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Statistics 

of Public Elementary and Secondary Day Schools; Digest of Education Statistics; 

cation Facts, 1969 to 1989. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
44 Elementary and Secondary Education

Table 12.—Children served in special education programs, by type of disability: 1921–22 to 1989–90

[In thousands]

Year Total

Percent

of

public

school

enrollment

Learning

disabled

Speech

impaired

Mentally

retarded

Seriously

emotionally

disturbed

Hardofhearing and

deaf

Orthopedically

handicapped

Other

health

impaired

Visually

handicapped

Multihandicapped

Deafblind

Preschool

handicapped

Other

handicapped

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1921–22 — — — — 23 — 4 — — — — — — —

1926–27 — — — — 52 — 4 — — 4 — — — —

1929–30 — — — — — 10 — 1 32 — — — — — —

1931–32 161 0.6 — 23 75 14 4 1 40 — 5 — — — —

1935–36 294 1.1 — 117 100 13 9 1 48 — 7 — — — —

1939–40 310 1.2 — 126 98 10 13 1 53 — 9 — — — —

1947–48 356 1.5 — 182 87 15 14 1 50 — 8 — — — —

1952–53 475 1.7 — 307 114 — 16 1 29 — 9 — — — —

1957–58 838 2.5 — 490 223 29 20 1 52 — 12 — — — 12

1962–63 1,469 3.7 — 802 432 80 46 1 65 — 22 — — — 22

1965–66 1,794 4.3 — 990 540 88 51 1 69 — 23 — — — 33

1969–70 2,677 5.9 — 1,237 830 113 78 1 269 — 24 — — — 126

1976–77 3,692 8.3 796 1,302 959 283 87 87 141 38 — — (2) —

1977–78 3,751 8.6 964 1,223 933 288 85 87 135 35 — — (2) —

1978–79 3,889 9.1 1,130 1,214 901 300 85 70 105 32 50 2 (2) —

1979–80 4,005 9.6 1,276 1,186 869 329 80 66 106 31 60 2 (2) —

1980–81 4,142 10.1 1,462 1,168 829 346 79 58 98 31 68 3 (2) —

1981–82 4,198 10.5 1,622 1,135 786 339 75 58 79 29 71 2 (2) —

1982–83 4,255 10.8 1,741 1,131 757 352 73 57 50 28 63 2 (2) —

1983–84 4,298 10.9 1,806 1,128 727 361 72 56 53 29 65 2 (2) —

1984–85 4,315 11.0 1,832 1,126 694 372 69 56 68 28 69 2 (2) —

1985–86 4,317 11.0 1,862 1,125 660 375 66 57 57 27 86 2 (2) —

1986–87 4,374 11.0 1,914 1,136 643 383 65 57 52 26 97 2 (2) —

1987–88 4,447 11.1 1,928 953 582 373 56 47 45 22 77 1 363 —

1988–89 4,544 11.3 1,987 967 564 376 56 47 43 23 85 2 394 —

1989–90 4,641 11.4 2,050 973 548 381 57 48 52 22 86 2 422 —

1 Includes special health problems.

2Prior to 1987–88, these students were included in the counts by handicapping condition. Beginning in 1987–88, states are no longer required to report preschool handicapped students (0 to 5 years) by handicapping condition.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Data for years 1957–58 to 1969–70 are as of February. Data for other years

are for the school year. Data for 1976–77 and later years are for children participating

in federal programs. Increases since 1987–88 are due in part to new legislation enacted

fall 1986, which mandates public school special education services for all handicapped

children ages 3 through 5.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Digest of Education Statistics; Office

of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Education of the Handicapped Act; and unpublished tabulations.

(This table was prepared September 1992.)
Elementary and Secondary Education 45

Table 13.—Public school pupils transported at public expense and current expenditures for transportation:

1929–30 to 1989–90

School year

Average daily

attendance, all

students

Pupils transported at public expense Expenditures for transportation

(in current dollars)

Expenditures for transportation

(in constant 1989–90 dollars)

Number Percent of total Total 1

(In thousands)

Average per

pupil transported

Total 1

(In thousands)

Average per

pupil transported

1 2345678

1929–30 ................... 21,265,000 1,902,826 8.9 $54,823 $29 $406,681 $214

1931–32 ................... 22,245,000 2,419,173 10.9 58,078 24 511,511 211

1933–34 ................... 22,458,000 2,794,724 12.4 53,908 19 516,913 185

1935–36 ................... 22,299,000 3,250,658 14.6 62,653 19 578,909 178

1937–38 ................... 22,298,000 3,769,242 16.9 75,637 20 670,437 178

1939–40 ................... 22,042,000 4,144,161 18.8 83,283 20 756,698 183

1941–42 ................... 21,031,000 4,503,081 21.4 92,922 21 756,720 168

1943–44 ................... 19,603,000 4,512,412 23.0 107,754 24 785,197 174

1945–46 ................... 19,849,000 5,056,966 25.5 129,756 26 903,178 179

1947–48 ................... 20,910,000 5,854,041 28.0 176,265 30 960,569 164

1949–50 ................... 22,284,000 6,947,384 31.2 214,504 31 1,150,050 166

1951–52 ................... 23,257,000 7,697,130 33.1 268,827 35 1,298,722 169

1953–54 ................... 25,643,871 8,411,719 32.8 307,437 37 1,451,614 173

1955–56 ................... 27,740,149 9,695,819 35.0 353,972 37 1,671,897 172

1957–58 ................... 29,722,275 10,861,689 36.5 416,491 38 1,851,808 170

1959–60 ................... 32,477,440 12,225,142 37.6 486,338 40 2,101,650 172

1961–62 ................... 34,682,340 13,222,667 38.1 576,361 44 2,434,741 184

1963–64 ................... 37,405,058 14,475,778 38.7 673,845 47 2,774,187 192

1965–66 ................... 39,154,497 15,536,567 39.7 787,358 51 3,133,220 202

1967–68 ................... 40,827,965 17,130,873 42.0 981,006 57 3,662,763 214

1969–70 ................... 41,934,376 18,198,577 43.4 1,218,557 67 4,095,997 225

1971–72 ................... 42,254,272 19,474,355 46.1 1,507,830 77 4,652,654 239

1973–74 ................... 41,438,054 21,347,039 51.5 1,858,141 87 5,060,321 237

1975–76 ................... 41,269,720 21,772,483 52.8 2,377,313 109 5,443,026 250

1977–78 ................... 40,079,590 2 21,800,000 54.4 2,731,041 125 5,536,601 254

1979–80 ................... 38,288,911 21,713,515 56.7 3,833,145 177 6,269,416 289

1980–81 ................... 37,703,744 2 22,272,000 59.1 2 4,408,000 198 2 6,461,000 290

1981–82 ................... 37,094,652 2 22,246,000 60.0 2 4,793,000 215 2 6,467,000 291

1982–83 ................... 36,635,868 2 22,199,000 60.6 2 5,000,000 225 2 6,468,000 291

1983–84 ................... 36,362,978 2 22,031,000 60.6 2 5,284,000 240 2 6,592,000 299

1984–85 ................... 36,404,261 2 22,320,000 61.3 2 5,722,000 256 2 6,869,000 308

1985–86 ................... 36,523,103 2 22,041,000 60.3 2 6,123,000 278 2 7,145,000 324

1986–87 ................... 36,863,867 2 22,397,000 60.8 2 6,551,000 292 2 7,478,000 334

1987–88 ................... 37,050,707 2 22,158,000 59.8 2 6,888,000 311 2 7,550,000 341

1988–89 ................... 37,268,072 2 22,635,000 60.7 2 7,550,000 334 2 7,910,000 349

1989–90 ................... 37,778,512 2 22,459,000 59.4 2 8,304,000 370 2 8,304,000 370

1Excludes capital outlay for years through 1979–80. Beginning in 1980–81, total transportation figures include capital outlay. 2Estimate based on data appearing in January issues of School Bus Fleet.

NOTE.—Constant dollars are adjusted for inflation using the Consumer Price Index

computed on a school year basis. Some data have been revised from previously published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of State School Systems; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and

Secondary Education, and unpublished data; and Bobbit Publishing Co., School Bus

Fleet, January issues. (This table was prepared October 1992.)
Table 14.—Average daily attendance, instructional staff, and teachers in public elementary and secondary schools: 1869–7

School year School attendance Instructional staff Average daily attendance, in thousands Average length of school term (days) Average number of days attended per pupil enrolled Total, in thousands Principals, in thousands Other supervisory staff, in thousands Classroom teachers, in thousands 1 Average annual salary of instructional staff 2 

Total Male Female Pupil- teacher ratio In current dollars In constan

1990–91 dollars 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

1869–70 ............ 4,077 132.2 78.4 — — — 201 78 123 34.3 $189 — 1870–71 ............ 4,545 132.1 79.4 — — — 220 90 130 34.4 — — 1871–72 ............ 4,659 133.4 79.5 — — — 230 95 135 34.0 — — 1872–73 ............ 4,745 129.1 76.5 — — — 238 98 140 33.6 — — 1873–74 ............ 5,051 128.8 77.0 — — — 248 103 145 34.0 — — 1874–75 ............ 5,248 134.4 77.9 — — — 258 109 149 34.1 — — 1875–76 ............ 5,291 133.1 79.4 — — — 260 110 150 34.1 — — 1876–77 ............ 5,427 132.1 80.0 — — — 267 114 153 33.6 — — 1877–78 ............ 5,783 132.0 80.9 — — — 277 119 158 34.1 — — 1878–79 ............ 5,876 130.2 80.5 — — — 280 121 159 33.9 — — 1879–80 ............ 6,144 130.3 81.1 — — — 287 123 164 34.4 195 — 1880–81 ............ 6,146 130.0 80.0 — — — 294 123 171 34.0 — — 1881–82 ............ 6,331 131.2 81.3 — — — 299 119 180 34.2 — — 1882–83 ............ 6,652 129.8 81.1 — — — 304 116 188 35.0 — — 1883–84 ............ 7,056 129.1 82.9 — — — 314 119 195 35.0 — — 1884–85 ............ 7,298 130.7 83.6 — — — 326 122 204 35.0 224 — 1885–86 ............ 7,526 130.4 84.1 — — — 331 124 208 35.2 — — 1886–87 ............ 7,682 131.3 84.9 — — — 339 127 212 35.1 — — 1887–88 ............ 7,907 132.3 85.9 — — — 347 126 221 35.1 — — 1888–89 ............ 8,006 133.7 86.4 — — — 357 124 232 34.7 — — 1889–90 ............ 8,154 134.7 86.3 — — — 364 126 238 35.0 252 — 1890–91 ............ 8,329 135.7 86.6 — — — 368 123 245 35.5 — — 1891–92 ............ 8,561 136.9 88.4 — — — 374 122 253 35.4 — — 1892–93 ............ 8,856 136.3 89.6 — — — 383 122 261 35.2 — — 1893–94 ............ 9,188 139.5 91.6 — — — 389 125 264 36.0 — — 1894–95 ............ 9,549 139.5 93.5 — — — 398 130 268 35.8 286 — 1895–96 ............ 9,781 140.5 94.8 — — — 400 130 270 36.2 — — 1896–97 ............ 10,053 142.0 96.3 — — — 405 131 274 36.6 — — 1897–98 ............ 10,356 143.0 98.0 — — — 411 132 279 36.7 — — 1898–99 ............ 10,389 143.0 97.9 — — — 414 131 283 36.7 — — 1899–1900 ........ 10,633 144.3 99.0 — — — 423 127 296 36.6 325 — 1900–01 ............ 10,716 143.7 98.0 — — — 432 126 306 36.3 — — 1901–02 ............ 11,064 144.7 100.6 — — — 442 121 321 36.0 — — 1903–03 ............ 11,055 147.2 101.7 — — — 449 117 332 35.7 — — 1903–04 ............ 11,318 146.7 102.1 — — — 455 114 341 35.7 — — 1904–05 ............ 11,482 150.9 105.2 — — — 460 111 350 35.8 386 — 1905–06 ............ 11,712 150.6 106.0 — — — 466 109 357 35.7 — — 1906–07 ............ 11,926 151.8 107.3 — — — 481 104 377 35.1 — — 1907–08 ............ 12,154 154.1 109.8 — — — 495 104 391 34.5 — — 1908–09 ............ 12,685 155.3 112.6 — — — 506 108 398 34.6 — — 1909–10 ............ 12,827 157.5 113.0 — — — 523 110 413 34.0 485 — 
Table 14.—Average daily attendance, instructional staff, and teachers in public elementary and secondary schools: 1869–70 to 19

School year

School attendance Instructional staff

Average daily

attendance, in

thousands

Average

length of

school

term

(days)

Average

number of

days

attended

per pupil

enrolled

Total, in

thousands

Principals,

in

thousands

Other

supervisory

staff, in

thousands

Classroom teachers, in thousands 1 Average annual salary of instructional staff 2 

Total Male Female

Pupilteacher

ratio

In current

dollars

In constan

1990–91

dollars

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

1910–11 ............ 12,872 156.8 111.8 — — — 534 110 423 33.8 466 — 1911–12 ............ 13,302 158.8 115.6 — — — 547 115 433 33.2 492 — 1912–13 ............ 13,614 158.1 115.6 — — — 565 113 452 32.9 512 — 1913–14 ............ 14,216 158.7 117.8 — — — 580 115 465 33.0 525 — 1914–15 ............ 14,986 159.4 121.2 — — — 604 118 486 32.6 543 — 1915–16 ............ 15,359 160.3 120.9 — — — 622 123 499 32.7 563 — 1917–18 ............ 15,549 160.7 119.8 — — — 651 105 546 32.0 635 — 1919–20 ............ 16,150 161.9 121.2 700 13.6 6.6 680 96 584 31.8 871 $6,121921–22 ............ 18,432 164.0 130.6 756 18.6 14.1 723 118 605 32.1 1,166 9,101923–24 ............ 19,132 168.3 132.5 787 17.9 7.9 761 129 633 31.9 1,227 9,571925–26 ............ 19,856 169.3 135.9 850 26.9 8.4 778 131 647 31.8 1,277 9,601927–28 ............ 20,608 171.5 140.4 868 28.8 7.7 832 138 694 30.3 1,364 10,601929–30 ............ 21,265 172.7 143.0 892 30.9 6.9 854 142 712 30.1 1,420 11,111931–32 ............ 22,245 171.2 144.9 901 23.9 5.7 872 154 718 30.1 1,417 13,161933–34 ............ 22,458 171.6 145.8 880 28.1 5.0 847 162 685 31.2 1,227 12,401935–36 ............ 22,299 173.0 146.3 906 29.6 5.8 871 179 692 30.3 1,283 12,501937–38 ............ 22,298 173.9 149.3 919 36.4 5.0 877 185 692 29.6 1,374 12,841939–40 ............ 22,042 175.0 151.7 912 31.5 4.8 875 195 681 29.1 1,441 13,801941–42 ............ 21,031 174.7 149.6 898 33.1 6.1 859 183 676 28.6 1,507 12,941943–44 ............ 19,603 175.5 147.9 865 31.6 5.5 828 127 701 28.1 1,728 13,281945–46 ............ 19,849 176.8 150.6 867 29.4 6.8 831 138 693 28.0 1,995 14,641947–48 ............ 20,910 177.6 155.1 907 37.1 9.2 861 162 699 27.8 2,639 15,161949–50 ............ 22,284 177.9 157.9 962 39.3 9.2 914 195 719 27.5 3,010 17,021951–52 ............ 23,257 178.2 156.0 1,012 39.7 9.8 963 235 728 27.6 3,450 17,571953–54 ............ 25,644 178.6 158.9 1,098 45.7 10.3 1,032 254 779 27.9 3,825 19,041955–56 ............ 27,740 178.0 158.5 1,213 51.0 13.3 1,149 299 850 27.1 4,156 20,701957–58 ............ 29,722 177.6 157.4 1,333 59.0 14.0 1,238 332 906 27.1 4,702 22,041959–60 4 .......... 32,477 178.0 160.2 1,464 63.6 13.8 1,355 393 962 26.6 5,174 23,581961–62 ............ 34,682 179.1 162.3 1,588 67.2 16.2 1,458 451 1,053 26.2 5,700 25,391963–64 ............ 37,405 179.0 163.2 1,717 72.6 18.7 1,568 488 1,080 26.2 6,240 27,091965–66 ............ 39,154 178.9 163.5 1,885 77.3 21.6 1,711 544 1,167 24.6 6,935 29,101967–68 ............ 40,828 178.8 163.2 2,071 85.5 29.0 1,864 584 1,280 23.5 7,885 31,051969–70 ............ 41,934 178.9 161.7 2,253 90.6 31.5 2,023 690 1,333 22.5 8,840 31,331970–71 ............ 42,428 ———— — 2,059 5 676 5 1,383 22.3 9,698 32,691971–72 ............ 42,254 179.3 161.7 2,322 — — 2,070 5 688 5 1,382 22.3 10,213 33,231972–73 ............ 42,179 ———— — 2,106 5 703 5 1,403 21.7 10,634 33,261973–74 ............ 41,438 178.7 159.5 2,338 100.0 38.0 2,136 5 715 5 1,421 21.3 11,254 32,321974–75 ............ 41,524 ———— — 2,165 5 727 5 1,438 20.8 12,167 31,46
Table 14.—Average daily attendance, instructional staff, and teachers in public elementary and secondary schools: 1869–70 to 19

School year School attendance Instructional staff Average daily attendance, in thousands Average length of school term (days) Average number of days attended per pupil enrolled Total, in thousands Principals, in thousands Other supervisory staff, in thousands Classroom teachers, in thousands 1 Average annual salary of instructional staff 2 

Total Male Female Pupil- teacher ratio In current dollars In constan

1990–91 dollars 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

1975–76 ............ 41,270 178.3 161.1 2,337 104.0 35.0 2,198 5 742 5 1,456 20.4 13,124 31,691976–77 ............ 40,832 ———— — 2,189 5 734 5 1,455 20.2 13,840 31,571977–78 ............ 40,079 ———— — 2,209 5 742 5 1,467 19.7 14,698 31,421978–79 ............ 39,075 — — 2,297 — — 2,207 5 735 5 1,472 19.3 15,764 30,811979–80 ............ 38,289 178.5 160.8 2,441 106.0 35.0 2,185 5 743 5 1,442 19.1 5 16,715 28,831980–81 ............ 37,704 178.2 160.7 2,452 107.0 20.6 2,184 5 708 5 1,476 18.7 18,404 28,451981–82 ............ 37,095 ———— — 2,118 5 679 5 1,439 18.9 20,327 28,921982–83 ............ 36,636 ———— — 2,133 5 679 5 1,454 18.6 21,641 29,521983–84 ............ 36,363 ———— — 2,139 5 679 5 1,460 18.4 23,005 30,261984–85 ............ 36,404 — — 2,692 124.5 — 2,168 5 679 5 1,489 18.1 24,666 31,231985–86 ............ 36,523 — — 2,757 129.3 — 2,206 5 669 5 1,537 17.9 26,362 32,441986–87 ............ 36,864 — — 2,823 131.6 — 2,244 5 674 5 1,570 17.7 27,706 33,351987–88 ............ 37,051 — — 2,860 125.9 — 2,279 5 665 5 1,614 17.6 29,233 33,791988–89 ............ 37,268 — — 2,931 126.6 — 2,323 5 659 5 1,664 17.3 30,899 34,141989–90 ............ 37,779 — — 2,986 125.6 — 2,357 5 658 5 1,699 17.2 32,685 34,471990–91 ............ — — — 3,051 127.0 — 2,397 5 669 5 1,728 17.2 34,385 34,38

1For select years prior to 1951–52, includes a small number of librarians and other non-supervisory instructional staff.2Prior to 1919–20, computed for teaching positions only; beginning 1919–20, also includes supervisors and principals. Data for 1980–81 and subsequent years are estimates from the National Education Association.3 Data for 1970–71 and subsequent years are estimated by the National Education Association.4 Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.5Estimated.

—Data not available.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Stat

Times to 1970; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statissioner of Education, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, Digest of Ed

data: National Education Association, Estimates of School Statistics. (This table was 
Elementary and Secondary Education 49

Table 15.—Catholic elementary and secondary enrollment, teachers, and schools, by level:

1919–20 to 1990–91

School year

Number of schools Enrollment Instructional staff 1 Studentinstructional

Total Elementary Secondary Total Elementary Secondary Total Elementary Secondary staff ratio

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1919–20 ........ 8,103 6,551 1,552 1,925,521 1,795,673 129,848 49,516 41,592 7,924 38.9

1929–30 ........ 10,046 7,923 2,123 2,464,467 2,222,598 241,869 72,552 58,245 14,307 34.0

1935–36 ........ 9,875 7,929 1,946 2,388,000 2,103,000 285,000 76,000 59,000 17,000 31.4

1939–40 ........ 10,049 7,944 2,105 2,396,305 2,035,182 361,123 81,057 60,081 20,976 29.6

1946–47 ........ — — 2,111 — — 467,000 — — 27,000 —

1947–48 ........ 10,435 8,285 2,150 2,788,000 2,305,000 483,000 89,000 62,000 27,000 31.3

1949–50 ........ 10,778 8,589 2,189 3,066,387 2,560,815 505,572 94,295 66,525 27,770 32.5

1951–52 ........ 11,060 8,880 2,180 3,391,000 2,842,000 549,000 101,000 72,000 29,000 33.6

1953–54 ........ 11,575 9,279 2,296 3,859,000 3,235,000 624,000 109,000 77,000 32,000 35.4

1955–56 ........ 11,926 9,615 2,311 4,276,000 3,571,000 705,000 120,000 85,000 35,000 35.6

1960–61 ........ 12,893 10,501 2,392 5,253,791 4,373,422 880,369 151,902 108,169 43,733 34.6

1961–62 ........ 13,007 10,631 2,376 5,383,000 4,445,000 938,000 158,000 111,000 47,000 34.1

1962–63 ........ 13,178 10,676 2,502 5,494,000 4,485,000 1,009,000 159,000 112,000 47,000 34.6

1963–64 ........ 13,205 10,775 2,430 5,590,000 4,546,000 1,044,000 166,000 115,000 51,000 33.7

1964–65 ........ 13,249 10,832 2,417 5,601,000 4,534,000 1,067,000 171,000 118,000 53,000 32.8

1965–66 ........ 13,292 10,879 2,413 5,574,000 4,492,000 1,082,000 177,000 120,000 57,000 31.5

1966–67 ........ 13,232 10,769 2,463 5,485,000 4,375,000 1,110,000 176,000 120,000 56,000 31.2

1967–68 ........ 12,627 10,350 2,277 5,199,000 4,106,000 1,093,000 179,000 124,000 55,000 29.0

1968–69 ........ 12,305 10,113 2,192 4,941,000 3,860,000 1,081,000 183,000 126,000 57,000 27.0

1969–70 ........ 11,771 9,695 2,076 4,658,098 3,607,168 1,050,930 2 195,400 2 133,200 2 62,200 23.8

1970–71 ........ 11,350 9,370 1,980 4,363,566 3,355,478 1,008,088 166,208 112,750 53,458 26.3

1971–72 ........ 10,841 8,982 1,859 4,034,785 3,075,785 959,000 159,083 106,686 52,397 25.4

1972–73 ........ 10,504 8,761 1,743 3,790,000 2,871,000 919,000 155,964 105,384 50,580 24.3

1973–74 ........ 10,297 8,569 1,728 3,621,000 2,714,000 907,000 153,883 102,785 51,098 23.5

1974–75 ........ 10,127 8,437 1,690 3,504,000 2,602,000 902,000 150,179 100,011 50,168 23.3

1975–76 ........ 9,993 8,340 1,653 3,415,000 2,525,000 890,000 149,276 99,319 49,957 22.9

1976–77 ........ 9,904 8,281 1,623 3,365,000 2,483,000 882,000 150,610 100,016 50,594 22.3

1977–78 ........ 9,797 8,204 1,593 3,289,000 2,421,000 868,000 150,648 99,739 50,909 21.8

1978–79 ........ 9,723 8,159 1,564 3,218,000 2,365,000 853,000 147,948 98,539 49,409 21.8

1979–80 ........ 9,640 8,100 1,540 3,139,000 2,293,000 846,000 147,294 97,724 49,570 21.3

1980–81 ........ 9,559 8,043 1,516 3,106,000 2,269,000 837,000 145,777 96,739 49,038 21.3

1981–82 ........ 9,494 7,996 1,498 3,094,000 2,266,000 828,000 146,172 96,847 49,325 21.2

1982–83 ........ 9,432 7,950 1,482 3,026,000 2,225,000 801,000 146,460 97,337 49,123 20.7

1983–84 ........ 9,380 7,917 1,463 2,969,000 2,179,000 790,000 146,913 98,591 48,322 20.2

1984–85 ........ 9,325 7,876 1,449 2,903,000 2,119,000 784,000 149,888 99,820 50,068 19.4

1985–86 ........ 9,220 7,790 1,430 2,821,000 2,061,000 760,000 146,594 96,741 49,853 19.2

1986–87 ........ 9,102 7,693 1,409 2,726,000 1,998,000 728,000 141,930 93,554 48,376 19.2

1987–88 ........ 8,992 7,601 1,391 2,623,000 1,942,000 681,000 139,887 93,199 46,688 18.8

1988–89 ........ 8,867 7,505 1,362 2,551,000 1,912,000 639,000 137,700 93,154 44,546 18.5

1989–90 ........ 8,719 7,395 1,324 2,499,000 1,894,000 606,000 136,900 94,197 42,703 18.3

1990–91 ........ 8,587 7,291 1,296 2,475,439 1,883,906 591,533 131,198 91,039 40,159 18.9

1Beginning in 1970–71, includes full-time teaching staff only.

2 Includes estimates for the nonreporting schools.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Data reported by the National Catholic Educational Association and data reported by the National Center for Education Statistics are not directly comparable because survey procedures and definitions differ.

SOURCE: National Catholic Educational Association, A Statistical Report on Catholic

Elementary and Secondary Schools for the Years 1967–68 to 1969–70, as compiled

from the Official Catholic Directory; United States Catholic Elementary and Secondary

Schools, 1989 and 1990-91; and Franklin Press, Catholic Schools in America and United

States Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools, 1989–90 and 1990–91. (This table

was prepared September 1992.)
Table 16.—Public school enrollment in grades 9 to 12, by subject: 1889–90 to fall 1981 Subject 1889–90 1899– 1900 1909–10 1914–15 1921–22 1927–28 1933–34 1948–49 1954–55 1958–59 1960–61 1962–63 196

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

Total, in thousands ........ 203 519 915 1,562 2,873 3,911 5,669 5,658 6,574 8,258 8,821 10,372 1

Percentage of students taking specific subject General science ................. ———— 18.3 17.5 17.8 20.8 — 19.6 22.2 17.6 

Biology ................................ — — 1.1 6.9 8.8 13.6 14.6 18.4 20.0 20.8 21.7 24.0 Chemistry ........................... 10.1 7.7 6.9 7.4 7.4 7.1 7.6 7.6 7.5 8.1 9.1 8.3 Physics ............................... 22.8 19.0 14.6 14.2 8.9 6.8 6.3 5.4 4.7 4.7 4.9 3.8 Physiology .......................... — 27.4 15.3 9.5 5.1 2.7 1.8 1.0 — — 0.8 — Earth science ..................... — 29.8 21.0 15.3 4.5 2.8 1.7 0.4 — — 0.9 — Algebra ............................... 45.4 56.3 56.9 48.8 40.2 35.2 30.4 26.8 25.3 29.9 28.6 30.4 General mathematics ......... ———— 12.4 7.9 7.4 13.1 12.3 12.7 17.4 11.7 Geometry ............................ 21.3 27.4 30.9 26.5 22.7 19.8 17.1 12.8 12.5 13.4 13.8 14.7 Trignometry ........................ — 1.9 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.3 2.0 2.6 2.7 3.0 2.0 Spanish .............................. — — 0.7 2.7 11.3 9.4 6.2 8.2 — — 9.8 — French ................................ 5.8 7.8 9.9 8.8 15.5 14.0 10.9 4.7 — — 8.0 — German .............................. 10.5 14.3 23.7 24.4 0.6 1.8 2.4 0.8 — — 1.7 — English ................................ — 38.5 57.1 58.4 76.7 93.1 90.5 92.9 — — 94.6 — Latin .................................... 34.7 50.6 49.0 37.3 27.5 22.0 16.0 7.8 — — 7.8 — U.S. and English history 1 .... 27.3 38.2 55.0 50.5 18.2 18.8 17.8 22.8 — — 24.3 — Civics and government ........ — 21.7 15.6 15.7 19.3 20.0 16.4 8.0 — — 9.5 — Industrial subjects .............. — — — 11.2 13.7 13.5 21.0 26.6 — — 28.0 — Bookkeeping ....................... — — — 3.4 12.6 10.7 9.9 8.7 — — 7.7 — Typewriting ......................... ———— 13.1 15.2 16.7 22.5 — — 23.1 — Shorthand ........................... — — — — 8.9 8.7 9.0 7.8 — — 6.7 — Home economics ............... — — 3.8 12.9 14.3 16.5 16.7 24.2 — — 23.1 — Agriculture .......................... — — 4.7 7.2 5.1 3.7 3.6 6.7 — — 6.2 — Physical education ............. — — — — 5.7 15.0 50.7 69.4 — — 73.7 — Music .................................. — — — 31.5 25.3 26.0 25.5 30.1 — — 28.0 — Art ....................................... — — — 22.9 14.7 11.7 8.7 9.0 — — 19.3 — 

1For 1914–15 and earlier years, includes ancient, medieval, and modern history.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistic

the United States; A Trend Study of High School Offerings and Enrollments: 197

Education Statistics. (This table was prepared October 1992.)
Table 17.—Student proficiency in reading, writing, mathematics, and science, by age and race/ethnicity: 1969–70 to 1

Year and

race/ethnicity

Reading Writing Mathematics 

9-year-olds 13-year-olds 17-year-olds Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 11 9-year-olds 13-year-olds 17-year-olds 9-year-olds 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

Total

1969–70 .................. — — — — — — — — — 225 1970–71 .................. 208 255 285———————1972–73 .................. — — — — — — 219 266 304 220 1974–75 .................. 210 256 286———————1976–77 .................. — — — — — — — — — 220 1977–78 .................. — — — — — — 219 264 300 — 1979–80 .................. 215 259 286———————1981–82 .................. — — — — — — 219 269 299 221 1983–84 .................. 211 257 289 179 206 212————1985–86 .................. — — — — — — 222 269 302 224 1987–88 .................. 212 258 290 186 203 214————1989–90 .................. 209 257 290 183 198 212 230 270 305 229 

White

1969–70 1 ................ — — — — — — — — — 236 1970–71 1 ................ 214 261 291———————1972–73 .................. — — — — — — 225 274 310 231 1974–75 .................. 217 262 293———————1976–77 .................. — — — — — — — — — 230 1977–78 .................. — — — — — — 224 272 306 — 1979–80 .................. 221 264 293———————1981–82 .................. — — — — — — 224 274 304 229 1983–84 .................. 218 263 295 186 210 218————1985–86 .................. — — — — — — 227 274 308 232 1987–88 .................. 218 261 295 193 207 219————1989–90 .................. 217 262 297 191 202 217 235 276 310 238 

Black

1969–70 .................. — — — — — — — — — 179 1970–71 .................. 170 222 239———————1972–73 .................. — — — — — — 190 228 270 177 1974–75 .................. 181 226 241———————1976–77 .................. — — — — — — — — — 175 1977–78 .................. — — — — — — 192 230 268 — 1979–80 .................. 189 233 243———————1981–82 .................. — — — — — — 195 240 272 187 1983–84 .................. 186 236 264 154 190 195————1985–86 .................. — — — — — — 202 249 279 196 1987–88 .................. 189 243 274 154 190 200————1989–90 .................. 182 242 267 155 182 194 208 249 289 196 

Hispanic

1972–73 .................. — — — — — — 202 239 277 — 1974–75 .................. 183 233 252———————1976–77 .................. — — — — — — — — — 192 1977–78 .................. — — — — — — 203 238 276 — 1979–80 .................. 190 237 261———————1981–82 .................. — — — — — — 204 252 277 189 1983–84 .................. 187 240 268 163 191 188————1985–86 .................. — — — — — — 205 254 283 199 1987–88 .................. 194 240 271 169 188 199————1989–90 .................. 189 238 275 168 189 198 214 255 284 206 

1 Includes persons of Hispanic origin.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statis

cational Progress, Trends in Academic Progress, November 1991. (This table was p
Table 18.—Percentage of students at or above selected reading, mathematics, and science proficiency levels, by age and ra

1970–71 to 1989–90 Age, year and race/ethnicity Reading Mathematics Scie

Level 150 1 Level 200 2 Level 250 3 Level 300 4 Level 350 5 Level 150 6 Level 200 7 Level 250 8 Level 300 9 Level 350 10 Level 150 11 Level 200 12 Le

25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1

9-year-olds 16 Total 1970–71 ........................ 90.6 58.7 15.6 0.9 0.0 ———————

