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,/NBS building scl^ance series TA435 .U58 V61;1975 C.2 NBS-PUB-0_l»^'»

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Of *

BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES 61

Natural Hazards Evaluation

of Existing Buildings

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / National Bureau of Standards
The Building Science Series

Tho Building Sc iciur Series tlisseminates technical information developed at the National Bureau of Standards on

ijuilflin;; materials, components, systems, and whole structures. The Series presents research results, test methods, and performance criteria related to the structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety characteristics of building elements and systems. These publications, similar in style and content to the NBS Building Materials and Structures Reports (1938-59),

are directed toward the manufacturing, design, construction, and research segments of the building industry, standards organizations, and officials responsible for building codes. The material for this Series originates principally in the Center for Building Technology of the NBS Institute

for Applied Technology. The publications are divided into three general groups: Building Systems and Processes;

Health, Safety and Comfort; and .Structures and Materials. For further information regarding these publications

please contact the .Scientific and Professional Liaison Section, Center for Building Technology, Institute for Applied Technology, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234.

mailing list announcement on last page J
ii'^iauuiial U'jic'uii of Standards MAY 5 1975

H>4 C'^Oi'

^^"t^^ Natural Hazards Evaluation of Existing Buildings

,

Charles G. Culver and

^ . 5. H. S. Lew

Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

and

Gary C. Hart H 65 ^^J^iM^ ^UO^OJL <JiAMlf>

J. H. Wiggins Company

Redondo Beach, California 90277

and

Clarkson W. Pinkham

S. B. Barnes and Associates

Los Angeles, California 90070

Under the Sponsorship of Defense Civil Preparedness Agency

Department of Defense

Washington, D.C. 20301

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Frederick B. Dent, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Richard W. Roberts, Direcfor

Issued January 1975
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title: Natural Hazard Evaluation of Existing Buildings.

(NBS Building Science Series; 61) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs. No.: C 13.29:2/61.

1. Structural Stability. 2. Structural Dynamics. 3. Building Failures. 4. Natural Disasters. I. Culver, Charles. IT. United States. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. III. Series: United States. National Bureau of Standards. Building Science Series, 61. [DNLM: 1. Architecture. 2. Disasters—Prevention and Control. TA192 C968n]

TA435.U58 No. 61 [TH845] 690'.08s [690] 74-28136 rev.

National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series 61

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Bldg. Sci. Ser. 61, 958 pages (Jan. 1975) CODEN: BSSNBV

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1975

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. C13.29:2/61). Price $11.10

Stock Number 0303-01365
ABSTRACT

A methodology is presented for survey and evaluation of existing buildings to determine the risk to life safety under natural hazard conditions

and estimate the amount of expected damage. Damage to both structural and

nonstructural building components resulting from the extreme natural environments encountered in earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes is considered.

The methodology has the capability of treating a large class of structural

types including braced and unbraced steel frames, concrete frames with and

without shear walls, bearing wall structures, and long-span roof structures.

Three independent but related sets of procedures for estimating damage for

each of the natural hazards are included in the methodology. The first set

of procedures provides a means for qualitatively determining the damage

level on the basis of data collected in field surveys of the building. The

second set utilizes a structural analysis of the building to determine the

damage level as a function of the behavior of critical elements. The third

set is based on a computer analysis of the entire structure. All three sets

of procedures are based on the current state-of-the-art. The procedures

are presented in a format which allows up-dating and refining. Numerical

examples illustrating application of the procedures are included.

Key Words: Buildings; damage; disaster; dynamic analysis; earthquakes;

hurricanes; natural hazards; structural engineering;

tornadoes; wind.

The methodology presented in this report is the result of a research

project and should be used by professionals competent in interpreting the

application and results. This publication of the methodology is intended

to assist professionals and not relieve anyone of professional accountability for the design and evaluation of structures. The National Bureau

of Standards, the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency and the authors are not

responsible for any action which may result from application of the methodology. The methodology should not be interpreted to and does not reflect the

policy of either the National Bureau of Standards or the Defense Civil

Preparedness Agency.

i i i
SI Conversion Units

In view of present accepted practice in this technological area, U.S.

customary units of measurements have been used throughout this report. It should be noted that the U.S. is a signatory to the General Conference on Weights and Measures which gave official status to the metric SI system of

units in 1960. Readers interested in making use of the coherent system

of SI units will find conversion factors in ASTM Standard Metric Practice

f^uide, ASTM Designation E-380-72 (available from American Society for

Testing and Material, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19103)

Conversion factors for units used in this report are:

Customary Unit International

(SI ) , Unit

Conversi on Approximate

Length inch (in)

foot (ft)

meter (m)^

meter (m)

1 in=0. 0254m

1 ft=0. 3048m

Force

Pressure

Stress

Energy

pound (Ibf)

kilogram (kgf)

pound per square

inch ( p s i ) Kip per square

inch ( ks i ) inch-pound (in-lbf)

foot-pound (ft-lbf)

newton (N)

newton (N)

newton/meter'

newton/meter'

joule ( J

)

joule (J)

1 lbf=4.448N

1 kgf=9.807N

1 psi = 6895N/m^

1 Ksi - 6895 X lO^N/m^

1 in-lbf=0. 1 1 30 J

1 ft-lbf=l .3558 J

To rque

orBending

Momen t

pound-inch (Ibf-in) newton-meter (N-m) 1 1 bf -i n = 0 . 1 1 30 N-m

pound-foot (Ibf-ft) newton-meter (N-m) 1 1 bf -f t=l . 3558 N-m

Weight

orMass

pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 1 lb=0.4536 kg

Unit Weight pound per cubic foot kilogram per cubic 1 pcf=16.018 kg/m

(pCf) mofof>^L'n/niJ^ meter (kg/m-^)

Vel oci ty feet per second Meter per second (m/s) 1 fps = 0.3048 m/s

(ft/sec. ) ArrPipr;,tinn feet per second, "leter per second

^ ft/sec^ = 0.3048 m/s' Acceleration

^^^^^^^ (ft/sec^) squared (m/s )

Meter may be subdivided. A centimeter (cm) is 1/100 m and a millimeter

(mm) is 1 /1 000 m.

1 V
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT iii SI CONVERSION UNITS iv

1. INTRODUCTION 1-1

1 . 1 Background 1-1 1.2 Objectives of Survey Methodology 1-2

1.3 Scope of Survey Methodology 1-3

1.4 Organization of the Report 1-5

2. FACTORS AFFECTING NATURAL HAZARD EVALUATION 2-1

2 . 1 General 2-1 2.2 Natural Hazard Loadings 2-1

A. Earthquake Loading Considerations 2-1 B. Wind Loading Considerations 2-13

C. Tornado Loading Considerations 2-14

D. Hurricane Loading Considerations 2-19

2.3 Structural Characterization 2-22

2.4 Building Response Analyses 2-25

2.5 Natural Hazard Damage Experience 2-27

3. DAMAGE EVALUATION METHODOLOGY 3-1 3.1 Introduction 3-1 3.2 Field Evaluation Method 3-4

A. Introduction 3-4

B. FMA Forms - Structural Systems - Earthquake and Wind 3-4

C. FMB Forms - Other Life Hazards - Earthquake .... 3-14

D. FMC Forms - Wind 3-21

E. FMD Forms - Tornadoes 3-24

F. FME Forms - Structural Systems - Capacity Ratios • 3-27

3.3 Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method 3-28

A. Introduction 3-28

B. Rating of Building for Resistance to Earthquake

Hazards 3-28

C. Rating of Building Resistance to Wind Hazards- • • 3-48

D. Rating of Building Resistance to Tornado Hazards • 3-54

3.4 Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method 3-60

A. Introduction 3-60

B. Natural Hazard Loading - Earthquake 3-61

C. Natural Hazard Loading - Wind 3-90

D. Natural Hazard Loading - Tornado and Hurricane • • 3-107

E. Structural Characterization 3-119

F. Structural Response 3-127

G. Earthquake Damage Evaluation Methodology 3-142

H. Wind, Tornado and Hurricane Damage Evaluation

Methodologies 3-166

I. Long Span Roof Damage Evaluation 3-170

V
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

4. DEMONSTRATION OF HAZARD EVALUATION METHODS 4-1 4. 1 Introducti on 4_1

4.2 Data Collection Form

4.3 Field Evaluation Method ..... 4_]4

A. Earthquake

B. Wind 4-19

C. Tornado 4_22

D. Resume ......... 4-24

4.4 Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method 4_26

A. Earthquake zi o/- B. Wind

C. Tornado ............... 4-63

D. Resume 4_7g

4.5 Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method 4_7g

4 . 6 Summary 4_gg

5. SUMMARY

6. REFERENCES

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

5- 1 6- 1 7- 1

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: DATA COLLECTION FORMS

APPENDIX B: FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

APPENDIX C: APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

APPENDIX D: EXAMPLES

APPENDIX E: DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD - COMPUTER PROGRAM

USERS MANUAL

APPENDIX F: DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD - COMPUTER PROGRAM

LISTING

APPENDIX G: DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD - UNITED STATES

SEISMICITY TABLES

vi
1. INTRODUCTION

1 . 1 BACKGROUND

Much of the loss of life and property in the United States from natural

hazards such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes results from the inadequate performance of buildings in response to these extreme natural environments. Past observations have shown, however, that buildings properly

designed, detailed, and constructed can withstand these environments. This

involves realistic assessment of the forces produced by the environment,

proper distribution of these forces to structural and nonstructural building

components and providing the necessary resistance to these components in

the design process, and continual inspection during construction to insure

the design is correctly executed in the field.

