NOAA Atlas NESDIS 56 

RUSSIAN MARINE EXPEDITIONARY 

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE 

WORLD OCEAN 

Silver Spring, MD 

December 2002 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 
World Data Center for Oceanography, Silver Spring 

International Ocean Atlas and Information Series, Volume 5 

NOAA Atlas NESDIS 56 

МОРСКИЕ ЭКСПЕДИЦИОННЫЕ 

НАУЧНЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ РОССИИ

Н.Н. Михайлов, Е.Д. Вязилов, В.И. Ломонов, 

Н.С. Студёнов, М.З. Шаймарданов 

(Всероссийский Научно-Исследовтельский Институт 

Гидрометеорологической Информации/ 

Мировой Центр Данных - Б) 

 

Под редакцией: Р. Татуско, С. Левитус

(NOAA/NESDIS/NODC/Ocean Climate Laboratory) 

Обнинск – Silver Spring 

Декабрь 2002 

 

Федеральная Служба России по Гидрометеорологии и 

Мониторингу Окружающей Среды

Александр И. Бедритский, Председатель

Всероссийский Научно-Исследовательский Институт 

Гидрометеорологической Информации

Марсель Шаймарданов, Директор

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Donald L. Evans, Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. USN (Ret.) 

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

Gregory W. Withee, Assistant Administrator 
World Data Center for Oceanography, Silver Spring 

International Ocean Atlas and Information Series, Volume 5 

NOAA Atlas NESDIS 56

N.N. Mikhailov, E.D. Vyazilov, V.I. Lomonov, 

N.S. Studyonov, M.Z. Shaimardanov 

(All-Russian Research Institute for Hydrometeorological Information/ 

World Data Center - B)

Edited by: R. Tatusko, S. Levitus 

(NOAA/NESDIS/NODC/Ocean Climate Laboratory)

Obninsk - Silver Spring 

December 2002 

Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring 

Alexander I. Bedritsky, Chairman 

All-Russian Institute for Hydrometeorological Information 

Marsel Shaimardanov, Director 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Donald L. Evans, Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. USN (Ret.) 

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

Gregory W. Withee, Assistant Administrator

RUSSIAN MARINE EXPEDITIONARY 

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE WORLD OCEAN
CONTENTS 

Preface............................................................................................................................................. ii 

Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................iii 

Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv 

1. Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1

2. Outstanding Sea Voyages and Expeditions in the 16th - 19th Centures.................................... 3 

3. Marine Expeditionary Research in the 20th Century ............................................................. 35 

3.1 First half of the 20th century......................................................................................... 34 

3.2 Second Half of the 20th Century...................................................................................................38

3.2.1 Development of expedition research on the World Ocean 

from 1946-1956 .................................................................................................................39

3.2.2 Period of national and international projects and programs for 

comprehensive research on the World Ocean .........................................................48

3.3 Organizations engaged actively in studies of oceans and seas..............................................68

4. Oceanographic Expeditionary Data Collection, Processing, Accumulation, and Use ............ 84 

4.1 Oceanographic data collection.......................................................................................................84

4.2 Data accumulation and systematization ......................................................................................87

4.3 Application of marine expeditionary data ..................................................................................95

5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 97 

6. Appendices................................................................................................................................ 98 

Appendix 1. Basic information on expeditionary ships and types of observations................99

Appendix 2. Brief information on the most prominent national and international 

expeditions and projects (programs)..........................................................................119

Appendix 3. R/Vs involved in various programs and projects...................................................137

Appendix 4. Organizations of Russia and the former USSR taking an active part 

in the study of seas and oceans....................................................................................161

Appendix 5. References and additional literature with information on marine 

expeditions........................................................................................................................172

Appendix 6. Abbreviations....................................................................................................................179
ii 

PREFACE

The World Data Centers for Oceanography in Silver Spring, Maryland, and in Obninsk, Russia, 

are just one component of a global network of centers that facilitate international exchange of 

data in a variety of scientific fields. These centers function under the guidance of the 

International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), which was established in 1957-58 during the 

International Geophysical Year (IGY). 

This Atlas has been translated from the original Russian, which was published by the AllRussian Research Institute and can be obtained by going to http://www.oceaninfo.ru. 

This Atlas is Volume 5 within the International Ocean Atlas and Information Series, and is being 

distributed internationally without restriction in accordance with the principles of the World Data 

Center system of the ICSU and the UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. It 

is available on the Internet at http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/indprod.html, under International 

Ocean Atlas Series. 

Sydney Levitus, Director Marsel Shairmardanov, Director 

World Data Center for Oceanography World Data Center for Oceanography 

NOAA/NESDIS/NODC RIHMI 

Silver Spring, MD Obninsk, Kaluga Region, Russia 

 
iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

In memory of Russian oceanographer 

Valeriy I. Kalatsky

 

 

 The authors express sincere gratitude to the following individuals, who contributed to 

the preparation of this monograph: S.S. Lappo and V.A. Semenov for reviewing this monograph; 

V.A. Sobolev and E.A. Svischeva for translating the monograph from Russian to English; L.V. 

Kuznetsova, I.N. Lychagina, and M.B. Darkina, who assisted in the preparation of computer 

materials; A.Ya. Podvysotskaya, whose contribution to summarizing the oceanographic data is 

difficult to underestimate; WDC personnel in Obninsk, who collected pictures of Russian 

research vessels; Renee Tatusko and Sydney Levitus at the World Data Center for Oceanography 

in Silver Spring, Maryland, for editing the English translation; NOAA/NESDIS for publishing 

the English version of this monograph as part of International Ocean Atlas and Information 

Series; and Roger Colony, former Director of the Arctic Climate System Study (ACSYS) project 

office, who supported the production of the monograph. 

 The authors realize that the monograph may contain some inaccuracies and errors, for 

which they take full responsibility, but they hope that the information presented will be useful 

and that this work will be extended in the future. Readers are encouraged to send any comments, 

suggestions for additions, corrections, or requests for further information to the All-Russian 

Research Institute for Hydrometeorological Information, World Data Center for Oceanography, 

6, Korolyov Street, Obninsk, Kaluga Region, 249020 Russia; e-mail: wdcb@meteo.ru; 

telephone: 7-095-255-2194; fax: 7-095-255-2225. 
iv 

Russian Marine Expeditionary Investigations of the World Ocean

N.N. Mikhailov, E.D. Vyazilov, V.I. Lamonov, N.S. Studyonov, M.Z. Shairmardanov 

(All-Russian Research Institute for Hydrometeorological Information) 

Edited by: R. Tatusko, S. Levitus (NOAA/NESDIS/NODC/World Data Center for 

Oceanography, Silver Spring, MD) 

ABSTRACT 

The history of Russian oceanographic expeditionary research is very rich and full of numerous 

global-scale discoveries of great scientific importance. However, it is a very difficult task to 

introduce a comprehensive review of multidisciplinary marine investigations, which date back 

over 300 years. This publication is an endeavor to present the most important results of sea 

voyages and ocean expeditions performed by Russian seamen from the late 17th century up to 

the present. It is intended to familiarize the international oceanographic scientific communities 

as well as anyone interested in historical Russian marine exploration and the current state of 

expeditionary research. In particular, this monograph may be particularly useful for students and 

officers in navigation schools as more general information about Russia’s marine expeditionary 

research is presented. This monograph presents information on the most famous expeditions and 

the results from these investigations, the national and international projects (programs) involving 

Russia, and the organizations contributing to research of the world oceans.
1 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Within the last 300 years, Russia has become a powerful maritime country, whose 

interest since the time of Peter the Great has been closely connected to both marine 

communications and the use of biological, mineral, and energy resources of the world ocean. At 

all times, Russian seamen – hydrographers, cartographers, oceanographers, biologists – were 

noted for their courage and willingness to sacrifice themselves. They were always persistent in 

attaining the identified goals and open for international cooperation. The names of outstanding 

seafarers became immortalized as they were given to numerous places on geographical maps of 

the globe as well as to modern Russian research vessels. The challenges of investigating the 

marine environment, including those of shipbuilding and the use of research vessels, were of 

considerable interest and importance to the Government at all times. Since the end of the 19th 

century, marine data has been made more available to meet the requirements of both the national 

economy and the obligations of the Russian Navy. These data include tables of tides; atlases of 

surface and deep-sea currents; charts of sea-ice conditions and drifting ice; vertical profiles of 

temperature, salinity, density, and velocity; fields of storm surges; information on the content of 

dissolved gases and pollutants in sea water; data on different aspects of ocean–atmosphere 

interaction; and other products of marine research. During the mid-to-late 20th century, both 

national and international scientific communities recognized the Soviet research fleet as the best 

in the world. 

 This monograph is divided into several time periods to illustrate the level of technical 

equipment, scientific knowledge, research programs, and data processing and analysis 

capabilities, which were typical for each period. Information is also provided on research 

vessels, many of which now belong to the former republics of the former USSR, such as 

Ukraine, Lithuania, etc. For the purpose of this monograph, however, the owners or institutional 

affiliation of the ships are provided at the time when the cruise commenced. 

 The All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information (RIHMI) – 

World Data Center (WDC) for Oceanography in Obninsk has made its data and publications 

available to facilitate the preparation of this work. The oceanographic data set archived in the 

Russian State Data Holding is unique. It contains a large amount of oceanographic data that has 

been collected since the end of the last century and which serves as a basis for theoretical and 

applied research and development. In addition to the documents provided by the WDC for the 

preparation of this monograph, other publications about Russia’s oceanographic history and 

research efforts can be found in Appendix 5. This appendix also includes publications about the 

hydrology of some seas and the oceans as well as those dedicated to historical anniversaries of 

Russia and different scientific institutions, which describe the results of some specific 

expeditions. The most recent publication similar in effort to this monograph was edited in 1968 

by K.K. Deryugin, and this work extends upon that effort as well as those of A.M. Muromtsev, 

M.I. Belov, and others. 

 Basic information on the types of ships, the period of operation, their geographical areas 

of operation, and the different types of observations conducted can be found in Appendix 1. 

Information about the most prominent national and international expeditions and projects 

(programs) is provided in Appendix 2. This includes the period of operation, the scientific 

mission or goal, geographical area of the expedition, data processing institution, data archive, 

participating countries, and types of observations conducted. The research vessels involved in 

various programs and projects are identified in Appendix 3 along with their ship number, 
2 

institutional affiliation (at the time of the expedition), and their start and finish dates. Appendix 

4 is a listing of Russian and former USSR organizations, which took an active part in the study 

of the seas and oceans, and includes their addresses (some telephone and fax numbers as well as 

e-mail and Internet addresses are also provided) and the specific activities in which they were 

involved. A list of resources with information on marine expeditions can be found in Appendix 

5, and a list of acronyms is provided in Appendix 6.
3 

2. OUTSTANDING SEA VOYAGES AND EXPEDITIONS DURING THE 

16TH-19TH CENTURIES

 Of those ancient philosophers and great men who studied the world seas and oceans, 

Herodotus, Aristotle, Seneca, and Ptolemaeus were the first to summarize observations made by 

early pioneering seafarers, and they stated their belief that the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans 

were not separated. They also made reasonable hypotheses about the water cycle and sea water 

salinity; tides in the Persian Gulf and along the European coast of the Atlantic; the 

interconnection of high tides with the gravitational pull of the moon; and currents in the 

Bosporus, Dardanelles, and the Kerch Straits. 

 In the epoch of great geographical discoveries (mid-15th to mid-16th centuries), a 

considerable amount of information about the oceans was collected and analyzed, which 

substantiated the belief in Earth’s sphericity and, hence, the existence of the Northeast Passage 

(the sea route to India). In addition, the outlines of inhabited continents were roughly 

determined, and vast areas of America and Asia were explored. This period was also 

characterized by the study of the geographical distribution of the world oceans. Among some of 

the most famous navigators and explorers of the 16th and 17th centuries were Christopher 

Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, Vasco de Gama, Amerigo Vespucci, Francis Drake, Henry 

Hudson, and William Baffin. 

 Russian explorers also played an important role in the discovery and exploration of new 

lands during this period. They were the first to discover the Asian part of Arctic and the North 

Pacific. In 1581-1582, the Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich crossed the Urals, conquered 

the Tatar khanate of Siberia by defeating its leader, Kuchum, and paved the way for exploration 

of western Siberia. In 1601, the town of Mangazeya was established on the Taz River followed 

by Yakutsk, in 1628, on the Lena River. The Russians pushed onwards to discover the Sea of 

Okhotsk, and from 1639-1641, I. I. Moskvitin and M. Stadukin had surveyed the entire 

continental coast. By the middle of the 17th century, K. Kurochkin, I. Perfilyev, E. Khabarov, 

and other investigators had explored all the great rivers of Siberia including the Amur. At the 

same time, using small sail boats to investigate the northern coast of Asia, Russian seamen 

discovered the Taimyr, Yamal, and Chukotka peninsulas. Under the leadership of F. Popov and 

S. Dezhnyov, these seamen also successfully passed through the Bering Strait from the Arctic 

Ocean to the Pacific to prove that Asia and America were separated. Dezhnyov was the first 

European to sail through the Bering Strait. The Spitsbergen archipelago was discovered in the 

middle of the 16th century. In 1697, V.V. Atlasov became the first to explore Kamchatka and 

the northern Kurile Islands, but it wasn’t until 1719 when I. Evreinov and F. Luzhin charted the 

northern Kuriles. The northwest Atlantic was further explored under the First Kamchatka 

Expedition, which took place from 1725-1730 under the command of V.I. Bering. Bering 

explored the eastern area of the Bering Sea and the Strait, which connects the Bering Sea with 

the Arctic Ocean. In 1732, I. Fyodorov and M. Gvozdev sailed east from Cape Dezhnyov, 

discovered Cape Prince of Wales, and explored the Alaskan coast in the vicinity of Nome, 

thereby becoming the first Europeans to see Alaska. The most outstanding discoveries were 

made during the Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1743, commanded by V. Bering, who has 

without question, no equal in the history of polar exploration. In 1740-1741, with V.I. Bering 

commanding the “St. Peter” and A.I. Chirikov commanding the “St. Paul,” the open waters of 

the North Pacific were first explored. Bering and Chirikov also discovered the Commander and 

the Aleutian Islands as well as the northwestern coast of North America. As a result, many gaps 
4 

on the map of the North Atlantic were filled. In addition, Chirikov made the first attempt to 

measure ocean currents. In 1788-1789, G. Izmailov, D. Bocharov, and G. Sarychev went on to 

explore the northwestern coast of America. 

 Cartographic coastline surveys, hydrographic surveys of straits and river mouths, and 

identification of ice boundaries and tide occurrences are believed to be the basic scientific 

activities of early marine expeditions. But as more ships were equipped with oceanographic and 

meteorological instruments, investigations of the interconnections and regularities of the physical 

and chemical processes in the ocean received greater attention. 

 Deep-sea observations were initiated in 1803 during the first Russian expedition to 

circumnavigate the globe in the “Nadezhda” and the “Neva” under the command of I.F. 

Kruzenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky, respectively. Extensive oceanographic observations, 

including water-temperature measurements, were performed by a Swiss member of the 

expedition, Johann Gorner. Gorner was the first to perform concurrent measurements at depths 

from the surface down to 360 meters using the Six’s thermometer. The expedition also 

pioneered specific water-weight observations in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and in the 

Okhotsk, Japan, South China, and Baltic Seas. The oceanographic observations performed 

during this expedition resulted in some generalizations and conclusions about the marine 

environment. For example, Gorner pointed out the uneven distribution of water salinity, and he 

attributed enhanced salinity in the subtropics to high evaporation. In addition, he was the first to 

identify negative temperatures at some depth in the Sea of Okhotsk. Based on the observations 

made during this expedition, Kruzenstern compiled “The South Sea Atlas.” Following the 

voyage of Kruzenstern and Lisyanski, deep-water temperature measurements became a “must” 

for numerous Russian and foreign expeditions. 

 The Russian-American Company, created in 1799, played a major role in the history of 

exploration of the North Pacific since frequent sea voyages supplied Russian settlements in 

North America with foodstuffs and other necessities. During these voyages, Russian seamen 

performed deep-sea measurements to investigate horizontal and vertical water temperatures and 

specific water-weight distribution. 

 From 1816-1818, the Russian expedition of the “Ryurik,” under the command of O. 

Kotzebue, obtained water-temperature measurements at 27 stations in the Pacific and Indian 

Oceans down to depths of 549 m. At one of these stations, measurements were obtained as deep 

as 746 m. These measurements were used to refine the data on the vertical water-temperature 

distribution, which was obtained during the Kruzenstern expedition. Two years later, F.F. 

Bellinsgauzen and M.P. Lazarev led the first Russian expedition to reach the coast of Antarctica 

in the “Vostok” and “Mirny,” respectively. This expedition, after successfully crossing the 

Atlantic Ocean and arriving at the Antarctic coast, made the first hydrometeorological 

observations in the coastal waters off Antarctica. 

 In 1820-1821, M.N. Vasilyev and G.S. Shishmarev, commanding the sloops “Otkrytie” 

and “Blagonamerenny,” respectively, led an expedition to search for a route from the Pacific to 

the Atlantic Ocean via the Bering Strait. This expedition made astronomical and tidal 

observations and charted the northwestern coast of North America and nearby islands. While 

visiting Australia, the “Blagonamerenny” measured water temperature to a depth of 366 m in the 

Tasman Sea near Sydney. Water temperature measurements were also made in the vicinity of 

the Aleutian Islands. 

 In the course of the 1823-1826 expedition of the “Predpriyatie,” commanded by O.E. 

Kotzebue, the physicist E. Lents made measurements of water temperature and specific water 
5 

weight, which are comparable in accuracy with data obtained during the first half of the 20th 

century. In 1845, Lents summarized all available data on water temperature and developed 

models of water circulation in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Changes in water temperature 

from 2.44o to 2.24o at depths of 1780-1980 m led him to conclude that water temperature 

progressively decreases toward the ocean bottom. He also suggested that there should be a cold 

current with water temperature only slightly above zero, which flows from the poles to the 

equator. Based on surface water temperatures in the Okhotsk and the Japan Seas, as well as 

adjacent areas of the Pacific Oceans, the academician L.I. Schrenk developed a general model of 

surface currents for these regions. In total, from 1800-1872, 257 measurements of water 

temperature were made in the Atlantic at different depths, of which 81 were made by Russian 

scientists and navigators. The maximum depth at which measurements were obtained was 3779 

m. 

 In parallel with water-temperature measurements in the middle of the18th century, 

Russian seafarers also made tidal observations in different parts of the ocean. The Russian 

explorer and geographer, F.P. Litke, attached much importance to the study of tides. To perform 

tidal observations on a regular basis, Litke came up with the idea of a self-recording “tide 

meter,” designed under the supervision of Lents and installed on the Pacific coast in 

Novoarkhangelsk (now Sitka in Alaska). In 1844, Litke was the first to summarize tidal studies 

in the Pacific and Arctic Oceans and to produce a publication with tables and tidal charts. 

 The analysis of marine observations made in the first half of the 19th century led to 

expanded methods of expeditionary research in Russia. This involved the use of sailing and 

motor-sailing ships specially designed for marine research and equipped with meteorological and 

oceanographic instruments. At the turn of the century (1898), the icebreaker “Ermak” was built, 

which was the first of its kind. Future icebreakers played a vital part in the exploration of the 

Arctic and Antarctic seas. Expeditionary reports available for this period contain a considerable 

amount of data not only on the physical properties of water such as temperature, salinity, and 

density but also on ocean currents, air temperature, wind direction and velocity, and atmospheric 

pressure. 

 A major contribution to the study of the Pacific Ocean was made by Admiral S.O. 

Makarov, who was a brilliant and innovative naval architect, inventor, tactician, ship designer, 

and scientist. He made extensive observations of his own aboard the corvette, “Vityaz,” in 1887-

1888 and also summarized a large amount of the earlier observational data. His publication, 

“The Vityaz and the Pacific,” was the first monograph on the hydrology of the greatest ocean of 

the Earth. In the Pacific, the “Vityaz” made 166 measurements of water temperature and 

specific water weight to a depth of 400 m; and at some stations, measurements were made to a 

depth of 800 m. From the data he obtained, Makarov prepared charts of water temperature and 

specific water-weight distributions at the surface as well as water-temperature distributions to a 

depth of 400 m. Based on these data, Makarov formulated important conclusions regarding the 

Pacific Ocean currents and prepared a definitive model of the surface currents in the north 

Atlantic Ocean. 

 In the 1870s through the 1880s, A.I. Voyeykov laid the foundation for the theory of 

monsoons, and O. Onatsevich investigated drift currents caused by monsoons affecting the Far 

East. L. Schrenk discovered some unique characteristics of water temperature and current 

distributions in the Far East seas. The concept of tidal currents in the China and Yellow Sea was 

refined by E. Mandel, who identified distinctive features of wind-drift currents induced by 

monsoon winds. 
6 

 The Black and Azov Seas have been studied since 1871, the year in which the Sevastopol 

marine biological station was set up. The famous Russian scientists A. Kovalevski, N. Nasonov, 

and S. Zerhov worked at this station. In 1873, F. Wrangel led a hydrophysical expedition to the 

Black Sea in the schooner, “Ingul,” during which the first water temperature and salinity data 

were obtained. Aboard the “Taman” during 1881-1882, Makarov performed current 

observations in the Bosporus Strait and was the first to discover the two-layer flow regime where 

the current flows from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmora at the surface and in the opposite 

direction at the bottom. This discovery was of prime importance in understanding the unique 

water-structure formation of the Black Sea and, in general, developing a theory of the exchange 

of water through sea straits. Subsequently, this two-layer current flow was found to exist in 

many other straits. The first significant oceanographic investigation in different areas of the 

Black and Azov Seas were conducted by expeditions under the leadership of I. Shpindler and F. 

Wrangel in 1890-1891. At that time, the Black Sea was discovered to be a deep-sea trough 

(2244 m); and below 150 - 200 m, the water was found to be heavily saturated with hydrogen 

sulfide. 

 Investigations of the Caspian and Aral Seas began in the mid 1800s. From 1853-1856, 

Academician K.M. von Baer led the first large expedition to explore the Caspian Sea and, among 

other things, to solve the puzzle of the decline in sea level. In 1895, N.I. Andrusov conducted a 

comprehensive investigation of the Caspian Sea as did J.B. Spindler in 1897. During the latter 

expedition, a massive sea-salt deposit was discovered in the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay (in 

Turkmenistan), which turned out to be the largest in the world. The study of the Aral Sea was 

first undertaken by A.I.Butakov in an 1848 expedition to study the flora and fauna. At the turn 

of the 20th century, Academician L. Berg conducted additional studies. From 1899-1902 and 

again in 1906, Berg mounted large expeditions and collected valuable data on the hydrology, 

biology, and meteorology of the Aral Sea. 

 Russian explorations also took place in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. In 1882, Russia 

and ten other countries participated in the First International Polar Year (IPY), which was 

promoted in order to obtain a set of simultaneous observations, extending over a long period of 

time, at various locations around the Arctic. Useful contributions to the exploration of the 

Pacific Ocean were made during the period 1888-1905 in an expedition of the research vessel 

“Albatross.” This expedition conducted detailed deep-sea, biological, and water-temperature 

studies. Also worth noting is the expedition, “The Specific Survey of the Pacific,” which took 

place from 1884-1908 under the direction of hydrographer M.E. Zhdanko. In addition to making 

sea-level observations, this expedition investigated currents in the Japan and Okhotsk Seas using 

drift bottles. 

 The results of marine research conducted in the 19th century were described by Yu. M. 

Shokalski in 1977 in his fundamental work, “Oceanography.” Table 2.1 provides information on 

the most well known sea voyages and marine expeditions of Russia from 1648-1955. Because of 

the large number of expeditions carried out during the period 1956-1995, detailed information 

about the research vessels used and the programs and projects in which they were involved is 

provided in Appendix 3. The most important events in Russia’s oceanographic history are listed 

in Table 2.2. 
7 

Table 2.1 The most well-known sea voyages and marine expeditions of Russia 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1648 Unknown S. Dezhnyov Unknown Bering St1716 Great Kamchatka duty Unknown Unknown Far East 1725-1730 First Kamchatka Expedition V.I.Bering, M.P.Shpanger, A.I.Chirikov Fortuna, Saint Gabriel 1732–1740 First Marine Expedition Unknown Unknown Ob River 1733–1738 Ob expedition Unknown Unknown 1733–1743 Great Northern expedition S.V.Muravyov, M.S.Pavlov Expedition, Ob Arctic se1736 “ S.G.Malygin, A.I.Skuratov Unknown Northern 1737 “ S.G.Malygin Unknown Arctic se1738 “ V.M.Golovnin, A.I.Skuratov Unknown 1734 “ D.L.Ovtsyn Tobol 1735 “ V.V.Pronchischev, P.Lassinus Yakutsk 1736 “ S.I.Cheluskin, I.Elagin, M.Petrov, D.V.Sterligov Yakutsk 1737 “ Kh.P.Laptev, D.Ya.Laptev Unknown 1738 “ M.P.Shpanberg Archangel Michael Nadezhda 1740 “ F.A.Minin Unknown 1740–1741 Second Kamchatka Expedition V.I.Bering, A.I.Chirikov, V.A. Rtischev St. Peter, St. Paul, Fortune, St. Gabriel Far East s1768–1769 Unknown F.Rozmyslov Unknown The New 1803–1806 Circumnavigation of the Earth I.F.Krusenstern, Yu.F.Lisyanski Nadezhda, Neva World Oc
8 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1807 Unknown V.M.Golovnin Diana Shantarsk

Kuriles 

1815–1818 Circumnavigation of the Earth O.E.Kotzebue Rurik World Oc1817–1819 Unknown V.M.Golovin Kamchatka World Oc1819–1822 “ G.S.Shishmarev Blagonamerenny 1819–1821 “ F.F.Bellinsgauzen Mirny, Vostok Discover1821–1824 “ F.P.Litke Novaya Zemlya The New 1822–1825 Circumnavigation of the Earth M.P.Lazarev Cruiser World Oc1823 Unknown F.P.Litke Craft Arctic Oc1823–1826 Circumnavigation of the Earth E.H.Lentz Predpriyatie World Oc1826–1829 “ F.P.Litke, M.N.Stanyukovich Senyavin, Moller 1828–1830 “ V.S.Khromchenko Helena 1831–1833 “ V.S.Khromchenko America 1832–1833 Hydrographical expedition P.K.Pakhtusov Novaya Zemlya Kara Sea 1834–1835 “ P.K.Pakhtusov Krotov, Kozakov 1837 Unknown K.M.Baer Krotov The New 1849–1855 Amur expedition G.I.Nevelskoy Baikal Amur Riv1849–1858 Hydrographical investigations A.Zarubin Unknown Arkhange1852–1855 Circumnavigation of the Earth E.V.Putyatin Pallada Far East, 1860–1862 Unknown I.F.Krusenstern Ermak, Embrio Unknown 1862–1865 “ Yu.I.Koshelevski Unknown From Pec

Yenisei R

1865–1866 “ Unknown Varyag, Nadezhda Japan Sea1876–1877 Trade Assistance Society Kh.Dal Unknown Ob River 
9 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1877 Unknown Unknown Severnoye siyanie Yenisei R1877 “ M.K.Sidorov Utrennyaya Zarya Kara Sea 1878–1879 Unknown A.E.Nordensheld Vega Arctic Se1880 Trade Assistance Society A.M.Sibiryakov Oskar Dixon Ob and Y1886 Biological expedition N.M.Knipovich Unknown Caspian S1886–1894 Circumnavigation of the Earth S.O.Makarov Vityaz World Oc1888 Unknown Unknown Naezdnik Pacific O1891 “ “ Nakhimov 1890 “ “ Chernomorets Black Se1891 “ “ Donets 1891 “ “ Zaporozhets 1893 Hydrographical Expedition of Ministry of Transport Unknown Naezdnik, Lieutenant Malygin Minusinsk, Lieutenant Ovtsyn Arctic Se1893 Unknown A.I.Vilkitski Unknown Arctic Oc1893 Yenisei expedition D.Tsim, V.I.Semyonov Unknown Yenisei R1894 Unknown Unknown Selyanik Atlantic O1894 Oceanographic studies M.E.Zhdanko Poryv North-W1894–1896 Hydrophysical expedition A.I.Vilkitski Unknown Arctic Oc

river mou

1895 The New Land expedition O.Chernyshev Unknown The New 1895–1896 Unknown S.O.Makarov Unknown La Perou1896 Expedition of Academy of Sciences B.Golitsyn Unknown The New 1897 Assignment of minister S.Yu.Vitte S.O.Makarov John of Kronshtadt From Ob 

River mo
10 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1898 Unknown A.I.Varnek Unknown Yugorski 1898–1901 Murmansk research-fishery expedition N.M.Knipovich Andrey Pervozvani Unknown 1898–1904 Hydrographical expedition Unknown Pakhtusov Arctic Se1899 Test navigation S.O.Makarov Ermak Arctic, Sp1900 Murmansk expedition Unknown Pomor Unknown 1900–1902 Unknown E.V.Toll Zarya Novosibi1900–1903 Russian Polar expedition “ Unknown Arctic Oc1901 Unknown A.I.Varnek Pakhtusov 1901 “ V.Veber Ermak 1902- 1903 Biological expeditions N.M.Knipovich Unknown Baltic Se1904 “ “ “ Caspian S1904 Hydrographical expedition Unknown “ Arctic Oc1905 Unknown “ Pakhtusov Arctic Oc1905 Expedition of Minisry of Transport “ Unknown Yenisei R1907–1909 Military agency “ Bakan Unknown 1909 “ “ Saint Foka Kolyma R1910 The New Land expedition V.A.Rusanov Dmitri Solunski Arctic Se1910 Unknown Yu.M.Shokalski Michael Sars North At1911 Hydrographical expedition Unknown Pakhtusov Unknown 1912 Expedition of Mail agency “ Saint Vassian, John Bogoslov 1912 Unknown G.L.Brusilov Saint Ann Arctic Se1912 Polar expedition V.A.Rusanov Hercules Spitsberg
11 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1912–1915 Research expedition N.M.Knipovich Unknown Caspian S1912–1914 Polar expedition G.Ya. Sedov Saint Foka Arctic Oc1913 “ V.Rusanov Hercules Northern 1913–1914 Unknown Unknown Nogaisk Azov Sea 1898–1915 Hydrographical expedition B.A.Vilkitski Taimyr, Vaigach Arctic Se1920–1923 Northern research-fishery expedition R.L.Samoilovich Delphin, Nadezhda, Sharlotta Unknown 1921 1st expedition of Floating Research Marine Institute (Plavmornin) I.I.Mesyatsev Malygin (former Solovey Budimirovich) White, B1921 Kara barter marine expedition Unknown Unknown Ob and Y1922 Research expedition “ Persei Arctic Se1922 Unknown “ Danilevski Black Se1922 “ K.M.Derugin Murman White Se1922 Research expedition N.M.Knipovich Unknown Black and 1923 Unknown Unknown A.Sibiryakov White Se1923 “ “ Valkiriya, Samorodok Black Se1923–1932 Navy Directorate of Navigation and Oceanography (GUNIO) “ Pervoye Maya “ 1923–1924 Unknown “ Ingul “ 1924 “ “ White “ 1924–1925 GUNIO “ Murman Barents S1924–1939 Unknown L.A.Demin Krasny Vympel Far East 1924–1946 GUNIO Unknown Polyarny World Oc1925–1927 Unknown “ Sukhum Black Se1925–1928 GUNIO “ Maxim Gorki Caspian S
12 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1925–1929 Unknown “ Lag Black Se1925–1939 “ “ Hidrograph Japan Sea 1925–1926 GUNIO “ Beglitski Black Se1926 Unknown “ Muravei, Paltus Amur and 1926 Unknown Unknown Dobrynya Nikitich Peter Gre1926 GUNIO “ Lot Black Se1926–1928 “ “ Vorovski Japan Sea 1927 Unknown V.V.Shuleikin Transbalt Odessa - 1927–1928 GUNIO Unknown Pakhtusov White Se1928 Unknown “ Briz Caspian S1928 “ P.L.Samoilovich Krasin Unknown 1928 GUNIO Unknown Krasnyi Vympel, Kazak Poyarkov, Yunyi Pioner Japan Sea 1928 “ “ Zagraditel Baltic Se1928 “ “ Priboi Kara Sea 1928–1930 Unknown “ Kulaz Caspian S1928–1929 “ “ Krasnovodsk 1929 “ “ Unknown Baltic Se1929 “ N.M.Knipovich Sosunov Peter Gre1929 “ O.Yu.Schmidt G.Sedov, Malygin Arctic Se1929 “ Unknown Lomonosov Franz Jos1930 Arctic expedition O.Yu.Schmidt G.Sedov Kara Sea 1930 Unknown Unknown Kaira, Meteor White Se1930 “ K.A.Gomoyunov Krasnyi yakut Nevelski 
13 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1930 “ Unknown Delfin Barents S1926–1930 GUNIO “ Krasnyi Vympel Sea of Ok1930–1936 Expedition of Pacific Fishery Institute {PFI) “ Rossinant Japan and 1926-1935 Unknown “ Pochin Caspian S1930–1936 Unknown P.Yu.Schmidt Plastun , Askold, Paltus Unknown 1930–1936 Unknown G.E.Ratmanov 

Dalnevostochnik, Gagara, Plankton, Krasnoarmeets, Hidrograph, Pervoe Maya 

Far East 

1926–1935 GUNIO Unknown 

A.Kovalevski , Danilevski, Tri Svyatitelya, Pereyaslavtsev 

Black Se

1930 “ “ Kolyma East Sibe1930 “ “ Samoed Baltic Se1930–1931 Unknown “ Sextant “ 1931 Expedition of Arctic Institute A.F.Laktionov Lomonosov Barents S1931 Unknown Unknown Bakhchisarai Black Se1931 GUNIO “ Kommuna Baltic Se1931–1933 Unknown “ Kafa Black Se1931–1932 Caspian Plankton Research Expedition N.M.Knipovich Unknown Caspian S1932–1936 Arctic expedition R.L.Samoilovich Rusanov Arctic 1932 Unknown Unknown Gagara Sea of Ok1932 Expedition of Arctic Institute N.V.Pinegin Malygin Franz Jos1932 Unknown Unknown N. Knipovich “ 
14 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1932 “ “ Sumeiz Azov Sea 1932 “ “ Sovet Sea of Ok1932–1971 

Polar Scientific Research Institute of Fishery and Oceanography (PolarRIFO) 

“ Taimyr World Oc

1932–1969 Unknown “ Suchan Chukchi 1932–1949 Unknown Unknown N. Knipovich North At1932 1st one-season voyage O.Yu.Schmidt Sibiryakov Northern 1932–1939 Unknown Unknown “ 1932 “ “ Korifei Japan Sea 1932 “ “ Abkhazets Black Se1932 State Hydrological Institute (SHI) “ Severoid Kara Sea 1932–1934 Unknown “ Shoina Black Se1932–1939 GUNIO “ Seiner World Oc1932–1936 Unknown “ Propagandist Black Se1932–1933 Unknown “ Nekton 1932–1933 GUNIO “ Priboi Japan Sea 1932–1933 Hydrographical expedition G.E.Ratmanov Dalnevostochnik Bering an1932 Unknown Unknown Krasnoarmeets Bering Se1932–1934 “ “ Yakor Black Se1933 Research-fishery expedition V.K.Esipov Arctica Region o1933 Oceanographic Expedition V.V.Vashezerov Nord Unknown 1933 Hydrographical expedition V.Yu.Vize A.Sibiryakov Northern 
15 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1933 “ I..D.Protopopov Voronov Kara Stra1933 “ M.M.Nikitin Pakhtusov 1933 Unknown Unknown Chelyuskin Arctic Oc1933 Hydrological expedition S.D.Lappo Pioner Southeas1933 Research-fishery expedition V.D.Alexandrov Unknown The New 1933 One-season voyage Unknown Vancetti, Iskra Murmans1933–1934 Unknown Unknown Kurort Black Se1929–1935 Ice observations L.V.Antonov Krasin Kara and 1933 Unknown Unknown Beluga Black Se1933 “ “ Belukha Kara Sea 1933–1938 “ “ Vydvizhenets Black Se1933–1934 “ P.P.Karayanov Sever Unknown 1933–1934 Ice drift O.Yu.Schmidt Chelyuskin Arctic se1934 

Combined expedition of Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute (AARI) 

R.L.Samoilovich Georgi Sedov Northeas

1934–1954 Unknown Unknown Lebed Sea of Ok1934 Hydrological expeditions S.S.Ruzov, I.V.Maximov Unknown The New 1934 Unknown Unknown Persei Greenlan

archipela

1934 1st submarine expedition Unknown submarines Arctic 1934 One-season voyage V.Yu.Vize Fyodor Litke Northern 1934 Hydrological unit Unknown Temp Tiksi Bay 1934 Unknown S.I.Belov Laptev Khatanga 
16 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1934 Research-fishery expedition V.K.Esipov Unknown The New 1934 Unknown Unknown Krasnyi Kaspi Caspian S1934 “ “ Krasnoarmeets Unknown 1934 Hydrographical expedition “ Unknown Minin sk1934–1937 Unknown “ Gimeinovets Black Se1934–1935 “ “ Ermak Japan Sea 1934–1935 Hydrological expedition N.I.Evgenov Krasin Chukchi 1934–1935 Biological-fishery unit A.ARomanov Unknown Area betw

Khatanga 

1934–1935 2nd Chukotka expedition M.Ph.Zyablov “ Krest Bay1935 First High-Latitude expedition G.A.Ushakov Sadko Arctic Oc1935 Hydrological expedition I.A.Kireev Malygin Northeas1935 “ V.I.Vorobjev Lomonosov, Bakan The New 1935 Unknown Unknown Severoid-2 Yenisei a1935 Hydrological expedition D.S.Duplitski, G.E.Ratmanov Krasin Chukchi 1935 Research-fishery expedition N.I.Grigorjev Vetluga Barents S1935 Hydrological expedition Unknown Pakhtusov, Arctic The New 1935 Investigation of river mouths D.V.Belkov, M.M.Nikitin Unknown Siberian r1935 Unknown Unknown Anadyr, Ermak, Vancetti, Iskra Vladivos1935 “ “ Vestnik, Vaindlo Baltic Se1935–1936 AARI research-fishery expedition V.N.Andreev Unknown Kara Sea1935–1936 Hydrographical research G.A.Avsuk “ Bay of M
17 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1935–1937 Hydrographical party V.V.Potekhin “ Along co

to Komso

1936 Unknown R.L.Samoilovich Sadko Unknown 1936 “ Unknown Neptun Sea of Ok1936 Hydrological expedition P.M. Tsvetkin Plyarnik, Arctik, Pakhtusov Yugorski 1936–1940 Hydrological unit B.A.Morzhev, K.A.Gomoyunov Nerpa Sections 

southeast

1936–1937 Unknown Unknown Glubina Black Se1936 Ice observations Unknown Kapitan Pospelov, Kapitan Voronin Arctic Se1936 Biological-fishery expedition G.N.Toporkov Kaira Belushya 

Bay 

1936 2nd High-Latitude expedition R.L.Samoilovich Sadko Arctic Oc1936 Ice observations Unknown Litke Unknown 1936 Unknown “ Anadyr, Krasin Murmans1936 GUNIO “ Nord Japan Sea 1936–1938 Unknown “ Sextant Baltic Se1936 “ “ Vilsandi 1936–1940 “ “ Kaira White Se1936–1938 “ “ Krasnyi Kaspi Caspian S1936–1941 “ “ Anastas 1936–1937 Hydrographical expedition A.A.Braun, Ya.K.Smirnitski Temp Laptev st1936–1937 3rd Chukotka expedition Yu.A.Odints Unknown Krest Bay 1936–1937 Hydrographical unit S.I.Belov Unknown East Sibe
18 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1936-1937 1st wintering hydrographical expedition N.N.Alekseev Toros Nordensh1937 Ice patrol D.M.Apollonov, K.A.Gomoyunov Nerpa Greenlan1937 Hydrographical expedition Unknown Georgi Sedov Northeas1937 Hydrological expedition I.I.Lvov Krasin Chukchi 1937 Unknown Unknown Smelyi Black Se1937 “ “ Tourist 1937–1988 “ “ Typhoon Azov Sea 1937–1938 “ “ Tavrida Black Se1937–1938 “ “ Strela 1932–1937 SHI Unknown Lenin Kara Sea 1937 Unknown “ Litke Arctic Oc1937 “ “ Yakov Black Se1937–1952 “ “ West Black and 1937 Hydrographical expedition “ Georgi Sedov Arctic Ba1937 Hydrological unit “ Mossovet Unknown 1937 Unknown “ Lebed Sea of Ok1937 Ice observations “ Ermak Kara and 1937 Ice observations “ Uritski Unknown 1937 Unknown “ Neiva Japan Sea 1937–1941 “ “ Issledovatel Barents S1937 “ “ GS-273 Japan Sea 1937 “ “ Razvedchik, Ost “ 1937 “ “ Pioner Black Se1937 “ “ Khenken “ 1937–1951 “ “ Chekist Azov Sea 1937–1985 “ “ Gals Black Se
19 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1937–1938 “ “ Vl. Kochetov “ 1937–1938 Drifting station I.D.Papanin SP-1 Arctic Oc1937–1938 High-Latitude expedition R.L.Samoilovich Sadko, Ermak, Lenin “ 1937–1938 Unknown Unknown Amra Black Se1937–1938 Ice drift “ Malygin, G.Sedov, Sadko Novosibi1938 Unknown “ Vostok Okhotsk 1938 “ “ Persei Atlantic 1938 Ice observations “ Taimyr Arctic Se1938 Unknown “ Mys Kodosh Black Se1938 1st spring ice patrol K.K.Derugin Nerpa Kara Sea 1938 Ice patrol V.T.Timofeev Murmansk, Litke Northeas

Sea, Vilk

1938 Unknown Unknown Vestnik Baltic Se1938 “ “ Malvina Black Se1938–1941 “ “ Meteor Baltic Se1938 “ “ Gridino White Se1938 Ice observations “ Ermak Arctic Se1938 “ “ Murmanets Greenlan1938 Unknown “ Zyuid Black Se1938–1939 Unknown “ Papanin 1938–1939 Hydrographical expedition V.A.Radzeevski Toros Nordensh1938–1939 Hydrographical unit V.N.Smirnitski Unknown Tiksi Bay 1938–1939 Hydrographical expedition A.I.Kosoi Nord Nordensh1938–1940 559-day drift Unknown G.Sedov Arctic Ba
20 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1938–1940 Hydrographical expedition P.A.Guschin Unknown Olenek B1939 AARI expedition Unknown Sibiryakov Norwegia1939–1944 Unknown “ Dezhnev Northern 1939 Hydrographical expedition Ya.K.Smirnitsky Malygin Dmitri La1939 Hydrological unit Unknown Professor Vize Chaunska1939 Ice patrol “ Nerpa Kara Sea 1939 Hydrographical unit “ Murmanets Islands o1939 Unknown “ Polyarnic Japan Sea 1939 Hydrological expedition “ Sadko Kara Sea 1939 Ice observations “ Uritski, Temp, Anadyr, Arkos Arctic Se1939 Unknown I.S.Samoilenko Komsomolsk Unknown 1939 Unknown S.Z.Riekhakaine Proletari Unknown 1939 “ Unknown Vilyui Bering Se1939 “ “ Toporok , Belogorsk, Gaga, SRT-331 Japan Sea 1939–1941 “ “ Cheluskin Black Se1939–1941 “ “ Korifei, Lebed Japan Sea 1939 “ “ Kamchadal, Partizan Unknown 1939–1940 “ “ GS-10 1939–1940 Hydrographical expedition S.G.Karandashev Papanin Taimyr B1939–1940 Hydrographical unit V.P.Shevlyagin Unknown Khatanga 1939–1940 AARI hydrological winter expedition A.P.Kibalin “ Laptev St1940 Ice patrol A.A.Kukharski Smolny Chukchi 
21 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1940 Unknown Unknown Pyatiletka Caspian S1940 Ice patrol Ya.Ya.Gakkel Shokalski Barents a1940 Hydrographical expedition Ya.K.Smirnitski Malygin Sannikov 1940 Hydrographical unit A.V.Nevski Ost Yanski B1940 Unknown Unknown Alatyr, Revolutioner Japan Sea 1940 AARI expedition “ Sibiryakov Kara Sea 1940 Research expedition “ Nerpa Unknown 1940 “ “ Minin Yenisei B1940 “ “ Litke Unknown 1940 “ “ Sedov , Patrul, Anadyr Kara Sea 1940 “ “ Ostashkov, Voyeikov, Albatros Japan Sea 1940 Research expedition Unknown Mgla Barents S1940 “ “ Oka-1 Japan Sea 1940–1958 “ “ Val Black Se1940–1941 “ “ Temp Sannikov 

Lyakhov

1940–1941 “ “ Shokalski Barents a1941 “ “ Sadko Unknown 1941 “ “ Volna 1941–1944 “ “ Smolny Pacific O1941 “ “ Anadyr Unknown 1941 “ “ Ayaks, Alatyr Japan Sea 1941 PolarRIFO expedition “ Masshtab Barents S
22 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1941 Research expedition “ Uglomer Black Se1940–1941 “ “ Gydrolog Caspian S1941 “ “ Saturn Okhotsk 1941 “ “ Okhotsk , Chukcha Bering Se1942 “ “ Sedov, Tsirkul Kara Sea 1942 Ice patrol “ Murmanets 1942 Research expedition “ Temp Bering Se1942 “ “ Geophysic Japan Sea 1940–1942 “ “ Dalnevostochnik Bering Se1942 “ “ Saner N-2 1942–1943 Complex hydrographical expedition F.F.Baranov Papanin, West Khatanga 1943 Ice patrol Unknown Smolny Eastern A1943 Hydrographical unit N.N.Kolodiev, Ya.P.Koblents Vikhr Uelen, A

Bay 

1943 Unknown Unknown GMK-027, BMB-22, Onuka Okhotsk 1943 “ “ Vityaz Japan Sea 1943–1948 “ “ Hydrolog (former Kavasaki) Okhotsk 1944 Ice patrol “ Smolny Eastern A1944 Unknown “ Kashalot Okhotsk 1944 “ “ Azimut Japan Sea 1944–1950 “ “ Rynda 1944 “ “ Kapitan Voronin 1944–1948 “ “ Kashalot Barents S
23 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1945–1952 “ “ Temp Bering Se1946 “ “ Vestnik, Okhotsk, Ocean, BO-316, TSH-111 Okhotsk 1946 “ “ Korifei Japan Sea 1946 GUNIO “ Severny Polus 1946–1947 Research expeditions “ Sedov, Ayaks 1946–1948 “ “ Saratov Barents S1946 “ “ 

Kamchatsky, Yuzhny, Vesthik, Opukha, Krasny Vympel 

Japan Sea 

1946–1959 “ “ Slava Antarctic 1947 “ “ Maitun Okhotsk 1947 “ “ Yuzhny 1947 “ “ K-59 1947 Research expeditions Unknown RS-13 Okhotsk 1947 “ “ Bering Northern 1947 “ “ EK-1, DS-3, Okhotsk, BO-318 Okhotsk 1947 “ “ Tobol, Rynda Japan Sea 1947–1949 “ “ Vjun Azov Sea 1947–1948 “ “ Vilui Okhotsk 1947–1949 “ “ Issledovatel Okhotsk 1947–1948 “ “ Toporik 1948 “ “ Alatyr, G.Sedov Japan Sea 1948–1950 “ “ Zvezda Kryma 
24 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1948 “ “ Kapitan Voronin Okhotsk 1948 “ “ Kapitan Pospelov 1948–1982 “ “ Issledovatel Bering Se1948–1969 “ “ V.Vorobjev World Oc1948–1950 “ “ Hydrolog Okhotsk 1949 “ “ Persei Unknown2 Barents S1949 “ “ Abrek Okhotsk 1949 “ “ Briz Japan Sea 1949 “ “ Utes Pacific O1949 “ “ Ametist, Balkhash Japan Sea 1949 “ “ Bystry Azov Sea 1949 “ “ Meridian Barents S1949–1961 “ “ Issledovatel Black Se1949–1950 Research expeditions Unknown Kamchatsky Japan Sea 1949–1950 “ “ Professor Soldatov Okhotsk 1949–1950 “ “ Toporok Okhotsk 1949–1958 “ “ Akvator Unknown 1949–1979 IO RAS Research expeditions “ Vityaz World Oc1950 Research expeditions “ Aisberg North At1950 “ “ Ayaks Okhotsk 1950 “ “ Ostryak Bering Se1950 “ “ BTSCH-2, West Okhotsk 1950 “ “ Bystry Japan Sea 
25 

Years Expedition or Agency Leaders Ship Name 

Geo

1950–1951 “ “ Krater Unknown 1950–1954 “ “ Musson 1951–1952 “ “ Korablestroitel 1951 “ “ BCHS-614 Azov Sea 1951–1956 “ “ Vetromer 1952 “ “ Zarya World Oc1949–1955 “ “ Professor Mesyatsev 1953–1955 “ “ Akademik Berg 
26 

Table 2.2 The most important events in oceanographic studies

Date Event 

20 Sept 1648 S.Dezhnov discovered the Bering Strait, which separated Asia from 

America. 