1974–75 ....................... 93.1 62.1 14.6 0.6 0.0 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 93.5 68.0 1977–78 ........................ ————— 96.7 70.4 19.6 0.8 0.0 ——1979–80 ........................ 94.6 67.7 17.7 0.6 0.0 ———————1981–82 ....................... ————— 97.1 71.4 18.8 0.6 0.0 95.2 70.7 1983–84 ....................... 92.3 61.5 17.2 1.0 0.0 ———————1985–86 ....................... ————— 97.9 74.1 20.7 0.6 0.0 96.2 72.0 1987–88 ........................ 92.7 62.6 17.5 1.4 0.0 ———————1989–90 ........................ 90.1 58.9 18.4 1.7 0.0 99.1 81.5 27.7 1.2 0.0 97.0 76.4 

White

1970–71 17 ..................... 94.0 65.0 18.0 1.1 0.0 ———————1974–75 ........................ 96.0 69.0 17.4 0.7 0.0 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 97.7 76.8 1977–78 ........................ ————— 98.3 76.3 22.9 0.9 0.0 ——1979–80 ........................ 97.1 74.2 21.0 0.8 0.0 ———————1981–82 ....................... ————— 98.5 76.8 21.8 0.6 0.0 98.3 78.4 1983–84 ........................ 95.4 68.6 20.9 1.2 0.0 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 98.8 79.6 24.6 0.8 0.0 98.2 78.9 1987–88 ........................ 95.1 68.4 20.3 1.6 0.0 ———————1989–90 ........................ 93.5 66.0 22.6 2.2 0.0 99.6 86.9 32.7 1.5 0.0 99.2 84.4 

Black

1970–71 ....................... 69.7 22.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 ———————1974–75 ........................ 80.7 31.6 2.0 0.0 0.0 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 72.4 27.2 1977–78 ........................ ————— 88.4 42.0 4.1 0.0 0.0 ——1979–80 ........................ 84.9 41.3 4.1 0.0 0.0 ———————1981–82 ........................ ————— 90.2 46.1 4.4 0.0 0.0 82.1 38.9 1983–84 ........................ 81.3 36.6 4.5 0.1 0.0 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 93.9 53.4 5.6 0.1 0.0 88.6 46.2 1987–88 ........................ 83.2 39.4 5.6 0.2 0.0 ———————1989–90 ........................ 76.9 33.9 5.2 0.3 0.0 96.9 60.0 9.4 0.1 0.0 88.0 46.4 

Hispanic

1974–75 ....................... 80.8 34.6 2.6 0.0 0.0 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 84.6 42.0 1977–78 ........................ ————— 93.0 54.2 9.2 0.2 0.0 ——1979–80 ........................ 84.5 41.6 5.0 0.0 0.0 ———————1981–82 ........................ ————— 94.3 55.7 7.8 0.0 0.0 85.1 40.2 1983–84 ........................ 82.0 39.6 4.3 0.1 0.0 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 96.4 57.6 7.3 0.1 0.0 89.6 50.1 1987–88 ........................ 85.6 45.9 8.6 0.4 0.0 ———————1989–90 ........................ 83.7 40.9 5.8 0.2 0.0 98.0 68.4 11.3 0.2 0.0 93.6 56.3 

13-year-olds 16

Total

1970–71 ....................... 99.8 93.0 57.8 9.8 0.1 ———————1974–75 ........................ 99.7 93.2 58.6 10.2 0.2 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 98.5 86.0 1977–78 ........................ ————— 99.8 94.6 64.9 18.0 1.0 ——1979–80 ........................ 99.9 94.8 60.7 11.3 0.2 ———————
Table 18.—Percentage of students at or above selected reading, mathematics, and science proficiency levels, by age and ra

1970–71 to 1989–90—Continued

Age, year

and

race/ethnicity

Reading Mathematics Scie

Level

150 1

Level

200 2

Level

250 3

Level

300 4

Level

350 5

Level

150 6

Level

200 7

Level

250 8

Level

300 9

Level

350 10

Level

150 11

Level

200 12

Le

25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1

1981–82 ........................ ————— 100.0 97.7 71.4 17.4 0.5 99.5 89.8 1983–84 ........................ 99.8 93.9 59.0 11.0 0.3 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 98.6 73.3 15.8 0.4 99.7 91.6 1987–88 ........................ 99.9 94.9 58.7 10.9 0.2 ———————1989–90 ........................ 99.8 93.8 58.7 11.0 0.4 100.0 98.5 74.7 17.3 0.4 99.7 92.3 

White

1970–71 17 .................... 99.9 96.2 64.2 11.3 0.2 ———————1974–75 ........................ 99.9 96.4 65.5 12.1 0.3 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 99.6 92.2 1977–78 ........................ ————— 100.0 97.6 72.9 21.4 1.2 ——1979–80 ........................ 100.0 97.1 67.8 13.6 0.3 ———————1981–82 ....................... ————— 100.0 99.1 78.3 20.5 0.6 99.9 94.4 1983–84 ........................ 99.9 96.2 65.3 13.1 0.4 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.3 78.9 18.6 0.4 99.9 96.1 1987–88 ........................ 99.9 96.0 63.7 12.4 0.3 ———————1989–90 ........................ 99.9 96.0 64.8 13.3 0.5 100.0 99.4 82.0 21.0 0.4 100.0 96.9 

Black

1970–71 ....................... 98.6 74.2 21.1 0.8 0.0 ———————1974–75 ........................ 98.4 76.9 24.8 1.5 0.0 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 93.1 57.3 1977–78 ........................ ————— 98.6 79.7 28.7 2.3 0.0 ——1979–80 ........................ 99.3 84.1 30.1 1.8 0.0 ———————1981–82 ....................... ————— 99.8 90.2 37.9 2.9 0.0 97.5 68.6 1983–84 ........................ 99.4 85.5 34.6 2.8 0.0 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 95.4 49.0 4.0 0.1 99.0 73.6 1987–88 ........................ 99.8 91.3 40.2 4.6 0.1 ———————1989–90 ........................ 99.4 87.7 41.7 4.6 0.1 100.0 95.4 48.7 3.9 0.1 98.8 77.6 

Hispanic

1974–75 ....................... 99.6 81.3 32.0 2.2 0.0 ———————1976–77 ....................... —————————— 94.3 62.2 1977–78 ........................ ————— 99.6 86.4 36.0 4.0 0.1 ——1979–80 ........................ 99.7 86.8 35.4 2.3 0.0 ———————1981–82 ........................ ————— 99.9 95.9 52.2 6.3 0.0 98.0 75.5 1983–84 ....................... 99.5 86.7 39.0 4.1 0.1 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 96.9 56.0 5.5 0.2 99.0 76.7 1987–88 ........................ 99.2 87.4 38.0 4.4 0.0 ———————1989–90 ........................ 99.1 85.8 37.2 3.9 0.1 99.9 96.8 56.7 6.4 0.1 98.9 80.2 

17-year-olds 16

Total

1970–71 ....................... 99.6 96.0 78.6 39.0 6.8 ———————1974–75 ........................ 99.7 96.4 80.1 38.7 6.2 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 99.8 97.1 1977–78 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.8 92.0 51.5 7.3 ——1979–80 ........................ 99.9 97.2 80.7 37.8 5.3 ———————1981–82 ....................... ————— 100.0 99.9 93.0 48.5 5.5 99.7 95.7 1983–84 ........................ 100.0 98.3 83.1 40.3 5.7 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.9 95.6 51.7 6.5 99.9 97.1 1987–88 ........................ 100.0 98.9 85.7 40.9 4.6 ———————1989–90 ........................ 99.9 98.1 84.1 41.4 7.0 100.0 100.0 96.0 56.1 7.2 99.9 96.7 

White

1970–71 17 .................... 99.9 97.9 83.7 43.2 7.7 ———————1974–75 ....................... 99.9 98.6 86.2 43.9 7.2 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 100.0 99.2 1977–78 ........................ ————— 100.0 100.0 95.6 57.6 8.5 ——
Table 18.—Percentage of students at or above selected reading, mathematics, and science proficiency levels, by age and ra

1970–71 to 1989–90—Continued Age, year and race/ethnicity Reading Mathematics Scie

Level 150 1 Level 200 2 Level 250 3 Level 300 4 Level 350 5 Level 150 6 Level 200 7 Level 250 8 Level 300 9 Level 350 10 Level 150 11 Level 200 12 Le

25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1

1979–80 ........................ 100.0 99.1 86.9 43.3 6.2 ———————1981–82 ....................... ————— 100.0 100.0 96.2 54.7 6.4 100.0 98.6 1983–84 ........................ 100.0 99.0 88.0 46.3 6.9 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 100.0 98.0 59.1 7.9 100.0 98.8 1987–88 ........................ 100.0 99.3 88.7 45.4 5.5 ———————1989–90 ........................ 100.0 98.8 88.3 47.5 8.7 100.0 100.0 97.6 63.2 8.3 100.0 99.0 

Black 1970–71 ....................... 97.6 81.9 40.1 7.7 0.4 ———————

1974–75 ........................ 97.7 82.0 43.0 8.1 0.4 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 98.5 83.6 1977–78 ........................ ————— 100.0 98.8 70.7 16.8 0.5 ——1979–80 ........................ 99.0 85.6 44.0 7.1 0.2 ———————1981–82 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.7 76.4 17.1 0.5 97.9 79.7 1983–84 ........................ 99.9 95.9 65.7 16.2 0.9 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 100.0 85.6 20.8 0.2 99.7 90.9 1987–88 ........................ 100.0 98.0 75.8 24.9 1.4 ———————1989–90 ........................ 99.6 95.7 69.1 19.7 1.5 100.0 99.9 92.4 32.8 2.0 99.4 88.3 

Hispanic

1974–75 ....................... 99.3 88.7 52.9 12.6 1.2 ———————1976–77 ........................ —————————— 99.7 93.1 1977–78 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.3 78.3 23.4 1.4 ——1979–80 ........................ 99.8 93.3 62.2 16.5 1.3 ———————1981–82 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.8 81.4 21.6 0.7 98.9 86.9 1983–84 ........................ 99.8 95.6 68.3 21.2 2.0 ———————1985–86 ........................ ————— 100.0 99.4 89.3 26.5 1.1 99.8 93.3 1987–88 ........................ 99.9 96.3 71.5 23.3 1.3 ———————1989–90 ....................... 99.7 95.9 75.2 27.1 2.4 100.0 99.6 85.8 30.1 1.9 99.6 91.9 

1Able to follow brief written directions and select phrases to describe pictures.2Able to understand combined ideas and make references based on short uncomplicated passages about specific

or sequentially related information. 3Able to search for specific information, interrelate ideas, and make generalizations about literature, science, andsocial studies materials. 4Able to find, understand, summarize, and explain relatively complicated literary and informational material.

5Able to understand the links between ideas even when those links are not explicitly stated and to make appropriate

generalizations even when the text lacks clear introductions or explanations. 6Able to perform elementary addition and subtraction.

7Able to perform simple additive reasoning and problem solving.8Able to perform simple multiplicative reasoning and 2–step problem solving.9Able to perform reasoning and problem solving involving fractions, decimals, percents, elementary geometry, and

simple algebra.

10Able to perform reasoning and problem solving involving geometry, algebra, and beginning statistics and probability.11Exhibit knowledge of some general scientific facts of the type that could be learned from everyday experiences.12 Developing some understanding of simple scientific principles, particularly in the life sciences.

13Able to interpret data from simple tables and make inferences about the out

Exhibit knowledge and understanding of the life sciences, and also demonstrate sofrom the physical sciences.

14Able to evaluate the appropriateness of the design of an experiment and hav

edge in interpreting information from text and graphs. Exhibit a growing understansciences.

15Able to infer relationships and draw conclusions using detailed scientific know

particularly chemistry. Able to apply basic principles of genetics and interpret the this field.

16All participants of this age were in school.17 Includes persons of Hispanic origin.

—Data not available.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statis

cational Progress, Trends in Academic Progress, November 1991. (This table was p
Elementary and Secondary Education 55

Table 19.—High school graduates, by sex and control of institution: 1869–70 to 1991–92

[Numbers in thousands]

School year Population 17

years old 1

High school graduates

Graduates per

100

Total 17-year-olds

Sex Control

Male Female Public 2 Private 3

1 2345678

1869–70 ........................................ 815 16 7 9 — — 2.0

1879–80 ........................................ 946 24 11 13 — — 2.5

1889–90 ........................................ 1,259 44 19 25 22 22 3.5

1899–1900 .................................... 1,489 95 38 57 62 33 6.4

1909–10 ........................................ 1,786 156 64 93 111 45 8.8

1919–20 ........................................ 1,855 311 124 188 231 80 16.8

1929–30 ........................................ 2,296 667 300 367 592 75 29.0

1930–31 ........................................ 2,327 747 337 409 — — 32.1

1931–32 ........................................ 2,330 827 375 452 — — 35.5

1932–33 ........................................ 2,335 871 403 468 — — 37.3

1933–34 ........................................ 2,334 915 432 483 — — 39.2

1934–35 ........................................ 2,348 965 459 506 — — 41.1

1935–36 ........................................ 2,377 1,015 486 530 — — 42.7

1936–37 ........................................ 2,416 1,068 505 563 — — 44.2

1937–38 ........................................ 2,456 1,120 524 596 — — 45.6

1939–40 ........................................ 2,403 1,221 579 643 1,143 78 50.8

1941–42 ........................................ 2,421 1,242 577 666 — — 51.3

1943–44 ........................................ 2,386 1,019 424 595 — — 42.7

1945–46 ........................................ 2,278 1,080 467 613 — — 47.4

1947–48 ........................................ 2,261 1,190 563 627 1,073 117 52.6

1949–50 ........................................ 2,034 1,200 571 629 1,063 136 59.0

1951–52 ........................................ 2,086 1,197 569 627 1,056 141 57.4

1953–54 ........................................ 2,135 1,276 613 664 1,129 147 59.8

1955–56 ........................................ 2,242 1,415 680 735 1,252 163 63.1

1956–57 ........................................ 2,272 1,434 690 744 1,270 164 63.1

1957–58 ........................................ 2,325 1,506 725 781 1,332 174 64.8

1958–59 ........................................ 2,458 1,627 784 843 1,435 192 66.2

1959–60 ........................................ 2,672 1,858 895 963 1,627 231 69.5

1960–61 ........................................ 2,892 1,964 955 1,009 1,725 239 67.9

1961–62 ........................................ 2,768 1,918 938 980 1,678 240 69.3

1962–63 ........................................ 2,740 1,943 956 987 1,710 233 70.9

1963–64 ........................................ 2,978 2,283 1,120 1,163 2,008 275 76.7

1964–65 ........................................ 2,684 2,658 1,311 1,347 2,360 298 72.1

1965–66 ........................................ 3,489 2,665 1,323 1,342 2,367 298 76.4

1966–67 ........................................ 3,500 2,672 1,328 1,344 2,374 298 76.3

1967–68 ........................................ 3,532 2,695 1,338 1,357 2,395 300 76.3

1968–69 ........................................ 3,659 2,822 1,399 1,423 2,522 300 77.1

1969–70 ........................................ 3,757 2,889 1,430 1,459 2,589 300 76.9

1970–71 ........................................ 3,872 2,937 1,454 1,483 2,637 300 75.9

1971–72 ........................................ 3,973 3,001 1,487 1,514 2,699 302 75.5

1972–73 ........................................ 4,049 3,036 1,500 1,536 2,730 306 75.0

1973–74 ........................................ 4,132 3,073 1,512 1,561 2,763 310 74.4

1974–75 ........................................ 4,256 3,133 1,542 1,591 2,823 310 73.6

1975–76 ........................................ 4,272 3,148 1,552 1,596 2,837 311 73.7

1976–77 ........................................ 4,272 3,155 1,548 1,607 2,840 315 73.9

1977–78 ........................................ 4,286 3,127 1,531 1,596 2,825 302 73.0

1978–79 ........................................ 4,327 3,117 1,523 1,594 2,817 300 72.0

1979–80 ........................................ 4,262 3,043 1,491 1,552 2,748 295 71.4

1980–81 ........................................ 4,207 3,020 1,483 1,537 2,725 295 71.8

1981–82 ........................................ 4,121 2,995 1,471 1,524 2,705 290 72.7

1982–83 ........................................ 3,939 2,888 1,437 1,451 2,598 290 73.3

1983–84 ........................................ 3,753 2,767 4 1,313 4 1,454 2,495 272 73.7

1984–85 ........................................ 3,658 2,677 4 1,291 4 1,386 2,414 263 73.2

1985–86 ........................................ 3,621 2,643 4 1,263 4 1,380 2,383 260 73.0

1986–87 ........................................ 3,697 2,694 4 1,301 4 1,393 2,429 265 72.9

1987–88 ........................................ 3,781 2,773 4 1,384 4 1,389 2,500 273 73.4

1988–89 ........................................ 3,761 2,727 4 1,343 4 1,384 2,459 268 72.5

1989–90 ........................................ 3,485 2,587 4 1,285 4 1,302 2,320 268 74.2

1990–91 5 ...................................... 3,325 2,511 4 1,257 4 1,254 2,263 247 75.5

1991–92 5 ...................................... 3,286 2,485 — — 2,251 234 75.6

1Population as of July 1, derived from Current Population Reports, Series P-25. Adjusted to reflect October 17–year-old population. 2 Data for 1929–30 and preceding years are from Statistics of Public High Schools and

exclude graduates of high schools which failed to report to the Office of Education. 3For most years, private school data have been estimated based on periodic private

school surveys. For years through 1957–58, private includes data for subcollegiate departments of institutions of higher education and residential schools for exceptional children.

4Estimates based on data published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

5Public high school graduates based on state estimates.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics

of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Current Population Reports, Series P-25:

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various years. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
56 Elementary and Secondary Education

Table 20.—Public school districts and public and private elementary and secondary schools:

1929–30 to 1990–91

School year

Public

school

districts 1

Public schools 2 Private schools 2,3

Total, all

schools 4

Total,

regular

schools 5

Elementary schools Secondary

schools Total 4 Elementary Secondary

Total One-teacher

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1929–30 .......................... — — — 238,306 149,282 23,930 — 9,275 3,258

1937–38 .......................... 119,001 — — 221,660 121,178 25,467 — 9,992 3,327

1939–40 .......................... 117,108 — — — 113,600 — — 11,306 3,568

1945–46 .......................... 101,382 — — 160,227 86,563 24,314 — 9,863 3,294

1947–48 .......................... 94,926 — — 146,760 75,096 25,484 — 10,071 3,292

1949–50 .......................... 83,718 — — 128,225 59,652 24,542 — 10,375 3,331

1951–52 .......................... 71,094 — — 123,763 50,742 23,746 — 10,666 3,322

1953–54 .......................... 63,057 — — 110,875 42,865 25,637 — 11,739 3,913

1955–56 .......................... 54,859 — — 104,427 34,964 26,046 — 12,372 3,887

1957–58 .......................... 47,594 — — 95,446 25,341 25,507 — 13,065 3,994

1959–60 .......................... 40,520 — — 91,853 20,213 25,784 — 13,574 4,061

1961–62 .......................... 35,676 — — 81,910 13,333 25,350 — 14,762 4,129

1963–64 .......................... 31,705 — — 77,584 9,895 26,431 — — 4,451

1965–66 .......................... 26,983 — — 73,216 6,491 26,597 17,849 15,340 4,606

1967–68 .......................... 22,010 — 94,197 70,879 4,146 27,011 — — —

1970–71 .......................... 17,995 — 89,372 65,800 1,815 25,352 — 14,372 3,770

1973–74 .......................... 16,730 — 88,655 65,070 1,365 25,906 — — —

1975–76 .......................... 16,376 88,597 87,034 63,242 1,166 25,330 — — —

1976–77 .......................... 16,271 — 86,501 62,644 1,111 25,378 19,910 16,385 5,904

1978–79 .......................... 16,014 — 84,816 61,982 1,056 24,504 19,489 16,097 5,766

1980–81 .......................... 15,912 85,982 83,688 61,069 921 24,362 20,764 16,792 5,678

1982–83 .......................... 15,824 84,740 82,039 59,656 798 23,988 — — —

1983–84 .......................... 15,747 84,178 81,418 59,082 838 23,947 6 27,694 6 20,872 6 7,862

1984–85 .......................... — 84,007 81,147 58,827 825 23,916 — — —

1985–86 .......................... —————— 6 25,616 6 20,252 6 7,387

1986–87 .......................... 7 15,713 83,455 82,190 60,784 763 23,389 — — —

1987–88 .......................... 7 15,577 83,248 82,248 61,490 729 22,937 6 26,807 6 22,959 6 8,418

1988–89 .......................... 7 15,376 83,165 82,081 61,531 583 22,785 — — —

1989–90 .......................... 7 15,367 83,425 82,396 62,037 630 22,639 — — —

1990–91 .......................... 7 15,358 84,538 81,746 61,340 617 22,731 — — —

1 Includes operating and nonoperating districts.

2Schools with both elementary and secondary programs are included under elementary schools and also under secondary schools. 3 Data for most years are partly estimated.

4 Includes regular schools and special schools not classified by grade span.

5 Includes elementary, secondary, and combined elementary/secondary schools.

6These data are from sample surveys and should not be compared directly with the

data for earlier years. 7Because of expanded survey coverage, data are not directly comparable with figures

for earlier years.

—Data not available.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of State School Systems; Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary School

Systems; Statistics of Nonpublic Elementary and Secondary Schools; Private Schools in

American Education; and Common Core of Data surveys. (This table was prepared April

1992.)
Elementary and Secondary Education 57

Table 21.—Revenues for public elementary and secondary schools, by source of funds:

1889–90 to 1989–90

School year

In thousands Percentage distribution

Total Federal State 1 Local (including

intermediate) 2 Total Federal State 1 Local (includingintermediate) 2

1 234 5 678 9

1889–90 3 ....... $143,195 — $26,345 $97,222 100.0 — 21.3 78.7

1890–91 3 ....... 147,915 — 27,632 100,359 100.0 — 21.6 78.4

1891–92 3 ....... 157,175 — 29,908 105,630 100.0 — 22.1 77.9

1892–93 3 ....... 165,023 — 33,695 108,425 100.0 — 23.7 76.3

1893–94 3 ....... 170,404 — 32,750 112,785 100.0 — 22.5 77.5

1894–95 3 ....... 176,565 — 34,638 118,915 100.0 — 22.6 77.4

1895–96 3 ....... 182,480 — 35,032 124,880 100.0 — 21.9 78.1

1896–97 3 ....... 191,959 — 33,942 130,318 100.0 — 20.7 79.3

1897–98 3 ....... 199,833 — 35,122 135,516 100.0 — 20.6 79.4

1898–99 3 ....... 203,337 — 35,341 144,898 100.0 — 19.6 80.4

1899–1900 3 ... 219,766 — 37,887 149,487 100.0 — 20.2 79.8

1900–01 3 ....... 235,339 — 36,281 163,897 100.0 — 18.1 81.9

1901–02 3 ....... 245,498 — 39,216 173,151 100.0 — 18.5 81.5

1902–03 3 ....... 251,637 — 40,456 173,731 100.0 — 18.9 81.1

1903–04 3 ....... 279,134 — 42,553 193,216 100.0 — 18.0 82.0

1904–05 3 ....... 301,819 — 44,349 210,168 100.0 — 17.4 82.6

1905–06 3 ....... 322,106 — 47,943 223,491 100.0 — 17.7 82.3

1906–07 3 ....... 355,016 — 44,706 231,738 100.0 — 16.2 83.8

1907–08 3 ....... 381,920 — 58,097 259,341 100.0 — 18.3 81.7

1908–09 3 ....... 403,647 — 63,547 288,643 100.0 — 18.0 82.0

1909–10 3 ....... 433,064 — 64,605 312,222 100.0 — 17.1 82.9

1910–11 3 ....... 451,151 — 69,071 333,832 100.0 — 17.1 82.9

1911–12 3 ....... 469,111 — 75,814 346,898 100.0 — 17.9 82.1

1912–13 3 ....... 507,227 — 78,376 375,582 100.0 — 17.3 82.7

1913–14 3 ....... 561,743 — 87,895 425,457 100.0 — 17.1 82.9

1914–15 3 ....... 589,652 — 91,104 456,956 100.0 — 16.6 83.4

1915–16 3 ....... 633,901 — 95,278 488,120 100.0 — 16.3 83.7

1917–18 ......... 736,876 $1,669 122,256 612,951 100.0 0.2 16.6 83.2

1919–20 ......... 970,121 2,475 160,085 807,561 100.0 0.3 16.5 83.2

1921–22 3 ....... 1,444,242 2,891 230,517 1,184,530 100.0 0.2 16.3 83.5

1923–24 3 ....... 1,618,438 3,986 261,997 1,290,239 100.0 0.3 16.8 82.9

1925–26 ......... 1,830,017 5,552 284,569 1,539,896 100.0 0.3 15.6 84.1

1927–28 ......... 2,025,750 6,174 333,279 1,686,297 100.0 0.3 16.5 83.2

1929–30 ......... 2,088,557 7,334 353,670 1,727,553 100.0 0.4 16.9 82.7

1931–32 ......... 2,068,029 8,262 410,550 1,649,218 100.0 0.4 19.9 79.7

1933–34 ......... 1,810,652 21,548 423,178 1,365,926 100.0 1.2 23.4 75.4

1935–36 ......... 4 1,971,402 4 9,850 578,369 1,383,184 100.0 0.5 29.3 70.2

1937–38 ......... 2,222,885 26,535 655,996 1,540,353 100.0 1.2 29.5 69.3

1939–40 ......... 2,260,527 39,810 684,354 1,536,363 100.0 1.8 30.3 68.0

1941–42 ......... 2,416,580 34,305 759,993 1,622,281 100.0 1.4 31.4 67.1

1943–44 ......... 2,604,322 35,886 859,183 1,709,253 100.0 1.4 33.0 65.6

1945–46 ......... 3,059,845 41,378 1,062,057 1,956,409 100.0 1.4 34.7 63.9

1947–48 ......... 4,311,534 120,270 1,676,362 2,514,902 100.0 2.8 38.9 58.3

1949–50 ......... 5,437,044 155,848 2,165,689 3,115,507 100.0 2.9 39.8 57.3

1951–52 ......... 6,423,816 227,711 2,478,596 3,717,507 100.0 3.5 38.6 57.9

1953–54 ......... 7,866,852 355,237 2,944,103 4,567,512 100.0 4.5 37.4 58.1

1955–56 ......... 9,686,677 441,442 3,828,886 5,416,350 100.0 4.6 39.5 55.9

1957–58 ......... 12,181,513 486,484 4,800,368 6,894,661 100.0 4.0 39.4 56.6

1959–60 ......... 14,746,618 651,639 5,768,047 8,326,932 100.0 4.4 39.1 56.5

1961–62 ......... 17,527,707 760,975 6,789,190 9,977,542 100.0 4.3 38.7 56.9

1963–64 ......... 20,544,182 896,956 8,078,014 11,569,213 100.0 4.4 39.3 56.3

1965–66 ......... 25,356,858 1,996,954 9,920,219 13,439,686 100.0 7.9 39.1 53.0

1967–68 ......... 31,903,064 2,806,469 12,275,536 16,821,063 100.0 8.8 38.5 52.7

1969–70 ......... 40,266,923 3,219,557 16,062,776 20,984,589 100.0 8.0 39.9 52.1
58 Elementary and Secondary Education

Table 21.—Revenues for public elementary and secondary schools, by source of funds:

1889–90 to 1989–90—Continued

School year

In thousands Percentage distribution

Total Federal State 1 Local (including

intermediate) 2 Total Federal State 1 Local (includingintermediate) 2

1 234 5 678 9

1970–71 ......... 44,511,292 3,753,461 17,409,086 23,348,745 100.0 8.4 39.1 52.5

1971–72 ......... 50,003,645 4,467,969 19,133,256 26,402,420 100.0 8.9 38.3 52.8

1972–73 ......... 52,117,930 4,525,000 20,843,520 26,749,412 100.0 8.7 40.0 51.3

1973–74 ......... 58,230,892 4,930,351 24,113,409 29,187,132 100.0 8.5 41.4 50.1

1974–75 ......... 64,445,239 5,811,595 27,211,116 31,422,528 100.0 9.0 42.2 48.8

1975–76 ......... 71,206,073 6,318,345 31,776,101 33,111,627 100.0 8.9 44.6 46.5

1976–77 ......... 75,322,532 6,629,498 32,688,903 36,004,134 100.0 8.8 43.4 47.8

1977–78 ......... 81,443,160 7,694,194 35,013,266 38,735,700 100.0 9.4 43.0 47.6

1978–79 ......... 87,994,143 8,600,116 40,132,136 39,261,891 100.0 9.8 45.6 44.6

1979–80 ......... 96,881,165 9,503,537 45,348,814 42,028,813 100.0 9.8 46.8 43.4

1980–81 ......... 105,949,087 9,768,262 50,182,659 45,998,166 100.0 9.2 47.4 43.4

1981–82 ......... 110,191,257 8,186,466 52,436,435 49,568,356 100.0 7.4 47.6 45.0

1982–83 ......... 117,497,502 8,339,990 56,282,157 52,875,354 100.0 7.1 47.9 45.0

1983–84 ......... 126,055,419 8,576,547 60,232,981 57,245,892 100.0 6.8 47.8 45.4

1984–85 ......... 137,294,678 9,105,569 67,168,684 61,020,425 100.0 6.6 48.9 44.4

1985–86 ......... 149,127,779 9,975,622 73,619,575 65,532,582 100.0 6.7 49.4 43.9

1986–87 ......... 158,523,693 10,146,013 78,830,437 69,547,243 100.0 6.4 49.7 43.9

1987–88 2 ....... 169,561,974 10,716,687 84,004,415 74,840,873 100.0 6.3 49.5 44.1

1988–89 ......... 192,016,374 11,902,001 91,768,911 88,345,462 100.0 6.2 47.8 46.0

1989–90 ......... 207,583,910 12,750,530 98,059,659 96,773,720 100.0 6.1 47.2 46.6

1Prior to 1917–18, excludes receipts other than state taxes and appropriations.

2 Includes a relatively small amount from nongovernmental sources (gifts and tuition

and transportation fees from patrons). These sources accounted for 0.4 percent of total

revenues in 1967–68. Prior to 1917–18, excludes receipts from sources other than local

taxes and appropriations. 3Total includes receipts not distributed by source. Percents based on funds reported

by source. 4Excludes federal funds other than aid for vocational education.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Beginning in 1980–81, revenues for state education agencies are excluded.