Improved building practices incorporating new knowledge relative to

natural environments and the performance of buildings will serve to mitigate

future losses. Continued updating of building codes and standards, taking

into account the latest research findings and experiences gained from past

performance of buildings, is one aspect of improved practice. Improved

practices, however, apply only to future construction. They do not affect

existing buildings. The response of an existing building to an extreme na- tural environment will reflect the performance level inherent in the codes,

standards, and construction practices in existence at the time of design

and construction. During the life of the building, building practices con- tinually improve reflecting the advancement of the state of knowledge. Thus,

the real margin of safety differs from that assumed at the time of design as the state of knowledge and building practices advance. Also, deterioration

during the service life of the building affects the real margin of safety.

The need exists, therefore, to continually evaluate buildings with respect to

the potential hazard they pose when subjected to extreme natural environmental

conditions. Following such an evaluation, appropriate rehabilitation or abatement procedures may be initiated to mitigate unacceptable hazards.

Several programs aimed at evaluating the hazard posed by existing buildings in the event of an earthquake have been initiated. The city of Long

Beach, California adopted an ordinance in 1971 requiring an evaluation of

the earthquake safety of all buildings within the city. Procedures for

conducting this evaluation, a hazard potential rating system, and alternative

actions for hazard reduction were developed by Wiggins and Moran [1.1].*

*See references listed in Chapter 6.

1-1
Following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake, the Veterans Administration

undertook a program to evaluate the seismic resistance of the VA hospital

facilities located in earthquake prone regions which had not been designed

to resist earthquake forces [1.2]. The Naval Facilities Engineering Command

has also undertaken a program to evaluate existing naval facilities [1.3].

Several studies are underway in California, including projects in San Francisco and Los Angeles dealing with existing school buildings. Although these

programs are similar in nature, each uses a somewhat different method of

evaluation. Furthermore, since these methods involve evaluating buildings in

accordance with the requirements reflected in current building codes, they

do not provide an indication of the level of risk or explicit levels of

building performance in terms of life safety, protection of property, and

maintenance of vital functions. They also do not provide an estimate of the

amount of building damage to be expected.

Despite these current diverse activities, knowledgeable professionals

recognize that "there presently are no nationally recognized effective, systematic and economical procedures for assessing the hazards of existing

buildings for future loads"[1.4]. Recognizing this, the National Bureau of

Standards and the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency initiated a project in

June 1972 as part of the Cooperative Federal Program on Building Practices

for Disaster Mitigation to develop a methodology for survey and evaluation

of existing buildings to determine the risks to life safety under natural

hazard conditions. While it is intended that the methodology will be incorporated into DCPA's National Shelter Program, its application can be extended to similar programs in the public and private sectors.

This report presents the methodology including the technical rationale

involved in the development, instructions for applying the methodology and

numerical examples illustrating its application.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEY METHODOLOGY

The methodology developed herein deals with survey and evaluation procedures for existing buildings to determine the risk to life safety under

natural hazard conditions. While the safety of building occupants cannot be

evaluated directly as a consequence of a particular natural event, it can

be related to building performance and resulting damage to the building.

For example, partial or total collapse of a building involving structural

damage and damage to nonstructural elements are potential hazards to the

lives of the occupants.

1 -2
In developing the methodology, consideration was given to establishing

economical procedures applicable to a large number of buildings and a wide

variety of structural types. It was designed for nationwide application.

In meeting these requirements, evaluation procedures consistent with current

professional practice reflecting the state-of-the-art were incorporated in

the methodology. The procedures are presented in a format which will facilitate incorporation of new knowledge as it becomes available. The elements

comprising the procedures are presented in a modular form so that each element can be updated separately.

The methodology may also be used to evaluate the effects of alternative

rehabilitation techniques for hazardous structures. It thus provides a tool

for upgrading existing buildings by identifying items needing strenghteni ng or repair.

1.3' SCOPE OF SURVEY METHODOLOGY

The natural hazard loading conditions considered in this methodology

are those encountered in earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes. While the source mechanism is different for each of these geophysical processes, they

all impose dynamic loading. Existing historical seismic and meteorological

data are used in the methodology for determining the magnitude and recurrence interval for these hazard loadings. For earthquakes, recorded seismic data were used to prepare seismicity tables for determining expected

ground motion, see Appendix G. For wind loading, recently adopted standards

are used. Selection of the hazard loading for a particular building evaluation must be made by the user. The loadings provided with the methodology

or appropriate values supplied by the user may be employed.

The types of structures considered include braced and unbraced steel

frames, concrete frames, shear wall structures, combination frame and shear

wall structures, bearing wall structures, and long-span roof structures.

Although no specific limitations are imposed on application of the methodology, it is intended for buildings with substantial occupancy, i.e., fifty

or more people. One-and two-story residential buildings, therefore, are

not considered.

1-3
For surveys involving a large number of buildings, it is advantageous

to utilize several different techniques to expedite the evaluation process.

For example, due to age and type of construction, certain buildings can be

easily identified as potentially hazardous without resorting to a rigorous

analysis. Other buildings, because of their functional nature and structural type, may warrant a detailed analysis. In view of this, three sets

of evaluation procedures were included in this methodology, each set representing a different level of analytical sophistication. Hereafter, these

three sets are referred to as the Field Evaluation Method, the Approximate

Analytical Evaluation Method and the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method.

In the Field Evaluation Method buildings are evaluated on a qualitative

basis in terms of structural characteristics, structural configuration, and

the degree of deterioration of the building. Information on these are obtained from a field survey. This method provides a rapid, inexpensive means

for identifying clearly hazardous structures or potentially hazardous ones requiring a more detailed analysis to estimate damage.

In the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method, buildings are evaluated

in terms of the behavior of critical structural members. The procedure re- quires an analysis of the structure to identify critical members and determine

the stress level induced in these members by the extreme environments. A set of building plans, specifications, and construction drawings are needed

to obtain the necessary data required to perform the analysis The method

can be used to determine the damage level for buildings identified by the

Field Evaluation Method as requiring further analysis.

In the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method the damage level is evaluated on the basis of the energy capacity of the structure. This procedure re- quires the use of a digital computer program for the evaluation. As in the

Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method, the building data needed for input

to the computer program would be obtained from a set of building plans,

specifications and construction drawings. It is envisioned that this procedure would be used for more complex structures or critical facilities such

as hospitals, communication centers, etc.

In all three methods, an acceptable level of damage is not specified

since it varies with the usage and function of the building. For example,

while damage to partition walls in an office building causes an obvious

economic loss and possible life safety hazards, similar damage in a hospital

may cause a significantly greater life safety hazard. Thus, interpretation

of levels of damage predicted by the methods as they relate to life and

property losses must be exercised by the user.

1 -4
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

The first part of the report deals with the technical basis and rationale involved in development of the methodology. The second part illustrates

application of the survey and evaluation procedures included in the methodology. The first part includes chapters 2 through 4 and the second part,

the Appendices.

Chapter 2 discusses, in general terms, the factors which must be included in a hazard evaluation of existing buildings. Natural hazard loadings arising from earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes are discussed.

The current state of knowledge on modeling techniques for various types of

structures and analytical methods for evaluating structural response to

dynamic loading are also included. The failure modes for structures subjected to each of the three natural hazard loadings are described.

Chapter 3 outlines the development of each of the three evaluation

methods including the manner in which the various factors discussed in

chapter 2 were taken into account in each method. The assumptions and

limitations of each method are discussed. The effective use of the

three methods for surveying a large number of structures is also consi dered

Chapter 4 includes an illustrative example of a building evaluated by

each method for earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes. For each natural

hazard considered, the structure is analyzed for these extreme environments

and the results obtained from each method are compared.

Appendix A includes the Data Collection Form for the Field Evaluation

and Approximate Analyti cal Methods and instructions for collecting the data

in a field survey. A completed sample form is given for illustration.

Appendix B contains the procedures for the Field Evaluation Method.

The manner in which building data are considered in the evaluation procedure

and definition of the structural and nonstructural quality rating schemes

used are included.

1-5
Appendix C contains the procedures for the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method. It describes data needed for this method. Procedures for

identifying critical members in a structure are presented.

Appendix D contains additional examples of completed data collection

forms and analyses by each of the three methods.

Appendix E contains the computer program user's manual for the Detailed

Analytical Evaluation Method.

Appendix F contains a listing of the computer program for the Detailed

Analytical Evaluation Method.

Appendix G contains United States Seismicity Tables obtained using the

theory presented in the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method.

1-5
2. FACTORS AFFECTING NATURAL HAZARD EVALUATION

2.1 GENERAL

This chapter presents the reader with a brief overview of the different

components which are present in a damage evaluation methodology. The physical character of the natural disaster loading mechanisms is summarized in

section 2.2. This is followed by a general introduction to structural modeling (section 2.3) and structure response (section 2.4). Section 2.5 presents a pictorial description of the damage induced by the past occurrence

of major natural hazards.

