ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, AND SYMBOLS 

A BBREVIATIONS SAVE SPACE and prevent fused with the preposition "in." A better procedure is 

the distraction of needlessly repeated words or to just spell out the word "inch(es)." 

phrases. The space saved is usually so small, however, 

that the use of abbreviations is determined largely by -- - 

custom, convenience to the reader, and the appear- NAMES OF cou NTR~ ES AND 

ance of the printed page. 

Ingenera1,fewabbreviationsshouldbeusedinthe OTHER POL~T~CALSUBD~V~S~ONS 

text of a Survey report, although many may be used 

in tables and footnotes. The text should be understandable by nonspecialists, and abbreviations should 

be used without definition only if they are widely 

understood (for example, such common bibliographic 

abbreviations as "fig.," "pl.," "p.," and "no.," and 

other nonbibliographic abbreviations such as "a.m.," 6 6 p.m.," "A.D.," and "B.C."). 

Uncommon abbreviations must be defined the first 

time they are used in the main text. The standard 

Survey format is to enclose the abbreviated form in 

parentheses immediately following the spelled out 

form-for example, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

Follow the same procedure in the abstract if a term 

is used several times there, and because the abstract 

must be able to stand alone, repeat the procedure in 

the main text the first time the abbreviation is used 

there. 

Common sense can help decide when abbreviations 

are appropriate. Terms used only a few times should 

not be abbreviated, and abbreviations that might 

inconvenience the reader should not be used. In 

general, abbreviations are suitable for often-repeated 

names of organizations, conferences, congresses, and 

programs-for example, IGCP, for International Geological Correlation Programme; AGI, for American 

Geological Institute; also, for widely used instruments 

or processes-for example, SEM for scanning-electron 

microscope. Abbreviations are inappropriate for geographic names or geologic terms in Survey reports, 

no matter how many times such names or terms are 

used in a paper. Do not, for example, use AB for 

Appalachian Basin, SAF for San Andreas Fault, or 

MVTD for Mississippi Valley-type deposits. 

Abbreviations are used freely in tables, partly 

because of tight space limitations. Abbreviations used 

in tables are defined in bracketed headnotes. 

In general, abbreviations for scientific terms and for 

terms of measurement are not followed by periods; 

however, a period should be used with the abbreviation for "inch(es)" if the abbreviation might be con- 

"U.S." is used when "United States" precedes the 

word "Government" or the name of a Government 

organization: U.S. Government, U.S. Congress, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 

No spaces are left between the letters and periods of 

"U.S.," but a space precedes the name that follows. 

In titles, "United States" should be written out 

whether it is a noun or an adjective. In the text, 

"United States" should be written out when used as a 

noun and abbreviated when used as an adjective-for 

example, "mineral deposits of the United States," but 

"U.S. mineral deposits." 

Names of foreign countries, except that of the 

U.S.S.R. (or SSSR), are not abbreviated, nor are the 

names of their political subdivisions. "United States" 

is written out when used in association with the 

names of other countries, except the U.S.S.R.; thus, 

British, French, and United States Governments; 

United States-British talks; but U.S.-U.S.S.R. 

meeting. 

STATES AND POSSESSIONS OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

Names of States of the United States (except 

Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, and Utah), 

also the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the 

Virgin Islands, are abbreviated when they immediately follow a capitalized geographic term; they are 

spelled out after a lowercased word: Chicago, Ill.; 

Montgomery County, Md.; Stone Mountain, Ga.; 

Arlington National Cemetery, Va.; Redstone Arsenal, 

Ala.; but St. Lawrence County magnetite district, 

New York; Tacoma area, Washington. The names of 

other insular possessions, trust territories, and such 

places as Long Island and Staten Island are not 

abbreviated. Customary abbreviations are used for 

States in reports; Postal Service abbreviations are 

used only in "ZIP code" mailing addresses. 

104 Abbreviations, signs, and symbols 
Alabama --------------- Alaska ------------------- Arizona ----------------- Arkmsas --------------- California -------------- Colorado --------------- 

Connecticut----------- 

Delaware --------------- Florida ------------------ Georgia ----------------- Hawaii ------------------ Idaho .................... Illinois ------------------- Indiana ----------------- Iowa ..................... Kansas ------------------ Kentucky -------------- Louisiana -------------- Maine .................... 

Postal Postal Postal 

customary Service customary Service 

Ala. AL 

Alaska AK 

Ariz. AZ 

Ark. AR 

Calif. C A 

States (4nd abbre- abbrepossessums viaticms 

--- 

Colo. co 

Conn. CT 

Del. DE 

Fla. FL 

States and customary Service 

abhGa. GA 

Hawaii HI 

Idaho ID 

111. IL 

Ind. IN 

Iowa I A 

Kans. KS 

Kv. KY 

abbre- 1 States and 

~a. LA 

Maine ME 

viations 

Maryland -------------- 

Massachusetts ------- Michigan --------------- Minnesota ------------- Mississippi ------------- Miss~~ ---------------- Montana ---------------- Nebraska -------------- Nevada ----------------- 

New Hampshire ---- New Jersey ----------- New Mexico ---------- New York ------------- North Carolina------ 

North Dakota-------- 

Ohio ------- - - - - - - --- - - - -- - Oklahoma -------------- Oregon ------------------ 

Pennsylvania--------- 

possessums 

abbre- abbre- viations viations possessums viations viations 

ACCENTS AND DIACRITICAL MARKS 

Md. MD 

Mass. MA 

Mich. MI 

Minn. MN 

Miss. MS 

Mo. --- MO 

Mont. MT 

Nebr. NE 

Nev. NV 

N.H. NH 

N.J. NJ 

N. Mex. NM 

N.Y. NY 

N.C. NC 

N. Dak. ND 

Ohio OH 

Okla. OK - -- 

Oreg. OR 

Pa. PA 

Rhode Island--------- R.I. RI 

South Carolina------ S.C. SC 

South Dakota-------- S. Dak. 

Tennessee ------------- Tenn. 

SD 

Texas .................... Tex. TN 

Utah ..................... Utah TX 

Vermont --------------- Vt. UT 

Virginia ---------------- Va. VT 

VA 

Washington----------- Wash. WA 

West V~rginia ------- W. Va. 

Wisconsin ------------- Wis. WV 

Wyoming -------------- Wyo. WI 

WY 

District of 

Columbia------------ D.C. 

Guam .................... Guam DC 

GU 

Puerto Rico----------- P.R. PR 

Virgin Islands ------- V.I. VI 

Terminology." Names and symbols are given in 

table 2. 