Data for 1988–89 reflect new survey collection procedures and may not be entirely comparable to figures for earlier years. Because of rounding, details may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1890 to 1917; Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1916–18 to 1956–58; Statistics of State School Systems,

1959–60 to 1969–70; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary

Education; and Common Core of Data survey. (This table was prepared September

1992.)
Table 22.—Total and current expenditures and expenditure per pupil in public elementary and secondary schools, by p

1869–70 to 1989–90

School year

Total

expenditures, in

millions

Current expenditures, day schools (in millions)

Capital

outlay, 4

in

millions

Interest

on school

debt, inmillions

Other expenditures, 5 in

millions

Expenditures in current dollars Expenditure

Total 1 Adminis- tration Instruc- tion 2

Plant

operation

and

maintenance

Other 3

Total Current,

per pupil

in average

daily

attendance

Per

capita

Per

pupil

enrolled

Per

pupil in

average

daily

attendance

Per

capita

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

1869–70 .............. $63 — — $38 — — — — — $2 $9 $16——1870–71 .............. 69 — — 43 — — — — — — 9 15 ——1871–72 .............. 74 — — 46 — — — — — — 9 16 ——1872–73 .............. 76 — — 48 — — — — — — 10 16 ——1873–74 .............. 80 — — 51 — — — — — — 9 16 ——1874–75 .............. 84 — — 55 — — — — — — 10 16 ——1875–76 .............. 83 — — 55 — — — — — — 9 16 ——1876–77 .............. 79 — — 55 — — — — — — 9 15 ——1877–78 .............. 79 — — 56 — — — — — — 8 14 ——1878–79 .............. 76 — — 55 — — — — — — 8 13 ——1879–80 .............. 78 — — 56 — — — — — 2 8 13 ——1880–81 .............. 84 — — 58 — — — — — — 8 14 ——1881–82 .............. 89 — — 61 — — — — — — 9 14 ——1882–83 .............. 97 — — 65 — — — — — — 9 15 ——1883–84 .............. 103 — — 68 — — — — — — 9 15 ——1884–85 .............. 110 — — 73 — — — — — — 10 15 ——1885–86 .............. 113 — — 76 — — — — — — 10 15 ——1886–87 .............. 116 — — 79 — — — — — — 10 15 ——1887–88 .............. 124 — — 83 — — — — — — 10 16 ——1888–89 .............. 133 $109 — 88 — $22 $23 — — — 11 17 $14—1889–90 .............. 141 114 — 92 — 22 26 — — 2 11 17 14 —1890–91 .............. 147 121 — 96 — 25 26 — — — 11 18 15 —1891–92 .............. 156 126 — 100 — 26 29 — — — 12 18 15 —1892–93 .............. 164 134 — 105 — 29 30 — — — 12 19 15 —1893–94 .............. 173 142 — 109 — 33 30 — — — 12 19 16 —1894–95 .............. 176 146 — 114 — 33 29 — — — 12 18 15 —1895–96 .............. 183 151 — 117 — 34 33 — — — 13 19 15 —1896–97 .............. 188 155 — 119 — 36 32 — — — 13 19 15 —1897–98 .............. 194 163 — 124 — 39 31 — — — 13 19 16 —1898–99 .............. 200 169 — 129 — 40 31 — — — 13 19 16 —1899–1900 .......... 215 180 — 138 — 42 35 — — 3 14 20 17 —1900–01 .............. 228 188 — 143 — 44 40 — — 3 14 21 18 —1901–02 .............. 238 198 — 151 — 47 40 — — 3 15 22 18 —1902–03 .............. 251 205 — 157 — 48 46 — — 3 16 ———1903–04 .............. 273 224 — 168 — 56 49 — — 3 17 23 19 —1904–05 .............. 292 235 — 177 — 58 56 — — 4 18 24 20 —1905–06 .............. 308 247 — 186 — 61 61 — — 4 18 26 21 —1906–07 .............. 337 272 — 202 — 70 65 — — 4 20 28 23 —1907–08 .............. 371 298 — 220 — 78 74 — — 4 22 31 24 —1908–09 .............. 401 320 — 237 — 83 82 — — 5 23 32 25 —1909–10 .............. 426 356 $7 260 — 89 70 — — 5 24 33 28 —
Table 22.—Total and current expenditures and expenditure per pupil in public elementary and secondary schools, by p

1869–70 to 1989–90—Continued School year Total expendi- tures, in millions Current expenditures, day schools (in millions) Capital outlay, 4 in millions Interest on school debt, in millions Other ex- pendi- tures, 5 in millions Expenditures in current dollars Expenditure

Total 1 Adminis- tration Instruc- tion 2 Plant oper- ation and mainte- nance Other 3 Total Current, per pupil in aver- age daily attend- ance 

Per capita Per pupil enrolled Per pupil in average daily attend- ance Per capita 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

1910–11 .............. 447 371 6 273 — 91 76 — — 5 25 35 29 —1911–12 .............. 483 405 9 295 — 101 78 — — 5 27 36 30 —1912–13 .............. 522 438 10 316 — 112 84 — — 5 28 38 32 —1913–14 .............. 555 463 12 335 — 116 92 — — 6 29 39 33 —1914–15 .............. 605 503 13 358 — 131 103 — — 6 31 40 34 —1915–16 .............. 641 537 15 378 — 144 104 — — 6 31 42 35 —1917–18 .............. 764 629 25 444 $133 27 119 $15 — 7 37 49 40 —1919–20 .............. 1,036 861 37 633 146 46 154 18 $3 10 48 64 53 $66 1921–22 .............. 1,581 1,235 51 903 203 69 306 36 4 15 68 86 67 108 1923–24 .............. 1,821 1,369 55 1,001 221 92 388 59 5 16 75 95 72 120 1925–26 .............. 2,026 1,538 68 1,127 244 99 411 72 5 17 82 102 77 125 1927–28 .............. 2,184 1,706 77 1,220 278 130 383 92 4 18 87 106 83 135 1929–30 .............. 2,317 1,844 79 1,318 295 152 371 93 10 19 90 108 87 141 1931–32 .............. 2,175 1,810 75 1,333 257 144 211 140 13 18 83 98 81 154 1933–34 .............. 1,720 1,516 64 1,121 203 127 59 137 8 14 65 76 67 131 1935–36 .............. 1,969 1,657 67 1,214 233 142 171 133 8 15 75 88 74 143 1937–38 .............. 2,233 1,870 86 1,360 260 164 239 114 10 17 86 100 84 154 1939–40 .............. 2,344 1,942 92 1,403 268 179 258 131 13 18 92 106 88 163 1941–42 .............. 2,323 2,068 101 1,458 289 220 138 109 9 17 95 110 98 142 1943–44 .............. 2,453 2,293 111 1,591 316 276 54 97 9 18 105 125 117 131 1945–46 .............. 2,907 2,707 133 1,854 372 349 111 77 11 21 125 145 136 145 1947–48 .............. 4,311 3,795 170 2,572 526 527 412 76 28 30 180 203 179 163 1949–50 .............. 5,838 4,687 220 3,112 642 713 1,014 101 36 39 232 259 209 210 1951–52 .............. 7,344 5,722 266 3,782 757 917 1,477 114 30 48 276 313 244 230 1953–54 .............. 9,092 6,791 311 4,552 908 1,020 2,055 154 92 57 315 351 265 269 1955–56 .............. 10,955 8,251 373 5,502 1,072 1,304 2,387 216 101 66 352 388 294 313 1957–58 .............. 13,569 10,252 443 6,901 1,302 1,605 2,853 342 123 79 405 449 341 352 1959–60 6 ............ 15,613 12,329 528 8,351 1,508 1,943 2,662 490 133 88 433 472 375 381 1961–62 .............. 18,373 14,729 648 10,016 1,760 2,304 2,862 588 194 100 480 530 419 424 1963–64 .............. 21,325 17,218 745 11,750 1,985 2,738 2,978 701 428 113 519 559 460 466 1965–66 .............. 26,248 21,053 938 14,445 2,386 3,284 3,755 792 648 136 613 654 537 540 1967–68 .............. 32,977 26,877 1,249 18,376 2,864 4,388 4,256 978 866 167 737 786 658 624 1969–70 .............. 40,683 34,218 1,607 23,270 3,512 5,829 4,659 1,171 636 202 877 955 816 679 1970–71 .............. 45,500 39,630 1,789 26,224 3,960 7,657 4,552 1,318 973 223 970 1,049 911 713 1971–72 .............. 48,050 41,818 1,876 28,148 4,325 7,469 4,459 1,378 396 232 1,034 1,128 990 717 1972–73 .............. 51,852 46,213 2,018 30,119 4,677 9,399 4,091 1,547 1,698 248 1,116 1,211 1,077 735 1973–74 .............. 56,970 50,025 2,276 32,609 5,291 9,849 4,978 1,514 453 270 1,244 1,364 1,207 734 1974–75 .............. 64,846 57,363 2,670 36,482 6,136 12,075 5,746 1,737 702 304 1,424 1,545 1,365 745 
Table 22.—Total and current expenditures and expenditure per pupil in public elementary and secondary schools, by p

1869–70 to 1989–90—Continued

School year

Total

expenditures, in

millions

Current expenditures, day schools (in millions)

Capital

outlay, 4

in

millions

Interest

on school

debt, inmillions

Other expenditures, 5 in

millions

Expenditures in current dollars Expenditure

Total 1 Adminis- tration Instruc- tion 2

Plant

operation

and

maintenance

Other 3

Total Current,

per pupil

in average

daily

attendance

Per

capita

Per

pupil

enrolled

Per

pupil in

average

daily

attendance

Per

capita

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

1975–76 .............. 70,601 62,054 2,808 39,687 6,675 12,884 6,146 1,846 553 328 1,564 1,697 1,504 750 1976–77 .............. 74,194 66,864 3,273 41,869 7,331 14,391 5,344 1,953 853 341 1,673 1,816 1,638 738 1977–78 .............. 80,844 73,058 3,867 45,024 8,096 16,071 5,245 1,952 589 368 1,842 2,002 1,823 746 1978–79 .............. 86,712 78,951 3,896 48,403 8,565 18,087 5,448 1,955 357 390 2,029 2,210 2,020 724 1979–80 .............. 95,962 86,984 4,264 53,258 9,745 — 6,506 1,874 598 427 2,290 2,491 2,272 699 1980–81 .............. 104,125 94,321 — — — — — — — 7 458 7 2,529 7 2,742 2,502 7 672 1981–82 .............. 111,186 101,109——— —— — — 7 484 7 2,754 7 2,973 2,726 7 653 1982–83 .............. 118,425 108,268——— —— — — 7 510 7 2,966 7 3,203 2,955 7 660 1983–84 .............. 127,500 115,392——— —— — — 7 544 7 3,216 7 3,471 3,173 7 679 1984–85 .............. 137,000 126,337——— —— — — 7 579 7 3,456 7 3,722 3,470 7 696 1985–86 .............. 148,600 137,165 — 83,463 — — — — — 7 622 7 3,724 7 4,020 3,756 7 726 1986–87 .............. 160,900 146,365 — 89,559 — — — — — 7 667 7 3,995 7 4,308 3,970 7 762 1987–88 .............. 172,400 157,098 — 96,967 — — — — — 7 708 7 4,310 7 4,654 4,240 7 776 1988–89 .............. 192,977 173,099 — 101,016 — — 14,101 3,213 2,564 785 4,738 5,109 4,645 823 1989–90 .............. 211,731 187,384 — 108,964 — — 17,685 3,693 2,969 853 5,149 5,526 4,960 853 

1Prior to 1917–18, includes expenditures for interest.2Prior to 1909–10, includes only expenditures for salaries of teachers and superintendents.3Prior to 1917–18, includes plant operation and maintenance; prior to 1909–10, includes all current expenditures except salaries of teachers and superintendents. 4Beginning in 1965–66, includes capital outlay by state and local school building authorities.5Beginning in 1953–54, includes expenditures for community services, previously included in ‘‘current expenditures,

day schools.’’

6 Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.7Estimated.

—Data not available.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Stat

Times to 1970; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statis

and unpublished data. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
63

1 Donald G. Tewksbury, The Founding of American Colleges and

Universities, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932; reprint

ed., New York: Archon Books, 1965), 90–91.

2Adolphe E. Meyer, Grandmasters of Educational Thought (New

York: McGraw Hill, 1975), 146.

3 Richard Hofstadter and Wilson Smith, ed., American Higher Education, A Documentary History, Vol. I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 157.

4Tewksbury, The Founding of American Colleges and Universities,

167.

5 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical

Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, 2 vols.

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 1:8.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, ‘‘Institutional Characteristics, 1980–81,’’ unpublished data.

6Tewksbury, The Founding of American Colleges and Universities,

169.

7 Raphael M. Huber, The Part Played by Religion in the History of

Education in the United States of America (Trenton: MacCrillish &

Quigley & Co., 1951), 27.

Chapter 3

Higher Education

Development of American institutions of higher

education began early in the colonial period. Many of

the first European colonists left their homelands to

avoid religious persecution and were particularly interested in literacy, as well as more advanced scholarship, to facilitate religious instruction. Thus, one of

the most important missions of colonial colleges was

to prepare men to be ministers or priests. The first

colonial college, now Harvard University, was founded in 1636 to prepare ministers. The profusion of

small theological and religious colleges served the

expanding frontier by providing ministers to serve

local communities. The religious zeal which became

more pronounced after 1800 played an important role

in stimulating the growth of educational enterprises.

Prior to the Civil War, it has been estimated that perhaps one-fourth of all college graduates became ministers. 1 Besides meeting the demand for religious

leaders, these religiously affiliated colleges assisted

in the general diffusion of knowledge.

Public colleges also expanded westward across

the United States as states made higher education

available to their citizens. Benjamin Franklin was

among the first prominent Americans to advocate

higher education without religious control. After the

Revolutionary War, considerable discussion was devoted to the thought of establishing a national or federal university. 2 Although all six of the first U.S.

presidents supported the concept of a national university, such an institution was never approved by

Congress. 3 Despite Thomas Jefferson’s lack of success with the national university concept, he was influential in the founding of the U.S. Military Academy

at West Point in 1802.

Another major development of the early 19th century was the creation of normal schools. These institutions were designed to help prepare teachers for

the expanding school systems. The first of the normal schools was founded in 1823. Later in 1839,

Horace Mann established the first public normal

school in Massachusetts. These schools typically offered a 2-year program.

Although national education statistics were not collected prior to 1869-70, some inferences about the

number of colleges can be made by examining the

current colleges that have founding dates during the

late 18th and early 19th centuries. Some 37 of today’s colleges were founded prior to 1800 (table 27).

Only four of these colleges were founded as public

institutions. The evidence suggests that the first of

the public colleges to obtain a charter was the University of Georgia, though the University of North

Carolina was the first to open. 4 Most of these 37 colleges had their beginning in the last two decades of

the 18th century. The growth of colleges accelerated

during the 19th century. During the first two decades

of the 1800s, 31 more colleges were founded, of

which 5 were publicly controlled (6, if the federally

controlled West Point is included). The next two decades brought 102 more colleges that still exist today,

and between 1840 and 1859, an additional 210 colleges were founded. Whether college enrollments

kept pace with the rise in population from 3.9 million

in 1790 to 31.5 million in 1860 is unknown, but at

least the increase in the number of colleges suggests

sharp rises in enrollment. 5 Public colleges also expanded in the first half of the 19th century, and by

1860, there were 21 state colleges in 20 different

states. 6 Today, many of the 380 colleges founded

prior to 1860 are independent or public, but most

were originally controlled by religious groups. 7 Public

higher education was assisted through such programs as the First Morrill Act in 1862, which provided

land grants for the creation and maintenance of agricultural and mechanical colleges.
64 Higher Education

8For examples, see (Exposition of the System of Instruction and

Discipline Pursued in the University of Vermont by the Faculty [Burlington: University of Vermont, 1829], 30) and (Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University in Cambridge, October 1825

[Cambridge: University Press, 1825], 19. These standards remained

in effect at many campuses well after the Civil War (Catalogue of

the University of North Carolina, 1866–67 [Raleigh: Nichols, Gorman

& Neathery Printers, 1867], 15.)

9 Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University of Virginia,

Session of 1839–40 (Charlottesville: Robert Noel, 1840), 1. and N.J.

Cabell, ed., Early History of the University of Virginia, as Contained

in the Letters of Thomas Jefferson and Joseph C. Cabell (Richmond:

J.W. Randolph, 1856), 142–143.

10 Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Brown University, March

1824 (Providence: Carlile & Co., 1824), 5; Catalogue of the Officers

and Students of Brown University, 1827–28 (Providence: Carlile &

Co., 1828), 13; Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University in Cambridge, October 1820 (Cambridge: University Press,

1820); and Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Harvard University for the Academical Year 1827–28 (Cambridge: University

Press, 1827).

11This excludes the military science academy at West Point. Nicholas Butler, gen. ed., Education in the United States, Monographs

on Education in the United States (New York: Arno Press & The

New York Times, 1969), ‘‘Scientific, Technical, and Engineering

Education,’’ by T.C. Mendenhall, 555.

12 U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary

of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1890, 5 vols.,

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1893), Part

2, 5:772–773.

13 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Report of

the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1878 (Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880), XCIV.

Higher education in the early 19th century was

characterized by heavy emphasis on the classics.

Higher education often began at 14 to 16 years of

age, though 17 to 20 was more common. Generally,

prospective students were expected to have an understanding of Greek and Latin and were frequently

tested on these before being allowed entrance.

Some knowledge of basic mathematics, such as algebra, was assumed. The college curriculum generally comprised four years of study, and the typical

core of this instruction was equal parts of mathematics, Greek, and Latin. Sometimes these were the

sole elements of freshman and sophomore education. At more progressive and prestigious colleges,

juniors and seniors might delve into a variety of scientific topics, perhaps including some medical lectures, though physical sciences were more common.

Other common subjects for upperclassmen included

rhetoric, philosophy, and Christian studies. 8 Thomas

Jefferson in his founding of the University of Virginia

designed what was considered a progressive institution that provided electives for students to choose

particular courses of study. The courses of study at

the university included medicine, ancient and modern

languages, mathematics, philosophy, and sciences. 9

During the 1820s and 1830s, developments at other

colleges such as Harvard and Brown, reflected more

interest in science and mathematics instruction at the

expense of ancient studies. 10 Colleges reacted to

the changing times. The first exclusively scientific institution, Renssalaer Polytechnic University, opened

in 1824. 11

Higher education continued to maintain a strong

attachment to traditional studies through much of the

19th century. In 1886–87, 62 percent of college students were enrolled in classical courses. 12 In 1878,

more than 10 percent of those students wishing to

enter colleges where entrance examinations were

given were rejected only because of their lack of proficiency with the Greek language. Altogether, about

one fourth of students were rejected because of deficiencies in Latin, Greek, or sometimes mathematics. 13

Enrollment

Higher education enrollment in the colonies was

largely limited to the well-to-do. This situation prevailed through the late 19th and early 20th century.

When the federal Office of Education began collecting education data in 1869–70, only 63,000 students

were attending higher education institutions throughout the country, which amounted to only about 1 percent of the 18- to 24-year-old population. This small

number of students was divided among 563 campuses, giving an average enrollment size of only 112

students. About 21 percent of students were female.

Today, there are over 14,000,000 students in the

U.S. attending some 3,600 institutions, for an average enrollment of 3,931 students. More than half of

college students are women (table 23). About 33 percent of all 18- to 24-year-olds are enrolled in college

today. Not only are many more students involved in

higher education today, but the system itself has

shown dynamic change over the past century, evolving from small institutions serving a relatively restricted student body with instruction focussing on instruction in the classics and mathematics into today’s

large enterprises offering a vast array of courses.

During the latter part of the 1800s, enrollment grew

rapidly in higher education institutions, but much of

this growth was due to increases in the population.

Enrollment grew by 278 percent between 1869–70

and 1899–1900, but students as a percent of 18- to

24-year-olds rose from 1 percent to 2 percent. The

proportion of women students in colleges grew significantly from 21 percent in 1869–70 to 36 percent

in 1899–1900. While the number of colleges grew

during this period, it did not rise as fast as the number of students. As a result, the average size of colleges grew as well, reaching 243 in 1899–1900

(table 24).
Higher Education 65

Figure 14.--Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by sex:

Year ending

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

1991

Millions

Total

Female

Male

1869-70 to 1990-91

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and

Enrollment growth accelerated in the first 30 years

of the 20th century, driven by population growth and

continuing rises in participation rates. Between 1899–

1900 and 1909–10, enrollment rose by 50 percent. In

the following decade, enrollment rose by 68 percent,

and between 1919–20 and 1929–30, enrollment rose

by 84 percent. During these 30 years, the ratio of

college students to 18- to 24-year-olds rose from 2

to 7 per 100. However, the proportion of women students in higher education dropped during the 1920s

from 47 percent to 44 percent. The depression of the

1930s may have contributed to slower growth in college enrollment and participation. By the end of the

decade, college enrollment had reached 1.5 million

with 9 college students per 100 18- to 24-year-olds.

The total was still 36 percent higher than 1929–30,

but the proportion of women students had fallen to

40 percent. By this time, enrollment in public colleges

had risen to the point where more than half of college students were enrolled in public institutions.

During the early 1940s, the enrollment of males

dropped precipitously as large numbers of young

men went to fight World War II. In 1943–44, about

half of the students in colleges were women. By the

end of the 1940s, college enrollment was surging.

Large numbers of World War II veterans entered colleges assisted by such programs as the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act which provided education

benefits. In fall 1949, about 2.4 million students enrolled in colleges, or about 15 per 100 18- to 24-

year-olds. The proportion of women on campus

dropped to 30 percent. The proportion of students

enrolled in public colleges was about half, the same

as in the 1929–30. Enrollment was still concentrated

at 4-year colleges, with less than 10 percent of students at 2-year colleges.
66 Higher Education

Figure 15.--Percentage of students in institutions of higher education,

by control, type, and attendance status: 

1932

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980 1992

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Public

Part-time

2-year

Percent

Year ending

of enrollment

1931-32 to 1991-92

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and

The 1950s and 1960s marked two major developments. First, large numbers of young people entered

college and second, public colleges expanded dramatically to meet the demand. College enrollment

rose by 49 percent in the 1950s, partly because of

the rise in the enrollment/population ratio from 15

percent to 24 percent. During the 1960s, enrollment

rose by 120 percent. By 1969, college enrollment

was as large as 35 percent of the 18- to 24-year-old

population. About 41 percent of the college students

were women. Public institutions accounted for 74

percent of enrollment, and about one-fourth of all students were enrolled at 2-year colleges.

The 1970s were a period of slower growth in college enrollment despite record numbers of young

people of college age and increasing participation of

older adults in college. During the 1970s, enrollment

rose by 45 percent, somewhat slower than the

1960s, but about the same as the 1950s. The proportion of part-time students also increased, from 31

percent in 1969 to 41 percent in 1979. This rise was

partly due to increased participation rates of older

students and the expansion of 2-year college systems, whose enrollment more than doubled. By

1979, women constituted the majority on college

campuses. Enrollment growth slowed substantially

during the 1980s, with only a 17 percent increase between 1979 and 1989. Incremental increases have

continued during the early 1990s. The proportion of

part-time students has increased only slightly during

the 1980s as participation rates for older age groups

have remained stable. In contrast, enrollment rates

for younger, traditional college-age people rose significantly, and college enrollment showed increases

during the 1980s, despite drops in the college-age

population.

Institutions and Professional Staff

Historical trends in numbers of institutions reflect

steady growth over the past 120 years, but the rate

of growth has been substantially slower than the rise

in enrollment. The result of these differing rates of increase has been that the average size of colleges

has steadily increased. The average size of colleges

rose from only 112 students in 1869–70 to 243 at the

turn of the century. By 1929–30, average size had

risen to 781, and it more than doubled by 1960. In

1989–90, the average size of colleges was 3,830

students (table 23).
Higher Education 67

The growth in the number of professional staff employed by colleges and universities has closely paralleled the rise in enrollment. The ratio of students to

staff has remained remarkably stable for more than

100 years. In 1869–70, there were 11 students for

every professional, and in 1989–90, there were 9

students for every professional (table 26). Although

the measure fluctuated somewhat over the time period, the changes have not been dramatic, and some

of them are due to changes in survey procedures

and definitions. Full-time-equivalent data which might

be used to make more precise measurements of

staff resources are not available for the entire time

period.

Degrees Conferred

The number of bachelor’s degrees conferred exhibited substantial increases during the 20th century.

The periods of most rapid growth were the 1920s,

the 1940s, and the 1960s (table 28). The increase in

the 1920s corresponds to rising proportions of young

people completing high school and consequently becoming eligible for college admission. The 1940s

surge was partly a result of the federal financial aid

program for veterans which encouraged huge numbers of returning servicemen to enter higher education programs. In the 1960s, the ‘‘baby boom’’ generation entered college, and their large numbers resulted in substantial increases in bachelor’s degrees

conferred. An additional factor in the increase in the

number of students and degrees was that over time

a higher proportion of young people sought access to

higher education. During the 1970s, interest in higher

education remained relatively steady, but the number

of bachelor’s degree recipients in relation to the 23-

year-old population was somewhat lower than the

peaks attained during the late 1960s and early

1970s. The number of bachelor’s degrees continued

to grow during the 1980s, despite declines in the traditional college-age population. This may be partly

attributed to rising proportions of high school graduates attending college as well as to the graduation

of older students.

Figure 16.--Bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education: 1869-70 to 1989-90

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

1,100,000

1,000,000

900,000

800,000

700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0

Number

Year ending

Bachelor’s

Master’s

Doctor’s

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

and
68 Higher Education

The proportion of women earning bachelor’s degrees rose slowly during the latter part of the 19th

and early 20th century. Between 1869–70 and 1909–

10, the proportion of bachelor’s degrees earned by

women rose from 15 percent to 23 percent. During

the teens and the twenties, the proportion received

by women grew more rapidly, reaching 40 percent in

1929–30. The proportion remained about the same

during the 1930s, but rose dramatically during the

early 1940s as large numbers of men left home to

fight in World War II. During some of the war years,

women constituted the majority of graduates. Following the war, the number of male graduates surged as

large numbers of former soldiers took advantage of

financial assistance to complete their studies. In

1949–50, only 24 percent of the graduates were

women, but subsequently the proportion of women

began to grow again, reaching 43 percent in 1970.

By the early 1980s, the majority of bachelor’s degree

recipients were women, and in 1989–90, women

earned 53 percent of all bachelor’s degrees.

Figure 17.--Bachelor’s degrees per 1,000 23-year-olds:

1889-90 to 1989-90

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

500

400

300

200

100

0

Number per

23-year-olds

Year ending

1,000

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

Current Population Reports, Population Estimates and Projections; and U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1992.
Higher Education 69

Figure 18.--Percentage of higher education degrees conferred to 

females, by level: 1869-70 to 1989-90

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage

Bachelor’s

Master’s

Doctor’s

First-professional

Year ending

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; 

Earned Degrees Conferred; and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) "Completions" survey.

Figure 19.--Bachelor’s degrees per 100 high school graduates

4 years earlier and master’s degrees per 100 bachelor’s degrees 

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Master’s per

Bachelor’s per 100 

high school graduates

100 bachelor’s

Number of

degrees

Year ending

2 years earlier: 1869-70 to 1989-90

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970;

Current Population Reports, Population Estimates and Projections, various years; and U.S. Department of Education, National Center for 

Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various years.
70 Higher Education

Master’s Degrees

The pattern of growth in the number of master’s

degrees conferred is similar to that displayed by

bachelor’s degrees. The number of master’s degrees

grew between 1871–72 and 1899–1900, but the rate

was erratic with year-to-year fluctuations, some of

which may have been caused by survey anomalies.

Still the number of master’s degrees per 100 bachelor’s degrees remained steady, generally remaining

between 6 and 8. This pattern shifted upward during

the 1920s as more bachelor’s degree recipients

sought master’s degrees, and the ratio rose to 16 in

1931–32. The ratio rose rapidly immediately after

World War II, especially compared to the relatively

small number of bachelor’s degrees awarded during

the war years. The rise in master’s degrees probably

was influenced by veterans returning to college to

complete their studies. The next period of dramatic

growth began in the early 1960s when both the number of bachelor’s degree recipients and the ratio of

master’s degrees per 100 bachelor’s degrees began

to rise. In 1969–70, there were 33 master’s degrees

per 100 bachelor’s degrees awarded 2 years earlier.

This ratio has remained fairly stable since that time

period.

The number of master’s degrees reached a peak

of 317,000 in 1976–77 and then declined for several

years. The former 1976–77 peak finally was exceeded in 1989–90 when 324,000 degrees were

awarded.

The proportion of master’s degrees awarded to

women rose significantly after the turn of the century,

reaching 26 percent in 1909–10. The proportion continued to increase during the teens and twenties, like

the bachelor’s degrees. However, there was little rise

in the proportion of women receiving master’s degrees during the 1930s. The proportion of degrees

awarded to women fell during the 1940s, and by

1949–50, the proportion had fallen to 29 percent,

partly as a result of the influx of veterans. Not until

1969–70 did the proportion of women reach 40 percent again, about the same as 1929–30. During the

1970s and 1980s, the proportion of degrees awarded

to women continued to rise, reaching 53 percent in

1989–90.

Doctor’s Degrees

The number of doctor’s degrees conferred by U.S.

colleges remained very small until the 1920s. While

the number of doctor’s degrees in relation to the

number of bachelor’s degrees rose somewhat during

the late 1880s and 1890s, the doctor’s degrees grew

at a slower rate in the later years of the 19th century.

During the 1920s, the number of doctor’s degrees

per 1,000 bachelor’s degrees rose indicating that

more people were pursuing advanced degrees after

their bachelor’s degrees. Also, more people were receiving bachelor’s degrees which increased the size

of the pool for potential graduate school students. As

a function of these shifts, the number of doctor’s degrees conferred in 1929–30 showed an increase of

274 percent compared to 1919–20.

During the 1930s, the number of doctor’s degrees

continued to rise, but at a slower rate. The ratio of

doctor’s to bachelor’s degrees fell significantly during

the 1930s and continued to fall during World War II.

The lapse in time from bachelor’s to doctor’s degree

also lengthened significantly during the postwar

years, suggesting that many young people took time

from their studies to serve during the war. The number of doctor’s degrees continued to rise through the

1950s, but at much slower rate than the 1920s or

1940s. Also, the ratio of doctor’s degrees to bachelor’s degrees rose and then fell sharply. As in the

lower levels of degrees, the 1960s brought a surge

of interest in doctor’s degrees. Not only did the absolute number of degrees rise by 204 percent between

1959–60 and 1969–70, but the ratio of doctor’s degrees to 1,000 bachelor’s degrees rose from 23 to

78. Also, the time-lapse from bachelor’s degree to

doctor’s degree hit a low of 7.9 years, as short as

any period measured except in 1919–20.

Through the 1970s, the number of doctor’s degrees conferred fluctuated within a narrow range.

The ratio of doctor’s degrees per 1,000 bachelor’s

degrees fell sharply, and the average length of time

to obtain the degree began to rise. The 1980s saw

the average time to complete the doctor’s degree

lengthen to a record 10.5 years in 1987–88, 1988–

89, and 1989–90. The number of these degrees per

1,000 bachelor’s degrees held steady during the

1980s and actually rose slightly at the end of the

decade. Because of the increases in the pool of

graduate students, the number of doctor’s degrees

rose somewhat during the 1980s from 32,600 in

1979–80 to 38,200 in 1989–90.

Women generally have obtained a lower proportion

of doctor’s degrees than master’s or bachelor’s. Only

a small number of doctor’s degrees were awarded to

women in the last 30 years of the 19th century, perhaps fewer than might be awarded by a large university in a single year today. The proportion of doctor’s

degrees awarded to women rose at an irregular rate

between 1899–1900 and 1939–40, from 6 percent to

13 percent. After the war years, the proportion

awarded to women fell. By 1970 the proportion of

doctor’s degrees awarded to women had reached 13

percent again. During the 1970s, more women began

graduating from doctor’s degree programs, and the

proportion reached 30 percent by 1979-80. In 1989-

90, about 36 percent of all doctor’s degrees were

earned by women.
Higher Education 71

First-Professional Degrees

Prior to 1960–61, separate figures on first-professional degrees did not exist because these programs

were tabulated with the bachelor’s degrees. In the

late 18th and early 19th century, professional degrees frequently did not require attainment of a bachelor’s degree before entrance into the programs.

Since 1960–61, first professional degrees, such as

degrees in law, medicine, and dentistry, have risen in

a different pattern than other types of degrees (table

31). For example, first-professional degrees grew

more rapidly during the 1970s than in the 1960s. In

contrast to the increases of bachelor’s, master’s, and

doctor’s degrees, the number of first-professional degrees fell during the latter half of the 1980s.

Over the past 30 years, the number of degrees

awarded in law has grown much more rapidly than

degrees conferred in medicine or dentistry. However,

the number of degrees conferred in each of the three

areas is down from peaks reached during the mid1980s. The number of degrees in dentistry grew by

72 percent between 1959–60 and 1982–83, before

falling dramatically by 27 percent between 1982–83

and 1989–90. The number of medical degrees rose

by 128 percent between 1959–60 and 1984–85, and

then fell 6 percent by 1989-90. The number of degrees conferred in law rose the most rapidly with an

increase of 306 percent between 1959–60 and

1984–85, but since then the number of law degrees

has fluctuated at a slightly lower level.

One of the most significant trends in first-professional degrees has been the dramatic increase in the

portion of degrees earned by women. In 1959–60,

women received 1 percent of the dentistry degrees,

6 percent of the medical degrees, and only 2 percent

of the law degrees. The number of women earning

degrees in these fields rose rapidly, particularly during the 1970s. In 1989–90 women accounted for 31

percent of the dentistry degrees, 34 percent of the

degrees in medicine, and 42 percent of the degrees

in law.

Revenues for Higher Education

Although there have been huge increases in the

total revenues for higher education during the 20th

century, the sources of the funds have shown relatively stable patterns. For example, the proportion of

revenues from tuition and fees was 24 percent in

1909–10 and in 1989–90. However, there have been

some significant shifts through the period, notably

during World War II (table 33).

Figure 20.--Sources of current-fund revenue for institutions of higher education: 1909-10 to 1989-90

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Other

State

Tuition

Federal

Percent

Year ending

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Annual Report of the Commissioner; Biennial Survey 

Higher Education; Digest of Education Statistics, 1992;

unpublished data.

of Education in the United States; Financial Statistics of Institutions of and
72 Higher Education

From 1909–10 to 1939–40, revenue sources

evolved slowly. The proportion of revenues from tuition dropped slightly during the teens and then rose

to 26 percent in 1929–30 and 28 percent in 1939–

40. The proportion from federal sources fluctuated

between 4 and 7 percent during this 30-year period.

The proportion of revenues from state sources fluctuated around 30 percent between 1909–10 and

1931–32, and then fell significantly during the Great

Depression of the 1930s. By the early 1940s, only 21

percent of revenues came from the state governments. The proportion of revenues from endowments

fell from 16 percent in 1909–10 to 10 percent in

1939–40. Part of this drop may have been due to the

rapidly rising number of institutions. The new schools

usually did not have the resources of some of the

older, well-established institutions. Also the stock

market crash of 1929 and the ensuing depression

dampened revenues from endowments. One significant rise during the early part of the century was in

income from auxiliary enterprises, which rose from

12 percent of all revenues in 1909–10 to 20 percent

of all revenues in 1939–40.