2.2 NATURAL HAZARD LOADINGS

A . Earthquake Loading Considerations

Through much of seismic mythology two ideas recur. The first of these

is that something was imprisoned within the earth -- a whale, a giant mole,

a storm, or the monstrous children of Mother Earth. The second is that earthquakes had something to do with the sea; in Greek mythology, Poseidon,

brother to Zeus and god of the sea, is also the "Earthshaker," and devoutly

feared

For many years, geophysi ci sts have attempted to describe the actual

counterparts of these mythical animals and storms. At the same time, they

have tried to relate these unseeable subterranean forces to their surface

manifestations -- the building of mountains, the bending of ocean trenches,

the tearing of seafloors, the apparent drifting of continents, volcanic

eruptions, and earthquakes.

Figure 2.1 shows the planet Earth to consist of a thin crust two or three miles thick under the oceans and as much as 25 miles thick beneath

the continents that covers the large, solid sphere of the rock mantle,

which descends to about 1800 miles. Below the mantle is the outer core

and at about 3200 miles depth the inner core. The province of earthquakes recorded thus far is from the crust to a maximum depth of about

450 miles.

Conditions thought to prevail in this high-pressure earthquake zone cannot be simulated in existing laboratories because at the base of the

mantle the pressure is about 11,000 tons per square inch and the temperature is about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit. These pressures produce a rigidity

in mantle rock about four times that of ordinary steel, with an average

density about that of titanium.

2-1
2-2
The very solid mantle rock behaves over periods of millions of years,

like a very sluggish fluid. The temperature difference between the white-hot

region near the earth's core and the cooler region near the earth's crust

drives slow-moving cycles of rising and descending currents in the mantle

rock itself. These currents rise beneath the ocean floor, thrust up the mid- ocean ridges, and generate the stresses which produce spine-like transverse

cracks and shallow earthquakes. This is currently believed to be the mechanism which causes material to well up through the crust, replacing and spreading the old seafloor, and pushing drifting continents apart. Where these

currents begin their descent at the edges of the continents they produce massive folding in the form of trenches and mountain ranges. These regions are

the sites of the deeper earthquakes and of most volcanism.

Stresses generated in the earth's crust and upper mantle by convective

currents are stored and under normal circumstances the rocks deform plastically, releasing pent-up energy before it builds to catastrophic levels.

However, when stresses accumulate too rapidly to be removed by plastic flow,

some structural compensation is necessary. Large blocks of material are slowly forced into highly strained positions along faults and held in place

by a supporting structure of stronger materials. Finally, the stresses

cause the supporting rocks to rupture, thus triggering a fracture. The sides

of the rebounding fault move horizontally with respect to one another

(strike-slip), vertically (dip-slip), or in combinations of such motion.

Sometimes all the released energy goes out in one large wrench, followed by trains of smaller tremors, or aftershocks. Sometimes the fault

shift is preceded by the small structural failures, and foreshocks are therefore detected.

The slip along a fault sends out four basic types of seismic waves.

Two of these wave types travel through the earth and the other two types

travel only at the surface of the earth. The two types of waves which

travel through the earth are called P and S waves and the two which travel

along the surface are called Love and Rayleigh waves.

The primary (P) wave is longitudinal and propagates through both liquids and solids, and is usually the first signal that an earthquake has oc- curred. The P wave is the swiftest seismic wave, its speed varying with the

material through which it passes but the speed is usually less than 4 miles

per second.

2-3
As the compressi onal phase of the P wave passes through the earth,

particles are pushed together and displaced away from the disturbance. The

ra ref acti ona 1 phase dilates the particles and displaces them toward the

earthquake source. For an object imbedded in the ground, the result is a series of sharp pushes and pulls parallel to the wave path.

The secondary (S) wave is a transverse wave and it travels at approximately one-half the speed of the primary wave. With a period and amplitude

of about 2 times the associated P waves, these shear waves displace particles at right angles to the direction of wave travel. The vertical component of this movement is somewhat dampened by the opposing force of gravity;

but side-to-side shaking in the horizontal can be quite destructive. Where

the motion is perceptible, the arrival of the S waves marks the beginning of

a new series of shocks.

The two surface waves are called Love and Rayleigh waves. The period

of these waves is much greater than the body waves (e.g., 30 or more seconds

versus less than two seconds). Love waves are shear type waves in the horizontal direction whereas Rayleigh waves are elliptical vertical waves. The

speed of these waves is about 2-3 miles per second with the Love being

slightly faster than the Rayleigh.

There are two parameters which are commonly used to describe the "size"

of an earthquake. One parameter called the Modified Mercalli I n tens i ty is an indication of an earthquake's apparent severity at a specific location.

The intensity is prescribed by experienced observers using an I to XII intensity scale, see table 2.1. The primary disadvantage of this scale is

that it is subjective. The Richter Magni tude of an earthquake is a measure

of the energy released by an earthquake. The magnitude is based upon mea- surements of ground acceleration amplitudes on standardized instruments.

Earthquakes of magnitude 5 or greater, usually generate ground motions

which are potentially damaging to structures. Since the Richter Magnitude

is on a logarithmic scale an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thirty times more energy release than a magnitude 5 earthquake and an earthquake of magnitude

7 has one-thousand times more energy than a magnitude 5 earthquake.

Magnitude also provides an indication of earthquake energy release,

which intensity does not. Written in terms of equivalent tons of TNT, [2.1].

log^Q W = - 4.82 + 1 .5M (2.2.1 )

where

W = tons of TNT

M = Richter magnitude

2-4
Table 2.1 MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY (MMI) SCALE

I. Not felt except under especially favorable circumstances.

II. Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably placed.

III. Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks.

May not be recognized as an earthquake.

IV. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of heavy trucks or sensation of

a jolt like a heavy ball striking the walls. Standing motor cars rock. Windows, dishes, doors rattle. Glasses clink. Crockery clashes. Wooden walls

and frames creak.

V. Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers wakened. Liquids disturbed,

some spilled. Small unstable objects displaced or upset. Doors swing, close,

open. Shutters, pictures move.

VI. Felt by all. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken.

Knickknacks, books, etc., off shelves. Pictures off walls. Furniture moved

or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked. Small bells ring (church,

school). Trees, bushes shaken visibly, or heard to rustle.

VII. ' Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers of automobiles. Hanging objects quiver.

Furniture broken. Damage to masonry D, including cracks. Weak chimneys broken

at roof line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices, also un- braced parapets and architectural ornaments. Some cracks in masonry C. Waves

on ponds; water turbid with mud. Small slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation ditches damaged.

VIII. Steering of automobiles affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some damage to masonry B; none to masonry A. Fall of stucco and some masonry walls.

Twisting, fall of chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, elevated tanks.

Frame houses moved on foundations if not bolted down; loose panel walls thrown

out. Decayed piling broken off. Branches broken from trees. Changes in floor

or temperature of springs and wells. Cracks in wet ground and on steep slopes.

IX. General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with

complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged. General damage to foundations.

Frame structures, if not bolted, shifted off foundations. Frames racked. Serious damage to reservoirs. Underground pipes broken. Conspicuous cracks in ground. In alluviated area sand and mud ejected, earthquake foundations, and craters

X. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some wellbuilt wooden structures and bridges destroyed. Serious damage to dams, dikes,

embankments. Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers, lakes,

etc. Sand and mud shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land. Rails bent

si i ghtly

XI. Rails bent greatly. Underground pipelines completely out of service.

XII. Damage nearly total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air.

Definition of Masonry A,B,C.D

Masonry AGood workmanship, mortar and design; reinforced, especially laterally and bound

together by using steel, concrete, etc.; designed to resist lateral forces.

Masonry BGood Workmanship and mortar; reinforced but not designed in detail to resist

lateral forces.

Masonry COrdinary workmanship and mortar; no extreme weaknesses like failing to tie in at corners but neither reinforced nor designed against horizontal forces.

Masonry DWeak materials, such as adobe; poor mortar; low standards of workmanship, weak

horizontally.

2-5
Table 2.2 shows the energy-released, felt area, distance felt and maximum expected MMI for various magnitude earthquakes.

Utilizing past earthquake history one can obtain a general feeling for

the seismicity of various regions of the United States. Figure 2.2 shows a map of the Continental United States with historically recorded maximum Mercalli Intensities through 1965. Utilizing historical data of this type it

is possible to create a macro-seismic risk map of the United States and such

a map is presented in the Uniform Building Code [2.5] and is shown in

f i gures 2 . 3 and 2.4.

The previous description of seismicity does not directly relate to the

analysis or design process because it is not expressed in terms of a parameter appropriate for such use. Because the earthquake loading is a dynamic

phenomenon, potential description parameters must be related to the amplitude, duration or frequency content of earth shaking. If the loading on a structure is to be treated as an equivalent static loading then the maximum

site ground acceleration is found to be an acceptable description parameter.

While most building codes approach the earthquake problem on this level, the

specification of building site response spectra is more rational for building structures and can be considered to be state-of -the-practi ce . The actual

mechanics of generating earthquake loads is described in detail in chapter

3; however, for the present discussion it is sufficient to state that the

characterization of such spectrum requires a knowledge of maximum earthquake induced acceleration or velocity. Therefore, it is logical to characterize the seismicity of a region by its maximum expected acceleration or

vel oci ty

One approach to the characterization of the potential earthquake distructiveness of a particular region involves the specification of the maximum earthquake accelerations. Figure 2.5 shows a map for the State of California which indicates one expert's opinion of the maximum ground motion

which can be expected [2.6]. These estimates are meant to be conservative

and to represent upper bounds.