In Survey publications accents and diacritical marks 

are used chiefly in the spelling of foreign words. Take DATES care to use them correctly: 

' acute Orleans) 6 Names of months followed by the day, or by the 

" bolle ( lesund) day and year, are usually abbreviated in tables, local- 

. cedilla (franpis) ity lists, and in parentheses. May, June, and July are 

- circumflex (c6te) always spelled out. Preferred forms for other months 

" dieresis or umlaut (Niirnberg) are as follows: 

grave (AsmGres) Jan. AD^. Oct. 

" hacek (Pfibyl) 

. inverted cedilla (Dqbrowa) - macron (Kyiishu) 

/ slash (R$mros) 

' soft sign (Arkhangel'sk) 

superior dot (sharkysko Kamienna) 

- tilde (caiion) 

ADDRESSES 

The words "street," "avenue," "building," and 

similar address terms following a name or number 

are abbreviated in footnotes, tables, leaderwork, and 

lists, but as parts of names, they are spelled out, even 

in parentheses, footnotes, tables, and leaderwork: 

"2912 14th St.," but "14th Street Bridge." The 

Feb. Aug. Nov. 

Mar. Sept. Dec. 

In narrow columns of tables, the names of months 

may be abbreviated even if they stand alone. Otherwise, the form used in Survey reports is "January 1, 

1985." 

Article 13 of the North American Stratigraphic 

Code (North American Commission on Stratigraphic 

Nomenclature, 1983), quoted in part below, should be 

followed for the preferred abbreviations used in 

geochronologic dating. - words ‘‘couII~~," "fort," "mount," "point," and The "present" refers to 1950 AD [sic], and such qualifiers as 

"port" are not abbreviated. "Saint (St.)" and "ago" or "before the present" are omitted after the value because 

"Sainte (Ste.)" should be abbreviated. measurement of the duration from the present to the past is implicit in the designation. In contrast, the duration of a remote 

interval of geologic time, as a number of years, should not be exCHEMICAL ELEMENTS, NAMES, pressed by the same symbols. Abbreviations for numbers of years, 

without reference to the present, are informal (e.g., y or yr for 

AND SYMBOLS years; my, m.y., or m.yr. for millions of years; and so forth, as 

preference dictates). For example, boundaries of the Late CretaChemical names, rather than symbols, should ceous Epoch currently are calibrated at 63 Ma and 96 Ma, but the 

generally be used in text, as discussed in "Chemical interval of time represented by this epoch is 33 m.y. 

Abbreviations, signs, and symbols 105 
Table 2. Chemical symbols 

he names and symbols listed below are approved by the International Ur 

Kernistry. From the U.S. GPO style Manual, 1984, p. 16.11 

Neon.. ............. .... 

Protactinium ..... Radium ............... Radon .................. 

Rhodium ............. Rubidium ........... Ruthenium ......... Samarium .......... Scendium ............ Selenium ............ Silicon ................. 

Strontium ........... Sulfur .................. 

Thulium .............. 

Titanium ............ 

Vanadium .......... Xenon.. ................ Ytterbium ......... 

Zinc ..................... Mercury ................ Zirconium .......... 

and Applied 

bwl weight 

'The atomic weights of many elements are not invariant but depend on the origin and treatment of the 

material. The values of atomic weight given here apply to elements as they exist naturally on Earth and to 

certain artificial elements. Values in parentheses are used for radioactive elements whose atomic weights cannot be quoted precisely without knowledge of the origin of the elements. The value given is the atomic mass number of the isotope of that element of longest known half life. 

106 Abbreviations, signs, and symbols 
For dating use the following: 

ka for kilo-annum (lo3 years) 

Ma for mega-annum (lo6 years) 

Ga for giga-annum (lo9 years) 

Note that ka and kilo are not capitalized (by international convention). 

In describing land divisions subdivided by section, 

township, and range, use the following forms (omit 

periods after abbreviated compass directions that 

immediately precede and close up on figures): 

SE1/4NW1/4 see. 4, T. 12 S., R. 15 E., of the Boise 

Meridian 

lot 6, NE1/4 sec. 4, T. 6 N., R. 1 W. 

N11z sec. 20, T. 7 N., R. 2 W., Sixth Principal 

Meridian 

Tps. 9, 10, 11, and 12 S., Rs. 12 and 13 W. 

T. 2 S., Rs. 8, 9, and 10 E., sec. 26 

T. 3 S., R. 1 E., sec. 34, W1/zE1/z, W1/z, and 

W1/zSE1/4SE1/r sec: 32 (with or without a township 

number) 

If fractions are spelled out in land descriptions, 

"half" and "quarter" are used (not "one-half" or 

"one-quarter"): "south half of T. 47 N., R. 64 E." 

Avoid breaking a group such as NE1/4SE1/r sec. 4 at 

the end of a line. If a break is unavoidable, make it 

after the fraction and use no hyphen. 

LAT~TUDE AND LONGITUDE 

The words "latitude" and "longitude" followed 

by figures are abbreviated (no periods after "lat" 

and "long"), and the figures are closed up: lat 

52"33'05"N., long 13"21'10,"E. Avoid breaking latitude 

and longitude figures at the end of a line. If a break 

is unavoidable, use a hyphen. 

Terms denoting units of measurement should be abbreviated only when preceded by an amount indicated 

in numerals. Thus, write "3 m high," "6 cm thick," 

but "several meters long," "a few kilometers north." 

Over a stratigraphic figure column, use "Meters," 

"(m)," "Feet," "(feet)," "Ft In," or "(ft in)," depending on the content of the column, whether the term 

stands by itself or follows another term such as 

"Thickness," and depending on the amount of space 

available. 

Mineral names are not ordinarily abbreviated in 

narrative text, but abbreviations may be appropriate 

on certain maps, in tables, or as symbols, subscripts, 

or superscripts. Symbols for common minerals are 

given in table 3. 

NAMES AND TITLES 

In the names of business firms, the abbreviated 

forms "Bros.," "Co.," "Corp.," "Inc.," "Ltd.," and 

"&" should be used if the full legal title need not be 

preserved. "Company" and "Corporation" are not 

abbreviated in names of Federal Government units. 

"Association" and "Manufacturing" are not 

abbreviated. 

Names of railroads should not be abbreviated except 

in parentheses, footnotes, tables, and leaderwork. Use 

the correct form "Railroad" or "Railway" ("RR." and 

"Ry."), depending on the usage of the individual 

company. 

In other than formal usage, a civil, military, or naval 

title preceding a name is abbreviated if followed by a 

given name or initials: "Col. H.M. Smith furnished 

data on the wells"; but "Colonel Smith furnished 

. The titles "Senator" and "Representative" 

are not abbreviated. 