The war years were marked by an increase in federal funding of higher education. Some of this funding was earmarked for research, and some was for

training programs specifically contracted by the federal government. After the war, the proportion of revenues coming from the federal government began to

decline, dipping to 14 percent in 1955–56. After

some rises during the early 1960s, the proportion of

revenues from the federal government began a long,

slow slide to 10 percent in 1989–90. In contrast, the

proportion of revenues from state sources increased

in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, but dipped slightly

in the 1980s. The percent of revenues from local

government has fluctuated between 2 and 4 percent

since World War II. Similarly, the proportions of revenues from endowments and from private gifts, grants,

and contracts have shown only small fluctuations

during the postwar period. One significant shift in college finances of the postwar period has been the

steady increase in revenues from university hospitals. Between 1949–50 and 1989–90, the proportion of revenues rose from 5 percent in 1949–50 to

9 percent in 1989–90. This increase occurred during

the 1970s and 1980s, after falling in the early part of

the postwar period.

Expenditures

In the 60-year period between 1929–30 and 1989–

90, there were several significant developments in

the expenditure patterns of colleges and universities.

Although changes in definitions and data collection

procedures sometimes hamper direct comparisons,

there appears to have been some increase in the

proportion of expenditures for administration, research, and university hospitals, and a decline in the

proportion of expenditures for instruction, auxiliary

enterprises, and plant operation and maintenance.

However, these shifts have not been consistent over

the 60-year period (table 24).

Administrative and general expenditures as a percent of current-fund expenditures rose slowly

throughout the 1929–30 to 1989–90 period. In 1929–

30, administrative expenditures accounted for about

8 percent of college budgets, but they increased to

10 percent in 1959–60 and 14 percent in 1989–90.

The administrative costs rose most rapidly in the

1960s while changes in most of the other decades

amounted to about 1 percentage point or less.

One of the most rapidly growing areas of college

budgets in recent years has been university hospitals. When data were first tabulated separately in

1966–67, university hospitals accounted for 2 percent

of the budget. Hospitals accounted for 8 percent of

the budget in 1979–80 and 9 percent in 1989–90.

The proportion of college budgets for instruction is

lower now than in 1929–30, but most of the change

occurred during the 1930s and 1940s. Between

1929–30 and 1949–50, the share of college budgets

for instruction fell from 44 percent to 35 percent. In

the following 40 years, the proportion dipped slightly,

reaching 31 percent in 1989–90.

Although there have been significant fluctuations,

the proportion of college budgets spent on plant operation and maintenance has fallen over the 60-year

period. The share of college budgets for plant operation and maintenance fell from 12 percent in 1929–

30 to 10 percent in 1939–40. Between 1939–40 and

1943–44, there was a further drop to 8 percent, likely

caused by conservation policies prompted by the

war. After jumping to 10 percent again after the war,

the proportion of funds for plant operation and maintenance fell to 7 percent through the late 1960s. In

the early 1970s, partly due to the sharply higher

costs of energy, the plant operation share returned to

8 percent. In the latter part of the 1980s, the proportion fell to 7 percent.

The part of the college budget that goes to auxiliary enterprises such as residence halls, food service, and sports arenas has fallen through much of

the 60-year period. These auxiliary enterprises rose

from 17 percent of the budget in 1931–32 to 23 percent in 1947–48. But during the 1950s and the

1960s, the proportion fell steadily. After stabilizing in

the 1970s, the proportion dipped slightly again to

about 10 percent in 1989–90. At least part of this

shift may be attributed to the increased popularity of

2-year colleges, which have lower spending on auxiliary enterprises compared to 4-year colleges with

larger numbers of students living on campus.
Higher Education 73

Figure 21.--Expenditures of institutions of higher education per

student in constant 1990-91 dollars: 1929-30 to 1989-90

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

$10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

Total educational and general

Instruction

Research

Plant operation

Year ending

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Annual Report of the Commissioner; Biennial Survey 

Higher Education;

System (IPEDS) "Finance" survey.

Expenditure

per

student

of Education in the United States; Financial Statistics of Institutions of and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data 

Another way of examining college and university

expenditures is to look at per student spending. After

adjustment for inflation, expenditures per student

have risen in nearly every decade since 1929–30.

Because consistent data on full-time-equivalent enrollment were not available for this historical analysis,

data on total head-count enrollment were used instead. Because of the rising proportion of students

attending college part-time, the use of total enrollment makes the expenditure per student percentage

changes lower than they would have been if more

precise FTE enrollment data had been used.

Educational and general spending on a per student

basis held up remarkably well during the Great Depression of the 1930s, even registering a 25 percent

increase. Per student expenditures rose a further 18

percent during the 1940s. The 1950s saw the most

rapid growth. The large 49 percent increase in expenditures per student may be partly attributed to the

enrollment drop during the early part of the decade

when the high expenditures of the immediate postwar years remained steady. Expenditures per student

rose a further 27 percent during the 1960s, but

dropped 11 percent in the 1970s. The drops were

particularly notable during the years with the highest

inflation rates. During the 1980s, the expenditures

per student rose a further 24 percent reaching an all

time record of $7,799 per student in 1989–90.

Endowment and Physical Plant

Endowment funds and physical plant value are

long-term assets that can be used to analyze institutional resources. Physical plant value measures the

book value of land, buildings, and equipment owned

by colleges and universities. Endowment funds are

economic resources that are acquired by colleges

through donations or deliberate transfers from current

operating funds. The principal of the endowment is

maintained in investments while the interest is diverted to fund special programs, such as faculty

members in specific disciplines, or student aid, or

scholarships for particular categories of students.

Endowments at colleges represent a sizeable economic resource amounting to $68 billion in 1989–90.

Endowment funds are deposited in a variety of investments, including relatively volatile ones like

stocks. Thus, their value tends to fluctuate more over

time than other types of higher education finances.

When examined on a per student basis, there was a

drop in the book value of the endowments per student between the mid-1930s and the early 1950s. A

more reliable indicator of market value of endowment

became available in the mid-1960s. Market value of
74 Higher Education

endowment takes into account unrealized losses and

gains in the value of the investments. The market

value data indicate a continuing drop in value per

student through the early 1980s. Some of this may

be attributed to the rapid growth of new public colleges, especially 2-year colleges, which generally

have either no or small endowments. During the

1980s, the market value of endowment per student

rose a dramatic 71 percent. Some of this may be

due to favorable stock market performances, as well

as to institutional drives to boost endowments even

at public colleges.

The plant value data must be interpreted with caution since the book value of buildings or land may

differ considerably from their replacement value.

After adjustment for student enrollment and inflation,

it appears that plant fund value per student generally

is lower now than in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Some of this may be attributed to the growth in the

enrollment of 2-year colleges which accounted for 38

percent of students in 1989 compared to 26 percent

of students in 1969. Two-year colleges generally

have lower physical plant value per student than 4-

year colleges because relatively few students live on

campus, and equipment and land holdings are generally less extensive. Property value per student remained stable during the 1980s after adjustment for

student enrollment and inflation. Like other expenditure-per-student measures, the use of total enrollment rather than FTE enrollment tends to depress

percentage changes.

The 20th century has been a period of dynamic

growth for higher education institutions. Colleges

have evolved from institutions largely limited to the

social elite to much more egalitarian institutions attended today by nearly two out of three high school

graduates. Colleges showed particularly strong

growth during the late teens and in the twenties, fifties, sixties and eighties. The missions of colleges

have evolved with the times as has the student composition. College enrollments, degrees, and finances

are now at record highs.
Table 23.—Historical summary of higher education statistics: 1869–70 to 1989–90

Item 1869–70 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 1959–60 1969–70 1979–80 1987–88 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Total institutions 1 .............................. 563 811 998 977 951 1,041 1,409 1,708 1,851 2,004 2,525 3,152 3,587 Professional staff 2 ................................ 3 5,553 3 11,522 3 15,809 23,868 36,480 48,615 — 146,929 246,722 380,554 — — 1,437,975 

Male .................................................. 3 4,887 3 7,328 3 12,704 19,151 29,132 35,807 — 106,328 186,189 296,773 — — 850,451 Female .............................................. 3 666 3 4,194 3 3,105 4,717 7,348 12,808 — 40,601 60,533 83,781 — — 587,524 

Instructional staff 4 ................................ — — — — — — 82,386 110,885 190,353 281,506 551,000 — 954,534 Total fall enrollment 5 ........................... 62,839 115,850 156,756 237,592 355,430 597,880 1,100,737 1,494,203 2,444,900 3,639,847 8,004,660 11,569,899 12,766,642 

Male ................................................. 3 49,467 3 77,994 3 100,453 152,254 3 214,779 314,938 619,935 893,250 1,721,572 2,332,617 4,746,201 5,682,877 5,932,056 Female .............................................. 3 13,372 3 37,856 3 56,303 85,338 3 140,651 282,942 480,802 600,953 723,328 1,307,230 3,258,459 5,887,022 6,834,586 

Earned degrees conferred

Associate, total ................................ — — — — — — ———— 206,023 400,910 435,085 

Male .............................................. — — — — — — ———— 117,432 183,737 190,047 Female ......................................... — — — — — — ———— 88,591 217,173 245,038 

Bachelor’s, 7 total ............................. 9,371 12,896 15,539 27,410 37,199 48,622 122,484 186,500 432,058 392,440 792,317 929,417 994,829 

Male .............................................. 7,993 10,411 12,857 22,173 28,762 31,980 73,615 109,546 328,841 254,063 451,097 473,611 477,203 Female ......................................... 1,378 2,485 2,682 5,237 8,437 16,642 48,869 76,954 103,217 138,377 341,220 455,806 517,626 

Master’s, 8 total ................................ — 879 1,015 1,583 2,113 4,279 14,969 26,731 58,183 74,435 208,291 298,081 299,317 

Male .............................................. — 868 821 1,280 1,555 2,985 8,925 16,508 41,220 50,898 125,624 150,749 145,163 Female ......................................... — 11 194 303 558 1,294 6,044 10,223 16,963 23,537 82,667 147,332 154,154 

First-professional, 7 total .................. (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) 34,578 70,131 70,735 

Male .............................................. (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) 32,794 52,716 45,484 Female ......................................... (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) 1,784 17,415 25,251 

Doctor’s, total ................................... 1 54 149 382 443 615 2,299 3,290 6,420 9,829 29,912 32,615 34,870 

Male .............................................. 1 51 147 359 399 522 1,946 2,861 5,804 8,801 25,890 22,943 22,615 Female ......................................... 0 3 2 23 44 93 353 429 616 1,028 4,022 9,672 12,255 

Finances, in thousands

Current-fund revenue 8 .................... — — — — $76,883 $199,922 $554,511 $715,211 $2,374,645 $5,785,537 $21,515,242 $58,519,982 $117,340,109 

Educational and general

income ....................................... — — $21,464 $35,084 67,917 172,929 494,092 538,511 1,751,393 4,593,485 17,144,194 46,534,023 91,863,743 

Current-fund expenditures 8 ............. — — — — — — 507,142 674,688 2,245,661 5,601,376 21,043,110 56,913,588 113,786,476 

Educational and general

expenditures .............................. — — — — — — 377,903 521,990 1,706,444 4,685,258 16,845,210 44,542,843 89,157,430 

Value of physical property ............... — — 95,426 253,599 457,954 747,333 2,065,049 2,753,780 4,799,964 13,548,548 42,093,580 83,733,387 133,228,717 Endowment funds 9 .......................... — — 78,788 194,998 323,661 569,071 1,372,068 10 1,686,283 2,601,223 10 5,322,080 10 10,837,343 10 18,561,472 — 

1Prior to 1979–80, excludes branch campuses.2Total number of different individuals (not reduced to full-time equivalent). Beginning in 1959–60, data are for the

first term of the academic year.

3Estimated.4 Includes all faculty, instructors and above, and research assistants.5 Data for 1869–70 to 1939–40 are for resident degree-credit students who enrolled at any time during the academic

year.

6Preliminary data.7From 1869–70 to 1959–60, first-professional degrees included under bachelor’s degrees.8Figures for years prior to 1969–70 are not precisely comparable with later data.9Book value. Includes annuity funds.10Endowment funds only.

—Data not available.NOTE.—Beginning in 1959–60, includes Alaska and Hawaii. Some data have bee

figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistic

the United States; Education Directory, Colleges and Universities; Faculty and Oth

of Higher Education; Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities; Earned Degree

Institutions of Higher Education; and ‘‘Fall Enrollment in Institutions of Higher Educ

Awards Conferred,’’ and ‘‘Financial Statistics of Institutions of Higher Education’’ surEducation Data System (IPEDS), ‘‘Fall Enrollment,’’ ‘‘Completions,’’ and ‘‘Finance’’ November 1992.)
Table 24.—Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by sex, attendance status, and type and control of institu

1869–70 to fall 1991 [In thousands] Year Total enrollment Enrollment as a percent of 18– to 24–year-old popu- lation 1 Male Female Full-time Part-time 4-year 2-year Public institutions 

Total 4-year 2-year T

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

1869–70 .............. 63 1.3 49 13 — — —————1879–80 .............. 116 1.6 78 38 — — —————1889–90 .............. 157 1.8 100 56 — — —————1899–1900 .......... 238 2.3 152 85 — — —————1904–05 .............. 264 2.3 — — — — —————1909–10 .............. 355 2.8 215 141 — — —————1910–11 .............. 354 2.8 — — — — —————1911–12 .............. 356 2.8 — — — — —————1912–13 .............. 361 2.8 — — — — —————1913–14 .............. 379 2.9 — — — — —————1914–15 .............. 404 3.1 — — — — —————1915–16 .............. 441 3.3 — — — — —————1917–18 .............. 441 3.4 — — — — ———— 11919–20 .............. 598 4.7 315 283 — — ———— 31921–22 .............. 681 5.2 — — — — ———— 51923–24 .............. 2 823 6.1 — — — — — — — — 9 1925–26 .............. 941 6.7 — — — — — — — — 14 1927–28 .............. 1,054 7.2 — — — — — — — — 28 1929–30 .............. 1,101 7.2 620 481 — — — — 531 — 37 1931–32 .............. 1,154 7.4 667 487 — — 1,069 85 582 523 59 1933–34 .............. 1,055 6.7 616 440 — — 977 78 530 474 56 1935–36 .............. 1,208 7.6 710 499 — — 1,106 102 614 544 71 1937–38 .............. 1,351 8.4 804 547 — — 1,229 122 689 607 82 1939–40 .............. 1,494 9.1 893 601 — — 1,344 150 797 689 108 1941–42 .............. 1,404 8.4 819 585 — — 1,263 141 732 631 101 1943–44 .............. 1,155 6.8 579 576 — — 1,066 89 571 511 61 1945–46 .............. 1,677 10.0 928 749 — — 1,520 156 834 724 110 Fall 1946 ............. 2,078 12.5 1,418 661 — — —————Fall 1947 ............. 2,338 14.2 1,659 679 — — 2,116 222 1,152 989 163 Fall 1948 ............. 2,403 14.7 1,709 694 — — 2,192 211 1,186 1,032 154 Fall 1949 ............. 2,445 15.2 1,722 723 — — 2,216 229 1,207 1,036 171 Fall 1950 ............. 2,281 14.3 1,560 721 — — 2,064 217 1,140 972 168 Fall 1951 ............. 2,102 13.4 1,391 711 — — 1,902 200 1,038 882 156 Fall 1952 ............. 2,134 13.8 1,380 754 — — 1,896 238 1,101 910 192 Fall 1953 ............. 2,231 14.7 1,423 808 — — 1,973 258 1,186 976 210 Fall 1954 ............. 2,447 16.2 1,563 883 — — 2,164 282 1,354 1,112 241 Fall 1955 ............. 2,653 17.7 1,733 920 — — 2,345 308 1,476 1,211 265 Fall 1956 ............. 2,918 19.5 1,911 1,007 — — 2,571 347 1,656 1,359 298 Fall 1957 ............. 3,324 22.0 2,171 1,153 — — — — 1,973 — — Fall 1959 ............. 3,640 23.8 2,333 1,307 — — — — 2,181 — — Fall 1961 ............. 4,145 23.6 2,586 1,559 — — — — 2,561 — — 
Table 24.—Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by sex, attendance status, and type and control of institution:—

1869–70 to fall 1991

[In thousands]

Year Total enrollment

Enrollment as a

percent of 18– to

24–year-old population 1 Male Female Full-time Part-time 4-year 2-year

Public institutions 

Total 4-year 2-year T

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Fall 1963 ............. 4,780 27.7 2,962 1,818 3,184 1,596 3,929 850 3,081 2,341 740 Fall 1964 ............. 5,280 28.7 3,249 2,031 3,573 1,707 4,291 989 3,468 2,593 875 Fall 1965 ............. 5,921 29.8 3,630 2,291 4,096 1,825 4,748 1,173 3,970 2,928 1,041 Fall 1966 ............. 6,390 30.7 3,856 2,534 4,439 1,951 5,064 1,326 4,349 3,160 1,189 Fall 1967 ............. 6,912 32.2 4,133 2,779 4,793 2,119 5,399 1,513 4,816 3,444 1,372 Fall 1968 ............. 7,513 34.1 4,478 3,035 5,210 2,303 5,721 1,792 5,431 3,784 1,646 Fall 1969 ............. 8,005 35.0 4,746 3,258 5,499 2,506 5,937 2,068 5,897 3,963 1,934 Fall 1970 ............. 8,581 35.8 5,044 3,537 5,816 2,765 6,262 2,319 6,428 4,233 2,195 Fall 1971 ............. 8,949 35.3 5,207 3,742 6,077 2,871 6,369 2,579 6,804 4,347 2,457 Fall 1972 ............. 9,215 35.8 5,239 3,976 6,072 3,142 6,459 2,756 7,071 4,430 2,641 Fall 1973 ............. 9,602 36.5 5,371 4,231 6,189 3,413 6,590 3,012 7,420 4,530 2,890 Fall 1974 ............. 10,224 37.9 5,622 4,601 6,370 3,853 6,820 3,404 7,989 4,703 3,285 Fall 1975 ............. 11,185 40.3 6,149 5,036 6,841 4,344 7,215 3,970 8,835 4,998 3,836 Fall 1976 ............. 11,012 38.8 5,811 5,201 6,717 4,295 7,129 3,883 8,653 4,902 3,752 Fall 1977 ............. 11,286 39.0 5,789 5,497 6,793 4,493 7,243 4,043 8,847 4,945 3,902 Fall 1978 ............. 11,260 38.3 5,641 5,619 6,668 4,592 7,232 4,028 8,786 4,912 3,874 Fall 1979 ............. 11,570 38.8 5,683 5,887 6,794 4,776 7,353 4,217 9,037 4,980 4,057 Fall 1980 ............. 12,097 40.2 5,874 6,223 7,098 4,999 7,571 4,526 9,457 5,129 4,329 Fall 1981 ............. 12,372 41.0 5,975 6,397 7,181 5,190 7,655 4,716 9,647 5,166 4,481 Fall 1982 ............. 12,426 41.4 6,031 6,394 7,221 5,205 7,654 4,772 9,696 5,176 4,520 Fall 1983 ............. 12,465 42.0 6,024 6,441 7,261 5,204 7,741 4,723 9,683 5,223 4,459 Fall 1984 ............. 12,242 42.0 5,864 6,378 7,098 5,144 7,711 4,531 9,477 5,198 4,279 Fall 1985 ............. 12,247 43.0 5,818 6,429 7,075 5,172 7,716 4,531 9,479 5,210 4,270 Fall 1986 ............. 12,504 45.1 5,885 6,619 7,120 5,384 7,824 4,680 9,714 5,300 4,414 Fall 1987 ............. 12,767 47.1 5,932 6,835 7,231 5,536 7,990 4,776 9,973 5,432 4,541 Fall 1988 ............. 13,055 49.0 6,002 7,053 7,437 5,619 8,180 4,875 10,161 5,546 4,615 Fall 1989 ............. 13,539 51.4 6,190 7,349 7,661 5,878 8,388 5,151 10,578 5,694 4,884 Fall 1990 5 ........... 13,710 51.1 6,239 7,472 7,780 5,930 8,529 5,181 10,741 5,803 4,938 Fall 1991 6 ........... 14,157 53.7 6,405 7,752 8,031 6,126 — — 11,174 — — 

1Population ratio data are based on persons 18 to 24 years old, as of July 1 prior to the opening of school, except

for 1899–1900 which is based on July 1 population after the closing of school in June. Population data through 1959are total population, including armed forces overseas. Data for 1960 to 1991 are resident population. Many studentsare over age 24, particularly in the later years. In fall 1990, about 44 percent of college students were over age 24. 2 Data for 1923–24 and previous years based on U.S. Office of Education, Education for Victory, vol. 3, no. 6, 1944. 3 Large increases are due to the addition of schools accredited by the National Association of Trade and TechnicalSchools in 1980 and 1981. 4Because of imputation techniques, data are not consistent with figures for other years.

5Preliminary data.6Preliminary estimate.

—Data not available.NOTE.—Prior to 1970, data for 2–year branch campuses of 4–year institutions a

tions. Data for 1869–70 through fall 1956 are degree-credit enrollment. Data for lanon-degree-credit enrollment. Data for 1869–70 through 1945–46 are cumulative year. Beginning in fall 1960, data include Alaska and Hawaii.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Stat

Times to 1970; and U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education S

tics. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
Table 25.—Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by state: 1869–70 to fall 1990 State Academic year degree-credit enrollment Total enrollment 1869–70 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 Fall 1959 Fall 1969 Fall 197

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

United States ......... 62,839 115,850 156,756 237,592 355,430 597,880 1,100,737 1,494,203 2,444,900 3,639,847 8,004,660 11,569,8

Alabama ........................ 560 2,250 3,003 — 4,802 6,421 15,290 19,987 31,760 46,397 97,816 159,7Alaska ............................ 0 0 0 — 0 0 86 268 328 3,074 7,514 20,0Arizona .......................... 0 0 31 — 407 1,357 3,742 5,969 13,144 33,121 97,692 188,9Arkansas ....................... 80 709 454 — 2,343 2,900 6,445 10,928 19,445 24,371 51,530 74,4California ....................... 1,790 2,155 3,209 — 11,394 24,257 69,087 120,290 200,447 507,302 1,149,148 1,698,7Colorado ........................ 0 195 402 — 4,601 6,050 11,290 17,376 35,063 45,745 111,893 156,1Connecticut ................... 1,173 1,775 2,688 — 4,917 5,403 9,183 12,860 32,105 49,082 114,419 156,0Delaware ....................... 188 96 169 — 225 498 711 1,118 3,441 6,783 23,012 32,3District of Columbia ....... 1,587 920 2,536 — 4,710 9,564 15,944 22,319 37,454 49,518 77,886 87,8Florida ........................... 238 39 185 — 650 1,794 5,857 11,473 36,093 70,788 218,303 395,2Georgia .......................... 957 2,990 3,366 — 6,283 9,442 15,838 23,229 39,094 49,054 117,198 178,0Hawaii ............................ 0 0 0 — 0 198 1,005 2,730 4,822 9,769 33,586 48,9Idaho ............................. 0 0 0 — 724 2,322 3,812 6,615 8,266 12,579 31,450 40,6Illinois ............................ 3,992 7,075 11,512 — 29,069 48,649 81,701 107,074 151,622 193,680 425,002 613,8Indiana ........................... 3,367 5,812 7,652 — 16,477 20,044 26,118 37,065 70,363 93,549 185,290 228,3Iowa ............................... 1,644 3,269 4,863 — 11,146 19,994 23,688 29,753 44,045 54,253 106,063 132,5Kansas .......................... 466 952 2,723 — 9,409 16,437 21,326 27,244 37,061 50,775 104,568 133,3Kentucky ........................ 2,097 3,945 4,779 — 7,061 7,048 16,877 22,414 32,455 45,360 97,243 135,1Louisiana ....................... 1,097 851 2,389 — 3,883 4,829 11,180 25,996 35,641 54,958 114,995 153,8Maine ............................. 957 1,556 1,554 — 2,994 3,221 4,659 6,092 9,507 12,320 30,498 42,9Maryland ........................ 1,715 3,601 3,162 — 5,211 7,430 13,084 18,557 36,570 59,267 135,712 218,4Massachusetts .............. 3,007 6,256 10,255 — 19,792 33,138 54,424 57,772 102,351 134,589 285,709 396,2Michigan ........................ 2,445 2,812 6,039 — 14,967 21,833 44,144 60,961 101,390 160,313 366,568 503,8Minnesota ...................... 675 1,170 2,787 — 9,724 18,102 24,884 34,647 50,709 73,013 158,359 193,8Mississippi ..................... 251 1,527 1,989 — 3,298 4,521 10,070 14,019 19,695 34,501 68,594 100,2Missouri ......................... 2,668 5,657 7,606 — 14,844 21,031 31,458 40,393 65,183 80,564 174,486 221,0Montana ........................ 0 0 37 — 612 2,048 3,897 6,685 8,622 12,408 28,868 31,9Nebraska ....................... 102 411 1,305 — 7,630 10,565 15,685 16,579 22,024 31,776 65,239 86,4Nevada .......................... 0 35 52 — 235 430 1,046 1,267 1,775 3,964 12,746 35,9New Hampshire ............. 491 655 651 — 1,713 3,505 4,846 5,897 9,069 12,624 28,114 42,1New Jersey ................... 1,449 1,711 2,314 — 4,731 5,596 14,662 20,515 45,562 84,579 188,810 312,4New Mexico ................... 0 0 22 — 342 2,562 2,635 4,950 9,592 17,125 41,478 56,4New York ....................... 7,869 16,767 19,482 — 31,482 64,727 156,730 195,596 312,971 376,508 728,379 970,2North Carolina ............... 885 2,396 2,311 — 6,898 9,109 18,901 32,118 45,195 68,500 161,038 269,0North Dakota ................. 0 0 60 — 1,382 4,161 6,891 8,332 8,673 14,448 29,830 31,9Ohio ............................... 5,207 8,796 9,965 — 17,584 36,779 66,985 84,367 137,743 169,762 358,892 463,3Oklahoma ...................... 0 0 0 — 4,942 11,671 22,770 32,908 45,401 57,836 106,269 152,6Oregon .......................... 368 768 849 — 2,920 7,929 11,796 16,141 25,588 41,630 110,780 154,5Pennsylvania ................. 8,085 12,845 15,562 — 32,813 44,098 78,086 83,401 151,218 193,967 393,518 481,3Rhode Island ................. 217 392 500 — 1,604 2,189 4,262 5,425 13,841 19,915 42,788 64,4
Table 25.—Enrollment in institutions of higher education, by state: 1869–70 to fall 1990—Continued

State

Academic year degree-credit enrollment Total enrollment

1869–70 1879–80 1889–90 1899–1900 1909–10 1919–20 1929–30 1939–40 1949–50 Fall 1959 Fall 1969 Fall 197

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

South Carolina .............. 381 1,069 1,774 — 5,152 5,246 10,666 15,914 23,038 30,875 62,320 131,4South Dakota ................ 0 0 677 — 1,763 4,676 6,113 6,583 8,157 14,621 30,908 31,2Tennessee ..................... 1,663 4,872 5,531 — 8,134 9,219 20,496 25,253 39,748 59,887 127,568 199,9Texas ............................. 421 1,929 2,441 — 8,344 23,490 46,703 74,552 129,477 185,518 407,918 676,0Utah ............................... 296 55 141 — 1,102 2,313 7,127 13,043 22,380 34,903 81,540 88,6Vermont ......................... 759 782 896 — 1,245 1,813 2,442 3,975 7,767 9,571 21,964 29,5Virginia .......................... 2,408 3,178 4,273 — 6,540 10,738 19,316 26,156 37,393 57,511 138,561 270,5Washington ................... 0 138 84 — 4,524 10,675 17,903 26,226 43,093 65,018 170,107 303,4West Virginia ................. 325 973 1,174 — 2,708 4,334 11,632 14,444 22,834 28,838 62,052 81,3Wisconsin ...................... 1,255 2,659 3,293 — 10,763 20,159 23,758 33,135 49,678 73,556 190,496 255,9Wyoming ....................... 0 0 9 — 125 375 1,177 2,264 3,817 6,371 14,115 19,4U.S. Service Schools .... — — — — 1,211 2,990 3,400 4,326 7,340 13,411 15,828 18,1

—Data not available.NOTE.—National totals exclude data for Utah in 1869–70 and 1879–80, and Washington in 1879–80. Beginning in

1959–60, data include Alaska and Hawaii.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statisti

Education, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Total Enrollment in In

Term, 1959–60; Fall Enrollment in Institutions of Higher Education; and Integrated P

tem, ‘‘Fall Enrollment’’ survey. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
80 Higher Education

Table 26.—Number and professional employees of institutions of higher education: 1869–70 to 1991–92

Year

Number of institutions 1

Number

of

medical

schools 2

Number

of

dental

schools 2

Professional staff

Instructional

staff Total 3

4-year colleges 2-year colleges

Total Male Female

Total Public Private Total Public Private

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1869–70 .................................. 563 — — — — — — 75 10 5,553 4,887 666 —

1879–80 .................................. 811 — — — — — — 100 14 11,522 7,328 4,194 —

1889–90 .................................. 998 — — — — — — 133 31 15,809 12,704 3,105 —

1899–1900 .............................. 977 — — — — — — 160 57 23,868 19,151 4,717 —

1909–10 .................................. 951 — — — — — — 131 54 36,480 29,132 7,348 —

1915–16 .................................. — — — — — — — 95 49 ————

1917–18 .................................. 980 934 — — 46 14 32 90 46 ————

1919–20 .................................. 1,041 989 — — 52 10 42 85 46 48,615 35,807 12,808 —

1921–22 .................................. 1,162 1,082 — — 80 17 63 81 45 — — — 56,486

1923–24 .................................. 1,295 1,163 — — 132 39 93 79 43 — — — 63,999

1925–26 .................................. 1,377 1,224 — — 153 47 106 79 44 — — — 70,674

1927–28 .................................. 1,410 1,162 — — 248 114 134 80 40 — — — 76,080

1929–30 .................................. 1,409 1,132 — — 277 129 148 76 38 — — — 82,386

1931–32 .................................. 1,478 1,136 — — 342 159 183 76 38 100,789 71,680 29,109 88,172

1933–34 .................................. 1,418 1,096 — — 322 152 170 77 39 108,873 78,369 30,504 86,914

1935–36 .................................. 1,628 1,213 — — 415 187 228 77 39 121,036 86,567 34,469 92,580

1937–38 .................................. 1,690 1,237 — — 453 209 244 77 39 135,989 97,362 38,627 102,895

1939–40 .................................. 1,708 1,252 — — 456 217 239 77 39 146,929 106,328 40,601 110,885

1941–42 .................................. 1,769 1,308 — — 461 231 230 77 39 151,066 109,309 41,757 114,693

1943–44 .................................. 1,650 1,237 — — 413 210 203 77 39 150,980 106,254 44,726 105,841

1945–46 .................................. 1,768 1,304 — — 464 242 222 77 39 165,324 116,134 49,190 125,811

1947–48 .................................. 1,788 1,316 — — 472 242 230 77 40 223,660 164,616 59,044 174,204

1949–50 .................................. 1,851 1,327 344 983 524 297 227 72 40 246,722 186,189 60,533 190,353

1950–51 .................................. 1,852 1,312 341 971 540 295 245 72 40 ————

1951–52 .................................. 1,832 1,326 350 976 506 291 215 72 41 244,488 187,136 57,352 183,758

1952–53 .................................. 1,882 1,355 349 1,006 527 290 237 72 41 ————

1953–54 .................................. 1,863 1,345 369 976 518 293 225 73 42 265,911 204,871 61,040 207,365

1954–55 .................................. 1,849 1,333 353 980 516 295 221 72 42 ————

1955–56 .................................. 1,850 1,347 360 987 503 290 213 73 42 298,910 230,342 68,568 228,188

1956–57 .................................. 1,878 1,355 359 996 523 297 226 75 43 ————

1957–58 .................................. 1,930 1,390 366 1,024 540 300 240 75 43 344,525 267,482 77,043 258,184

1958–59 .................................. 1,947 1,394 366 1,028 553 307 246 76 43 ————

1959–60 .................................. 2,004 1,422 367 1,055 582 328 254 79 45 380,554 296,773 83,781 281,506

1960–61 .................................. 2,021 1,431 368 1,063 590 332 258 79 46 ————

1961–62 .................................. 2,033 1,443 374 1,069 590 344 246 81 46 424,862 332,006 92,856 310,772

1962–63 .................................. 2,093 1,468 376 1,092 625 364 261 81 46 ————

1963–64 .................................. 2,132 1,499 386 1,113 633 374 259 82 46 494,514 385,405 109,109 355,542

1964–65 .................................. 2,175 1,521 393 1,128 654 406 248 81 45 ————

1965–66 .................................. 2,230 1,551 401 1,150 679 420 259 84 47 ————

1966–67 .................................. 2,329 1,577 403 1,174 752 477 275 83 47 646,264 — — 445,484

1967–68 .................................. 2,374 1,588 414 1,174 786 520 266 85 48 709,811 — — 484,387

1968–69 .................................. 2,483 1,619 417 1,202 864 594 270 84 48 ————

1969–70 .................................. 2,525 1,639 426 1,213 886 634 252 86 48 — — — 551,000

1970–71 .................................. 2,556 1,665 435 1,230 891 654 237 89 48 — — — 574,592

1971–72 .................................. 2,606 1,675 440 1,235 931 697 234 92 48 ————

1972–73 .................................. 2,665 1,701 449 1,252 964 733 231 97 51 881,665 639,251 242,414 652,517

1973–74 .................................. 2,720 1,717 440 1,277 1,003 760 243 99 52 ————

Including branch campuses

1974–75 .................................. 3,004 1,866 537 1,329 1,138 896 242 104 52 ————

1975–76 .................................. 3,026 1,898 545 1,353 1,128 897 231 107 56 ————

1976–77 .................................. 3,046 1,913 550 1,363 1,133 905 228 109 57 1,073,119 729,169 343,950 793,296

1977–78 .................................. 3,095 1,938 552 1,386 1,157 921 236 109 57 ————

1978–79 .................................. 3,134 1,941 550 1,391 1,193 924 269 109 58 ————

1979–80 .................................. 3,152 1,957 549 1,408 1,195 926 269 112 58 ————

1980–81 .................................. 3,231 1,957 552 1,405 1,274 945 329 116 58 ————

1981–82 .................................. 3,253 1,979 558 1,421 1,274 940 334 119 59 ————

1982–83 .................................. 3,280 1,984 560 1,424 1,296 933 363 118 59 ————

1983–84 .................................. 3,284 2,013 565 1,448 1,271 916 355 119 60 ————

1984–85 .................................. 3,331 2,025 566 1,459 1,306 935 371 120 59 ————

1985–86 .................................. 3,340 2,029 566 1,463 1,311 932 379 120 59 ————

1986–87 .................................. 3,406 2,070 573 1,497 1,336 960 376 122 58 ————

1987–88 .................................. 3,587 2,135 599 1,536 1,452 992 460 122 57 1,437,975 850,451 587,524 954,534

1988–89 .................................. 3,565 2,129 598 1,531 1,436 984 452 124 58 ————

1989–90 .................................. 3,535 2,127 595 1,532 1,408 968 440 124 57 1,531,071 880,766 650,305 987,518

1990–91 .................................. 3,559 2,141 595 1,546 1,418 972 446 — —————

1991–92 .................................. 3,601 2,157 599 1,558 1,444 999 445 — —————

1 Data for 1869–70 through 1973–74 include main campuses only and exclude branch

campuses. Data for later years include both main and branch campuses.