An alternate approach is the specification of maximum expected earthquake accelerations corresponding to a particular structural life. Such an approach is based on probabilistic concepts and enables the earthquake

engineer to select a maximum acceleration based upon an acceptable level of

risk for the conditions of service, the life of the structure which is to be

designed and also upon his own view of acceptable level of risk.

2-6
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2-9
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2-10
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2-12
Figure 2,6 shows one such map for the southern California area [2.7].

The methodology presented in section 3.4 of this report can alternatively

be used to create seismic zoning maps. At the present time, such maps do

not exist; however, the maximum hardrock velocities for several United States

cities are shown in table 2.3. These maximum velocities are based upon earthquakes of a 100 year return period.

The preceding methods of characterizing seismic activity are often called macro-se i smi c i ty characterizations because they characterize large geographic region. Micro-seismic characterization is an improvement upon macroseismic characterization in the sense that it attempts to characterize the

seismicity of a smaller, or more local, region. Because of governmental

considerations, micro-seismic characterization (often called micro-zoning or seismic element zoning) is most commonly done for city or county governments.

In such a study, the local soil conditions and the location of local earthquake faults can be studied in more detail and more accurately incorporated

into the seismicity characterization. The descriptive parameter for the

micro-sei smi ci ty study can still be either deterministic (i.e., specifying

the maximum possible ground acceleration) or probabilistic (i.e., specifying

the maximum acceleration based upon structural life and acceptable level of

risk). As an example of such a micro-seismic characterization, figure 2.7

shows a micro-seismic zoning map for the City of Long Beach, California [1,1].

The loads on a structure generated by an earthquake can result from ten

basic mechanisms:

1

Shaking the structure

2, Shaking the ground beneath the structure, causing settlement

3. Shaking the ground beneath the structure, causing

fa i 1 ure foundation

4, Ground lurching

5. Ground liquefaction

6. Earth surface faulting

7.8,

Slope failure into or beneath structure

Tsunami water wave

9. Seiche water wave

10, Dam failure and resulting water surge loads.

This study deals with only loading mechanism No, 1 since the greatest

percentage of expected earthquake damage results from this failure mechanism.

B . Wind Loading Considerations

The wind load exerted on a structure from non-tornado and hurricane con2-13
ditions is a very significant design factor. A building must be designed for

loads resulting from severe winds and often, from a design point of view, it

is these wind loads and not the earthquake loads which govern the design.

Figure 2.3 showed a seismic risk map for the United States as presented

in the Uniform Building Code [2.5]. This map characterized in a general way

the historical seismic activity of the United States. Figure 2.8 shows a relative characterization of wind loading over the United States as presented

in the Uniform Building Code. Section 3.4 of this report presents a more detailed discussion of the loading problem. However, at this point it is important to recognize, that wind loads are regionally dependent. In fact, the same macro- and micro-regional concepts which have been alluded to for seismic

characterization apply to wind characterization where the local geographical

conditions strongly influence the local wind environment at a site.

C . Tornado Loading Considerations

A tornado is a violently revolving column of air. A funnel is caused by

violent convection from intense sun heating of the ground, aided by opposing

winds of greatly differing temperatures. The tornado develops below a heavy

cumulo-nimbus cloud mass. The funnel may reach the ground where it is then

dragged by friction. The tornado dies out in the reverse direction. Rotation

of the funnel may be either clockwise or counterclockwise. The diameter of

the funnel is usually around 1,000 feet, although there may be considerable

variation. Because of the rotating character of the funnel there exist high

wind speeds at the eye of the tornado (ranging up to about 300 miles per hour)

and, because of centrifugal effects, the barometric pressure at the eye is

very low. An updraft of wind at the center of the tornado may have wind

speeds up to 200 miles per hour.

2-14
2-15
Table 2.3 MAXIMUM HARDROCK VELOCITIES FOR EARTHQUAKES OF 100

YEAR RETURN PERIOD.

STATE: CITY MAXIMUM HARDROCK VELOCITY

(inches/second)

Alaska : Anchorage 2 .608

Arizona : Phoenix 0 .213

Arkansas : Little Rock 0 .855

California : Los Angeles 4 .656

: Sacramento 1 .001

: San Diego 1 .112

: San Francisco 7 .101

Georgia : Atlanta 0 354

Hawaii : Honolulu 0 .203

: Hilo r .760

Idaho : Idaho Falls 0 .511

Illinois : Chicago 0 . 5"7'5 Indiana : Indianapolis 0 556

Kansas : Wichita 0 239

Kentucky : Louisville 1 080

Massachusetts : Boston 0 562

Missouri : St. Louis 1 778

Montana : Helena 5 849

Nebraska : Omaha 0 226

Nevada : Las Vegas 2 356

: Reno 1 930

New Mexico : Albuquerque 1 174

New York : New York 0 910

Ohio:Cincinnati 0 5 6&

Oklahoma: Oklahoma City 0 486

Oregon : Eugene 1 551

: Portland 1 702

Pennsylvania : Pittsburgh 0 298

South Carolina : Columbia ; 0. 391

Tennessee :. Memphi s 1 . 979

Utah : Salt Lake City 2 . 616

Washington : Seattle 1 . 801

Washington, D.C. 0. 347

2- 16
Figure 2.7 Micro-zoning Map for the City of Long Beach,

Cal i f orni a

2-17
2-18
Most United States tornadoes occur east of the Rocky Mountains in the

eastern region of the Great PI ai ns --f rom Iowa to Texas. Figure 2.9 shows a map of the United States summarizing the mean annual frequency of tornado occurrences. Paths of tornadoes are usually short, ranging from several

miles to a few hundred miles and they travel from southwest to northeast at

speeds ranging from 10-50 miles per hour. Tornadoes are most often formed in

association with thunderstorms, and therefore, accompanying hail or rain is common

Since a tornado is a violent disturbance involving high wind speeds, the common approach for the design of buildings is the specification of a design

wind velocity. This velocity is used to calculate loading on the structure

using experimental and/or analytical wind velocity-wind pressure relationship.

The dynamic character of the wind pressures on the structure, as well as the structure itself, are usually incorporated into the design process by

using a gust factor. This factor multiplies the predicted static wind pressures which, when used in response calculations, will be approximate but

acceptable for engineering purposes.

D, Hurricane Loading Considerations

A hurricane is a tropical storm, originally applied to storms in

the West Indies only, but a term now applied to this type of storm in

other parts of the world. The name is derived from the word "hurracan"

of the Arawak-speaki nq Indians of the West Indies.

In the eastern United States the hurricane season lasts roughly from

June to October. In midseason, August and September, hurricanes develop

mainly near or to the east of the Lesser Antilles. Early and late in the

season, in June and from the latter part of September onward, the area with most frequent formation is the western Caribbean. The Gulf of Mexico

also is a breeding ground for hurricanes, as is the Pacific just off the

Central American coast, see figure 2.10.

After formation, most hurricanes move northwest, gradually turning

more directly north as they move out of the tropics. The United States

intercepts all hurricanes moving northward in the Gulf, and since the land mass extends further east with increasing latitude, it also intercepts many

hurricanes moving northward on the ocean side of Florida. Some of the most

extensive damage suffered from hurricanes has been sustained in New England.

This damage has resulted partly from the wind, especially the effects of

wind upon the sea near coasts, but also from floods following heavy rains in

the mountainous sections of New England.

2-19
Figure 2.9 Mean Annual Frequency of Tornados 1953-1962

2-20
2-21
Hurricanes result from convective heating. The moist, warmed air at the

water's surface, being lighter than its environment, is forced up and replaced

by the cooler, denser, surrounding air which blows spirally inward around the

center or "eye" (see figure 2.11). The rotation is counter-clockwise.

The speed of travel of the hurricane ranges from 10 to 30 miles per hour

and its diameter, when matured, varies from 25 to 500 miles. Like a tornado,

the barometric pressure in the "eye" is low. Heavy precipitation and high

wind speeds (i.e., greater than 75 miles per hour) accompany hurricanes.

The loads on buildings resulting from hurricanes are, like tornadoes,

assumed to be related to wind velocities. Mean wind velocities and resulting

wind induced building pressures are amplified to take into account the dynamic

characteristics of the winds and the building. A gust factor is used for this

ampl ification.

2.3 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION

The continuous evolution of analytical and experimental structural

engineering enables the engineer to continuously improve upon his analytical

representation of reality. Increased application of the computer in recent

years has enabled the engineer to use a more detailed analytical model of a building. However, in the final analysis the choice of an analytical model

continues to primarily depend upon the following three factors: (1) the type

of loading -- static or dynamic, (2) the desired response parameters, and

(3) the geometric and structural layout of the building.

If the loading acting on a building is static then only the building's

stiffness characteristics need be modeled. The analytical building model

may be detailed or gross. Models of the former type usually involve matrix

methods wherein the stiffness characteristics of each building member are represented using a member stiffness matrix. These elemental stiffness

matrices are then combined to form the complete building stiffness matrix.