The abbreviation "no." (lowercase "n") is used for 

serial numbers and in citing "v." and "no." of a 

publication: "Journal of Paleontology, v. 10, no. 3." 

In identifying specimens, wells, drill holes, and the 

like, however, "number" or "No." is generally 

superfluous and can be omitted: "specimen 4297," 

"Government well 6W," "Drill hole 5" but "Of all the 

specimens examined, No. 4297 most clearly illustrated * * *,, . Do not use the symbol #. Uppercase "N" is 

used in formal names and in numbered coal beds. 

The word "percent" should be spelled out in text. 

In tables, the abbreviation "pct" or the symbol "%" 

may be used if other terms of measurement are also 

abbreviated. The symbol "%", however, is not as 

easily read in small type. "Percent" should be used 

with numerals: "20 percent." It is preferred to 

"percentage" for table headings. "Percentage" 

Abbreviations, signs, and symbols 107 
Table 3. Mineral symbols 

[Kretz, 1983; courtesy of the Mineralogical Society of America] 

Acm --------------- acmite Elb ---------------- elbaite 

Act ---------------- actinolite En ---------------- enstatite (ortho) 

2: --------------- aegirine-augite Ep ---------------- epidote --------------- Xkermanite Fst ---------------- fassaite 

Ab ----------------albite Fa ----------------- fayalite Aln ---------------- allanite Fac ---------------- ferroactinolite 

Alm ---------------almandine Fed ---------------- ferroedenite 

An1 ---------------- analcime Fs ----------------- ferrosilite (ortho) Ant ---------------- anatase Fts ---------------- ferrotschermakite 

And --------------- andalusite F1 -----------------fluorite 

Adr ---------------- andradite Fo ----------------- forsterite 

Anh --------------- anhydrite Gn ----------------galena Ank --------------- ankerite Grt ----------------garnet 

Ann --------------- annite Ged ------------ --- An ---------------- anorthite gedrite Gh ---------------- gehlenite Atg ---------------- antigorite Gbs --------------- gibbsite 

Ath ---------------- anthophyllite 

Ap ----------------apatite Apo --------------- apophyllite AIJ I--------------- aragonite --------------- arfvedsonite 

Apy --------------- arsenopyrite Aug --------------- augite . . Ax ----------------axllllte 

Brt ----------------barite 

Brl ----------------beryl 

Bt -----------------biotite 

Bhm ---------------boehmite 

Bn ---------------- bornite 

Brk ---------------- brookite 

Brc ---------------- brucite 

Bst ---------------- bustamite 

Cam --------------- Ca clinoamphibole Cpx --------------- Ca clinopyroxene Cal ----------------calcite 

Ccn ---------------- cancrinite 

Cm ---------------- camegieite Cst ----------------cassiterite 

Cls ---------------- celestite 

Cbz ---------------- chabazite 

Cc ----------------- chalcocite 

Cc ----------------chalcopyrite CJ - ---------------chlorite 

Cld ---------------- chloritoid 

Chn --------------- chondrodite 

Chr ---------------- chromite 

Ccl ---------------- chrysocolla Ctl ---------------- chrysotile 

Cen ---------------- clinoenstatite 

Cfs ---------------- clinoferrosilite 

Chu ---------------clinohumite 

Czo ---------------- clinozoisite 

Crd ---------------- cordierite 

Cm ----------------corundum 

Cv-----------------covellite 

Crs ---------------- cristobalite 

Cum --------------- cpmmgtonite Dsp --------------- &aspore Dk ---------------- digen'te Dl ----------------- diopside Do1 ----------------dolomite 

DN ---------------- dravite 

Eck ---------------- ecke-te 

Ed ---------------- edemte 

,It ---------------- glauconite 

,In ---------------- glaucophane 

,t ----------------- goethlte .r -----------------graphite 

rs ---------------- grossular 

,N ---------------- grunerite -------------- sum if-:: -------------- Ete 

Is ---------------- hastingsite 

,yn --------------- haiiyne 

:d ---------------- hedenbergite :em ---------------hematite :c ---------------- hercynite :ul---------------- heulandite 

:bl ----------------hornblende :u ---------------- humite 

. . Ill ----------------- llllte 

Ilm ---------------- ilmenite 

Jd ----------------- jadeite 

Jh -- ---- ------ -- - -- 

Krs ---------------- ghm'"" ersut~te 

Kls ---------------- kalsilite 

Kln ---------------- kaolinite 

Ktp ---------------- kata horite 

Kfs ---------------- K fe P dspar Krn ---------------- komerupine 

Ky ---------------- kyanite 

Lmt --------------- laumontite 

Lws --------------- lawsonite 

Lpd --------------- lepidolite 

Lct ---------------- leucite 

Lm ----------------limonite 

Lz ----------------- lizardite 

Lo ----------------- loehgite M h -------------- maghemite Mf t --------------- - magnesiokatophorite 

Mrb --------------- magnesioriebeckite 

Mgs --------------- magnes~te 

Mag ---------------magnetite 

Mr -------------mar arite 

~ef -11 ------------- medte 

Mc ---------------- microcline 

Mo ---------------- molydbenite Mnz ---------------monazite 

Mtc --------------- montiwllite 

Mnt --------------- mon~morillonite 

Mul---------------- mdte 

Ms ----------------muscovite 

Ntr ---------------- natrolite 

Ne-----------------nepheline 

Nrb ---------------- norbergite 

Nsn ---------------nosean 01 -----------------olivine 

Omp ---------------om hacite 

Oam --------------- ort kl oamphibole Or -----------------orthoclase 

Opx --------------- orthopyroxene 

Pg ----------------- paragonite 

Prg ---------------- pargasite Pct ---------------- pectolite Pn ----------------- pentlandite 

Per ---------------- periclase Prv ---------------- perovskite Phl -----------.----- phlogopite 

P ---------- pigeonite PP-II---- -------------- pla 'oclase 

Prh ---------------- preLte 

Pen ---------------- protoenstatite 

Pmp --------------- pumpellyite 

Py -- --- -- --- -- - - - - - pyrite Prf -- -- --- -- --- -- - - PyrOpe Pr ---------------- pyro hyllite 

Po ----------------- pyrr ! otite 

Qtz ----------------quartz Rbk --------------- r~ebeckite 

Rds ---------------- rhodochrosite 

Rdn --------------- rhodonite 

Rt ----------------- rutile 

Sa ----------------- sanidine 

Spr ---------------- sapphirine 

$ I--------------- scapolite Sr --------------- schorl 

El-:--- ------------ serpentine ---------------siderite 

Sil-----------------sillimanite 

Sdl ---------------- sodalite 

Sps ---------------- spessartine Sp ----------------- sphalerite Spl ----------------spinel Spd ---------------- spodumene St ----------------- staurolite 