2 Medical and dental schools are included, as appropriate, in columns 2 through 5.

3 Includes regular faculty, junior faculty, and research assistants.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Beginning in 1959–60, data include Alaska and Hawaii.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Annual Report of the Commissioner; Biennial Survey of Education in the United States;

Numbers and Characteristics of Employees in Institutions of Higher Education; and Digest of Education Statistics. (This table was prepared October 1992.)
Higher Education 81

Table 27.—Number of permanent colleges and universities founded before 1860, by decade of founding and by

state

State

Total

before

1860

Before

1769

1770 to

1779

1780 to

1789

1790 to

1799

1800 to

1809

1810 to

1819

1820 to

1829

1830 to

1839

1840 to

1849

1850 to

1859

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

United States .... 381 11 4 14 9 10 21 36 66 79 131

Alabama ................... 10—————— 1 4 2 3

Alaska ...................... (1)——————————

Arizona ..................... (1)——————————

Arkansas .................. 1 ——————— 1——

California .................. 6 ————————— 6

Colorado .................. (1)——————————

Connecticut .............. 5 1 ————— 1 3——

Delaware .................. 1 ——————— 1——

District of Columbia 3 — — 1 — — — 1 — — 1

Florida ...................... 2 ————————— 2

Georgia .................... 10 — — 1 — — — 2 5 1 1

Hawaii ...................... (1)——————————

Idaho ........................ (1)——————————

Illinois ....................... 21 — — — — — — 3 1 5 12

Indiana ..................... 17———— 1 1 2 3 5 5

Iowa ......................... 13——————— 1 4 8

Kansas ..................... 3 ————————— 3

Kentucky .................. 9 — — 1 1 — 2 1 — 1 3

Louisiana ................. 3 —————— 1 1— 1

Maine ....................... 4 — — — 1 — 2 — 1 — —

Maryland .................. 11 — — 2 1 2 — 1 1 1 3

Massachusetts ......... 18 1 — 1 1 2 — 2 4 2 5

Michigan .................. 8 ————— 1— 2 3 2

Minnesota ................ 4 ————————— 4

Mississippi ............... 2 —————— 1— 1—

Missouri ................... 15————— 2 1 3 2 7

Montana ................... (1)——————————

Nebraska ................. (1)——————————

Nevada .................... (1)——————————

New Hampshire ....... 2 1 —————— 1——

New Jersey .............. 8 2 — 1 — — 1 — — — 4

New Mexico ............. (1)——————————

New York ................. 39 1 — 1 1 1 5 5 5 7 13

North Carolina ......... 16 — 1 2 ———— 5 2 6

North Dakota ........... (1)——————————

Ohio ......................... 30 — — — — 2 1 3 6 8 10

Oklahoma ................ 1 ————————— 1

Oregon ..................... 5 ———————— 3 2

Pennsylvania ........... 44 2 1 3 1 — 3 6 6 9 13

Rhode Island ........... 2 1 ———————— 1

South Carolina ......... 11 — 1 — — 1 — 2 2 2 3

South Dakota ........... 1 ————————— 1

Tennessee ............... 12——— 2—— 1— 6 3

Texas ....................... 5 ———————— 4 1

Utah ......................... 1 ————————— 1

Vermont ................... 7 — — 1 1 1 1 1 2 — —

Virginia ..................... 16 2 1 — — — 2 1 6 3 1

Washington .............. 1 ————————— 1

West Virginia ........... 3 ——————— 2 1—

Wisconsin ................ 11 ———————— 7 4

Wyoming .................. (1)——————————

1 No permanent colleges founded prior to 1860.

—No permanent colleges reported.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, ‘‘Institutional Characteristics of Colleges and Universities, 1980–81,’’ and unpublished data.

(This table was prepared November 1992.)
Table 28.—Degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by sex and level: 1869–70 to 1989–90 Year Bachelor’s degrees Master’s degrees (includes second- professional for years prior to 1959–60) First-professional degrees Doct

Total Male Female Per 1,000 persons 23 years old Per 100 high school grad- uates 4 years earlier Total Male Female Per 100 bach- elor’s degrees 2 years earlier Total Male Female Total Male 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

1869–70 ......... 2 9,371 2 7,993 2 1,378 — — — — — — (3) (3) (3) 1 1 1870–71 ......... 2 12,357 2 10,484 2 1,873 — — — — — — (3) (3) (3) 13 — 1871–72 ......... 2 7,852 2 6,626 2 1,226 — — 794 — — 8 (3) (3) (3) 14 — 1872–73 ......... 2 10,807 2 9,070 2 1,737 — — 890 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 26 — 1873–74 ......... 2 11,493 2 9,593 2 1,900 — — 860 — — 11 (3) (3) (3) 13 — 1874–75 ......... 2 11,932 2 9,905 2 2,027 — — 661 — — 6 (3) (3) (3) 23 — 1875–76 ......... 2 12,005 2 9,911 2 2,094 — — 835 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 31 — 1876–77 ......... 2 10,145 2 8,329 2 1,816 — — 731 — — 6 (3) (3) (3) 39 — 1877–78 ......... 2 11,533 2 9,416 2 2,117 — — 816 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 32 — 1878–79 ......... 2 12,081 2 9,808 2 2,273 — — 919 — — 9 (3) (3) (3) 36 — 1879–80 ......... 2 12,896 2 10,411 2 2,485 — — 879 868 11 8 (3) (3) (3) 54 51 1880–81 ......... 2 14,871 2 12,035 2 2,836 — — 922 — — 8 (3) (3) (3) 37 — 1881–82 ......... 2 14,998 2 12,168 2 2,830 — — 884 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 46 — 1882–83 ......... 2 15,116 2 12,294 2 2,822 — — 863 — — 6 (3) (3) (3) 50 — 1883–84 ......... 2 12,765 2 10,408 2 2,357 — 53 901 — — 6 (3) (3) (3) 66 — 1884–85 ......... 2 14,734 2 12,043 2 2,691 — 59 1,071 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 77 — 1885–86 ......... 2 13,097 2 10,731 2 2,366 — 48 859 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 84 — 1886–87 ......... 2 13,402 2 11,008 2 2,394 — 48 923 — — 6 (3) (3) (3) 77 — 1887–88 ......... 2 15,256 2 12,562 2 2,694 — 49 987 — — 8 (3) (3) (3) 140 — 1888–89 ......... 2 15,020 2 12,397 2 2,623 — 47 1,161 — — 9 (3) (3) (3) 124 — 1889–90 ......... 2 15,539 2 12,857 2 2,682 — 47 1,015 821 194 7 (3) (3) (3) 149 147 1890–91 ......... 2 16,840 2 13,902 2 2,938 — 53 776 — — 5 (3) (3) (3) 187 — 1891–92 ......... 2 16,802 2 13,840 2 2,962 — 51 730 — — 5 (3) (3) (3) 190 — 1892–93 ......... 2 18,667 2 15,342 2 3,325 — 49 1,104 — — 7 (3) (3) (3) 218 — 1893–94 ......... 2 21,850 2 17,917 2 3,933 — 50 1,223 1,013 210 7 (3) (3) (3) 279 261 1894–95 ......... 2 24,106 2 19,723 2 4,383 — 56 1,334 1,124 210 7 (3) (3) (3) 272 247 1895–96 ......... 2 24,593 2 20,076 2 4,517 — 46 1,478 1,213 265 7 (3) (3) (3) 271 236 1896–97 ......... 2 25,231 2 20,550 2 4,681 — 43 1,413 1,163 250 6 (3) (3) (3) 319 299 1897–98 ......... 2 25,052 2 20,358 2 4,694 — 37 1,440 1,188 252 6 (3) (3) (3) 324 285 1898–99 ......... 2 25,980 2 21,064 2 4,916 — 36 1,542 1,275 267 6 (3) (3) (3) 345 327 1899–1900 ..... 2 27,410 2 22,173 2 5,237 2 19 2 36 1,583 1,280 303 6 (3) (3) (3) 382 359 1900–01 ......... 2 28,681 2 23,099 2 5,582 2 19 2 36 1,744 1,405 339 7 (3) (3) (3) 365 334 1901–02 ......... 2 28,966 2 23,225 2 5,741 2 19 2 34 1,858 1,464 394 7 (3) (3) (3) 293 264 1902–03 ......... 2 29,907 2 23,872 2 6,035 2 19 2 33 1,718 1,385 333 6 (3) (3) (3) 337 302 1903–04 ......... 2 30,501 2 24,237 2 6,264 2 19 2 32 1,679 1,340 339 6 (3) (3) (3) 334 302 1904–05 ......... 2 31,519 2 24,934 2 6,585 2 19 2 32 1,925 1,538 387 6 (3) (3) (3) 369 341 1905–06 ......... 2 32,019 2 25,215 2 6,804 2 19 2 32 1,787 1,366 421 6 (3) (3) (3) 383 358 1906–07 ......... 2 32,234 2 25,269 2 6,965 2 19 2 31 1,619 1,215 404 5 (3) (3) (3) 349 320 1907–08 ......... 2 33,800 2 26,376 2 7,424 2 19 2 30 1,971 1,511 460 6 (3) (3) (3) 391 339 1908–09 ......... 2 37,892 2 29,433 2 8,459 2 21 2 32 2,188 1,713 475 7 (3) (3) (3) 451 397 1909–10 ......... 2 37,199 2 28,762 2 8,437 2 20 2 30 2,113 1,555 558 6 (3) (3) (3) 443 399 
Table 28.—Degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by sex and level: 1869–70 to 1989–90—Continu

Year

Bachelor’s degrees Master’s degrees (includes secondprofessional for years prior to 1959–60) First-professional degrees Doct

Total Male Female

Per

1,000

persons

23

years

old

Per 100

high

school

graduates

4 years

earlier

Total Male Female

Per 100

bachelor’s

degrees

2 years

earlier

Total Male Female Total Male 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

1910–11 ......... 2 37,481 2 28,547 2 8,934 2 20 2 30 2,456 1,821 635 6 (3) (3) (3) 497 449 1911–12 ......... 2 39,408 2 29,560 2 9,848 2 21 2 30 3,035 2,215 820 8 (3) (3) (3) 500 436 1912–13 ......... 2 42,396 2 31,312 2 11,084 2 23 2 30 3,025 2,021 1,004 8 (3) (3) (3) 538 481 1913–14 ......... 2 44,268 2 32,183 2 12,085 2 24 2 28 3,270 2,256 1,014 8 (3) (3) (3) 559 486 1914–15 ......... 2 43,912 2 31,417 2 12,495 2 23 2 26 3,577 2,638 939 8 (3) (3) (3) 611 549 1915–16 ......... 2 45,250 2 31,852 2 13,398 2 24 2 25 3,906 2,934 972 9 (3) (3) (3) 667 586 1917–18 ......... 2 38,585 2 26,269 2 12,316 2 22 2 18 2,900 1,806 1,094 6 (3) (3) (3) 556 491 1919–20 ......... 2 48,622 2 31,980 2 16,642 2 26 2 19 4,279 2,985 1,294 11 (3) (3) (3) 615 522 1921–22 ......... 2 61,668 2 41,306 2 20,362 2 33 2 22 5,984 4,304 1,680 12 (3) (3) (3) 836 708 1923–24 ......... 2 82,783 2 54,908 2 27,875 2 43 2 27 8,216 5,515 2,701 13 (3) (3) (3) 1,098 939 1925–26 ......... 2 97,263 2 62,218 2 35,045 2 49 2 27 9,735 6,202 3,533 12 (3) (3) (3) 1,409 1,216 1927–28 ......... 2 111,161 2 67,659 2 43,502 2 55 2 22 12,387 7,727 4,660 13 (3) (3) (3) 1,447 1,249 1929–30 ......... 2 122,484 2 73,615 2 48,869 2 57 2 22 14,969 8,925 6,044 13 (3) (3) (3) 2,299 1,946 1931–32 ......... 2 138,063 2 83,271 2 54,792 2 63 2 23 19,367 12,210 7,157 16 (3) (3) (3) 2,654 2,247 1933–34 ......... 2 136,156 2 82,341 2 53,815 2 61 2 20 18,293 11,516 6,777 13 (3) (3) (3) 2,830 2,456 1935–36 ......... 2 143,125 2 86,067 2 57,058 2 63 2 17 18,302 11,503 6,799 13 (3) (3) (3) 2,770 2,370 1937–38 ......... 2 164,943 2 97,678 2 67,265 2 72 2 18 21,628 13,400 8,228 15 (3) (3) (3) 2,932 2,502 1939–40 ......... 2 186,500 2 109,546 2 76,954 2 81 2 18 26,731 16,508 10,223 16 (3) (3) (3) 3,290 2,861 1941–42 ......... 2 185,346 2 103,889 2 81,457 2 78 2 16 24,648 14,179 10,469 13 (3) (3) (3) 3,497 3,036 1943–44 ......... 2 125,863 2 55,865 2 69,998 2 52 2 10 13,414 5,711 7,703 7 (3) (3) (3) 2,305 1,880 1945–46 ......... 2 136,174 2 58,664 2 77,510 2 56 2 11 19,209 9,484 9,725 15 (3) (3) (3) 1,966 1,580 1947–48 ......... 2 271,186 2 175,615 2 95,571 2 113 2 27 42,432 28,931 13,501 31 (3) (3) (3) 3,989 3,496 1948–49 ......... 2 365,492 2 263,608 2 101,884 2 154 2 36 50,741 35,212 15,529 25 (3) (3) (3) 5,049 4,527 1949–50 ......... 2 432,058 2 328,841 2 103,217 2 182 2 40 58,183 41,220 16,963 21 (3) (3) (3) 6,420 5,804 1950–51 ......... 2 382,546 2 278,240 2 104,306 2 161 2 35 65,077 46,196 18,881 18 (3) (3) (3) 7,337 6,663 1951–52 ......... 2 329,986 2 225,981 2 104,005 2 143 2 28 63,534 43,557 19,977 15 (3) (3) (3) 7,683 6,969 1952–53 ......... 2 303,049 2 199,793 2 103,256 2 132 2 25 60,959 40,946 20,013 16 (3) (3) (3) 8,307 7,515 1953–54 ......... 2 291,508 2 186,884 2 104,624 2 129 2 24 56,823 38,147 18,676 17 (3) (3) (3) 8,996 8,181 1954–55 ......... 2 285,841 2 182,839 2 103,002 2 151 2 24 58,200 38,739 19,461 19 (3) (3) (3) 8,840 8,014 1955–56 ......... 2 309,514 2 198,615 2 110,899 2 147 2 26 59,281 39,393 19,888 20 (3) (3) (3) 8,903 8,018 1956–57 ......... 2 338,436 2 221,650 2 116,786 2 163 2 28 61,940 41,329 20,611 22 (3) (3) (3) 8,756 7,817 1957–58 ......... 2 363,502 2 241,560 2 121,942 2 167 2 28 65,586 44,229 21,357 21 (3) (3) (3) 8,942 7,978 1958–59 ......... 2 379,931 2 252,517 2 127,414 2 178 2 28 72,532 48,360 24,172 21 (3) (3) (3) 9,360 8,371 1959–60 4 ....... 2 392,440 2 254,063 2 138,377 2 182 2 27 74,435 50,898 23,537 20 (3) (3) (3) 9,829 8,801 1960–61 ......... 365,174 224,538 140,636 165 25 84,609 57,830 26,779 22 25,253 24,577 676 10,575 9,463 1961–62 ......... 383,961 230,456 153,505 173 25 91,418 62,603 28,815 23 25,607 24,836 771 11,622 10,377 1962–63 ......... 411,420 241,309 170,111 181 25 98,684 67,302 31,382 27 26,590 25,753 837 12,822 11,448 1963–64 ......... 461,266 265,349 195,917 192 25 109,183 73,850 35,333 28 27,209 26,357 852 14,490 12,955 1964–65 ......... 493,757 282,173 211,584 194 25 121,167 81,319 39,848 29 28,290 27,283 1,007 16,467 14,692 
Table 28.—Degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by sex and level: 1869–70 to 1989–90—Continu

Year Bachelor’s degrees Master’s degrees (includes second- professional for years prior to 1959–60) First-professional degrees Doct

Total Male Female Per 1,000 persons 23 years old Per 100 high school grad- uates 4 years earlier Total Male Female Per 100 bach- elor’s degrees 2 years earlier Total Male Female Total Male 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

1965–66 ......... 520,115 299,287 220,828 181 27 140,602 93,081 47,521 30 30,124 28,982 1,142 18,237 16,121 1966–67 ......... 558,534 322,711 235,823 208 29 157,726 103,109 54,617 32 31,695 30,401 1,294 20,617 18,163 1967–68 ......... 632,289 357,682 274,607 238 28 176,749 113,552 63,197 34 33,939 32,402 1,537 23,089 20,183 1968–69 ......... 728,845 410,595 318,250 278 27 193,756 121,531 72,225 35 35,114 33,595 1,519 26,158 22,722 1969–70 ......... 792,317 451,097 341,220 218 30 208,291 125,624 82,667 33 34,578 32,794 1,784 29,912 25,890 1970–71 ......... 839,730 475,594 364,136 247 31 230,509 138,146 92,363 32 37,946 35,544 2,402 32,107 27,530 1971–72 ......... 887,273 500,590 386,683 258 33 251,633 149,550 102,083 32 43,411 40,723 2,688 33,363 28,090 1972–73 ......... 922,362 518,191 404,171 267 33 263,371 154,468 108,903 31 50,018 46,489 3,529 34,777 28,571 1973–74 ......... 945,776 527,313 418,463 262 33 277,033 157,842 119,191 31 53,816 48,530 5,286 33,816 27,365 1974–75 ......... 922,933 504,841 418,092 249 31 292,450 161,570 130,880 32 55,916 48,956 6,960 34,083 26,817 1975–76 ......... 925,746 504,925 420,821 242 31 311,771 167,248 144,523 33 62,649 52,892 9,757 34,064 26,267 1976–77 ......... 919,549 495,545 424,004 234 30 317,164 167,783 149,381 34 64,359 52,374 11,985 33,232 25,142 1977–78 ......... 921,204 487,347 433,857 229 30 311,620 161,212 150,408 34 66,581 52,270 14,311 32,131 23,658 1978–79 ......... 921,390 477,344 444,046 225 29 301,079 153,370 147,709 33 68,848 52,652 16,196 32,730 23,541 1979–80 ......... 929,417 473,611 455,806 218 30 298,081 150,749 147,332 32 70,131 52,716 17,415 32,615 22,943 1980–81 ......... 935,140 469,883 465,257 218 30 295,739 147,043 148,696 32 71,956 52,792 19,164 32,958 22,711 1981–82 ......... 952,998 473,364 479,634 222 30 295,546 145,532 150,014 32 72,032 52,223 19,809 32,707 22,224 1982–83 ......... 969,510 479,140 490,370 227 31 289,921 144,697 145,224 31 73,136 51,310 21,826 32,775 21,902 1983–84 ......... 974,309 482,319 491,990 225 32 284,263 143,595 140,668 30 74,407 51,334 23,073 33,209 22,064 1984–85 ......... 979,477 482,528 496,949 230 32 286,251 143,390 142,861 30 75,063 50,455 24,608 32,943 21,700 1985–86 ......... 987,823 485,923 501,900 236 33 288,567 143,508 145,059 30 73,910 49,261 24,649 33,653 21,819 1986–87 ......... 991,339 480,854 510,485 241 34 289,557 141,363 148,194 30 72,750 47,460 25,290 34,120 22,099 1987–88 ......... 994,829 477,203 517,626 252 36 299,317 145,163 154,154 30 70,735 45,484 25,251 34,870 22,615 1988–89 ......... 1,018,755 483,346 535,409 272 38 310,621 149,354 161,267 31 70,856 45,046 25,810 35,720 22,648 1989–90 5 ....... 1,049,657 491,488 558,169 282 40 323,844 153,643 170,201 33 70,980 44,002 26,978 38,238 24,371 

1 Represents the number of years from the receipt of the bachelor’s degree to the receipt of the doctorate degree.

See column 17. 2 Includes first-professional degrees.

3First-professional degrees included with bachelor’s degrees.4 Denotes the first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.5Preliminary data.

—Data not available.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Stat

Times to 1970; Current Population Reports, Series P-25, Population Estimates a

Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics; a

Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities. (This table was prepared Nove
Table 29.—Bachelor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study: 1959–60 to 1989–9

Year Total

Agriculture

and

natural

resources

Architecture and

environmental

design

Business

and

management

Communications

Computer

and

information

sciences

Education Engi- neering

Foreign

languages

Health

sciences Letters Library sciences Life sciences Mathe- matics Physical sciences Psy- cholo- gy Pu

affa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1

1959–60 2 ........... 392,440 6,241 1,801 51,076 1,548 0 89,002 37,679 5,405 24,455 22,457 1,938 15,576 11,399 16,007 8,061 3,1960–61 ............. 365,174 5,649 1,674 48,074 1,830 0 91,028 35,698 6,364 11,314 24,003 439 16,060 13,097 15,452 8,460 1,1961–62 ............. 383,961 5,841 1,774 49,017 1,519 0 96,280 34,735 7,906 11,366 26,609 423 16,915 14,570 15,851 9,578 1,1962–63 ............. 411,420 6,013 2,028 50,639 1,687 0 101,338 33,458 9,707 11,854 30,225 462 19,114 16,078 16,215 10,993 1,1963–64 ............. 461,266 6,169 2,059 55,474 2,001 0 111,215 35,226 12,160 11,527 35,146 510 22,723 18,624 17,456 13,258 2,1964–65 ............. 493,757 6,734 2,333 59,288 1,928 87 117,137 36,795 13,859 11,611 38,836 623 25,166 19,460 17,861 14,626 2,1965–66 ............. 520,115 7,178 2,663 62,721 2,357 89 116,448 35,615 15,186 14,965 42,262 619 26,916 19,977 17,129 16,897 2,1966–67 ............. 558,534 7,866 2,937 69,032 2,741 222 118,955 35,954 16,706 15,908 45,900 701 28,849 21,207 17,739 19,364 3,1967–68 ............. 632,289 8,308 3,057 79,074 3,173 459 133,965 37,368 19,128 17,429 52,467 814 31,826 23,513 19,380 23,819 4,1968–69 ............. 728,845 9,965 3,477 93,094 4,269 933 150,985 41,248 21,493 19,825 59,674 1,000 35,308 27,209 21,480 29,332 5,1969–70 ............. 792,317 11,321 4,105 104,706 5,199 1,544 164,080 44,479 20,895 21,674 62,583 1,054 37,389 27,442 21,439 33,606 5,1970–71 ............. 839,730 12,672 5,570 114,865 10,802 2,388 176,614 50,046 19,945 25,190 64,933 1,013 35,743 24,801 21,412 37,880 6,1971–72 ............. 887,273 13,516 6,440 121,360 12,340 3,402 191,220 51,164 18,849 28,570 64,670 989 37,293 23,713 20,745 43,093 8,1972–73 ............. 922,362 14,756 6,962 126,263 14,317 4,304 194,229 51,265 18,964 33,523 61,799 1,159 42,233 23,067 20,696 47,695 11,1973–74 ............. 945,776 16,253 7,822 131,766 17,096 4,756 185,225 50,286 18,840 41,394 55,469 1,164 48,340 21,635 21,178 51,821 12,1974–75 ............. 922,933 17,528 8,226 133,010 19,248 5,033 167,015 46,852 17,606 48,858 48,534 1,069 51,741 18,181 20,778 50,988 14,1975–76 ............. 925,746 19,402 9,146 142,379 21,282 5,652 154,807 46,331 15,471 53,813 43,019 843 54,275 15,984 21,465 49,908 16,1976–77 ............. 919,549 21,467 9,222 150,964 23,214 6,407 143,722 49,283 13,944 57,122 38,849 781 53,605 14,196 22,497 47,373 17,1977–78 ............. 921,204 22,650 9,250 160,187 25,400 7,201 136,141 55,654 12,730 59,168 36,365 693 51,502 12,569 22,986 44,559 18,1978–79 ............. 921,390 23,134 9,273 171,764 26,457 8,719 126,109 62,375 11,825 61,819 34,557 558 48,846 11,806 23,207 42,461 18,1979–80 ............. 929,417 22,802 9,132 185,361 28,616 11,154 118,169 68,893 11,133 63,607 33,497 398 46,370 11,378 23,410 41,962 18,1980–81 ............. 935,140 21,886 9,455 199,338 31,282 15,121 108,309 75,000 10,319 63,348 33,208 375 43,216 11,078 23,952 40,833 18,1981–82 ............. 952,998 21,029 9,728 214,001 34,222 20,267 101,113 80,005 9,841 63,385 34,334 307 41,639 11,599 24,052 41,031 18,1982–83 ............. 969,510 20,909 9,823 226,893 38,602 24,510 97,991 89,270 9,685 64,614 32,743 258 39,982 12,453 23,405 40,364 16,1983–84 ............. 974,309 19,317 9,186 230,031 40,165 32,172 92,382 94,444 9,479 64,338 33,739 255 38,640 13,211 23,671 39,872 14,1984–85 ............. 979,477 18,107 9,325 233,351 42,083 38,878 88,161 96,105 9,954 64,513 34,091 202 38,445 15,146 23,732 39,811 13,1985–86 ............. 987,823 16,823 9,119 238,160 43,091 41,889 87,221 95,953 10,102 64,535 35,434 157 38,524 16,306 21,731 40,521 13,1986–87 ............. 991,339 14,991 8,922 241,156 45,408 39,664 87,115 93,074 10,184 63,206 37,133 139 38,114 16,489 19,974 42,868 14,1987–88 ............. 994,829 14,222 8,603 243,725 46,726 34,523 91,287 88,706 10,045 60,754 39,551 123 36,755 15,904 17,806 45,003 14,1988–89 ............. 1,018,755 13,492 9,150 247,175 48,645 30,454 97,082 85,225 10,780 59,138 43,387 122 36,059 15,218 17,186 48,737 15,1989–90 ............. 1,049,657 13,070 9,261 249,081 51,283 27,434 104,715 82,110 11,326 58,816 48,075 84 37,170 14,597 16,131 53,586 16,

1 ‘‘Other’’ includes degrees in area and ethnic studies, home economics, law, liberal/general studies, military sciences,

multi/interdisciplinary studies, parks and recreation, philosophy and religion, protective services, theology, and degreesnot classified by field of study. 2All of the first-professional degrees and some master degrees are included. The degrees that are affected are business and management, education, health sciences, letters, library sciences, public affairs, and other categories.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistic

‘‘Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred’’ surveys; and Integrated Posts(IPEDS), ‘‘Completions’’ surveys.
Table 30.—Master’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study: 1959–60 to 1989–9

Year Total Agriculture and natural resources Architec- ture and environ- mental design Business and manage- ment Com- muni- cations Computer and informa- tion sciences Education Engi- neering For- eign lan- guages Health sciences Letters Library sciences Life sciences Mathe- matics Physical sciences Psy- cholo- gy Pu

affa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1

1959–60 2 ........... 74,435 1,203 319 4,643 0 0 33,433 7,159 1,055 1,838 3,262 305 2,154 1,757 3,376 1,406 1960–61 ............. 84,609 1,241 378 6,723 37 0 34,368 8,178 1,274 1,632 3,556 1,931 2,358 2,231 3,790 1,719 2,1961–62 ............. 91,420 1,357 311 7,691 44 0 36,182 8,909 1,480 1,632 3,947 2,140 2,642 2,680 3,925 1,832 2,1962–63 ............. 98,684 1,261 356 8,334 32 0 37,878 9,635 1,849 2,011 4,490 2,363 2,921 3,313 4,123 1,918 3,1963–64 ............. 109,183 1,344 383 9,251 32 0 41,091 10,827 2,196 2,279 5,006 2,717 3,296 3,597 4,561 2,059 3,1964–65 ............. 121,167 1,366 373 10,602 38 146 44,314 12,055 2,690 2,493 5,745 3,211 3,598 4,141 4,914 2,241 4,1965–66 ............. 140,602 1,661 702 12,959 44 238 50,397 13,675 3,393 2,833 7,033 3,939 4,232 4,769 4,987 2,530 4,1966–67 ............. 157,726 1,750 812 14,892 107 449 55,760 13,880 4,017 3,398 8,231 4,489 4,996 5,278 5,405 3,138 5,1967–68 ............. 176,749 1,797 1,021 17,795 65 548 63,399 15,182 4,511 3,677 9,021 5,165 5,506 5,527 5,499 3,479 5,1968–69 ............. 193,756 2,070 1,143 19,281 129 1,012 70,967 15,240 4,691 4,067 9,684 5,932 5,743 5,713 5,895 4,011 6,1969–70 ............. 208,291 1,793 1,427 21,287 130 1,459 79,293 15,593 4,803 4,488 9,713 6,511 5,800 5,636 5,935 4,111 7,1970–71 ............. 230,509 2,457 1,705 26,481 1,856 1,588 88,952 16,443 4,755 5,445 11,148 7,001 5,728 5,191 6,367 4,431 8,1971–72 ............. 251,633 2,680 1,899 30,367 2,200 1,977 98,143 16,960 4,616 6,875 11,074 7,383 6,101 5,198 6,287 5,289 9,1972–73 ............. 263,371 2,807 2,307 31,007 2,406 2,113 105,565 16,619 4,289 7,879 10,808 7,696 6,263 5,028 6,257 5,831 10,1973–74 ............. 277,033 2,928 2,702 32,644 2,640 2,276 112,610 15,379 3,964 9,090 10,384 8,134 6,552 4,834 6,062 6,588 12,1974–75 ............. 292,450 3,067 2,938 36,247 2,794 2,299 120,169 15,348 3,807 9,901 10,068 8,091 6,550 4,327 5,807 7,066 14,1975–76 ............. 311,771 3,340 3,215 42,512 3,126 2,603 128,417 16,342 3,531 11,885 9,468 8,037 6,582 3,857 5,466 7,811 16,1976–77 ............. 317,164 3,724 3,213 46,420 3,091 2,798 126,825 16,245 3,147 12,323 8,701 7,572 7,114 3,695 5,331 8,301 17,1977–78 ............. 311,620 4,023 3,115 48,326 3,296 3,038 119,038 16,398 2,726 13,619 8,306 6,914 6,806 3,373 5,561 8,160 18,1978–79 ............. 301,079 3,994 3,113 50,372 2,882 3,055 111,995 15,495 2,426 14,781 7,289 5,906 6,831 3,036 5,451 8,003 18,1979–80 ............. 298,081 3,976 3,139 55,006 3,082 3,647 103,951 16,243 2,236 15,068 6,807 5,374 6,510 2,860 5,219 7,806 18,1980–81 ............. 295,739 4,003 3,153 57,898 3,105 4,218 98,938 16,709 2,104 16,004 6,515 4,859 5,978 2,567 5,284 7,998 18,1981–82 ............. 295,546 4,163 3,327 61,299 3,327 4,935 93,757 17,939 2,008 15,942 6,421 4,506 5,874 2,727 5,514 7,791 18,1982–83 ............. 289,921 4,254 3,357 65,319 3,604 5,321 84,853 19,350 1,759 17,068 5,767 3,979 5,696 2,837 5,290 8,378 16,1983–84 ............. 284,263 4,178 3,223 66,653 3,656 6,190 77,187 20,661 1,773 17,443 5,818 3,805 5,406 2,741 5,576 8,002 15,1984–85 ............. 286,251 3,928 3,275 67,527 3,669 7,101 76,137 21,557 1,724 17,383 5,934 3,893 5,059 2,882 5,796 8,408 16,1985–86 ............. 288,567 3,801 3,260 67,137 3,823 8,070 76,353 21,661 1,721 18,624 6,291 3,626 5,013 3,159 5,902 8,293 16,1986–87 ............. 289,557 3,523 3,142 67,496 3,937 8,491 75,501 22,693 1,746 18,426 6,123 3,815 4,954 3,321 5,652 8,204 17,1987–88 ............. 299,317 3,479 3,159 69,655 3,925 9,197 77,867 23,388 1,844 18,665 6,194 3,713 4,784 3,442 5,733 7,872 17,1988–89 ............. 310,621 3,245 3,383 73,521 4,257 9,414 82,533 24,572 1,898 19,293 6,676 3,953 4,961 3,447 5,723 8,552 17,1989–90 ............. 323,844 3,373 3,492 77,203 4,369 9,643 86,057 24,848 1,995 20,354 7,223 4,349 4,861 3,677 5,447 9,231 17,