The model resulting from this approach is often referred to as a finite

element model. At the other extreme, building models of the latter type

represent all structural members at a particular floor with one interstory

stiffness element. The detailed building model is usually used when the

engineer is concerned with estimating the stresses in the structural members

whereas the gross model is used to obtain general estimates of building

floor displacements.

2-22

Dynamic loads acting on the building introduce the additional variable

of building mass. Modeling is usually accomplished by lumping at the floor

level the dead weight of the floor slabs plus the tributary weight of all

columns, window walls and partitions. This model is used in almost all

building studies even though analytical techniques do exist for rationally

representing the mass properties of all structural components. The lumped

mass model is used because it enables one to write more efficient computer

programs and because the error introduced by such a model seems to be acceptable in light of other uncertainties in the response problem.

Recognizing that the hazards considered herein induce lateral loading, it

is important in analyzing the structure to clearly distinguish between the

vertical load resisting elements and lateral or horizontal load resisting elements. The considerations involved are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

Two structural characterization considerations which are attracting

considerable earthquake engineering research effort at the present time are

(1) soil structure interaction and (2) torsional building response. The soil

structure interaction problem is discussed in reference [2.8]. At the present

time there exist two general areas of discussion and research. The first

involves modeling of the subsurface soi 1 -bu i 1 d i ng system. Finite element

techniques exist for modeling building foundations with irregular geortietric

shapes and arbitrary soil strata. However, these methods do not prove com- pletely adequate in the representation of the far field boundary conditions.

Continuum mechanics solutions can very nicely model the radiation damping

aspects of the problem but prove to be inadequate for arbitrary irregular

basement and common boundary conditions. While it may be possible to reconcile a common soi 1 -structura 1 interaction approach, any such attempt at this

time seems premature because to date the amount of available full scale information from past earthquake experience is not sufficient to prove or disprove any of several commonly accepted approaches.

The torsional response of buildings during earthquake and wind excitation has been observed [2.9]. This torsional response results from two sources. First, if a building has an irregular floor plan such that the

building center of mass and center of stiffness do not coincide then translation loading components will produce torsional floor response. Moreover,

since little is known about the damping present in torsional modes of vibration it may also be that even for symmetric buildings differences in damping

values for the various modes may produce torsional floor motions. The second source of torsional response is the loading itself. This loading takes the

form of a twisting component of ground motion [2.9] for the earthquake problem and a floor story torque for wind forces. While analytical modeling

2-24
techniques exist for representing the three dimensional stiffness and mass characteristics of a structure, further research remains to be done using

full scale test results before the loading and modal damping coupling can be

adequately characterized.

At the present time, a consensus does not exist regarding the manner in

which these effects should be accounted for in design. Neither effect, therefore, was included in the methodology presented herein. An approximate procedure for considering the forces resulting from the torsional moment associated

with buildings having an irregular floor plan has been included in the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method (Section 3.3 page 3-36). It is reasonable,

to expect, however, that it will only be a short time, perhaps 5 to 10 years,

before a consensus of opinion can be reached on how these factors can be incorporated in design and damage evaluation. It would then follow that their

inclusion in the methodology presented would become appropriate.

2.4 BUILDING RESPONSE ANALYSES

The response of the building is obtained using either a static or a dynamic analysis. A static response analysis is common in wind, tornado, and

hurricane problems wherein the dynamic character of the response is usually

incorporated via a gust factor. This gust factor is usually dependent upon

such dynamic parameters as fundamental building period and damping. This

factor multiplies mean static loads to obtain a design loading for static

analysis. In earthquake response studies a static response analysis is used

when one uses the procedures recommended by most codes.

A nonlinear static analysis is possible with existing analytical technology; however, due to the uncertainties in the building and loading parameters, it is not commonly utilized in practice.

There are two basic choices available to the engineer when using a linearly elastic dynamic analysis procedure. One choice is hereafter referred

to as the Modal Analysis Method and the other is referred to as the Direct

Integration Method.

Either static or dynamic analyses may be used in connection with the

evaluation procedures described in Chapter 3.

2-2 5
The modal analysis method involves the calculation of the natural periods

and mode shapes of vibration of the building. These dynamic response parameters enable the engineer to mathematically define a set of distributed co- ordinates which characterize the deformed shape of the building. These

distributed coordinates are usually referred to as normal mode coordinates

and experience indicates that whereas many hundreds or perhaps thousands of

physically identifiable discrete coordinates at the junctions of beams and

columns may be necessary to specify the deformed shape of the building a significantly smaller number of distributed coordinates can be used to define

the approximate deformed shape of the building within acceptable engineering

accuracy. Mathematically, the discrete coordinates are obtained using a matrix transformation of the normal coordinates.

The primary motivation for using distributed normal mode coordinates in

building dynamics is that when cast in this way, the dynamical equations of

motion for the building are uncoupled second order differential equations

identical in form to the equations of motion obtained for a simple single

degree of freedom oscillator. Therefore, the building's dynamic response is

expressed as the summation of a weighted series of single degree of freedom

oscillator responses. Moreover, physically understood terms that are appropriate for single degree of freedom system description (e.g., natural period

of vibration and percent critical damping), are also description parameters

for the building problem. This extension of single degree of freedom concepts

to the solution of a complex building's response enables the engineer to re- tain a physical feeling for the problem (i.e, engineering insight) and it is

this factor that primarily accounts for the wide usage of the mode analysis

method. Parenthetically, it is noted that this engineering insight enables

an engineer to verify at intermediate steps in the solution process the numbers generated by the computer program and therefore, he can have more confidence in the accuracy of the computer generated answers.

The modal analysis method offers the engineer two analysis options - a response spectrum or a time history solution. A response spectra solution

in the earthquake problem requires as input the response spectra of building

base motion. The time history input requires an acceleration versus time

historyofbasemotion.

The direct integration method involves a straightforward numerical

solution of the matrix dynamic equation of motion at each instant in time.

In this method the building's natural periods and mode shapes of vibration

are not calcul ated

2-26
While modal damping must be specified in the modal analysis method,

the direct integration method requires the specification of a complete

system damping matrix. In practice the latter is usually estimated from

test data using modal response.

The calculation of the nonlinear dynamic response of a building can be

accomplished in a straight forward manner using step-by-step solution techniques as has been demonstrated by many authors. However, at the present

time there appears to be two significant drawbacks to the widespread application of such nonlinear response algorithms. First, dynamic tests on fullscale structural components have not been numerous and there exists considerable uncertainty in the dynamic behavior of actual building components

under earthquake type excitations. One can expect significant advances in

this area in the next few years. Second, the financial expense of performing

a nonlinear dynamic analysis on buildings can be great. Unless the building

under consideration is a special structure for which a significant amount of

money is allocated for a dynamic analysis, the engineer cannot afford to perform such an analysis.

2 . 5 NATURAL HAZARD DAMAGE EXPERIENCE

It is expected that buildings will experience damage when they are subjected to extreme natural forces such as those resulting from earthquakes,

hurricanes, and tornadoes. There are exceptional cases in which buildings

should not sustain damage such as nuclear reactor facilities. Damage to such

buildings are not considered herein. In this section types of damage observed

in past natural disasters which are most likely to occur are presented.

There is a fundamental difference in the way in which lateral loads are transmitted to a building from earthquake and from wind. In the case of

earthquake, the load is transmitted to the building from its base. Thus,

the entire building as well as the building contents will experience the

force. In general, the magnitude of this force which individual members ex- perience is proportional to their mass. On the other hand, in the case of

wind, the load is transmitted to the building through its envelope. Thus,

the cladding and its supporting members experience the initial effects of

the wind load. Except for the structural members, the interior of the building including its contents will not experience the wind loads directly as long as the envelope remains intact. Therefore, the damage a building will

sustain from these two natural events is different. In the remainder of this

section, damage resulting from earthquake and wind is discussed separately.

2-27
Building Damage due to Earthquake

Current building codes anticipate that damage will occur to buildings

when subjected to severe earthquakes. While not specified in the main body

of the code, the Intent of the seismic provisions in the present codes are

to provide adequate resistance so that:

1. No damage would be sustained by the building in minor

earthquakes

,

2. No structural damage, but minor nonstructural damage

would be sustained by the building in moderate earthquakes,

3. Structural damage as well as nonstructural damage would be

sustained by the building without collapse in severe earthquakes.

Since a moderate earthquake is considered to be about a Richter magnitude of

4.0, any earthquake greater than this level would be expected to cause damage.

The extent of damage, in general, is dependent on the building's dynamic

characteristics, strength, durability, and stiffness. Damage experience In the past has shown that buildings deficient In any one of these have suffered

severely. In addition, nonsymmetrical disposition of lateral load resisting

systems could lead to an unfavorable response of the building, thereby Inducing severe damage. Nonstructural elements not securely attached to structural

members also suffer damage when the building is shaken by earthquakes. The

extent of damage to these elements is dependent on the type of connections

and their strength and stiffness.

Momen t - re s i s t i n g unbraced frame structures are relatively more flexible

than braced frame and shear-wall structures. Adequately designed structural

members can undergo the resulting large deformations without severe damage.

Nonstructural elements and the building contents may however suffer significant damage. Braced frame structures and shear-wall structures, on the other

hand, are relatively stiff and less ductile than moment-resisting unbraced

frame structures. If not adequately designed, these buildings can fail In

a non-ductile manner. Because of their smaller interstory drift these structures may suffer less nonstructural damage.