14 Jan 1701 Peter the Great established the School of Mathematics and Navigation 

in Moscow. 

17 Jan 1724 Peter the Great established the Admiralty - Collegium Archives, 

which was the beginning of the Navy State Central Archives (NSCA). 

23 Dec 1724 Peter the Great launched the First Kamchatka Expedition (1725-

1730). 

28 Dec 1732 The Russian Admiralty organized the Great Northern Expedition 

(1733-1743). 

04 June 1741 The Second Kamchatha Expedition (1733-1743). 

26 July 1803 The first Russian circumnavigation of the Earth in the sloops 

"Nadezhda" and "Neva.” 

1815 I.F.Kruzenstern compiled "The South Sea Atlas.” 

16 Jan 1820 The expedition under F.F.Bellinsgauzen and M.P.Lazarev (1819-

1821) discovered Antarctica. 

1822 The hydrographic expedition under Lieutenent F.P. Litke reached the 

New Land. 

1826 The circumnavigation of the Earth in the sloops "Senyavin" and 

"Moller" began. 

01 Oct 1827 The Navy Hydrographic Service was established, which is now the 

Navy Directorate of Navigation and Oceanography (GUNIO). 

1843 

The Hydrographic Department produced the first published manual 

for marine hydrometeorological stations named "Manual on 

meteorological observations made at naval ports and on correction of 

a ship compass error." 

30 May 1849 The Amur Expedition under J.I. Nevelskoi (1849-1855). 

1864 The world`s first icebreaker was built in Russia. 

1874 The Marine Department was established under the Main Geophysical 

Observatory (MGO). 

1878 The Marine Observatory was established in Sevastopol. 

1882-1883 The First International Polar Year (IPY). 

24 May 1886 The circumnavigation of the Earth began under First Rank Captain 

S.O. Makarov in the Baltic Fleet corvette "Vityaz." 

14 Aug 1912 The expedition under the senior lieutenant G.Ya.Sedov in the 

schooner "Saint martyr Foka" departed from Arkhangelsk. 

21 Aug 1913 The expedition under B.A.Vilkitski discovered the Northern Land 

archipelago. 
27 

Date Event 

1914-1915 

The first one-season voyage from east to west along the Northern Sea 

Route in the naval transport ships "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" was 

accomplished. 

1915 The Pacific tidal annuals began publication. 

1917 Yu.M.Shokalski published his fundamental work "Oceanography.” 

1919 The State Hydrological Institute (SHI) was established (Leningrad). 

1920 The Northern Research-Fishery Expedition was mounted. 

10 Mar 1921 

The First Floating Marine Research Institute (PLAVMORNIN) was 

established. N.V.Roze was the first in the history of the Arctic 

exploration to make an ice forecast for the Kara Sea. The Weather 

Watch was set up to provide seamen with information on 

meteorological, hydrological, and ice conditions. 

1924 

The Northern Hydrographical Expedition was undertaken. The Pacific 

Research Institute of Fishery and Oceanography was established on 

the basis of the Pacific research-fishery Station. 

1925 

The Northern Research-Fishery Expedition was rearranged into the 

Northern Research Institute. Regular observations were resumed at the 

Kola meridian section. K.M. Derugin set up the research-fishery 

station in Vladivostok. 

1923-1927 

The Black Sea oceanographic expedition was undertaken. 

PLAVMORNIN merged with the Murmansk Marine Biological 

Station. The State Oceanographic Institute (SOI) was established. 

1930 The Northern Research Institute was rearranged into the All-Union 

Arctic Institute (AAI). 

15 July 1930 The Arctic Expedition in the "Georgi Sedov" began. 

1931 

Based on the integration of the All-Union Institute of Fishery and the 

SOI, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute for Fishery and 

Oceanography was established. The experimental base in Katsiveli 

(the Crimea) was set up to study wind waves. 

28 July 1932 The first-ever one-season voyage began in the "Alexander Sibiryakov" 

along the Northern Sea Route. 

17 Dec 1937 

The Directorate of the Northern Sea Route (GLAVSEVMORPUT) 

was organized. Vize Island was discovered on the basis of analysis of 

the "Saint Ann" drift. Flights of the hydrological aircraft "USSK-N-2" 

to the Northern Land under the command of A.D. Alexeev and M.I. 

Kozlov were initiated to perform ice reconnaissance of the Kara Sea. 

Polar stations were opened on the cape of Cheluskin, Rudolf Island, in 

the Nordvick and Tiksi Bays, at the settlement of Barentsburg, and 

along the Khatanga and Kheta Rivers. 
28 

Date Event 

1933 

V.V. Shuleikin published his monograph "Physics of the Sea,” S.V. 

Bruevich published his monograph "Methods of chemical 

oceanography." 

1932-1933 The Second Polar Year. 

7 July 1934 The first issue of "Weather Bulletin" was published by 

GLAVSEVMORPUT Weather Watch. 

31 July 1934 GLAVSEVMORPUT organized the Inter-Agency Burin of ice 

forecasts under the command of O.Yu. Schmidt.

1934 The polar Research Institute of Fishery and Oceanography was 

established in Murmansk. 

1934-1935 Winter ice reconnaissance in the Vilkitski Strait was undertaken. 

1 Mar 1935 The first Arctic navigational ice forecast was made. 

6 July -28 Aug 1935 The first high-latitude expedition of GLAVSEVMORPUT in the 

icebreaker "Sadko" was undertaken. 

1937 The first atmospheric high-latitude expedition was undertaken. 

21 May 1937 The first drifting expedition "Severnyi Polus - 1" began. It opened a 

new chapter in ice studies of the Arctic Ocean. 

1938 

The following monographs were published: "Sea waters and ice" by 

N.N. Zubov, "Dynamics of the Sea" by V.A. Beryozkin, and 

"Hydrology of Seas and brackish waters" by N.M. Knipovich. 

1939 The first research-operational groups under marine headquarters were 

organized. Strategic ice reconnaissance started in the Arctic Seas. 

5 Aug -17 Oct 1940 

The first-ever one-season voyage of the submarine (SCH-423) from 

Polyarnyi to Vladivostok along the Northern Sea Route was 

accomplished. 

1941 The Institute of Oceanology was established on the basis of the 

laboratory of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 

14 June 1943 The State Oceanographic Institute (SOI) was established on the basis 

of the Main Geophysical Observatory (MGO) marine department. 

1946 

L.F. Tutov was the first to propose that empirical formulae and plots 

should be used to determine wave parameters from preassigned values 

of wind speed and fetch. 

1947 M.P.Morozov built the first open-sea wave recorder in Russia 

(VOM-47). 

1946-1966 Marine annuals were published. 

1948 

The marine Hydrophysical institute of the USSR Academy of 

Sciences was established. The monograph "Hydrochemistry" was 

published. 
29 

Date Event 

1949 Stationary observations from ocean weather ships were organized. 

1950 The Far East Scientific Research Institute was established. The first 

volume of the marine atlas was published. 

1951 

The Azov-Black Sea Scientific Research Institute of Fishery and 

Oceanography (now the South Scientific Research Institute of Fishery 

and Oceanography). The institute of Biology of Southern Seas was 

established. 

1953 The monograph "Basics of Hydrochemistry" was published. 

1954 

"Manual on works at standard hydrological sections and marine 

hydrological surveys" was published. It later became "Manual on 

works in seas and oceans" (1966, 1977). 

1956 

The Arctic Scientific Research institute was renamed the Arctic and 

Antarctic Scientific Research Institute. Scientific research studies in 

Antarctica began. The Marine Hydrophysical Institute of the 

Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (MHI of UAS) was established in 

Sevastopol. 

1957 

World Data Center (WDCs) A and B "Oceanography" were 

established in Washington, D.C., and Moscow. Since 1990, WDC-B 

has been located in Obninsk (RIHMI-WDC). Expeditionary research 

began in the RV "M.Lomonosov," owned by MHI of UAS. 

1957-1958 The International Geophysical Year (IGY). 

1958 

The first voyage of the submarine "Severyanka.” A.M.Muromtsev 

published his monograph "Basic features of the Pacific Ocean 

hydrology.” 

1959 

The MHI expedition discovered the Atlantic equatorial countercurrent 

(the Lomonosov current). A.M.Muromtsev published his monograph 

"Basic features of the Indian Ocean hydrology.” 

15 Sept 1959 Delivery trials of the world’s first atomic icebreaker "Lenin." 

1959-1960 

The expedition of the Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy 

of Sciences, which discovered the equatorial countercurrent in the 

Indian Ocean (the Tarreev Current). 

1960 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO 

was established. 

1961 

A submarine mounting ridge more than 4000 km long was revealed in 

the Atlantic Ocean. The world’s first Atlas of Antarctica was 

compiled. The Odessa Branch of the Institute of the Biology of 

Southern Seas was established. 
30 

Date Event 

17 July 1962 The submarine “Leninski Komsomol” reached the North Pole. 

1963 Muromtsev published his monograph “Basic features of the Atlantic 

Ocean hydrology.” 

1964 

The Oceanographic Data Center was organized under the Main 

Directorate of Hydrometeorological Service. It served as the 

centralized system for collection of punch card data and data sets. 

1966 

The monograph “Chemistry of the Ocean” was published. The 

world’s first underwater circumnavigation of the Earth was 

undertaken by Soviet atomic submarines. 

1968 The Odessa branch of the State Oceanographic Institute was 

established. 

1970 

The expedition “Poligon-70” discovered synoptically produced eddies 

in the ocean. The State Committee for Science and Technology 

(SCST) adopted the resolution on the development of a system of 

specialized oceanographic data centers. 

1960-1970 The International Decade of the Ocean Exploration. 

1970-1980 

The Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) was carried out, 

which included such experiments as TROPEX-72, GATE, FGGE and 

others. 

1971 

All-Russia Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeorological 

Information-World Data Center (RIHMI-WDC) was established in 

Obninsk. 

1972 Tropical Experiment (TROPEX-72). 

1973 

The Pacific Oceanological Institute of the Russian Academy of 

Sciences (Far East Branch) was established. Regular studies of 

marine environmental pollution began. The marine network of the 

Joint State Environmental Observing System was set up. The 

Sevastopol Branch of the State Oceanographic Institute was 

established on the basis of the Black and Azov Seas Observatory. 

1974 

The SCST Scientific Council, which was working on the problem 

“Exploration of Seas and use of marine resources,” established the 

Interagency Commission on Oceanographic Information for the 

collection, storage, automated processing, and exchange of data. The 

Navy Scientific Research Center was established. The USSR 

participated in the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment. 

1974-1990 Polar Experiment (South, North) 

1975 

ODC of RIHMI-WDC produced deep-sea square-by-square data set 

on magnetic tapes on the second generation mainframe computers (M222, Minsk-32). 
31 

Date Event 

1976 The first edition of “Cruise Summary Report” appeared. 

1977 The First Oceanological Congress (Moscow). The data base for 

coastal hydrometeorological observations was initiated. 

17 Aug 77 The North Pole voyage of the atomic icebreaker “Arctica” under the 

command of A.N. Chilingarov began. 

1979 The USSR participated in the First GARP Global Experiment. 

1980 

NODC produced the first deep-sea cruise-by-cruise data set on 

magnetic tapes on third generation mainframe computers (Computers 

of Unified Series )

1981-1995 “The USSR Seas” project under the leadership of F.S.Tersiev 

1982 The Second Oceanological Congress 

02 Dec 1982 Antarctic expedition in the Navy hydrographic research vessels 

“Admiral Vladimirski” and “Faddey Bellinsgauzen.” 

1979-1983 

The first large-scale computer calculations were made to prepare a set 

of statistical atlases for the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (temperature, 

salinity, density, sound velocity, conductivity, and others). The Yu.M. 

Shokalski prize of the USSR Roshydromet was awarded to the team 

of people who prepared these atlases: Shirshov Institute of 

Oceanology - V.N. Stepanov, L.I. Galerkin, S.G. Panfilova, A.D. 

Sherbinin; RIHMI-WDC - V.I. Lomanov, L.A. Golovanova, S.A. 

Oleinikov, V.P. Kutko). 

1985 

Large areas of elevated temperature and salinity were revealed in the 

Atlantic Ocean. Oceanographic databases, “Oceanography,” were 

created and put into operation in NODC and other institutions. 

1985-1995 The USSR participated in TOGA. 

1986 

Oceanographic databases were put into industrial operation in RIHMIWDC and other Roshydromet centers. Technology of oceanographic 

data entry onto magnetic tapes was developed. Technology of 

oceanographic data collection from computer-equipped vessels was 

introduced. Development of State Automated System of 

Oceanographic Information Collection, Storage, Exchange and 

Processing (SASOI) began. A database of RV cruises performed by 

all agencies of the USSR and other countries (28,000) was created. 

1987 The Third Oceanographic Congress. 

1988 

The monograph “Oceanographic databases” and the reference manual 

“Data bases about the Oceanography of the Seas of the USSR” were 

produced. 
32 

Date Event 

1989 

“Manual for Preparation of Scientific Report from Expeditionary 

Investigations of the World Ocean: Physical Oceanography” was 

published. 

1990 

NODC produced the third version of square-to-square water bottle 

data set comprising more than two million oceanographic stations. 

Joint (ODC of RINMI-WDC and the Navy) bathythermograph 

database was created. 

1991 Technology of obtaining grid point climatic characteristics was 

developed. 

1992 E-mail was introduced. Ocean surface temperature database was 

created on the basis of satellite observation. 

1993-1997 Russia participated in Global Ocean Data Archaeology and Rescue 

Project (GODAR). 

1994 World Data Center-B "Sea ice" was established in Russia (AARI). 

1995 

PC oceanography database and data collection and primary processing 

system were developed. Technology of oceanographic data collection 

on diskettes was introduced. 

1996 Report of Russian NODC, “Information Resources of the World 

Ocean environment,” was produced. 

1996-1997 

New information technologies were applied in NODC (local 

computational network, GIS, CD recording system, commercial 

database management systems). 

1997 

The concept of the Federal Target Program, “The World Ocean,” with 

the subprogram, “Creation of the unified information system for the 

World Ocean State” (as a key element), was adopted by the Decree of 

the Russian Federation President of January 17, 1997, and the 

Resolution of the Russian Federation Government of February 22, 

1997. 
33 

The Bark “G. Sedov” 
34 

3. MARINE EXPEDITIONARY RESEARCH IN THE 20TH CENTURY 

3.1 First half of the 20th century

 During the first half of the 20th century, marine research in Russia was predominantly 

conducted in the adjacent and interior seas. This was due to foreign policy and economic 

reasons. Expedition cruises were first made in converted ships and then in specially built ships 

equipped with instruments to record air temperature, pressure and humidity, wind speed and 

wind direction, sea water temperature, salinity and gas content at different depths, and surface 

and deep currents. Hydrochemical research on the world oceans rapidly expanded. 

 An important aspect during this period was the establishment of regular oceanographic 

and marine meteorological observations at the same stations along hydrological sections and at 

island and coastal stations. Using these observations, statistical analysis revealed cause-andeffect relationships between physical, chemical, and biological processes in the sea and, based on 

these relationships, marine hydrological forecasts were developed. 

 Traditional ship observations were supplemented with data from drifting ice stations and 

aircraft observations. Pilot-balloon and radiosonde observations of wind, air pressure, air 

temperature, and humidity also began, with measurements taken at different altitudes above sea 

level. Oceanographic observational data was proving useful for fishing, hunting, and 

navigational activities as well as for naval operations. 

 A lack of precise and easy-to-use instruments, the short duration of ship cruises, and bad 

conditions of living onboard made it extremely difficult to conduct large-scale comprehensive 

oceanographic research campaigns. However, these drawbacks were substantially offset by the 

devotion to science and an extremely thorough and deep analysis of the observations that were 

obtained. This was epitomized in the research by many prominent marine scientists of that time, 

such as N.M. Knipovich, S.O. Makarov, B.V. Davydov, L.S. Berg, K.M. Deryugin, Yu.M. 

Shokalsky, Yu.V. Vize, V.A. Beryozkin, N.N. Zubov, V.V. Shuleikin, and others. 

 Prior to World War II, Russian scientists and sailors undertook many cruises and 

expeditions to explore the Arctic for both scientific and economic purposes. As early as the late 

19th to early 20th centuries, scientist and admiral S.O.Makarov was the first in the history of 

Arctic exploration to reach 81o

 28' N. He is also noted as the first to make oceanographic 

observations in the vicinity of Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, and Novaya Zemlya from the 

world's first powerful icebreaker, Ermak, which was built according to his specifications. In 

1914-1915, the hydrographic expedition commanded by B.A.Vilkitsky carried out a one-season 

voyage along the northern sea route from east to west in the icebreakers “Taimyr” and 

“Vaigach.” One of the most dramatic geographical discoveries of the 20th century -- the islands 

of Severnaya Zemlya -- was made during this cruise. 

 Immediately after Russia’s Civil War, research in the Arctic resumed and expanded 

rapidly. During these years, many of Russia’s maritime research institutions were established 

and which continue to exist today. For example, in 1920, the Northern Commercial Research 

Expedition (NCRE), an organization established within the Supreme Council of the National 

Economy, established the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) in St. Petersburg. 

AARI became actively involved in the study of hydrometeorological conditions along sailing 

routes and in the fishing and hunting regions from the Kola Peninsula to Novaya Zemlya. 

Regular observations of currents and ice drifts began in the Kara and Yugorski Shar Straits. In 

1921, the NCRE consisted of 23 groups totaling about 400 people. The first director of the 
35 

NCRE was R. Samoilovich, a strong champion of investigations in the Arctic. The scientific 

advisory group for the NCRE consisted of the following prominent scientists: President of the 

Russian Academy of Sciences, A. Karpinsky; academician A. Fersman; and professors N. 

Knipovich, K. Deryugin, Yu. Shokalsky, and L. Berg. The Arctic Governmental Commission 

and the Main Agency for the Northern Sea Route were established in 1928 and 1932, 

respectively, to organize regular and coordinated research in the Arctic. To explore the 

possibility of regular navigation along the northern sea route, expeditions were undertaken in the 

icebreakers “Sibiryakov” and “Chelyuskin” and the icecutter “Litke” along with high-latitude 

expeditions on the icebreakers “Sadko” and “G. Sedov.” 

 Also in St. Petersburg, the State Hydrological Institute (SHI) was created in 1919 and 

included a Marine Department. In Murmansk, the Floating Marine Scientific Institute 

(Plavmornin) was established in 1921, which later became the foundation for the Polar Research 

Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO). In 1922, Plavmornin, under the 

leadership of professor I. Mesyatsev, became the owner of the “Persey,” a ship specially 

designed for conducting research in the Arctic and adapted to sailing under ice conditions. It 

was destined to play a leading role in Arctic research. Having made about 100 voyages in the 

Greenland, Norwegian, Barents, White, and Kara Seas, the “Persey” became a research school 

for hundreds of students from educational institutions in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Arkhangelsk, 

and other cities. Many of the students who graduated from these institutes went on to become 

well-known scientists. 

 The city and port of Arkhangelsk, which has been a significant sea and river port in 

Russia since antiquity, occupies a special place in the history of the Russian sea fleet. It was in 

this city that Peter the Great created the first Russian shipyard and a sea fortress toward the end 

of the 17th century. The port served all polar ships heading out to conduct research in the Arctic 

Ocean and which, ultimately, traversed the Northern Sea Route. During 1941-1944, major 

military cargoes arrived in the USSR through this port. Severodvinsk, a satellite city of 

Arkhangelsk, is now a large center for building military and other specialized ships. 

 The Russian Hydrometeorological Service, established in 1836, provided ships with 

information on weather, hydrological, and ice conditions. In 1917, after an 11-year disruption, 

observations by PINRO were resumed along the “Kola Meridian.” The Murmansk Marine 

Biological Institute (MBI), with help from the SHI, began to make regular observations along 

this meridian in 1921. These data are considered to be the longest and most complete series of 

oceanographic measurements ever obtained. In the same year, the first forecast of ice cover for 

the Kara Sea was provided by N. Roze. Beginning in 1922, as part of an expedition headed by 

K. Deryugin, the SHI, the Navy Directorate of Navigation and Oceanography (GUNIO), and 

Plavmornin started systematic research on hydrological conditions in the White Sea. 

 A radically new stage in the development of Arctic research began in the 1930s. The 

Institute for the North was reorganized into the All-Union Arctic Institute; the State 

Oceanographic Institute and the All-Union Institute for Marine and Fish Industry merged to form 

the All-Union Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography (RIFO). During 1932-1933, the 

Second International Polar Year (IPY) gave another impulse to Arctic research. A network of 

polar stations was created on the coasts and islands of the Arctic seas. Fifteen major integrated 

oceanographic expeditions were mounted during this period. In particular, significant scientific 

results were derived from the GUNIO expedition, commanded by the polar hydrographer A. 

Lavrov and academician V. Shuleikin. Having first measured the amount of heat received by the 

ice surface in the Kara Sea from direct and incident radiation by using a solarigraph onboard the 
36 

R/V “Taimyr,” the scientists calculated all the components of the energy balance in the Kara Sea 

and revealed a large heat deficit. This deficit could be offset only by the deep warm current from 

the Atlantic Ocean, which was subsequently supported by observations from the icebreaker 

“Sadko” and the drifting ice station “North Pole-1.” Extremely important conclusions were 

made by V. Vize and V. Beryozkin concerning the presence of northern islands in the Kara Sea 

that had not yet been discovered. 

 One of the most brilliant episodes in the history of Arctic research is represented by the 

drifting ice station “The North Pole-1 (NP1)" in 1937-1938. During the ten months that NP1 

drifted in the Arctic Ocean, four brave men -- I. Papanin, P. Shirshov, E. Fyodorov, and E. 

Krenkel -- obtained valuable information on the hydrology of the central Arctic, drifting ice 

fields, and bottom topography. Upper-air meteorological observations resulted in a new 

understanding of the atmospheric structure in the Arctic region. Subsequently, beginning in 

1954 and ending in 1991, drifting stations operated continuously in the central Arctic. Starting 

in 1957, aircraft high-latitude expeditions of the “Sever” and regular marine expeditions aboard 

the “Ledovyi Patrul” began to collect ice and hydrometeorological information and to make this 

data rapidly available for use in making marine forecasts in the Arctic region. This data also was 

used to describe the hydrometeorological conditions of the Arctic in order to provide 

navigational guidance to pilots and for the preparation of atlases of currents, which were of 

considerable importance for the promotion of the Northern fleet and for escorting the allied 

convoys along the northern sea route during World War II. Among the leaders and participants 

of numerous pre-war Arctic expeditions were O. Schmidt, V. Shuleikin, N. Zubov, V. Vize, V. 

Bogorov, V. Beryozkin, G. Ushakov, A. Laktionov, N. Yevgenov, V. Buinitsky, I. Kireev, and 

many others. 

 Oceanographic operations in the Far Eastern seas and along the Pacific coast of 

Kamchatka began with expeditions commanded by V. Brazhnikov, P. Schmidt (1899-1903), and 

V. Soldatov (1907-1918). Beginning in 1908, a Pacific hydrographic expedition, led by the wellknown hydrographer B. Davydov, started conducting observations. In 1915, V. Stakhevich 

compiled the first summary of available data on the tides in the northwestern Pacific by using the 

results of the expedition commanded by M. Zhdanko. Since that time, the GUNIO issues annual 

reports of tides in the Pacific, thoroughly studies ice conditions, and makes depth measurements. 

In 1923, based on the results of the hydrographic expedition in the Pacific Ocean, B. Davydov 

issued a pilot report, “The Sea of Okhotsk and the Eastern Coast of Kamchatka with Karaginsky 

Island Included,” which received wide recognition. 

 During the period 1925-1933, oceanographic and hydrobiological research in the Sea of 

Japan and the Bering and Chukchi Seas was conducted by the Pacific Scientific Research 

Fisheries Center (TINRO) and the Far East Research Geophysical Institute. The data obtained 

during this hydrographic expedition, commanded by N. Tarasov, P. Ushakov, L. Rudovits, and 

L. Dyomin, were used to issue numerous marine maps and atlases. 

 Starting in 1932, oceanographic measurements in the Far East seas were performed as 

part of a Pacific expedition consisting of research teams from the SHI and TINRO. The leader of 

this expedition was K. Deryugin. Vessels involved in this effort included the trawlers 

“Dalnevostochnik” and “Blyukher” and the motor-sailing schooner “Rossinant,” all of which 

were converted for use as research vessels. The data obtained during this two-year effort were 

the most comprehensive not only for the Far East seas but also throughout the entire Pacific 

basin. These observations provided valuable information that were used to better understand the 

nature of the Far East waters and fishery development. From these observations, it was possible 
37 

to determine the main features of water circulation and heat balance and to identify populations 

and migration routes of commercial fish. In particular, N. Belinsky and G. Ratmanov 

contributed much to the research of the Sea of Japan and the Chukchi Sea from 1934-1936. 

 Early in the 20th century, of primary importance in studying the Baltic Sea were 

hydrological and ice observations made by S. Makarov aboard the icebreaker “Ermak” (1901) 

and hydrological and hydrobiological observations by N. Knipovich and S. Pavlovich on the 

carrying vessels “Opasnyi” and “Kompas” (1908). From 1909-1911, I. Shpindler pursued 

research in Nevskaya Bay in connection with the construction of a sewage system in St. 

Petersburg. In 1920-1921, an expedition commanded by K. Deryugin studied hydrological and 

hydrobiological conditions in the Gulf of Finland with four ships (Oryol, Meridian, 

Almukantarat, and Polius). In 1928, the Hydrometeorological Bureau made synchronous 

observations in Nevskaya and Luzhskaya Bays, and the marine department of the SHI performed 

research at the same locations in the Gulf of Finland on the “Nerpa” and “Liliya” in summer and 

on the ice in winter. 

 During the period 1931-1940, the Marine Observatory in Kronstadt sent Vs. Beryozkin, 

Vl. Beryozkin, and G.Ul to lead a hydrographic expedition in the Gulf of Finland. 

Comprehensive oceanographic and marine meteorological observations were performed aboard 

the hydrographic ships “Astronom,” “Samoyed,” "Kommuna,” "Trefem,” Kursant,” “Vest,” and 

“Ost.” The resulting analysis of the distribution and relationship between the parameters of 

hydrological and meteorological conditions was of vital importance in providing 

hydrometeorological support to the Baltic fleet during World War II. 

 N. Knipovich, Yu. Shokalsky, and V. Shuleikin made significant contributions to 

oceanographic research in the Black Sea soon after the civil war. During 1922-1927, Knipovich 

led an integrated research-fishery expedition to the Azov and Black Seas aboard the ships 

“Sukhum” and “Besstrashnyi.” The results from this expedition provided a fundamental 

understanding of basin ichthyology. From 1924-1928, the oceanographic expedition 

commanded by Yu. Shokalsky, E. Skvortsov, V. Nikitin, and V. Snezhinsky studied the vertical 

structure of water and flow conditions in the Black Sea. All in all, the expedition obtained data 

from more than 1,000 oceanographic stations, drilled 700 cores of soil from the sea floor, and 

conducted comprehensive biological research. In 1932, V. Shuleikin was the first to make an 

oceanographic survey of the eastern Black Sea in the ship “Gidrograf.” The expedition studied, 

in detail, the penetration of cold waters in the intermediate layer and found that they originated in 

winter in the shallow-water area of the northwestern part of the sea. Internal waves at the 

interface between water layers of different density were also first detected and measured. Based 

on the data from this expedition, A. Dobrovolsky compiled a dynamic map of currents. In 1933, 

in the Crimea, V. Beryozkin discovered a wave basin to study the development of wind waves. 

 Starting in 1936, the Azov Research Institute for Fishery Problems (AzNIRKH) began 

making two or three surveys annually using the ships “Danilevsky” and “Akademik Zernov” in 

the Azov-Black Sea basin. In addition to the study of hydrological conditions, these ships were 

used to search for fish in the Sea of Azov, which was the most important fishery basin in the 

country during the 1930s and 1940s. Numerous pre-war expeditions were largely uncoordinated, 

which substantially reduced the understanding of hydrological and hydrobiological processes in 

the basins of the two seas. 

 As for the Caspian Sea, marine research in the first half of the 20th century began with a 

special expedition led by N. Knipovich, during which a large amount of hydrobiological and 

hydrological data were collected. In 1918, expedition research was conducted in the delta of the 
38 

Volga River and the adjacent portion of the Caspian Sea, which was a peculiar kind of gate 

through which oil, chemical raw materials, and valuable species of acipenserids (sturgeons) 

arrived in Russia. In 1921-22, the hydrological conditions of the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay were 

studied during an expedition under the command of Academician N. Kurchatov. In the early 

1930s, N. Knipovich mounted an integrated fishery expedition to study the water area of the 

Caspian Sea and the Gulf of Komsomolets. Beginning in 1932, research fishery expeditions of 

the Caspian Research Institute for Fishery Problems (CaspNIRKH) started collecting data in the 

Caspian Sea and, beginning in 1933, the Hydrometeorological Service also conducted 

expeditions. These expeditions focused on the northern section of the Caspian Sea, and 

investigations were conducted to examine issues such as hydrological conditions for spawning, 

supplies of commercial fish, and feeding mechanisms. 

 In the 1930s, expeditions of Russian and foreign researchers made it possible to compile 

distribution maps of salinity over the surface of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. 

3.2 Second Half of the 20th Century

 With the advent of World War II (1939-1945), Russia’s position as a world power was 

substantially strengthened, and its geopolitical and economic interests were expanded and 

modified considerably. Navy ships put out to the seas, both domestic and foreign; marine freight 

transportation rapidly developed between Russia and other countries from nearly all continents; 

and regions of commercial fisheries, including those for whaling purposes, began to be 

extensively explored. Soon after the war, a decision was made to perform a wide range of 

marine research. This included the following: sea surface and deep currents, tidal and storm 

surge, density distribution, sound conductivity and sound velocity, wave conditions, standing and 

drifting ice and icebergs, chemical composition of water and bottom sediments, presence and 

concentration of phytoplankton and zooplankton, spawning and feeding regions, as well as 

migration routes of fish, whales and crustacea. 

 The knowledge acquired by the second half of the 20th century greatly enhanced the 

scientific community’s understanding of the ocean’s impact on the Earth’s climate system. In 

order to reveal major regularities and cause-effect relationships in the Earth’s climate system, it 

was necessary to measure, on a global scale, the quantitative indices and direction of heating 

rates as well as water and gas exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean. In the last 

quarter of the 20th century, a vital issue was the investigation of man-made pollution of the 

world ocean and the possibility of its self-purification. Marine ore mining as well as marine oil 

and gas exploration and development were added to the more conventional kinds of economic 

activity in the sea. And, finally, Russian marine scientists have continued to resolve one of the 

crucial challenges of the present time - a study of the seas and oceans in order to tap into their 

energy and to manage biological and mineral resources. 

 The Russian government responded aggressively to the needs of research for technical 

support. A research fleet was rapidly expanded; and during the 1960s-1980s, it was one of the 

most advanced in the world. Educational institutions began to provide training for marine 

researchers in different specializations. Among these are Moscow, Leningrad and the Far East 

State University; Leningrad and Odessa Hydrometeorological Institutes; Leningrad Engineering 

Marine Academy; and others. 
39 

3.2.1 Development of expedition research on the World Ocean from 1946-1956

 In the latter part of the 20th century, Russian marine scientific institutions received more 

than 20 specially built expedition vessels, including the first-class research vessels “Vityaz,” 

“Mikhail Lomonosov,” “Polius,” “Yu.M.Shokalsky,” “Akademik Korolyov,” “Professor Vize,” 

“Sergei Vavilov,” “Akademik Knipovich” and the icebreakers “Lena,” “Ob” and others. Search 

and fishery-reconnaissance vessels, making both hydrobiological and oceanographic 

observations, had also increased in number. 

 The suite of instruments was complemented by bathythermographs, electromagnetic 

current meters, self-contained bottom-depth gauges, remote sensing technology (meteorological 

rockets and modified radiosondes), plankton nets, bottom sweeps, echo sounders, and radars. 

This substantially increased the number and quality of oceanographic observations made during 

expeditions. It became possible to make measurements on meridional and latitudinal 

hydrological sections throughout the entire ocean, to measure the vertical distribution of 

temperature and current velocity, to establish self-contained buoy stations for prolonged 

measurements of currents at different depths, to measure tidal heights in the open sea, to perform 

regular temperature-wind soundings of the atmosphere above the ocean, to take hydrobiological 

and soil samples, and to construct thousand-mile profiles of the sea bottom at the stations. In 

addition, the accuracy in determining the coordinates of oceanographic stations was improved. 

 Standardization of observational methods was made from the very beginning of 

oceanographic observations. In 1843, the hydrographic department published the first manual 

intended for marine hydrometeorological stations, “The Manual for Making Meteorological 

Observations in Military Ports and for Correcting Errors of Ship Compasses.” However, after 

the first issue of “The Manual for the Operations on Standard Hydrological Sections and Marine 

Hydrological Surveys” had been published in 1954, this manual became the definitive guide used 

by all the departments and institutions conducting marine observations. The Manual presented 

topics such as how to organize expedition operations in the open ocean; appropriate techniques 

for taking measurements of sea-water temperature, salinity, transparency, and color at the surface 

and within the water column; and observational methods for currents, waves, and underwater 

light transmittance. The Manual also described observational instruments, apparatus, accessory 

equipment, and other devices applied by modern oceanographic ships. A number of 

methodological materials for hydrochemical, wave, ice and ship hydrometeorological 

observations were issued at that time. Since that time, observations from expedition vessels have 

become a standard element of the state observational network. 

 The first post-war oceanographic investigations were conducted in 1946 by the staff of 

the State Oceanographic Institute (SOI) and All-Union Research Institute for Marine Fisheries 

and Oceanography (now the Russian Federal Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography, 

VNIRO). Three vessels were utilized: in the Indian Ocean, the “Aniva;” and in the southern 

polar region, the whaling vessels “Slava” (from1947) and “Sovetskaya Ukraina.” Since 1949, 

oceanographic observations have been made from specialized research vessels. For instance, an 

expedition of the “Vityaz,” sponsored by the Academy of Sciences, began operating in the 

northwest Pacific. Previously, the Vityaz had been involved in research in both the Far East seas 

and the open ocean. 

 In 1951, the Navy Hydrographic Agency (now the Head Department of Navigation and 

Oceanography, GUNIO) conducted oceanographic research in the north Atlantic Ocean and the 

Norwegian, Greenland and Barents Seas in the expedition vessel “Ekvator,” which contained 
40 

four research laboratories and first-class instruments. From 1952-1955, in a northern 

hydrographic expedition commanded by E. Kvartalnov and V. Altshuler, GUNIO conducted 

comprehensive hydrographic observations of tides and currents as well as precise measurements 

of bottom topography were made in the eastern section of the Barents Sea, including the straits 

of Kara Gate and Matochkin Shar. A large body of data on hydrology and water dynamics 

obtained from these expeditions was used to compile helpful manuals concerning surface and 

undersea navigation and to improve the operating efficiency of naval ships and special facilities 

in oceanic regions of most importance for Russia. GUNIO's expedition vessels were particularly 

active during the IGY from 1957-1959. These operations, in addition to the hydrographic ships 

“Ekvator” and “Stvor,” involved the world's largest sailing vessels “G. Sedov” and 

“Kruzenstern.” These ships, along with the “Mikhail Lomonosov,” the research vessel of the 

Marine Hydrophysical Institute of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, collaborated in an 

interagency Atlantic Expedition commanded by V. Shuleikin. 

 The investigations conducted aboard these ships made it possible to advance the 

development of a theory for calculating wind-wave elements, and they were useful in revealing 

significant features of heat fluxes in the Atlantic. In addition, the investigations led to a better 

understanding of the formation of storms off the African coasts in summer and enabled further 

study to determine if these characteristics were similar to the formation of storms during the 

summer in the Black Sea. Of special utility were the monthly measurements of currents at 

several depths in the vicinity of the Rockol Bank, which showed, for the first time, the temporal 

patterns in current velocity and direction. 

 In 1960, the Oceanographic Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences adopted a 

program of research in the Atlantic Ocean, which was devoted to the study of ocean dynamics. 

As part of this program, three interagency expeditions took place from 1960-1965. These 

expeditions involved the following research vessels: from GUNIO, the “G. Sedov,” “Stvor,” 

“Polius,” “Nikolay Zubov,” and “Kruzenshtern;” from the Marine Hydrophysical Institute, the 

“Mikhail Lomonosov;” from the Northwestern and Murmansk departments of the 

Hydrometeorological Service, the “Okeanograf” and “Aisberg;” two trawlers of the PINRO and 

the Baltic Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography (now AtlantNIRO); and the 

“Bataisk” from the Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute. The largest of them, “Mikhail 

Lomonosov” and “Polius,” had a displacement of 6000 tons and 16-18 laboratories. These ships 

performed annual hydrological and hydrochemical surveys, current measurements at buoy 

stations, and standard marine meteorological and heat-balance observations in the North 

Atlantic, from the tropics to Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land. The data obtained from these 

expeditions showed that the Gulf Stream current was more intensive in winter than in summer, 

and the current also exhibited semi-annual variations, which had a significant effect on 

atmospheric patterns affecting Europe. The atmosphere-hydrosphere interaction was further 

explored in the Soviet program, “Sections,” and within a number of international programs. This 

interaction continues to be a main area of research for present-day ocean physics. 

 Of primary importance in furthering research in the Atlantic Ocean from 1957-1966 was 

the ownership of the R/V “Mikhail Lomonosov” by the MHI of the USSR Academy of Sciences 

(which is now the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences). Even in the first cruise (NovemberDecember 1957) in the northeastern Atlantic, observations showed that during the fall-winter 

period, the ocean layer was well mixed up to 700 m, with water advected in by the Gulf Stream, 

while the bottom layers were much colder (with negative temperatures) due to water originating 

in the Norwegian and Greenland Seas. Over the course of the next 17 cruises, significant 
41 

scientific results were obtained and a number of vital discoveries were made. Among these was 

the discovery of the relationship between the processes occurring in the north Atlantic waters and 

the atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere. Summaries of data obtained from1957-

1959 were used to study the atmosphere over the north Atlantic and its interaction with the 

underlying surface of the ocean. These summaries were successfully applied by many countries 

to make forecasts in support of marine fisheries and navigation. In addition, a hydrological 

section along the meridian of 30o

 West, extending from Greenland to the southern tropics and 

which crossed all major jets of the Atlantic currents, made it possible to obtain new data on the 

Gulf Stream, Antilles, North Atlantic, Equatorial, and Canary currents. 

 In 1960, the R/V “Mikhail Lomonosov” was the first vessel to conduct research on the 

Gulf Stream in winter. The highest transparency in the world ocean, 64.5, was measured in the 

Sargasso Sea. In the summer of 1960, a deep equatorial countercurrent was found near the 

western boundary of the Gulf of Guinea; this was subsequently given the name of Lomonosov. 

This current represents one of the principal components of circulation in the entire Atlantic 

Ocean: it is about 300 km wide, has a velocity of 4 knots, and transports water at a rate of 35 

million m3 s

-1. In 1962, in cooperation with two ships from the Ministry for Fisheries, the 

“Olonets” and “Zvezda,” an expedition of the R/V “Mikhail Lomonosov” succeeded in setting a 

buoy station at a depth of 6800 m. The observed velocities of deep currents at this station 

verified that, counter to what was previously understood, it takes substantially less than 300 

years for deep waters to mix with surface waters. This fact was subsequently used to support the 

arguments that deep-water regions must not be used for the burial of radioactive wastes whose 

half-life is approximately 150 years. 

 In 1963-64, the “Mikhail Lomonosov” was actively involved in the international 

expedition, “Equalant,” which made magnetometric surveys, observations of currents, chemical 

and radiochemical observations. During its 18th cruise, the “Mikhail Lomonosov” transmitted 

via radio the observations of currents to the coastal center, the Institute for Cybernetics of the 

Ukranian Academy of Sciences, which subsequently processed the data. For ten years, the 

expeditions of the “Mikhail Lomonosov” collected extensive data, which made it possible to 

study many physical, chemical, and biological processes occurring in the ocean and atmosphere. 