1 ‘‘Other’’ includes degrees in area and ethnic studies, home economics, law, liberal/general studies, military sciences,

multi/interdisciplinary studies, parks and recreation, philosophy and religion, protective services, theology, and degreesnot classified by field of study. 2Some master degrees are included in bachelor’s degrees.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statisti

‘‘Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred’’ surveys; and Integrated Posts(IPEDS), ‘‘Completions’’ surveys.
Table 31.—Doctor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study: 1959–60 to 1989–9

Year Total

Agriculture

and

natural

resources

Architecture and

environmental

design

Business

and

management

Communications

Computer

and

information

sciences

Education Engi- neering

Foreign

languages

Health

sciences Letters Library sciences Life sciences Mathe- matics Physical sciences Psy- cholo- gy Pu

affa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1

1959–60 ............. 9,829 440 17 135 0 0 1,591 786 203 107 431 19 1,205 303 1,838 641 1960–61 ............. 10,575 450 3 172 16 0 1,742 943 232 133 439 14 1,193 344 1,991 703 1961–62 ............. 11,622 465 1 226 9 0 1,898 1,207 228 148 526 10 1,338 396 2,122 781 1962–63 ............. 12,822 449 3 250 7 0 2,075 1,378 237 157 565 17 1,455 490 2,380 844 1963–64 ............. 14,490 555 3 275 12 0 2,348 1,693 326 192 618 13 1,625 596 2,455 939 1964–65 ............. 16,467 529 10 321 9 6 2,705 2,124 376 173 766 12 1,928 682 2,829 847 1965–66 ............. 18,237 588 12 387 11 19 3,065 2,304 426 251 801 19 2,097 782 3,045 1,046 1966–67 ............. 20,617 637 18 437 5 38 3,529 2,614 478 250 972 16 2,255 832 3,462 1,231 1967–68 ............. 23,089 648 15 441 1 36 4,078 2,932 610 243 1,116 22 2,784 947 3,593 1,268 1968–69 ............. 26,158 699 32 530 14 64 4,830 3,377 659 283 1,275 17 3,051 1,097 3,859 1,551 1969–70 ............. 29,866 823 35 601 10 107 5,895 3,681 760 357 1,339 40 3,289 1,236 4,312 1,668 1970–71 ............. 32,107 1,086 36 807 145 128 6,403 3,638 781 459 1,857 39 3,645 1,199 4,390 1,782 1971–72 ............. 33,363 971 50 896 111 167 7,044 3,671 841 425 2,023 64 3,653 1,128 4,103 1,881 1972–73 ............. 34,777 1,059 58 923 139 196 7,318 3,492 991 643 2,170 102 3,636 1,068 4,006 2,089 1973–74 ............. 33,816 930 69 981 175 198 7,293 3,312 923 568 2,076 60 3,439 1,031 3,626 2,336 1974–75 ............. 34,083 991 69 1,009 165 213 7,446 3,108 857 609 1,951 56 3,384 975 3,626 2,442 1975–76 ............. 34,064 928 82 953 204 244 7,778 2,821 864 577 1,884 71 3,392 856 3,431 2,581 1976–77 ............. 33,232 893 73 863 171 216 7,963 2,586 752 538 1,723 75 3,397 823 3,341 2,761 1977–78 ............. 32,131 971 73 866 191 196 7,595 2,440 649 638 1,616 67 3,309 805 3,133 2,587 1978–79 ............. 32,730 950 96 860 192 236 7,736 2,506 641 705 1,504 70 3,542 730 3,102 2,662 1979–80 ............. 32,615 991 79 792 193 240 7,941 2,507 549 771 1,500 73 3,636 724 3,089 2,768 1980–81 ............. 32,958 1,067 93 842 182 252 7,900 2,561 588 827 1,380 71 3,718 728 3,141 2,955 1981–82 ............. 32,707 1,079 80 855 200 251 7,680 2,636 536 910 1,313 84 3,743 681 3,286 2,780 1982–83 ............. 32,775 1,149 97 809 214 262 7,551 2,831 488 1,155 1,176 52 3,341 698 3,269 3,108 1983–84 ............. 33,209 1,172 84 977 219 251 7,473 2,981 462 1,163 1,215 74 3,437 695 3,306 2,973 1984–85 ............. 32,943 1,213 89 866 234 248 7,151 3,230 437 1,199 1,239 87 3,432 699 3,403 2,908 1985–86 ............. 33,653 1,158 73 969 223 344 7,110 3,410 448 1,241 1,215 62 3,358 742 3,551 3,088 1986–87 ............. 34,120 1,049 92 1,098 275 374 6,909 3,820 441 1,213 1,181 57 3,423 725 3,672 3,123 1987–88 ............. 34,870 1,142 98 1,109 234 428 6,553 4,191 411 1,261 1,172 46 3,629 750 3,809 2,987 1988–89 ............. 35,720 1,183 86 1,149 253 551 6,800 4,523 420 1,436 1,234 61 3,520 866 3,858 3,222 1989–90 ............. 38,238 1,272 97 1,142 269 623 6,922 4,965 512 1,543 1,266 41 3,844 915 4,168 3,353 

1 ‘‘Other’’ includes degrees in area and ethnic studies, home economics, law, liberal/general studies, military sciences,

multi/interdisciplinary studies, parks and recreation, philosophy and religion, protective services, theology, and degreesnot classified by field of study.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistic

‘‘Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred’’ surveys; and Integrated Posts(IPEDS), ‘‘Completions’’ surveys.
88 Higher Education

Table 32.—First-professional degrees conferred by institutions of higher education in dentistry, medicine, and law,

by sex: 1949–50 to 1989–90

Year

Dentistry (D.D.S. or D.M.D.) Medicine (M.D.) Law (LL.B. or J.D.)

Number of

institutions

conferring

degrees

Degrees conferred Number of

institutions

conferring

degrees

Degrees conferred Number of

institutions

conferring

degrees

Degrees conferred

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1949–50 .... 40 2,579 2,561 18 72 5,612 5,028 584 (1) (1) (1) (1)

1951–52 .... 41 2,918 2,895 23 72 6,201 5,871 330 (1) (1) (1) (1)

1953–54 .... 42 3,102 3,063 39 73 6,712 6,377 335 (1) (1) (1) (1)

1955–56 .... 42 3,009 2,975 34 73 6,810 6,464 346 131 8,262 7,974 288

1957–58 .... 43 3,065 3,031 34 75 6,816 6,469 347 131 9,394 9,122 272

1959–60 .... 45 3,247 3,221 26 79 7,032 6,645 387 134 9,240 9,010 230

1961–62 .... 46 3,183 3,166 17 81 7,138 6,749 389 134 9,364 9,091 273

1963–64 .... 46 3,180 3,168 12 82 7,303 6,878 425 133 10,679 10,372 307

1965–66 .... 47 3,178 3,146 32 84 7,673 7,170 503 136 13,246 12,776 470

1967–68 .... 48 3,422 3,375 47 85 7,944 7,318 626 138 16,454 15,805 649

1969–70 .... 48 3,718 3,684 34 86 8,314 7,615 699 145 14,916 14,115 801

1970–71 .... 48 3,745 3,703 42 89 8,919 8,110 809 147 17,421 16,181 1,240

1971–72 .... 48 3,862 3,819 43 92 9,253 8,423 830 147 21,764 20,266 1,498

1972–73 .... 51 4,047 3,992 55 97 10,307 9,388 919 152 27,205 25,037 2,168

1973–74 .... 52 4,440 4,355 85 99 11,356 10,093 1,263 151 29,326 25,986 3,340

1974–75 .... 52 4,773 4,627 146 104 12,447 10,818 1,629 154 29,296 24,881 4,415

1975–76 .... 56 5,425 5,187 238 107 13,426 11,252 2,174 166 32,293 26,085 6,208

1976–77 .... 57 5,138 4,764 374 109 13,461 10,891 2,570 169 34,104 26,447 7,657

1977–78 .... 57 5,189 4,623 566 109 14,279 11,210 3,069 169 34,402 25,457 8,945

1978–79 .... 58 5,434 4,794 640 109 14,786 11,381 3,405 175 35,206 25,180 10,026

1979–80 .... 58 5,258 4,558 700 112 14,902 11,416 3,486 179 35,647 24,893 10,754

1980–81 .... 58 5,460 4,672 788 116 15,505 11,672 3,833 176 36,331 24,563 11,768

1981–82 .... 59 5,282 4,467 815 119 15,814 11,867 3,947 180 35,991 23,965 12,026

1982–83 .... 59 5,585 4,631 954 118 15,484 11,350 4,134 177 36,853 23,550 13,303

1983–84 .... 60 5,353 4,302 1,051 119 15,813 11,359 4,454 179 37,012 23,382 13,630

1984–85 .... 59 5,339 4,233 1,106 120 16,041 11,167 4,874 181 37,491 23,070 14,421

1985–86 .... 59 5,046 3,907 1,139 120 15,938 11,022 4,916 181 35,844 21,874 13,970

1986–87 .... 58 4,741 3,603 1,138 122 15,620 10,566 5,054 180 36,172 21,643 14,529

1987–88 .... 57 4,477 3,300 1,177 122 15,358 10,278 5,080 180 35,397 21,067 14,330

1988–89 2 .. 58 4,265 3,124 1,141 124 15,460 10,310 5,150 182 35,634 21,069 14,565

1989–90 3 .. 57 4,093 2,830 1,263 124 15,115 9,977 5,138 182 36,437 21,059 15,378

1 Data prior to 1955–56 are not shown because they lack comparability with the figures

for subsequent years. 2 Revised from previously published data.

3Preliminary data.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

‘‘Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred’’ surveys, and Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS), ‘‘Completions’’ surveys. (This table was prepared November 1991.)
Table 33.—Current-fund revenue of institutions of higher education, by source of funds: 1889–90 to 1989–90

[In thousands]

Year

Total

current-fund

revenue

Educational and general revenue 

Total Student tuition and fees Government Endowment income Private gifts and grants

Organized

activities

related to

educational

departments

Sales and

services of

educational

activities

Student aid Other Hospi

Federal 1 State Local

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

1889–90 ........ — $21,464 — — ———————— 1899–1900 .... — 35,084 — — ———————— 1909–10 ........ $76,883 67,917 $18,463 $4,607 $20,937 — $12,584 $3,551 — — — $7,775 1919–20 ........ 199,922 172,929 42,254 3 12,783 61,690 (4) 26,482 7,584 — — — 22,135 1929–30 ........ 554,511 494,092 144,126 20,658 150,847 (4) 68,605 26,172 — — $11,027 72,657 1931–32 ........ 566,264 441,987 150,649 (4) 174,663 (4) 60,903 29,948 — — 10,998 14,826 5 $21933–34 ........ 486,362 380,620 138,257 19,827 117,551 (4) 55,534 27,468 — — 9,653 12,330 5 11935–36 ........ 597,585 466,163 158,134 43,234 119,585 $21,050 60,090 37,115 — — — 26,955 5 21937–38 ........ 652,631 494,161 178,996 29,345 140,959 22,091 70,654 36,908 — — — 15,208 5 21939–40 ........ 715,211 538,511 200,897 38,860 151,222 24,392 71,304 40,453 — — — 11,383 5 31941–42 ........ 783,720 585,988 201,365 58,232 166,532 27,057 74,075 45,916 — — — 12,811 5 41943–44 ........ 1,047,298 810,077 154,485 308,162 175,169 26,449 75,196 50,449 — — — 20,167 5 51945–46 ........ 1,169,394 857,874 214,345 197,250 225,161 31,005 89,763 77,572 — — — 22,779 5 61947–48 ........ 2,027,051 1,469,172 304,601 526,476 352,281 47,521 86,680 91,468 — — 23,821 36,324 5 91949–50 ........ 2,374,645 1,751,393 394,610 524,319 491,958 61,378 96,341 118,627 — — 29,535 34,625 5 111951–52 ........ 2,562,451 1,916,463 446,591 451,011 611,302 72,013 112,859 149,826 — — 32,027 40,834 5 131953–54 ........ 2,945,550 2,205,901 551,424 417,097 740,043 88,198 127,475 190,899 — — 32,212 58,553 5 161955–56 ........ 3,603,370 2,719,804 722,215 489,800 878,349 106,857 145,000 245,085 — — 52,364 80,133 5 191957–58 ........ 4,641,387 3,650,492 934,203 707,048 1,138,454 129,324 181,585 324,426 $46,877 $47,302 70,058 71,214 151959–60 ........ 5,785,537 4,593,485 1,157,481 1,036,988 1,374,476 151,715 206,619 382,570 57,102 45,423 92,902 88,208 181961–62 ........ 7,429,379 5,919,927 1,499,924 1,537,697 1,668,289 191,188 232,289 450,145 65,533 52,252 118,073 104,537 231963–64 ........ 9,543,514 7,642,763 1,892,839 2,160,889 2,110,981 239,851 266,157 550,684 69,443 64,742 148,093 139,082 291965–66 ........ 12,734,225 10,345,108 2,640,641 2,587,893 2,894,893 303,401 288,833 613,718 373,573 34,680 309,855 297,621 6 251966–67 ........ 14,561,039 11,111,063 2,972,050 2,200,276 3,371,986 405,561 328,068 765,927 317,627 116,862 394,386 238,320 251967–68 ........ 16,825,199 13,288,034 3,380,294 2,695,681 4,181,070 503,661 363,990 848,450 399,821 118,618 497,930 298,519 291968–69 ........ 18,874,602 14,901,466 3,814,160 2,924,547 4,812,482 614,462 413,276 915,909 421,301 127,461 571,536 286,332 491969–70 ........ 21,515,242 17,144,194 4,419,845 3,146,869 5,787,910 774,803 447,275 1,001,454 484,977 127,800 658,016 295,245 611970–71 ........ 23,879,188 19,101,148 5,021,211 3,359,027 6,502,813 907,274 470,655 1,091,654 524,697 137,775 709,101 376,941 821971–72 ........ 26,234,258 20,964,859 5,594,095 3,659,506 7,120,982 991,034 480,806 1,208,070 590,448 148,711 764,590 406,616 1,001972–73 ........ 28,606,217 22,927,142 6,010,926 3,994,490 7,917,825 1,143,529 515,041 1,300,343 610,342 163,482 800,075 471,090 1,181973–74 ........ 31,712,452 25,510,428 6,500,101 4,176,226 9,182,189 1,263,145 576,915 1,430,982 7 611,678 222,382 882,585 664,227 1,431974–75 ........ 35,686,902 28,373,036 7,232,908 4,990,969 10,857,376 1,424,392 717,915 1,744,967 — 554,882 (8) 849,625 2,151975–76 ........ 39,703,166 31,597,873 8,171,942 5,413,847 12,260,885 1,616,975 687,470 1,917,036 — 645,420 (8) 884,298 2,491976–77 ........ 43,436,827 34,218,636 9,024,932 5,729,818 13,285,684 1,626,908 764,788 2,105,070 — 779,058 (8) 902,377 2,851977–78 ........ 47,034,032 37,581,559 9,855,270 6,112,805 14,746,166 1,744,230 832,286 2,320,368 — 882,715 (8) 1,087,719 3,261978–79 ........ 51,837,789 41,325,437 10,704,171 6,843,736 16,363,784 1,573,018 985,242 2,489,366 — 1,037,130 (8) 1,328,991 3,761979–80 ........ 58,519,982 46,534,023 11,930,340 7,771,726 18,378,299 1,587,552 1,176,627 2,808,075 — 1,239,439 (8) 1,641,965 4,371980–81 ........ 65,584,789 52,048,276 13,773,259 8,478,709 20,106,222 1,790,740 1,364,443 3,176,670 — 1,409,730 (8) 1,948,503 4,981981–82 ........ 72,190,856 56,958,692 15,774,038 8,319,817 21,848,791 1,937,669 1,596,813 3,563,558 — 1,582,922 (8) 2,335,084 5,831982–83 ........ 77,595,726 60,844,948 17,776,041 8,181,402 23,065,636 2,031,353 1,720,677 4,052,649 — 1,723,484 (8) 2,293,706 6,531983–84 ........ 84,417,287 66,296,893 19,714,884 8,782,803 24,706,990 2,192,275 1,873,945 4,415,275 — 1,970,747 (8) 2,639,973 7,041984–85 ........ 92,472,694 73,003,805 21,283,329 9,615,221 27,583,011 2,387,212 2,096,298 4,896,325 — 2,126,927 (8) 3,015,483 7,471985–86 ........ 100,437,616 79,298,586 23,116,605 10,466,491 29,911,500 2,544,506 2,275,898 5,410,905 — 2,373,494 (8) 3,199,186 8,221986–87 ........ 108,809,827 85,488,436 25,705,827 11,224,680 31,309,303 2,799,321 2,377,958 5,952,682 — 2,641,906 (8) 3,476,760 9,271987–88 ........ 117,340,109 91,863,743 27,836,781 11,869,932 33,517,166 3,006,263 2,586,441 6,359,282 — 2,918,090 (8) 3,769,787 10,621988–89 ........ 128,501,638 100,598,033 30,806,566 12,837,218 36,031,208 3,363,676 2,914,396 7,060,730 — 3,315,620 (8) 4,268,618 11,991989–90 10 .... 139,635,477 109,241,902 33,926,060 14,016,432 38,349,239 3,639,902 3,143,696 7,781,422 — 3,632,100 (8) 4,753,051 13,21

1Excludes federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) from 1966–67 to 1989–90.2Primarily limited to federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs). Where separate data are not

shown, they are included under federal. 3 Universities, colleges, and professional schools only; teachers and normal colleges included under state.

4 Included under state governments.5 Includes organized activities related to educational departments.6Estimated.7 In later years, data are included primarily under sales and services and hospitals.8 Data are included under source of student aid money.9 Drop from previous year caused by a change in jurisdiction of one of the centers.

10Preliminary data.

—Data not available.NOTE.—Beginning in 1959–60, data include Alaska and Hawaii. Because of cha

and definitions, a number of data comparability problems exist in this table. See for years prior to 1929–30 give only a rough indication of the scope of the higheBecause of rounding, details may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statist

sioner; Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; Financial Statistics of Inst

of Education Statistics; and unpublished data. (This table was prepared September 1
90 Higher Education

Table 34.—Current-fund expenditures and educational and general expenditure per student of institutions

of higher education, by function: 1929–30 to 1989–90

[In thousands]

Year Current-fund

expenditures

Educational and general expenditures

Total

Administration and

general

expense

Instruction

and

departmental

research

Organized

research Libraries

Plant

operation

and

maintenance

Organized

activities

related to

instructional

departments

Other

sponsored

programs 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1929–30 .................... $507,142 $377,903 $42,633 $221,598 5 $18,007 $9,622 $61,061 (6) —

1931–32 .................... 536,523 420,633 47,232 232,645 5 21,978 11,379 56,797 7 $21,297 —

1933–34 .................... 469,329 369,661 43,155 203,332 5 17,064 13,387 51,046 7 14,155 —

1935–36 .................... 541,391 419,883 48,069 225,143 5 22,091 15,531 56,802 7 20,241 —

1937–38 .................... 614,385 475,191 56,406 253,006 5 25,213 17,588 62,738 7 24,031 —

1939–40 .................... 674,688 521,990 62,827 280,248 5 27,266 19,487 69,612 7 27,225 —

1941–42 .................... 738,169 572,465 66,968 298,558 5 34,287 19,763 72,594 7 37,771 —

1943–44 .................... 974,118 753,846 69,668 334,189 5 58,456 20,452 81,201 7 48,415 8 $97,044

1945–46 .................... 1,088,422 820,326 104,808 375,122 5 86,812 26,560 110,947 7 60,604 —

1947–48 .................... 1,883,269 1,391,594 171,829 657,945 5 159,090 44,208 201,996 7 85,346 —

1949–50 .................... 2,245,661 1,706,444 213,070 780,994 5 225,341 56,147 225,110 7 119,108 —

1951–52 .................... 2,471,008 1,960,481 233,844 823,117 5 317,928 60,612 240,446 7 147,854 —

1953–54 .................... 2,882,864 2,345,331 288,147 960,556 5 372,643 72,944 277,874 7 186,905 —

1955–56 .................... 3,499,463 2,861,858 355,207 1,140,655 5 500,793 85,563 324,229 7 222,007 —

1957–58 .................... 4,509,666 3,734,350 473,945 1,465,603 5 727,776 109,715 406,226 7 238,455 —

1959–60 .................... 5,601,376 4,685,258 583,224 1,793,320 5 1,022,353 135,384 469,943 7 294,255 —

1961–62 .................... 7,154,526 5,997,007 730,429 2,202,443 5 1,474,406 177,362 564,225 7 375,040 —

1963–64 .................... 9,177,677 7,725,433 957,512 2,801,707 5 1,973,383 236,718 686,054 7 458,507 —

1965–66 .................... 12,509,489 10,376,630 1,251,107 3,756,175 5 2,448,300 346,248 844,506 7 558,170 155,202

1966–67 .................... 14,230,341 10,724,974 1,445,074 4,356,413 1,565,102 415,903 969,275 591,848 350,950

1967–68 .................... 16,480,786 12,847,350 1,738,946 5,139,179 1,933,473 493,266 1,127,290 350,711 514,294

1968–69 .................... 18,481,583 14,718,140 2,277,585 5,941,972 2,034,074 571,572 1,337,903 535,269 668,483

1969–70 .................... 21,043,110 16,845,210 2,627,993 6,883,844 2,144,076 652,596 1,541,698 648,089 769,253

1970–71 .................... 23,375,197 18,714,642 2,983,911 7,804,410 2,209,338 716,212 1,730,664 693,011 890,507

1971–72 .................... 25,559,560 20,441,878 3,344,215 8,443,261 2,265,282 764,481 1,927,553 779,728 1,059,989

1972–73 .................... 27,955,624 22,400,379 3,713,068 9,243,641 2,394,261 840,727 2,141,162 791,290 1,284,085

1973–74 .................... 30,713,581 24,653,849 4,200,955 10,219,118 2,480,450 939,023 2,494,057 838,170 1,355,027

1974–75 .................... 35,057,563 27,547,620 4,495,391 11,797,823 3,132,132 1,001,868 2,786,768 1,253,824 —

1975–76 .................... 38,903,177 30,598,685 5,240,066 13,094,943 3,287,364 1,223,723 3,082,959 1,248,670 —

1976–77 .................... 42,599,816 33,151,681 5,590,669 14,031,145 3,600,067 1,250,314 3,436,705 1,544,646 —

1977–78 .................... 45,970,790 36,256,604 6,177,029 15,336,229 3,919,830 1,348,747 3,795,043 1,781,160 —

1978–79 .................... 50,720,984 39,833,116 6,832,004 16,662,820 4,447,760 1,426,614 4,178,574 2,044,386 —

1979–80 .................... 56,913,588 44,542,843 7,621,143 18,496,717 5,099,151 1,623,811 4,700,070 2,252,577 —

1980–81 .................... 64,052,938 50,073,805 8,681,513 20,733,166 5,657,719 1,759,784 5,350,310 2,513,502 —

1981–82 .................... 70,339,448 54,848,752 9,648,069 22,962,527 5,929,894 1,922,416 5,979,281 2,734,038 —

1982–83 .................... 75,935,749 58,929,218 10,412,233 24,673,293 6,265,280 2,039,671 6,391,596 3,047,220 —

1983–84 .................... 81,993,360 63,741,276 11,561,260 26,436,308 6,723,534 2,231,149 6,729,825 3,300,003 —

1984–85 .................... 89,951,263 70,061,324 12,765,452 28,777,183 7,551,892 2,361,793 7,345,482 3,712,460 —

1985–86 .................... 97,535,742 76,127,965 13,913,724 31,032,099 8,437,367 2,551,331 7,605,226 4,116,061 —

1986–87 .................... 105,763,557 82,955,555 15,060,576 33,711,146 9,352,309 2,441,184 7,819,032 5,134,267 —

1987–88 .................... 113,786,476 89,157,430 16,171,015 35,833,563 10,350,931 2,836,498 8,230,986 5,305,083 —

1988–89 .................... 123,867,184 96,803,377 17,309,956 38,812,690 11,432,170 3,009,870 8,739,895 5,894,409 —

1989–90 10 ................. 134,655,571 105,585,076 19,062,179 42,145,987 12,505,961 3,254,239 9,458,262 6,183,405 —
Higher Education 91

Table 34.—Current-fund expenditures and educational and general expenditure per student of institutions

of higher education, by function: 1929–30 to 1989–90—Continued

[In thousands]

Year

Educational and general expenditures

Auxiliary

enterprises

Independent

operations 2 Hospitals

Other

current

expenditures

Educational and general

expenditures per student

in fall

enrollment 3

Extension

and public

service

Scholarships

and

fellowships

Other

general

expenditures Current

dollars

Constant

1989–90

dollars 4

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1929–30 .................... $24,982 (6) — $3,127 (5) (7) $126,112 343 2,547

1931–32 .................... 24,066 (6) $5,239 90,897 (5) (7) 24,993 364 3,210

1933–34 .................... 20,020 (6) 7,502 78,730 (5) (7) 20,938 350 3,359

1935–36 .................... 29,426 (6) 2,580 95,332 (5) (7) 26,176 348 3,211

1937–38 .................... 34,189 (6) 2,020 115,620 (5) (7) 23,574 352 3,118

1939–40 .................... 35,325 (6) — 124,184 (5) (7) 28,514 349 3,174

1941–42 .................... 42,525 (6) — 137,328 (5) (7) 28,375 408 3,320

1943–44 .................... 44,421 (6) — 199,344 (5) (7) 20,928 653 4,755

1945–46 .................... 55,473 (6) — 242,028 (5) (7) 26,068 489 3,405

1947–48 .................... 71,180 (6) — 438,988 (5) (7) 52,687 595 3,243

1949–50 .................... 86,674 (6) — 476,401 (5) (7) 62,816 698 3,742

1951–52 .................... 97,408 $39,272 — 477,672 (5) (7) 32,855 933 4,506

1953–54 .................... 112,227 74,035 — 537,533 (5) (7) — 1,051 4,964

1955–56 .................... 137,914 95,490 — 637,605 (5) (7) — 1,079 5,095

1957–58 .................... 175,256 129,935 7,439 775,316 (5) (7) — 1,124 4,995

1959–60 .................... 205,595 172,050 9,134 916,117 (5) (7) — 1,287 5,563

1961–62 .................... 244,337 228,765 — 1,157,517 (5) (7) — 1,447 6,112

1963–64 .................... 297,350 300,370 13,832 1,452,244 (5) (7) — 1,616 6,654

1965–66 .................... 438,385 425,524 153,013 1,887,744 (5) (7) 9 245,115 1,753 6,974

1966–67 .................... 226,566 583,390 220,453 2,060,130 $951,668 $253,790 9 239,780 1,678 6,474

1967–68 .................... 597,544 712,425 240,222 2,302,419 765,495 290,000 9 275,523 1,859 6,940

1968–69 .................... 536,527 814,755 — 2,539,183 697,317 526,943 — 1,959 6,974

1969–70 .................... 593,067 984,594 — 2,769,276 757,388 671,236 — 2,104 7,074

1970–71 .................... 588,390 1,098,198 — 2,988,407 829,596 842,552 — 2,181 6,971

1971–72 .................... 615,997 1,241,372 — 3,178,272 940,825 998,585 — 2,284 7,049

1972–73 .................... 669,735 1,322,411 — 3,337,789 1,033,746 1,183,709 — 2,431 7,210

1973–74 .................... 730,560 1,396,488 — 3,613,256 1,014,872 1,431,604 — 2,568 6,992

1974–75 .................... 1,097,788 1,449,542 532,485 4,073,590 1,085,590 2,350,763 — 2,694 6,606

1975–76 .................... 1,238,603 1,635,859 546,498 4,476,841 1,132,016 2,695,635 — 2,736 6,264

1976–77 .................... 1,343,404 1,770,214 584,515 4,858,328 1,434,738 3,155,069 — 3,010 6,513

1977–78 .................... 1,425,294 1,839,298 633,973 5,261,477 855,054 3,597,655 — 3,213 6,513

1978–79 .................... 1,593,097 1,944,599 703,262 5,749,974 1,007,119 4,130,775 — 3,538 6,557

1979–80 .................... 1,816,521 2,200,468 732,385 6,485,608 1,127,728 4,757,409 — 3,850 6,297

1980–81 .................... 2,057,770 2,504,525 815,516 7,288,089 1,257,934 5,433,111 — 4,139 6,068

1981–82 .................... 2,203,726 2,684,945 783,854 7,997,632 1,258,777 6,234,287 — 4,433 5,982

1982–83 .................... 2,320,478 2,922,897 856,548 8,614,316 1,406,126 6,986,089 — 4,742 6,135

1983–84 .................... 2,499,203 3,301,673 958,321 9,250,196 1,622,233 7,379,654 — 5,114 6,379

1984–85 .................... 2,861,095 3,670,355 1,015,613 10,012,248 1,867,550 8,010,141 — 5,723 6,871

1985–86 .................... 3,119,533 4,160,174 1,192,449 10,528,303 2,187,361 8,692,113 — 6,216 7,253

1986–87 .................... 3,448,453 4,776,100 1,212,488 11,037,333 2,597,655 9,173,014 — 6,635 7,574

1987–88 .................... 3,786,362 5,325,358 1,317,633 11,399,953 2,822,632 10,406,461 — 6,984 7,655

1988–89 .................... 4,227,323 5,918,666 1,458,397 12,280,063 2,958,962 11,824,782 — 7,415 7,769

1989–90 10 ................. 4,689,758 6,655,544 1,629,742 13,203,984 3,187,224 12,679,286 — 7,799 7,799

1 Includes all separately budgeted programs, other than research, which are supported

by sponsors outside the institution. Examples are training programs, workshops, and

training and instructional institutes. For years not shown, most expenditures for these

programs are included under ‘‘Extension and public service.’’ 2Generally includes only those expenditures associated with federally funded research

and development centers (FFRDCs). 3 Data for 1929–30 to 1945–56 are based on school year enrollment.

4 Data adjusted by the Consumer Price Index computed on a school year basis.

5Expenditures for federally funded research and development centers are included

under ‘‘Research.’’ 6 Included under ‘‘Other current expenditures.’’

7Expenditures for hospitals and independent operations included under ‘‘Organized

activities related to instructional departments.’’ 8Expenditures were for federal contract courses.

9 Includes current expenditures for physical plant assets. In later years, the educational

and general expenditures for physical plant assets are included under ‘‘Other educational

and general expenditures.’’

10Preliminary data.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—The data in this table reflect limitations of data availability and comparability.