Stb ---------------- stilbite 

Stp ---------------- stilpnomelane Str ---------------- strontianite 

Tlc ----------------talc 

Tms --------------- thomsonite 

Ttn ---------------- titanite 

Toz ---------------- top= Tur ----------------tourmaline 

Tr ----------------- tremolite 

Trd 

Tro ---------------- ---------------- trid tro p te 

Ts ----------------- tschermakite 

Usp --------------- ulvospinel Vrm ---------------vermiculite 

Ves ---------------- vesuvianite 

Wth --------------- witherite 

Wo ---------------- wollastonite 

Wus --------------- wiistite 

Zrn ----------------zircon 

Zo ----------------- zoisite 

(synonymous with "proportion") may be used in such ROCKS phrases as "a small percentage" when proportion is 

meant. When proportion is not meant, an expression The names of rocks are never abbreviated in narsuch as "a small part" should be used. "Percentage" rative text, but abbreviations may be appropriate on 

may be used with numerals in a phrase such as certain maps or tables; uniformity in such usage is 

"5 percentage points." desirable. Unusual abbreviations must be defined to 

108 Abbreviations, signs, and symbols 
avoid misunderstandings. Common abbreviations are 

given on page 55. 

Temperature is expressed in figures. Following 

the practice of the American Society for Testing and 

Materials "Standard for Metric Practice," STA 

recommends no space before or after the degree sign 

(lOO°C, 212°F). 

Terms of direction are spelled out in text: "Kanosh 

is 58 km northwest of Koosharem; both are north of 

Kanab." In expressions of dip and strike, the terms of 

direction are abbreviated, and the degree mark is set 

without space against the figures: 

A dip of 10" SE. (or 10" S. 35" E.) 

The strike is N. 55" E. (or N. 45"-70" E.: 

N. 55"30125" E. 

but "the dip is southeast." 

Abbreviated terms of direction are followed by a 

period: 

N., S., NW., SE., NNW., ESE. 

The following abbreviations are commonly used in 

parenthetical phrases, brackets, footnotes, sidenotes, 

synonymies, tables, and leaderwork: 

abstract@), abs. 

annual, ann. 

appendix, app. 

approximate(ly), approx. 

article(s), art., arts. 

association, assoc. 

biologic(al), biol. 

bulletin, bull. 

chapter, chap. 

chemical, chem. 

communication(s), commun. 

edition, editor(s), ed., eds. 

figure(s), fig., figs. 

formation(s), fm., fms. 

geographic(al), geog. 

geologic(al), geol. 

geophysical, geophys. 

hydrographic, hydrog. 

hydrologic(al), hydrol. 

illustration(s), illus. 

investigation(s), inv. 

locality, loc. 

miscellaneous, misc. 

Mount, Mt. 

page(s), P. 

part@), pt., pts. 

plate@), pl., pls. 

publication(s), pub., pubs. 

report@), rept., repts. 

science(s), sci. 

section(s), sec., secs. 

series, ser. 

stratigraphiHal), strat. 

topographic(al), topog. 

volume, v. 

~0010gic(al), 2001. 

SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING TERMS 

Table 4 lists abbreviations, signs, and symbols for 

scientific and engineering terms likely to be used in 

Survey reports. Cite meanings in text or appendix. 

The exact form and style of some symbols may vary 

with different printers. 

Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms 

[Adapted from lists in STA5 and STAG. For further treatment of 

abbreviations, see U.S. GPO Style Manual, 1984, chap. 9. For abbreviations on ma s, see p. 55; for minerals and normative 

minerals, see p. 183; for chemical elements, see p. 1061 

absolute ............................................................. abs 

absolute value .................................................... I I 

absorbance ............................................................ A 

absorptivity ........................................................... a 

absorptivity, molar ................................................. E 

acceleration, angular ........................................ a 

acceleration, linear ................................................. a 

acre-foot (feet) ................................................ acre-ft 

activity, chemical (absolute) .................................... A 

activity, chemical (relative) ..................................... a 

activity coefficient .................................................. Y 

anis ................................................................ aff. 

alternating current ............................. ac or * or * 

alternating-current (unit modifier) .......................... a-c 

altitude ............................................................... alt 

ampere ................................................................. A 

analytical variability .............................................. 5, 

angle ................................................................... L 

angle between ...................................................... A 

angle between a. and bo in the unit cell ................. y 

angle between a. and co in the unit cell ................. P 

angle between bo and co in the unit cell ................. a 

angle between the two optic axes of a biaxial 

mineral ............................................................ 2V 

angstrom .............................................................. A 

angular frequency ................................................. w 

angular velocity .................................................... w 

anhydrous ....................................................... anhyd 

antilogarithm ................................................. antilog 

approaches ........................................................... + 

approximate (tion of) ...................................... approx 

approximately (nearly) equal to Z .............................. aqueous ............................................................... aq 

are (land area) ...................................................... a 

area ............................................................. A or S 

astronomical unit (in English) ............................... au 

asymptotically equal to = ........................................ atmosphere ........................................................ atm 

atomic mass ............................................... ma or m 

Scientific and engineering terms 109 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued and engineering terms-Continued 

atomic mass of species X ...................... m (X) or m, 

atomic number ....................................... at, no or Z 

atomic number of species X ................... Z (X) or Z, 

atomic weight ....................................... at wt or M 

atomic weight of species X .................. M (X) or M, 

automatic data processing .................................. ADP 

average .............................................................. avg 

average (indicated by bar or vinculum over 

symbol or by angular parentheses) ............ - or ( ) 

Avogadro's number ..................................... N or NA 

avoirdupois ....................................................... avdp 

azimuth ........................................................ az or a 

barn (area) ............................................................ b 

barometer .......................................................... bar. 

barrel ................................................................ bbl 

barrel per day .................................................. bbVd 

base of natural logarithms ...................................... e 

baud ................................................................... Bd 

BaumC (used with degree symbol) ........................ "BC 

becquerel ............................................................. Bq before present (dates before 1950, in thousands 

of years) ....................................................... B.P. 

bench mark (in illustrations) ................................ BM 

bench mark (in text) ........................................ B.M. 