Some of the scientific leaders of the expeditions worth noting are A. Kolesnikov, G. 

Ponomarenko, A. Ivanov, V. Lednyov, V. Agenorov, S. Voita, N. Khanaichenko, B. Nelepo, and 

A. Metalnikov. The expeditions involved representatives of the Institute of Oceanology of the 

Academy of Sciences, Institute for Biology of the Southern Seas, Institute for Cybernetics, State 

Oceanographic Institute, All-Union Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography, Arctic and 

Antarctic Research Institute, and Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute, as well as many 

foreign institutions and their scientists. 

 A valuable contribution to research of the Atlantic Ocean was made by the scientifictraining ship “Bataisk” in the 1960s. This ship was a good school for students of many 

specialities related to the marine environment. From 1960 to 1996, this “floating institute” made 

35 cruises to the north Atlantic Ocean and the White, Barents, Greenland, Norwegian, Baltic, 

Mediterranean, and North Seas. Much attention was given to the study of tidal currents, internal 

waves, variability of heat balance, and the influence of currents on the position of the ice edge. 

The expeditions were generally led by the professorial staff and researchers from educational 

institutions and colleges. 

 Of considerable value are specialized hydrophysical observations made in the Atlantic 

Ocean by the R/Vs “Sergei Vavilov” and “Piotr Lebedev,” owned by the Acoustic Institute. 
42 

Both ships had five laboratories to study hydroacoustics, electronics, hydrology, hydrobiology, 

and hydrochemistry. Working almost simultaneously in nearby regions and using automated 

recordings of hydrophysical parameters, these ships obtained extremely accurate measurements. 

Observations of the dynamic characteristics of ocean waters were made by direct measurements 

with current meters and also by hydroacoustic measurements of noise across a wide range of 

frequencies under different states of the ocean and in a variety of weather conditions. 

 Also important in the advancement of research in the north Atlantic Ocean, as well as the 

Barents, Norwegian, and Greenland Seas, were expeditions of research vessels of PINRO 

(“Persey-2,” “Sevastopol,” “Tunetz,” “Professor Mesyatsev,” “Akademik Berg,” “Akademik 

Knipovich”) and fishery reconnaissance ships. The “Persey-2,” converted in 1949 from a steam 

trawler and named in memory of the “Persey,” was the first vessel in the Soviet research fleet, 

over many years of voyages in the Barents, Greenland and Norwegian Seas, to have collected 

research materials of such volume and scientific-fishery significance to be comparable with those 

obtained by many of the larger present-day research vessels. 

 In the summer 1960, the “Persey-2,” commanded by M. Adrov, and eight other research 

vessels from Germany, Norway, Great Britain, and Iceland were involved in an expedition 

sponsored by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), which took place 

in the Norwegian and Greenland Seas and adjacent regions of the north Atlantic Ocean. The 

expedition made three complete oceanographic surveys of the Faroe-Iceland basin. After 

processing the collected data, it was found that cold deep waters of the Norwegian Sea penetrate 

into the north Atlantic through most of the basin's extent; and the resulting vertical circulation 

produces conditions favorable for the development of zooplankton, the major food source for 

fish in the Norwegian and Barents Seas. The international oceanographic survey of the 

northwestern Atlantic in the spring and summer 1963 involved expedition ships of PINRO 

(“Akademik Knipovich” and “Topseda”) and ships from Germany, Canada, France, Norway, 

Great Britain, Denmark, and Iceland. The objective of this expedition was to determine the 

conditions most favorable to the development of larvae and young fish of various species in 

order to solve the problems of fishery management. 

 During 1964-66, the Hydrometeorological Service ships “Aisberg” and “Okeanograf,” 

deployed numerous buoy stations in the north Atlantic, from the Faroe and Shetland Islands to 

the Rockol Bank, using Alekseev current meters. As a result, the two-layer current was found in 

the Faroe-Shetland strait: in the upper layer as deep as 400-600 m, a northward flowing current; 

and at greater depths, a southward flowing current. These data were in a good correlation with 

the observations obtained from the R/V “Mikhail Lomonosov.” In 1967, for 55 days, these ships 

conducted observations of currents to a depth of 1 km in the deep-sea trough southwest of the 

Faroe-Shetland basin. Continuous measurements of currents for such a long period, and to such 

a great depth, were the first to be made in the history of world-ocean research. 

 Long-term joint operations of expedition ships of PINRO in the Barents and Norwegian 

Seas exemplify interagency coordination of marine research. The results of these efforts prove 

that successful exploration of the ocean’s biological resources depends greatly on the 

development of many sciences, primarily hydrometeorology, hydrochemistry, hydrobiology, and 

ichthyology. 

 Post-war oceanographic research in the Pacific Ocean began in 1949 when the R/V 

“Vityaz,” named after two historically well-known Russian oceanographers, arrived in 

Vladivostok. The “Vityaz” became the flagship of the Soviet Pacific research fleet, which it held 

for more than 20 years. It had an endurance cruise of 18.5 thousand miles, supported 18 research 
43 

laboratories, and was able to make observations as deep as 11 km. Some of the expeditions of 

the “Vityaz,” organized by the Institute of Oceanology, involved 43 agencies and institutions. 

These included the Far East Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information (Far East 

RIHMI), Pacific Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography (TINRO), GUNIO, and 

Maritime Hydromet. 

 In 1952, an interagency Far East expedition was mounted, led by V. Timonov. The 

expedition made simultaneous instrumental observations of currents in the Kuril Straits from 

four ships (“Vityaz,” “Gidrolog,” “Plastun,” and “Dalnevostochnik”), and the data acquired were 

of great scientific significance. The data showed that one of the main hydrological features of 

that region was the high velocity of water exchanged between the Sea of Okhotsk and the Pacific 

Ocean through the straights, a velocity up to six knots, which represented serious danger to 

surface and underwater navigation. 

 The “Vityaz” also obtained valuable data in other oceanographic expeditions. In the 

spring of 1954, the “Vityaz” and five research vessels from different agencies made three 

oceanographic surveys in the Sea of Japan for ten-day intervals. These surveys provided 

valuable information about the heat-accumulation processes in the active sea layer. In AprilMay 1957, the “Vityaz” was the first to make extended time series of deep-sea observations at 

two locations and while anchored: to a depth of 7690 m in the area of the Kuroshio current and 

to a depth of 9600 m in the Kuril-Kamchatka trench. The “Vityaz” also played a large part in 

studying deep-sea trenches in the Pacific Ocean. In 1953, the correct depth was determined for 

the Kuril-Kamchatka trench -- 10542 m. For many years, the depth was considered to be 8512 

m, which was measured by the U.S. ship “Tuscarora” in 1874. During 1957-1958, the “Vityaz” 

also investigated some of the other large deep-sea trenches: Idzu-Bonin, Mariana, Ryukyu, 

Tonga, Kermadec, Aleutian, Philippine, Bougainville, and Palau. In 1957, the maximum depth 

of the Mariana Trench, found near Guam Island, was discovered to be 11034 m; it was 

previously taken to be 10843 m. Depth measurements in deep-sea trenches were made along 

with current observations, soil sampling, bottom photography, and an accounting of biological 

activity. Such comprehensive data from the “Vityaz” cruises, with some measurements 

exceeding 2 km, were comparable to those of the well-known major foreign expeditions during 

1949-1957 as well as the cruises of prominent Danish and English scientists in the “Altares,” 

“Halathea,” and “Challenger-2.” 

 These extensive observations were subsequently used by Russian scientists to make 

essential discoveries in the deep trenches. For instance, Professor A. Ivanov from Leningrad 

State University discovered a new type of species, pogonophora, inhabiting the ocean at a depth 

of about 10 km. The photography of bottom topography in the northern and central Pacific 

revealed vast areas of the ocean bottom covered with ferromanganese nodules (as much as 10 kg 

m

-2). In addition, a study of deep-sea trenches showed that an intensive exchange occurs 

between the surface and deep waters. Based on this fact, V. Bocharov and M. Krin deemed it 

inappropriate to bury radioactive wastes in ocean trenches. 

 The research vessels “Vityaz,” “Okean,” “Val,” “Zhemchug,” “Pervenets,” and “Ob” 

participated in Pacific research expeditions as part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY) 

during 1957-1958. These cruises covered the Bering Sea, portions of the Kuroshio Current, and 

western, northern, central and Antarctic parts of the Pacific. Joint efforts of researchers from 

Russia, the USA, Japan, Canada, France, Indonesia, Australia, and other countries resulted in the 

solution of some of the major problems in physical oceanography. In particular, the Pacific 

equatorial countercurrent (the Cromwell Current) was found to have a discharge of more than 40 
44 

million m3 s

-1, which is approximately equal to the discharge of the Gulf Stream. The 

observations made in the “Vityaz” in 1958 showed that eddies, with a diameter of more than 100 

miles, form at the boundaries of the Cromwell Current; and eddies in the southern tropical front 

had a clockwise rotation while those in the northern tropical front were counterclockwise. 

 In 1958, the “Vityaz” and the “Ob” made measurements along a longitudinal section 

from the Bering Strait to the Antarctic coast, and they were the first to give a comprehensive 

account of the latitudinal variation of the physical, chemical, and biological processes in the 

ocean. In 1961, V. Kort, the leader of the expedition aboard the “Vityaz,” was the first to 

construct a theory of deep currents in the central part of the ocean based on deep-sea 

instrumental measurements. 

 In 1959-1960, the R/Vs “Yu.M. Shokalsky” and “A.I. Voeikov” (Far East RIHMI), 

which logged more than 15 thousand miles, embarked on expedition research in the Far East seas 

and the North Pacific. These vessels were designed to support a wide range of research in 

oceanography, meteorology, aerology, and geophysics. These ships were the first in the history 

of marine research to apply meteorological rockets for upper-air soundings. 

 Beginning in 1965, a program of international research to investigate the Kuroshio 

Current was conducted, and one of the first expeditions to this region was undertaken by the 

R/Vs “Yu.M. Shokalsky,” “Zhemchug,” and “Uliana Gromova” under the leadership of A. 

Muromtsev. The following year, five ships (“Yu.M. Shokalsky,” “Vityaz,” “A.I. Voeikov,” 

“Orlik,” and “Gennady Nevelskoi”) made surveys of the Kuroshio Current in the summer and 

winter seasons; and the following year, these ships made surveys of the current in spring, 

summer, fall and winter. The data from these research efforts provided detailed information 

about the annual and long-term variations within the Kuroshio Current and showed a relationship 

between its course and weather changes occurring in the Russian Far East. 

 Oceanographic, aerometeorological, hydrometeorological, and ichthyological 

observations made by the “Yu.M. Shokalsky” and “A.I. Voeikov” in the Kuril-Hokkaido region 

and near the Aleutians were of great value in making weather forecasts and providing safe 

navigation in these biologically rich regions. Of great importance to advancing an understanding 

of the biological resources of the Pacific were the cruises of the “Vityaz” in 1966 and the 

“Akademik Berg” (TINRO) in 1964-68. These ships made valuable observations of bacteria 

inhabiting the sea bottom, which were actively involved in transforming the organic matter, 

deposited on the bottom, to mineral substance. 

 Along with large research vessels, such as those discussed above and others, much of the 

oceanographic and hydrobiological research in the Pacific Ocean, the Sea of Japan, the Sea of 

Okhotsk, and the Bering Sea during the period 1948-68 was performed by small expedition ships 

of the Far East RIHMI and TINRO. These were largely represented by medium fish trawlers 

(“Gidrolog,” “Dalnevostochnik,” “Priboy,” “Zarnitza,” “Pelamida,” “Zhemchug,” “Orlik,” 

“Virokan,” “Pervenets,” and “Alazeya”). This minor research fleet had two objectives: (1) to 

make long-term continuous observations at standard sections in order to determine variations of 

major hydrophysical parameters (temperature, salinity, transparency, chemical composition of 

sea water, currents, and waves) and for the purpose of investigating climate variability; and (2) to 

compare these data with other data on zoo- and phytoplankton and migration of fish shoals, 

whales, and invertebrate. 

 Regular investigations in the Indian Ocean began in 1959 with the six-month expedition 

in the “Vityaz” led by V. Bocharov and again the next year under the command of P. Bezrukov. 

In 1955-1959, the R/V “Ob” made measurements on two oceanographic sections in the southern 
45 

region of the Indian Ocean; the first section extended from the Antarctic to the Bay of Bengal 

and the second from the Antarctic to the Red Sea. During 1959-1962, the R/Vs “Yu.M. 

Shokalsky” and “A.I. Voeikov” (Far East RIHMI) made voyages in the Indian Ocean. These 

expeditions, undertaken in the Red Sea during the winter period, detected large year-to-year 

variations in temperature and oxygen content. In his calculations, N. Kucherov found that a 

mean daily heat loss at the ocean surface in 1959 was 2.5 times higher than that in 1960 (685 and 

275 cal cm-2 day-1, respectively). The water in the Gulf of Aden proved to be characterized by a 

very low oxygen concentration, lower than 1 ml l-1 in a depth range of 200 - 1500 m. 

 There were other expeditions in the Indian Ocean throughout the 1960s. In 1962, the 

“Vityaz” conducted expedition research in this area during the summer monsoon. Previously, no 

country had done oceanographic research in the Indian Ocean during the summer because of 

severe meteorological conditions. Over three years, numerous observations were made 

throughout this vast region, from Australia to South Africa and from the Asian coasts to 40o S. 

Major research tasks in this region consisted of studying atmospheric and oceanographic 

conditions, establishing zones of oceanographic fronts, determining heat balance and water 

exchange, determining concentrations of chemical elements and water radioactivity, etc. Selfcontained buoy stations, which were capable of making measurements over a long period of 

time, were first deployed in the ocean in order to record current velocity and direction at 

different depths. A great contribution to the Indian Ocean research was made by the Azov-Black 

Sea Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography (AzNIRKH) and VNIRO. To study fish 

supplies in the Indian Ocean, AzNIRKH mounted a scientific-search expedition in the R/V 

“Vladimir Vorobjyov” in the northwest section of the Indian Ocean in 1961 and 1962. Research 

investigating the influence of hydrological conditions on the behavior of different species of fish 

showed that concentrations of commercial fish stocks are produced only under very specific 

water temperature and oxygen content. In 1963-1964, two research vessels of the medium fishtrawler type (MFT), the “Marlin” and “Chernomor,” and two large research vessels, the “Nauka” 

and “Lesnoi,” – all four owned by AzNIRKH – were deployed to the Indian Ocean to conduct 

oceanographic, hydrobiological, and ichthyological investigations. The research-fishery vessel 

“Akademik Knipovich” (VNIRO), which was put into operation in 1965, contributed much to 

the development of research on the Indian Ocean. In the history of world shipbuilding, this was 

the first vessel that had a displacement of 3800 tons, supported 13 laboratories, and was 

equipped with special acoustic devices, under-water photography cameras, plankton nets, 

hundreds of powerful multi-colored electric lamps, and other instruments. A research fishery 

expedition conducted on the “Akademik Knipovich” in the Southern Ocean found that the 

Antarctic waters, adjacent to the south Atlantic and western Indian Oceans, are characterized by 

high biological productivity. In 1966, an expedition of the R/V “Mikhail Lomonosov” was 

undertaken in the Indian Ocean, the Red and Arabian Seas, and the Gulf of Aden. Based on the 

depth measurements in the Gulf of Aden, drastic changes in bottom topography were revealed, 

with depths increasing from 200 to 5000 m. Geophysicists hypothesized (subsequently 

confirmed) that active submarine volcanoes existed at the boundary between the ocean and the 

Red Sea. In 1967, the “Vityaz” made prolonged and continuous measurements of all 

hydrophysical parameters at different depths in a small region of the tropical Indian Ocean 

representing a peculiar kind of natural laboratory. The results of geophysical observations and 

depth measurements obtained by the R/Vs “Ob,” “Vityaz,” “Mikhail Lomonosov,” and 

“Akademik Kurchatov” from 1955-1962 radically changed the understanding of bottom 

topography in the Indian Ocean. Numerous ravines, canyons, mountain peaks, troughs and 
46 

mountain ridges that were given the names of Russian scientists and research vessels soon made 

their appearance on maps. Vast areas of ferromanganese nodules, similar in chemical 

composition to those in the Pacific, were also found at the bottom of the central region of the 

Indian Ocean. 

 Of great scientific value and applied interest was determining the features of the monsoon 

current covering the whole area of the Indian Ocean north of 5o S and the deep-sea 

countercurrent running below. The salinity distribution at the equator was found to depend 

largely on the influence by high-salinity waters in the Arabian Sea as well as freshened waters in 

the Bay of Bengal. In addition, expedition ships have collected a large body of valuable data on 

biological productivity of the Indian Ocean and revealed regions that were most promising for 

fishery development. Mutually beneficial contacts were established between scientists from the 

USSR and scientists from India, Indonesia, Ceylon, Australia, Burma, and other countries of the 

Indian Ocean basin. These contacts advanced a mutual understanding in solving crucial 

problems of international research. 

 Research in the southern polar region research started in 1946. Every year, scientists 

participated in cruises of whaling vessels such as the tenders “Slava,” “Sovetskaya Rossiya,” 

“Sovetskaya Ukraina,” and “Yury Dolgoruky.” During the period 1946-1970, the scientificsearch ships of these flotillas had collected extensive material on oceanographic, 

aerometeorological, and hydrobiological observations that helped resolve problems concerning 

the development of the whaling industry as well as some oceanographic and climatological 

questions. These data improved the ability to forecast hydrometeorological processes in the 

Northern Hemisphere and on a global scale. 

 Oceanographers and hydrobiologists, working collaboratively with whalers, solved the 

complicated fishery problem of detecting ocean regions with large groups of whales. These 

scientists also were able to study the physical processes occurring in the Antarctic waters, 

affecting the flora and fauna. Current measurements at self-contained buoy stations in the 

southern polar oceans showed that two rings of ocean currents existed. The outer ring, i.e. the 

Great Eastern Drift, crosses the southern regions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; has a 

mean width of 1580 km and a mean depth of 2370 m; is 7.5 times greater than the Gulf Stream in 

water transport; and is, thus, the largest ocean current. The penetration of the Atlantic waters 

into the Pacific implies that a general circulation of the World Ocean waters exists, but is has 

more of a background nature, which in most regions, is overlapped by more distinct currents. 

 Additional oceanographic and meteorological discoveries were made in the mid 1900s in 

the Southern Ocean. For instance, a study of the ocean circulation in the Antarctic waters 

showed that deep and bottom waters originated in this region, which then spread throughout the 

entire World Ocean. Yu. Makerov, participating in one of the first cruises of the tender “Slava,” 

classified the waters of the southern polar basin into three major categories: surface water with 

large temperature gradients; bottom water representing a layer of 2500 m thick with negative 

temperatures; and an upper deep-water layer. V. Nazarov and V. Rzheplinsky, both from SOI, 

found that in the region of intensive ice melt, the height of storm waves is considerably lower 

than that in other regions, although wind speed was the same. They accurately interpreted this 

phenomenon by deducing that much of the wind energy is taken by internal waves at the 

interface between waters of normal salinity and freshened waters. In addition, scientists found 

that some of the islands plotted on maps of the Southern Ocean, which were generated many 

years previously, no longer existed. From a distance, huge icebergs that were covered with silt 

and stones and, therefore, having a dark earthen color, were inadvertently mistaken for islands. 
47 

Similar phenomena were also observed in the Arctic. As for the atmosphere, T. Tauber analyzed 

synoptic maps and determined the regions of incipient cyclones in the high latitudes of the 

Southern Hemisphere. The analysis of cyclone recurrence maps and mean monthly air pressure 

maps, obtained in the Antarctic regions, showed that Antarctic cyclones mate with anticyclones 

in the southern subtropical belt of the eastern regions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. 

In 1956, based on ten years’ worth of observations, the SOI's staff prepared a monograph, 

“Antarctica,” whose first part was devoted to climate and weather and the second part to 

hydrological conditions in the Antarctic waters. This was the first monograph of its kind in the 

history of polar research. 

 In 1957, during the IGY, the USSR studied the Antarctic region between 80o and 105o E. 

In order to conduct oceanographic research in the Antarctic waters as well as deliver supplies 

and instrumentation to the Antarctic coast, which were required for establishing and ensuring the 

operation of coastal and inner-land stations, the identical and powerful icebreakers “Ob” and 

“Lena” were deployed. These vessels had a displacement of more than 12 thousand tons; 

supported eight research laboratories; included facilities for launching meteorological and 

aerological instruments; and contained aircraft and helicopter platforms to perform aerial ice 

reconnaissance and transport operations. The first expedition, led by V. Kort, headed to the 

Antarctic coasts in the “Ob” and “Lena.” In 1957, a second Antarctic expedition utilized the 

same ships in the Southern Ocean. The “Ob” made measurements along meridional hydrological 

sections in the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean, and the “Lena” studied the coasts of 

the continent. In 1959, an oceanographic expedition in the “Ob” studied the waters of the 

Southern Ocean along three sections: from Cape Town to station Mirnyi; along coastal waters 

from station Mirnyi to station Lazarev; and from station Lazarev back to Cape Town. 

 In late 1967, the 13th Antarctic expedition headed to the Southern Ocean in the “Ob,” 

“Professor Vize,” “Faddeiy Bellinsgauzen,” and “Boris Davidov.” The new R/V “Professor 

Vize” (AARI), commanded by Academician E. Fyodorov, conducted oceanographic, marine 

aerometeorological, and geophysical research over a large area of the Antarctic waters and 

carried out tests of new equipment and instruments. The three other research vessels of this 

expedition, under general command of A. Treshnikov, were devoted to oceanographic studies of 

the Bellinsgauzen and Weddell Seas, which were covered with floating ice and icebergs. 

 In the decade following the IGY, further Antarctic expeditions successfully completed a 

significant amount of research in marine aerometeorology, oceanography, geophysics, biology, 

hydrography, and marine geology. In addition, it may be noted that during the 100 years 

preceding IGY, about 2 thousand oceanographic stations had been involved in research 

throughout the Southern Ocean and a similar number during 1956-68, with almost half 

accomplished by the R/Vs “Ob” and “Lena.” On their journeys to the Antarctic coasts and back, 

these ships made measurements along numerous meridional sections crossing the Indian Ocean 

and the South Pacific, which included the following: 30 thousand miles of currents were 

measured by electromagnetic technique; 155 thousand miles were covered by depth sounder 

measurements; regular observations were made of icebergs, waves, and water temperature; and a 

collection of flora and fauna were acquired along with many samples of bottom sediments. 

 These and many other observations provided the basis for the world's first comprehensive 

“Atlas of Antarctica” jointly compiled by AARI, MSU, Institute of Geophysics of RAS (Russian 

Academy of Sciences), SOI, Research Institute for Arctic Geology, GUNIO, the Ministry of 

Marine Fleet, and other organizations. The first volume of the Atlas included cartographic 

materials and, the second, scientific papers on the Antarctic nature. 
48 

 The materials of Russian and foreign expeditions undertaken in the 19th and first half of 

the 20th centuries made it possible to analyze both horizontal and vertical spatial and temporal 

variability of temperature, salinity, and density over much of the world ocean's area. In the late 

1940s, Russian scientists investigated hydrological conditions in the oceans based on data 

summaries. The most significant results of these investigations are given in A. Muromtsev's 

monographs and atlases of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans as well as in A. 

Dobrovolsky's papers on the classification of water masses. In the mid 1970s, all collected and 

digitized observations from Russian and foreign research vessels were classified and processed 

by the staff of the Institute of Oceanology of RAS and in the U.S. by the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). The 

processing and analysis results are summarized in the series, “Atlases of Hydrophysical 

Parameters of the World Ocean” (temperature, salinity, density, sound velocity, electric 

conductivity, Vaisala-Brent frequency, and quasi-homogeneous layer). 

3.2.2 Period of national and international projects and programs for comprehensive World 

Ocean research

 By the early 1970s, the number of Soviet research vessels and their capacity for taking 

extended cruises had reached the point where oceanographic research could be conducted on a 

regular basis, both regionally and globally. Research vessels put into operation in succeeding 

years were generally built for special-purpose groups, such as the weather ships “Musson,” 

“Passat,” “Poryv,” “Shkval,” “E. Krenkel;” the satellite-tracking ships “Kosmonat Yu. 

Gagarin,” “Kosmonat V. Komarov;” the general-purpose ships “Akademik Mstislav Keldysh,” 

“Akademik Fyodorov,” the new “Vityaz;” the research icebreaker “Otto Schmidt;” the selfcontained submersible vehicle “Sever;” the submarines “Vega” and “Severyanka,” and others. 

The number of research vessels with respect to agencies, institutions, and republics of the former 

USSR is presented in Table 3.1 and the information on these vessels is given in Appendix 1. 

Table 3.1 Number of expedition ships with respect to agencies, institutions and republics of 

the former USSR 

Republic Agency Institution

Number of 

Ships

Azerbaijan Hydrometeorological Service 7 

Georgia Hydrometeorological Service 5 

Latvia Hydrometeorological Service 4 

“ Committee for Fishery BRIF 8 

“ Geology RIMG 2 

Lithuania Hydrometeorological Service 7 

Russia Hydrometeorological Service AARI 17 

“ “ Amderma Hydromet 1 

“ “ SHI 4 

“ “ Far East Hydromet 1 

“ “ Far East RIHMI 28 

“ “ Kamchatka Hydromet 8 
49 

Republic Agency Institution

Number of 

Ships

“ “ Murmansk Hydromet 52 

“ “ Kolyma Hydromet 6 

“ “ St-Petersburg SOI 1 

“ “ Maritime Hydromet 9 

“ “ Sakhalin Hydromet 33 

“ “ Northern Hydromet 10 

“ “ North Caucasia Hydromet 24 

“ “ Northwestern Hydromet 7 

“ “ Tiksi Hydromet 3 

“ Russian Academy of Sciences AI 2 

“ “ IV 1 

“ “ IWP 1 

“ “ IO 11 

“ “ MMBI 1 

“ “ Sakhalin CRI 5 

“ “ POI, Far East Branch 7 

“ Committee for Fishery AtlantNIRO 56 

“ “ VNIRO 3 

“ “ WESTFISHREC 42 

“ “ PINRO 75 

“ “ SakhNIRO 1 

“ “ TINRO 88 

“ “ PBFS 4 

“ Ministry of Defense GUNIO 97 

“ Ministry of Education RSHMI 2 

“ “ Moscow State University 3 

Uzbekistan Hydrometeorological Service 2 

Ukraine Academy of Sciences IBSS 3 

 “ MHI 4 

 Hydrometeorological Service Odessa SOI 9 

 “ Sevastopol SOI (now Marine 

Division of Ukrainian RIHMI) 

53 

 “ Ukrainian Hydromet 33 

 Committee for Fishery South RIFO 31 

 “ South Fish Search 26 

Estonia Hydrometeorological Service 8 

 Academy of Sciences ITPE 1 

Unknown 32 

 The instrument capabilities had also been enhanced with (1) sounding bathometers 

measuring temperature and salinity to an accuracy of 0.001o

 C and 0.001%, respectively 

(developed by the Central Design Office of Hydrometeorological Instruments); (2) automated 

digital current and water temperature meters (AARI); (3) towered sounders produced by 
50 

Figure 3.1 A map of regions where major national and international projects were conducted; typical R/V 

cruises (1 – “Baltics”, 2 – ALPEX, 3 – Monsoon, 4 – TOGA, 5 – GATE, 6 – MONEX, 7 – SECTIONS, 8 – Kara 

Experiment, 9 – Abissal; C – OSP, A – AARI, B – SOI, V – Murmansk Hydromet, G – Far East RIHMI) 

“Nyrok,” which measured the vertical distribution and horizontal variability of water 

temperature, and (4) new CTD technology, “Istok,” which measured the electric conductivity of 

water while a ship was moored (by IO of RAS and MHI of Ukrainian AS). These low-inertia 

instruments, which measured the micropulsation of water temperature, electric conductivity, and 

currents, were useful in developing a quantitative understanding of heat and mass exchange as 

well as momentum transfer both at the interface between the atmosphere and the ocean and 

within the water column itself. 

 Stand-alone instruments were no longer necessary and began to be integrated into a 

ship’s observational platform. When computers were installed on the research vessels, these 

observational platforms were unified into a totally automated measuring system. The automation 

of field measurements of meteorological and oceanographic parameters contributed to the 

solution of two vital problems facing sea expeditions by the mid-1980s: real-time computer 

display of measurements as tables and plots, on which instantaneous analysis could be used for 

making decisions in order to adjust the schedule of observations; and preparation of scientific 

and technical reports about the expedition directly en route. 

 The world scientific community, having become aware of the substantially increased 

capabilities of Russian oceanographers, invited them to participate in international projects to 

further understand the oceans and foreign seas, primarily to make oceanographic and 

aerometeorological observations. In most cases, this was adequate for the scientific and 

economic interests of Russia. The Soviet scientists participated in some international projects to 

provide scientific and methodical assistance to other countries and to uphold the international 

reputation of Russia.

 
51 

 However, beyond the international scientific and technical cooperation, the research 

institutes of the Academy of Sciences and Roshydromet concentrated most of their attention on 

national projects of marine research as well as on scientific support for the Navy and activities 

devoted to the application of marine resources. During a span of 25 years, from 1970-1994, 

Soviet research vessels had conducted expedition observations for 54 oceanographic research 

projects, 13 of these being international in scope. Figure 3.1 shows a map of the regions where 

major national and international projects were implemented. These projects involved more than 

1100 R/V cruises (not including the cruises in inland and border seas) of which 190 were part of 

international programs and more than 900 for national projects. International and national 

projects are listed in Table 3.2. Information about these projects is given in Appendix 2, and the 

information on the cruises involved in Appendix 3.

Table 3.2 International global and regional projects of marine research 

Name of project/program Acronym 

Global Projects 

First International Polar Year IPY-1 

Second International Polar Year IPY-2 

International Decade of Ocean Exploration IDOE 

Global Atmospheric Research Program GARP 

First GARP Global Experiment FGGE 

Joint U.S.-Soviet Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment POLYMODE 

Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks BIOMASS 

First Dynamic Response and Kinematics Experiment FDRAKE 

International Geophysical Year IGY 

Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere TOGA 

World Ocean Circulation Experiment WOCE 

Climate: Long-Range Investigation, Mapping and Prediction Study CLIMAP 

Marine Pollution Monitoring System MARPOLMON

Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment GIPME 

Geochemical Ocean Sections Study GEOSECS 

Regional Projects 

International Indian Ocean Expedition IIOE 

Caribbean Sea and Adjacent Regions CSAR 

Cooperative Investigations of the Northeastern Central Atlantic CINECA 

GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment GATE 

Alpine Experiment ALPEX 

Baltic Open Sea Experiment BOSEX 

Mediterranean Alpine Experiment MEDALPEX 

Joint Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea JEMS 

Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio and Adjacent Regions CSK 

Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis CUEA 

International Southern Ocean Studies ISOS 

The Baltic Sea - 

IOC Subcommission on the Western Pacific WESTPAC 

International Antarctic Glaciological Project IAGP 
52 

Figure 3.2 A map of Russian expeditions in 1979.

Name of project/program Acronym 

Regional Study of the Phenomenon known as “El Nino” ERFEN 

Kuroshio Applied Research KAR 

Fladen Ground Experiment FLEX'76 

Joint Air-Sea Interaction Experiment JASIN 

Joint North Sea Data Acquisition Project JONSDAP 

East Asia Tectonics and Resources Exploration Program EATREP 

Great Northern Expedition - 

Second Kamchatka Expedition - 

Northern Research Fishery Expedition - 

Northern Hydrographic Expedition - 

Black Sea Oceanographic Expedition - 

Aircraft High-Latitude Expedition - 

Drifting Stations “North Pole” NP 

Antarctic research - 

Investigations in the Southern Polar Region - 

 The period of 1977-1986 exhibited a peak of marine research when, on an annual basis, 

16 to 20 projects involved expedition observations in the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and 

Southern Oceans and the largest seas. The amount of data obtained from 1970-1996 from 

oceanographic, marine aerometeorological, hydrochemical (including radiochemical), ice, 

biological, hydroacoustic, marine geological, gravimetric and magnetic observations was 

approximately equal to that for all previous years of oceanographic research combined. A map of 

Russian expeditions in 1979, typical of those conducted during the 1970s and 1980s, is shown in 

Figure 3.2. 
53 

Figure 3.3 Launching a meteorological rocket from a 

research vessel 

 Expedition observations were conducted by research vessels concurrently with regional 

and global networks of ground- and space-based observational platforms in accordance with 

agreed-upon programs; the data obtained from some of these projects are considered unique in 

terms of diversity. It should be emphasized that, as a result of the enormous joint efforts of the 

Oceanographic Committee and scientists and experts of the State Committee for 

Hydrometeorology, Russian Academy of Sciences, GUNIO, Ministry of Fishery, and Ministry of 

Geology, many observations made by foreign participants in international marine research 

programs have been obtained under the auspices of international data exchange agreements. 

 During the period 1970-1973, four long-term national projects were implemented: 

“Quasi-two-year cycle” (QC), “BREEZE,” “Monsoon,” and “Southern cycle.” In the 12 years of 

the QC project, 7 research vessels from the Far East RIHMI performed 43 expedition cruises in 

the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The main objective of the project was to study the quasi-two-year 

cycle of atmospheric circulation in the equatorial stratosphere over the Pacific and Indian Oceans 

and the impact of these cycles on the weather in extratropical latitudes. An important 

distinguishing feature of observations made during these expeditions was aerological and rocket 

soundings of the atmosphere to heights of more than 30 km from the vessels’ launching 

platforms, as seen in Figure 3.3. These data are even more valuable since no radiosonde or rocket 

meteorological observations were made 

by research vessels of other countries. 

Concurrent with the radiosonde 

launchings, oceanographic observations 

to a depth of 2 km depth were 

conducted, which made it possible to 

obtain complete profiles of 

thermodynamic conditions in the two 

interacting media -- the atmosphere and 

ocean. The QC investigations 

determined the duration and 

characterized the variability in different 

phases of the quasi two-year cycles of 

circulation in the stratosphere. These 

cause-and-effect relationships were used 

by the Hydrometeorological Center and 

Far East RIHMI to develop procedures 

for long- and short-range weather 

forecasts for the Far East. The 

characteristics of the energy balance at 

the ocean surface during a storm, 

particularly turbulent heat losses, and the 

sinking of heat deep into the ocean as a 

result of the storm were first obtained 

from the QC cruises based on field 

measurements. B. Chuchkalov was the 

scientific leader of this project. 
54 

Determining water radioactivity (SPA “Typhoon) 
55 

Setting a self-contained buoy station equipped with a current meter
56 

 

Launching a radiosonde from a research vessel 
57 

Water sampling for pollution evaluation 
58 

During this same period, investigations for a national “Water and Heat Exchange” 

program were conducted to study water and heat transport in the northwestern Pacific. From 

1970-1972, 6 research vessels from the Far East RIHMI participated in the program and logged 

more than 20 cruises performing repeat oceanographic surveys east of Kamchatka, along the 

Kuril and Japan Islands in the Kuroshio zone. The oceanographic survey data were used to 

derive the velocities of water transported with the Kuroshio Current (30-50 million m3

 s

-1), the 

Kuril Current (15-30 million m3 s

-1), and the Kamchatka Current (5-15 million m3

 s

-1). They 

were also used to determine the heat transported within the Kuroshio Current (500-700 Gcal s-1). 

This information has greatly contributed to climate research. 

 The “Breeze” project involved 10 medium and small research vessels of the Far East 

RIHMI, which participated in 26 cruises during 1971-78 and performed seasonal oceanographic 

surveys at strictly fixed dates. 

 The expedition cruises for the “Southern cycle” program involved two large research 

vessels of MHI and IBSS, which performed five seasonal surveys in the Antarctic waters over a 

period of six years. The results of these observations supplemented the available data used to 

construct dynamical maps of currents in the Southern Ocean. 

 Two Soviet-Indian expeditions in 1973 and 1977 were conducted under the “Monsoon” 

project. In both years, up to four research vessels from the Far East RIHMI conducted 

synchronous spring-summer oceanographic surveys in the Arabian Sea and equatorial Indian 

Ocean. Hourly meteorological observations, six-hour upper-air soundings and ocean current, 

temperature, and salinity observations made it possible to obtain a number of important results 

concerning the peculiarities of monsoonal flow in a steady and unsteady state as well as to 

calculate heat and water vapor fluxes, etc. In addition to the direct use of the data in research, 

they were also used in the development and planning of the international Monsoon Experiment 

(MONEX) in the summer and winter of 1978-79, which was, in effect, a subprogram of the First 

GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program) Global Experiment (FGGE). 

 In 1972, a national Tropical Experiment (TROPEX-72) project was implemented in the 

Atlantic, which involved six research vessels of AARI, Southern Branch of IO RAS, Odessa 

SOI, and GUNIO. M. Petrosyants was the lead scientist for this program. TROPEX-72 was 

unique in terms of the equipment involved and the application of comprehensive and diversified 

observational procedures. The organizational and scientific experience gained in the course of 

this project was successfully applied by Soviet scientists in the planning of subsequent 

international projects, such as the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE), FGGE, MidOcean Dynamics Experiment (POLYMODE), etc. In addition, TROPEX-72 was the first project 

to implement data management during the course of the expedition. 

 In the late 1960s and early 1970s, prominent Soviet scientists participated in working 

groups of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the International Oceanographic 

Committee (IOC) to plan activities under GARP, the predecessor to the World Climate Research 

Program (WCRP), which was established in 1979. This was one of the largest research 

programs in the post-war years consisting of several major experiments: GATE, FGGE, 

Monsoon, MONEX, Barbados Oceanographic Meteorological Experiment (BOMEX), and the 

Mediterranean Alpine Experiment (MEDALPEX). In addition, under the sponsorship of GARP, 

a number of regional monsoon experiments were carried out, such as the West Africa Monsoon 

Experiment (WAMEX), the Alpine Experiment (ALPEX), the Ocean Topography Experiment 

(TOPEX), and others. It should be noted that the GARP findings have not been completely 
59 

analyzed and will be useful in ongoing efforts to evaluate and develop regional and global 

models to enhance forecasting capabilities. 

 From 1974-1976, Soviet research vessels participated in expeditions under the auspices 

of two international and four national programs. Observations were made in the tropical Atlantic 

as part of GATE; North Pacific (“Typhoon,” “Plyos,” “Shelf”); North Atlantic, Norwegian and 

Greenland Seas, and Antarctic waters (Polar Experiment or POLEX); and the Baltic Sea (Baltic 

Open Sea Experiment or BOSEX). 

 In particular, TROPEX-72 served as a rehearsal for Soviet participation in GATE, which 

took place in 1974. GATE was the largest international field study ever undertaken up to that 

time, and the project utilized a method of a moving polygon, in which five research vessels were 

arranged in an envelope and synchronously shifted along strictly specified longitudinal meridians 

to make three-dimensional measurements of the ocean and atmosphere. The observations of the 

ships within the moving polygons were complemented by current measurements at selfcontained buoy stations, aircraft observations, and satellite observations. The 1974 GATE 

program involved 11 countries: Brazil, Canada, France, West Germany, Mexico, The 

Netherlands, Portugal, the USSR, Great Britain, the USA, and Venezuela. From April to 

December of that year, 13 large and medium research vessels from the Far East RIHMI, Odessa 

SOI, AARI, MHI, IO RAS, and GUNIO made hydrological, hydrochemical, aerometeorological, 

current, cloud, and precipitation observations in the tropical Atlantic. In addition, research 

aircraft and satellite observations supplemented those made on the ships. The purpose of GATE 

was to understand the tropical atmosphere and its role in the global circulation of the atmosphere. 

So far this project represents the best example of standardization of observational procedures, 

data verification, and data digitization in a unified format. 

 An international pilot project, Marine Pollution Monitoring System (MARPOLMON), 

sponsored by the IOC to study the effects of oil pollution, was carried out by the USSR, Japan, 

and the USA from 1976 to 1987. This project involved 22 research vessels of the Far East 

RIHMI, Odessa SOI, Murmansk Hydromet, Navy GUNIO, and Northwestern Hydromet, which 

conducted 48 cruises in the North Pacific and in the Philippine, Coral, Solomon, Japan, East 

China, Bismarck, Caribbean, and Mediterranean Seas in all seasons. In addition, nearly 2500 

Soviet merchant ships from different ministries and agencies contributed to the project. Along 

with standard oceanographic and marine aerometeorological observations, a large number of 

measurements on oil-clot concentrations as well as the density and extent of oil spills on the sea 

surface were obtained, which were based on the procedures specially developed by SOI and its 

Odessa branch. Quantitative indicators of oil pollution were determined along the main 

navigation routes within the regions of study, and capabilities and mechanisms for water selfpurification in fishery regions were studied. This effort established the need for a new kind of 

production-scientific activity -- monitoring of pollution in the world ocean. As a result, 

discussions were initiated within high levels of governments in most of the world’s coastal 

countries to consider the problem of pollution in the marine environment and water purification 

efforts. 

 The most prolonged national project, the Polar Experiment (POLEX), started in 1974 and 

consisted of two subprograms: Polar Experiment - Northern Hemisphere (POLEX-North) and 

Polar Experiment - Southern Hemisphere (POLEX-South). Over the course of its 25-year 

history, and under the scientific leadership of A. Treshnikov and B. Krutskikh, POLEX involved 

18 research vessels from AARI, Murmansk Hydromet, Far East RIHMI, Odessa SOI, and 

RSHMI; and these ships participated in 122 cruises in both the northern and southern polar 
60 

latitudes of the world ocean. In the course of the POLEX cruises, the circulations of surface and 

deep waters were studied and observations were made of water, energy, and heat exchange 

between the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans as well as between the atmosphere and ocean in the 

Antarctic regions. 

 Major results of this research are described in numerous selected works by AARI and Far 

East RIHMI. Specifically, temporal and spatial variabilities of the sea-surface heat balance 

components in the central North Pacific were first evaluated from direct observations. The 

contribution of latent heat by the freezing of sea water and ice melt to the ocean-atmosphere 

energy balance in the Arctic basin was also studied. The expedition observations conducted in 

the Southern Ocean (POLEX-South) from 1977 to 1990 have been, up to now, the most 

comprehensive and prolonged series of oceanographic and aerometeorological observations in 

this region. In addition, the surveys resulted in the installation of numerous automatic buoy 

stations (ABSs). These ABSs, exposed to extremely harsh weather conditions, were capable of 

taking measurements up to a depth of 4000 m (some of which worked continuously for 7-10 

months). The data from the expeditions as well as from the buoy stations were used to compile 

maps of temperature and salinity distribution in the Southern Ocean, to determine characteristics 

and areas of distribution of major water masses, and to compile maps of surface and deep 

currents. These investigations validated the Antarctic waters as an independent part of the world 

ocean, now called the Southern Ocean, and determined its geographical boundaries. Cyclone 

frequency and trajectory, ice drift, and propagation and nature of tides were also determined. 

The arguments about the structure of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) were settled: 

measurements verified that the ACC has a mono-directional flow whose width varies between 

300 and 1300 miles and with a mean water transport in the Drake Strait of 110 million m3

 s

-1. 

Also during this period, under a bilateral agreement, Russian and U.S. scientists participated in 

POLEX-South to update oceanographic databases held within both countries. Such cooperation 

exemplified a fruitful international collaborative effort in world-ocean scientific research. In 

addition, students and teachers from RIHMI also participated in the cruises, and this significantly 

enhanced the training of young scientists in oceanographic and meteorological specialties. 

 In 1978, expedition observations began in the Pacific Ocean under the framework of a 

12-year project called “Typhoon.” In the course of 23 cruises carried out during four summerfall periods, scientists from the Far East RIHMI investigated the origination and conditions for 

the development of Pacific typhoons and deep tropical cyclones as well as their tracks. The 

leader of the Project was V. Ivanov. Research within this project was comprehensive from the 

very beginning: along with participants from SPA “Typhoon” (Institute of Experimental 

Meteorology) and Far East RIHMI, the expedition cruises and subsequent data processing 

involved scientists from six institutes of the State Committee for Hydrometeorology, nine 

institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Ministry of Higher Education as well as 

representatives of the Meteorological Institute in Cuba and the Geophysical Service in the 

Philippines. The observations established a direct relationship between sea-surface temperature 

(SST) and high heat storage (thermal potential) in the upper 100-m water layer associated with 

typhoon formation and intensity. The formation of a “thermal trace” along the typhoon 

trajectory was revealed, the parameters of the trace were studied, and the quantity of water and 

heat given to the typhoon by the upper-ocean layer was calculated. A dynamic structure of the 

trace showed a cyclonic eddy in the oceanic zone that was exposed to the typhoon, and this 

provided an answer to the question about the origin of this element of ocean circulation, which is 

of great scientific and applied interest. 
61 

 An international project to do comprehensive research on the Baltic Sea -- the Baltic 

Open Sea Experiment (BOSEX) -- was carried out from 1976 to1988. The experiment involved 

Sweden, West Germany, Denmark, Finland, East Germany, and Poland. As for the USSR, the 

ITPE's research vessel participated in BOSEX with the implementation of eight cruises in the 

Baltic Sea in the spring-summer-fall period to study synoptic variability of hydrophysical and 

hydrochemical fields.