Major changes in data collection forms in 1965–66 and 1974–75 cause significant data

comparability problems among the three mostly consistent time periods, 1929–30 to

1963–64, 1965–66 to 1973–74, and 1974–75 to 1989–90. The largest problems affect

Hospitals, Independent operations, Organized research, Other sponsored programs, Extension and public service, and Scholarships and fellowships.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, Financial Statistics of Institutions of

Higher Education; and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, ‘‘Finance’’ survey. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
92 Higher Education

Table 35.—Value of property and endowment, and liabilities of institutions of higher education:

1899–1900 to 1989–90

[In thousands]

Year

Property value at end of year Endowment

(end of year

market

value) 1

Liabilities of

plant funds Total

Physical plant value Endowment

(book value) 1

Total Land Buildings Equipment

1 23456789

1899–1900 ............... $448,597 $253,599 — — — 2 $194,998 — —

1909–10 ................... 781,255 457,594 $92,359 $297,153 $68,082 2 323,661 — —

1919–20 ................... 1,316,404 747,333 128,922 495,920 122,491 2 569,071 — —

1929–30 ................... 3,437,117 2,065,049 304,114 1,490,014 270,921 2 1,372,068 — —

1935–36 ................... 3,913,028 2,359,418 334,085 1,636,722 388,611 2 1,553,610 — —

1937–38 ................... 4,208,695 2,556,075 313,665 1,811,309 431,101 1,652,620 — —

1939–40 ................... 4,440,063 2,753,780 — — — 1,686,283 — —

1941–42 ................... 4,525,925 2,759,261 — — — 2 1,766,664 — —

1947–48 ................... 6,076,212 3,691,725 — — — 2,384,487 — —

1949–50 ................... 7,401,187 4,799,964 — — — 2 2,601,223 — —

1951–52 ................... 9,241,725 6,373,195 — — — 2,868,530 — —

1953–54 ................... 10,717,082 7,523,193 — — — 3,193,889 — —

1955–56 ................... 12,561,046 8,858,907 624,467 3 6,697,648 1,536,792 3,702,139 — $894,383

1957–58 ................... 15,770,197 11,124,489 733,182 3 8,540,429 1,850,878 4,645,708 — 1,444,602

1959–60 ................... 18,870,628 13,548,548 842,664 3 10,472,478 2,233,407 5,322,080 — 1,964,306

1961–62 ................... 22,761,193 16,681,844 1,009,294 3 12,900,093 2,772,457 6,079,349 — 2,806,868

1963–64 ................... 28,232,362 21,279,346 1,292,691 3 16,460,867 3,525,788 6,953,016 — 4,190,189

1965–66 ................... 35,274,597 26,851,273 1,758,901 3 20,653,028 4,439,344 8,423,324 $11,126,831 6,071,750

1967–68 ................... — 34,506,348 2,062,545 3 26,673,826 5,769,977 — — —

1969–70 ................... 52,930,923 42,093,580 3,076,751 31,865,179 7,151,649 10,837,343 11,206,632 9,384,731

1970–71 ................... 57,394,951 46,053,585 3,117,895 35,042,590 7,893,100 11,341,366 13,714,330 9,786,240

1971–72 ................... 62,136,459 50,153,251 3,287,326 38,131,339 8,734,586 11,983,208 15,180,934 10,291,095

1972–73 ................... 66,814,103 53,814,596 3,492,611 40,808,481 9,513,503 12,999,507 15,099,840 10,823,595

1973–74 ................... 71,305,817 58,002,777 3,888,372 43,701,491 10,412,914 13,303,040 13,168,076 11,400,916

1974–75 ................... 75,585,674 62,183,078 4,210,901 46,453,642 11,518,536 13,402,596 14,364,545 12,413,420

1975–76 ................... 80,300,595 66,348,304 4,345,232 49,349,224 12,653,847 13,952,291 15,488,265 12,687,015

1976–77 ................... 85,486,550 70,739,427 4,444,927 52,384,393 13,910,107 14,747,123 16,304,553 13,068,341

1977–78 ................... 90,337,044 74,770,804 4,621,071 55,188,603 14,961,131 15,566,240 16,840,129 13,437,861

1978–79 ................... 95,442,468 78,637,991 4,824,250 57,563,005 16,250,737 16,804,477 18,158,634 13,712,648

1979–80 ................... 102,294,859 83,733,387 5,037,172 60,847,097 17,849,119 18,561,472 20,743,045 14,181,991

1980–81 ................... 109,701,242 88,760,567 5,212,453 64,158,017 19,390,097 20,940,675 23,465,001 14,794,669

1981–82 ................... 117,601,954 94,516,512 5,402,339 67,794,877 21,319,297 23,085,442 24,415,245 15,487,618

1982–83 ................... 127,345,302 100,992,841 5,889,080 71,519,718 23,584,042 26,352,461 32,691,133 16,749,900

1983–84 ................... 137,141,741 107,640,113 6,109,746 75,220,765 26,309,602 29,501,629 32,975,610 18,277,315

1984–85 ................... 148,163,096 114,763,986 6,236,159 79,133,998 29,393,829 33,399,110 39,916,361 22,105,712

1985–86 ................... 160,959,517 122,261,355 6,573,923 82,886,012 32,801,419 38,698,162 50,280,775 25,699,408

1986–87 ................... — 126,996,079 7,220,353 85,176,226 34,599,500 — 56,470,724 —

1987–88 ................... — 133,228,717 7,827,226 88,356,303 37,045,188 — 57,338,768 —

1988–89 ................... — 142,425,392 8,403,922 93,983,463 40,038,007 — 64,096,719 —

1989–90 ................... — 155,401,508 8,969,805 101,909,833 44,521,870 — 67,927,188 —

1 Includes funds functioning as endowment.

2 Includes annuity funds.

3 Includes improvements to land and equipment. These funds are included under appropriate categories after 1967–68.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Because of rounding, details may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States; and Financial Statistics of Institutions

of Higher Education survey. (This table was prepared September 1992.)
Appendix 93

Table 36.—Gross domestic product, state and local expenditures, personal income, disposable personal income,

and median family income: 1940 to 1991

Year

Gross domestic product,

in billions

State and local

expenditures, 1 in millions Personal

income,

in billions

Disposable

personal

income,

in billions of

1987 dollars

Disposable personal income

per capita Median

family inCurrent come dollars

Constant

1987 dollars

All general

expenditures

Education

expenditures

Current

dollars

Constant

1987 dollars

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1940 ......................... — — $9,229 $2,638 —————

1941 ......................... —————————

1942 ......................... — — 9,190 2,586 —————

1943 ......................... —————————

1944 ......................... — — 8,863 2,793 —————

1945 ......................... —————————

1946 ......................... — — 11,028 3,356 —————

1947 ......................... ———————— $3,031

1948 ......................... — — 17,684 5,379 ———— 3,187

1949 ......................... ———————— 3,107

1950 ......................... — — 22,787 7,177 ———— 3,319

1951 ......................... ———————— 3,709

1952 ......................... — — 26,098 8,318 ———— 3,890

1953 ......................... — — 27,910 9,390 ———— 4,242

1954 ......................... — — 30,701 10,557 ———— 4,167

1955 ......................... — — 33,724 11,907 ———— 4,418

1956 ......................... — — 36,711 13,220 ———— 4,780

1957 ......................... — — 40,375 14,134 ———— 4,966

1958 ......................... — — 44,851 15,919 ———— 5,087

1959 ......................... $494.2 $1,931.3 48,887 17,283 $391.2 $1,284.9 $1,958 $7,256 5,417

1960 ......................... 513.4 1,973.2 51,876 18,719 409.2 1,313.0 1,994 7,264 5,620

1961 ......................... 531.8 2,025.6 56,201 20,574 426.5 1,356.4 2,048 7,382 5,735

1962 ......................... 571.6 2,129.8 60,206 22,216 453.4 1,414.8 2,137 7,583 5,956

1963 ......................... 603.1 2,218.0 63,977 23,729 476.4 1,461.1 2,210 7,718 6,249

1964 ......................... 648.0 2,343.3 69,302 26,286 510.7 1,562.2 2,369 8,140 6,569

1965 ......................... 702.7 2,473.5 74,678 28,563 552.9 1,653.5 2,527 8,508 6,957

1966 ......................... 769.8 2,622.3 82,843 33,287 601.7 1,734.3 2,699 8,822 7,532

1967 ......................... 814.3 2,690.3 93,350 37,919 646.5 1,811.4 2,861 9,114 7,933

1968 ......................... 889.3 2,801.0 102,411 41,158 709.9 1,886.8 3,077 9,399 8,632

1969 ......................... 959.5 2,877.1 116,728 47,238 773.7 1,947.4 3,274 9,606 9,433

1970 ......................... 1,010.7 2,875.8 131,332 52,718 831.0 2,025.3 3,521 9,875 9,867

1971 ......................... 1,097.2 2,965.1 150,674 59,413 893.5 2,099.9 3,779 10,111 10,285

1972 ......................... 1,207.0 3,107.1 168,550 65,814 980.5 2,186.2 4,042 10,414 11,116

1973 ......................... 1,349.6 3,268.6 181,357 69,714 1,098.7 2,334.1 4,521 11,013 12,051

1974 ......................... 1,458.6 3,248.1 198,959 75,833 1,205.7 2,317.0 4,893 10,832 12,902

1975 ......................... 1,585.9 3,221.7 230,721 87,858 1,307.3 2,355.4 5,329 10,906 13,719

1976 ......................... 1,768.4 3,380.8 256,731 97,216 1,446.3 2,440.9 5,796 11,192 14,958

1977 ......................... 1,974.1 3,533.2 274,215 102,780 1,601.3 2,512.6 6,316 11,406 16,009

1978 ......................... 2,232.7 3,703.5 296,983 110,758 1,807.9 2,638.4 7,042 11,851 17,640

1979 ......................... 2,488.6 3,796.8 327,517 119,448 2,033.1 2,710.1 7,787 12,039 19,587

1980 ......................... 2,708.0 3,776.3 369,086 133,211 2,265.4 2,733.6 8,576 12,005 21,023

1981 ......................... 3,030.6 3,843.1 407,449 145,784 2,534.7 2,795.8 9,455 12,156 22,388

1982 ......................... 3,149.6 3,760.3 436,896 154,282 2,690.9 2,820.4 9,989 12,146 23,433

1983 ......................... 3,405.0 3,906.6 466,421 163,876 2,862.5 2,893.6 10,642 12,349 24,674

1984 ......................... 3,777.2 4,148.5 505,008 176,108 3,154.6 3,080.1 11,673 13,029 26,433

1985 ......................... 4,038.7 4,279.8 553,899 192,686 3,379.8 3,162.1 12,339 13,258 27,735

1986 ......................... 4,268.6 4,404.5 605,623 210,819 3,590.4 3,261.9 13,010 13,552 29,458

1987 ......................... 4,539.9 4,540.0 657,134 226,619 3,802.0 3,289.6 13,545 13,545 2 30,970

1988 ......................... 4,900.4 4,718.6 704,921 242,683 4,075.9 3,404.3 14,477 13,890 2 32,191

1989 ......................... 5,244.0 4,836.9 762,360 263,898 4,380.2 3,471.2 15,313 14,030 2 34,213

1990 ......................... 5,513.8 4,884.9 834,786 288,148 4,679.8 3,538.3 16,236 14,154 2 35,353

1991 ......................... 5,671.8 4,848.4 — — 4,833.9 3,534.1 16,693 13,987 —

1 Data for years prior to 1963 include expenditures for government fiscal years ending

during that particular calendar year. Data for 1963 and later years are the aggregations

of expenditures for government fiscal years which ended on June 30 of the stated year.

General expenditures exclude expenditures of publicly owned utilities and liquor stores,

and of insurance-trust activities. Intergovernmental payments between state and local

governments are excluded. Payments to the federal government are included. 2 Revised methodology.

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Gross Domestic Product (GDP) data are adjusted by the GDP implicit price

deflator. Personal income data are adjusted by the personal consumption deflator. Some

data have been revised from previously published figures.

SOURCE: Executive Office of the President, Economic Report of the President, February 1992: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Consumer Income,

Series P-60, No. 174: U.S. Census Bureau, news release, December 30, 1991. (This

table was prepared May 1992.)
94 Appendix

Table 37.—Gross domestic product deflator, Consumer Price Index, education price indexes, and federal budget

composite deflator: 1919 to 1992

Calendar year School year Federal fiscal year

Year

Gross

domestic

product

deflator

Consumer

Price Index 1 Year ConsumerPrice Index 2

Elementary/

Secondary

Price Index

Higher

Education

Price Index

Year

Federal

budget

composite

deflator

1 2 3 45 6 7 89

1919 ..................................... — 17.3 1919–20 ..... 19.1 — — 1919 ........... —

1929 ..................................... — 17.1 1929–30 ..... 17.1 — — 1929 ........... —

1934 ..................................... — 13.4 1934–35 ..... 13.6 — — 1934 ........... —

1939 ..................................... — 13.9 1939–40 ..... 14.0 — — 1939 ........... —

1940 ..................................... — 14.0 1940–41 ..... 14.2 — — 1940 ........... 0.0988

1941 ..................................... — 14.7 1941–42 ..... 15.6 — — 1941 ........... 0.1036

1942 ..................................... — 16.3 1942–43 ..... 16.9 — — 1942 ........... 0.1136

1943 ..................................... — 17.3 1943–44 ..... 17.4 — — 1943 ........... 0.1234

1944 ..................................... — 17.6 1944–45 ..... 17.8 — — 1944 ........... 0.1198

1945 ..................................... — 18.0 1945–46 ..... 18.2 — — 1945 ........... 0.1157

1946 ..................................... — 19.5 1946–47 ..... 21.2 — — 1946 ........... 0.1129

1947 ..................................... — 22.3 1947–48 ..... 23.3 — — 1947 ........... 0.1419

1948 ..................................... — 24.1 1948–49 ..... 24.1 — — 1948 ........... 0.1637

1949 ..................................... — 23.8 1949–50 ..... 23.7 — — 1949 ........... 0.1701

1950 ..................................... — 24.1 1950–51 ..... 25.1 — — 1950 ........... 0.1702

1951 ..................................... — 26.0 1951–52 ..... 26.3 — — 1951 ........... 0.1597

1952 ..................................... — 26.5 1952–53 ..... 26.7 — — 1952 ........... 0.1683

1953 ..................................... — 26.7 1953–54 ..... 26.9 — — 1953 ........... 0.1787

1954 ..................................... — 26.9 1954–55 ..... 26.8 — — 1954 ........... 0.1835

1955 ..................................... — 26.8 1955–56 ..... 26.9 — — 1955 ........... 0.1897

1956 ..................................... — 27.2 1956–57 ..... 27.7 — — 1956 ........... 0.1995

1957 ..................................... — 28.1 1957–58 ..... 28.6 — — 1957 ........... 0.2081

1958 ..................................... — 28.9 1958–59 ..... 29.0 — — 1958 ........... 0.2205

1959 ..................................... 25.6 29.1 1959–60 ..... 29.4 — — 1959 ........... 0.2317

1960 ..................................... 26.0 29.6 1960–61 ..... 29.8 — 25.1 1960 ........... 0.2367

1961 ..................................... 26.3 29.9 1961–62 ..... 30.1 — 26.1 1961 ........... 0.2392

1962 ..................................... 26.8 30.2 1962–63 ..... 30.4 — 27.1 1962 ........... 0.2435

1963 ..................................... 27.2 30.6 1963–64 ..... 30.8 — 28.1 1963 ........... 0.2539

1964 ..................................... 27.7 31.0 1964–65 ..... 31.2 — 29.3 1964 ........... 0.2586

1965 ..................................... 28.4 31.5 1965–66 ..... 31.9 — 30.8 1965 ........... 0.2641

1966 ..................................... 29.4 32.4 1966–67 ..... 32.9 — 32.4 1966 ........... 0.2705

1967 ..................................... 30.3 33.4 1967–68 ..... 34.0 — 34.3 1967 ........... 0.2780

1968 ..................................... 31.7 34.8 1968–69 ..... 35.7 — 36.7 1968 ........... 0.2903

1969 ..................................... 33.3 36.7 1969–70 ..... 37.8 — 39.2 1969 ........... 0.3086

1970 ..................................... 35.1 38.8 1970–71 ..... 39.7 — 41.6 1970 ........... 0.3273

1971 ..................................... 37.0 40.5 1971–72 ..... 41.2 — 44.0 1971 ........... 0.3497

1972 ..................................... 38.8 41.8 1972–73 ..... 42.8 — 46.3 1972 ........... 0.3731

1973 ..................................... 41.3 44.4 1973–74 ..... 46.6 — 49.6 1973 ........... 0.3961

1974 ..................................... 44.9 49.3 1974–75 ..... 51.8 52.7 53.8 1974 ........... 0.4307

1975 ..................................... 49.2 53.8 1975–76 ..... 55.5 57.1 57.9 1975 ........... 0.4758

1976 ..................................... 52.3 56.9 1976–77 ..... 58.7 60.8 61.7 1976 ........... 0.5098

1977 ..................................... 55.9 60.6 1977–78 ..... 62.6 64.6 65.8 1977 ........... 0.5623

1978 ..................................... 60.3 65.2 1978–79 ..... 68.5 70.3 70.6 1978 ........... 0.5928

1979 ..................................... 65.5 72.6 1979–80 ..... 77.6 76.5 77.5 1979 ........... 0.6441

1980 ..................................... 71.7 82.4 1980–81 ..... 86.6 85.7 85.9 1980 ........... 0.7102

1981 ..................................... 78.9 90.9 1981–82 ..... 94.1 93.7 94.0 1981 ........... 0.7817

1982 ..................................... 83.8 96.5 1982–83 ..... 98.2 100.0 100.0 1982 ........... 0.8369

1983 ..................................... 87.2 99.6 1983–84 ..... 101.8 105.6 104.7 1983 ........... 0.8776

1984 ..................................... 91.0 103.9 1984–85 ..... 105.8 112.6 110.5 1984 ........... 0.9125

1985 ..................................... 94.4 107.6 1985–86 ..... 108.8 119.6 115.6 1985 ........... 0.9452

1986 ..................................... 96.9 109.6 1986–87 ..... 111.2 125.7 120.3 1986 ........... 0.9735

1987 ..................................... 100.0 113.6 1987–88 ..... 115.8 132.7 125.8 1987 ........... 1.0000

1988 ..................................... 103.9 118.3 1988–89 ..... 121.2 139.7 133.1 1988 ........... 1.0361

1989 ..................................... 108.4 124.0 1989–90 ..... 127.0 147.6 140.8 1989 ........... 1.0815

1990 ..................................... 112.9 130.7 1990–91 ..... 133.9 — — 1990 ........... 1.1283

1991 ..................................... 117.0 136.2 1991–92 ..... 138.2 — — 1991 ........... 1.1782

1992 ..................................... — — 1992–93 ..... — — — 1992 ........... 1.2147

1 Index for urban wage earners and clerical workers through 1977; 1978 and later figures are for all urban consumers.

2 Consumer Price Index adjusted to a school-year basis (July through June).

—Data not available.

NOTE.—Some data have been revised from previously published figures.

SOURCE: Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Indicators, February 1991, and

Economic Report of the President, February 1992; U.S. Department of Education, National Institute of Education, Inflation Measures for Schools and Colleges; U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Price Index; Research Associates

of Washington, ‘‘Inflation Measures for Schools and Colleges, 1990 Update;’’ U.S. Office

of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government, Fiscal Year 1993. (This

table was prepared July 1992.)
95

Methodology

General Note

Nationwide statistics on education have been collected and published primarily by the U.S. Department of Education (formerly the Office of Education)

and the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Data on education have also been collected and published by

other federal, state and local governmental agencies,

and by independent research organizations.

The Department of Education obtained the data for

this publication from reports of state and local school

systems and institutions of higher education. These

data relate to school enrollment and attendance,

graduates, instructional staff, curricula, school district

organization, and receipts and expenditures for elementary and secondary schools, and enrollment, faculty, degrees conferred, income, expenditures, property, and plant fund operations for institutions of higher education.

Data in this report from the Bureau of the Census

were obtained from households in the decennial censuses and monthly sample surveys, and relate primarily to school enrollment, literacy, and educational

attainment of the general population.

The Department of Education has issued statistical

reports on elementary, secondary, and higher education since 1870. From 1869–70 to 1916–17, statistics were included as part of the Annual Report of

the Commissioner of Education. From 1917–18 to

1957–58, a report was issued for each even-numbered school year under the title, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States. Chapter 1 of the Biennial Survey, ‘‘Statistical Summary of Education,’’

and chapter 2, ‘‘Statistics of State School Systems,’’

are primary sources for some derived measures relating to education. Beginning with 1940–41 and ending with 1950–51, chapter 2 was supplemented by

an abridged report issued as a circular for each oddnumbered school year. Biennial survey data were

based on report forms completed by state departments of education (a copy of the report form appears in the Biennial Survey of 1951–52 and 1953–

54). Beginning with the Biennial Survey of 1951–52

and 1953–54, these forms have been completed by

education officials in accordance with detailed instructions contained in the Office of Education, Handbook I, the Common Core of State Educational Information. Prior to that date, the forms were completed

in accordance with various circulars of information

distributed by the Office of Education.

Since 1962, the annual publication, Digest of Education Statistics, has provided an abstract of statistical information covering the broad field of American

education from kindergarten through graduate

school. The Digest utilizes materials from numerous

sources, including the statistical surveys and estimates of the Department of Education and other appropriate agencies, both governmental and nongovernmental. It is divided into seven chapters: (1)

all levels of education; (2) elementary and secondary

education; (3) postsecondary education; (4) federal

programs for education; (5) outcomes of education;

(6) international comparisons of education; and (7)

learning resources and technology.

A major issue in presenting accurate statistical

data on a national basis is the uniformity with which

all recording units use standard terms, definitions,

and procedures. Prior to 1908–09, this was controlled only by definitions on the questionnaires requesting information. Since 1908–09, the Office of

Education in cooperation with other national and

state organizations has improved uniform recording

and reporting through the means of national committees, publications, and national and regional conferences.

A major problem in the collection and processing

of comprehensive nationwide school statistics is getting all the schools to respond within reasonable time

limits. School authorities are not compelled to report

to the Department of Education. There is some evidence that the proportion of schools reporting has increased through the years. This increase is most evident in the data for secondary schools. Prior to

1929–30, a complete list of public secondary day

schools had not been compiled, and consequently

there is no way to measure the degree of response

in the earlier years. Since there was no attempt to

estimate data for the nonrespondents in the early

years, the secondary school data are undercounted.

This was especially problematic for high school enrollment and graduate data of the 1870s and 1880s.

In 1929–30, there were 23,930 public secondary day

schools on file, and reports were received from

22,237. In 1937–38, the number of schools on file increased to 35,308, and the number reporting was
96 Methodology

25,091. In 1951–52, there were 23,757 schools, and

replies were received from all but 12 schools. The

data for the missing schools were estimated, and the

published totals for 1951–52 cover all public secondary day schools.

Since 1869–70, there have been both major and

minor changes in the collection patterns with

changes in the administration of the program. Some

patterns lasted for many years. With voluntary response and no field service (until 1924), response

rates varied in their completeness for both reporting

in general and for specific items. The completeness

of the coverage is not always made evident in the

publications. For example, field service supplemented returns by mail for the 1923–24 biennial

chapters. From 1923 to 1963, visits were made to

state departments of education and colleges and universities to complete the coverage from basic or secondary records available in the state departments of

education or at individual schools and institutions.

The introduction of sampling in recent years has also

insured adequate coverage.

The data in these historical tables will not always

agree with similar data in the publications cited as

sources for a specific year because tabulations were

‘‘kept open’’ for many years, and as data came in,

they were added and reflected in future historical tables. In addition, when feasible, missing data have

been imputed to produce consistent national information.

Table 1.—Population, by age and race, live

births, and birth rate: 1970 to 1991

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of

the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P25, and unpublished data; Historical Statistics of the

United States, Colonial Times to 1970. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center

for Health Statistics, Monthly Vital Statistics Report,

various issues.

The annual population estimates are as of July 1

and, thus, differ from decennial census population

estimates. Annual estimates prior to 1900 are based

on linear interpolation between decennial years. Estimates between 1900 and 1919 are based on interpolation applied to decennial age data. Subsequent

data are based on decennial data augmented by information on births, deaths, and international migration. Population data for the period from 1980 to

1989 are likely to be revised when they are controlled to the 1990 census. However, experience

from past decennial census changes indicates that

these changes will be small.

Births and deaths are classified in the category of

information known as vital statistics. These data are

compiled by the National Center for Health Statistics

(originally by the National Office of Vital Statistics).

Since 1900, these have been collected by the Bureau of the Census from various state offices. Since

1951, birth statistics have been estimated based on

a 50 percent sample of all registered births. Data on

death registrations are compiled in a similar manner.

However, each of these relies on the purported reliability of registrations at state and local levels.

Table 2.—School enrollment of 5- to 19-yearolds per 100 persons, by sex and race: 1850 to

1991

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Decennial

data, 1850 to 1930, Fifteenth Census Reports, Population, vol. II; 1940 to 1950, U.S. Census of Population: 1950, vol. II, part 1; U.S. Census of Population: 1960, PC(1)-ID. Other data, Current Population Reports, series P-20, Nos. 54, 66, 74, 80, 93,

101, 110, 117, 126, 129, 148, 162, 167, 206, and

222; 1970 to 1991, Current Population Survey, survey data files.

For decennial census years, the statistics refer to

the total population within the specified age group;

figures from the Current Population Survey (CPS)

refer to the civilian noninstitutional population. Persons not covered in the CPS (Armed Forces and institutional population) are known to have low enrollment rates.

In the Census of Population for 1940 and 1950,

and in the CPS, 1954 to 1991, enrollment was defined as enrollment in ‘‘regular’’ schools only—that is,

schools where enrollment may lead toward an elementary or high school diploma, or to a college, university, or professional school degree. Such schools

included public and private nursery schools, kindergartens, elementary and secondary schools, colleges, universities, and professional schools. Enrollment could be either full-time or part-time, day or

night.

If a person was receiving regular instruction at

home from a tutor and if the instruction was considered comparable to that of a regular school or college, the person was counted as enrolled. Enrollment

in a correspondence course was counted only if the

person received credit in the regular school system.

Enrollments in business and trade schools at the

postsecondary level were excluded if the coursework

did not lead to a degree.

Children enrolled in kindergarten were included in

the ‘‘regular’’ school enrollment figures in the Current

Population Survey beginning in 1950; children enrolled in nursery school were included beginning in

1967. Children enrolled in kindergarten were not included in the ‘‘regular’’ school enrollment figures in

the 1950 Census of Population; however, they have

been included here to make the data comparable
Methodology 97

with earlier years and with current practice. In censuses prior to 1950, no attempt was made to exclude

children in kindergarten so that the statistics for

those years include varying proportions attending kindergarten. Also, in censuses prior to 1940, the data

were not restricted as to type of school or college the

person was attending.

In addition to differences in definitions of school

enrollment and in population coverage, the enrollment data for different years may differ because of

variations in the dates when the questions were

asked and the time periods to which enrollment referred. Data from the Current Population Survey

were obtained in October and refer to enrollment in

the current school term. In 1940, 1950, and 1960,

the censuses were taken as of April 1, but enrollment

related to any time after March 1 in 1940 and any

time after February 1 in 1950 and 1960. The corresponding question in the censuses from 1850 to

1930 applied to a somewhat longer period: in 1850

to 1900, to the 12 months preceding the census

date; and in 1910, 1920, and 1930, to the period between the preceding September 1 and the census

date (April 15 in 1910, January 1 in 1920, and April

1 in 1930).

Information on school enrollment is also collected

and published by the Department of Education.

These data are obtained from reports of school surveys and censuses. They are, however, only roughly

comparable with data collected by the Bureau of the

Census from households, because of differences in

definitions, time references, population coverage, and

enumeration methods.

Table 3.—School enrollment and school enrollment rates, by age and sex: 1940 to 1991

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1940, U.S.

Census of Population: 1950, vol. II, part 1; 1945 to

1969, Current Population Reports, series P-20, Nos.

19, 24, 30, 34, 45, 52, 54, 66, 74, 80, 93, 101, 110,

117, 126, 129, 148, 162, 167, 190, 206, and 222;

1970 to 1991, Current Population Survey, survey

data files.

The estimates are based on data obtained in October in the Current Population Survey of the Bureau

of the Census, except that data shown for 1940 are

based on complete enumeration of the population

and were published in volume II of the 1950 census

reports on population. Except for 1940, data are for

the civilian population excluding the relatively small

number in institutions. Data shown for 1940 relate to

the total population, including those in institutions

and all members of the Armed Forces (about

267,000) enumerated on April 1.

The school enrollment statistics from the Current

Population Survey are based on replies to the enumerator’s inquiry as to whether the person was enrolled in school. See description of CPS procedures

under previous table.

Table 4.—Years of school completed by persons 25 years old and over, by race and sex:

April 1940 to March 1991

Table 5.—Median years of school completed by

persons age 25 and over and 25 to 29, by race

and sex: 1910 to 1991

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1940 and

1950, U.S. Census of Population, 1950, vol. II; 1960,

U.S. Census of Population: 1960, series PC-l; 1970

to 1991, Current Population Survey, survey data

files.

The median years of school completed is defined

as the value which divides the population into two

equal parts—one-half having completed more and

the other half less schooling than the median. The

median was computed after the statistics on years of

school completed had been converted to a continuous series of numbers (e.g., completion of the 1st

year of high school was treated as completion of the

9th year and completion of the 1st year of college as

completion of the 13th year). The persons completing

a given school year were assumed to be distributed

evenly within the interval from .0 to .9 of the year

(e.g., persons completing the 12th year were assumed to be distributed evenly between 12.0 and

12.9). The effect of the assumption is to place the

median for younger persons slightly below, and for

older persons slightly above, the true median. Because of the inexact assumption as to the distribution

within an interval, this median is more appropriately

used for comparing groups and the same group at

different dates than as an absolute measure of educational attainment.

The data for 1940, 1950, and 1960 are based on

the decennial censuses: complete count in 1940, 20

percent sample in 1950, and 25 percent sample in

1960. The data for 1970 through 1991 are based on

the March Current Population Survey and may differ

from decennial census data for the following reasons:

(1) only those members of the Armed Forces in the

United States living off post or with their families on

post are included in the CPS whereas all members

of the Armed Forces in the United States are included in the census data and (2) there are differences between the CPS and the censuses in coverage, enumeration techniques, and methods of allocating responses.

The procedure used both in 1940 and 1950 for calculating the median years of school completed made

allowance for the fact that many persons reported as

having completed a given full school year had also

completed a part of the next higher grade. Thus, it
98 Methodology

is assumed that persons who reported 12 full years

of school completed had actually completed 12.5

years, on the average.

Although the statistics on median years of school

completed have been available only since 1940, the

data by age give further indication of time trends.

The 1910 to 1930 data cited in the table are based

on a retrojection of educational attainment of older

age groups.

Differences in the quality of education data for the

three censuses may have resulted in part from

changes in the way the information was requested.

In 1940, a single question was asked on highest

grade of school completed. In the 1950 and 1960

censuses and the various CPS surveys, data on

years of school completed were obtained from a

combination of responses to two questions, one asking for the highest grade of school attended and another whether that grade was finished. Analysis of

data from the 1940 census returns and from surveys

conducted by the Bureau of the Census based on

the same question wording as in 1940 indicated that

respondents frequently reported the year or grade

they had last attended, instead of the one completed.

There is evidence that, as a result of the change in

the questions in 1950, there was relatively less exaggeration in reporting educational attainment than in

1940. Hence, the indicated increases in attainment

between 1940 and 1950 tend slightly to understate

the true increase.

The 1970 to 1991 data are based on sample surveys and relate to the resident population, including

inmates of institutions and members of the Armed

Forces living off post or with their families on post;

all other members of the Armed Forces are excluded. Except for 1940, the data were derived from

the combination of answers to two questions: (a)

‘‘What is the highest grade of school he has ever attended?’’ and (b) ‘‘Did he finish the grade?’’ In 1940,

a single question was asked on highest grade of

school completed. The questions on educational attainment apply only to progress in ‘‘regular’’ schools.

Table 6.—Percentage of persons 14 years old

and over who are illiterate, by race and nativity:

1870 to 1979

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1870 to 1930,

Fifteenth Census Reports, Population, vol. II; 1940 to

1979, Current Population Reports, series P-20, Nos.

20, 45, and 217; and series P-23, No. 116.

Persons were regarded as illiterate if they could

not read and write, either in English or some other

language. Information on illiteracy of the population

was obtained from direct questions in the censuses

of 1870 to 1930. The data for 1947, 1952, 1959,

1969, and 1979 were obtained from sample surveys;

they exclude the Armed Forces and inmates of institutions. The statistics for the census years 1940 and

1950 were derived by estimating procedures. In

1947, the literacy question was asked only of persons who had completed less than 5 years of school;

in 1952, 1959, 1969, and 1979, the same general

procedure was used, but the question was asked of

those who had completed less than 6 years of

school.

These surveys examined a very fundamental level

of reading and writing. More recent studies on this

issue have analyzed functional illiteracy. Functional

illiteracy indicates a lack of ability to function effectively in a modern society. These functional illiteracy

percentages are substantially higher than earlier

studies based on fundamental illiteracy.

Some variation has existed over the years in the

way the question on illiteracy was asked. Since

1930, reference has been made as to whether or not

the person was able to read and write. In the censuses of 1870 to 1930, two questions were asked;

one on whether the person was able to read and one

on whether he could write. Illiteracy was defined as

inability to write ‘‘regardless of ability to read.’’ Since

the data showed that nearly all persons who were

able to write could also read, the earlier statistics

should be generally comparable with data obtained

through the consolidated question used in later

years.