Bernoulli number .................................................. B 

Bessel function (first kind, zero order) ............... Jdx) 

Bessel function, hyperbolic (first kind, 

zero order) .................................................... Zo(x) 

bias ...................................................................... 6 

billion gallons per day ...................................... GgaVd 

billion years ...................................................... b.y. 

binary coded decimal ........................................ BCD 

biochemical oxygen demand ............................... BOD 

bit, byte ............................................................... b 

Bohr magneton ................................................... PB 

boiling point ........................................................ b~ 

Boltzmann constant ................................................ k 

Boltzmann function ................................................ H 

bottom-withdrawal tube ............................... BW-tube 

braces ............................................................... { } 

brackets ............................................................ [ 1 

Bragg angle, glancing angle (20 is twice the 

glancing angle in X-ray diffraction) ...................... 0 

breadth (width) .............................................. b or B 

Brine11 hardness number ..................................... Bhn 

British thermal unit ........................................... Btu 

bushel ................................................................. b~ 

byte ..................................................................... B 

calculated .......................................................... calorie .............................................................. cal 

candela ................................................................ cd 

candela-hour ....................................................... c'h 

capacitance ........................................................... C 

carat .................................................................... kt 

Cartesian coordinates ........................................ X,Y,Z cathode ray ........................................................ CR 

cathode-ray tube ........................................ CRT 

Celsius (used with degree symbol) ........................ "C 

centimeter ........................................................... cm 

centimeter-gram-second (system) ......................... CGS 

centimeter-gram-second (unit) ............................... cgs central processing unit ...................................... CPU 

chemical oxygen demand ................................... COD 

chemical potential ................................................. P 

chi-square statistic ................................................. xZ 

circa (about) ........................................................ ca. 

circle ................................................................... 0 

circular (shape) .................................................... cir 

citrate-extractable heavy metal ......................... cxHM 

coefficient .......................................................... coef 

cold-extractable copper ...................................... cxCu 

collection(s) (abbreviation used only with 

numbers) ................................................... colln(s). 

cologarithm ....................................................... colog 

compressibility ....................................................... K 

concentrate ........................................................ conc 

concentrated .................................................... concd 

concentration ........................................... concn or c 

conductance .......................................................... G 

conductivity ........................................................... Y 

confer (to be compared to) ................................... cf. 

confidence limit, lower, for the population 

mean ............................................................... PL 

confidence limit, upper, for the population 

mean ............................................................... Pu 

constant .......................................................... const 

constant as defined in text .................................... K 

continued (abbreviation used only in some 

tables) ........................................................... con. 

Coordinated Universal Time ............................... UTC 

corner ............................................................... cor. 

correlation coefficient ....................................... p or r 

cosecant ............................................................. csc 

cosecant, hyperbolic ........................................... csch 

cosine ................................................................ cos 

cosine, hyperbolic ............................................... cosh 

cotangent ........................................................... cot 

cotangent, hyperbolic .......................................... coth 

coulomb ................................................................ C 

counts per minute ............................................ c/min 

critical ............................................................... crit 

Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington .......... CIPW 

cross section of atoms and nuclei ............................ u 

crystallographic axes ...................................... a, b, c 

cubic centimeter ........................................ Cm3 

110 Scientific and engineering terms 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued and engineering terms-Continued 

cumulative frequency ........................................... c. f. 

curie ................................................................... Ci 

cutting point in a hypothesis test .......................... R 

cycle (radio) .......................................................... c 

cycles per minute ........................................ clmin 

cycles per second ................................................. ds 

cylinder .............................................................. cyl darcy, darcies ....................................................... D 

day ....................................................................... d 

debye unit ........................................................... D 

decay constant ....................................................... A 

decay constant based on alpha emission ................. Aa 

decay constant based on negative beta emission ... Apdecay constant based on orbital electron 

capture .................................................. A, or XEC 

decay constant based on positron emission ........... kg+ 

decay constant based on spontaneous fission ......... ISF 

decibel ................................................................ dB 

degree .................................................................. degree Celsius ..................................................... OC 

degree Fahrenheit ................................................ OF 

degree Rankine ................................................... OR 

degree reamur ..................................................... OR 

degrees of freedom ............................................. d.f. 

delta (finite change, incremental variations, 

difference) .................................................. A or 6 

density (mass) ....................................................... P 

density (relative) .................................................... d 

depth .................................................................... h 

deuterium ................................................... D or 2H 

deutron ................................................................. d 

diameter ........................................ diam, D, or d 

dielectric constant (permittivity) .............................. E 

dielectric flux ....................................................... O 

differential, partial ................................................. a 

differential thermoanalysis .................................... dta 

differential, total ........................................ d or d 

dilute .................................................................. dil 

direct current ........................................ dc or -* 

direction of extraordinary ray ................................ E 

direction of flow .................................................. + 

direction of ordinary ray ....................................... 0 

discharge; total water discharge; rate of discharge; 

recharge ............................................................ Q 

disintegrations per minute ................................ dlmin 

disintegrations per second ..................................... dls 

disk operating system ....................................... DOS 

dissociation constant .............................................. K 

dissociation constant, negative logarithm of; 

-log K ............................................................ PK 

dissolved oxygen ................................................. DO 

dissolved solids ................................................... DS 

distilled ............................................................. dist 

ditto (the same) .................................................. do. 

divided by ............................................................ + 

dozen ................................................................. doz 

dram ................................................................... dr 

dropping mercury electrode ................................ dme 

dry basis ........................................................... DB 

dyne ................................................................. dyn efficiency ............................................................. eff 

electric current ...................................................... I 

electric-current density ....................................... J, j 

electric-field strength ............................................. E 

electric potential ................................................... V 

electromagnetic unit ........................................ emu 

electromotive force .................................... emf or E' 

electron ......................................................... e or e 

electron mass ...................................................... me 

electron-spin resonance ........................................ esr 

electronvolt .......................................................... eV 

electrostatic flux ................................................... O 

electrostatic unit ................................................. esu 

elementary charge .................................................. e 

elevation ........................................................... elev 

emendatio (emended) ...................................... emend. 

end point ........................................................... EP 

energy ................................................................. E 

energy (kinetic) ................................................... Ek 

energy (potential) ................................................. E, 

enthalpy ............................................................... H 

entropy ................................................................. S 

entropy (standard state of) .................................... So 

ephemeris time ................................................... ET 

equal to - ............................................................... nearly equal to .................................................. r 

not equal to ...................................................... Z 

equation(s) ...................................................... eq (s) 

equilibrium constant .............................................. K 

equivalent ....................................................... equiv. 

equivalent conductivity ........................................ A 

equivalent uranium .............................................. eU 

equivalent weight ...................................... equiv. wt. 

error function ...................................................... erf 

error function (complement to) ............................ erfc 

Euler number ....................................................... E 

ex grupo ........................................................ ex gr. 

exchange ............................................................. # 

exchangeable-potassium-percentage ...................... EPP 

exchangeable-sodium-percentage .......................... ESP 

excited hydrogen atom ........................................ H* 

exponential of ................................................ exp, e 

factorial product .................................................... ! 