 A joint U.S.-Soviet Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (POLYMODE) was carried out in 

1977-1978 within the framework of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE). 

Over the course of 13 expedition cruises, 8 research vessels from MHI, Southern Branch of IO 

RAS, AI, GUNIO and Odessa SOI made measurements of current characteristics in the North 

Atlantic in both warm and cold seasons to study the oceanic circulation and its interaction with 

atmospheric processes. On the Soviet side, the leader of this project was V. Kort. 

 As part of POLYMODE, the Soviet side implemented a subprogram, the Synoptic and 

Dynamic Experiment (SDE), which was implemented in the Sargasso Sea on the periphery of the 

zone of the Gulf Stream countercurrent. The basis for the SDE was to conduct observations of 

the current at 19 Autonomous Buoy Stations (ABSs), which were located at points of a polygon 

of equilateral triangles with center at 29o

 N, 70o W, each having a spatial distance of 39 miles. 

ABSs were located inside the polygon of 5o

 latitude and 12o longitude, within which 

oceanographic surveys were performed using a very dense grid of STD and temperature 

soundings of the ocean (400 measurement points in one survey). The observations within the 

polygon throughout the year produced pictures of 13 eddy formations of synoptic scale 

(transverse dimensions are 50 - 80 km) in the 100- to 1400-m layer with a current velocity up to 

60 cm s-1. All the eddies moved in a general westward direction with velocities of 6 km per day. 

Higher temperatures were observed within the eddies -- 2.5o to 3.5o C higher than in the 

surrounding waters at the same depth. Establishing the existence of synoptic-scale eddy 

formations in the constant-temperature field contributed much to improving procedures for 

analyzing oceanic circulation and developing a formation mechanism and structure of the main 

thermocline. High values of the energy parameters of synoptic eddies made it possible to 

characterize them as elements of macroturbulence. 

 During the period 1977-1980, Soviet research vessels had conducted expedition 

observations for eight national and four international projects. Of these, the international 

projects, FGGE and WESTPAC, and national projects, SECTIONS and “The Seas of the 

USSR,” were the largest in the scope of investigations. The FGGE was somewhat similar to 

IGY in that it involved 23 countries, including Brazil, Great Britain, the USSR, the USA, West 

Germany, Mexico, The Netherlands, Canada, France, and Portugal. The experiment was 

preceded by careful preliminary planning, which took into account the experience gained from 

GATE and other international projects. The USSR contribution to the FGGE oceanographic 

investigations was represented by 26 cruises in the tropical Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans 

undertaken by 14 major and medium research vessels from the Far East RIHMI, AARI, Odessa 

SOI, Southern Branch of IO RAS, MHI, GUNIO, and Sakhalin Hydromet. All the objectives 

identified in the FGGE program were fulfilled, i.e. current observations as well as hydrological, 

hydrochemical, marine aerometeorological, geological and geophysical observations. As in 

GATE, all observational data were put on standard magnetic tapes. Owing to the active 

participation of Russian research vessels and scientists in the FGGE expeditions and working 

committees for planning and data management, the World Data Center B (Obninsk) received 

observation materials from all the countries involved in the project, including 28,000 profile 
62 

measurements of the vertical thermohaline structure in the upper ocean layer taken by 

expendable bathythermographs (XBTs), which were not used on the Soviet research vessels. 

Scientific results of FGGE are described in numerous proceedings of research institutes of the 

State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Soviet and Ukrainian Academies of Sciences. 

 The resulting data of measurements quantifying the exchange of heat, chemical 

components, energy and water between the sea, atmosphere, and land in the tropical regions at 

different temporal and spatial resolutions as well as increased computer capabilities enhanced 

mathematical modeling of the thermodynamic processes, which contributed toward ongoing 

research efforts to improve long-range weather forecasts and to better understand short-term 

climate variability. Specifically, the high-density instrumental observations, afforded by the 

polygon method along sections in the tropical North Atlantic during intensive two-month 

observational periods in summer and winter seasons, made it possible to characterize the 

parameters of the annual variation in water temperature and salinity in the upper 1000-m ocean 

layer, estimate the latitudinal advective heat transport, and describe the temporal variability of 

temperature and salinity in the main thermocline. In the western part of the Lomonosov Current, 

observations were conducted by ABSs within special polygons, each having a spatial separation 

of five miles (using the schemes “snail” and “comb”). These observations revealed high-salinity 

and high-temperature water lenses 15-30 km in diameter and 30 m thick in the 50-100 m layer. 

New and vital results were also obtained in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 

 Regional experiments sponsored by the IOC on the western pacific (WESTPAC) were 

held from 1979-1987 and involved the USSR, Japan, and Australia. Target research areas were 

the northern and northwestern Pacific, Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, East China Sea, South 

China Sea, and Inland Sea. In these areas, 10 research vessels from the Far East RIHMI, POI, 

and Sakhalin CRI carried out oceanographic, biological, marine meteorological, and 

geological/geophysical observations in the course of 19 expedition cruises. The Soviet part of 

this project was led by V. Fedorei. 

 The ten-year national project “Tsunami” was initiated in 1978. In the framework of this 

project, four medium research vessels from the Far East RIHMI and Sakhalin Hydromet carried 

out ten expedition cruises in the northwestern Pacific and Far East seas where standard and 

special oceanographic observations were made in the spring and fall seasons. 

 Two seven-year projects began in 1979: the international project, Investigations of the 

Caribbean Sea (IOCARIBE), and the national Monsoon Experiment (MONEX). In IOCARIBE, 

which involved the USA, the USSR, and other countries, biological and oceanographic 

observations were made during seven winter and spring expedition cruises by three major 

research vessels of MHI of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. The MONEX activity program 

for 1978-1979, in which five Far East RIHMI research vessels participated, was split into two 

phases: Summer MONEX and Winter MONEX. The Soviet expedition in Summer MONEX 

was commanded by B.Chuchkalov. Summer MONEX was equipped with diverse platforms for 

observations: research vessels, aircrafts, satellites, coastal meteorological and aerological 

stations, observation towers, sondes, and rockets. The scientific goals of MONEX were to study 

the peculiarities of monsoons on global and regional scales, their heat sources, mechanisms of 

monsoon development, termination of monsoons, interaction of monsoons with other forms of 

atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere and at temperate latitudes of the Northern 

Hemisphere, interaction with stratospheric circulation, and improving numerical modeling and 

forecasts. Scientists from the Far East RIHMI and SPA “Typhoon” studied the conditions and 

mechanisms of the evolution of the summer and winter monsoon in the Indian Ocean. 
63 

Expedition cruises in Summer and Winter MONEX were completed about the time of the first 

and second special observation periods of FGGE; consequently, the MONEX observational data 

were put on magnetic tapes in the FGGE format. This made the results of the scientific analysis 

of the data obtained in other FGGE regions highly comparable, which was helpful in realizing 

the goals of MONEX. Comprehensive and comparable observations made it possible to obtain 

new and unique data on the global-scale atmospheric circulation and its regional peculiarities in 

the Indian Ocean, which is of great importance for research efforts within the World 

Meteorological Organization’s (WMO’s) World Weather Watch program as well as to the 

national weather services of India and other countries in the Indian Ocean basin. 

 The investigations conducted in the energetically active zones of the world ocean from 

1979-1990 as part of the SECTIONS program proved to be a unique in national and international 

oceanographic research. The program involved 94 research vessels from 19 institutions of the 

State Committee for Hydrometeorology, Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Fishery, and Navy 

GUNIO, which, collectively, carried out 490 cruises. During these cruises, continuous and 

extensive observations were conducted throughout the year on sections and within polygons in 

energetically active zones in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, in the Gulf 

Stream and Kuroshio zones, the Faeroe-Shetland Strait, and the Norwegian Sea. The main 

objective of SECTIONS consisted of studying the contribution of the ocean to short-term climate 

variations. The principal targets of the study were represented by energetically active ocean 

zones (EAOZ), i.e. zones of maximum impact by oceans on climatic fluctuations in the 

atmosphere. The national program, SECTIONS did encourage and, to some extent, require the 

involvement of research vessels from other countries. The concept of the program, including its 

objectives and immediate tasks, was the subject of extensive discussion by the scientific 

community during the planning phase in 1980-81. The expedition cruises began in 1981. The 

objectives were identified as follows: 

• to study the main climatic factors in the atmosphere and ocean in order to better understand 

short-term climate variations for specific regions of the Northern Hemisphere by using 

primarily the data from field measurements in the EAOZ; 

• to study the formation of anomalous values of oceanographic parameters in the EAOZ in 

the tropical and northern Atlantic and Pacific by using a four-dimensional analysis of 

observational data; 

• to study the temporal variability of major characteristics of the ocean and atmosphere in the 

EAOZ and develop climatic models to simulate the annual variation in heat content in the 

upper active ocean layer; 

• to study, on a regional basis, the interaction between the atmosphere, EAOZ, and 

continental land off the eastern Asian coasts. 

 To achieve these goals, the following measurements were made by research vessels: 

water temperature, salinity, and content of individual chemical elements in the ocean to a depth 

of 2 km; air temperature, humidity, cloudiness, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, and 

precipitation in the boundary layer; air temperature, humidity and velocity vector in the free 

atmosphere to a height of 30 km; incoming atmospheric solar radiation and a vertical distribution 

of heat fluxes in the atmosphere and ocean. Again, special aircraft and satellite observations 

were conducted. Observational data from weather ships and research vessels involved in other 

international and national projects were used. The SECTIONS program leaned heavily on the 

experience previously gained from GATE, POLEX, FGGE, Monsoon, Typhoon, and other 
64 

international programs. In addition, the SECTIONS program called for observational data 

management as a distinct activity. 

 The analysis of observations and recommendations for enhancing the program were made 

by a Scientific Advisory Council whose members represented the institutes involved in the 

program. Consequently, the program obligated scientific resources and expedition facilities from 

nearly each institution with an oceanographic focus, which had been the core of Russian marine 

research for ten years. The results of the analysis and processing of data were regularly 

published in a special series of proceedings of the All-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical 

Information and in the proceedings of research institutes involved in SECTIONS. The data, 

recorded on magnetic tapes, have been used for large-scale theoretical and applied research of 

the ocean as well as for studying the global climate system. 

 The icebreaker “Otto Schmidt” greatly facilitated oceanographic research in the Arctic 

seas. The AARI and Murmansk Hydromet implemented the national project, the Kara Sea 

Experiment (KAREX, 1979-1994), in the course of which four research vessels, including the 

“Otto Schmidt,” carried out nine expeditions in the Kara Sea in the fall-winter seasons. The 

observations conducted made it possible to better understand the beginning and intensity of ice 

formation along the northern sea route and in the mouths of Siberian rivers in the western Arctic, 

to study heat fluxes during ice formation, and to specify the trajectory of ice drift. The resulting 

data greatly contributed in the improvement of forecasts of ice conditions in the western Arctic. 

It should also be noted that aircraft and drifting ice stations played a large part in research efforts 

in the Russian Arctic during the latter half of the 20th century. However, in the years preceding 

the experiment in the Kara Sea, a number of outstanding cruises, in terms of their scientific 

significance, were carried out by merchant and Navy ships. Among these are the one-season 

high-latitude voyages of the nuclear-powered icebreaker, “Lenin,” together with the icebreaker 

“Vladivostok” (1971); cruises of the nuclear-powered icebreakers “Arctika” and “Rossia” to the 

North Pole (1977); the under-ice voyage of the K-3 nuclear-powered submarine, which was the 

first Soviet submarine to reach the North Pole (17 July, 1962); and the voyage of the electrically 

driven motorship, “Kapitan Myshevsky,” piloted by the nuclear-powered icebreaker, “Sibir.” 

Among the many who made significant contributions to Arctic research were I. Maksimov, M. 

Somov, E. Tolstikov, A. Treshnikov, P. Gordienko, N. Kornilov, Yu. Konstantiniv, N. Romanov, 

P. Morozov, A. Chireikin, N. Blinov, and L. Bulatov. 

 Two ten-year international projects, the Baltic Experiment (BALTEX) and the Marine 

Pollution Monitoring system (MARPOLMON), and one two-year international project, 

Mediterranean Alpine Experiment (MEDALPEX), were initiated in the early 1980s. BALTEX 

was the largest of the Baltic Sea research programs in that it involved all Baltic states - Denmark, 

Sweden, West Germany, the USSR, Finland, Poland, and East Germany. Russian participation 

involved eight medium and small research vessels from the AARI, Lithuanian Hydromet, 

Estonian Institute for Thermal Electrophysics, RSHMI, and Odessa SOI, which collectively 

carried out 44 cruises in all the seasons of the year. The aim of the program was to conduct 

comprehensive research on the ecosystem of the Baltic Sea. Oceanographic and meteorological 

observations were complemented by extensive biological observations. The nature, extent, and 

concentrations of pollutants were also determined. The results of data analyses were regularly 

discussed during meetings with high-level policy makers, in which recommendations and 

strategies were elaborated to assist governmental institutions of the Baltic states to reduce 

pollution that was having an impact on fishery quotas. 
65 

 The IOC MARPOLMON program, aimed at monitoring marine pollution in parts of the 

world ocean, involved nearly all IOC member states. Ships and coastal monitoring stations 

collected data on oil residue in the ocean as well as obtained samples of water for oil clots. 

These observations were carried out over the vast water areas of the Pacific and its seas – the 

Caribbean, Baltic, and Mediterranean Seas – as well as along major navigation routes and in the 

regions of marine oil production. 

 The MEDALPEX program involved Spain, Italy, the USSR, Yugoslavia, France, Turkey, 

and Belgium. MEDALPEX involved four Russian research vessels from Odessa SOI, GUNIO, 

and IBSS. Four cruises in the winter-spring and fall seasons were carried out within the 

program. Hydrological, hydrochemical, meteorological and biological observations were 

conducted in order to obtain quantitative values of the sea-air interaction in the central 

Mediterranean and in the Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, and Adriatic Seas. The data were used to 

compile the “Atlas of the Mediterranean Sea” (1984), which was produced by the Regional Data 

Center for Cooperative Exploration of the Mediterranean (a component of the NODC). 

 A significant contribution to research on the Pacific Ocean was made by two one-year 

national projects, CENP'80 (Comprehensive Explorations in the Northwestern Pacific-1980) and 

CEPI (Complex Expeditions in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, 1982). CENP’80 involved seven 

research vessels from the Far East RIHMI, and V. Pokudov was the program manager. The 

objectives of the project were: 1) to obtain a quantitative estimate of heat and mass transport of 

currents in tropical latitudes of the western Pacific to temperate latitudes; 2) to study the 

evolution and vertical structure of the summer Asian monsoon in order to develop a numerical 

model of the development of the monsoon circulation; 3) to study the characteristics of the life 

cycle and path of typhoons; and 4) to quantify the ocean-atmosphere large-scale thermal 

interaction. These objectives were achieved by implementing six subprograms: “Kuroshio,” 

“Macroeddy,” “Stationary Polygon,” “Typhoon,” and “Fine Structure.” The scientific objectives 

of CENP’80 were too ambitious for a one-year project, but the data obtained were, nonetheless, 

quite impressive and valuable, especially regarding the individual parameters studied. Two 

large-scale hydrobiological surveys, three microsurveys, and two stationary polygons were 

carried out in the course of this project, involving 3 thousand oceanographic stations and 

soundings, 944 radiosonde launchings, 97 thermosound soundings, 657 water samples treated for 

an isotope-inferred indication of water and nutrient balances, and current observations made at 

five ABSs. CENP’80 provided quantitative information of the water heat content and the 

location of hydrobiological fronts, which were revealed by studying large (warm and cold) 

eddies in the meandering zone of the Kuroshio. The characteristics of the supertyphoon 

“Winnie” in 1983, whose pressure at the center dropped below 890 hPa, were measured along 

with its impact on the upper-ocean layer. The observations confirmed the existence of a 

countercurrent at depths of 300 - 1000 m under the southern periphery of the northern trade 

current. The investigation into cyclogenesis abnormalities in the northwestern Pacific was of 

great importance for predicting weather conditions in the Russian Far East, for understanding the 

water circulation mechanism in the Far East seas, and for estimating biological productivity in 

one of the richest fishery regions of the world ocean. 

 The CEPI'82 project involved 8 research vessels from the Far East RIHMI, which carried 

out 13 expeditions in the Pacific and Indian Oceans in the spring, summer, and fall seasons of 

1982. It was a logical extension of the earlier investigations by this institute, such as “Water and 

Heat Exchange,” “Monsoon,” MONEX, and CENP'80. The main goal of the CEPI program was 

to obtain comprehensive data to study the ocean-atmosphere interaction during the origin and 
66 

evolution of the Indian Ocean and Asian monsoons and tropical cyclones (typhoons) from May 

to September and from September to January when summer hydrological processes give way to 

winter processes. The observations conducted as part of CEPI’82 were used in a number of 

interrelated programs: “Thermal abnormality of energetically active regions in the Pacific and 

Indian Oceans,” “Water circulation,” “Atmospheric processes and their connection with water 

thermodynamics,” “Macroeddy,” and “Stationary polygon.” 

 The CEPI'82 program was the largest in the history of combined research on the Pacific 

and Indian Oceans with respect to geographic coverage, the number of the ships involved, 

observations conducted, and the scope of scientific problems solved from one-year observations. 

During the spring-summer and fall-winter periods, three research vessels in the Indian Ocean and 

five research vessels in the Pacific conducted 8716 meteorological observations, 3447 

measurements at oceanographic stations, 1569 aerological soundings, and 752 actinometric 

measurements. In addition, 40 meteorological rockets were launched, 5 ABSs were set, 221 

satellite images were utilized, and 227 surface weather maps were compiled. The observations 

identified a number of distinctive qualities in hydrometeorological conditions in the area under 

study, including a one-month delay in the “explosion” of the southwestern monsoon. The 

observations also determined velocities of water and heat transport with the southern trade 

current in the Indian Ocean, the Kuroshio Current and countercurrent, the northern trade current, 

and the subtropical countercurrent in the Pacific Ocean. Using the observational results, maps 

were compiled of the location of the centers of baric systems in the Indian Ocean and on the heat 

budget at the surface of the Pacific and Indian Oceans in the spring-summer and fall-winter 

seasons. Origin sites, characteristics, and trajectories of 11 summer typhoons occurring in 1982 

were identified, and a map was compiled of the distribution of stratification of sound velocity in 

the northwestern Pacific. 

 Several national programs were launched during the 1980s. The long-term national 

Barents Sea Experiment (BAREX), which focused on the North, Norwegian, Greenland, and 

Barents Seas, was initiated in 1984. In the period 1987-90, oceanographic surveys continued in 

the Barents Sea under a different program, called the Barents project. For the two projects 

combined, 7 major research vessels from Murmansk Hydromet, WESTFISHREC Company, and 

AARI carried out 20 cruises in all seasons of the year. The two programs were led by Yu. 

Sustavov. The programs concentrated much attention on the study of the relationship between 

hydrological-hydrochemical conditions, biological productivity, and migration of commercial 

fish. From 1985-1988, the national project, “Kosmos” (Space), was conducted, where two major 

research vessels, belonging to MHI, carried out seven cruises in the Atlantic in all seasons of the 

year. And, finally, a significant contribution to research efforts on the inland and marginal 

Russian seas was made under the auspices of the program, “The USSR Seas” (1981-1990), 

which involved 40 institutions of the Hydrometeorological Service, Ministry of Fishery, 

Academy of Sciences, and others. The program was led by F. Terziev. Within the framework of 

this program, small and medium research vessels from the Far East RIHMI, Odessa SOI, and 

Sakhalin, Lithuanian, Murmansk and Northern Hydrometeorological Services carried out 

hundreds of cruises in the spring, summer, and fall seasons over both ice-free and ice-covered 

water areas. A time series of observations on sections in the Baltic Sea exemplifies the 

amassment of data on the seasonal variability of hydrological conditions in the Russian seas. 

There were 455 stations in the Baltic Sea where oceanographic and meteorological observations 

were made once per season for five years and more. In addition, the data acquired under the 

“Seas” program was summarized and analyzed in numerous general-purpose historical reference 
67 

monographs, manuals, atlases, catalogs, and other materials prepared for special requests. 

Among those particularly worth noting are the monographs, “Hydrometeorology and 

Hydrochemistry of Seas: the Aral Sea, the Sea of Azov, the White, Baltic, Barents, Caspian and 

Black Seas, and the Sea of Okhotsk” and “Present-day Climate Change in the Caspian Sea.” 

Furthermore, the data were used to provide forecasts of marine pollution and to develop methods 

of water accounting for inland and semi-closed seas. 

 Specific single-discipline marine research was also conducted under programs, such as 

“Shelf,” “Dumping,” “Wind Waves,” “The Environment,” “Mouths,” “Digma,” and others. 

From 1968-1992, more than 400 cruises took place using small and medium research vessels 

from the SOI (and its branches) and regional branches of the Roshydromet, each with an 

objective to obtain data addressing a special need. 

 Russian research vessels greatly contributed to the operation of observation systems at 

Ocean Weather Stations (OWS). A network of these stations was established in the late 1940s. 

At first, the network was intended for aviation purposes; and before 1975, the stations had been 

operated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in cooperation with the 

International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Ocean (IAPSO) and International 

Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). However, starting in 1975, the observations at 

the stations were conducted under the auspices of the WMO. A total of 13 stations were 

operating in the North Atlantic and 8 stations in the Pacific, and the network involved research 

vessels from Norway, France, The Netherlands, Great Britain, the USA, the USSR, Sweden, 

Japan, and Canada. From 1 July 1975 to 13 May 1990, SOI's research vessels had carried out 

171 expedition cruises at OWS “C” (Charlie) (52o

 41' N, 35o 38' W). Here 35,750 

oceanographic, 24,070 aerological soundings, and 158,697 meteorological measurements were 

taken. These allowed fairly reliable statistical calculations to be made to obtain characteristics of 

the temporal variability of the ocean-atmosphere interaction processes. Since 1946, when Ocean 

Weather Stations went into operation, a unique time series was produced on the variability of 

hydrometeorological and oceanographic parameters in the open ocean.. These data are now 

available from RIHMI-WDC (Obninsk). Unfortunately, to the regret of oceanographers around 

the world, the OWSs ceased to operate in the late 1980s as a result of the high costs of 

maintenance. 

 In 1985, the Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere (TOGA) program began, under the 

auspices of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP), and focused on obtaining data to 

investigate the interannual variability in the tropical oceans and global atmosphere. The main 

objectives of TOGA were to study characteristics of the ocean-atmosphere interaction and to 

evaluate large-scale climate variations in the tropical oceans and global atmosphere (i.e. El Niño, 

monsoon variability in Asia and Africa, droughts in Africa and South America, and other 

unfavorable phenomena). Russian involvement in the program was managed by S.Lappo. 

The World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), also a component of the WCRP, was 

launched in 1990. The main objective of this program is to better understand and predict the 

variability of ocean circulation, its effect on gas storage, and how it interacts with the 

atmosphere. The program was set up to address 12 objectives, with major field programs 

undertaken from 1990-97. Analysis and modeling efforts are expected to continue possibly into 

2005. Russia’s participation in the field program included monthly hydrological soundings for 

the entire water column at 12 specially selected points in the Atlantic and 8 points in the Pacific. 

In the past ten years Russian oceanographers have taken an active part in the International 

Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP), World Climate Research Program, etc. 
68 

 Most typical for the 1980s were one- and two-year marine research projects , such as 

“Vertical,” “Abyssal,” “Wave,” Patchiness Experiment, “Krill,” GSEPM (Governmental Service 

for Environmental Pollution Monitoring), SAGAPE (Soviet-American Gas-Aerosol Pacific 

Experiment), “Maritime Territory,” “Start,” “Geomorphology,” etc. Among the one-year 

projects, worth noting are the following: “Triangle,” “Hurricane,” and “Front.” In the national 

project, “Polynia,” two research vessels from the IO RAS and AARI were deployed in the highlatitude waters of the Southern Hemisphere, one of which, the Mikhail Somov, was under polar 

night conditions for more than two months. There were some projects, in which no Russian 

research vessels were involved but included the participation of Russian scientists to ensure 

high-quality observations. Among these are Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic 

Systems and Stocks (BIOMASS), First Dynamic Response and Kinematics Experiment 

(FDRAKE), Joint Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea (JEMS), Cooperative Study of the 

Kuroshio and Adjacent Regions (CSK), Cooperative Investigations of the Northeaster Central 

Atlantic (CINECA), WOCE, Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment-1 (MODE-1), and others. 

 Since the early 1990s, the extent of Soviet oceanographic research has been reduced 

drastically, and the State Environmental Data Holding (within the RIHMI, Obninsk) no longer 

receives observational data from research vessels of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Azerbaijan. 

Nevertheless, in spite of the financial difficulties, Russian oceanographers, marine 

meteorologists, aerologists, and hydrochemists continue to conduct research on the oceans and 

seas. During 1991-96, the Russian NODC received hundreds of reports on national and foreign 

R/V cruises, which took place during these years. 

3.3 Organizations engaged actively in studies of oceans and seas 

 In the latter half of the 20th century, more than 70 Russian institutions (information on 

these institutions is provided in Appendix 4) were involved in the planning, coordination, and 

execution of various programs, providing both technical and instrumental support as well as 

training technicians, students, and scientists to conduct oceanographic research. The most active 

among these institutions were those of the Academy of Sciences, State Committee for 

Hydrometeorology (Roshydromet), Ministry of Fisheries (now the Fishery Agency at the 

Ministry of Agriculture), Ministry of Defense, and Ministry of Geology (now the Russian 

Committee for Natural Resources). With respect to the objectives of research concerning the 

world ocean and the conduct of expedition cruises, marine institutions and related organizations 

may be classified into several groups: 

• Group 1 includes the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the RAS and its regional branches, 

which conduct comprehensive investigations of the physical, chemical, biological, and 

geological processes in the seas and oceans. 

• Group 2 includes institutions which specialize in a particular field of research. For example, 

the Murmansk Marine Biological Institute of the Kola Branch of RAS specializes in marine 

biology of the northern seas; the Zoological Institute of the RAS in marine biology; the 

Acoustic Institute of the RAS in ocean acoustics; and the Institute of Biology of the 

Southern Seas of the Ukrainian AS in marine biology. 

• Group 3 consists of specialized ministry-supported institutes, which are engaged in solving 

scientific and applied-research problems that are mission oriented: VNIRO, PINRO, 

AtlantNIRO and TINRO (Ministry of Fishery); AARI, SOI, Far East RIHMI, IAG and IEM 
69 

(Roshydromet); Research Center of GUNIO (Ministry of Defense); hydrometeorological 

centers of fleets; and others. 

• Group 4, the largest one, comprises production enterprises and organizations engaged 

primarily in observations and oceanographic data acquisition. Regional administrations of 

the Roshydromet and marine fishery services belong to this group. 

• Group 5 consists of educational institutions: Russian State Hydrometeorological Institute; 

Moscow State University (faculty of Geography); St. Petersburg State University (faculty of 

Geography); Makarov Marine Engineering Academy (faculties of the Arctic and 

Hydrography). Specialists in major fields of oceanology are trained at these educational 

institutions. Top-quality experts receive further training in post-graduate courses in 

educational and research institutions. 

 Enormous contributions to further understanding world oceanographic research were 

made by the following institutions: Far East RIHMI, AARI, SOI, Odessa SOI, Atlantic Branch of 

IO RAS, POI, MHI, TINRO, AtlantNIRO, PINRO, GUNIO (developers of the system of 

international oceanographic and marine meteorological data exchange), AI RAS (largest owners 

of research vessels), IO RAS, MSU, IEM, RIHMI-WDC, SOI, St. Petersburg SOI, MGO, 

VNIRO, IBSS, RSHMI (developers of national and international projects for oceanographic 

research), maritime, northwestern, northern, Sakhalin, and Lithuanian hydrometeorological 

services, Sevastopol SOI, MMBI (executors of standard observations to study Russian seas and 

coastal waters ); the USSR Oceanographic Committee, and the Russian Hydrometeorological 

Center. 

 During the past two decades, individual branches and institutes of Roshydromet, IGCE, 

SOI, IAG, Institute of Geophysics of RAS, and other organizations have conducted 

comprehensive national and cooperative international research on world ocean pollution; more 

than 1300 R/V cruises were conducted for these research efforts. As a result of this research, 

Russia became one of the leading participants in the international monitoring efforts of marine 

pollution. 

 Marine research in Russia is now coordinated by the Scientific Council for Studies of 

Oceans and Seas and Application of their Resources (under the Ministry of Science of the 

Russian Federation). Of great importance in coordinating the efforts of different countries in 

world ocean research is the activity of international organizations. The International Council for 

the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), established in 1902 in Copenhagen, was among the first 

organizations of this kind that brought together European countries of the northeastern Atlantic 

basin and adjacent seas. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) was founded 

in 1960 under the auspices of UNESCO. The IOC working committees, in collaboration with 

WMO, ICSU, and other marine-related scientific councils and unions, are now coordinating and 

organizing international scientific and technical collaborative efforts to address various research 

needs for the world ocean and to develop operational services and sound application principles. 
70 

R/V Ixtiolog 

Survey ship, Stvor (Navy GUNIO) 
71 

R/V Neringa (Hydrometeorological Service of Estonia)
72 

Medium fish trawler, Akademik Knipovich (PINRO) 

R/V Dalnevostochnik (Maritime Hydromet)
73 

R/V Professor Vize, built in 1968 (AARI) 

R/V A.I. Voeikov (Far East RIHMI)
74 

R/V Sevastopol (PINRO) 

R/V Akademik Shirshov (Far East Hydrometeorological Institute)
75 

R/V Vladimir Obruchev (Ministry of Geology) 

R/V Voskhod, built in 1953 (Murmansk Hydromet) 
76 

R/V Gals, built in 1963 (Ukrainian Hydromet) 

R/V Sergei Vavilov 
77 

R/V Volna (Kamchatka Hydromet) 

R/V Glubomer (North Caucasian Hydromet) 
78 

R/V I.D. Cherskiy 

Major freezer fish trawler, Atlant (AtlantNIRO)
79 

R/V Akademik Mstislav Keldysh (IO of RAS) 

R/V Polyarnik (Murmansk Hydromet) 
80 

R/V Akademik Boris Petrov (built in 1984) 

Nuclear-powered vessel, Lenin
81 

Nuclear-powered icebreaker, Sibir, at the North Pole (1987) 
82 

Medium seine boat, Cyclon (Northwestern Hydromet, built in 1962) 

R/V Priboi (Dunay Observatory, Hydrometeorological Service of Ukraine; built in 1961) 
83 

R/V Priliv (Far East Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information, built in 1969) 

R/V Raduga (Northwestern Hydromet)
84 

4. OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPEDITION DATA COLLECTION, 

PROCESSING, ACCUMULATION, AND USE

4.1 Oceanographic data collection

Depending on the data-collection procedures, purpose, and time period of application, 

observations are classified as either real-time data or delayed-mode data. Data that are 

transmitted to a processing center soon after the time of the observation are considered real-time 

data. Real-time data are mainly used to prepare forecasts and to keep users informed on current 

meteorological and hydrological conditions in different regions of the world ocean. When they 

are used in an operational application, the real-time data is then considered to be delayed-mode 

data. Such data provide the basis for the study of different-scale variability of hydrometeorological and hydro-chemical parameters and are used to prepare a wide range of atlases, 

manuals, guides, and other publications required for research and practical needs. 

 Collection of real-time oceanographic data began in the mid 1970s, when the Integrated 

Global Ocean Services System (IGOSS) was set up under the aegis of the IOC and the WMO. 

The Hydrometeorological Center of Roshydromet (Moscow) and RIHMI-WDC of Roshydromet 

(Obninsk) are the main centers in Russia for IGOSS real-time data collection and dissemination. 

The Hydrometeorological Center receives data from communication channels and performs 

quality control and computer processing necessary for operational application. Once the data are 

released, they are used to make weather forecasts and to predict hydro-meteorological conditions 

of the marine environment. In RIHMI-WDC, IGOSS information received via the Global 

Telecommunication System (GTS) in the form of BATHY, TESAC, DRIBU, BUOY and SHIP 

messages is quality controlled, processed, and put on archive media for long-term storage and 

subsequent use in requests by different agencies. 

 The collection, processing, and use of delayed-mode oceanographic data have been 

performed since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the mid 1960s, data taken at 

oceanographic stations were manually transferred from ship’s logs to special tables either aboard 

the vessel or after it returned to port. The tables were further supplemented with comments, 

which were compiled into RV cruise reports and maintained in the libraries of ship owners. The 

data required for preparation of marine generalized products were processed manually. 

 In 1964, a Resolution adopted by the USSR government initiated the establishment of a 

centralized system of obtaining data from expeditions. In accordance with this Resolution, all 

R/V cruise data were to be registered and archived at the Russian National Oceanographic Data 

Center (in Obninsk), which was organized under the Main Directorate of the Soviet 

Hydrometeorological Service. At a later date, the archived data were distributed by discipline; 

and by the early 1970s, the centralized system acquired its modern form. 

 Standardization of delayed-mode data collection began when unified tables (TGM-3 

forms) of deep-sea hydrological and hydrochemical observations were brought into use. In the 

mid 1960s, a program was initiated to put oceanographic data on punch cards and process them 

with analog instruments and mainframe computers of the first generation. In 1976, RIHMIWDC produced “The Model of an R/V cruise: Scientific-Technical Report.” A second edition of 

this document was published in 1989 in the form of a guide, which provided information on how 

to prepare an expedition report. This guide standardizes the documentation of data on paper and 

machine-readable media and provides the basis for comparison of data collected by R/Vs of 

different agencies. The guide also provides information on how data is obtained, systematized, 
85 

stored, and processed. For international projects, the guide serves to enhance inter-comparisons 

of instruments, which are used by participating countries, as well as the data that is collected 

before the results are included into specialized data bases. The second edition of another 

document, “The Guide to Work Performed in the Seas and Oceans,” published in 1967 by the 

SOI, was a step forward in standardizing the methodology of oceanographic observations. 

 Depending on research needs and availability of platforms, standard observations were 

made from moving, drifting, and moored ships, both surface and underwater; shore-fast and 

drifting ice; moored and drifting buoys; aircraft and helicopters; and unmanned satellites. Basic 

types of ocean observations in the latter half of the 20th century have included: continuous 

oceanographic and aero-meteorological observations made at weather stations and lightships 

located in fixed points; surveys made by regular or irregular networks of oceanographic and 

aero-meteorological stations; moving observational polygons or synchronous observations 

performed at sections; monitoring of ocean eddies; and regular observations made at the same 

sections during all seasons. 

 Observational data on physical oceanography, marine hydrometeorology, and marine 

pollution as well as measurements obtained by satellites contribute to the Russian State Holding. 

These data are archived and maintained within RIHMI-WDC, which is co-located with the 

National Oceanographic Data Center. Data collected by the Navy are maintained in the 

Research Center of the Head Department of Navigation and Oceanography (RC of GUNIO, St. 

Petersburg). Ocean-drilling and geological data are managed by the World Data Center of 

Marine Geology and Geophysics (WDD-MGG, Gelendzhik), and marine biological data are 

stored in the Russian Federal Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (VNIRO, 

Moscow). These specialized data centers provide a firm basis for the collection, registration, 

management, and reliable storage of multi-disciplinary oceanographic data collected in the 

course of expeditionary exploration of the ocean. 

 Hand in hand with the development of computer facilities and the rapid improvement of 

observational instrumentation, the technology of data collection and processing was also 

changing. In the 1980s, computer rooms were set up on most of large research vessels. This 

allowed immediate processing and analysis of the data on the ship, and the data was then stored 

on magnetic tapes for future use. Since that time, a distinction has been made between large and 

medium computer-equipped vessels and small ships with respect to data-handling requirements. 

Large and medium vessels began to perform primary processing of the data at sea and then, after 

return to port, the data was submitted to one of the above-mentioned specialized centers on 

magnetic tapes in a prescribed format. Data collected by small ships were still processed by the 

data centers. However, in recent years, personal computers have gained wide acceptance in the 

collection and processing of data and have made it possible to submit observational data on 

computer-compatible media from all types of ships. 

 Large-scale computer-based processing of aero-meteorological and oceanographic 

information was initiated as part of the TROPEX-72 project, when observations were 

operationally entered on punch tapes. This program proved to be a good opportunity for Russian 

scientists and other specialists to gain valuable experience and contribute to the advancement of 

oceanographic and atmospheric research in the capacity of highly qualified researchers and 

international-scale project managers. 

 In the framework of the GATE project (1974), data collected by different countries were, 

for the first time, entered on magnetic tapes (more than 700) in a unified format and quality 

controlled using agreed algorithms. A sound data management plan contributed to the success of 
86 

the overall goals of the GATE project. Since 1974, all large-scale projects have required similar 

data-management plans. 

 From 1981-1985, AARI, Odessa SOI, Far East RIHMI, MGO, and RIHMI-WDC 

deployed the newest technology for collecting oceanographic data by equipping R/Vs with firstand second-generation mainframe computers. These high-speed computer systems were utilized 

to collect data on a variety of parameters, such as deep-sea profiles, hydrology, hydrochemistry, 

currents, CTDs, and ship aero-meteorology. These new technologies were eventually made 

available to more than 30 ships of all agencies, which resulted in the release of observational 

data to users within 1-3 months upon completion of a cruise (compared to 6-8 months using 

former technologies). In addition, expeditionary observations became less time consuming, and 

the data were immediately accessible to researchers right at sea. Finally, computer-based data 

processing was of fundamental importance for furthering sustainable development of marine 

science. 

 Oceanographic Data Banks (ODBs) took the automization of data processing a step 

further. Established in the late 1970s, the ODBs were put into operation in the data centers of 

different agencies. In 1985, a set of guiding principles, established by the ODBs and adopted by 

an interagency commission, was put into regular operation and applied to program such as 

“Oceanography – the World Ocean,” “Seas,” and “Sections.” The ODBs mandated the 

following basic requirements: maintain a close relationship with institutions collecting the data; 

enact data quality-control procedures and ensure that data sets are updated; continuously improve 

software and hardware capabilities. It soon became apparent that similar data banks were needed 

in other agencies, in recognition of their missions and regional foci: WDC-MGG – geology and 

geophysics; VNIRO – hydrobiology; RC of GUNIO – oceanographic data collected by the Navy; 

and other marine institutions of the USSR (POI, Far East branch of RAS; SOI; Far East RIHMI; 

AARI; OI of RAS; and MHI, AS of the Ukraine). Introduction of these ODBs considerably 

reduced the time necessary to service user requests. 

 In 1986, the unified State Automated System of Oceanographic Information (SASOI) for 

the collection, storage, processing, and dissemination of data was initiated as part of the State 

Comprehensive Program, “The World Ocean.” The goal of SASOI was to considerably increase 

both the quality and completeness of the data and to enhance a more expeditious delivery of the 

data and associated products to governmental, military, and civilian organizations. As part of 

their participation in the SASOI, the specialized data centers of Roshydromet, the Navy, the 

Committee for Fisheries, and the Committee for Natural Resources, with the assistance of ship 

owners, were tasked with three objectives: (1) develop a highly effective automated subsystem of 

oceanographic data collection; (2) develop and automate the maintenance of the state archive of 

data on physical oceanography, marine biology, marine geology and geophysics; and (3) develop 

software tools for processing the data and to facilitate the delivery of the data and other products 

to users upon request. During 1986-1991, these objectives were achieved with the advent of 

mainframe computers. Within the last five years, all oceanographic data processing procedures 

have been implemented using modern PCs. 

 At present, NODC has, for the most part, accomplished the development of PC software 

tools required to acquire, maintain and process oceanographic data. Functionally these tools are 

divided into three groups: (1) software tools for the maintenance and query of reference 

informational databases; (2) software tools for oceanographic data collection, primary 

processing, and entry on PC-compatible media; and (3) software tools for preparing secondary 

products from hydro-meteorological and oceanographic data. The first group of software tools is 
87 

applied to support the NODC reference oceanographic data bases utilizing FoxBASE and FoxPro 

database management systems (DBMS). The other two groups of software tools make up the 

Information-Reference System (IRS “Oceanography”) and are applied to ensure a variety of 

operations required to build, maintain and use marine environmental data bases. These 

operations range from viewing initial tables and plots to prepare and display various products for 

a specific sea or ocean area, including grid-point characteristics. In order to improve the 

efficiency in the management, processing, and dissemination of oceanographic informational 

products, the NODC has updated its capabilities and now regularly uses advanced instrumental 

tools and information technologies such as MapInfo and Arc Info GIS, Paradox and Oracle 

DBMS, the Internet, and CD-ROMs. 

 International exchange plays an important part in oceanographic data collection and 

acquisition. The World Data Center System was initiated in 1957 during the time of the 

International Geophysical Year (IGY) and became a program of the IOC/International 

Oceanographic Data Exchange (IODE) system in 1961. The IODE system now comprises three 

World Data Centers (WDCs) for Oceanography (Silver Spring, Maryland; Obninsk, Russia; and 

Tianjin, China) and more than 60 National Oceanographic Data Centers (NODCs). The 

fundamental principles and responsibilities of the IODE system are set out in the Manual on 

International Oceanographic Data Exchange. Using the Manual, WDCs acquire, store, and 

disseminate oceanographic data collected from national and international programs conducting 

research on the world ocean. The WDCs for Oceanography are collocated with, and operated by, 

the National Oceanographic Data Centers (NODCs), which provide the resources and facilities to 

support the international data exchange activities. In Russia, the WDC for Oceanography is 

housed within the Roshydromet All-Russian Research Institute for Hydrometeorological 

Information (RIHMI). 

4.2 Data accumulation and systematization

 Expeditionary data are received by oceanographic data centers of different agencies and 

by ship owners. Since more than 150 Russian organizations have been involved in expeditionary 

research since the early 1900s, it is difficult to estimate the total amount of data that has been 

collected. Therefore, estimates provided here (such as Table 4.1) are based on data that are 

archived in the centers. 

 At present, the NODC has received more than 30 thousand reports of cruises performed 

by Russian R/Vs during the period 1885–1995. Data catalogues prepared by the NODC have 

been compared with data holdings in other marine organizations, and it can be said with 

confidence that since the beginning of 1996, the completeness of data archived at the NODC is 

not less than 80%. Hence, the characteristics of the NODC oceanographic database, discussed 

below, adequately depict the general pattern of long-term expedition research performed by 

Russian oceanographic institutes with the exception of the Arctic Ocean data, most of which are 

held in AARI in St. Petersburg. Figure 4.1 shows the distribution of oceanographic cruises 

conducted in the key periods of Russian expeditionary research. As can be seen in this figure, 

the greatest number of expeditions performed both in the World Ocean and in the inland seas of 

Russia took place during the period 1976 - 1985. 
88 

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

before

1914

1914-

1945

1946-

1956

1957-

1965

1966-

1975

1976-

1985

1986-

1995

1996-

2001

Years

Number of Cruises

Figure 4.1. Number of Russian R/V cruises performed in key periods of expeditionary research in both the 

world ocean and in Russian seas 

 Table 4.1 and Figure 4.2 show the number of expeditions performed by different Russian 

agencies. It is clear that Roshydromet, the Fishery Committee, the Navy, and the Academy of 

Science are the main contributors to the exploration of seas and oceans. Among Roshydromet 

institutions, the greatest contribution was made by the Far East RIHMI, AARI, SOI (Odessa 

branch), Murmansk Hydromet, Maritime Hydromet, Northwestern Hydromet, and Sakhalin 

Hydromet. 