Ability to read and write cannot be defined so precisely in a census to cover all cases with certainty.

No specific test of ability to read and write was used,

but enumerators were instructed not to classify a person as literate simply because he was able to write

his name. Analysts of earlier census data assumed

that the illiterate population comprised only those

persons who had no education whatever. Information

on the educational attainment of illiterates obtained in

recent sample surveys indicates, however, that some

persons cannot read and write even though they

have had some formal schooling. For example, data

from the Current Population Survey of October 1952

show that among persons 14 years old and over the

proportion reported as illiterate ranged from 77.8 percent of those who had not completed a year of

school to 1.3 percent of those who had completed 5

years. Comparable figures from the November 1969

survey were 57.4 percent and 2.3 percent, respectively.

Data on illiteracy were also collected in the censuses of 1840, 1850, and 1860, but are not included

here because they are not comparable with statistics

for subsequent years and because of limitations in

the quality of data for those early years. In 1840, the

head of the family was asked for the total number of

illiterates in each family, a method which undoubtedly

led to some understatement. Beginning with 1850,
Methodology 99

the individual entry system was used, the question

being asked regarding each member of the family.

By 1870, another change in census methods was introduced, separate questions being asked on ability

to read and ability to write. In addition to changes in

the form of the inquiry, the statistics on illiteracy for

1840, 1850, and 1860 related to the population 20

years old and over, whereas in the 1870 and later

censuses, they referred to the population 10 years

old and over.

The percentages of illiterates in the total population

20 years old and over, as recorded in those earlier

censuses, were as follows: 1840, 22.0 percent; 1850,

22.6 percent; and 1860, 19.7 percent. The comparable percentages for the white population 20

years old and over in those years were 9.0, 10.7 and

8.9 percent, respectively. The apparent increases in

illiteracy of white persons in 1850 and 1870 may be

due, in part, to the large influx of immigrants during

those periods, many of whom could not read and

write in any language. It is more likely, however, that

the apparent increases resulted from improvements

in the way the information was obtained at those

census dates.

Table 7.—Annual mean income of males and

females 25 years old and over, by years of

school completed: 1939 to 1991

Source: 1939 to 1949, Herman P. Miller, ‘‘Annual

and Lifetime Income in Relation to Education’’; 1939

to 1959, American Economic Association, The American Economic Review, December 1960 (copyright);

1956 to 1969, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current

Population Reports, series P-60, No. 74; and 1970 to

1991, Current Population Survey, survey data files.

Data for 1939 were derived from 1940 Census of

Population, Education: Educational Attainment by

Economic Characteristics and Marital Status; for

1946, from Current Population Reports, series P-60,

No. 5; and for 1949, from 1950 Census of Population, series P-E, No. 5B, Education. For details of

methodology, see the source.

Neither the income concept nor the universe covered is directly comparable for all years shown. Most

of the differences, however, are relatively small and

are not believed to seriously distort the relationships.

The figures for 1939 are based on the 1940 census

and are restricted to males 25 to 64 years of age

with $1 or more of wage or salary income and less

than $50 of nonwage income. For this group the

averages represent total money income; however,

this group includes only about three-fifths of all men

25 to 64 years old in 1940. The effects of this restriction cannot be measured, but it is undoubtedly more

important than restrictions cited for other years. It is

also possible that this restriction affects college graduates more than persons with less schooling and for

them tends to create a biased sample since college

graduates are more likely to have income other than

earnings.

The 1946 figures are based on the Current Population Survey and represent the total money earnings

(not total income) of the civilian noninstitutional male

population 25 years old and over. Although the conceptual differences between income and earnings

are substantial, the actual differences in the averages are quite small, primarily because the amount

of nonearned income is small relative to the total,

and this type of income tends to be seriously underreported in household surveys of income. The 1949

figures are based on the 1950 census and also represent the total money income of all males 25 years

old and over, including a relatively small number of

institutional inmates.

The 1956 to 1991 figures are entirely comparable

since they are based on the Current Population Survey and represent the total money income of the civilian noninstitutional population of the United States

and members of the Armed Forces in the United

States living off post or with their families on post,

but excluding all other members of the Armed

Forces. For each person in the sample, 14 years old

and over, questions were asked on the amount of

money income received during the preceding calendar year from each of the following sources: (1)

money wages or salary; (2) net income from nonfarm

self-employment; (3) net income from farm self-employment; (4) social security; (5) dividends, interest

(on savings or bonds), income from estates or trusts

or net rental income; (6) public assistance or welfare

payments; (7) unemployment compensation, government employee pensions, or veterans’ payments; (8)

private pensions, annuities, alimony, regular contributions from persons not living in this household, royalties, and other periodic income. The amounts received represent income before deductions for personal taxes, social security, bonds, etc.

Table 8.—Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: 1869–70 to

1989–90

Table 9.—Enrollment in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools, by grade

level: 1869–70 to fall 1992

Table 10.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by grade: 1910–11

to fall 1990

Table 11.—Enrollment in regular public elementary and secondary schools, by state: 1870–71 to

fall 1990
100 Methodology

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1916–17 to 1955–56, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, Statistics of State

School Systems, various issues; 1957–58 to 1991–

92, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of

Education Statistics, various issues, and unpublished

tabulations. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical

Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to

1970.

A school is defined as a division of the school system consisting of a group of pupils composed of one

or more grade groups, organized as one unit with

one or more teachers to give instruction of a defined

type and housed in a school plant of one or more

buildings. More than one school may be housed in

one school plant, as is the case when the elementary

and secondary programs are housed in the same

school plant. The actual operation of public schools

is generally the sole responsibility of local school

systems in the various states. The local basic administrative unit or school district is an area organized as

a quasi-corporation under the jurisdiction of a board

of education responsible for the administration of all

public schools in the area. School districts provide

the machinery through which local control of schools

is exercised and are largely responsible for the location and size of schools, the types of educational

programs and services offered, and the amount of financial support to be provided locally.

A public school is defined as one operated by publicly elected or appointed school officials in which the

program and activities are under the control of these

officials and which is supported by public funds.

Enrollment and other figures prior to 1959–60 for

public elementary and secondary day schools only

include the coterminous United States. Excluded are

public schools in the outlying areas of the United

States, public schools operated directly by the federal government on military reservations and schools

for Indians, public residential schools for exceptional

children, and subcollegiate departments of institutions of higher education. Only regular day school

pupils are included; pupils enrolled in night schools

and summer schools are excluded.

Private schools, while subject to certain regulatory

controls of the state, are under the operational control of private individuals or religiously affiliated or

nonsectarian institutions. Whether operated on a

profit or nonprofit basis, private schools are generally

supported by private funds as distinguished from

public funds.

Private school figures are not strictly comparable.

For example, in some of the earlier years, the figures

include enrollment of secondary pupils in subcollegiate departments of institutions of higher education,

normal schools, etc. Enrollment figures prior to 1976

do not include private schools for exceptional children or private vocational or trade schools. They

cover only regular day school pupils. Summer school

pupils are excluded in all years.

It should be noted that the annual public enrollment information such as that tabulated in the Biennial Survey of Education was collected on a state-bystate basis and represented a cumulative count of

the total number of different pupils registered at any

time during the school year in each state. Pupils enrolled in two or more states at any time during the

school year are, therefore, counted more than once,

resulting in a tendency to increase the total enrollment figure for the Nation.

The number of pupils per classroom teacher, otherwise known as the ‘‘pupil/teacher ratio,’’ has often

been used as a measure of teacher workload. For

years prior to the 1940s, the available figures on

‘‘teachers’’ sometimes included librarians and guidance and psychological personnel as well as classroom teachers.

Table 12.—Children served in special education

programs, by type of disability: 1921–22 to 1989–

90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1921–22 to 1947–48, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States; 1951–52 and 1952–

53, Statistics of Special Schools and Classes for Exceptional Children; and 1957–58 to 1989–90, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

Children served in these programs include ‘‘exceptional children’’ in years prior to 1970. This term applies to pupils who need additional education services, referred to as ‘‘special education,’’ because of

their physical, intellectual, or personal-social differences from other children. Included are the unusually bright or gifted children; the mentally retarded;

the disabled, including the physically handicapped,

learning disabled, and cerebral-palsied; those with

special health problems such as cardiac involvement,

epilepsy, and other debilitating conditions; the blind

and partially seeing; the deaf and hard-of-hearing;

those with speech impairments; and the emotionally

disturbed. Pupils are reported according to the major

type of exceptionality for which they were receiving

special education.

Data for years after 1970 are based on counts of

students participating in PL 94–142, Education of the

Handicapped Act, and the successor, Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) programs.
Methodology 101

Table 13.—Public school pupils transported at

public expense and current expenditures for

transportation: 1929–30 to 1989–90

Source: 1929–30 to 1989–90, U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Digest of Education Statistics, 1992. 1979–80 to

1989–90, Bobbit Publishing Co., School Bus Fleet,

January issues.

More than half of U.S. public school children ride

buses to school, frequently because walking to

school would be inconvenient or unsafe. Pupil transportation services may also be provided as a result

of state or local legislation for reorganizing school

systems, consolidating widely scattered school attendance areas, or achieving equalization of educational opportunity.

Expenditures of public funds for transportation include salaries, vehicle replacement, supplies and

maintenance for vehicles and garages, transportation

insurance, contracted services, fares for public transportation, and payments in lieu of transportation.

Data through 1979–80 are based on reports by state

education agencies to the National Center for Education Statistics. Data for later years are estimates

based on data reported by School Bus Fleet.

Table 14.—Average daily attendance, instructional staff, and teachers in public elementary

and secondary schools: 1869–70 to 1990–91

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1917–18 to 1957–58, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1959–60 to 1989–90, National Center for Education

Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues. 1969–70 to 1980–91, National Education Association, Estimates of School Statistics, various issues.

Figures for average daily attendance in public

schools were computed by dividing the total number

of days attended by all pupils enrolled by the number

of days school was actually in session. Only days

when the pupils were under the guidance and direction of teachers are considered as days in session.

‘‘Instructional staff’’ refers to personnel who render

direct and personal services which are in the nature

of teaching or the improvement of the teacher-learning situation. Included, therefore, are supervisors of

instruction, principals, teachers, guidance personnel,

librarians, and psychological personnel. The duty of

supervisors of instruction, including consultants, is to

assist teachers in improving the learning situation

and instructional methods at a particular level or in

a particular subject. Principals are the administrative

heads of schools. They usually administer a building

or a group of buildings with or without the aid of supervisors.

The term ‘‘teacher’’ is defined as a person employed to instruct pupils or students. At the elementary and secondary levels, it does not include supervisors and principals, or librarians and guidance and

psychological personnel when separately reported.

Beginning with 1919–20, the Department of Education has collected data on salaries of total instructional staff (supervisors, principals, teachers, librarians, and guidance and psychological personnel).

Salary information for prior years is available for

teachers only. Average annual salaries of instructional staff members were obtained by dividing total

expenditures for salaries by the number of such personnel.

Table 15.—Catholic elementary and secondary

enrollment, teachers, and schools, by level:

1919–20 to 1990–91

Source: National Catholic Educational Association,

A Statistical Report on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools for the Years 1967–68 and 1969–70,

as compiled from the Official Catholic Directory, and

United States Catholic Elementary and Secondary

Schools, 1989–90 and 1990–91. Franklin Press,

Catholic Schools in America (1978 edition). U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1919–20 to 1959–60, Historical

Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to

1970.

The elementary division of the Catholic school system includes five types of schools: (1) parochial

schools are operated in connection with parishes; (2)

inter-parochial schools are under the administrative

control of two or more parishes; (3) archdiocesan or

diocesan schools are under the direct administration

of an ordinary and serve the parishes designated by

him; (4) private schools are conducted independently

of parishes by religious communities; and (5) institutional schools include industrial schools; schools for

blind, deaf, delinquent, or other disadvantaged children; and schools conducted in orphanages.

In Catholic secondary education, there are, broadly, three types of administrative control, defined generally as for the elementary above: (1) central or diocesan; (2) parochial; and (3) private. However,

many parochial and private schools really function as

diocesan schools. The data for elementary school

teachers exclude priests serving as part-time teachers of religion.

Table 16.—Public school enrollment in grades

9 to 12, by subject: 1889–90 to fall 1981

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1889–90 to 1948–49, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, 1947–48 to 1949–50;

1954–55 to 1964–65, National Center for Education
102 Methodology

Statistics, Digest of Educational Statistics; fall 1972

and fall 1981, A Trend Study of High School Offerings and Enrollments; and unpublished data.

For 1919–10 to 1933–34, the percentages are

based on the number of pupils enrolled in the last 4

years of all schools that returned usable questionnaires. For 1889–90, 1899–1900, and 1948–49 to

1964–65, the figures are based on the total number

of pupils enrolled in the last 4 years of all schools.

The source for 1889–90 to 1948–49 states that

‘‘when necessary, the subjects reported in previous

surveys were analyzed, and appropriate components

were either recombined, separately listed, or eliminated (with corresponding changes in the number

and percentage enrolled) in a manner to yield as

close comparability as possible with the data in the

current (1948–49) survey.’’

Table 17.—Student proficiency in reading, writing, mathematics, and science, by age and race/

ethnicity: 1969–70 to 1989–90

Table 18.—Percentage of students at or above

selected reading, mathematics, and science proficiency levels, by age and race/ethnicity: 1970–

71 to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment

of Educational Progress, Trends in Academic

Progress.

The idea of an indicator of student achievement at

the national level first emerged in 1963 when then

Commissioner of Education Frank Keppel decided to

collect information on how well the Nation’s schools

were doing. In 1969, a National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) was designed as a voluntary, cooperative program to monitor the scholastic

achievement of our Nation’s 9-, 13-, and 17-yearolds. NAEP is a congressionally mandated project of

the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center

for Education Statistics.

Over the past 20 years, NAEP has generated

more than 200 reports spanning 11 instructional

areas. Commonly known as the ‘‘Nation’s report

card,’’ it is the only ongoing, comparable, and representative assessment of what U.S. students know

and can do. The NAEP trend data in this report are

based on four science assessments (1976–77,

1981–82, 1985–86, and 1989–90), four mathematics

assessments (1977–78, 1981–82, 1985–86, and

1989–90), and six reading assessments (1970–71,

1974–75, 1979–80, 1983–84, 1987–88, and 1989–

90).

Students are randomly selected based on a stratified, three-stage sampling plan designed to yield nationally representative results as well as results for

particular subpopulations of students, as defined by

sex, race/ethnicity, region of the country, and size/

type of community. NAEP samples about 40,000 students per subject, per assessment. For the trend assessments, NAEP assesses 9-, 13-, and 17-year-old

students. To reduce the burden for students, NAEP

uses a variant of matrix sampling called FocusedBalanced Incomplete Block (BIB) Spiraling. Thus, not

all students are asked to answer all questions. This

system provides broad coverage of the subject being

assessed while minimizing the classroom time required of any one student.

Table 19.—High school graduates, by sex and

control of institution: 1869–70 to 1991–92

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1937–38, Statistical Summary of Education, 1937–38; 1939–40 to 1951–52,

Biennial Survey of Education in the United States,

various issues; 1953–54 to 1991–92, National Center

for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1992. Seventeen-year-olds computed on the

basis of U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, series P-25, Nos. 310, 311, and 511,

and unpublished tabulations.

Figures for high school graduates include graduates from public and private schools and exclude

persons granted equivalency certificates.

Table 20.—Public school districts and public

and private elementary and secondary schools:

1929–30 to 1990–91

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education

Statistics, 1992.

These data are fall counts of local education agencies and public schools. Since schools are organizational units and not counts of physical plants, there

may be more schools than school buildings (see additional notes for tables 9, 10, and 11). In addition,

school districts include various entities which provide

specialized instruction and administrative and other

student-related assistance to schools. These entities

include various kinds of units such as vocational and

special education districts and supervisory unions.

Counts of private schools are estimated from various sources. Specifically, key elements of the private school universe, such as the Catholic schools

and other private schools, are located with the assistance of private school associations. In addition, sampling techniques are used to discover the existence

of other religious and non-affiliated schools. After

1980, estimates of the number of these schools and

other data were obtained from sample surveys.
Methodology 103

Table 21.—Revenues for public elementary and

secondary schools, by source of funds: 1889–90

to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1889–90 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1917–18 to 1957–58, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1959–60 to 1989–90, National Center for Education

Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1992.

Revenue receipts represent additions to assets

(cash) from taxes, appropriations, and other funds

which do not incur an obligation that must be met at

some future date and do not represent exchanges of

property for money. Receipts from county and other

intermediate sources are included with local receipts.

Other sources of revenue include gifts, tuition, and

transportation fees from patrons.

Nonrevenue receipts represent amounts which either incur an obligation that must be met at some future date or change the form of an asset from property to cash and therefore decrease the amount and

the value of school property. Money received from

loans, sale of bonds, sale of property purchased from

capital funds, and proceeds from insurance adjustments constitute most of the nonrevenue receipts.

Nonrevenue receipts are not included in the table.

Table 22.—Total and current expenditures and

expenditure per pupil in public elementary and

secondary schools, by purpose: 1869–70 to

1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1917–18 to 1955–56, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1957–58 to 1989–90, National Center for Education

Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

Expenditures for administration include those for

the central office staff for administrative functions and

all general control which is system wide and not confined to one school, subject, or narrow phase of

school services. Instruction expenditures include salaries of instructional staff and clerical assistants, expenditures for free textbooks, school library books,

supplies, and other expenditures for instruction. Plant

operation and maintenance expenditures include salaries of custodians, engineers, carpenters, painters,

etc.; fuel, light, water, and power; and supplies, expenses, and contractual service. Other current expenditures include those for fixed charges and for attendance, health, transportation, food, and miscellaneous services.

Capital outlay includes expenditures for the acquisition of fixed assets or additions to fixed assets

(such as land or existing buildings, improvement of

grounds, construction of buildings, additions to buildings, remodeling of buildings, and initial or additional

equipment). Interest includes interest payments on

short-term and current loans from current funds and

on bonds from current and sinking funds. Other expenditures include those separately reported for summer schools, community colleges, and adult education.

Table 23.—Historical summary of higher education statistics: 1869–70 to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1917–18 to 1955–56, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1957–58 to 1979–80, National Center for Education

Statistics, Education Directory, Colleges and Universities; Faculty and Other Professional Staff in Institutions of Higher Education; Fall Enrollment in Colleges

and Universities; Earned Degrees Conferred; Financial Statistics of Institutions of Higher Education; and

‘‘Fall Enrollment in Institutions of Higher Education,’’

‘‘Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred,’’ and

‘‘Financial Statistics of Institutions of Higher Education’’ surveys; and 1989–90, Digest of Education

Statistics, 1992.

The Office of Education has issued statistical reports on higher education on a periodic basis since

1869–70. Until 1915–16, these statistics appeared in

the Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of Education. For 1917–18 through 1957–58,

statistical reports were issued biennially, as chapters

of the Biennial Survey of Education in the United

States. Since 1962, data have appeared in the annual Digest of Education Statistics. In addition, an

annual report on conferral of earned degrees has

been issued since 1948 and one on fall enrollments

since 1946. An annual report on current income and

expenditures and other finance items was also issued from 1933 to 1940, first under the title The Economic Outlook in Higher Education and later under

the title College Income and Expenditures.

Among the major problems involved in the collecting and processing of nationwide statistics of higher

education have been those of uniformity and promptness of reporting and completeness of coverage of

the field. The problem of uniformity of reporting was

attacked in 1930 with the formation of the National

Committee on Standard Reports for Institutions of

Higher Education; this committee was disbanded in

1935. Its successor, the Financial Advisory Service

of the American Council on Education, carried on the
104 Methodology

work until 1940, when it, too, was discontinued.

These two organizations, voluntary in character and

operating with no official status, did much to conventionalize finance accounting and reporting procedures

in universities and colleges.

The problems of promptness of reporting and completeness of coverage stem from the fact that only

the land-grant institutions (fewer than 4 percent of all

the institutions in the Nation) are under legal obligation to submit financial or statistical reports to the Office of Education. The percent of institutions supplying usable reports within a reasonable time, however,

has increased materially in the last two or three decades, in spite of the fact that inquiries emanating

from the Office of Education have increased in number and scope. Since 1966, data have been collected

from individual colleges and universities by the Higher Education General Information Survey and the

successor, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System. These survey systems allow for extensive

data checks and imputations for nonrespondents.

Response rates are generally quite high, over 90

percent, for most survey components. All of the data

in this report are for institutions of higher education

only. Institutions which do not offer a program creditable towards an associate or higher level degree

are excluded.

Another problem in the compilation of historical

statistics of higher education is the double counting

of data for some institutions. Until 1916, the tabulations of the Office of Education were built largely

around the various professional curricula, with the result that in many instances the data of a professional

school within a university were included both in the

overall tabulations of universities and colleges and in

those of the profession involved. With the inception

of the Biennial Survey of Education in 1918, the emphasis in tabulation was shifted to the administrative

organization, and the data relating to certain professional schools were so tabulated that any possible

duplication was identifiable without too much difficulty. Since 1932, the Office of Education has maintained a master list of all institutions in the Nation;

thus, the problem of duplicate tabulation is no longer

important.

Institutions reporting include universities, colleges,

professional schools, junior colleges, teachers colleges, and normal schools, both privately and publicly controlled, regular session. The figures for institutions represent administrative organizations rather

than individual campuses, i.e., a university operating

one or more branches away from the main campus

is counted as one institution. Beginning in 1969–70,

or as noted, figures for institutions represent individual campuses. The branch campuses are counted as

individual units according to their length of program.

There is some (undeterminable) underreporting in the

earlier years. Since 1946, this underreporting has

been corrected by the use of estimated reports prepared from secondary sources for nonrespondent institutions.

The term ‘‘junior college’’ is used comprehensively

to designate all institutions, of whatever curricular organization, which offer at least 2 but fewer than 4

years of college-level work immediately beyond high

school.

Faculty figures include full-time and part-time faculty members. No attempt has been made to systematically evaluate these services on a full-time equivalent basis. Faculty figures also include the administrative, instructional, research, and other professional

personnel. Resident instructional staff, however, excluded administrative and other professional personnel not engaged in instructional activities.

Table 24.—Enrollment in institutions of higher

education, by sex, attendance status, and type

and control of institution: 1869–70 to fall 1991

Table 25.—Enrollment in institutions of higher

education, by state: 1869–70 to fall 1990

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1917–18 to 1945–46, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues; and

Fall 1946 to 1990, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various editions.

The term ‘‘degree-credit enrollment’’ refers to students whose current program in an institution of higher education consisted wholly or principally of work

which was creditable toward a bachelor’s or higher

degree, either in the student’s own institution or by

transfer to another institution.

Table 26.—Number and professional employees

of institutions of higher education: 1869–70 to

1991–92

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1915–16, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1917–18 to 1943–44, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues; and

1961–62 to 1990, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, various editions.

An institution of higher education is authorized and

currently offering either a 2-year or 4-year degree or

credit transferable to such an institution leading to

such a degree. In addition, such an institution must

be accredited by an agency recognized as a valid

accrediting agency by the Secretary of Education.
Methodology 105

Table 27.—Number of permanent colleges and

universities founded before 1860, by decade of

founding and by state

Source: U.S. Department of Education, Higher

Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), ‘‘Institutional Characteristics of Colleges and Universities,’’ unpublished tabulation.

The Department of Education has maintained a

data file on the characteristics of colleges and universities, which includes a founding date for each higher

education institution in the country. An analysis was

conducted based on the 1980–81 data file to find the

number of colleges founded prior to the Civil War.

According to the tabulation, some 381 of today’s colleges existed prior to 1860; however, some were

probably not providing college-level education during

that time period. This estimate seems to give a reasonable measure of the number of institutions that

existed prior to 1860. The 1860 census reported that

there were 467 colleges which, after allowing for closures gives some credibility to the figure of 381 permanent colleges.

Table 28.—Degrees conferred by institutions of

higher education, by sex and level: 1869–70 to

1989–90

Table 29.—Bachelor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study:

1959–60 to 1989–90

Table 30.—Master’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study:

1959–60 to 1989–90

Table 31.—Doctor’s degrees conferred by institutions of higher education, by field of study:

1959–60 to 1989–90

Table 32.—First-professional degrees conferred

by institutions of higher education in dentistry,

medicine, and law, by sex: 1949–50 to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1869–70 to 1952–53, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, Statistics of Higher

Education, biennial issues, and unpublished data;

1953–54 to 1989–90, Digest of Education Statistics,

annual issues. National Research Council, Commission on Human Resources, Washington, D.C., Doctorate Records File.

The first-level degree (designated as ‘‘bachelor’s or

first professional’’) is defined as the first degree

granted upon completion of a course of study in a

given academic field. The degree must be based on

at least 4 years of college work or the equivalent

thereof. The same classification (namely, ‘‘first level’’)

is given to a degree, e.g., LL.B., regardless of whether the degree is based on 7 years’ preparation or

less; and regardless of whether the student had previously earned a degree in another field. The firstlevel degree is ordinarily a bachelor’s degree, but important exceptions occur in certain of the professional fields. The second-level degree is a degree

beyond the first level but below the doctorate; ordinarily, a master’s degree. The doctorate (the highest

level of earned degrees) includes such advanced degrees as Ph.D., Ed.D., D.Eng., and Dr. P.H.; it includes only earned degrees, not honorary.

Although the first medical school in the United

States was established in 1765, the accuracy of data

recorded for years prior to 1900 is questionable. Inspection and classification of medical schools was

initiated by the American Medical Association Council

on Medical Education in 1904; by 1929, there was

only one unapproved school. As far as the data permit, only approved medical and basic science

schools are included. Before the founding of the first

dental school in 1840, dental work was done by

medical doctors or by persons who were self-taught

or apprentice-trained. By 1880, most states required

dental practitioners to be dental school graduates.

The Doctorate Records File is a virtually complete

source of data about persons receiving doctorates

since 1920. This survey was used as a source of

data on the average length of time required to earn

a doctor’s degree. The doctoral degrees reported are

those earned at regionally accredited U.S. universities and include such degree titles as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor

of Engineering (D.Eng.), etc. Professional degrees

such as Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), Doctor of Dental

Surgery (D.D.S.), and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

(D.V.M.) are excluded.

Table 33.—Current-fund revenue of institutions

of higher education, by source of funds: 1889–90

to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1889–90 to 1919–10, Annual Report of

the United States Commissioner of Education, various issues; 1919–20 to 1959–60, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1961–62 to 1963–64, National Center for Education

Statistics, Higher Education Finances, and

unpublished data; 1965–66 to 1979–80, Financial

Statistics of Institutions of Higher Education, various

issues; and 1980–81 to 1989–90, Digest of Education Statistics, various issues.

Total current-fund revenue represents funds accruing to, or received by, higher education institutions,

usable for their recurring day-to-day activities.

Educational and general revenue are those available for the regular or customary activities of an institution which are part of, contributory to, or necessary
106 Methodology

to its instructional or research program. These include salaries and travel of faculty and administrative

or other employees; purchase of supplies or materials for current use in classrooms, libraries, laboratories, or offices; and operation and maintenance of

the educational plant.

Income from students’ tuition and fees represents

funds (matriculation, tuition, laboratory, library,

health, and other fees, but not charges for rooms or

meals) regularly paid by students themselves or for

them by their relatives or philanthropic groups.

Endowment income is derived from invested funds.

Only the income of the endowment funds is to be

used for the current purposes of the institution. If

funds are merely temporarily placed in the endowment fund, the right to withdraw them being reserved

by the donor or the governing board of the institution

concerned, they are known as ‘‘funds functioning as

endowment’’ and are not subject to the principal of

‘‘once endowment, always endowment.’’

Private gifts and grants are voluntary contributions

from philanthropically minded individuals and organizations to the various institutions of higher education.

Sales and services of educational activities and of

organized activities related to them are frequently referred to briefly as ‘‘related activities.’’ The term includes all the incidental earnings of an institution,

such as sales of livestock or dairy products of an agricultural school; tuition and other income of a laboratory school, a demonstration school, or a museum;

fees for care at a medical or dental clinic; and other

income of this nature derived from services directly

connected with the instructional program of the institution.

Student-aid funds are funds having to do with the

provision of scholarships, fellowships, prizes, and

student-financed aid of any type not involving employment by or repayment to the institution. Studentaid funds may be lent to students to help them defray their expenses while in school.

Other sources of income include annuity and plant

funds. Annuity funds are funds acquired subject to

the condition that the recipient institution pay a stipulated sum of money annually or at other regular intervals to a designated beneficiary or beneficiaries, not

necessarily the same person as the donor. These

payments continue until the death of the beneficiary

(the last beneficiary, if more than one), at which time

the principal of the fund becomes the property of the

institution. Plant funds are funds which have been or

are to be invested in buildings, grounds, furniture,

scientific equipment, or other permanent physical

property of the institution. Real estate held for direct

educational or auxiliary use by the institution is thus

part of the plant-fund group.

Income from auxiliary enterprises and activities includes income of dormitories, dining halls, cafeterias,

union buildings, college bookstores, university presses, student hospitals, faculty housing, intercollegiate

athletic programs, concerts, industrial plants operated

on a student self-help basis, and other enterprises

conducted primarily for students and staff and intended to be self-supporting without competing with

the industries of the community in which the institution is located.

The other account of an institution of higher education includes income which is either so incidental

in its nature, so irregular in its frequency, or so minor

in its amount as to make its classification difficult or

impractical. The most common types of other income

are probably (1) interest on current funds; (2) rent of

institutional property for noninstitutional purposes; (3)

transcript fees of students; (4) library fines; and possibly other minor items.

Table 34.—Current-fund expenditures and educational and general expenditure per student of

institutions of higher education, by function:

1929–30 to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1929–30 to 1959–60, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1961–62 to 1963–64, Higher Education Finances,

and unpublished tabulations; 1965–66 to 1989–90,

National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of

Education Statistics, various issues.

Expenditure data were not tabulated for all institutions of higher education until 1930. Prior to that

time, they were collected from land-grant institutions

and teacher-education institutions only. Other professional schools and non-land-grant institutions were

omitted from the surveys.

Organized research expenditures cover research

programs of sufficient magnitude to warrant carrying

them separately in the finance budget.

Plant operation and maintenance expenditures include wages of janitors and other caretakers; cost of

fuel, light, trucking of materials about the campuses,

and repairs to buildings; and other costs connected

with keeping the physical plant in good order.

Expenditures for conducting laboratory or demonstration schools, medical-school hospitals, dental

clinics, home-economics cafeterias, agricultural-college creameries, college-operated industries, and

other activities closely connected with the instructional program but not actually integral parts of it are

frequently referred to briefly as ‘‘related activities.’’

Extension and public service expenditures cover

correspondence courses, radio and television

courses, adult study courses and other non-degreecredit courses, institutes, public lectures, cooperative

extension in land-grant institutions, radio and television stations, and similar media for carrying the
Methodology 107

work of an institution beyond its traditional and customary campus activities.

Table 35.—Value of property and endowment,

and liabilities of institutions of higher education:

1899–1900 to 1989–90

Source: U.S. Department of Education (Office of

Education), 1919–20 to 1957–58, Biennial Survey of

Education in the United States, various issues;

1959–60, Statistics of Higher Education-Receipts,

Expenditures, and Property, 1959-60; 1961–62 to

1963–64, Higher Education Finances; 1965–66 to

1985–86, Digest of Education Statistics, 1992; and

1986–87 to 1989–90, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), ‘‘Finance’’ survey, survey data files.

Data represent moneys received and spent by

higher education institutions for expanding their physical holdings (land, buildings, equipment of various

sorts) held or utilized primarily for instructional, recreational, or student residence purposes. Real estate

held and operated for investment purposes is not included.

Property data represent value of all permanent or

quasi-permanent assets which include lands, buildings, and equipment; funds held for investment purposes only (the income from such funds being available for current use); funds subject to annuity or living trust agreements; and funds the principal of

which may be lent to students to help defray their living expenses or tuition bills. The term ‘‘fund’’ is used

in its accounting sense of cash or other valuable assets (real estate, bonds, stock certificates, and other

evidences of ownership or equity).

Table 36.—Gross domestic product, state and

local expenditures, personal income, disposable

personal income, and median family income:

1940 to 1991

Source: Gross domestic product, state and local

expenditures, personal income and disposable personal income, 1940 to 1991, Executive Office of the

President, Economic Report of the President, February 1992. Median family income, 1947 to 1989,

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, series P-60, No.

174; and 1990, Bureau of the Census, News Release, December 30, 1991.

Table 37.—Gross domestic product deflator,

Consumer Price Index, education price indexes,

and federal budget composite deflator: 1919 to

1992

Source: Gross domestic product deflator,

Consumer Price Index, and federal budget composite

deflator, 1919 to 1992, Executive Office of the President, Economic Report of the President, February

1992. Education price indexes, Research Associates

of Washington, Inflation Measures for Schools and

Colleges, various issues.