Fahrenheit (used with degree symbol) ................... OF 

farad .................................................................... F 

Faraday's constant (the faraday) ............................ F 

Scientific and engineering terms 11 1 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued and engineering terms-Continued 

foot, feet ............................................................. ft 

footcandle ............................................................. fc 

footlambert .......................................................... f~ 

foot (feet) per second cubed ................................ ft/s3 

foot-pound ......................................................... R-lb 

foot-pound-second (system) ................................. FPS 

force .................................................................... F 

force (moment of) ................................................. M 

formality ............................................................... f 

freezing point ....................................................... fP 

frequency ....................................................... f or v 

frequency (spectroscopy) ........................................ v 

friction, coefficient of ..................................... P orf 

Froude number ..................................................... F 

F-statistic for equality of variances ........................ F 

fugacity ................................................................. f 

function of x .................................................... f (x) 

fusion point ........................................................ fnp 

gallon ................................................................. gal 

gallons per minute ........................................ gaVmin 

gamma function ..................................................... r 

gas, as in Ha (g) ............................................... (g) 

gas constant ......................................................... R 

gas liquid partition chromatography ..................... glpc 

gauss ................................................................... G 

Geiger-Miiller (unit modifier) ............................... G-M 

Gibbs free energy, Gibbs function .......................... G 

Gibbs free energy (standard state) ........................ Go 

gradient ............................................................... V 

grain ................................................................... gr 

gram ..................................................................... g 

gravitational acceleration, acceleration of free fall, 

local acceleration due to gravity .......................... g 

gravitational constant ........................................ G 

gray (unit of measure for absorbed dose) .............. GY 

greater than ......................................................... > 

much greater than ....................................... >> 

not greater than ............................................. > 

greater than or equal to .............................. h or r 

Greenwich mean astronomical time ................ G.m.a. t. 

Greenwich mean time ...................................... G.m.t. 

gross .................................................................. gr 

gross weight ................................................ gr. wt. 

half-life .............................................................. TM 

half-life reduced ................................................ fTv2 

havenine ............................................................ hav 

head, total ........................................................... H 

heat capacity ........................................................ C 

heat capacity at constant pressure ........................ Cp 

heat capacity at constant volume .......................... Cv 

hectare ................................................................ ha 

height ................................................................... h 

Helmholtz free energy ........................................... A 

henry, henries ...................................................... H 

hertz ................................................................... HZ 

high-pressure (unit modifier) ................................ h-P 

high-pressure metal vapor .............................. HPMV 

horsepower .......................................................... hp 

hour ..................................................................... h 

hydrogen-ion concentration, negative log,, of .......... PH 

hyperbolic functions, inverse, prefix to be added to 

abbreviation (for example, arcosh) ....................... ar 

hypothesis (alternative) ......................................... HI 

hypothesis (null) .................................................. Ho ....................................................... - identical with - 

not identical with ........................................... Z 

imaginary square root of -1 ............................ i or j 

inch (period may be used if abbreviation might 

be confused with the preposition "in") ................. in 

inch-pound ........................................................ in-lb 

indeterminate ................................................... indet. 

index of refraction ................................................. n 

indices of refraction for biaxial 

crystals ...................... n,, %, and n, or a,, p, and y 

indices of refraction for uniaxial 

crystals ................................. no and n~ or o and E 

inductance (mutual) ............................................... M 

inductance (self) .................................................... L 

infinity ................................................................. CX, 

infrared ................................................................ ir 

inside diameter ..................................................... id 

integral ................................................................. I 

integral, closed (circuital or contour) ....................... 4 

intensity of X-rays reflected from crystallographic 

planes ................................................................ I 

intermediate-pressure (unit modifier) ...................... i-p 

intersection or logical product ................................ fl 

ionization constant ........................................ K or Ki 

irrigation-water classification: C denotes conductivity 

(electrical); S denotes sodium-adsorption ratio 

(SAR); numbers denote respective numerical 

quality classes ............................................. C2-5'3 

Jackson turbidity unit ......................................... Jtu 

joule ..................................................................... J 

joule per kelvin .................................................. J/K 

Joule-Thomson coefficient ....................................... P 

kelvin (degree symbol not used) ............................ K 

;kilobyte ................................................................ K 

kilohm ................................................................ kfl 

kilowatthour ..................................................... kwh 

K-meson ............................................................... K 

knot ..................................................................... kn 

lmbert ................................................................ L 

langley ................................................................. ly 

Laplacian operator ............................................... v2 

latitude (abbreviation used only with figures) ......... lat 

112 Scientific and engineering terms 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued and engineering terms-Continued 

length ................................................................... 1 

less than .............................................................. < 

much less than ........................................ << 

not less than .................................................. 4 

less than or equal to ................................. $ or I 

limit of f (x) .............................................. lim f (4 

linear alkylsulfonate ........................................ LAS 

liquefied petroleum gas ..................................... LPG 

liquid .................................................................. lirl 

liquid oxygen ...................................................... lox 

liter ..................................................................... L 

locality, localities (abbreviation used only with 

numbers) .................................................... loc (s). 

logarithm (common) ............................................. log 

logarithm (natural) ..................................... log, or In 

logical product or intersection ................................ n 

logical sum or union ........................................ U 

longitude (abbreviation used only with figures; omit 

period when "long" is used with "lat"; use period if 

abbreviation may be confused with the adjective 

"long") .......................................................... long 

longitudinal velocity; P-wave velocity ..................... up 

low frequency ..................................................... LF 

low-pressure (unit modifier) .................................. 1-P 

lumen ................................................................. lm 

luminous flux ........................................................ lux ...................................................................... lx 

magnetic-field strength or intensity ........................ H 

magnetic flux ....................................................... @ 

magnetic induction ................................................ B 

Manning's roughness (resistance) coefficient .............. n 

mass .................................................................... m 

mean sea level ................................................. m. s.1. 

mass number ........................................................ A 

mass number of species X .................... A (X) or A, 

matrix; for example 11 aij )I or (aij) or 

A ............................................... 11 ]lor( or^ 

matrix, cofactor of element ............................... $Aij 

matrix, conjugate ................................................. A' 

matrix, determinant of; for example laijl ............... I I 

matrix, identity ..................................................... I 

matrix, inverse ................................................... A-' 

matrix, transpose ................................................. maximum .......................................................... max 

maxwell ............................................................. MX 

mean (statistical) .......................................... p or m 

mean life .............................................................. mean of a linear combination q ............................. Pq 

mean of the lognormal distribution .......................... a 

mean of the negative binomial distribution ............... 0 

mean of sample means ........................................ C"z" 

mean of the variance of sample means ............... PSZ 

mean sea level ........................................ m. s .I. 