Table 4.1. The number of reports containing oceanographic data submitted by agencies of 

Russia and former Republics of the USSR 

Agency Temperature 

salinity 

Bathythermograph Currents Hydrochemistry Chemical 

pollution Total 

AS of the Ukraine 198 20 41 86 13 224 

AS of Estonia 51 - 3 3 13 58 

RAS 316 20 17 147 4 350 

GUNIO 671 321 134 150 6 770 

HMS of Azerbaijan 3796 3 51 29 12 3807 

HMS of Georgia 146 - 4 20 18 146 

HMS of Latvia 217 - 9 32 29 220 

HMS of Lithuania 732 2 54 106 52 732 

Roshydromet 9536 735 917 1464 640 9804 
89 

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996

Year

Percentage of total

Roshydromet RAS Fishery Navy

Figure 4.2 Distribution of oceanographic data collected by different marine agencies of the Russian Federation 

(data collected by former Republics of the USSR before 1992 are included) in the period of 1976-1996 (a 

number of scientific reports on RV cruises). Data are held in the State Holding of RIHMI-WDC 

Agency Temperature 

salinity 

Bathythermograph Currents Hydrochemistry Chemical 

pollution Total 

HMS of Usbekistan 14 - 10 - - 14 

HMS of the Ukraine 922 6 70 166 37 926 

HMS of Kazakhstan 49 - - - - 49 

HMS of Estonia 114 5 64 42 21 124 

Fishery Committee 2492 728 26 1048 15 2706 

Fishery Ministry of 

the Ukraine 408 89 3 246 1 410 

Ministry of Natural 

Resources 7 - - - - 7 

Ministry of Education 30 3 1 20 1 30 

WDC-B 10570 567 166 3425 36 11022

Unknown 10 - 1 - 1 10 

Total 30279 2449 1571 6984 899 31409

Note: Information about the former Republics of the USSR is provided up to 1992. 

 
90 

4812

520

1762 2520 1745

793 714 126 497 89

29500

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

Bottle Pocket

Radiochemical

Ozonesonde

Marine

Aerosonde

Marine

Actinometry

Marine

Meteorology

BT CTD Currents Pollution

Observation Type

Number of Cruises

4812

520

1762 2520 1745

793 714 126 497 89

29500

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

Bottle Pocket

Radiochemical

Ozonesonde

Marine

Aerosonde

Marine

Actinometry

Marine

Meteorology

BT CTD Currents Pollution

Observation Type

Number of Cruises

Figure 4.3. Distribution of oceanographic data held in the State Holding (RIHMI-WDC) by type of observations. 

The different categories and amounts of oceanographic data archived in the State Holding 

of RIHMI – WDC is shown in Figure 4.3. This is calculated for data received through 2001. 

The greatest percentage of data is in situ temperature and salinity measured at various depths. 

As large oceanic R/Vs were built and modern equipment was developed, additional marine 

environmental parameters were measured. It is safe to say that by 1980, the Russian research 

fleet was sufficiently equipped to make all basic aerometeorological, hydrological, and 

hydrochemical observations in the world ocean. The small amount of data collected by sounding 

instruments is reflective of the problems that Russian engineering had to face in developing such 

specialized oceanographic instruments. The distribution of Russian oceanographic data 

(oceanographic station, bathythermographs, and CTD data) archived in NODC over different 

regions of the world ocean is shown in Table 4.2. It is worth noting that nearly half of the total 

amount of data represents the world ocean located between 60o

 north and south latitudes. In 

particular, the north and central Atlantic enjoys the best data coverage. More than half a million 

deep-sea, bathythermograph (BT), and CTD soundings were made in this region. As for the 

Russian seas, the greatest amount of data was collected for the Baltic, Barents, and Japan Seas.

 
91 

Table 4.2 Distribution of oceanographic data by basic regions of the World Ocean 

Russia (the USSR) Other Countries 

Sea, Ocean Cruises Stations Cruises Stations 

The Azov Sea 593 33600 3 100 

The Aral Sea 51 1500 - - 

The Baltic Sea 4067 269800 558 15800 

The Barents Sea 2491 120700 22 6 

The White Sea 919 47300 - - 

The Bering Sea 320 16500 54 2700 

The East Siberian Sea 54 5600 1 15 

The Kara Sea 197 14400 2 30 

The Caspian Sea 4035 50400 - - 

The Laptev Sea 419 12600 - - 

The Sea of Okhotsk 800 68500 32 640 

The Black Sea 1659 94500 42 840 

The Sea of Chukotsk 72 11000 6 120 

The Japan Sea 2244 106000 671 20130 

The Arctic Sea 110 159400 57 1710 

The Pacific Ocean 6467 444000 4189 4900 

The Atlantic Ocean 5484 647600 2865 100000 

The Indian Ocean 815 86300 284 8520 

The South Ocean 71 7421 70 7000 

 

Figures 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, and 4.7 show the distribution of oceanographic stations in the 

Atlantic, North Pacific, and Indian Oceans as well as the Black and Azov Seas since 1900, 

respectively. Table 4.2 identifies the distribution of oceanographic data according to the region 

of the world ocean; this data is accessible to any user. About 60 % of foreign data was received 

through the International Oceanographic Data Exchange (IODE) program. Nonetheless, it 

should be pointed out that Russia made a sizeable contribution to the international oceanographic 

data set (Figure 4.8) and has submitted to the World Data Centers more than 180,000 

oceanographic stations and 350,000 BT soundings. Along with the USA, Canada, and Japan, 

Russia is a major IODE contributor. 
92 

Figure 4.5 Distribution of R/V oceanographic stations since 1900 for the North Pacific. 

Figure 4.4 Distribution of R/V oceanographic stations since 1900 for the North and Central Atlantic. 
93 

Figure 4.7 Distribution of R/V oceanographic since 1900 for the Black and Azov Seas. 

Figure 4.6 Distribution of R/V oceanographic stations since 1900 for the Indian Ocean. 
94 

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

400000

450000

500000

Austria

Argentina

UK

Germany

Denmark

Korea

Canada

Nitherlands

Norway

Russia

USA

Finland

France

Sweden

Japan

Other

 Profiles

Bottle BT

Figure 4.8 Contribution of IOC member states to the International Oceanographic Data Exchange (DNP, 

projects and programs) 

Using the primary data, the following products were prepared:

 

1. Combined temperature, salinity and hydrochemistry data for the world ocean from 1900-1990 

(about 2,200,000 BT stations); 

2. BT and CTD profiles collected from oceanic weather stations of the North Atlantic and the 

North Pacific (“Charlie,” “Echo,” “Bravo,” and others) from 1900 – 1990; 

3. Time series of observations made at 400 coastal stations from 1924-1986, at both secular and 

standard sections of Russian seas such as the Baltic (including the Gulf of Riga, the Gulf of 

Vistula, the Kurshski Bay, the Gulf of Finland, and the Gulf of Tallinn), the Caspian, the 

Black, and the Azov Seas; 

4. Single-point climatology obtained from temperature, salinity, and derived hydrophysical 

parameters (density, sound velocity, Vaisala–Brent frequency) observed at standard 1o

Marsden squares for the northeastern basin (the Barents, Norwegian, and Greenland Seas and 

the North Atlantic area eastward from longitude 45 W); and 

5. Fields of climatological characteristics of temperature, salinity, density, sound velocity, and 

Vaisala-Brent frequency observed at standard horizons and one-degree-grid-point air 

temperature, surface water temperature, atmosphere pressure, wind speed, wave height and 

period for the Northeastern basin. 
95 

4.3 Application of marine expeditionary data 

Oceanographic data sets acquired in the framework of national and international 

programs contain diversified information on the physical, chemical, biological, and geological 

processes occurring at the surface as well as within the water column; at the boundary between 

the atmosphere and the sea; and at the bottom of the sea. 

 In processing the data and performing analyses, Russian scientists have prepared many 

scientific papers and reports, series of monographs, atlases, manuals, and other scientific 

products. As new information becomes available and improved methods of scientific analysis 

are introduced, research efforts will continue to provide answers to challenging issues. 

 Oceanographic data collected by Russian RV cruises have gained wide-spread acceptance 

in all types of activities undertaken by man on the sea such as fishery, fish farming, shipping, 

ship-building, hydrotechnical construction, oil and gas exploration, prospecting and drilling, 

tourism and recreation, weather forecasting, climate change studies, environment pollution 

monitoring. Observational data are often used right aboard a ship to adjust a scientific program 

of the expedition but primarily they are intended for the use by data centers, research institutions, 

commercial organization and governmental bodies. Table 4.3 gives statistical information on the 

use of marine expeditionary data available in NODC. More than 120 institutions and 

organizations, both Russian and foreign, are users of the NODC data, and more than 80 of these 

are considered regular users. Within the last decade, 800 user requests have been received to 

provide data, perform calculations, and supply reference information. The NODC staff make 

every effort to respond to every request in a timely and efficient manner. 

Table 4.3 Number of user requests for oceanographic information (distribution by years) 

Types of requests 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Total

Statistical calculations 98 1 2 4 3 2 110 

Computer data extraction 322 41 26 32 30 3 454 

Copying data 146 1 1 - - - 148 

Providing information on data 101 - 5 14 12 9 141 

Copying manuals and guides 25 1 1 - 1 1 29 

Thirty per cent of all requests are from Russian marine institutions, which are developing 

specialized and regional data bases, and they desire hydrological, hydrochemical, and coastal 

hydrometeorological data. Information about the data (29% of the requests) and the results of 

analyses (16% of the requests) are provided on demand and within the framework of research 

programs. 

 The types of data that are requested are divided as follows: 

1) deep-sea observations – 77% 

2) coastal observations – 15% 

3) current observations – 5% 

4) other types of observations – 3%. 
96 

 The distribution of requests by agency is as follows: 

1) RAS – 39% 

2) Roshydromet – 26% 

3) GUNIO – 15% 

4) Fishery Committee – 13% 

5) Ministry of Education – 3% 

6) other agencies – 4 %. 

 Nearly 70% of the requests by institutes of the RAS, Roshydromet, Ministry of Education 

and other agencies are for data or information, which are used in basic marine research. 
97 

5. CONCLUSION

 This monograph contains information on marine expeditions, outstanding sea voyages, 

famous navigators and scientists, research vessels, methods of observations, data collection 

procedures, volume of data collected, and ship owners. It is not the intent of the authors to 

present the entire amount of work that has been done by the research fleet of Russia. This is a 

task that is far beyond the scope of this publication. 

 As a result of efforts made by many scientists and economists over many years, the 

concept of “environmental stewardship” has been introduced to the general public. However, the 

technology, which allows quantitative analyses of both the positive and negative impacts on the 

environment has not yet been fully developed. Numerous examples can be given where 

oceanographic information is efficiently used for the management of marine living and nonliving resources and to support sea transportation, the fishery industry, recreation, and naval 

operations. But often, the significance of marine information is underestimated; and this can 

result in economic losses, marine accidents, or even ecological disasters. Today, it is imperative 

to recognize that human activities on the sea can have an enormous impact on the environment. 

In addition, an underestimation of available data and lack of awareness of the need for, and 

benefits from, such data may lead to labor-consuming production, rapacious extraction of 

renewable and non-renewable resources, and failure to utilize the extracted resources in an 

efficient manner. Full utilization of all available data will greatly contribute toward a long-term, 

sustained economic development strategy. 

 Much remains to be done to make environmental information available and cost-effective 

for modern business and production, and a close working relationship between the commercial 

and scientific communities is highly desirable. There is a great need for quantitative information 

on the impact of human activities on various environmental parameters, and advanced tools and 

technologies for information processing should be further developed. 

 A concerted effort at the federal, regional, and departmental level is currently underway 

to integrate the tools and technologies available within the country for the collection, processing, 

storage, and dissemination of ocean-related observations and information. A “Unified System of 

Information on the Condition of the World Ocean (ESIMO)” is being developed within the 

framework of the Russian Federal Target Program, The World Ocean, and will involve more 

than 500 organizations and institutions. ESIMO will be a one-stop source of information for any 

user wishing to obtain data and other products covering all aspects of Russia’s past and future 

efforts to study the World Ocean, including expeditions, ships, observations conducted, coastal 

stations, buoys, and satellites. Additional information about ESIMO is available at 

http://www.oceaninfo.ru. 
98 

6. APPENDICES 

1. Basic information on expeditionary ships and types of observations 

2. Brief information on the most prominent national and international expeditions and 

projects (programs) 

3. RVs involved in various programs and projects 

4. Organizations of Russia and the Former USSR taking an active part in the study of 

oceans and seas 

5. Additional literature with information on marine expeditions 

6. Abbreviations 
99 

Appendix 1. Basic information on expeditionary ships and types of 

observations

Types of Observations 

D Dynamics of the Ocean H Hydrology 

M Meteorology G Geology and Geophysics 

P Pollution B Marine Biology 

Geographical area of ship operation 

AO The Atlantic Ocean Ind The Indian Ocean 

Aral The Aral Sea JS The Japan Sea 

ArcO The Arctic Ocean Kar The Kara Sea 

Azov The Sea of Azov LS The Laptev Sea 

Bar The Barents Sea MS The Mediterranean Sea 

Ber The Bering Sea NA The North Atlantic 

BlS The Black Sea PO The Pacific Ocean 

BS The Baltic Sea SO The Sea of Okhotsk 

Casp The Capian Sea White The White Sea 

Chuck The Chuckchi Sea WO The World Ocean 

ES The East Siberian Sea 

Type of Ship 

B Boat LFT Large Fish Trawler 

EL Expeditionary launch LFFT Large freezer fish trawler 

EOS Expeditionary oceanographic ship LL Large launch 

ES Expeditionary ship MBSS Medium Black Sea seiner 

FFFT Fish freezer flaying trawler MFT Medium fish trawler 

FFT Fish freezer trawler MFFT Medium freezer fish trawler 

FFT-A Fish freezer trawler – Atlantic type MFST Medium freezer stern trawler 

FFT-T Fish freezer trawler – Tropic type MS Motor ship 

FS Fish seiner ORS Oceanographic research ship 

FSH Fish ship RV(SRV) Research(scientific-research) 

vessel 

FST Freezer seiner-trawler S Steamer 

FT Fish trawler SCH Schooner 

HL Hydrographic launch SES Scientific-expeditionary ship 

HRS Hydrographic research ship SFT Salting-flaying trawler 

HS Hydrographic ship SL Small launch 

HuntB Hunting boat SRIB Scientific-research icebreaker 

HuntS Hunting ship SRV Scientific-research vessel 

IB Icebreaker SRWS Scientific-research weather ship 

IBS Icebreaker ship SSS Scientific-search ship 

IBST Icebreaker steamer SV Scientific vessel 

IC Icecutter TB Tugboat 

L Launch TES Training expeditionary ship 
100 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Acoustic Institute 

Sergei Vavilov 1962 1984 SRV VNOV WO - + - - - -

Petr Lebedev 1967 1977 SRV VFBY WO - + - - - -

All Russian Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography 

Akademik 

Arkhangelskiy 

1971 - - - MS - + - + - -

Yuriy Godin 1972 1973 ES - MS - + - + - -

SRT-331 1954 1954 MFT - Bar - + - - - +

Slava -9 1958 1958 - - WO - + - - - -

Akademik Knipovich 1974 - SSS USPO NA - + - - - +

Amderma Hydromet 

Amderma 1986 - SRV UICP Kar - + - - - -

Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute 

Stepan Malygin 1924 1936 IBST - Kar + + - - - -

G.Sedov 1926 1940 IBST - ArcO - + - - - -

Sibiryakov 1932 1939 - - ArcO - + - - - -

F.Litke 1932 1955 – - ArcO + + - - - -

Rusanov 1932 1936 ES - ArcO - + - - - -

Akademic Shokalsky 1940 - - - Bar - + - - - -

Smolny 1941 1944 - ESJG PO - + - - - -

Slava-15 1955 1958 - - WO - + - - - -

Ob 1956 1973 SRV - AO + + + - - -

Azimut 1960 1970 - - ArcO - + - - - -

Prof. Vize 1968 1989 SRV UPUJ WO + + + - + -

Prof. Zubov 1969 1989 SRV UMFW WO + + + - + -

Michail Somov 1975 1988 SES UPWW WO + + - - - -

Rudolf Samoilovich 1978 1989 SRV URYM WO + + + - - -

Akademic Shuleikin 1982 - SRV UBNZ AO + + + - - -

Prof. Multanovskiy 1983 1989 SRV UJFO AO + + + - - -

Akademik Fyodorov 1988 - SES UQYC AO, Bar + + - - + -

Atlantic Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography 

Temp 1945 1952 SSS - WO - + - - - -

Kazan 1957 - LFT - NA - + - - - -

Alazan 1958 - - - NA - + - - - +

Alazeya 1958 - - - AO - + - - - +

Zvezda 1958 1975 SRV - AO - + - - - +

Lomonosov 1958 1966 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Mudjug 1958 1966 MFT - NA - + - - - +

Mosalsk 1958 1966 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Muinak 1958 1966 MFT - NA - + - - - +

Muksun 1958 1964 FT - AO - + - - - +

Aragats 1959 1974 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Artemovsk 1959 1963 MFT - NA - + - - - +

Mjag-Ostrov 1959 1964 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Orekhovo 1959 1969 MFT - AO - + - - - +
101 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Gribojedov 1960 - - - AO - + - - - +

SRT-4309 1960 1960 MFT - BS - + - - - +

Oskol 1960 1961 MFT - NA - + - - - +

Olekma 1961 1976 MFT - AO - + + - - +

SRT-4179 1962 1962 MFT - BS - + - - - +

Ostashkov 1962 1969 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Oleniy 1962 1968 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Oleksin 1962 - MFT - BS - + - - - +

Otradny 1962 1969 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Obdorsk 1963 1968 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Obraztsovo 1963 - MFT - AO - + - - - +

Olonets 1963 1969 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Okhta 1963 1968 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Albatros 1965 1977 MFT - AO - + - - - +

Zhuvedra 1965 - MFT - AO - + - - - +

Atlant 1965 - LFT UOLF AO - + - - - +

Vyandra 1965 1980 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Gizhiga 1966 - LFT UJUH AO - + - - - +

Langust 1966 1984 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Prognoz 1966 1985 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Antares 1967 1981 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Ekliptika 1968 1973 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Aliot 1969 1980 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Argus 1969 1985 SSS ESRL AO - + - - - +

Marsianin 1969 1972 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Vykhma 1970 1980 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Kwant 1970 1983 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Yu.Vitas 1970 - LFT - AO - + - - - +

Volzhanin 1971 - LFT - AO - + - - - +

Nekton 1972 1987 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Evrika 1972 1988 SSS - AO - + - - - +

Anchar 1973 1988 LFT - AO - + - - - +

Zalesje 1973 - FFT - AO - + - - - +

Merkuriy 1976 1982 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Korifena 1977 1987 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Kommunar 1978 1978 - EVHJ PO - + - - - +

Monokristal 1982 1988 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Ocher 1983 1988 FST - WO - + - - - +

Saulkrasty 1986 1989 MFFT - SO, JS - + - - - +

Atlantida 1987 - MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Atlantniro 1987 - FST - WO - + - - - +

Strelnya 1987 1989 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Baltic Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography

SRT-129 1958 1961 MFT - BS - + - - - +

Mazirbe 1960 1978 MFT - BS - + - - - +

Bespokoiny 1969 1981 - - - - + - - - +
102 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Mara 19 71 1981 - - BS - + - - - +

Nara 1974 1974 – - BS - + - - - +

MSTB-38 1974 1976 - - BS - + - - - +

MRTR-0027 1976 1976 - - BS - + - - - +

Zvezda Baltiki 1977 1982 MFFT - BS - + - - - +

Far East Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information 

Volna 1971 - SRV - SO + + - - - -

Lebed 1934 1954 - - SO - + - - - -

SHCH-111 1946 1946 - - SO - + - - - -

Kapitan Pospelov 1948 - - - PO - + - - - -

Toporok 1948 1950 - - PO - + - - - -

Balkhash 1949 - - - JS - + - - - -

Utes 1949 - - - PO - + - - - -

Gidrolog 1953 1967 MFT - PO + + + - - -

Ugolshik 1957 1960 SL - JS - + - - - -

Okean 1957 1988 SRV ENCQ WO + + + + - -

Zelenogorsk 1958 - MS - JS, SO - + - - - -

A.I.Voyeikov 1959 - SRV UAAX PO, Ind + + + - - -

Priboy 1959 1989 SRV UQGW WO + + + + - -

Yu.M.Shokalsky 1960 1980 SRV - WO + + + + - -

Nakat 1963 1987 ES - JS + + + - - -

Rassvet 1963 1979 MBSS - JS + + - - - -

Atlas 1966 - - - JS - + + - - -

Sinoptik Iljinsky 1967 1972 MFT - PO + + - - - -

Ak. Korolev 1968 - SRV UHQS NA + + + + + -

Ak. Shirshov 1968 - SRV UMAY WO + + + + + -

Priliv 1969 1989 SRV EREC WO + + + - + -

Valerian Uryvayev 1974 1988 SRV UEAK PO + + + - + -

Georgiy Matveychuk 1977 - ES - PO + + + - - -

Vyacheslav Frolov 1979 - SRV ESGG PO + + + - + -

Akademik Shokalsky 1983 - SRV UUPB WO + + + - - -

Professor Khromov 1983 1989 SRV - WO + + + - - -

Pavel Gordienko 1987 1988 SRV - PO + + + - + -

RK-66 1988 - - - JS + + - - - -

Fishery collective farm, “1st May” 

Volna 1987 - Launch - Azov - + - - - +

Hydrometeorological Service of Azerbaijan 

Uragan 1959 1969 - - Casp + + - - - -

Ekvator 1967 1988 MFT UFKK Casp + + - - - -

Radon 1969 1989 – EREK Casp + + + + - -

Antares 1979 - HRS - Casp - + + - - -

Metan 1979 1988 – EREL Casp + + - - - -

Briz 1980 1987 SRV - Casp - + - - - -

Vasiliy Lominadze 1987 - SRV USCR Casp - + - - - -

Hydrometeorological Service of Estonia 

Al. Smirnov 1961 1984 MBSS - BS - + + - - -
103 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

 (formerly Orion) 

Johannes Vares 1965 1968 ES - AO - + - - - -

Delfin 1971 1986 SL - BS - + - - - -

Aul 1973 1979 SL - BS - + + - - -

Sekstant 1930 1931 ES - BS - + - - - -

Aju-Dag 1976 - SRV ENCQ BS + + + - - -

Orbita 1982 1988 – UNDL BS + + + - - -

Hydrometeorological Service of Georgia 

Ekvator 1954 1954 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Nauka 1970 1986 SRV - BlS - + - - - -

Grigoriy Lezhava 1982 1988 SRV UNEI BlS + + + - - -

Drug Prirody 1987 - IB - BlS + + - - - -

Hydrometeorological Service of Lithuania 

Okeanograf 1959 1988 SRV UGTD BS + + + + + -

Priboy 1978 1978 SL - BS - + - - - -

Gidrolog 1979 - SEL - BS + + + - - -

Gintaras 1979 - EL - BS - + + - - -

Piarlas 1980 1980 L - BS - + - - - -

Gidrolog 1986 - ES - BS + + + - - -

Yurate 1962 1966 MBSS - BS + + - - - -

Geofizik 1967 ES UGNW BS + + + + - -

Shtorm 1973 1986 ES - BS + + + - - -

Lev Titov 1980 1988 SRV UBFH BS + + - - - -

Vilniale 1984 - ES UEBT BS + + - - - -

Hydrometeorological Service of the Ukraine 

Uklei 1957 1957 SL - BlS - + - - - -

Poryv 1971 1974 SRWS ERES NA + + + + - -

Propagandist 1932 1936 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Shoina 1932 1934 SL - BlS - + - - - -

Vydvizhenets 1933 - ES - BlS - + - - - -

Kurort 1933 1934 – - BlS - + - - - -

Gals 1937 - SRV - BlS + + - - - -

Taifun 1937 1988 ES - Azov + + - - - -

Ratmanov 1952 1957 TB - BlS, Azov - + - - - -

Reika 1953 1973 – - Azov - + - - - -

Meteor 1954 1960 - - BlS - + - - - -

Tiagun 1954 1959 – - BlS - + - - - -

Aerolog 1955 1955 SL - BlS + + - - - -

Lot 1956 1958 L - BlS - + - - - -

Rybookhrana 1956 1956 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Globus 1957 1960 IB - BlS - + - - - -

Kontakt 1957 1963 SRV - BlS - + - - - -

Zhukovsky 1958 - LFT - AO - + - - - -

Gidrozond 1961 - SRV UGTO Azov + + + - - -

Priboy 1961 1988 SRV UQGW BlS + + + - - -

Meteorolog 1961 1961 – - BlS - + - - - -
104 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Troika 1961 1961 – - BlS - + - - - -

Rif 1962 1988 MBSS - BlS, Azov + + + - - -

Zyb 1963 1965 – - BlS - + - - - -

Neptun 1971 1988 SRV UZFA BlS + + + - - -

Shkval 1971 1972 SRVS - NA + + - - - -

Burun 1979 1985 L - BlS + + - - - -

Uragan 1979 1988 SRV - BlS + + + + - -

Sneg 1980 1987 - - Azov + + - - - -

Tantal 1980 1985 SSS - BlS - + - - - -

Grom 1987 - ES - BlS + + - - - -

Shkval 1988 1988 MS - Azov - + - - - -

Hydrometeorological Service of Uzbekistan 

Otto Shmidt 1966 1977 ES - Aral + + - - - -

Levberg 1970 1970 - - Aral - + - - - -

Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas (Ukrainian Academy of Sciences) 

Miklukho-Maklai 1977 1977 SRV - BlS - + - - - +

Akademik Kovalevsky 1958 - SRV UEWJ NA + + - - - +

Prof. Vodianitsky 1977 1988 SRV - WO + + + - - +

Institute of Oceanology (RAS) 

Vityaz -I 1887 1894 - - WO + + - + - +

Vityaz -II 1949 1979 SRV UPJA WO + + - - - +

Nerpa 1955 1956 - - PO - + - - - +

Akademik Obruchev 1958 - – - BlS - + - - - +

Akademik Sergei 

Vavilov 

1959 - ES - AO - + + - - +

Akademik Kurchatov 1967 - SRV UBLF WO + + - - - +

Dmitriy Mendeleev 1969 1987 SRV UILS WO + + + - + +

Prof. Shtokman 1979 1988 SRV - WO + + + - - +

Akademik 

Mstislav Keldysh 

1981 - SRV - WO - + + + + +

Vityaz -III 1982 - SRV - WO + + - - - +

Rift 1985 1986 - - BlS - + + - + +

Institute of Thermophysics and Electrophysics (Estonian Academy of Sciences) 

Arnold Veiner 1984 - SRV UWEP AO, BS - + - - - -

Institute for Vulcanology (RAS) 

Vulkanolog 1978 - - UQGI PO - + - + - -

Institute for Water Problems (RAS) 

Akvatoria 1986 - MFT - BlS - + - - - -

Kamchatka Hydromet 

Vostok 1938 - - - PO - + - - - -

Volna 1962 1972 MBSS UFRA PO + + - - - -

Pogranichnik Dergach 1971 1971 MFFT - Ber - + - - - -

Pogranichnik Zmeev 1972 1972 MFFT - Ber - + - - - -

Pluton 1978 1986 SRV - PO + + - - - -

Toros 1985 1986 MFT - PO - + - - - -

Vadim Popov 1986 - SRV - PO - + - - - -
105 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Vyacheslav Timonov 1986 - - - PO - + - - - -

Kolyma Hydromet 

Issledovatel 1948 1982 MBSS UROA PO + + + + - -

Shkval 1951 1960 EL - PO + + - - - -

Kvarts 1979 1979 SV UXMN PO - + - - - -

Leonid Morozov 1983 1988 SRV UFLW PO + + + - - -

Saturn 1985 1985 IB - SO - + - - - -

Tungus 1985 1985 MFFT - PO + + - - - -

Main Geophysical Observatory 

Severoid 1932 1932 - - Kar - + - - - -

Lenin 1932 - IB - Kar - + - - - -

Voronov 1933 - Boat - Kar - + - - - -

Lomonosov 1953 1962 HS - Kar - + - - - -

Marine Hydrophysical Institute (Ukrainian Academy of Sciences) 

Mikhail Lomonosov 1957 1988 SRV UQIH AO + + + - - -

Prof. Koleshnikov 1983 1988 SRV - WO + + + - - -

Maritime Hydromet 

Dalnevostochnik 1932 1979 ES UVZN PO + + - - - -

Groza 1950 - MFT - AO - + - - - -

Gvardeisk 1963 - MS UNGN PO + + - - - -

Vladivostok 1965 - IB UWCD ArcO + + - - - -

MFFT-8-412 1967 1967 MFFT - JS - + - - - -

MFFT-8-414 1967 1967 MFFT - Ber - + - - - -

MFFT-8-410 1968 1968 MFFT - Ber - + - - - -

MFFT-8-432 1968 1968 MFFT UDVH JS - + - - - -

Moscow State University 

Moskovsky 

Universitet 

1957 1962 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Gorizont 1964 1981 SRV - BlS + + - - - -

Akademik Petrovskiy 1977 - - - BlS, MS - + - - -

Murmansk Hydromet 

Ermak 1899 1938 IB UNZO Bar + + - - - -

H.Knipovich 1932 1949 ES UNIZ NA - + - - - -

Sadko 1936 1936 ES UPCT Bar - + - - - -

Isslrdovatel 1937 1941 ES - Bar - + - - - -

Murmanets 1938 1957 HS UNTY ArcO - + - - - -

Mgla 1940 1940 LL UPEY Bar - + - - - -

Kashalot 1944 1948 ES - Bar - + - - - -

Meridian 1949 1949 ES UUYY Bar - + - - - -

Aisberg 1950 1981 Logger UMXF Bar, NA + + + - - -

Krater 1950 1951 MFFT UUAF NA - + - - - -

Diana 1952 1957 ES - Bar - + - - - -

Konstantin Derugin 1952 1958 ES - Bar - + - - - -

Polarnik 1953 1978 SRV UZSK NA - + - - - -

Vjuga 1954 - Boat - Bar - + - - - -

Rosa 1954 1954 TB - Bar - + - - - -
106 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Topseda 1956 1973 MFT UNHO NA - + - - - -

Vestnik 1958 1973 MFT URGT Bar - + - - - -

Bataisk 1960 1963 S UKKN NA - + + - - -

Shtorm 1960 1987 MS UIGE Bar - + - - - -

Burevestnik 1961 - MBSS UGNN Bar - + - - - -

Severodvinsk 1961 1963 – UJJW AO + + - - - -

Pechenga 1961 1964 – UEIV AO + + - - - -

SHL-2 1962 1962 - - NA - + - - - -

Melitopol 1962 1962 FT UMWG NA - + - - - -

Raduga 1963 1971 - - Bar - + - - - -

Voskhod 1965 1979 Logger UHBH NA + + - - - -

Nabludatel 1965 1983 SRV - Bar, White - + - - - -

Briz 1972 1987 Launch - White - + - - - -

Kavraiskiy 1972 - EOS - Bar - + - - - -

MRB-20 1972 1972 - - Bar - + - - - -

Vsevolod Beryozkin 1975 - SRWS UVMJ NA + + + + - -

Murmansk Marine Biological Institute 

Dalniye Zelentsy 1979 1988 SRV UTPB NA - + - - - +

Navy Directorate for Navigation and Oceanography 

Ingul 1923 1924 HS - BlS - + - - - -

Pervoye Maya 1923 1932 HS - BlS - + - - - -

Polarny 1924 1946 - - WO + + - - - -

Murman 1924 1925 HS - Bar + + - - - -

Beglitskiy 1925 1926 - - BlS - + - - - -

Gidrograf 1925 1939 HS - WO - + - - - -

Lag 1925 1929 HS - BlS - + - - - -

Maxim Gorkiy 1925 1928 HS - Casp - + - - - -

A. Kovalevsky 1926 1935 - - BlS - + - - - -

Vorovsky 1926 - - - JS - + - - - -

Lot 1926 - HS - BlS - + - - - -

Krasny Vympel 1926 1930 – - PO - + - - - -

Pakhtusov 1927 1928 HS - White - + - - - -

Zagraditel 1928 - HS - BlS - + - - - -

Priboy 1928 - HS - Kar - + - - - -

Samoyed 1930 - HS - BS - + - - - -

Kolyma 1930 - HS - ES - + - - - -

Kommuna 1931 - HS - BS - + - - - -

Seyner 1932 1939 - - WO - + - - - -

Cheluskin 1933 - IBST - ArcO + + - - - -

Val 1940 1958 HRS - BlS - + - - - -

Severny Polus 1946 - HS UERL - + - - - -

Ekvator 1949 1976 HRS - BlS, MS + + - + - -

Polus 1955 1988 EOS UCMR WO + + + - - -

Buyrep 1956 1963 HRS - Bar - + - - - -

Sedov 1958 1965 EOS - + + + - - -

Stvor 1958 1988 HRS - WO - + + - - -
107 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Lots-60 1959 1962 HS - MS - + - - - -

Prizma 1959 - HRS - Bar - + - - - -

Aitodor 1960 - HRS - MS - + - - - -

Ivan Kruzenshtern 1961 1988 EOS - WO + + + - - -

Metel 1961 - HRS - Bar - + - - - -

Uljana Gromova 1961 1967 EOS - PO - + - - - -

G. Nevelskoy 1962 1980 EOS UHDN WO + + + - - -

Mayak 1964 1970 HRS - NA + + - - - -

G.Sarychev 1965 - HRS - WO - + - - - -

Baikal 1965 - HRS UKNZ MS - + - - - -

Balkhash 1965 - EOS - MS - + - - - -

Globus 1965 1970 HRS - AO - + - - - -

Nikolai Zubov 1965 1984 ORS - WO + + - - - -

Gigrometr 1966 1983 HRS - WO - + - - - -

Alexei Chirikov 1966 1978 EOS - PO + + - - - -

Zenit 1966 1975 HRS - NA + + - - - -

Faddey 1966 1988 ORS - WO + + + - - -

Askold 1968 1971 HRS - AO - + + - - -

Andrey Vilkitsky 1968 1982 ORS - AO + + + - - -

Boris Davydov 1968 1983 EOS - AO + + + - -

Arktika 1968 1984 HRS - WO - + - - - -

Vasily Golovin 1968 1988 ORS UCNK WO + + + - - -

Semen Dezhnev 1968 1984 EOS UHGZ WO + + + - - -

Pamyat Merkuria 1968 1983 HRS - WO + + - - - -

Kompas 1969 1978 HRS - AO + + - - - -

M. Uritsky 1969 1970 MS - - + + - - - -

Rumb 1969 1970 HRS - JS - + - - - -

Berezan 1970 1987 HRS - AO + + - - - -

Dunai 1970 - - - - - + - - - -

Fyodor Litke 1970 1979 EOS - WO + + + - - -

Cheleken 1971 1987 HRS - WO + + + - - -

Liman 1971 1988 HRS - WO + + + + - -

Maria Ulyanova 1971 1972 MS - WO + + - - - -

Kolguev 1972 1974 HRS UGRX AO - + - - - -

Okean 1972 1988 HRS - WO + + + - - -

Abkhazia 1973 1988 ES - PO + + + - - -

Altair 1973 - HRS - PO + + + - - -

Adjaria 1974 1988 - - NA + + + - - -

Bashkiria 1974 - EOS - PO + + + - - -

Moldavia 1974 1987 EOS - AO + + + - - -

Turkmenia 1974 1974 - - PO + + - - - -

Elton 1974 1982 HRS - NA + + - - - -

Akademik Krylov 1975 - ORS - NA + + + + - -

Leonid Sobolev 1975 1986 ORS - PO + + - - - -

Kriljon 1975 1984 HRS - NA + + - - - -

Admiral Vladimirsky 1976 - ORS - NA + + + - - -
108 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

GS-59 1976 - HRS - BlS + + - - - -

GS-60 1976 - HRS - BlS + + - - - -

Azimut 1976 - - - NA + + - - - -

Zapolarje 1976 1986 HRS - PO + + - - - -

Tropik 1976 1983 HRS - WO + + - - - -

GS-273 1977 - HRS - BlS + + - - - -

Anadyr 1977 - HRS USXU PO + + + - - -

Sever 1978 - HRS - WO + + + - - -

Strelets 1978 1986 HRS - AO + + - - - -

Leonid Demin 1978 1987 ORS - WO + + - - - -

Taiga 1978 1980 HRS - PO + + - - - -

Yug 1978 1980 HRS - AO + + - + - -

Persey 1979 1988 HRS - AO + + + - - -

Pluton 1980 1987 HRS - AO + + + - - -

Gidrolog 1981 - HRS - WO + + - - - -

Zodiak 1981 1988 HRS - AO - + - - - -

Pegas 1981 1988 HRS - PO + + + - - -

Mikhail Krupsky 1981 1988 ORS - AO + + + - - -

GS-401 1982 - HRS - BlS + + - - - -

GS-402 1982 - - - BlS + + - - - -

Vizir 1983 - HRS - NA + + - - - -

Nikolai Matusevich 1983 1987 HRS - NA + + + - - -

Donuzlav 1984 - HRS - WO + + + - - -

Marshal Gelovani 1985 1985 HRS - PO + + + - - -

GS-296 1987 - - PO + + - - - -

Kapitan Voronin 1948 - - UNXW PO - + - - - -

North Caucasus Hydromet 

Yakor 1932 1934 – - BlS - + - - - -

Okeanograf 1956 1988 TES - BlS + + + - - -

Gorizont 1957 - ES - BlS + + + - - -

Rassvet 1960 1961 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Gradient 1964 1980 MBSS - - - + - - - -

Gidrograf 1965 1968 SRV - BlS - + - - - -

A.Vlasov 1965 1975 MBSS - BlS - + + - - -

Glubomer 1965 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Zadorny 1965 1979 SRV - BlS + + - - - -

SChS-86 1968 1968 MBSS - BlS - + - - - -

Lazurit 1970 1972 MS - BlS - + - - - -

Agat 1971 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Izumrud 1972 1973 MS - BlS - + - - - -

Dzhugba 1973 - MS - BlS - + - - - -

Volna 1974 1988 SRV - BlS, Azov + + + - - -

Briz 1976 1987 ES - BlS, Azov + + + - - -

Rif 1976 1976 - - BlS - + - - - -

Mgla 1978 1980 - - Azov - + - - - -

Gidrofizik 1979 - ES - Azov - + + - - -
109 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Buran 1979 - L - BlS, Azov + + - - - -

Kazanka 1979 - Boat - Azov - + + - - -

Tantal 1986 1986 - - Casp - + - - - -

Glubina 1987 - ES - Azov - + - - - -

Northern Hydromet 

Okeanograf 1963 1981 SRV UTPW White + + - - - -

Rombak 1963 1986 Logger UUFJ White + + + - - -

Uran 1980 1988 SRV UYOI White - + + + - -

Gorizontal 1985 - EL - White + + - - - -

Aisberg -2 1986 - EL - White + + + + - -

Alaska 1986 - ES - BS - + - - - -

Ustjevik 1986 1988 ES - White + + + + - -

Grom 1987 - SRV - White, Bar + + - - - -

Dreif 1988 - EL - White - + - - - -

Ivan Petrov 1989 - SRV UROV - - + - - - -

Northwestern Hydromet 

Leninets 1975 1980 IBS - BS - + - - - -

Raduga 1975 1983 SRV - BS - + - - - -

Volna 1979 - L - BS - + - - - -

Tsiklon 1979 1988 MBSS - BS + + + + - -

Leningrad 1980 1986 IBS - BS - + - - - -

Komsomolets Azova 1983 1988 SRV - BS + + - - - -

Damba -1 1987 - ES - BS + + - - - -

Odessa Brach of the State Oceanographic Institute 

Musson 1968 1989 SRWS EREA NA + + + - + -

Volna 1969 - SRWS EREB WO + + + - + -

Passat 1969 1989 SRWS UZGH NA + + + - + -

Ernst Krenkel 

 (formerly Vikhr) 

1971 1989 SRWS EREU NA + + + + + -

Georgy Ushakov 1973 - SRWS ERET NA + + + - + -

Viktor Bugaev 1974 1989 SRWS ERES NA + + + - + -

Yakov Gakkel 1976 1989 SRV UZMU AO + + + + - -

Vladimir Parshin 1989 - RV UINF MS + + + - + -

Pacific Administration of the Fishery and Research Fleet 

Prostor 1983 1987 FFFT - AO - + - - - +

Gorny 1985 - MFST - PO - + - - - +

Nemirov 1985 1986 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Cheremkhovo 1986 1986 FS - SO - + - - - +

Pacific Bureau of Fishery Survey 

Georgy Masimov 1979 - HS - PO + + - - -

Akademik 

Gamburtsev 

1989 - SRV - PO - + - - - -

Pacific Oceanographic Institute, Far East Branch of the RAS 

Krylatka 1954 1956 - - PO - + - - - -

Prof. Bogorov 1977 1989 SRV UWJE + + + - + +

Kallisto 1978 - SRV UWMN WO - + + - - +
110 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Akademik 

Nesmeyanov 

1982 - SRV UBVK PO + + + + - +

Akademik Vinogradov 1983 - SRV UYEV NA + + + + + +

Akademik Lavrentjev 1985 - SRV UJFY WO + + + + - +

Prof. Gagarinsky 1988 1989 SRV UKZW JS - + + - + +

Pacific Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography 

Suchan 1932 1969 MFFT - Chuck - + - - - +

Krasnoarmeets 1932 1933 - - PO - + - - - +

BO-316 1946 - - - PO - + - - - +

Ametist 1951 1958 MFT - PO - + - - - +

Zhemchug 1954 1965 MFT - PO - + - - - +

Korshun 1954 1954 - SO - + - - - +

S-171 1956 1956 - - PO - + - - - +

Nora 1956 1956 - - PO - + - - - +

Pervenets 1956 1982 ES - PO - + + - - +

Kolpin 1956 1956 MFT - SO - + - - - +

Shuleikin 1956 1956 - - PO - + - - - +

Baidar 1957 1957 MFT - SO - + - - - +

MFT-4348 1957 1957 MFT - SO - + - - - +

Abakan 1958 - - UQHM PO - + - - - +

MFT-4453 1958 1958 MFT - SO - + - - - +

Alatyr 1959 - MFT - PO - + - - - +

MFT-1037 1959 1959 MFT - SO - + - - - +

Algama 1960 1968 MFT - PO - + - - - +

Orlik 1960 1972 MFT - WO - + - - - +

Pelamida 1961 1978 FT - WO - + - - - +

Birokan 1964 1967 MFT - PO - + - - - +

Adler 1965 - FT - WO - + + - - +

Lira 1965 1973 SSS - WO - + - - - +

Kalmar 1965 - MFT UYRB WO - + - - - +

Ogon 1965 1978 FT - PO - + - - - +

Seskar 1966 1979 FT - PO - + - - - +

SRTM-8-417 1966 1966 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Iskatel 1966 1969 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Kanopus 1966 - MFFT - PO - + - - - +

SRTM-8-453 1967 1967 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

SRTM-8-459 1967 1971 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

SRTM-8-461 1967 1983 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Raduga 1967 1974 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Prof. Derugin 1968 1986 SSS - WO - + - - - +

Korifei 1968 1983 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Tamango 1968 1973 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Alba 1969 1974 FFT - PO - + - - - +

SRTM-8-452 1970 1980 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Prometei 1970 1972 MFFT - Ind - + - - - +

Ucheny 1970 1970 MFFT - PO - + - - - +
111 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Akademik Berg 1971 - LFT UQAE PO - + - - - +

Neritsa 1971 1977 SSS - WO - + - - - +

Poseydon 1971 1985 LFT EWGF WO - + - - - +

Kamenskoe 1971 1978 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Ekvator 1971 1983 LFT - PO - + - - - +

Gerakl 1972 1983 SSS EWVU PO - + - - - +

Artem 1972 1972 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Shantar 1972 1986 SSS PO - + - - - +

Optimist 1972 1972 MFFT - Ind - + - - - +

Kavalerovo 1975 1980 MFFT - PO - + - - - -

Tikhookeansky 1977 1987 SSS - PO - + - - - +

MFFT-8-449 1978 1978 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Mys Dalniy 1978 1985 LFT UWKC PO - + - - - +

Pulkovsky Meridian 1978 1986 LFT - PO - + - - - +

Mys Tikhiy 1979 1984 SSS UFRT PO - + - - - +

Partizansk 1980 1980 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Yeleninsk 1982 - SSS EWZU PO - + - - - +

Novokotovsk 1982 1986 SSS UGZG PO - + - - - +

Pioner Nikolaeva 1982 1986 FFFT - WO - + - - - +

Professor 1982 1983 SRV - NA - + - - - +

Mlechny Put 1982 1987 SSS UWAA PO - + - - - +

Milogradovo 1982 1984 SSS ESKB PO - + - - - +

Mys Yunony 1982 1986 SSS UNGG PO - + - - - +

Rubezhnoye 1982 1984 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Babayevsk 1983 - SSS UQJQ PO - + - - - +