The types of damage discussed above were well documented for the 1972

Managua earthquake. The Banco Central Building, a moment resisting unbraced

frame structure, experienced very extensive nonstructural damage, while It

suffered moderately severe damage to structural members. On the other hand,

the Banco de American building, a shear wall structure, suffered extensive

structural damage to shear girders which are a part of shear core providing

the main resistance to lateral forces. This building being relatively stiff,

2-28
however, suffered little damage to the nonstructural elements and its con- tents. Detailed discussions of the performance of these two buildings are given in reference 2.10.

In general, structural members in moment resisting frames that suffer

significant damage are columns and the panel zone at beam-column joints.

Most of the column damage occurs at the ends. In the case of concrete frame

structures, crushing of concrete with buckling of reinforcing bars and diagonal tension cracks, are usual modes of failure (fig. 2.12). For steel

frame structures, local buckling of columns is a usual mode of failure (fig.

2.13). Panel zone failures in concrete and steel frames in a past earthquake

are shown in figures 2.14 and 2.15.

Shear wall structures tend to fail in a non-ductile manner. Columns,

piers, and floors and roofs acting as diaphragms tend to be severely damaged.

Cracks formed in these members are illustrated in figures 2.16, 2.17, and

2.18. Failure of concrete floor diaphragm under high shear force is shown

in figure 2.19.

Bearing wall structures are also relatively stiff. In order for this

type of structure to survive an earthquake, the walls must remain intact in

the vertical position. Many unreinforced or inadequately reinforced masonry

bearing walls have generally sustained severe damage. Total collapse of such

masonry structures is not uncommon. A typical old masonry infilled concrete

frame structure near collapse is shown in figure 2.20. A severely damaged

masonry bearing wall is shown in figure 2.21.

In shear-wall or load-bearing structures, lintels and shear beams that

link shear walls sustain severe damage when not adequately designed. An

example of such a failure is shown in figure 2.22.

Since the damage to structural and nonstructural members is due to the

lateral motion of the building during an earthquake, the magnitude of the

resulting inter-story drift can be related to the level of damage a building

might sustain. The inter-story drift is incorporated in the development of

the damage evaluation methods presented in this report and is used as an index in determining the level of damage.

2-29
Damage to buildings may result from non-uniform distribution of stiffness in plan and discontinuity of stiffness of the building along its height.

These cause torsional deformations in addition to the flexural deformations

resulting from the earthquake motions. Structures falling in this category

are those buildings having irregular shapes and large differences in stiffness between stories. When a relatively stiff portion of a structure is

supported by a flexible lateral load resisting system, the structure responds

to ground shaking like an inverted pendulum and the flexible portion sustains

the most damage. This type of failure was observed in the 1971 San Fernando

earthquake and is shown in figures 2.23, 2.24, and 2.25.

Nonstructural elements can significantly alter the expected performance

of the structure. In the Venezuela earthquake of 1967, many failures of con- crete frame structures were attributed to the unexpected forces produced in

frame members resulting from partitions acting as stiff shear walls. Detailed

discussions of structural failures resulting from this type behavior are given in reference 2.11.

Failure of nonstructural elements pose a threat to the occupants of the

building. Falling partitions, light fixtures, shelving, and the like are very hazardous. Furthermore, debris piled in corridors and stair wells (fig.

2.26) would be a barrier to egress and a hazard in the panic conditions

during evacuation of the building.

Building Damage due to Extreme Wind

It has been observed that properly designed and constructed modern

buildings will stand up relatively well under extreme winds. There is no documented evidence that indicates a complete collapse of engineered multistory buildings in severe winds. To date, only three completed highrise

buildings suffered severe damage to the structural frame. Two buildings in

Miami, Florida were subjected to hurricane winds of 152 mi 1 es-per-hour in

1926 and were distorted severely [2.12]. The third one in Lubbock, Texas was subjected to estimated tornado winds of over 150 miles-per-hour in 1970 and

suffered severe damage to the structural frame [2.13]. This building was displaced laterally to such an extent that many interior gypsum block partitions suffered extensive damage.

Structures that are highly susceptible to severe wind damage are one- or-two story industrial buildings with long-span roof, one-story pre-engineered structures and residential structures including mobile homes. Damage

2-30
to these types of structures from high winds is well documented [2.13, 2.14,

and 2.15]. Extreme local wind pressures, usually negative in character, are common causes of failures of building elements. Uplifting of roofs and separation of exterior cladding from the building are the results arf extreme

suction forces. Several examples of such failures are shown in ft#K/«s 2.2 7 through 2.32. Damage to windows and other exterior cladding may reswTt from

missile impact of wind-born debris, such as gravel from the roof* ^jacent

buildings and other objects such as building materials stored at a flaalrby

lumberyard. Severe damage to glazing of a high-rise building from *ind-born

gravel in the Lubbock tornado is shown in figure 2.33.

It has been shown that proper anchorage of roof, exterior cladding and

window frames, can substantially reduce wind damage [2.16]. The anchorage

factor is considered in the evaluation of damage to these items in the damage

evaluation methods. In addition, inter-story drift values are used in assessing partition and glass pane damage in shear as these are related to sway

motion of the building.

2-31
Figure 2.12 Compression Failure of Reinforced Concrete Column

at Upper End.
2-33
2-34
Figure 2.17 Diagonal Tension of Reinforced Concrete Column

2-35
..^ /

Figure 2.18 Diagonal Tension Cracks in Concrete Pier

2-36
Figure 2.20 Severely Damaged Unreinforced Masonry

Wall Frame Structure

2-37
Figure 2.21 Diagonal Cracks in Unreinforced

Masonry Load-Bearing Wall

2-38
Figure 2.22 Failure of Door Lintel
Figure 2.24 Distorted Light Wood Frame Structure

2-40
Figure 2.26 Staircase Littered with Debris of Enclosure

Partitions

Figure 2.27 Partial Loss of Roof due to a Hurricane

2-41
2-42
2-43
2-44
Figure 2.31 Window Damage at Corner of Building

Figure 2.32 Wall Damage due to Local Wind Pressure
M|p m m m m

Figure 2.33 Glazi ng Damage due to Wind-Born Debri

2-46
3. DAMAGE EVALUATION METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a description of the three damage evaluation

procedures included in the Damage Evaluation Methodology. Each procedure

represents a different level of analytical sophistication. Each considers

natural loading conditions encountered in earthquakes, winds, hurricanes and

tornadoes. Existing historical seismic and meteorological data are used for

determining the magnitude and recurrence interval for these hazard loadings.

The types of structures considered include braced -and unbraced steel frames,

concrete frames, shear wall structures, combination frame and shear wall

structures, bearing wall structures, and long-span roof structures.

The three damage evaluation methods are referred to as the Field Evaluation Method, the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method and the Detailed

Analytical Evaluation Method.

Section 3.2 outlines the Field Evaluation Method. In this method buildings are evaluated in terms of structural characteristics, structural configuration and the degree of deterioration of the building. A field survey of

the building is used to gain information on these parameters. This method

provides a rapid, inexpensive means for identifying clearly hazardous structures or potentially hazardous ones requiring a more -detailed analysis to estimate damage. Chapter 4 presents an example of this method and Appendix

B contains the procedures for using the method.

In the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method, presented in section

3.3, buildings are evaluated in terms of the behavior of critical structural

members. The procedure requires an analysis of the structure to identify

critical members and determine the stress level induced in these members by

the extreme environments. A set of building plans, specifications, and con- struction drawings are needed to obtain the necessary data required to perform the analysis. The method can be used to determine the damage level for

buildings indentified by the Field Evaluation Method as reqjjiring further

analysis. Chapter 4 presents an example of the method and Appendix C contains

the procedures for using the method.

3-1
In the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method presented in section 3.4,

the damage level is evaluated on the basis of the energy capacity of the

structure. This procedure requires the use of a digital computer program for

the evaluation. As in the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method, the

building data needed for input to the computer program would be obtained from

a set of building plans, specifications and construction drawings. It is

envisioned that this procedure would be used for more complex structures or critical facilities such as hospitals, communication centers, etc. Chapter

4 presents an example of the method. Figure 3.1 presents a schematic of the

method which is used to evaluate buildings. The procedures for this method

are given in Appendix E.

Prior to a detailed reading of this chapter, it is suggested that the

reader examine the complete chapter to obtain an overall view of the complete

methodology. Three items will be apparent from such an overall examination.

First, each evaluation method can, in most cases, be conducted independently

of the other two and hence is basically self-contained. Second, all three

methods utilize professional engineering experience as expressed through

codes. Of course, the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method, because of its

state-of-the-practi ce goal attempts to project beyond the present codes in

many respects. Third, the amount and diversity of material for each method

is considerable. The attempt was made, therefore, to present each method in

such a manner that the user may read, study and master the methods one at a time. Some repetition of tables and figures was used with reader ease in

mind and with the desire to reduce cross-referencing between sections.

Considering that there are three evaluation methods, a natural question

to ask is, "Which method should I use for my building?" After studying the

three methods it will be seen that for buildings which may be in serious

danger^ or for special structures of high public importance, a complete study

shffiujlldi be performed. This involves use of all three methods. Each will provfd'e valuable engineering insight into the potential forms and types of structural! damage. While the detailed analytical evaluation method utilizes more state-of-the-art representation of loadings and matrix analytical modeling

methods it is usually desirable to have this augmented by the feel for structural comp^aiT.e.nt performance obtained from the other methods.