mean square error ......................................... M.S.E. 

megabyte ........................................................... Mb 

megohm ............................................................ Ma 

melting point ...................................................... mP 

member of (used with a set and its elements) ......... r 

meta (in organic compounds) .................................. m 

meter ................................................................... m 

metric ton ............................................................. t 

microGal ............................................................. CLG 

micron ................................................................. P 

mile .................................................................... mi 

miles per hour ...................................... milh or mph 

Miller indices ...................................................... hkl 

millimeter of mercury .................................... mmHg 

million .................................................................. M 

million gallons per day ................................... Mgalld 

million years .................................................... m.y. 

minimum ........................................................... min 

minus ................................................................... - 

- minus or plus ....................................................... + 

minute .............................................................. min 

minute; prime; foot ................................................ ' 

mixture melting point ....................................... mmp 

Modified Mercalli ........................................ MM 

molality, mold (concentration) ................................ m 

molar concentration of substance B ....................... CB 

molar mass of substance B .................................. MB 

molarity, molar (concentration) ............................... M 

mole .................................................................. mol 

molecular concentration ........................................ C 

molecular weight ........................................... mol wt 

month ................................................................ mo 

motorship ........................................................... MS 

multiplied by ................................................. x or . 

multiplying factor for the geometric mean of lognormally 

distributed observations ..................................... #, 

multiplying factor for the variance of lognormally 

distributed observations ..................................... 4n 

multispectral scanner ......................................... MSS 

muon ................................................................... CL 

nabla; del; differential vector operator .................... V 

natural variability ................................................. 5, 

nautical mile ...................................................... nrni 

neutrino ................................................................ V 

neutron ................................................................. n 

new genus ................................................... n. gen. 

new series ................................................. new ser. 

new species .................................................... n. Sp. 

new variety ................................................... n. var. 

newton ................................................................. N 

newton meter ................................................... N -m 

Newtonian gravitational constant ............................ G 

Scientific and engineering terms 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued and engineering terms-Continued 

no data ............................................................. n.d. 

no record, not reported ..................................... n.r. 

nomen nudum ........................................... nom. nud. 

normality, normal (concentration) ............................ N 

not available; not applicable ................................ NA. 

not determined .................................................. n. d. 

nucleon number .................................................... A 

number of observations in a population .................. N 

number of observations (sample size) ....................... n 

number of samples ................................................. k 

observation ........................................................... w 

observed frequency of observations ........................ 0 

oersted ................................................................ 0e 

ohm ..................................................................... a 

ohm centimeter ................................................ &cm 

ohm meter ........................................................ a.rn 

optical directions in a crystal; also rays of light in these 

directions and pleochroic colors in these 

directions ................................................ x, y, z 

ortho (in organic compounds) .................................. o 

ounce ................................................................... oz 

outside diameter .................................................. od 

oven-dry basis .................................................. ODB 

oxidation-reduction potential ................................. Eh 

para (in organic compounds) ................................... P 

parsec ................................................................. PC 

part(s) ............................................................. pt(s). 

part($ per billion .............................................. PP~ 

part(s) per million .............................................. PPm 

part(s) per thousand ................................. ppt or "1, 

partial pressure of oxygen or carbon 

dioxide ...................... Po2, Pco2, or P (02), P(C02) 

particle-size diameter ............................................. 4 

partition function .................................................. Z 

pascal ................................................................. Pa 

pascal second ..................................................... Pa-s 

peck ................................................................... ~k 

percentage risk of type I error .............................. a 

percentage risk of type I1 error ............................. P 

period .................................................................. T 

phase .................................................................. ph 

phenyl ................................................................. Ph 

phot .................................................................... ~h 

photon .................................................................. r 

pint ..................................................................... pt 

pi (mathematical constant) ..................................... IT 

pion .................................................................. Planck constant ..................................................... h 

plus ..................................................................... + 

plus or minus ....................................................... * 

poise ..................................................................... P 

Poisson ratio ............................................... v or P 

pooled sample variance ......................................... sP" 

population coefficient of variation and of skewness ..... y 

population mean .................................................... P 

population standard deviation .................................. u 

population variance ........................................ 02 

posterior distribution of a parameter 8 .............. Dl(0) 

potassium-adsorption ratio .................................. PAR 

potential difference ........................................ V or U 

pound (mass) ........................................................ lb 

pound avoirdupois ......................................... lb avdp 

pound-force .......................................................... lbf 

pound-force per square inch ............................. lbf/in2 

power .................................................................. P 

precipitate ................................................. PP~ or J 

preparation variability ........................................... t* 

pressure ....................................................... P or p 

primary wave ............................................... P-wave 

prior distribution of a parameter 8 .................. Do (8) 

probability of the event A ................................ P(A) 

product of a series ................................................ Il 

. . proportion ............................................................. proportion of successes in a binomial population ....... 8 

protium ............................................................... 'H 

proton ................................................................... P 

quantity of electric charge or electricity; quantity of heat; 

quantity of light ................................................ Q 

quart ................................................................... qt 

rad ..................................................................... rd 

radian ................................................................ rad 

radiance ............................................................... B 

radiant ernissivity .................................................. J 

radiant energy ...................................................... Q 

radiant energy density ........................................ u 

radiant exposure ................................................... H 

radiant flux .......................................................... Q, 

radiant intensity .................................................... I 

radical ................................................................. d 

radio detection and ranging .............................. radar 

radio frequency ................................................... RF 

radius ......................................................... r or R 

random fluctuation of "experimental error" .............. e 

random access memory ..................................... RAM 

Range($ (legal land division) ............................. R(s). 

rankine (used with degree symbol) ........................ OR 

ratio; is to (when solidus is used, the word "ratio" should 

follow; for example, CuINi ratio) .................... : or 

.............................................................. X 

read-only memory ............................................ ROM 

rbaumur (used with degree symbol) ...................... OR 

refractive index at 20°C, sodium (D) 20 line ................................................................ no 

relative cumulative *equency ............................. r.c. f. 

repeating decimal; bar covers part that is to be 

repeated ......................................................... 1. 