Gissar 1983 - SSS - PO - + - - - +

Antiya 1983 - SSS - PO - + - - - +

Dolinsk 1983 - SSS UIWO PO - + - - - +

Irkutsk 1983 1983 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Uglekamensk 1983 1985 - - PO - + - - - +

Trubchevsk 1983 1987 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Gnevny 1984 - SSS - PO - + - - - +

Artyk 1984 1984 SSS UFAO PO - + - - - +

Novodrutsk 1984 1986 SSS UOUV WO - + - - - +

Novouljanovsk 1984 1986 SSS UKGF PO - + - - - +

Mys Vaigach 1984 1984 SSS - Ber - + - - - +

Ochakov 1984 1984 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Omar 1984 1984 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Timashevsk 1984 1986 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Khronometr 1984 1984 SSS - PO - + - - - +

Mirny 1985 1988 - UUWZ PO + + - - - +

Mys Babushkina 1985 1986 SSS UWFH PO - + - - - +

Donchak 1986 - MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Lesozavodsk 1986 1986 SSS - JS - + - - - +

Omega 1986 1986 FST UONC JS - + - - - -

Tamga 1987 1987 SSS - PO - + - - - +
112 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Piramida, Research and Production Enterprise 

N. Gusev 1988 1988 - - NA - + - - - -

Polar Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography 

Taimyr 1932 1971 ES - WO - + - - - +

Persey 1933 1973 - - NA - + - - - +

Nerpa 1936 1940 ES - NA - + - - - +

Masshtab 1941 1941 HS - Bar - + - - - +

Rynda 1944 1950 ES - Bar - + - - - +

Saratov 1946 1948 – UNLZ Bar - + - - - +

Persey -II 1949 1962 FT UNIB AO - + - - - +

Sazan 1950 1950 MFT - Bar - + - - - +

Musson 1950 1954 MFT - Norv - + - - - +

A.Otkupshikov 1951 1978 MFT UWHH NA, Bar - + - - - +

Korablestroitel 1951 1952 MFT USMA AO - + - - - +

Prof. Mesyatsev 1952 1965 SRV UWHH AO - + - - - +

Akademik Berg 1953 1964 SRV URKT NA - + - - - +

Toros 1953 1973 ES - White, Bar - + - - - +

Sevastopol 1954 1967 LFT UWHO AO - + - - - +

S.Andreev 1955 1957 MFT - NA - + - - - +

Bayan 1956 1957 MFT - - - + - - - +

Rossia 1956 1970 LFT UFAB AO - + - - - +

Vozrozhdenie 1958 - MFT UBKT Bar - + - - - +

Ivan Khabalov 1958 - - - NA - + - - - +

Novorossiysk 1958 1967 LFT UWWI NA - + - - - +

Prof. Somov 1958 1972 – UXLG AO - + - - - +

Kreml 1958 1964 LFT - NA - + - - - +

Tunets 1958 1979 MFT UJCN NA - + - - - +

Stalingrad 1959 1959 LFT - NA - + - - - +

Odessa 1959 1961 LFT UWIU NA - + - - - +

Uglomer 1959 1961 ES - Bar - + - - - +

Balaklava 1960 1964 MFT UBKU NA - + - - - +

Boguchar 1960 1979 MFT UBKW AO - + - - - +

Ayaks 1960 - MFT UUWI WO - + - - - +

Yunga Sigarayev 1960 1960 MFT UWJM Bar - + - - + +

Gidrolog 1961 1961 HRS - Bar + + - - - +

Akademik Knipovich 1962 - MFT UEHX NA - + - - - +

Argun 1962 - MFT UMRP NA - + - - - +

Zapad 1962 - FT UJCM NA - + - - - +

Pobeda 1962 1964 LFT UETV NA - + - - - +

Topseda 1962 1973 MFT UNHO NA - + - - - +

Skala 1964 1964 ES - Bar - + - - - +

Fritjof Nansen 1965 1989 - UEHU NA - + - - - +

Altair 1967 1980 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Volgograd 1967 - LFT - AO - + - - - +

Andromeda 1968 - - - AO - + - - - +

Atlantida 1968 1975 MFFT UMRZ AO - + - - - +
113 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Nikolai Maslov 1969 1973 – - NA - + - - - +

Persey -III 1969 1988 SSS ESGU AO - + + - - +

Gemma 1970 - MFFT ESNJ AO + + - - - +

Protsion 1970 1983 MFFT ESNI AO - + - - - +

Ural 1970 1972 – - Bar - + - - - +

Artemida 1972 - SSS EWVT AO - + - - - +

Akhill 1972 - MFT UUVQ NA - + - - - +

Poisk 1972 1989 MFT EWEL WO - + - - - +

Odissey 1972 1977 SSS EWGG NA - + - - - +

Alaid 1973 1983 MFFT UMOV AO - + - - - +

Anchous 1975 - – UMTZ Bar - + - - - +

Vychegda 1975 - – UIVE AO - + - - - +

Alkei 1976 - MBSS UMLO Bar - + - - - -

Zvenigorod 1976 - FS - Bar - + - - - -

Rzhev 1977 1978 LFT EUZW NA - + - - - +

Suloy 1979 1984 – EV W AO - + - - - +

N.Kononov 1980 1986 LFT USOP NA - + - - - +

Mikhail Verbitsky 1981 1982 – USTJ NA + - - +

Kokshaisk 1983 1987 SFT UJJS AO - + - - - +

Vilnus 1984 - SFT UFJN NA - + - - - +

Lensk 1984 - SFT EKRC AO - + - - - +

Vitebsk 1985 - SFT UJLN NA - + - - - +

Menselinsk 1985 1985 SFT EMZY AO - + - - - +

Genichesk 1985 - – UFIM WO - + - - - +

Boguslav 1985 - – UFLR AO - + - - - +

Kapitan Shaytanov 1986 - SFT UFYN NA - + - - - +

Klintsy 1986 1986 SFT UTRZ AO - + - - - +

Maksheevo 1986 1988 FSH ULGM AO - + - - - +

PINRO 1988 1988 SRV UYSC NA - + - - - +

Prof. Marti 1989 1989 SRV UTTG Bar - + - - - +

Russian State Hydrometeorological Institute 

Nerey 1968 1981 SRV - NA + + + - - -

Prof. Sergei Dorofeev 1985 1988 TES - NA + + - - - -

Saint Petersburg Branch of SOI 

Prof. Rudovits 1957 1959 SCH - BS + + - - - -

Sakhalin Comprehensive Research Institute 

S.Malygin 1976 1985 HS - PO - + - - - -

Morskoy geofizik 1978 1985 SRV - WO + + - - - -

Fyodor Matisen 1978 1979 - - WO - + - - - -

Tym 1978 1978 MFT - PO - + - - - -

Sakhalin Hydromet 

Gidrolog 1943 1948 - - SO - + - - - -

Abrek 1949 1960 SCH - PO - + - - - -

Prof. Soldatov 1949 1949 Launch - SO - + - - - -

Gidrolog 1950 1968 ES - SO, JS + + - - - -

Ayaks 1950 1950 SCH - SO - + - - - -
114 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Vestnik 1952 1970 MBSS - JS - + + - - -

Izumrud 1952 1963 MFT - PO - + - - - -

Akademik Shulekin 1953 1956 MFT - PO - + - - - -

SRT-395 1953 1954 MFT - SO - + - - - -

RS-617 1953 1953 FS - SO - + - - - -

SRT-635 1954 1954 MFT - SO - + - - - -

Nezhin 1956 1957 MFT - SO - + - - - -

Nikopol 1956 1956 MFT - JS - + - - - -

Orlovka 1956 1958 FS - SO - + - - - -

Sakhalin 1957 1958 MFT - SO, JS - + - - - -

Priboy 1957 1964 MFT - PO + + - - - -

Orenburg 1957 1957 FS UYXH SO - + - - - -

BL-205 1958 1960 - - SO, JS - + - - - -

Kaluga 1958 - - - JS - + - - - -

Musson 1958 1958 ES - - - + - - - -

Ordzhonikidze 1958 1958 FS - SO - + - - - -

Neiva 1960 1960 MFT - SO - + - - - -

Sovetsky Sakhalin 1961 1965 - UEJA PO + + - - - -

Nikolai Boshnak 1961 1961 - UBHE PO + + - - - -

Shkiper Gek 1962 1969 - - PO + + - - - -

Zakat 1964 1971 MBSS - JS, SO + + - - - -

Sakhalinles 1964 1965 S - SO + + - - - -

Baksan 1967 1967 MFT - SO - + - - - -

Boshniakovo 1968 - - - JS, SO - + - - - -

Borgsten Dolfin 1977 - - - SO - + - - - -

Okha -1 1981 1983 - - SO - + - - - -

Igor Maksimov 1987 1989 SRV - WO + + + - - -

Pegas 1973 1986 SRV UIQV WO + + - - - -

Sevastopol Branch of the State Oceanographic Institute 

Donets 1891 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Zaporozhets 1891 - - - - - + - - - -

Kazbek 1891 - – - Azov - + - - - -

Nogaisk 1913 1914 SL - Azov - + - - - -

Samorodok 1923 1923 - - BlS - + - - - -

White 1924 1924 - - BlS - + - - - -

Bakhchisaray 1931 1931 - - BlS - + - - - -

Kafa 1931 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Abkhazets 1932 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Nekton 1932 1933 HS - BlS - + - - - -

Gemeinovets 1934 1937 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Glubina 1936 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Chekist 1937 1951 ES - Azov - + - - - -

Vl. Kochetov 1937 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Strela 1937 1938 - - BlS - + - - - -

Pioner 1937 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Yakov 1937 - - - BlS - + - - - -
115 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Khenken 1937 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Zuid 1938 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Papanin 1938 1939 - - BlS - + - - - -

Malvina 1938 1938 - - BlS - + - - - -

Mys Kodosh 1938 - ES - BlS - + - - - -

Cheluskin 1939 1941 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Uglomer 1941 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Seiner-1 1949 1950 - - Azov - + - - - -

Issledovatel 1949 1961 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Vest 1950 ES - Azov - + - - - -

Vetromer 1951 1956 ES - Azov - + - - - -

MBSS-7 1953 1954 ES - Azov - + - - - -

Izogalina 1954 1960 – - BlS - + - - - -

Oktjabr 1954 - – - BlS - + - - - -

RK-715 1954 1954 - - BlS, Azov - + - - - -

SChS-105 1955 1955 MBSS - Azov - + - - - -

Moreved 1955 1960 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Fprel 1955 1955 ES - Azov - + - - - -

Gidrolog 1956 1958 ES - BlS + + - - - -

Kontur 1956 1963 ES UVSM BlS - + - - - -

A.Vavilov 1957 - ES - BlS - + - - - -

SChS-168 1957 1957 MBSS - Azov - + - - - -

Zeya 1957 1958 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Prof. Vasentsov 1957 1957 - - - - + - - - -

Kovalevsky 1957 1957 ES - BlS - + - - - -

Mgla 1957 1978 SRV - BlS + + - - - -

TShch-531 1957 1957 - - BlS - + - - - -

TShch -810 1957 1957 - - BlS - + - - - -

Aitodor 1958 1982 ES - BlS - + - - - -

BTShch- 816 1958 - MFT - BlS - + - - - -

Delta 1960 - ES - BlS - + - - - -

MBSS-206 1972 1972 MBSS - Azov - + - - - -

Adelgunda 1974 1988 - - BlS - + - - - -

Southern Research Institute for Fishery and Oceanography 

Vest 1937 1952 - - BlS, Azov - + - - - +

Akademik Zernov 1947 1951 ES - Azov - + - - - +

Vjun 1947 - L - Azov - + - - - +

Vladimir Vorobjev 1948 1969 MFT - WO - + - - - +

Bystry 1949 - ES - Azov - + - - - +

BChS-614 1951 - ES - Azov - + - - - +

Akademik Knipovich 1951 1952 ES - Azov - + - - - +

Gonets 1951 1963 MFT - BlS - + - - - +

Grot 1951 - ES - Azov, BIS - + - - - +

Luch 1951 1951 ES - Azov - + - - - +

Kovda 1951 1952 ES - Azov - + - - - +

Moksha 1952 1953 ES - Azov - + - - - +
116 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

FS-614 1952 1952 FS - Azov - + - - - +

Kristall 1959 1976 MFT UVSR BlS - + - - - +

Monometr 1959 1959 HRS - Bar - + - - - +

SRT-4509 1960 1960 MFT - BlS - + - - - +

Ikhtiolog 1965 1973 MFT ESGV WO - + + - - +

Marlin 1965 1981 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Chernomor 1966 1978 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Nauka 1966 1987 FFT-T UYRI WO - + - - - +

Krasny luch 1966 1966 - - WO - + - - - +

Ariel 1968 1986 MFFT - Ind - + - - - -

Aelita 1968 1985 MFFT UMOY WO - + - - - +

Nikolai Reshetniak 1971 1988 MFFT EWGC WO - + - - - +

Zhelezniakov 1969 1980 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Yelagin 1975 - MFFT ESLG Ind - + - - - +

Sevastopolsky rybak 1977 1988 MFFT EWGB WO + + - - - +

Gerojevka 1980 - FFFT UBJA Ind - + - - - +

Vozrozhdeniye 1980 - FFFT - WO - + - - - +

Kerchensky 

Komsomolets 

1987 1988 MFFT ULGB WO - + - - - +

Kometa Galeya 1988 1988 MFFT UZZE WO - + - - - +

South Fish Search 

Lesnoy 1965 1984 FFT UYVG WO - + - - - +

Prof. Mesyatsev 1965 1988 SSS EWVS WO - + - - - +

Skif 1969 1988 SSS ESGÒ WO - + - - - +

Myslitel 1969 1986 MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Kara-Dag 1971 1986 FFT-A EWVW WO - + - - - +

Fiolent 1972 1988 SSS UVIX WO - + - - - +

Chatyr-Dag 1973 1988 FFT-A EWVX WO - + - - - +

Pantikapey 1973 1986 MFFT UURM WO - + - - - +

Shedar 1973 1981 FFT - WO - + - - - +

Zvezda Kryma 1976 1988 FFT-A UWGM WO - + - - - +

Poltava 1978 1983 FFT-A ESEG WO - + - - - +

Primorets 1978 1987 MFFT ESLW WO - + - - - +

Mys Ostrovskogo 1978 1988 LFT UWFI WO - + - - - +

Torzhok 1978 1978 – - PO - + - - - +

Semen Volkov 1979 1981 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Yelsk 1979 - MFFT UWRT PO - + - - - +

Kalper 1979 - LFT UHVF WO - + - - - +

Zhelezny potok 1980 1987 MFFT - PO - + - - - +

Novoukrainka 1980 1986 FFFT UHCF WO - + - - - +

Zvezda Chernomorja 1981 - FFFT UNNP WO - + - - - +

Zvezda Azova 1981 1988 FFFT UNNR WO - + - - - +

Zvezda Sevastopolia 1981 - LFT UUTU WO - + - - - +

Slava Kerchi 1985 1986 - - Ind - + - - - +

Estafeta Oktyabrja 1985 1985 - - NA - + - - - +

Sovremennik 1986 1986 SSS - WO - + - - - +
117 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Dmitry Stefanov 1987 - FST UTTX Ind - + - - - +

Tiksi Hydromet 

Gidrolog 1986 - ES - LS + + - - - -

Okeanolog 1951 1986 ES - LS + + + - - -

Briz 1987 - ES - LS + + - - - -

West Fishery Reconnaissance Company 

Belogorsk 1965 1982 FFT UYVX AO - + - - - +

Yubileiny 1967 1984 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Blesk 1968 - MFFT - - - + - - - +

Bakhchisarai 1969 - FFT UIXS AO - + - - - +

Alferas 1969 1982 MFFT UXNA BS, AO - + - - - +

Foton 1969 1980 MFFT ULLS NA - + - - - +

Vaida 1970 1979 MFFT ONLY AO - + - - - -

Spektr 1970 1983 MFFT UNOY WO - + - - - +

Stvor 1970 1983 MFFT UOAB WO - + - - - +

Pioner Latvii 1971 1989 LFT ESUV AO - + - - - +

Andrus Jokhanis 1972 1988 LFT UVKL AO - + - - - +

Salekhard 1972 1989 LFT FSUX WO - + - - - +

Betelgeize 1973 1974 MFFT UOAA AO - + - - - +

Saturn 1973 1980 MFFT UNLK AO - + - - - +

Nogliki 1973 1986 MFFT EWAP WO - + - - - +

Flaningo 1973 1985 FFT UYMA AO + - - - +

Zvezda 1978 1987 FFFT URRD WO - + - - - +

Suvalkia 1978 - FFFT PO - + - - - +

Prometei 1978 - MFFT UEFF PO - + - - - +

Kristjan Raund 1978 - LFT UNVC WO - + - - - +

60 let VLKSM 1979 1987 MFFT EWYB AO - + - - - -

Plunge 1979 1987 – USXE AO - + - - - +

Vysota 1980 - MFFT - WO - + - - - +

Sokrat 1980 1989 FFFT UBKS WO - + - - - +

Novocheboksarsk 1980 1988 FFFT UGVJ WO - + - - - +

Kulikovo pole 1980 1988 FFFT UZUR AO - + - - - +

Volny veter 1981 - FFFT UVWZ WO - + - - - +

Patriot 1981 1989 MFFT UUVU WO + - - - +

Russkoye pole 1981 1989 FFFT UEYJ AO - + - - - +

Charoit 1982 1989 MFFT LYEF NA - + - - - +

1500 let Kievu 1982 1989 FFT LYFB AO - + - - - +

Malta 1982 1989 FFFT LUEB WO - + - - - +

Otkrytiye 1982 1989 MFFT LYFC AO - + - - - +

Borodinskoye pole 1983 - FFFT LYEX AO - + - - - +

Gradient 1984 - MFFT UBOY AO - + - - +

Pregolia 1984 1989 MFFT USLO NA - + - - - +

Titanit 1984 1989 MFFT EKRB WO - + - - - +

Afeliy 1985 - FFT UKYW AO - + - - - +

Tava 1985 1989 MFFT - AO - + - - - +

Torok 1985 1989 MFFT LYIN AO - + - - - +
118 

Period of Work Type of Observation 

Name of Ship Start Finish 

Type of 

Ship Call 

Area of 

Operation M H P G D B

Lublino 1987 1988 MFFT LYKO AO - + - - - +

Maltsevo 1987 1988 MFFT ULNE WO - + - - - +

Unknown Owner 

Tor 1910 1910 - - - - + - - - -

Valkiria 1923 - - - BlS - + - - - -

Sukhum 1925 1927 - - BlS - + - - - -

Krasin 1929 1935 - - ArcO - + - - - -

Delfin 1930 - - - Bar - + - - - -

Simeiz 1932 1932 - - Azov - + - - - -

Sovet 1932 1932 - - SO - + - - - -

Beluga 1933 1933 - - BlS - + - - - -

Belukha 1933 1933 Boat - Kar - + - - - -

Smely 1937 1937 - - BlS - + - - - -

Kavasaki 1937 1958 - - AO - + - - - -

Tavrida 1937 1938 - ESJS BlS - + - - - -

Turist 1937 1937 - - BlS - + - - - -

Viluy 1939 1949 - EKLN PO - + - - - -

SHCH-118 1946 1946 - - PO - + - - - -

Bering 1947 1947 - - PO - + - - - -

SRT-662 1953 1954 MFT - - - + - - - -

SRT-342 1956 1956 MFT - PO - + - - - -

SRT-419 1956 1956 MFT - PO - + - - - -

SRt-626 1956 1956 MFT - PO - + - - - -

Lermontov 1958 - - - AO - + - - - -
119 

Appendix 2. Brief information on the most prominent national and 

international expeditions and projects (programs)

The Second Kamchatka Expedition

Period of operation 1724 – 1741 

Aim Investigation of the Far East lands 

Geographical area Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Japan Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk 

Organizer Peter the Great 

Data processing institution Imperial RAS 

Data archive RAS 

Participating countries Russia 

Types of observations Geography, hydrography 

The Great Northern expedition

Period of operation 1733–1743 

Aim Investigation of the Arctic regions and Siberia 

Geographical area The Arctic Seas 

Organizer Peter the Great 

Data processing institution Imperial RAS 

Data archive RAS 

Participating countries Russia 

Types of observations Geography, hydrography 

The First Russian circumnavigation of the Earth 

in the sloops, “Nadezhda” and “Neva”

Period of operation 1803 

Aim Search for new lands 

Geographical area The Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; the Antarctic 

Organizer Russian Government 

Data processing institution Imperial RAS 

Data archive RAS 

Participating countries Russia 

Types of observations Geography, hydrography 

The First International Polar Year

Period of operation 1882–1883 

Aim Investigation of Arctic 

Geographical area The Arctic Ocean 

Organizer International Meteorological Commission 

Data processing institution Imperial RAS 

Data archive RAS 

Participating countries Russia, France, the United Kingdom, Germany, the USA, 

Canada, Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, 

Austria 

Types of observations Hydrometorology, ice 

Brief results 13 Arctic geophysical stations were established including 2 

stations in Russia (Sagastyr – in the mouth of the Lena river and 

Malye Karmakuly – in the New Land). 2 stations were 

established in Antarctica. 
120 

The Northern research-fishery expedition

Period of operation 1920 

Aim Investigation of navigation and fishery sea routes, preparation of 

navigation manuals 

Geographical area The Arctic Seas 

Organizer Supreme National Economy Council 

Data processing institution PLAVMORNIN 

Data archive All Russian RIFO 

Participating countries The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrography, biology 

The Black Sea oceanographic expedition

Period of operation 1923 – 1927 

Aim Obtaining marine information, organization of regular 

observation 

Geographical area The Black Sea 

Organizer The USSR Government 

Data processing institution Sevastopol SOI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography, hydrography 

The Northern hydrographical expedition

Period of operation 1924 

Aim Investigation of the Northern Seas, exploration of the Northern 

Sea Route, exploration of fish resources 

Geographical area The Barents, White and Kara Seas 

Organizer Government of Russia 

Data processing institution North Research Institute 

Data archive ARI 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, biology 

The Second Polar Year

Period of operation 1932 – 1933 

Aim Investigation of the Arctic 

Geographical area The Arctic Ocean 

Organizer International Meteorological Commission 

Data processing institution North Research Institute 

Data archive ARI 

Participating countries 12 countries (the USSR, the USA, Norway, the United Kingdom 

and others) 

Types of observations Hydrometorology, ice 

Brief results New Polar stations were established 

Aircraft high-latitude expeditions

Period of operation 1937–1995 

Aim To obtain information on hard-to-reach Arctic regions, aircraft 

observations 

Geographical area The Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas 
121 

Organizer Main Directorate of Hydrometeorological Service 

Data processing institution AARI 

Data archive AARI 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, glaciology 

“North Polar” drifting stations

Period of operation 1937 – 1995 

Aim Investigation of hard-to-reach Arctic regions 

Geographical area The Arctic Ocean 

Organizer Roshydromet 

Data processing institution AARI 

Data archive AARI 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, hydrobiology 

Ocean Weather stations

Period of operation 1946 - 1991 

Aim Support of air flights across the oceans, preparation of long-term 

time series, weather and hydrological forecasts, development of 

new forecasting technique 

Geographical area North Atlantic, North Pacific 

Organizer International Civil Aviation Organization (1946 - 1957), 

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (since 1958) 

Data archive ICES, WDC-A, WDC-B 

Participating countries Stations in the North Atlantic-the USA (Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, 

Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Yankee, Hotel), Canada (Bravo), the 

United Kingdom (India, Juliett), Netherlands (Kilo), Belgium 

(Kilo), France (Lima), Norway (Mike), Sweden (Mike), 

Denmarc(Mike), the USSR (Charly since 1975); in the Pacific 

Ocean-the USA (November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Sierra, 

Uniform, Victor), Canada (Papa), Japan (Tango, Xray) 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, plankton 

Participating ships From the USSR: RVs “Passat,” “Musson,” “Victor Bugaev,” 

“Krenkel” 

SAE – Soviet Antarctic Expedition

Period of operation 1956 – 1996 

Aim Investigation of the Southern Polar region – Antarctic and 

surrounding waters 

Geographical area The Atlantic and South Oceans, Antarctic 

Organizer Main Directorate of Hydrometeorological Service 

(Goskomhydromet, Roshydromet) 

Data processing institution AARI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrography, biology, glaciology, geology, 

oceanography 

Participating ships “Ob’, “Lena”, “Zubov”, “Vize” 
122 

International Geophysical Year

Period of operation 1957 – 1958 

Aim Geophysical investigation 

Geographical area Northern hemisphere 

Organizer International Council of Scientific Unions 

Place of processing WDCs 

Data archive WDC-A, WDC-B 

Participating countries 17 countries including the USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, geophysics 

Brief results The USSR performed more then 30 oceanographic expeditions 

in all oceans and seas 

International Indian Ocean Expedition

Period of operation 1961 – 1964 

Aim Ocean-atmosphere circulation study. Determining zones of 

ocean fronts, determining heat balance and water exchange, 

search for new fishery areas 

Geographical area The Indian Ocean 

Data processing institution WDC-B 

Data archive WDC-B 

Participating countries The USSR, India 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, geophysics, hydrography, 

CSK – Cooperative Study of Kuroshio and adjacent regions, the component of 

International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE)

Period of operation 1965 - 1977 

Aim Investigation of physical, chemical and biological structure of 

Kuroshio and adjacent regions and its seasonal, annual and longterm variations 

Geographical area The South China, East China, Japan, Inland, Philippine Seas, the 

Southwest Pacific 

Organizer IOC 

Data processing institution NODC of Japan, functions of RDC were performed by Kuroshio 

data center which is the branch of NODC 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Thailand, China, France, the USSR, Japan, Korea, Philippines, 

the United Kingdom, Vietnam 

Types of observations Hydrology, hydrochemistry, meteorology, biology; currents 

CIM – Cooperative Investigation of the Mediterranean Sea

Period of operation 1969 - 1981 

Aim Multi-discipline study of Environment 

Geographical area The Northeast Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, the Straits of 

Organizer IOC 

Place of processing RDC (NODS of Russia up to1986) 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Austria, Arab Republic of Egypt, Belgium, France, FRG, Israel, 

Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Romania, Spain, 

Switzerland, Tunisia, the United Kingdom, the USSR 
123 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, biology, geology, hydrochemistry, 

geophysics, pollution

CICAR - Cooperative Investigation of the Caribbean and Adjacent Region 

(a component of IODE) 

Period of operation 1968 - 1975 

Aim Multi-disciplinary investigations 

Geographical area The Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent regions of the 

Atlantic 

GARP – Global Atmospheric Research Program

Organizer IOC 

Place of processing Functions of CICAR RDC performed by US NODS 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The United Kingdom, the USSR, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, 

France, FRG, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, the Netherlands, 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, biology, hydrochemistry, geology, 

geophysics 

Period of operation 1969 - 1980 

Aim Atmosphere-Ocean interaction study. Data collection 

Geographical area The Tropical Atlantic 

Organizer WMO, ICSU 

Data processing institution NODCs of participating countries, NODC and WMC (the USA); 

CAO, Hydrometcenter, IEM and RIHMI-WDC (the USSR) 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Belgium, France, FRG, Portugal, the United Kingdom, the 

USSR, the USA 

Types of observations Oceanography, hydrochemistry, meteorology; currents 

Brief results A number of regional experiment were carried out such as 

GATE, ALPEX, MOMEX, MEDALPEX, MONEX, Monsoon, 

FGGE, TOPEX 

Quasi-two-year cycle

Period of operation 1970 – 1987 

Geographical area The Indian and Pacific Oceans 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution FERHI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

IAGP – International Antarctic Glaciology Project

Period of operation 1970 - 1982 

Aim Investigation of Antarctic glacial cover, its external energy 

exchange and its part in global energy processes 

Geographical area Coastal areas of Antarctic – the South Ocean 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, Austria, the United Kingdom, the USA, France, 

Japan 

Types of observations Glaciology 
124 

IDOE – International Decade of Ocean Exploration 

Period of operation 1971 - 1980 

Aim Global multi-purpose ocean study. IDOE combines a number of 

projects dealing with forecasting of environment, marine 

environment quality; living and non- living resources of the 

World Ocean 

Geographical area the World Ocean 

Organizer IOC 

Data archive WDC 

Participating countries IOC member states 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, biology, hydrochemistry, geology, 

geophysics, currents, pollution 

“Breeze” project

Period of operation 1971 – 1978 

Geographical area The Japan Sea 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Southern Circulation” project

Period of operation 1972 - 1978 

Geographical area The South Ocean 

Organizer AS of the USSR 

Data processing institution MHI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

MESCAL-I, II; JOINT-I, II – Analysis of ecosystems in the area of deep-water rise 

(a component of IODE)

Period of operation 1972 - 1978 

Aim Investigation of chemical, physical, and geological processes 

and interrelations typical for biological aspects of marine 

organisms 

Geographical area The Northeastern Atlantic, the Southeastern Pacific, the 

northeastern coast of the USA and Africa, the coast of California

Organizer IOC 

Data processing institution US NODC 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, FRG, Japan, Mexico, the 

United Kingdom, the USSR, the USA, Venezuela 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, biology, hydrochemistry, currents 

CINECA - Cooperative Investigation of Northeastern part of Central Africa 

(a component of IODE)

Period of operation February 1973 - May 1974 
125 

Aim Investigation of physical processes related to deep-water 

formation in the Northeastern part of Central Africa 

Geographical area The Northeastern Atlantic between Gibraltar and Dakar 

Organizer IOC 

Place of processing ICES RDC 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries France, FRG, Korea, Mauritania, Morocco, Norway, Poland, 

Portugal, Senegal, Spain, the USSR, the USA, the United 

Kingdom 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, biology, hydrochemistry, currents, 

pollution 

“Monsoon”

Period of operation 1973 – 1984 

Aim Investigation of monsoon 

Geographical area The Indian Ocean 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Place of processing Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR, Japan 

Types of observations Oceanography 

POLYMODE - Joint U.S.- U.S.S.R. Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment 

or Expanded Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment

Period of operation July 1974 - November1978 

Aim Investigation of current circulation in the North Atlantic. 

Investigation of atmospheric processes and their impact on the 

ocean. 

Geographical area The North Atlantic 

Organizer IOC 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, the United Kingdom, the USA 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, pollution, 

geology, geophysics 

GIPME - Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment

Period of operation 1974 - 1990 

Aim Investigation of pollution and its impact on the World Ocean; 

large-scale long-term program combining all pollution project 

Geographical area The World Ocean 

Organizer IOC 

Data processing institution RNODCs on pollution of the USSR, Japan, the USA 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries IOC member states 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, pollution 

GATE – GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment 

(a component of IODE)

Period of operation 17 June 1974 - 23 September 1974 
126 

Aim Investigation of convective and meso-scale systems, their 

interrelation with large-scale tropical disturbances and more 

accurate determination of parameters of their feedback with 

large-scale circulation, required for numerical models 

Geographical area Tropical area of the Atlantic Ocean 

Organizer IOC, WMO 

Place of processing WDC 

Data archive WDC 

Participating countries Brazil, Canada, France, FRG, Mexico, the Netherlands, 

Portugal, the USSR, the United Kingdom, the USA, Venezuela 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents 

Brief results In the framework of GATE, the following was collected: 722 

magnetic tapes (the United Kingdom – 96, GDR – 3, Canada – 

18, Mexico – 2, the Netherlands – 3, the USA – 499, France – 6, 

FRG – 41); microfilms (radar cloud observations – 129, radar 

precipitation observations – 8, aircraft data – 9, aerostat data – 2, 

satellite cloud observations – 2, meteorological data – 30, 

oceanographic data - 6 

POLEX – Polar Experiment

Period of operation 1974 – 1990 

Aim Investigation of Polar areas 

Geographical area The Southern Ocean, the Norway, Greenland, Barents, & Kara 

Seas 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution AARI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Shelf” project

Period of operation 1975 - 1986 

Aim Investigation of coastal areas of the USSR seas 

Geographical area The Far East Seas 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution SOI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

FDRAKE – First Dynamic and Kinematic Experiment in frames of ISOS project

Period of operation January 1975 –December 1977 

Aim Investigation of dynamical processes in the oceans 

Geographical area The Northeastern and Southeastern Pacific, the North Atlantic, 

the South Atlantic 

Organizer IOC 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, the USA, Argentina, Chile 
127 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, pollution, 

geology, geophysics, biology 

“Baltic” project

Period of operation 1975 - 1989 

Aim Complex investigation of ecosystem 

Geographical area The Baltic Sea 

Organizer ICES 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Denmark, Sweden, FRG, the USSR, Finland, GDR 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, pollution, 

geology, biology 

MAPMOPP - Marine Pollution (Petroleum) Monitoring Pilot Project

Period of operation 1975 - 1981 

Aim Monitoring of petroleum pollution in frames of IGOSS 

Geographical area The Northern Pacific, the Philippine, Coral, Solomon, Bismarck, 

Japan, East China, Caribbean, & Mediterranean Seas 

Organizer IOC, WMO 

Place of processing Odessa SOI 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Japan, the USA, the USSR 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, pollution, 

biology 

“Typhoon” project

Period of operation 1975 - 1987 

Aim Forecast of typhoon movement 

Geographical area The Pacific Ocean 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI, SPA “Typhoon” 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

ISOS – International Southern Ocean studies

Period of operation 1975 - 1979 

Aim Multi-disciplinary cooperative investigation of the South Ocean 

Geographical area The Southern Ocean, the South Atlantic, the South Pacific, the 

Indian Ocean 

Organizer IOC, WMO 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, France, Japan, 

New Zealand, Norway, Republic of South Africa, the USSR, the 

United Kingdom, the USA 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, geology, 

geophysics, biology 

“Ples” project

Period of operation 1976 – 1978 
128 

Aim Investigation of coastal zones 

Geographical area The Far East Seas, the Atlantic 

Organizer SCST (State Committee for Science and Technology) 

Place of processing Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

SAMEX – Soviet-American Microwave Experiment

Period of operation 1976 - 1980 

Geographical area The North Pacific 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Place of processing Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Front” project

Period of operation 1976 

Geographical area The Northwestern Pacific 

Place of processing POI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

BOSEX – Baltic Open Sea Experiment

Period of operation 1977 - 1979 

Aim Investigation of synoptic variability of physical fields 

Geographical area The Baltic Sea 

Organizer ICES – International Council for the Exploration of the Sea; 

SCOR – Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research 

Place of processing ITPE (Estonia) 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries FRG, Sweden, the USSR, Denmark, Finland, GDR, Poland 

Types of observations Hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, geology, geophysics, 

pollution 

“Program ”

Status National 

Period of operation 1977 - 1981 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

STRAMEX – Stratosphere Meteorological Experiment

Period of operation 1977 - 1986 

Geographical area The Pacific Ocean 

Place of processing Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 
129 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Kamchia” project

Period of operation 1977 - 1978 

Geographical area The Black Sea 

Place of processing IBSS 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

Soviet-Guinea Expedition

Period of operation 1977 - 1978 

Geographical area The Northwestern Atlantic 

Data processing institution MHI 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, Guinea 

Types of observations Oceanography 

LIHMA – Long-term investigation of hydrometeorological processes in the Atlantic

Period of operation 1977 – 1982 

Geographical area The Mediterranean Sea 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

Participating ships “Passat,” “V.Bugaev,” “E.Krenkel,” “G.Ushakov” (Odessa SOI) 

BIOMASS - Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks

Period of operation 1978 - 1985 

Aim Biological investigation in the Southern Ocean 

Geographical area The Indian Ocean, the southern sector of the Indian Ocean, the 

west Pacific 

Organizer IOC, SCAR – Sciåntific Committee on Antarctic Research 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Argentina, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the USSR, 

the United Kingdom, the USA, FRG, Chile 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, pollution, 

geology, biology, geophysics 

“Tsunami” project

Period of operation 1978 - 1987 

Geographical area The Northwestern Atlantic 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

FGGE – First GARP Global Experiment

Period of operation 1978 – 1980 

Aim Investigation of oceanic processes, including atmospheric 

impact and feedback 
130 

Geographical area Tropical zone of the North and South Atlantic, the Northeastern 

and South Pacific, the Indian Ocean 

Organizer IOC, WMO 

Data processing institution German Hydrographic Institute, Meteorological Bureau of the 

US Navy, RNODs in different countries 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries 23 countries were involved in the Experiment such as Brazil, 

Canada, France, FRG, Mexico, the Netherlands, Portugal, the 

USSR, the USA, the United Kingdom, Venezuela and others 

Types of observations Hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, geology, geophysics, 

meteorology 

Brief results The following data sets have been created: standard bathometry 

observations - 2 magnetic tapes (MT), 9 countries, 128 cruises; 

currents – 2 MT, 1 country, 294 mouths of measurements; 

bathythermograph data – 3 MT, 13 countries, 28000 stations; 

STD sounding - 1 MT, 2 countries, 4030 soundings, 62 cruises 

“Sections” project

Objective Ocean-Atmosphere interaction study 

Period of operation 1979 - 1990 

Aim Investigation of spatial-time variations of basic ocean and 

atmosphere characteristics within the time-scale from a month to 

a season. Revealing interrelation between thermal and dynamical 

anomalies in the ocean and atmosphere anomalies of circulation 

Geographical area Tropics, the Newfoundland zone, the Norwegian zone 

Organizer SCST 

Place of processing RIHMI-WDC 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology, actinometry, aerology 

Kara Experiment

Period of operation 1979 – 1994 

Geographical area The Kara Sea 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Place of processing AARI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

IOCARIBE

Period of operation 1979 – 1995 

Geographical area The Caribbean Sea 

Organizer IOC 

Place of processing WDCs 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, the USA 
131 

Types of observations Oceanography 

SCOPE – Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment 

(Soviet-Swedish program on the investigation of the biochemical cycle of sulfur and the 

most important pollutants in the atmosphere and water and oceanic precipitation)

Period of operation 1979 

Geographical area The Pacific Ocean 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

MONEX – Monsoon Experiment

Period of operation 1979 – 1985 

Aim Investigation of monsoon 

Geographical area The Indian Ocean 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution FERHI, SPA “Typhoon” 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

WESTPAC - Cooperative international investigation of the Western Pacific

Period of operation May 1979 - March 1987 

Aim Study and monitoring of marine environment pollution; ocean 

dynamics, marine biology and living resources; geology, 

geophysics and non-living resources 

Geographical area The Philippine Sea, the Northwestern Pacific, the South China, 

Japan, Okhotsk Sea, the North Pacific, the East China and Inland 

Seas 

Organizer IOC 

Place of processing NODC of Japan 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, Japan, Australia 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, geology, 

biology, geophysics 

CENP–80 project

Period of operation 1980 

Geographical area The Pacific Ocean 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Place of processing Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Seas” project – Investigation of interior and marginal seas

Period of operation 1980–1990 

Aim Preparation of reference publications 
132 

Geographical area The White, Barents, Okhotsk, Japan, Bering, Black, Caspian, 

Azov, & Baltic Seas 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution SOI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

CIPRIO – Inter-Agency Program for Complex Investigation 

of Fishery Resources in the Indian Ocean

Period of operation 1980 

Geographical area The Indian Ocean 

Organizer The USSR AS 

Data processing institution MHI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Triangle” project

Period of operation 1980 

Geographical area The Sea of Okhotsk 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Hurricane” project

Period of operation 1981 

Geographical area The North Pacific 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Polynia” project

Period of operation 1981 

Geographical area The South Ocean 

Organizer SCST 

Data processing institution AARI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

ALPEX – Alpine Experiment

Period of operation September 1981 –October 1982 

Aim Investigation of atmospheric processes over the alps 

Geographical area The western part of the Mediterranean, the Tyrrhenian, the 

Ligurian, the Adriatic Seas (50E W – 30E E; 38E – 50E N) 

Organizer WMO 

Data processing institution ESA – European Space Agency; NODCs of the USA and the 

USSR 
133 

Data archive WDC 

Participating countries The USSR, FRG, the USA, Canada, the Netherlands, Austria, 

Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, Hungary, 

Yugoslavia, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland, Israel, 

Portugal, Turkey 

Types of observations Hydrometeorology 

MEDALPEX – Mediterranean Alpine Experiment

Period of operation September 1981 – September 1982 

Aim Investigation of Water-Atmosphere interaction in the Northern 

Mediterranean 

Geographical area The Western Mediterranean, the Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, Adriatic 

Seas 

Organizer IOC 

Data processing institution RNODS MEDALPEX functions were performed by NODC of 

Russia 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Belgium, Spain, Italy, the USSR, Yugoslavia, France, Turkey 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, biology 

MARPOLMON - Marine Pollution Monitoring

Period of operation 1981 - 1990 

Aim Pollution monitoring in frames of GIPME 

Geographical area The Northern, Northwestern, Northeastern Pacific, the 

Philippine, Japan, Okhotsk, East China, Inland, Caribbean 

Mediterranean, Baltic Seas 

Organizer IOC 

Data processing institution RNODCs of the USSR (Odessa SOI) and Japan 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries Nearly all IOC members 

Types of observations Meteorology, hydrology, hydrochemistry, currents, biology, 

pollution 

“Krill” project

Period of operation 1982 - 1983 

Geographical area The South Ocean 

Organizer Ministry of fishery 

Data processing institution TINRO 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

SAGAPE – Soviet American Gas-Aerosol Pacific Experiment

Period of operation 1983 - 1985 

Geographical area The Northeastern Pacific 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 
134 

CEPI project

Period of operation 1982 

Geographical area The Pacific Ocean 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Vertical” project

Period of operation 1983 – 1984 

Geographical area The Indian Ocean 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

BAREX

Period of operation 1984 – 1987

Geographical area The Northern, the Norwegian, the Greenland, the Barents Seas 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Place of processing Murmansk Hydromet 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

TOGA – Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere

Period of operation 1985 – 1995 

Aim Investigation of the dynamics of the coupled tropical oceanatmosphere system. Operational assessment of large-scale 

climate variations in the tropical ocean zone and global 

atmosphere (i.e. El Nino, Monsoon variation in Asia and Africa, 

droughts in Africa and South America and other). Different level 

models have been applied ranging from simple to very 

complicated. 

Geographical area Tropical ocean zone from 20E N to 20E S and global 

atmosphere. 