The enafn^eering time and cost is of course a function of the method

selected. In general, the detailed analytical evaluation method will involve

the most time and will provide the best prediction of damage. However,

options exist within the computer program of the detailed analytical evaluation method which only require limited information and can be used for obtaining "ball park" estimates of damage.

3-2
INPUT

• Environmental Data

for Earthquake,

Wind ^nd Tornado as Required for Selected

Hazards

• Structural Modeling

Data According to

Specified Modeling

Option

START ^

SUBROUTINE:

L0ADS

SUBROUTINE:

STRUCT

• Damping Type

• Ductility to Failure

• Interstory DriftTo-Yield

SUBROUTINE:

DYNAMC

Building Data

Needed to

Compute Pressure Distribution

(Dimensions, Floor

Weights)

• Roof Configuration

Data and Analysis

Options

Damageability Data

(Quality Factors)

SUBROUTINE:

STATIC

SUBROUTINE:

LSRia^F

SUBROUTINE:

DAMAGE

STOP ^

• Compute Site Earthquake Loads

• Define

Structural

Model

NO

• Evaluate Dynamic

Response to Site

Ground Motion

NO

NO

• Evaluate Equivalent

Static Response to

Wind and Tornado

• Evaluate Equivalent

Static Response of

Long-Span Roof to

Uplift and Ponding

• Evaluate Structural and

Non Structural Damage to

Building Due to Earthquake, Wind, and/or

Tornado

Figure 3.1 Schematic of Program

3-3
3.2 FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

A . Introduction

The Field Evaluation Method can be used where evaluation results do not

need to be as refined as would be expected from the other two methods. This

method is particularly applicable if building plans are not available.

The purpose of the field evaluation is to determine the adequacy of the

facility in question to resist the natural hazards of earthquake, wind and

tornado that the facility may be subjected to.

The site will be assigned by the user an MMI intensity for earthquakes,

a probable wind intensity and exposure and the probability of tornado occurrence. It may be determined that the possibility of a particular building

being subjected to one of these natural hazards is so r&mote that it need not

be evaluated for this hazard. The rest of the information necessary for

evaluation of a structure by the Field Evaluation Method must be obtained from

a field inspection or from plans (if they are available) or both. If plans

are available, they should be checked in the field to see that they represent

the "as built" condition. Data Collection Form-'S have been prepared for noting

most of the pertinent items that will be required to fill out the rating forms

for the building evaluation. The Field Evaluation Method is accomplished by

completing the evaluations required on the FM forms. For assessing the earthquake hazard, form FMA-1 on the vertical resisting structural systems, form

FMA-2 on the horizontal resisting structural systems, and forms FMB-1 and

FMB-2 on non-structural items are used. For assessing the wind hazard, form

FMA-1 and FMA-2 are used as for earthquake, FMC-1 is also used for the structural system, and FMC-2 is used for non-structural items. For assessing tornado hazards. Form FMD is used. A resume form FME is provided to indicate

the overall capability of the structural system. For rating the structural

systems, a 1 to 4 numerical rating is used. For non-structural items a letter

rating of A,B,C or X is used. A copy of each of the forms noted in this section are shown in Appendix B and should be referred to for the following discussion.

B . Ratings of the Structural Systems - Earthquake and Wind (FMA Forms)

FMA Forms are provided for Field Evaluation Method ratings of the structural systems. Since earthquakes do not have a prevailing direction of

motion, buildings are rated for their capability to resist lateral forces in

the direction of each principal axis. Therefore, a separate rating is given

for longitudinal and transverse resisting elements.

3-4
If there is little difference between longitudinal and transverse

resisting elements, one of the ratings may be filled out and the other noted

"Similar to ." The horizontal resisting elements (diaphragms or horizontal bracing) in most cases will have similar ratings in both directions except where the diaphragms or bracing may not be complete between

vertical resisting elements in each direction.

On Form FMA-1, "General Ratings (GR)" are assigned to the various types

of framing in order to account for past performance and the degree of uncer- tainty that the building would perform in a manner anticipated for the type.

These ratings are based on damage experience and judgment. For instance, it

may be known that a building is a steel frame structure, but unless plans

are available, it may not be possible to determine whether the beam-column

connections are moment- res i sti ng , or to what degree they are momentresisting. In such cases it is suggested that the Type B rating be used.

Similarly, in concrete where a visual inspection cannot determine the extent

of reinforcement, it will not be known whether the frames are designed to

resist moments and forces from horizontal motions. Type D is suggested

for this case. Wood stud walls may have various types of sheathing or combination of

sheathing and plaster. For wood frame buildings of Type K, where plywood

sheathing is used and is well nailed and blocked, a rating of 1 is suggested;

otherwise, use the 2 rating.

The General Ratings for wind vary in some cases from those for earthquakes. Unless a building is very long and narrow, the total wind force

acting on the building as a whole (except for tornadoes) is usually less

than the earthquake force. In general, buildings of heavy construction in

any area are less susceptible to wind than to earthquake damage when compared

to buildings using light const>^uction.

For masonry buildings of Type E, wind ratings of 2 or 3 are listed. As

examples, if the masonry shear walls divide a building into nearly square

areas, use the 2 rating. If a building is long and narrow, say 150 ft x 50 ft, with no interior walls that will act as shear walls, use the 3 rating.

For wood frame buildings of Type K, where it can be confirmed that there

is well nailed and blocked plywood sheathing, use a wind rating of 2. Otherwise, use the rating of 3.

3-5
The column headed "Symmetry of Resisting Elements" describes the eccen- tricity between the center of mass of the structure and the center of stiffnes

of the vertical resisting elements. Thus, in a building where the only shear

walls are the exterior walls with only one opening in the center of the

opposite walls, and the building plan is rectangular, the building would be

classified as Symmetrical. On the other hand, a two-story rectangular

structure with nearly solid side and rear walls, but with a front wall almost entirely glazed with perhaps only four small piers or columns, would

be classified as Very Unsymmetri cal

In the case of a multi-story building with a complete vertical loadcarrying frame (i.e., without bearing walls), with columns uniformly spaced

and reasonably uniform in size, a Symmetrical or Fairly Symmetrical classification would be given. Whether or not beams or girders frame into the

columns with connections capable of taking significant bending moments may

affect the symmetry. Portions of the building may have girders framing into

columns in one direction with light beams or slabs framing to columns in the

other direction. In such cases, the stiffness or rigidity of such bents

would be greatly different and thus affect the symmetry. If plans are available, the symmetry can readily be determined; if not, best judgment should be

exerci sed

Symmetry can be greatly affected by location of mass. For instance,

there may be only a partial third story over two full stories. This could

produce dissymmetry unless the vertical resisting elements are correspondingly increased under this third story area. Where rigid concrete floor, or roof diaphragms are involved, the effect

of unsymmetri cal vertical resisting elements is reduced, since such diaphragms can develop considerable torsion. For this reason, two rating numbers are provided for unsymmetri ca 1 systems - with the lowest number to be

used where concrete diaphragms are present.

Some buildings have very rigid vertical resisting elements (such as shear walls) in the upper stories, but these are omitted in the lower story.

This leaves only the columns and girders acting as a moment resistant frame

for the horizontal resistance. A flexible first story such as this can create a dynamic response which could be very adverse and in a severe earthquake, could cause severe damage unless the design is based on an analysis

considering dynamic response. Unless computations are available which show

that this has been done, the Symmetry rating should be given a one point

increase, but need not exceed 4.

3-6
The column headed "Quantity (Q)" refers to the number of vertical resisting elements. If there are many long shear walls this rating is 1. If

there are so few shear walls that each is vital to resist lateral motions,

the rating could be as much as 4. Intermediate conditions would have ratings

between these extremes. One exception would be when shear walls occupy at

least 75% of the exterior wall length, in which case the quantity rating

would be 1 even though no interior walls are present.

In the case of moment-resisting frame structures of steel or concrete,

both the strength and number of columns is important. For the usual case of

multiple 20 ft to 35 ft bays, the Quantity rating would be 1. There are cases, however, where an entire building may be supported by only 4 large

columns. In such cases the failure of one support would cause collapse. A Quantity rating of 4 would be appropriate. Similar reasoning would provide

each building with its individual Quantity rating. In multi-story structures,

the Quantity rating should be made for the worst condition in any story

1 evel .Since Symmetry and Quantity values are interrelated and dependent on each other, a combined factor (SQR) will be used as a Sub-Rating. The SQR

rating is the average of the Quantity rating and the Symmetry rating.

The columns headed by "Present Condition (PC)" is where wall cracks and

other damage as described on the DC Form, see Appendix A, is evaluated.

"Other Damage" may be damage caused by deterioration from lactic or tannic

acid (frequently found in dairy or slaughterhouse facilities) or from severe popping of concrete caused by the use of reactive aggregates. The degree of

damage in such cases can only be estimated by visual observation for the

Field Evaluation Method ratings.