114 Scientific and engineering terms 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued and engineering terms-Continued 

resistance ............................................................. R square ................................................................. sq resistivity .............................................................. p square centimeter .............................................. cm2 

return beam vidicon .......................................... RBV square root ......................................................... reversible reaction ........................................ % standard ............................................................. std 

~ ~ -- 

revolutions per minute .......................... rlmin or rpm standard deviation .................................................. u revolutions per second ............................... "S Or vs standard error of laboratory 

number .................................................. R means ............................................................... sx roentgen (used with degree symbol) ...................... OR standard mean ocean water ............................ SMOW 

roentgen equivalent, man or mammal .................. rem standard state ..................................................... roentgen equivalent, physical ............................... rep standard state Gibbs free energy .......................... G" 

root .................................................................... V standard temperature ..................... sTP 

root mean square ........................................ rms standardized normal distribution ........................ s.n.d. 

rubidium acid phthalate ..................................... RAP station(s) (abbreviation used only with 

R~dberg constant ........................................ Or RY numbers) ..................................................... sta(s). Rydberg constant for infinite mass ........................ R, steradian (solid angle) ........................................... sr 

(parts per .................................. "'m stokes ................................................................. St 

sample coefficient of variation ................................ C nod or linear .......................................... sample mean ........................................................ strain, shear .......................................................... Y 

sample standard deviation ....................................... s stress, normal ....................................................... a 

sample variance ................................................... 92 stress, shear ......................................................... 7 

sampling variability ............................................... 5, subgenus ...................................................... subgen. 

saturated calomel electrode .................................. sce subset of; is contained in ...................................... c 

secant ................................................................ sec subspecies ...................................................... subsp. 

secant, hyperbolic ........................................ sech "Suggestions to Authors" ................................... STA 

second (time) ......................................................... s sum ..................................................................... 8 

second; double prime; inch ...................................... " sum of squares .................................................... SS 

second-foot ......................................................... s.ft sum of squares of the replication totals ................ 7'2 

secondary wave ........................................ S-wave sum of squares of the treatment totals ................. T,2 

section(s) (subdivision of Township and Range) ...see (s). sum total of observations in a sample .................... T 

sensu lato .......................................................... s.1. surface tension .............................................. or o 

sensu strict0 ....................................................... S.S. tangent .............................................................. tan 

shear velocity; S-wave velocity .............................. v, tangent, hyperbolic ........................................... tanh 

siemens ................................................................. S temperature .................................. ; ................... temp 

sine .................................................................... sin temperature, in degrees Celsius .............................. t 

sine, hyperbolic ................................................. sinh temperature, in kelvins; absolute temperature; 

sine of the amplitude (an elliptic function) ............. sn thermodynamic temperature ................................ T 

skewness of frequency distribution ........................ sk tesla .................................................................... T 

sodium, line in spectrum of ................................... D theoretical frequency of observations ...................... T 

sodium-adsorption ratio ...................................... SAR thermogravimetric analysis ................................... tfTa 

solid, as in AgCl(s) ........................................ (s) thickness ........................................................ t or d 

solid angle ........................................................... o thin-layer chromatography ..................................... tlc 

solidus (also called virgule, slash) ............................. 1 thousand ............................................................... k 

soluble ................................................................ sol thus .................................................................... sic 

solution ............................................................. soh time ...................................................................... t 

sound navigation and ranging ........................... sonar ton, metric (tonne) ................................................ t 

spacing of Bragg planes in a crystal ....................... d total (grand) of observations squared ..................... G2 

species (singular) ................................................ sp. Townships(s) (legal land division) .................. T., Tps. 

(plural) ........................................................ Spp. trace ................................................................... tr. 

specific gravity ................................................ sp gr trace of a matrix (math) ........................................ tr .................................................... .......................................... specific heat sp ht transformed observation u ............................................. ........................................................ specific heat capacity c transmittance T ............................................... ................................................................ specific volume Sp VO~ triangle A 

Scientific and engineering terms 115 
Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued 

trigonometric functions, inverse circular, prefix to be 

added to abbreviation (for example, 

arccos) ............................................................ arc 

tritium ........................................................ T or 3H 

tritium unit ........................................................ TU 

triton .................................................................... t 

true mean ......................................................... t.m. 

ultraviolet ............................................................ uv 

undetermined .................................................. undet. 

unified atomic mass unit ........................................ u 

union or logical sum ........................................ u 

unit-cell edges ..................................... 0, bo, and co 

United States (abbreviation used as 

adjective only) ........................................ U.S. 

United States Geological Survey ...................... USGS 

U.S. Government Printing Office ...................... GPO 

United States National Museum (abbreviation used 

before locality or collection number .............. USNM 

universal time .................................................... u.t. 

Universal Time, Coordinated .............................. UTC 

Universal Transverse Mercator ......................... UTM 

vacuum .............................................................. vac 

vapor pressure .................................................... vp 

variance, statistic to estimate the variance of 

lognormally distributed observations ................... V2 

variance of quantity q ........................................... 0: 

variance of lognormal distribution .......................... p2 

variance of negative binomial distribution ................ k 

variation operator ................................................... 6 

variations; varies as ............................................... a 

variety .............................................................. var. 

velocity ......................................................... v or u 

Table 4. Abbreviations, signs, and symbols for scientific 

and engineering terms-Continued 

velocity of light (in vacuo) ..................................... c 

velocity, P-wave .................................................. VP 

velocity, S-wave ................................................... vs 

versed sine ....................................................... vers 

versus (standard usage) ....................................... vs. 

vertical angle elevation bench mark ................ VABM 

vinculum (above letter; for example, F) .................. - 

Viscosity, dynamic .................................................. q 

viscosity, kinematic ................................................ v 

volt ..................................................................... V 

voltampere ......................................................... VA 

volume, chemical and physical use ......................... V 

volume strain, bulk strain ...................................... 0 

watt ................................................................... W 

watthour ............................................................ Wh 

wavelength ............................................................ A 

wavenumber .................................................. u or v 

weber ................................................................ Wb 

weight ................................................................ wt 

weight per volume .............................................. wlv 

weight per weight ............................................. wlw 

yard ................................................................... yd 

year .................................................................... yr 

yields .................................................................. + 

Young's modulus of elasticity ................................. E 

Prefixes and abbreviations for multiples and submultiples, 

SI units 

exa (10'8) ............................................................. E 

peta (lo") ............................................................ P 

tera (10'2) ............................................................ T 

giga (104 ............................................................. G 

mega (lo6) ............................................................ M 

kilo (lo3) ............................................................... k 

hecto (lo2) ............................................................. h 

deka (10) ............................................................ da 

deci (lo4) ............................................................. d 

centi (10-2) ............................................................ c 

milli (103> ............................................................ m 

micro (1C6) .......................................................... P 

nano (109 ............................................................ n 

pic0 (10-9 ............................................................ P 

femto (10-16) .......................................................... f 

atto (10~8) ............................................................ a 

116 Scientific and engineering terms