Organizer WMO, IOC 

Data processing institution WDCs 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries The USSR, the USA 

Types of observations Meteorology, currents, oceanography 

Brief results One of the first programs having an interdisciplinary view of the 

climate system and promoting close cooperation between 

meteorologists and oceanographers 

“Kosmos” program

Period of operation 1985 – 1988 

Geographical area The Atlantic Ocean 
135 

Organizer AS of the Ukraine 

Data processing institution MHI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

GSEPM – Program of Governmental Service for Environmental Pollution Monitoring

Period of operation 1985 

Geographical area The Black Sea 

Place of processing Odessa SOI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

Geomorphological expedition

Period of operation 1985 - 1986

Geographical area The Indian Ocean 

Organizer AS of the USSR 

Place of processing POI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Patchiness” experiment

Period of operation 1986 

Aim Investigation of small-scale variations of hydrophysical 

parameters 

Geographical area The Baltic Sea 

Organizer ICES 

Data processing institution ICES 

Data archive ICES 

Participating countries The USSR, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Germany 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Stratosphere” project

Period of operation 1986 

Geographical area The North Pacific 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Maritime territory” program

Period of operation 1986 

Geographical area The Japan Sea 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution Far East RIHMI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 
136 

“Wave” project

Period of operation 1986 - 1987 

Geographical area The Northwestern tropical Atlantic 

Organizer SCST 

Place of processing MHI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Megapolygone” project

Period of operation 1987 

Geographical area The Pacific Ocean 

Organizer SCST 

Data processing institution POI 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Abyssal” project

Period of operation February 1987 - February 1988 

Geographical area The North Pacific 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution RIHMI-WDC 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

“Barents” project

Period of operation 1987–1990 

Aim Investigation of the Barents Sea 

Geographical area The Barents Sea 

Organizer Goscomhydromet 

Data processing institution Murmansk Hydromet 

Data archive RIHMI-WDC 

Participating countries The USSR 

Types of observations Oceanography 

WOCE – World Ocean Circulation Experiment (a component of WCRP) 

Period of operation 1990 – 2002 

Aim To develop models useful for predicting climate change and to 

collect the data necessary to test them; to determine the 

representativeness of the specific WOCE data sets for the longterm behaviour of the ocean, and to find methods for 

determining long-term changes in the ocean circulation 

Geographical area The Globe 

Organizer IOC 

Data archive WDCs 

Participating countries 30 nations 

Types of observations Oceanography, meteorology 
137 

Appendix 3. R/Vs involved in various programs and projects 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

Abyssal project 

16545 Okean Far East RIHMI 87.02.11 87.05.27 

16898 Prof. Khromov “ 87.05.09 87.08.21 

16947 Volna Odessa SOI 87.08.28 87.12.26 

17131 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 87.11.04 88.02.16 

Baltics project 

12587 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 81.01.15 81.03.13 

12887 “ “ 81.04.01 81.05.31 

12913 “ “ 81.08.28 81.10.12 

13629 “ “ 82.02.09 82.03.26 

13813 “ “ 82.02.24 82.06.25 

14009 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 82.02.13 82.02.25 

14011 Okeanograf “ 82.03.21 82.05.13 

14074 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 82.07.24 82.09.03 

14172 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 82.08.03 82.10.06 

14211 “ “ 82.11.03 82.12.05 

14534 Akademik Shuleikin “ 83.04.08 83.05.18 

14535 Rudolf Samoylovich “ 83.01.05 84.04.20 

14598 Okeanograf CMR, Lithuania 83.03.24 83.05.23 

14599 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 83.05.21 83.07.04 

14857 “ “ 83.08.06 83.09.27 

14901 “ “ 63.10.01 63.12.08 

15254 “ “ 84.08.03 84.10.02 

15157 “ “ 84.04.17 84.06.30 

15910 Okeanograf CMR, Lithuania 85.07.25 85.08.18 

15533 “ “ 85.01.13 85.03.08 

15746 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 85.05.15 85.07.19 

15884 Arnold Veiner ITPE 85.01.01 85.12.30 

15870 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 85.08.29 85.10.28 

16144 “ “ 86.06.11 86.07.24 

16145 Arnold Veiner ITPE 86.04.17 86.05.23 

16203 “ “ 86.06.03 86.07.12 

16297 “ “ 86.11.13 86.12.12 

16302 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 86.08.19 86.10.03 

16303 “ “ 86.01.23 86.12.07 

16471 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 87.01.07 87.02.18 

16526 Okeanograf “ 87.01.14 87.02.27 

16543 Arnold Veiner ITPE 86.09.29 86.11.01 

16679 Prof. Dorofeev RSHMI 87.02.06 87.04.08 

16892 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 87.07.31 87.09.10 
138 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

17012 Arnold Veiner ITPE 87.05.04 87.06.12 

16907 “ “ 87.06.24 87.07.28 

16979 “ “ 87.09.28 87.11.02 

17082 Okeanograf CMR, Lithuania 88.01.20 88.03.04 

17437 Arnold Veiner ITPE 88.04.25 88.06.05 

17600 Okeanograf CMR, Lithuania 88.12.06 88.12.21 

18100 Arnold Veiner ITPE 89.11.20 89.12.19 

18204 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 89.11.16 89.12.30 

18386 Arnold Veiner ITPE 90.04.07 90.05.15 

18393 Rudolf Samoylovich AARI 90.08.23 90.10.12 

BAREX project 

15224 Patriot AtlantNIRO 84.02.01 84.07.25 

15952 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 85.10.25 85.12.31 

16276 Prof. Dorofeev “ 86.10.03 86.12.21 

16432 Vasily Berezkin “ 87.01.15 87.02.28 

16693 Prof. Dorofeev “ 87.04.10 87.06.15 

16902 Vasily Berezkin “ 87.08.11 87.10.25 

16903 Otto Shmidt “ 87.08.28 87.10.01 

16886 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 87.07.07 87.09.13 

16973 Victor Buynitskiy Murmansk Hydromet 87.11.17 88.01.12 

17323 Vasily Berezkin “ 88.03.29 88.04.30 

17417 Prof. Dorofeev “ 88.03.30 88.06.17 

17505 Vasily Berezkin “ 88.08.05 88.09.03 

17707 “ “ 88.12.01 89.01.20 

17708 Victor Buynitskiy “ 88.11.18 89.01.05 

17830 Vasily Berezkin “ 89.02.08 89.02.20 

17832 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 89.01.10 89.03.03 

17915 “ “ 89.03.23 89.05.31 

17914 Vasily Berezkin “ 89.03.06 89.05.07 

18257 Victor Buynitskiy “ 90.01.17 90.02.28 

BOSEX project 

10321 Victor Buynitskiy Murmansk Hydromet 76.02.01 76.10.30 

10322 “ “ 77.07.15 77.07.25 

11917 “ “ 80.04.18 80.05.14 

11918 “ “ 80.06.08 80.06.09 

11919 “ “ 80.06.23 80.07.18 

11920 “ “ 80.07.04 80.09.12 

Breeze project 

10389 Atlas Far East RIHMI 71.07.23 71.08.07 

4226 Sinoptik Ilyinsky “ 71.07.15 71.09.26 

10432 “ “ 72.05.14 72.05.24 

10431 Vikhr “ 73.11.24 73.12.02 

15595 Atlas “ 84.06.27 84.12.17 
139 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

9435 Vikhr “ 75.01.21 75.12.17 

9436 Adelgunda “ 75.04.09 75.12.24 

9373 Vikhr “ 75.06.20 75.11.08 

9437 Rassvet “ 75.09.10 75.09.24 

9870 Vikhr “ 76.01.25 76.04.08 

9751 “ “ 76.04.16 76.05.01 

9871 Nakat “ 76.04.11 76.12.13 

9665 Volna “ 76.07.20 76.09.24 

9915 “ “ 77.03.07 77.05.06 

9916 “ “ 77.03.05 77.06.26 

10123 Georgy Matveychuk “ 77.06.15 77.09.02 

10147 Priboy “ 77.10.04 77.11.29 

10066 Volna “ 77.10.01 77.12.31 

10124 Georgy Matveychuk “ 77.11.04 77.11.21 

10268 Priboy “ 77.12.01 78.04.30 

10408 Georgy Matveychuk “ 78.04.09 78.04.10 

10410 “ “ 78.04.14 78.05.12 

10411 “ “ 78.05.23 78.07.26 

10463 “ “ 78.10.07 78.10.31 

10110 Okean “ 77.10.01 78.01.31 

10409 Volna “ 78.11.16 78.11.27 

Camchia project 

10091 Miklukho-Maklay IBSS 77.09.01 77.10.30 

10348 Akademik Kovalevsky “ 78.08.31 78.11.04 

CENP project 

11679 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 80.07.17 80.11.01 

11701 Priboy “ 80.07.06 80.11.03 

11714 Volna “ 80.07.05 80.11.02 

11767 Akademik Korolev “ 80.07.08 80.11.05 

11975 Priliv “ 80.07.06 80.11.03 

14730 Akademik Shirshov “ 83.05.18 83.08.31 

14818 Okean “ 83.05.16 83.09.11 

CEPI project 

14020 Priboy Far East RIHMI 82.05.25 82.08.21 

14077 Akademik Korolev “ 82.05.22 82.09.04 

14173 Akademik Shirshov “ 82.05.29 82.08.12 

14178 Volna “ 82.05.13 82.09.04 

14212 Priliv “ 82.05.20 82.08.26 

14366 “ “ 82.10.02 82.12.21 

14367 Volna “ 82.10.21 82.12.27 

14368 Okean “ 82.11.06 82.12.27 

14369 Priboy “ 82.09.17 82.12.16 

14378 V.Frolov “ 82.11.28 82.12.22 
140 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

14379 Akademik Shirshov “ 82.10.26 82.12.26 

14405 A.I.Voeikov “ 82.11.03 83.02.10 

CICAR 

13192 Antares AtlantNIRO 72.01.15 73.03.24 

CIPRIO project

12582 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 80.04.02 80.08.30 

Crill project 

14573 Mys Dalny TINRO 82.12.03 83.06.06 

CSK 

12736 Seskar TINRO 79.08.09 79.11.27 

First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) 

10488 Okean Far East RIHMI 78.09.08 78.12.08 

10533 Priboy “ 78.11.25 79.02.27 

11004 “ “ 79.04.06 79.08.17 

10526 Okean “ 79.01.10 79.02.25 

10582 “ “ 79.04.06 79.06.08 

10525 Priliv “ 78.11.22 79.02.09 

10562 V. Frolov “ 79.01.31 79.03.11 

10583 “ “ 79.04.17 79.06.19 

10584 Valery Uryvayev Sakhalin Hydromet 79.04.17 79.06.19 

10585 “ “ 79.04.27 79.07.13 

10589 Prof. Zubov AARI 78.12.01 79.02.22 

10570 Prof. Vize “ 79.01.02 79.02.26 

10579 Rudolf Samoylovich “ 79.01.07 79.03.14 

10652 “ “ 79.04.18 79.08.03 

10571 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 78.12.21 79.03.31 

10617 “ “ 79.04.21 79.08.07 

10587 Yakov Gakkel “ 78.12.05 79.04.06 

10623 “ “ 79.04.22 79.06.11 

10588 Akademik Kurchatov South IO of RAS 79.03.05 79.05.08 

10577 Adjaria GUNIO 79.01.08 79.02.14 

10639 Akademik Kurchatov South IO of RAS 79.06.13 79.08.28 

10599 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 79.01.24 79.03.17 

10650 Akademik Vernadsky “ 79.04.24 79.08.12 

10991 Adjaria GUNIO 79.01.04 79.06.03 

10639 Akademik Kurchatov South IO of RAS 79.06.13 79.08.28 

10488 Okean Far East RIHMI 78.09.08 78.12.08 

Front project 

9945 Stepan Malygin POI 76.11.08 76.12.18 

GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) 

8130 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 74.06.19 74.09.21 

8137 Ernst Krenkel Odessa SOI 74.06.04 74.10.08 

8138 Poryv “ 74.06.04 74.10.09 
141 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

8141 Passat “ 74.06.01 74.10.09 

8142 Musson “ 74.06.03 74.10.09 

8181 Prof. Vize AARI 74.06.05 74.10.09 

8182 Prof. Zubov “ 74.06.05 74.10.09 

8241 Volna Far East RIHMI 74.04.23 74.12.08 

8242 Okean “ 74.04.23 74.11.30 

8266 Akademik Korolev “ 74.04.23 74.12.08 

8289 Priboy “ 74.04.24 74.12.08 

8554 Akademik Kurchatov IO of RAS 74.06.21 74.09.19 

8607 Semyon Dezhnev GUNIO 74.06.26 74.09.15 

Geomorphology project 

15963 Akademik Lavrentjev POI 85.11.20 86.01.13 

GSEPM program 

18259 Yakov Gakkel Odessa SOI 85.01.24 85.02.14 

Hurricane project 

13163 Priboy Far East RIHMI 81.07.31 81.11.27 

Kara experiment 

10879 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 79.10.20 79.11.20 

11785 “ “ 80.09.26 80.11.03 

14189 “ “ 82.08.10 82.10.15 

15393 Vasily Berezkin “ 84.08.16 84.09.04 

15951 Otto Shmidt “ 85.07.16 85.10.10 

16143 P.Multanovskiy AARI 86.06.24 86.09.23 

18408 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 90.08.23 90.09.27 

10490 Prof. Vize AARI 78.08.10 78.10.08 

17495 P.Multanovskiy “ 88.06.25 88.09.21 

Kosmos program 

16028 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 85.02.18 86.06.03 

16157 Mikhail Lomonosov “ 86.06.24 86.10.08 

16288 Akademik Vernadsky “ 86.08.03 86.12.05 

16620 “ “ 87.01.15 87.04.30 

16895 “ “ 87.05.16 87.08.15 

17509 “ “ 88.07.02 88.10.04 

17510 Mikhail Lomonosov “ 88.04.30 88.08.31 

MAPMOPP program 

8006 Priliv FAR EAST RIHMI 74.01.22 74.04.05 

8747 “ “ 74.12.25 75.04.07 

9433 “ “ 76.02.18 76.04.14 

9025 “ “ 75.05.07 75.07.01 

10389 Atlas “ 71.07.23 71.08.07 

10105 “ “ 77.04.05 77.12.15 

10407 “ “ 78.04.10 78.12.06 

9373 Vikhr “ 75.06.20 75.11.08 
142 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

9435 “ “ 75.01.21 75.12.17 

9438 Nakat “ 75.10.08 75.12.24 

9871 “ “ 76.04.11 76.12.13 

7699 A.I. Voeikov “ 74.03.20 74.06.11 

9436 Adelgunda “ 75.04.09 75.12.24 

9437 Rassvet “ 75.09.10 75.09.24 

10290 U.M. Shokalsky “ 78.04.01 78.06.16 

10410 G. Matveichuk “ 78.04.14 78.05.12 

10670 Volna “ 79.09.06 79.11.21 

13161 Akademik Shirshov “ 81.10.08 81.12.11 

13954 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 82.05.12 82.07.14 

10116 Priboy FAR EAST RIHMI 78.01.05 78.02.20 

13014 “ “ 81.05.06 81.07.01 

13740 Priliv “ 82.02.03 82.04.18 

14212 “ “ 82.05.20 82.08.26 

14911 “ “ 83.10.23 83.12.18 

15369 Akademik Shokalsky “ 84.05.09 84.08.09 

15728 Priliv “ 85.02.12 85.06.29 

10488 Okean “ 78.09.08 78.12.08 

12004 “ “ 80.10.25 80.12.29 

12926 “ “ 81.06.18 81.08.24 

14621 “ “ 83.02.19 83.04.19 

15115 “ “ 84.02.14 84.05.03 

15948 “ “ 85.10.09 86.01.31 

16161 “ “ 86.07.23 86.09.13 

16255 Komsomolets Azova Northern Hydromet 86.08.03 86.11.03 

16343 Priboy Far East RIHMI 86.12.27 87.01.19 

16700 Priliv “ 87.02.06 87.04.20 

11575 Evrika AtlantNIRO 80.03.14 80.08.09 

14565 Musson Odessa SOI 83.04.09 83.06.21 

14875 “ “ 83.10.11 83.12.22 

14904 Passat “ 83.11.09 84.01.22 

15315 Passat Odessa SOI 84.05.27 84.09.11 

15532 E. Krenkel “ 84.12.25 85.03.16 

15539 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.01.12 85.03.27 

15558 Passat Odessa SOI 85.02.06 85.05.18 

15625 Volna “ 85.03.02 85.06.07 

15727 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.07.12 85.09.20 

15953 Vasily Berezkin “ 85.08.30 85.09.29 

16258 Donuzlav GUNIO 86.05.15 86.06.01 

Maritime territory project 

16027 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 86.01.22 86.05.22 
143 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

MEDALPEX 

13723 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 82.01.31 82.04.24 

13804 Zodiak GUNIO 82.01.19 82.04.29 

14091 Prof. Vodyanitsky IBSS 82.03.21 82.05.24 

14202 Musson Odessa SOI 82.09.17 82.11.22 

Megapolygone project 

16896 Akademik Nesmeyanov POI 87.06.02 87.08.20 

16887 Prof.Bogorov “ 87.08.11 87.08.26 

MONEX 

15356 Volna Far East RIHMI 84.02.08 84.06.14 

15580 A.I. Voeikov “ 85.02.06 85.05.08 

10527 Akademik Shirshov “ 78.12.06 79.02.15 

11001 “ “ 79.04.03 79.08.14 

10532 Akademik Korolev “ 78.12.04 79.02.14 

11000 “ “ 79.04.03 79.08.15 

11003 Volna “ 79.04.05 79.07.24 

14003 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 82.01.14 82.04.17 

15155 Prof. Kolesnikov “ 84.02.08 84.05.18 

15635 “ “ 85.03.06 85.06.09 

11072 Mikhail Lomonosov “ 79.11.24 80.01.31 

14003 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 82.01.14 82.04.17 

14302 “ “ 82.07.21 82.10.29 

14669 “ “ 82.12.29 83.05.07 

Monsoon project 

5747 Okean Far East RIHMI 73.04.27 73.08.03 

5939 Priliv “ 73.04.28 73.08.03 

5745 U.M. Shokalsky “ 73.04.21 73.08.10 

5744 A.I. Voeykov “ 73.04.21 73.08.08 

9957 Priboy “ 77.05.08 77.09.12 

9966 Akademik Shirshov “ 77.05.11 77.09.15 

9967 Priliv “ 77.05.07 77.08.19 

9997 U.M. Shokalsky “ 77.04.20 77.09.15 

9998 Okean “ 77.05.08 77.09.12 

15441 A.I. Voeykov “ 84.08.17 84.12.17 

11002 Priliv “ 79.04.06 79.08.17 

Patchiness experiment 

16047 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 86.04.15 86.04.15 

PLES project 

9790 Vikhr Far East RIHMI 76.05.12 76.09.19 

9789 Tropik GUNIO 76.03.04 76.05.12 

10123 G. Matveichuk Far East RIHMI 77.06.15 77.09.02 

9665 Volna “ 76.07.20 76.09.24 

10411 G. Matveichuk “ 78.05.23 78.07.26 
144 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

Polar Experiment 

10490 Prof. Vize AARI 78.08.10 78.10.08 

17495 P. Multanovskiy “ 88.06.25 88.09.21 

9916 Volna Far East RIHMI 77.03.05 77.06.26 

9915 Volna “ 77.03.07 77.05.06 

9792 Priboy “ 77.01.20 77.03.22 

9786 Priliv “ 77.01.27 77.03.19 

9766 Okean “ 76.10.14 77.02.13 

9705 Priboy “ 76.10.07 76.12.23 

9766 Okean “ 76.10.14 77.02.13 

8084 Passat Odessa SOI 74.02.23 74.04.30 

8171 Aisberg Murmansk Hydromet 74.05.23 74.09.05 

8571 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 74.11.05 75.01.31 

8608 Akademik Korolev Maritime Hydromet 75.01.07 75.03.01 

8669 Volna Odessa SOI 75.01.14 75.03.26 

8678 Okean Far East RIHMI 75.01.09 75.03.20 

9486 Prof. Zubov AARI 76.03.01 76.06.10 

9588 Nerei RSHMI 76.05.20 76.06.18 

9619 Prof. Vize AARI 76.04.05 76.07.20 

9627 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 76.05.11 76.08.30 

9628 Priliv “ 76.05.14 76.08.13 

9653 Aisberg Murmansk Hydromet 76.04.11 76.06.30 

9654 Vasily Beryozkin “ 76.04.13 76.06.27 

9673 Priboy Far East RIHMI 76.05.06 76.09.05 

9674 Okean “ 76.06.09 76.09.20 

9767 Prof. Vize AARI 76.12.23 77.03.08 

9886 Nerei RSHMI 77.05.03 77.06.30 

9960 Prof. Zubov AARI 77.07.01 77.09.30 

10054 Nerei RSHMI 77.10.19 77.11.15 

10062 Prof. Vize AARI 77.08.17 77.10.16 

10292 Nerei RSHMI 78.05.12 78.06.16 

10405 Prof. Zubov AARI 78.07.05 78.09.16 

10649 “ “ 79.05.11 79.08.10 

11262 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 80.04.06 80.05.27 

10638 Prof. Vize AARI 79.04.30 79.08.03 

11641 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 80.06.16 80.09.04 

11025 “ “ 79.12.01 80.02.09 

11275 “ “ 80.03.01 80.05.27 

11595 Prof. Vize AARI 80.05.12 80.08.05 

11635 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 80.06.14 80.08.31 

11848 “ “ 80.09.20 80.11.27 

12067 Okean Far East RIHMI 75.12.25 76.02.25 

12860 Prof. Vize AARI 81.06.04 81.08.05 
145 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

13339 “ “ 81.09.27 81.12.29 

14005 Prof. Zubov AARI 82.05.25 82.07.04 

14156 Akademik Shuleikin “ 82.09.21 82.10.01 

14174 Prof. Zubov “ 82.08.10 82.10.14 

14187 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 82.07.09 82.08.29 

14189 Otto Shmidt “ 82.08.10 82.10.15 

14556 Vasily Beryozkin “ 83.04.04 83.05.21 

14609 Otto Shmidt “ 83.05.13 83.07.30 

14671 Prof. Vize AARI 83.05.27 83.07.15 

14672 Akademik Shuleikin “ 83.06.13 83.07.14 

14693 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 83.05.11 83.07.10 

14697 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 83.04.07 83.07.06 

14822 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 83.08.22 83.09.12 

14853 Prof. Zubov “ 83.06.06 83.08.10 

14876 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 83.10.19 83.12.28 

14900 P. Multanovskiy AARI 83.10.05 83.12.14 

14903 Akademik Shuleikin “ 83.10.20 83.12.19 

14979 Prof. Zubov “ 83.11.28 84.03.10 

14989 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 83.12.14 84.02.22 

15082 P. Multanovskiy AARI 84.01.13 84.04.12 

15112 Akademik Shuleikin “ 84.03.19 84.05.30 

15175 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 84.04.28 84.06.10 

15244 “ “ 84.06.22 84.09.11 

15255 Otto Shmidt “ 84.07.07 84.09.18 

15340 P. Multanovskiy AARI 84.07.20 84.09.18 

15341 Akademik Shuleikin “ 84.06.26 84.09.24 

15342 Prof. Vize “ 84.06.11 84.09.27 

15383 P. Multanovskiy “ 84.10.17 84.12.21 

15390 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 84.11.11 84.12.26 

15513 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 85.01.29 85.03.28 

15515 P. Multanovskiy “ 85.01.21 85.03.21 

15539 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.01.12 85.03.27 

15620 P. Multanovskiy AARI 85.04.22 85.06.23 

15727 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.07.12 85.09.20 

15809 Prof. Zubov AARI 85.05.16 85.07.05 

15891 Akademik Shuleikin “ 85.11.05 85.12.20 

15900 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.10.08 85.12.30 

15892 P. Multanovskiy AARI 85.10.19 85.12.16 

15937 Akademik Shuleikin “ 86.01.10 86.03.11 

15938 P. Multanovskiy “ 86.01.11 86.03.19 

15952 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 85.10.25 85.12.31 

15992 Prof. Dorofeev “ 86.01.24 86.03.21 

16030 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 86.04.01 86.06.12 
146 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

16031 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 86.03.21 86.05.10 

16206 “ “ 86.08.01 86.09.23 

16162 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 86.06.30 86.10.10 

16276 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 86.10.03 86.12.21 

16295 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 86.10.29 86.12.02 

16296 P. Multanovskiy “ 86.10.26 86.12.24 

16331 V. Buynitskiy Murmansk Hydromet 86.12.12 87.01.14 

16330 Vasily Beryozkin “ 86.11.18 86.12.30 

16134 Prof. Dorofeev “ 86.04.15 86.06.04 

16432 Vasily Beryozkin “ 87.01.15 87.02.28 

16891 Prof. Vize AARI 87.07.31 87.09.18 

16983 Akademik Shuleikin “ 87.10.09 87.12.09 

17080 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 87.07.01 87.10.16 

17837 Prof. Khromov “ 88.07.01 88.10.09 

17890 P. Multanovskiy AARI 89.01.26 89.04.07 

17911 Akademik Shuleikin “ 89.04.12 89.06.21 

17928 P. Multanovskiy “ 89.06.27 89.08.22 

17930 Prof. Vize “ 89.05.11 89.07.17 

8681 Prof. Zubov “ 74.11.11 75.04.02 

9893 “ “ 77.02.07 77.04.01 

10186 “ “ 77.10.01 78.03.31 

10589 “ “ 78.12.01 79.02.22 

10570 Prof. Vize “ 79.01.02 79.02.26 

12851 Volna Far East RIHMI 80.12.20 81.04.24 

12864 Prof. Zubov AARI 80.12.20 81.04.22 

12868 Priliv Far East RIHMI 80.12.20 81.05.03 

12872 Prof. Vize AARI 80.11.13 81.05.05 

13810 Prof. Zubov “ 81.10.19 82.05.03 

14539 “ “ 82.11.06 83.05.17 

15102 Prof. Vize “ 83.11.06 84.05.15 

16023 Prof. Zubov “ 85.12.04 86.05.20 

16529 Prof. Vize “ 86.11.12 87.05.05 

16530 Prof. Zubov “ 86.12.24 87.05.13 

17321 “ “ 87.11.12 88.04.25 

17320 Prof. Vize “ 87.11.10 88.05.12 

17884 “ “ 88.12.23 89.04.11 

18834 “ 90.11.15 91.04.04 

POLYMODE 

10115 Akademik Krylov GUNIO 77.06.01 77.11.30 

10092 Akademik Kurchatov South IO of RAS 77.07.17 77.10.02 

9953 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 77.06.06 77.09.24 

10546 Moldaviya GUNIO 78.03.26 78.06.12 

10046 Sergei Vavilov AI of RAS 77.08.12 77.09.11 
147 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

10376 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 78.05.26 78.10.25 

10106 Akademik Vernadsky “ 77.07.24 77.10.02 

10419 Mikhail Lomonosov “ 78.03.18 78.07.18 

10148 “ “ 77.11.02 78.02.10 

10294 Akademik Vernadsky “ 78.01.03 78.02.21 

14380 Akademik Kurchatov South IO of RAS 78.01.12 78.06.16 

14381 “ “ 78.08.13 78.09.30 

14830 Vityaz IO of RAS 77.10.29 78.01.04 

Polynia project 

14837 Vityaz SIO of RAS 81.10.21 81.11.13 

14012 Mikhail Somov AARI 81.09.07 82.06.11 

SAE-Soviet Antarctic Expedition 

12882 Kulikovo pole WESTFISHREC 81.03.15 81.04.29 

12871 Mikhail Somov AARI 80.11.11 81.07.03 

SAGAPE 

14899 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 83.10.17 83.12.13 

16832 “ “ 85.04.16 87.08.13 

SAMEX 

9704 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 76.07.31 76.12.03 

9968 Volna “ 77.07.14 77.09.09 

11342 Akademik Shirshov “ 80.03.14 80.06.24 

SCOPE 

11074 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 79.11.20 80.03.25 

Seas project 

15260 Valery Uryvaev Far East RIHMI 83.09.22 83.11.06 

15410 Akademik Shokalsky “ 85.01.27 85.04.12 

15801 Akademik Shirshov “ 85.08.22 85.09.26 

15944 Valery Uryvayev “ 85.11.06 86.01.24 

16020 V. Frolov “ 86.04.01 86.09.08 

16025 Akademik Shokalsky “ 86.02.14 86.05.24 

16032 Valery Uryvayev “ 86.02.13 86.06.18 

16162 Akademik Shokalsky “ 86.06.30 86.10.10 

16163 V. Frolov “ 86.08.20 86.10.08 

16204 Priliv “ 86.08.12 86.09.26 

16205 Valery Uryvayev “ 86.08.20 86.10.08 

16467 V. Frolov “ 86.11.05 87.02.04 

16477 Valery Uryvayev “ 86.11.18 87.02.17 

16698 Akademik Shokalsky “ 87.03.27 87.06.05 

16696 Valery Uryvayev “ 87.03.10 87.05.08 

16721 Priboy “ 87.06.06 87.07.10 

16722 V. Frolov “ 87.03.01 87.04.24 

17811 Akademik Shokalsky “ 88.10.10 89.01.05 

18508 V. Frolov “ 90.03.11 90.04.10 
148 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

15949 Valery Uryvayev “ 84.06.07 84.07.09 

Sections program 

13993 Prof. Bogorov POI 81.03.13 81.05.25 

10856 Passat Odessa SOI 79.09.13 79.12.23 

10936 Achill PINRO 79.05.28 79.07.23 

10852 E.Krenkel Odessa SOI 79.10.10 79.12.22 

10649 Prof. Zubov AARI 79.05.11 79.08.10 

10638 Prof. Vize “ 79.04.30 79.08.03 

10617 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 79.04.21 79.08.07 

10991 Adjaria GUNIO 79.01.04 79.06.03 

10909 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 79.10.14 80.01.21 

10665 E. Krenkel “ 79.06.13 79.09.22 

11335 Priliv Far East RIHMI 80.04.15 80.06.03 

11323 Priboy “ 80.04.08 80.06.14 

11198 Musson Odessa SOI 80.02.23 80.06.20 

11199 E. Krenkel “ 80.02.20 80.06.21 

11262 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 80.04.06 80.05.27 

11114 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 80.02.07 80.05.11 

10724 Passat “ 79.05.14 79.08.29 

11341 V. Bugaev “ 80.04.12 80.08.10 

11433 Akhill PINRO 80.05.24 80.07.01 

11635 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 80.06.14 80.08.31 

11653 Ayaks PINRO 80.02.12 80.06.09 

11701 Priboy Far East RIHMI 80.07.06 80.11.03 

11714 Volna “ 80.07.05 80.11.02 

11767 Akademik Korolev “ 80.07.08 80.11.05 

11242 Vityaz South IO of RAS 78.06.14 78.08.12 

11848 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 80.09.20 80.11.27 

11935 Musson Odessa SOI 80.10.24 81.02.25 

11972 G. Ushakov “ 80.10.09 80.12.20 

11973 Passat “ 80.10.14 81.01.21 

11974 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 80.09.12 80.12.07 

11975 Priliv Far East RIHMI 80.07.06 80.11.03 

11989 V. Frolov “ 80.11.04 80.01.13 

12077 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 80.12.10 81.03.21 

12267 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 81.01.09 81.04.10 

12269 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 81.01.08 81.04.23 

10752 V. Frolov Far East RIHMI 79.10.10 79.12.15 

12573 Dalniye Zelentsy Murmansk Hydromet 79.10.26 79.12.05 

12626 Ayaks PINRO 80.07.30 80.11.19 

12630 Passat Odessa SOI 81.02.11 81.05.20 

12631 E. Krenkel “ 81.04.08 81.06.21 

12641 Novocheboksarsk AtlantNIRO 80.08.05 80.12.20 
149 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

12642 Seskar TINRO 79.04.14 79.07.01 

12644 Mys Tikhiy PBFS 78.10.10 79.03.24 

12670 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 81.01.17 81.05.19 

12671 Musson “ 81.03.16 81.06.23 

12722 Priboy Far East RIHMI 81.01.10 81.04.08 

12739 Protsion PINRO 81.02.20 81.04.21 

12736 Seskar TINRO 79.08.09 79.11.27 

12859 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 81.05.13 81.07.25 

12860 Prof. Vize AARI 81.06.04 81.08.05 

12865 Prof. Zubov “ 81.05.11 81.07.30 

12883 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 81.06.09 81.09.19 

12926 Okean Far East RIHMI 81.06.18 81.08.24 

12927 Akademik Shirshov “ 81.05.10 81.09.01 

12958 Achill PINRO 81.06.14 81.07.03 

12893 Leonid Demin GUNIO 81.01.15 81.03.18 

12894 Zodiak “ 81.01.15 81.04.15 

12960 Pluton “ 81.01.15 81.04.15 

12996 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 81.07.10 81.09.30 

13096 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 81.01.15 81.04.24 

13097 Ayaks PINRO 81.01.31 81.05.21 

13138 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 81.09.25 81.12.25 

13139 V. Frolov Far East RIHMI 81.10.19 81.12.12 

13015 “ “ 81.07.28 81.09.05 

13014 Priboy “ 81.05.06 81.07.01 

13022 Musson Odessa SOI 81.07.14 81.11.05 

13059 Persey -III PINRO 81.04.08 81.07.27 

13133 Passat Odessa SOI 81.10.26 81.12.25 

13161 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 81.10.08 81.12.11 

13098 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 81.02.25 81.04.25 

13339 Prof. Vize AARI 81.09.27 81.12.29 

13379 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 81.10.10 82.01.22 

13380 E. Krenkel “ 81.10.20 82.01.31 

13381 Musson “ 81.11.17 82.02.24 

13383 Akademik Kurchatov IO of RAS 81.07.30 81.10.24 

13336 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 81.08.10 81.09.08 

13100 Mikhail Krupsky GUNIO 81.09.15 81.11.08 

13474 Pluton “ 81.09.08 81.11.08 

13101 Persey “ 81.09.01 81.11.08 

13479 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 81.10.06 81.12.19 

13482 Volna Far East RIHMI 81.10.15 81.12.27 

13483 Priliv “ 81.09.26 81.12.24 

13500 Ayaks PINRO 81.06.25 81.09.04 

13506 Okean Far East RIHMI 81.09.23 81.12.25 
150 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

13507 Passat Odessa SOI 82.01.16 82.03.23 

13530 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 81.03.31 81.06.19 

13532 Salekhard AtlantNIRO 73.03.13 73.09.11 

13624 Dmitry Mendeleev South IO of RAS 81.09.11 81.11.11 

13660 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 82.02.11 82.04.21 

13710 Volna Far East RIHMI 82.01.31 82.04.08 

13711 Akademik Korolev “ 82.01.28 82.04.18 

13721 Prof. Vize AARI 82.02.21 82.03.19 

13723 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 82.01.31 82.04.24 

13738 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 82.02.26 82.05.05 

13739 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 82.03.12 82.04.20 

13740 Priliv “ 82.02.03 82.04.18 

13795 Passat Odessa SOI 82.04.10 82.06.17 

12863 Valerian Uryvaev Sakhalin Hydromet 81.07.03 81.08.04 

13798 V. Frolov Far East RIHMI 82.01.26 82.03.21 

13812 Okean “ 82.03.21 82.05.21 

13811 V. Frolov “ 82.05.10 82.06.26 

13954 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 82.05.12 82.07.14 

13955 Musson “ 82.03.13 82.06.28 

13993 Prof. Bogorov POI 81.03.13 81.05.25 

13809 Gemma PINRO 82.01.05 82.05.03 

13999 Akhill “ 82.03.01 82.04.22 

14003 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 82.01.14 82.04.17 

14004 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 82.05.11 82.07.27 

14329 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 82.11.16 83.01.19 

14005 Prof. Zubov AARI 82.05.25 82.07.04 

14008 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 82.05.21 82.07.18 

14009 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 82.02.13 82.02.25 

14075 Passat Odessa SOI 82.06.29 82.09.19 

14077 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 82.05.22 82.09.04 

14082 Vityaz IO of RAS 82.05.09 82.05.19 

14083 Akademik Kurchatov IO of RAS 82.01.09 82.03.14 

14084 Akademik Mstislav Keldysh “ 81.03.15 81.05.04 

14085 “ ” 82.02.04 82.02.07 

14156 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 82.09.21 82.10.01 

14173 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 82.05.29 82.08.12 

14174 Prof. Zubov AARI 82.08.10 82.10.14 

14175 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 82.07.09 82.09.28 

14176 V. Bugaev “ 82.08.01 82.10.19 

14178 Volna Far East RIHMI 82.05.13 82.09.04 

14179 Akhill PINRO 82.06.01 82.07.09 

14180 Suloy “ 82.04.09 82.08.02 

14181 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 82.06.17 82.09.13 
151 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

14187 Vasily Beryozkin Murmansk Hydromet 82.07.09 82.08.29 

14189 Otto Shmidt “ 82.08.10 82.10.15 

14193 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 82.08.07 82.08.19 

14201 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 82.09.29 82.11.11 

14202 Musson “ 82.09.17 82.11.22 

1429 Prognoz AtlantNIRO 82.08.19 82.09.26 

14222 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 82.10.12 82.12.23 

14231 Mikhail Verbitskiy PINRO 82.03.19 82.07.19 

14240 Andrus Jokhani AtlantNIRO 82.08.24 83.01.04 

14239 Novocheboksarsk “ 82.08.06 82.11.14 

14259 SRTM-8-449 PINRO 78.08.20 78.09.01 

14260 Okeanograf CMR, Lithuania 82.10.04 82.11.24 

14262 Partizansk TINRO 80.03.06 80.04.13 

14263 SRTM-8-452 “ 80.05.11 80.05.19 

14264 Poseidon “ 82.07.15 82.07.18 

14294 Passat Odessa SOI 82.10.06 83.01.16 

14295 V. Bugaev “ 82.11.11 83.01.15 

14300 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 82.09.08 82.10.25 

14302 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 82.07.21 82.10.29 

14327 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 82.09.27 82.10.30 

14335 Protsion Murmansk Hydromet 82.09.11 82.12.02 

14342 Prof. Dorofeev “ 83.01.26 83.03.13 

14344 A. Vilkitsky GUNIO 82.07.01 82.07.18 

14354 Langust AtlantNIRO 82.11.02 83.02.18 

14355 Vysota “ 82.11.01 83.02.04 

14362 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 83.01.13 83.03.19 

14363 Musson “ 82.12.14 83.03.26 

14366 Priliv Far East RIHMI 82.10.02 82.12.21 

14367 Volna “ 82.10.21 82.12.27 

14368 Okean “ 82.11.06 82.12.27 

14369 Priboy “ 82.09.17 82.12.16 

14378 V. Frolov “ 82.11.28 82.12.22 

14379 Akademik Shirshov “ 82.10.26 82.12.26 

14380 Akademik Kurchatov South IO of RAS 78.01.12 78.06.16 

14381 “ “ 78.08.13 78.09.30 

14384 Kokshaysk PINRO 83.01.10 83.01.16 

14400 Dmitry Mendeleev South IO of RAS 82.12.22 83.02.17 

14402 Alaid PINRO 83.03.02 83.03.26 

14404 Gemma “ 82.11.29 83.03.11 

14405 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 82.11.03 83.02.10 

14407 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 83.02.11 83.04.26 

14495 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 83.02.04 83.04.17 

14496 Akademik Nesmeyanov POI 82.09.18 82.11.21 
152 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

14504 Prof. Shtokman IO of RAS 79.03.16 79.04.22 

14505 Rubezhnoye TINRO 82.02.07 82.05.13 

14506 Novokotovsk “ 82.09.16 83.01.26 

14508 Darvin “ 82.11.18 83.04.18 

14536 Passat Odessa SOI 83.02.16 83.05.23 

14556 Vasily Berezkin Murmansk Hydromet 83.04.04 83.05.21 

14562 Rubezhnoye TINRO 83.03.13 83.06.13 

14565 Musson Odessa SOI 83.04.09 83.06.21 

14576 Babayevsk TINRO 82.12.03 83.02.01 

14608 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 83.03.24 83.07.21 

14617 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 83.04.14 86.05.15 

14619 Priboy “ 83.01.18 83.04.28 

14620 Volna “ 83.01.18 83.04.28 

14621 Okean “ 83.02.19 83.04.19 

14622 Akademik Shokalsky “ 83.04.14 83.06.18 

14623 Prof. Khromov “ 83.04.23 83.07.13 

14625 Gizhiga AtlantNIRO 83.02.18 83.07.19 

14629 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 83.05.15 83.08.23 

14635 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 83.03.30 83.05.09 

14669 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 82.12.29 83.05.07 

14671 Prof. Vize AARI 83.05.27 83.07.15 

14672 Akademik Shuleikin “ 83.06.13 83.07.14 

14676 Musson Odessa SOI 83.07.12 83.09.20 

14693 Lev Titov CMR, Lithuania 83.05.11 83.07.10 

14697 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 83.04.07 83.07.06 

14701 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 83.05.25 83.06.25 

14702 Gemma PINRO 83.04.01 83.05.31 

14705 Passat Odessa SOI 83.07.29 83.10.23 

14708 Evrika AtlantNIRO 83.04.30 83.09.13 

14714 Vasily Berezkin Murmansk Hydromet 83.07.15 83.09.05 

14715 Protsion PINRO 83.02.01 83.05.20 

14730 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 83.05.18 83.08.31 

14789 Volzhanin AtlantNIRO 83.06.14 83.10.05 

14791 Kokshaysk PINRO 83.02.12 83.05.14 

14792 Persey -III “ 83.03.28 83.06.19 

14818 Okean Far East RIHMI 83.05.16 83.09.11 

14820 Prof. Vize AARI 83.08.17 83.10.26 

14822 Akademik Shuleikin “ 83.08.22 83.09.12 

14823 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 83.09.09 83.11.22 

14824 G. Ushakov “ 83.08.11 83.11.17 

14825 Yakov Gakkel “ 83.08.02 83.10.23 

14827 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 83.06.07 83.09.02 

14828 Suloy PINRO 83.04.16 83.08.04 
153 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

14850 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 83.07.30 83.11.23 

14851 Prof. Khromov “ 83.08.07 83.10.02 

14852 Priboy “ 83.07.14 83.09.21 

14855 Prof. Zubov AARI 83.06.06 83.08.10 

14860 Persey -III PINRO 83.08.02 83.10.16 

14861 Protsion “ 83.08.20 83.09.21 

14875 Musson Odessa SOI 83.10.11 83.12.22 

14876 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 83.10.19 83.12.28 

14879 Semyon Dezhnev GUNIO 83.04.19 83.06.21 

14878 Leonid Demin “ 83.07.13 83.10.21 

14883 Volna Far East RIHMI 83.09.25 83.12.27 

14900 P. Multanovskiy AARI 83.10.05 83.12.14 

14903 Akademik Shuleikin “ 83.10.20 83.12.19 

14904 Passat Odessa SOI 83.11.09 84.01.22 

14911 Priliv Far East RIHMI 83.10.23 83.12.18 

14912 Akademik Shirshov “ 83.10.28 84.01.01 

14859 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 83.08.03 83.10.02 

14916 Prostor TINRO 83.06.07 83.11.18 

14920 Novokotovsk “ 83.05.02 83.08.31 

14950 G.Ushakov Odessa SOI 83.12.17 84.02.17 

14957 Kokshaysk PINRO 83.10.28 84.01.16 

14961 Akademik Vinogradov POI 83.09.04 83.11.10 

14973 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 83.11.29 84.03.12 

14979 Prof. Zubov AARI 83.11.28 84.03.10 

14982 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 83.12.11 84.03.23 

15216 Anchar AtlantNIRO 84.04.06 84.08.29 

15222 Zvezda “ 84.03.12 84.08.14 

12408 Tunets PINRO 61.04.18 61.05.21 

12409 “ “ 61.06.03 61.07.10 

12410 “ “ 61.07.23 61.08.28 

12404 “ “ 63.04.21 63.05.18 

12405 “ “ 63.06.10 63.07.12 

15076 Suloy “ 83.10.01 84.02.10 

15078 Darvin TINRO 83.10.11 84.01.15 

15079 Rubezhnoye “ 83.12.19 84.02.04 

15080 Mlechny Put “ 83.10.06 83.12.31 

15082 P. Multanovskiy AARI 84.01.13 84.04.12 

15085 Pluton GUNIO 83.08.15 83.10.09 

15087 Akademik Nesmeyanov POI 83.05.12 83.09.08 

15088 Akademik Vinogradov “ 83.12.01 84.01.30 

15089 Priliv Far East RIHMI 84.01.07 84.03.02 

15090 Okean “ 83.10.14 84.01.12 

15095 V. Frolov “ 83.10.20 83.12.29 
154 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

15097 Priboy “ 83.11.01 84.02.07 

15101 Ayaks PINRO 83.11.26 84.03.03 

14989 Vasily Berezkin Murmansk Hydromet 83.12.14 84.02.22 

15108 Akademik Kurchatov IO of RAS 83.12.31 84.03.25 

15112 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 84.03.19 84.05.30 

15113 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 83.12.02 84.03.31 

15115 Okean “ 84.02.14 84.05.03 

15149 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 84.03.11 84.06.06 

15151 V. Bugaev “ 84.04.02 84.07.12 

15152 Musson “ 84.04.16 84.06.25 

15154 Vilnus PINRO 84.03.14 84.05.21 

15155 Prof. Kolesnikov MHI 84.02.08 84.05.18 

15166 Akademik Vernadsky “ 83.12.30 84.05.13 

15170 Anchar PINRO 84.03.07 84.05.29 

15174 Poisk “ 84.03.03 84.06.30 

15171 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 84.02.11 84.05.11 

15175 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 84.04.28 84.06.10 

15177 Vasily Berezkin “ 84.05.24 84.08.06 

15178 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 84.02.04 84.05.23 

15176 Lensk PINRO 84.03.29 84.07.02 

15180 Valerian Uryvaev Far East RIHMI 83.12.16 84.04.09 

15181 E.Krenkel Odessa SOI 84.06.11 84.08.24 

15245 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 84.05.18 84.06.27 

15246 Arnold Veimer ITPE 84.07.19 84.09.11 

15250 Mys Yunony PBFS 84.03.20 84.05.15 

15251 Novokotovsk TINRO 84.01.23 84.06.21 

15304 Achill PINRO 84.03.26 84.07.07 

15315 Passat Odessa SOI 84.05.27 84.09.11 

15316 G. Ushakov “ 84.06.21 84.09.20 

15333 Ayaks PINRO 84.05.05 84.08.18 

15338 V. Bugaev “ 84.06.01 84.09.05 

15340 P.Multanovskiy AARI 84.07.20 84.09.18 

15341 Akademik Shuleikin “ 84.06.26 84.09.24 

15342 Prof. Vize “ 84.06.11 84.09.27 

15349 Artyk TINRO 84.03.12 84.04.28 

15358 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 84.06.19 84.09.22 

15360 V. Frolov “ 84.02.02 84.04.17 

15362 Leonid Demin GUNIO 84.06.04 84.09.17 

15363 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 84.04.27 84.08.05 

15366 Okean “ 84.06.03 84.08.15 

15369 Akademik Shokalsky “ 84.05.09 84.08.09 

15368 Priboy Far East RIHMI 84.06.20 84.09.27 

15380 G.Ushakov Odessa SOI 84.10.09 84.12.12 
155 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

15379 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 84.10.24 84.12.26 

15383 P. Multanovskiy “ 84.10.17 84.12.21 

14728 Akademik Nesmeyanov POI 82.12.29 83.03.08 

15384 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 84.09.10 84.11.28 

15385 Eleninsk TINRO 84.05.24 84.09.22 

15390 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 84.11.11 84.12.26 

15404 Akademik Nesmeyanov POI 84.06.30 84.10.21 

15406 Persey -III TINRO 84.07.24 84.08.24 

15407 Okean Far East RIHMI 84.09.12 84.10.30 

15259 Priboy “ 84.11.10 85.01.08 

15409 Suloy TINRO 84.03.18 84.08.19 

15262 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 84.09.08 84.12.07 

15438 Akademik Kurchatov IO of RAS 84.08.22 84.10.24 

15440 V. Frolov Far East RIHMI 84.05.22 84.08.26 

15463 Yakov Gakkel Odessa SOI 84.10.08 85.01.10 

15464 Passat “ 84.05.03 85.01.15 

15473 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 84.07.20 84.12.12 

5256 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 84.10.26 85.01.24 

15512 Kokshaisk TINRO 84.10.16 85.01.31 

15365 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 84.12.13 85.01.22 

15513 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 85.01.29 85.03.28 

15514 Omar TINRO 84.07.04 84.08.05 

15515 P. Multanovskiy AARI 85.01.21 85.03.21 

15517 Timashevsk TINRO 84.07.27 84.09.26 

15518 Ayaks PINRO 84.10.06 85.01.19 

15258 Priliv Far East RIHMI 84.10.16 85.01.16 

15530 V. Bugaev Odessa SOI 84.11.19 85.03.07 

15531 G. Ushakov “ 85.01.10 85.03.13 

15532 E. Krenkel “ 84.12.25 85.03.16 

15536 Mlechny Put TINRO 84.09.18 84.11.30 

15537 Prostor PBFS 84.12.07 85.02.03 

15539 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.01.12 85.03.27 

15465 Musson Odessa SOI 84.10.25 85.01.04 

15558 Passat “ 85.02.06 85.05.18 

15560 Musson “ 85.01.29 85.05.14 

15410 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 85.01.27 85.04.12 

15408 Priboy “ 85.02.08 85.05.25 

15582 Prof. Khromov “ 85.02.14 85.04.26 

15583 V. Frolov “ 85.01.29 85.04.19 

15584 Ayaks PINRO 85.03.19 85.05.08 

15632 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 85.03.21 85.05.07 

15633 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 84.12.11 85.04.29 

15636 Akademik Vernadsky “ 84.12.29 85.04.28 
156 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

15646 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 85.05.10 85.07.31 

15701 Musson “ 85.06.04 85.09.06 

15727 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.07.12 85.09.20 

15728 Priliv Far East RIHMI 85.02.12 85.06.29 

15729 “ “ 85.07.04 85.08.19 

15730 Akademik Shokalsky “ 85.04.30 85.07.03 

15735 Ayaks PINRO 85.05.13 85.07.28 

15733 Atlant AtlantNIRO 85.06.05 85.10.15 

15736 Kokshaisk PINRO 85.07.31 85.10.08 

15748 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 85.06.04 85.09.29 

15753 Dmitry Mendeleyev IO of RAS 84.05.17 84.08.18 

15799 Okean Far East RIHMI 85.05.18 85.09.18 

15800 Priboy “ 85.07.12 85.10.21 

15801 Akademik Shirshov “ 85.08.22 85.09.26 

15802 Prof. Khromov “ 85.07.27 85.10.20 

15804 V. Frolov “ 85.07.17 85.09.08 

15808 Arnold Veimer ITPE 85.06.10 85.07.30 

15809 Prof. Zubov AARI 85.05.16 85.07.05 

15811 P. Multanovskiy “ 85.07.18 85.09.12 

15829 Volna Odessa SOI 85.06.27 85.10.02 

15830 E. Krenkel “ 85.07.24 85.10.11 

15831 Yakov Gakkel “ 85.07.10 85.10.12 

15832 V. Bugaev “ 85.07.22 85.09.25 

15833 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 85.05.15 85.07.04 

15886 Akademik Lavrentjev POI 85.07.24 85.11.01 

15891 Akademik Shuleikin “ 85.11.05 85.12.20 

15890 Volna Odessa SOI 85.11.05 86.01.27 

15887 G. Ushakov “ 85.09.01 85.12.11 

15899 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 85.11.14 86.01.25 

15888 Musson Odessa SOI 85.10.04 85.12.23 

15885 Passat “ 85.10.20 85.12.30 

15900 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 85.10.08 85.12.30 

15892 P. Multanovskiy AARI 85.10.19 85.12.16 

15869 E. Krenkel Odessa SOI 85.11.09 86.01.25 

15868 Yakov Gakkel “ 85.11.27 86.01.24 

15909 Gnevny TINRO 85.05.10 85.06.16 

15937 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 86.01.10 86.03.11 

15938 P.Multanovskiy “ 86.01.11 86.03.19 

15962 Ayaks PINRO 85.11.26 86.01.20 

15944 Valerian Uryvayev Far East RIHMI 85.11.06 86.01.24 

15952 Otto Shmidt Murmansk Hydromet 85.10.25 85.12.31 

15948 Okean Far East RIHMI 85.10.09 86.01.31 

15947 Prof. Khromov “ 85.11.13 86.01.27 
157 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

15950 Priboy Far East RIHMI 85.11.11 86.01.07 

15986 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 86.01.07 86.04.06 

15987 Passat “ 86.01.18 86.04.05 

15989 Musson “ 86.01.14 86.04.06 

15992 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 86.01.24 86.03.21 

15998 Akademik Lavrentjev POI 85.04.18 85.06.29 

16017 Prof. Vize AARI 85.11.12 86.04.16 

16019 Arnold Veimer ITPE 86.01.23 86.04.05 

16018 Dalniye Zelentsy MMBI 86.04.05 86.05.25 

16020 V. Frolov Far East RIHMI 86.04.01 86.09.08 

16022 Priboy “ 86.02.01 86.04.29 

16025 Akademik Shokalsky “ 86.02.14 86.05.24 

16026 Prof. Khromov “ 86.04.25 86.06.15 

16028 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 85.02.18 86.06.03 

16030 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 86.04.01 86.06.12 

16032 Valerian Uryvayev Far East RIHMI 86.02.13 86.06.18 

16035 Volna Odessa SOI 86.02.11 86.06.04 

16029 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 86.02.15 86.05.29 

16149 Passat Odessa SOI 86.04.26 86.08.22 

16151 Musson “ 86.05.02 86.08.10 

16157 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 86.06.24 86.10.08 

16161 Okean Far East RIHMI 86.07.23 86.09.13 

16204 Priliv “ 86.08.12 86.09.26 

16276 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 86.10.03 86.12.21 

15975 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 86.02.18 86.04.04 

16158 Volna Odessa SOI 86.06.30 86.10.25 

16278 E. Krenkel “ 86.10.10 87.01.10 

16293 Prof. Vize AARI 86.08.28 86.10.22 

16295 Akademik Shuleikin “ 86.10.29 86.12.02 

16296 P. Multanovskiy “ 86.10.26 86.12.24 

16331 V. Buynitskiy Murmansk Hydromet 86.12.12 87.01.14 

16134 Prof. Dorofeev “ 86.04.15 86.06.04 

16326 A.I. Voeikov Far East RIHMI 86.08.01 86.11.17 

16403 G. Ushakov Odessa SOI 86.11.24 87.02.08 

16467 V. Frolov Far East RIHMI 86.11.05 87.02.04 

16468 Prof. Khromov “ 86.08.30 86.12.07 

16469 Akademik Shokalsky “ 86.11.10 87.03.01 

16472 Priliv “ 86.10.15 87.01.19 

16474 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 87.01.05 87.03.13 

16475 P. Multanovskiy “ 87.01.07 87.03.13 

16477 Valerian Uryvayev Far East RIHMI 86.11.18 87.02.17 

16519 Volna Odessa SOI 87.01.16 87.04.19 

16552 Arnold Veimer ITPE 87.01.06 87.04.20 
158 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

16542 Musson Odessa SOI 87.02.09 87.05.18 

16681 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 87.04.01 87.06.05 

16620 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 87.01.15 87.04.30 

16682 P. Multanovskiy AARI 87.04.06 87.06.10 

16698 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 87.03.27 87.06.05 

16699 A.I. Voeikov “ 86.12.24 87.04.07 

16696 Valerian Uryvayev “ 87.03.10 87.05.08 

16700 Priliv “ 87.02.06 87.04.20 

16693 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 87.04.10 87.06.15 

16697 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 87.01.06 87.04.15 

16722 V.Frolov “ 87.03.01 87.04.24 

16780 P. Multanovskiy AARI 87.07.12 87.09.04 

16796 Volna Odessa SOI 87.05.11 87.08.04 

16895 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 87.05.16 87.08.15 

16893 Mikhail Lomonosov “ 87.05.13 87.09.19 

16900 A.I.Voeikov Far East RIHMI 87.08.12 87.09.09 

16971 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 87.10.15 87.12.20 

17470 Akademik Shirshov Far East RIHMI 88.02.12 88.06.06 

17504 Prof. Dorofeev Murmansk Hydromet 88.07.12 88.09.29 

17497 V.Bugaev Odessa SOI 88.05.13 88.08.20 

17496 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 88.06.22 88.09.13 

17510 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 88.04.30 88.08.31 

17509 Akademik Vernadsky “ 88.07.02 88.10.04 

17811 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 88.10.10 89.01.05 

18227 Akademik Shuleikin AARI 90.01.19 90.03.20 

18199 Musson Odessa SOI 89.11.13 90.01.28 

18254 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 89.11.28 90.03.02 

18387 “ “ 90.03.24 90.06.08 

18510 “ “ 90.11.06 91.01.11 

15886 Akademik Lavrentjev POI 85.07.24 85.11.01 

10484 G. Matveichuk Far East RIHMI 78.08.13 78.09.19 

16888 Prof. Zubov AARI 87.06.12 87.09.30 

10276 Passat Odessa SOI 78.03.11 78.06.03 

15257 Persey -III PINRO 84.03.02 84.06.20 

9739 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 76.12.27 77.01.24 

9758 Akademik Shirshov “ 76.10.15 77.02.03 

Shelf project 

10066 Volna Far East RIHMI 77.10.01 77.12.31 

10110 Okean “ 77.10.01 78.01.31 

16163 V.Frolov “ 86.08.20 86.10.08 

Southern circulation project 

6273 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 72.12.14 73.04.23 

9765 “ “ 76.04.18 76.08.26 
159 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

10176 Prof. Vodyanitsky IBSS 77.05.01 77.09.30 

10267 Mikhail Lomonosov MHI 77.06.01 77.09.30 

10545 Prof. Vodyanitsky IBSS 78.12.17 79.02.17 

Soviet-Guinea expedition 

9950 Akademik Vernadsky MHI 77.04.19 77.06.16 

10544 Mikhail Lomonosov “ 78.09.18 78.10.06 

Triangle project 

11253 Volna Far East RIHMI 80.05.12 80.06.13 

Tsunami project 

10467 Valerian Uryvayev Sakhalin Hydromet 78.08.05 78.10.05 

11324 Okean Far East RIHMI 80.02.27 80.06.09 

12850 Valerian Uryvayev Sakhalin Hydromet 81.02.13 81.05.24 

12862 Okean Far East RIHMI 81.02.01 81.05.22 

13794 Valerian Uryvayev Sakhalin Hydromet 82.03.04 82.05.18 

13812 Okean Far East RIHMI 82.03.21 82.05.21 

14851 Prof. Khromov “ 83.08.07 83.10.02 

15408 Priboy “ 85.02.08 85.05.25 

16033 Okean “ 86.02.20 86.05.30 

16720 Priboy “ 87.02.07 87.05.08 

Typhoon project 

9303 Priboy Far East RIHMI 75.08.18 75.11.14 

9273 Priliv “ 75.07.25 75.11.06 

9240 Akademik Korolev “ 75.07.25 75.11.05 

9296 Volna “ 75.07.24 75.11.06 

9274 Okean “ 75.07.24 75.11.05 

10378 Akademik Shirshov “ 78.07.26 78.10.29 

10379 Priliv “ 78.06.20 78.10.13 

10380 Priboy “ 78.06.20 78.10.13 

10384 Volna “ 78.06.20 78.10.28 

10466 Akademik Korolev “ 78.09.14 78.10.17 

11056 Priboy “ 79.11.14 80.03.14 

11024 Volna “ 79.12.07 80.03.25 

10905 Priliv “ 79.12.25 80.03.01 

13162 Akademik Korolev “ 81.08.12 81.12.06 

13163 Priboy “ 81.07.31 81.11.27 

13482 Volna “ 81.10.15 81.12.27 

13483 Priliv “ 81.09.26 81.12.24 

13506 Okean “ 81.09.23 81.12.25 

16027 A.I. Voeikov “ 86.01.22 86.05.22 

16325 Akademik Korolev “ 86.09.26 86.12.06 

16699 A.I. Voeikov “ 86.12.24 87.04.07 

16945 Akademik Shirshov “ 87.05.28 87.09.15 

16977 Priliv “ 87.05.14 87.09.11 
160 

Number Ship Institution Start Finish

Vertical project 

15171 Akademik Korolev Far East RIHMI 84.02.11 84.05.11 

15178 A.I.Voeikov “ 84.02.04 84.05.23 

15356 Volna Odessa SOI 84.02.08 84.06.14 

Wave project 

16620 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 87.01.15 87.04.30 

WESTPAC program 

14694 Akademik Nesmeyanov POI 82.05.30 82.08.12 

14728 “ “ 82.12.29 83.03.08 

14496 “ “ 82.09.18 82.11.21 

15088 Akademik Vinogradov “ 83.12.01 84.01.30 

15404 Akademik Nesmeyanov “ 84.06.30 84.10.21 

15717 Akademik Vinogradov “ 85.03.03 85.05.25 

14325 Morskoy Geofysik Sakhalin Hydromet 82.07.23 82.11.15 

14326 Pegas “ 82.07.29 82.11.25 

15886 Akademik Lavrentjev POI 85.07.24 85.11.01 

14607 Pervenets “ 82.05.15 82.09.06 

15947 Prof. Khromov Far East RIHMI 85.11.13 86.01.27 

15968 Pegas POI 85.02.10 85.05.15 

15969 “ “ 85.10.25 85.10.25 

15970 Morskoy Geofysik “ 85.02.15 85.05.20 

15971 “ “ 85.10.05 85.11.04 

15998 Akademik Lavrentjev “ 85.04.18 85.06.29 

16281 Prof.Bogorov “ 86.05.03 86.07.08 

17014 “ “ 87.09.05 87.09.20 

17080 Akademik Shokalsky Far East RIHMI 87.07.01 87.10.16 

Note: Institutional affiliation of the above ships are those at the time of cruise. Many of the 

above ships now belong to the former republics of the USSR, i.e., Ukraine, Lithuania, etc. 
161 

Appendix 4. Organizations of Russia and the former USSR taking an active 

part in the study of seas and oceans 

Acoustic Institute, RAS

Address 4, Shvernika St., 117036 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 126-7401 

Fax 7 (095) 126-8411 

URL address http://www.akin.ru 

E-mail bvp@akin.ru 

Activities Investigation of sound propagation in sea water 

All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information, 

World Data Center, Roshydromet

Address 6, Korolyov St., 249020 Obninsk, Kaluga Region 

Telephone 7 (095) 255-21-94, 7 (08439) 7-41-81 

Telegraph Obninsk Kaluga Region, RIHMI-WDC, 205443, autoreply 

Fax 7 (095) 255-22-25 

E-mail wdcb@meteo.ru 

Director’s office 7 (095) 546-39-10 

URL address http://www.meteo.ru 

Activities Key institution within Roshydromet specializing in the automatic collection, 

control, processing, storage, and dissemination of hydrometeorological 

information 

Amderma Hydromet, Roshydromet 

Address 28, Polyarnaya, 164744 Amderma, Arkhangelsk Region 

Activities Ice, aerometeorological, marine hydrometeorological observations; 

monitoring of environment pollution, provision of weather forecasts and 

storm warnings to users 

Atlantic Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography, Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 5, Dmitry Donskoy Street, 236000 Kaliningrad 

Fax 7 (0112) 219-997 

E-mail atlant@baltnet.ru 

URL address http://www.atlantniro.ru/eng/atlantniro.html

Activities Investigation of biological resources of the Baltic Sea and Atlantic, Pacific, 

and Indian Oceans and environment conditions for determination of rational 

exploitation level; identification of living marine organisms 

Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, Roshydromet 

Address 38, Bering St., 199397 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 352-00-96, 352-26-85, 352-21-43 

Fax 7 (812) 352-26-88 

URL address http://www.aari.nw.ru 

E-mail aaricoop@sovam.com 

Activities Complex hydrometeorological study of the Arctic, Southern, and the Atlantic 

Oceans 

Astrakhan Zonal Hydrometeorological Observatory, Roshydromet 

Address 37, Solnechnaya St., 414028 Astrakhan 
162 

E-mail ug@eden.astrakhan.su 

Activities Aerometeorological, marine hydrometeorological and river mouth 

observations 

Azov Research Institute for Fishery Problems, Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 21/2, Beregovaya St., 344007 Rostov-on-Don 

Telephone 7 (8632) 62-47-42 or 62-48-50 

Fax 7 (8632) 62-47-42 

E-mail root@azniirkh.rnd.su 

Activities Hydrobiological, ichthyological and oceanographic observations and 

investigations in the Azov Sea 

Baltic Branch of Institute of Oceanology, RAS 

Address 1, Mir Prospect, 236000 Kaliningrad 

Fax 7 (0112) 27-29-15 

Activities Thin-structure ocean observation, marine geology 

URL address http://www.sio.rssi.ru/index.htm 

Baltic Research Institute for Fishery, Latvia 

Address 1, Bezdelichu St., 266049 Riga, LATVIA 

Activities Ichthyobiological and hydrobiological observations and research, 

oceanographic observations 

Caspian Fisheries Research Institute, Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 1 Savushkina Street, 416607Astrakhan 

Telephone 7 (8512) 25-55-68 

Fax 7 (8152) 25-86-36 

E-mail Kaspiy@astranet.ru

Activities Hydrobiological, ichthyological and oceanographic observations and 

investigations; reproduction of sturgeon-type fish 

Center of Marine Research, Lithuania 

(formerly known as Klaipeda Hydrometeorological Observatory)

Address 26, Taikos Pr.., 5802 Klaipeda, LITHUANIA 

Telephone 370 (464) 10-450 

Fax 370 (464) 10-460 

E-mail CMR@klaipeda.omnitel.net 

URL Address http://www1.omnitel.net/juriniai_tyrimai/ 

Activities Oceanographic observations and investigations; monitoring of the Baltic Sea 

and the Kurshski Bay pollution 

Central Aerological Observatory, Roshydromet 

Address 3, Pervomaiskaya St., 141700 Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region 

Telephone 7 (095) 408-6148 

Fax 7 (095) 576-3327 

Activities Development of methods and methodological guidance of aerological 

observations, including marine aerological observations performed by 

Roshydromet RVs 

Central Asian Research Hydrometeorological Institute, 

Main Administration of Hydrometeorology, Uzbekistan

Address 72, K. Makhsumov Street., 700052 Tashkent, UZBEKISTAN 
163 

Telephone 998 (71) 235-84-68 

Fax 998 (71) 133-11-50, 133-20-25 

E-mail sanigmi@meteo.uz 

Activities Aerometeorological and hydrological observations and research; provision of 

hydrometeorological forecast and storm warnings to users; development of 

techniques and research in the field of recreation climatology 

Central Design Bureau of Hydrometeorological Instruments, Roshydromet 

Address 6, Korolyov St., 249020 Obninsk, Kaluga Region 

Telephone 7 (08439) 74-484 

Activities Hydrometeorological Instruments 

Chukotka Hydromet, Roshydromet 

Address 2, Obruchev St., 686610 Pevek, Chukotka Region 

Telephone 7 (413-00) 2-23-47 

E-mail meteo@pewk.mecom.ru 

Activities Ice, marine coastal, and aerometeorological observations; weather forecasts 

and issuing storm warnings to users 

Far Eastern Hydrometeorological Research Institute, Roshydromet

Address 24, Fontannaya, 690600 Vladivostok 

Telegraph Vladivostok GIMET 

Telephone 7 (4232) 26-97-88, 26-79-02, 22-77-54 

Fax 7 (4232) 22-77-54 

E-mail fehri@stv.iasnet.com 

URL address http://www.hydromet.com 

Activities Complex hydrometeorological investigations; observations in the Pacific and 

Indian Oceans 

Far Eastern National University, Ministry of Education

Address 27, Oktyabrskaya, 690600 Vladivostok 

Telephone 7 (4232) 261-280 

Fax 7 (4232) 220-315 

E-mail rectorat@dvgu.ru 

URL address http://www.dvgu.ru 

Activities Training students; research in the field of oceanography 

Head Department of Navigation and Oceanography (Navy), Ministry of Defense 

Address 8, 11th Line, B-34 199034 St. Petersburg 

Fax 7 (812) 277-59-00 

E-mail gunio@homepage.ru 

URL address http://www.navy.ru 

Activities Guidance of oceanographic observations and research performed by the Navy 

RVs and Research Institutions 

Hydrochemical Institute, Roshydromet 

Address 61, Lenin St., 344450 Novocherkassk 

Activities Development of technique for hydrochemical river and river mouth 

observations; methodological guidance of these observations 

Hydrometeorological Center of Russia, Roshydromet 
164 

Address 11-13, Bolshoi Predtechenski Lane, 123242 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 252-34-48 

Fax 7 (095) 255-15-82 

E-mail vilfand@rhmc.mecom.ru (Director’s e-mail) 

URL address http://hmc.hydromet.ru 

Activities Preparation of short- and long-term hydrometeorological forecasts, reviews, 

reference materials, and other documents, which are provided to the 

Government of the Russian Federation; methodological guidance for the 

Russian forecasting offices 

Institute of Applied Geophysics, Roshydromet 

Address Rostokinskaya 9, 129128, Moscow, Russia 

Telephone 7 (095) 181-4494 

Fax 7 (095) 187-7513 

E-mail geophys@sovam.com 

Activities Investigation of natural and antropogenic physical and chemical processes 

occuring in the Earth’s atmosphere and the World Ocean 

Institute of Biology, Latvian Academy of Sciences

Address 3, Miera Iela, LV-2169 Salaspils, LATVIA 

Telephone 371 (7) 944-988 

Fax 371 (7) 944-986 

E-mail office@email.lubi.edu.lv

URL address http://www.lubi.edu.lv/ 

Activities Hydrobiological investigations 

Institute of Biology of Southern Seas, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 

Address 2, Nakhimov Avenue, 335011 Sevastopol, Crimea, UKRAINE 

Telegraph 187124 IBSS SU 

Telephone 380 (692) 544-110 

Fax 380 (692) 557- 813 

E-mail ibss@ibss.iuf.net 

URL address http://www.ibss.iuf.net

Activities Hydrobiological investigations 

Institute of Global Climate and Ecology, RAS and Roshydromet 

Address 20-B, Glebovskaya St., 115541Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 169-2430 

Fax 7 (095) 160-0831 

Activities Monitoring of environmental pollution; organization of an international 

system for global monitoring of land, atmosphere and ocean pollution 

Institute of Numerical Mathematics, RAS 

Address 8, Gubkina Street, GSP-1, 117951 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 938-37-86 or 938-17-69 

Fax 7 (095) 938-18-21 

E-mail director@inm.ras.ru 

URL address http://www.inm.ras.ru

Activities The Laboratory of Ocean Dynamics conducts numerical modelling of 
165 

hydrological characteristics of the World ocean, seas and lakes 

Institute of Oceanology, RAS 

Address 23 Krasikova Street, 117851 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 124-7940 

Fax 7 (095) 124-5983 

E-mail rocc@sovam.com 

URL address http://www.sio.rssi.ru or http://www.ocean.ru

Activities Complex study of the world ocean; elaboration of theoretical problems in the 

field of oceanology, expeditionary research in seas and oceans 

Institute of Volcanology, Far Eastern Branch of RAS 

Address 9, Piip Boil, 683006 Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski 

Telephone 7 (4152) 25-91-75 

Fax 7 (4152) 25-47-23 

E-mail volcan@kcs.iks.ru 

URL address http://kcs.iks.ru/iv/index.html 

Activities Investigation of Kamchatka volcanoes and volcanic surface and underwater 

activities 

Kamchatka Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet 

Address 12, Molchanova Street, 683602 Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski 

Telephone 7 (4152) 25-94-16 

Fax 7 (4152) 25-84-44 

E-mail kammet@intercome.kamchatka.ru; mts@ptrp.mecom.ru

Activities Aerometeorological, hydrometeorological, marine hydrometeorological, and 

oceanographic observations; environmental pollution monitoring; provision of 

hydrometeorological forecasts and storm warnings to users 

Kamchatka Research Institute of Fisheries & Oceanography, Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 18, Nabereshnaya Street, 683600 Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski 

Telephone 7 (4152) 11-27-01 

Fax 7 (4152) 11-50-48 

E-mail mail@kamniro.kamchatka.su 

Activities Monitoring of environmental pollution; organization of an international 

system for global monitoring of land, atmosphere, and ocean pollution 

Kolyma Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet 

Address 7/13, Parkovaya St., 685000 Magadan 

Telegraph Magadan GIMET 

Telephone 7 (413-22) 2-30-08 

Fax 7 (413-22) 2-52-68 

Activities Provision of forecasts, information, emergency warnings to industry and 

population; study of hydrometeorological conditions; monitiring of 

environment pollution; preparation of reference publications 

Latvian Hydrometeorological Agency 

Address 165 Maskavas St., 1019 Riga, LATVIA 

Telephone 371 (7) 144-390, 703-2600 

Fax 371 (7) 145-154 

E-mail lhma@meteo.lv 
166 

URL address http://www.meteo.lv 

Activities Aerological, hydrological, and marine coastal observations; provision of 

weather forecasts and storm warnings to users 

Main Geophysical Observatory, Roshydromet 

Address 7, Karbysheva St., 194021 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 247-01-03, 247-43-90 

Fax 7 (812) 247-86-61 

URL address http://www.mgo.rssi.ru 

Activities Atmosphere climate change study, investigation of environmental pollution 

Marine Geophysics Research Institute 

Address 79, Krymskaya St., 353461 Gelendzhik, Krasnodar Region 

Telephone 7 (86141) 243-30 

Fax 7 (86141) 245-31 

E-mail info@okg.sea.ru 

URL address http://www.okg.sea.ru

Activities Marine geology and geophysics, creation of data bases and banks 

Marine Hydrophysical Institute, Ukraine National Academy of Sciences

Address 2, Kapitanskaya St., 335000 Sevastopol, UKRAINE 

Telephone 380 (692) 54-52-04 

Fax 380 (692) 55-43-52 

E-mail eremeev@mhi2.sebastopol.ua 

URL address http://www.mhi.iuf.net/DEPTS/mistdpt.html

Activities Oceanographic, hydochemical and geophysical observations and 

investigations of the Black and Mediterranean Seas 

Marine Systems Institute at Tallinn Technical University, Estonia 

(formerly the Institute of Thermophysics and Electrophysics) 

Address 1, Paldiski Road, 10137 Tallinn, ESTONIA 

Telephone 372 (no city code) 662-2249 

Fax 372 (no city code) 661-3657 

URL Address http://www.msi.ttu.ee/

Activities Baltic Sea water and material exchange processes and their impact on 

Estonian coastal waters; dynamics of turbulent processes and nonlinear 

waves; estimation of ecological conditions of Estonian coastal waters and 

lakes by optical methods 

Moscow State University, Education Ministry 

Address Geography Department, Vorobyovy Hills, 119899 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 939-2238 

Fax 7 (095) 939-8836 

E-mail administrator@geogr.msu.ru 

URL address http://www.geogr.msu.ru 

Activities Higher education institution; provides high-quality training of marine experts 

in hydrobiological, hydrogeological, and oceanographic research; postgraduate course work 

Murmansk Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet 

Address 23, Schmidta St., 183789 Murmansk 
167 

Telegraph Murmansk GIMET 

Telephone 7 (815) 247-25-49 

Fax 7 (815) 247-24-06 

E-mail leader@kolgimet.murman.ru 

URL address http://www.murman.ru/kolgimet 

Activities Provision of forecasts, information, emergency warnings to industry and 

population; study of hydrometeorological conditions; monitoring of 

environment pollution; preparation of reference publications 

Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, RAS 

Address 17, Vladimirskaya St., 183010 Murmansk 

Telephone 7 (815)256-52-32 

Fax 47 (789) 10-288 (Norwegian line) 

E-mail mmbi@mun.rospac.ru 

URL address http://mmbi.murman.ru/ 

Activities Marine biological and ichthyological research 

Naval Academy, Defense Ministry 

Address 73/1 Vyborgskaya Nab., 197045 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 242-1618 

Activities Training high-quality experts for the Navy, post-graduate course 

Navy Central Cartographic Company of GUNIO, Ministry of Defense 

Address 2, Atamanskaya St., 199167 St. Petersburg 

Activities Processing of marine bathymetry magnetic and gravimetry observations; 

preparation of marine navigational maps and atlases and other cartographic 

products 

North Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet

Address 2, Mayakovski Street, 163020 Arkhangelsk 

Telephone 7 (818) 0-22-33-44 

Fax 7 (821) 2–43-58-18 

Telegraph Arkhangelsk GIMET 

E-mail adm@arhn.mecom.ru

Activities Forecasting, information, and issuing emergency warnings to industry and 

general public; study of hydrometeorological conditions; monitoring of 

environmental pollution; preparation of reference publications 

North-Caucasus Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet 

Address 1/7, Erevanskaya St., 344025 Rostov-on-Don 

Telephone 7 (863) 2-51-09-01 

Fax 7 (863) 2-51-59-27 

Telegraph Rostov GIMET 

E-mail admin@rost.mecom.ru 

Activities Forecasting, information, and issuing emergency warnings to industry and 

general populace; study of hydrometeorological conditions; monitoring of 

environmental pollution; preparation of reference publications 

North-West Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet 

Address 2a, 23rd line, 199026 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 218-17-54 
168 

Fax 7 (812) 218-09-62 

E-mail admin@meteo.nw.ru 

URL address http://adm.meteo.nw.ru 

Activities Aerometeorological, hydrological, and marine hydrometeorological 

observations; weather forecasts and issuance of storm warnings to users; 

monitoring of environmental pollution 

Odessa Branch, Institute of Biology of Southern Seas, 

National Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine 

Address 37, Pushkinskaya St., 270011 Odessa, UKRAINE 

Telephone 380 (482) 25-09-18 

Fax Same as telephone 

URL address http://bioassay.narod.ru/obibss/ 

Activities Hydrobiological and ichthyological observations and investigations, 

oceanographic observations 

Odessa Hydrometeorological Institute, Ukraine 

Address 15, Lvivska Street, 65016 Odessa, UKRAINE 

Telephone 380 (482) 63-62-09 

Fax 380 (482) 42-77-67 

E-mail synop@ogmi.farlep.odessa.ua 

URL address http://www.ogmi.farlep.odessa.ua/indexe.htm

Activities Training of oceanographers, atmosphere-ocean interaction study 

Pacific Oceanological Institute, Far East Branch RAS 

Address 43, Baltiiskaya, 690041 Vladivostok 

Telephone 7 (4232) 311-420 

Fax 7 (4232) 312-573 

E-mail rostov@pacificinfo.ru 

URL address http://www.pacificinfo.ru 

Activities Hydrophysical ocean investigations; investigation of various physical ocean 

fields; geological and geophysical study of ocean bottom; development and 

creation of new methods and technical tools for ocean study 

Pacific Scientific Research Fisheries Center, Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 4, Shevchenko St., 690600 Vladivostok 

Telephone 7 (4232) 25-77-83 

Fax Same as telephone 

URL address http://www.tinro.ru/ 

Activities Commercial oceanography, marine fishery 

Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography, Goskomrybolovstvo

Address 6, Knipovich St., 183763 Murmansk 

Telephone 7 (8152) 47-25-32 

Fax 7 (8152) 47-25-32 

URL address http://pinro.murmansk.ru 

Activities Commercial oceanology, fishery, pollution 

Russian Federal Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography, Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 17/1, Verkhne-Krasnoselskaya St., 107140 Moscow 
169 

Telephone 7 (095) 264-93-87

Fax 7 (095) 264-91-67 

E-mail vniro@vniro.ru 

URL address http://www.vniro.ru/en/index.html

Activities Commercial oceanology, fishery 

Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring 

(Roshydromet) 

Address 12, Novovagankovski lane, 123376 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 252-14-86 

Fax 7 (095) 252-55-04, 252-94-84, 255-24-34 

URL address http://www.mecom.ru/roshydro/pub/index.htm 

Activities The main federal agency for coordinating national meteorological and 

oceanographic/marine observations and environmental monitoring 

Russian State Hydrometeorological University

Address 98, Malookhtinski Prospect, House #98, 195196 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 444-41-63 

Fax 7 (812) 444-60-90 

E-mail rshu@rshu.ru

URL address http://www.rshu.ru

Activities Training for oceanographers, hydrologists, and meteorologists; research in the 

field of atmosphere-ocean interaction, thermodynamics, water dynamics etc. 

Saint Petersburg State University 

Address 7-9 Universitetskaya Avenue, 199034 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812)326-2000 

URL address http://www.spbu.ru/e/ 

Activities Training highly qualified marine experts; research in the field of 

hydrobiology, thermics, acoustics 

Sakhalin Administration of Hydrometeorological Service, Roshydromet

Address 78, Zapadnaya St., 693000 Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk 

Telephone 7 (424-0) 73-15-91 

E-mail ugms@sakhalin.ru, admin@mts1.shln.mecom.ru

Activities Hydrometeorological observations, provision of environmental information to 

users 

Sakhalin Scientific Center, Far Eastern Branch of RAS 

Address 5 Nauka Street, 693022 Yuzhno-Sakhalin 

Telephone 7 (42422) 791-517 

Fax Same as telephone 

E-mail nauka@sakhalin.ru

URL address http://www.febra.ru/index_.html

Activities Marine hydrophysical and hydroacoustic observations and investigations 

Sakhalin Scientific-Research Institute for Fishery Industry and Oceanography, 

Goskomrybolovstvo 

Address 21, Marx St., 693000 Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk 

URL address http://www.science.sakhalin.ru/SakhNiro/Index.html 
170 

Activities Marine biological and ichthyological investigations; reproduction of sturgeontype fish 

Southern Branch of the Institute of Oceanology, RAS 

Address Golubaya Bukhta, 353470 Gelendzhik-7, Krasnodar Region 

Fax 7 (86141) 2-31-89 

URL address http://www.sio.rssi.ru/index.htm

Activities Complex exploration of the Black Sea 

Southern Scientific Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography, Ukraine 

Address 2, Sverdlov St., 98300 Kerch, Crimea Region, UKRAINE 

Telephone 380 (6561) 2-10-65 

Fax 380 (6561) 2-15-72 

E-mail island@crimea.com 

Activities Hydrobiological, ichthyological and oceanographic observations 

State Hydrological Institute, Roshydromet

Address 23, Second Line, 199053 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 213-85-17, 231-95-79 

Fax 7 (812) 213-10-28 

Activities Hydrological observations and investigations on the rivers of Russia; 

hydrological observations in mouths of rivers falling into interior and border 

seas of Russia 

State Hydrometeorological Committee of Azaerbaijan 

Address 3, Resula Rza Street, 370601 Baku, AZERBAIJAN 

Telephone 994 (12) 939-500 

Fax 994 (12) 936-937 

Activities Aerometeorological, hydrological, and coastal observations; provision of 

forecasts and storm warnings to users 

State Maritime Academy 

Address 15A, Kasaya Liniya, 195196 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 322-7267 

URL address http://www.gma.ru 

Activities Largest maritime educational institution in Russia 

State Oceanographic Institute, Roshydromet 

Address 6, Kropotkinski Lane, 119838 Moscow 

Telephone 7 (095) 246-7288 

E-mail vasiliev@soi.msk.ru 

URL address http://www.oceanography.ru 

Activities Preparation of observational techniques, manuals and guides; analysis of 

marine environment conditions; investigation of sea and river mouth pollution 

State Research Navigation-Hydrographic Institute of GUNIO, Defense Ministry

Address 41, Kozhevennaya line, 199106 St. Petersburg 

Telephone 7 (812) 322-1966, 322-1060 

Fax 7 (812) 322-3319 

E-mail gningi@nvy.ru 

Activities Development of new technologies and technical means for hydrographic and 
171 

oceanographic surveys and cartographic work; measurement of 

oceanographic, hydrometeorological and geophysical field parameters in 

different areas of the world ocean; design and development of aids to 

navigation systems for the coastal and water areas, traffic control systems for 

vessels and other movable objects; prompt and efficient hydrographic, 

topographic and geodetic support for surveys intended for construction of 

ports and other hydrotechnical structures 

Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Center 

Address 105, Science Prospekt, 252650 Kiev, UKRAINE 

Telephone 380 (44) 221-93-87 

E-mail kulbida@ukrweather.kiev.ua 

URL address http://www.ukrweather.kiev.ua 

Activities Study of atmosphere physical processes, atmosphere-underlying surface 

interaction 

Ukrainian Scientific Center for the Ecology of the Sea, 

Ministry for Ecology & Natural Resources 

Address 89 Frantsuzski Blvd, 370009 Odessa, UKRAINE 

Telephone 380 (048) 263-6673 

Fax 380 (048) 263-7200 

E-mail root@accem.odessa.ua 

Activities Oceanographic, hydrometeorological, hydrochemical and ecological 

exploration of the Black and Mediterranean Seas 
172 

Appendix 5. References and additional literature with information on marine 

expeditions

Achievements of Soviet Oceanology, 1979: Moscow: Nauka,168 pp. 

Aircraft Expedition to the “Inaccessible Pole:” Scientific Results, 1946: Moscow-Leningrad: 

Izd. Glavsevmorputi, ANII, 196 pp. 

ALPEX Data Catalog, 1984: Moscow: World Data Center B, Vol. 1, 17 pp. 

Altman, E.N., 1989: Information about the water-bottle database for the Black Sea basin. In: 

Factors Affecting Water Conditions in the Black Sea: Information Database and Procedures for 

Its Analysis. Leningrad: Publishing House Gidrometeoizdat, pp. 254-261. 

Ammon, G.A., 1987: Marine Memorable Events. Moscow: Voennoe Izdatelstvo, 398 pp. 

Andreev, N., 1900: The Arctic Ocean: Hydrological materials collected for the period 1889-

1893, Izvestiya Imperator Russian Geographical Society (IRGO), 34:1, 136 pp. 

Andreev, N.P., 1883: Results of meteorological and hydrological observations conducted in the 

White Sea and off the coasts of Murmansk in 1880-1882, Izvestiya Imperator Russian 

Geographical Society (IRGO), 19:1, pp. 22-27. 

Bagrov, L.S., 1912: Expedition in the Kara Sea. Vesti Telegrafii Bez Provodov, 1, pp. 14-20. 

---------, 1913: Expedition in the Kara Sea. Vesti Telegrafii Bez Provodov, 3, pp. 99-101. 

Bekyashev, K.A. and V.V.Serebryakov, 1979: International Marine Organizations. Leningrad: 

Gidrometeoizdat, 607 pp. 

Belov, M .I., 1956: History of the discovery and exploration of the northern marine road. In 

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Appendix 6. Abbreviations

Institutions of Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States

AARI Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute 

AI of RAS Acoustical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences 

AtlantNIRO Atlantic Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography 

AzNIRKH Azov Research Institute for Fishery Problems 

BRIF Baltic Research Institute for Fishery (now AtlantNIRO) 

CaspNIRKH Caspian Research Institute for Fishery Problems 

CMR Center of Marine Research, Lithuania 

Far East RIHMI Far East Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information 

Far East SU Far East State University 

Goskomrybolovstvo Russian State Committee for Fisheries and Oceanography 

GUNIO Head Department of Navigation and Oceanography (Navy) 

Hydromet Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental 

Monitoring (also known as Roshydromet) 

IAG Institute of Applied Geophysics 

IBSS Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas 

IEM Institute of Experimental Meteorology 

IGCE Institute of Global Climate and Ecology 

SIO Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences 

ITPE Institute of Thermophysics and Electrophysics 

(now the Marine Systems Institute at Tallinn University, Estonia) 

IV Institute of Vulcanology 

IWP Institute of Water Problems 

MBDC All-Russian RIFO’s Marine Biological Data Center, Committee for 

Fishery 

MGGDC Marine Geological and Geophysical Data Center, Russian Committee 

for Natural Resources 

MGO Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory 

MHI Marine Hydrophysical Institute, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences 

MMBI Murmansk Marine Biological Institute 

MSU Moscow State University 

NODC National Oceanographic Data Center (RIHMI-WDC) 

Odessa SOI Odessa Branch of the State Oceanographic Institute (now the 

Ukrainian Scientific Center of Ecology of the Sea – USCES) 

PBFS Pacific Bureau of Fishery Survey 

POI (Far East Branch) Pacific Oceanographic Institute, Far East Branch 

PINRO Polar Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography 

RAS Russian Academy of Sciences 

RIHMI-WDC All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information – 

World Data Center 

RIMG All-Russian Research Institute for Marine Geology 

ODC Oceanographic Data Center, Ministry of Defense 

RSHMI Russian State Hydrometeorological Institute (now University) 
180 

SakhNIRO 

Sakhalin Scientific-Research Institute for Fishery Industry & 

Oceanography (formerly Sakhalin Comprehensive Research 

Institute) 

SCST State Committee for Science and Technology, Ministry of Science 

(now Ministry of Science and Technology) 

Sevastopol SOI Sevastopol Branch of the State Oceanographic Institute (now Marine 

Division of Ukrainian RIHMI) 

SHI State Hydrological Institute 

SOI State Oceanographic Institute 

South RIFO Southern Scientific Research Institute for Marines Fisheries and 

Oceanography 

SPA “Typhoon” Scientific-Production Association “Typhoon” 

St. Petersburg SOI St. Petersburg Branch of the State Oceanographic Institute 

State Data Holding State Data Holding for Hydrometeorology and Environmental 

Monitoring 

TINRO Pacific Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography 

UkRIHMI Ukrainian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information 

VNIRO Russian Federal Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography 

WESTFISHREC West Fishery Reconnaissance Company 

International Organizations 

CAS Committee on Atmospheric Sciences 

ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea 

ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions 

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 

UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

WDC World Data Center 

WMO World Meteorological Organization 

 

Observations and Data Processing

ABS Automatic Buoy Station 

ACC Antarctic Circumpolar Current 

AIRS Automated Information Reference Systems 

AODC Automated Oceanographic Data Catalog 

BT Bathythermograph 

DBMS Database Management System 

DCM Digital Current Meter 

GTS Global Telecommunication System 

IODE International Oceanographic Data Exchange 

ODB Oceanographic Data Bank 

R/V Research vessel 

SST Sea surface temperature 

STP Salinity - water temperature – pressure 
World Data Center for Oceanography, Silver Spring 

Ocean Climate Laboratory NODC/NOAA, USA 

International Ocean Atlas and Information Series 

Volume 1: Climatic Atlas of the Barents Sea 1998: Temperature, Salinity, Oxygen 

 (with Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, Russia) 

 Available at http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/pr_bsa.html

Volume 2: Biological Atlas of the Arctic Seas 2000: Plankton of the Barents and Kara Seas 

 (with Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, Russia) 

 Available at http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/BARPLANK/start.html

Volume 3: Hydrochemical Atlas of the Sea of Okhotsk 2001 

 (with All-Russian Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography, Russia) 

 Available at http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/okhotsk/start_ok.html

Volume 4: Atlas of Temperature-Salinity Frequency Distributions: North Atlantic Ocean 

 (with Shirshov Institute of Oceanography, Russia) 

Volume 5: Russian Marine Expeditionary Investigations of the World Ocean 

(with All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information/World 

Data Center for Oceanography, Obninsk, Russia)