For vertical resisting elements consider "Quantity" and "Symmetry" com- bined as one factor and "Present Condition" as another factor with which a weighted average is found to produce "Sub-Rating (SRI)." This formula is

based on experience. The procedure for finding the "Sub-Rating" is shown

on Form FMA- 1

On Form FMA-2, horizontal resisting elements (floors or roofs) are evaluated. These are important elements in the capability of a building to

withstand lateral forces. In earthquakes, the lateral forces originate at

the centers of mass or weight. In the case of wind, the forces are usually

applied laterally at the exterior walls and also with positive or negative

pressures on the roof.

3-7
The floor or roof systems act as horizontal diaphragms to distribute

horizontal forces to the vertical resisting elements, such as shear walls,

moment-resisting frames, or braced frames. This diaphragm action is similar

to that of a horizontal plate girder spaning between the vertical resisting

elements and may be continuous over several supports. In this analogy the

floor itself may be compared to the plate girder web, and the marginal beams

walls (chords) compared to plate girder flanges. The floor or roof system,

acting as a girder web, is primarily a shear resisting element. The

marginal beams or girder flanges (chords) in diaphragm action are primarily

subjected to axial loads of tension or compression. Figure 3.2 shows ex- amples of marginal concrete beams acting as chords. Wood, steel, or reinforced masonry beams also used where applicable.

Shears are transferred by the anchorage between floor or roof and the

shear walls or frame members. The DC form has spaces for describing these

anchorage connections. The determination of the adequacy of anchorage or connections involves considerable judgment unless computations are made.

The provisions of the local building codes may assist in this. If the date

of construction of a building is known the applicable building code requirements of that data may be determined. If the governmental agency granting

a permit had a good enforcement record at the time, it is probable that the

anchorage details conform to the code requirements then in effect. There

are areas, however, where there is or has been very little building code en- forcement in the past. In such cases, conformance with code requirements

applicable at the time of construction may be very questionable and greater

dependence on visual inspection is necessary.

Where the floor or roof systems are of cast-i n-pl ace concrete and are placed integrally with portions of the shear walls or frames, generally

a good anchorage with shear transfer capacities can be assumed dependent

on the concrete strength, concrete slab thickness and amount and anchorage

or reinforcing steel. The rating given would be 1 or 2.

With metal deck systems, the diaphragm values are dependent on the deck

configuration, attachment between units, gage and attachments to supports.

Where a structural concrete topping slab is used, dowels or other connections

to supporting and marginal members may be used. The welding pattern of deck

to steel supporting members has a large influence on the shear capability of

this type of deck, as well as the ability of the deck to transfer horizontal

loads to vertical resisting elements or chord members. Screw-type connection

of metal decks to steel supporting members are sometimes used in lieu of

welds. Figure 3.3 illustrates some typical metal deck connections.

3-8
WALL REINFORCEMENT.

DETAIL A

Figure 3.2 Ty pi ca

DETAIL B

Concrete Diaphragm Chord Details
MARGINAL PUDDLE WELDS

END CONNECTION TO SUPPORTING BEAMS

Figure 3.3 Typical Deck Connection Details

3-10
Wh«r« W90d floor or roof systems are used as horizontal diaphragms, the

C9ii»«cti (MIS to shear w^lls and frame elements is also very important. In artas whera lateral force resistance is not required by code, there is a com«only used detail where floor joists or roof rafters are "fire-cut" into

a masonry wall and anchored to the wall with a tee head se 1 f - re 1 eas i ng steel

anchor, usually 5/8 in or 3/4 in diameter. This anchor has a 90° bend which

is inserted into the side of the wood member. This is a good detail for fire

hazard since it allows a burned joist to fall and pivot without pulling in

the wall. However, this type of anchorage has very little value in transferring horizontal shear from floor to wall and is generally not accepted as

a satisfactory earthquake resistant anchorage detail unless supplemented by

other anchorage and shear transfer methods.

In many cases, it will not be possible to visually examine some of

these connections and anchorage details. The plans, if available, may show

these connection details. However, some clues may be available. For instance, the attic space may be accessible. If so, the connections of the

roof to the walls may be seen with a flashlight. If the roof rafters are "fire-cut" into the bearing masonry walls and anchored with the T head

anchors previously described, it is reasonable to assume that such walls

are not reinforced unless there is real evidence to the contrary. Any

information that can be obtained about the fastening of elements in the

roof and floor system should be noted on the forms. The ratings on Form

FMA-2 for "Anchorage and Connections (A)" are approximate, recognizing

the difficulty in a thorough evaluation without calculations.

The flexibility of diaphragms is quite important. A rigid diaphragm

will distribute horizontal forces to vertical resisting elements in proportion to the relative rigidities of those elements. A flexible diaphragm

cannot do this and the distribution of lateral forces is therefore dependent on the masses tributary to the vertical resisting elements. The diaphragms, if very flexible, could be insufficient support for the wall elements, permitting the walls to fail as cantilevers. However, actual damage

from lateral forces caused by flexible diaphragms has generally not been

sevtere. For this reason the lower limit of 2.5 on the Rigidity Rating (R)

has b»en used so as to reduce the importance of this factor in comparison with

other factors in the overall rating. Figure 3.4 illustrates the relative

effects of diaphragm stiffness on the distribution of lateral force to the

vertical elements, e.g. columns and shear walls.

3-11
RELATIVE RIGIDITIES

SCHEMATIC PLAN

FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM

Figure 3.4 Relative Effects of Diaphragm Stiffness

on Distribution of Lateral Forces to Vertical Resisting Members

3-12
For the Field Evaluation Method, where there will be no analytical

evaluation, reasonable approximations must be made as to rigidity. The

suggested classes of rigidity are as follows:

Diagonal wood sheathed floors or roofs.

Straight wood sheathed floors or roofs.

Corrugated iron roofing (screw fastened).

The existence of tension and compression chords for the diaphragm or horizontal bracing may or may not be easily determined by visual inspection.

In the case of a steel frame industrial type structure with exposed roof, the

steel members may be visible. In reinforced concrete buildings, a portion of

the exterior concrete wall near the floor line can act as a chord if reinforced. There will probably be some horizontal reinforcing steel, but without

plans the capacity of the chord is unknown. In such a case use a Chord

Rating (C) of 2. In masonry walls known to be unrei nf orced , it is probable

that no chord steel has been provided; in such a case use a Chord Rating of 3. In wood frame walls, where rafters or floor joists bear on a double plate, a chord can be formed by this double plate.

The Sub Rating (SR2) is assigned the highest individual rating as the

individual ratings of horizontal resisting elements are independent of one another.

Semi -Fl exi bl

Rigi d Semi -Rigid

Fl exi bl

Diaphragm of cast-i n-pl ace concrete.

Metal deck diaphragms with structural concrete topping.

Metal deck systems made up of one fluted element and

one flat element.

Pre-cast concrete elements with structural concrete

topping

Horizontal steel bracing.

Steel deck systems with insulating concrete fill.

Well blocked and nailed plywood.

Double diagonal sheathing or straight sheathing plus

diagonal sheathing.

Metal decks with fluted elements only.

Unblocked plywood.

3-13
C. Rating of Other Life Hazards - Earthquake (FMB Forms)

Forms FMB are provided for the evaluation of life hazards originating

from sources other than the basic structural systems. These ratings assess

the individual element hazard only. For the purpose of this method, the

following additional life hazards are considered:

Collapse of Exit Corridor or Stair Enclosure Walls.

Collapse of Other Partitions.

Glass Breakage

Falling Exterior Appendages or Units of Wall Cladding.

Excessive Gas Leakage.

Fal 1 i ng Cei 1 i ngs . Falling Light Fixtures.

Collapse of Exit Corridor or Stair Enclosure Walls (FMB-1)

If exit corridors or stairs are enclosed by brittle, unreinforced masonry wall elements, the wall elements may become badly cracked in a severe earthquake, particularly those which are tightly enclosed by the structural

frame. Sometimes they even appear to explode. This is the type of failure

that can occur where earthquake motions are parallel to the walls. Where

the earthquake forces are normal to the plane of the wall, the walls will

tend to bend as a slab. If they are incapable of taking tension, they could

fail in flexure. When walls are only of moderate height, the anchorage of

walls to frame elements could be critical. Failure of the anchorage could

allow a wall to topple over. Where the exit enclosure walls are well reinforced, they may crack

when subjected to severe earthquake motions. Because of the basketing

effect of the reinforcing steel, collapse is much less probable. The risk

of having a wall falling out to injure people or having debris clutter up

the exit way is reduced. The same comments apply to unreinforced and re- inforced concrete walls.

Exit way enclosure walls using metal studs and plaster may have some cracks, but there is a considerable basketing effect so that only small

portions would tend to fall. Thus the life hazard risk is considerably less.

The use of dry wall over metal studs forms a wall that can take some distortion. Some cracks may occur, usually at the dry wall joints and some fastenings may come loose. However, the life risk here is also comparatively low.

The fastening and support of the top and bottom tracks is important so that

the entire wall will not topple. Wood studs and plaster can take considerable distortion also and are considered in the low risk category as far as a hazard to occupants is concerned.

3-14
Collapse of Other Parti ti ons ( FMB-2

)

The same comments apply here as to exit corridor or stair enclosure

walls as to the causes of damage and type of damage expected. In buildings

where the vertical loads are supported by a standard frame system, however,

these "other partitions" are more likely to be non-bearing and removable.

In many cases they will be supported by the floor below and attached to the

ceiling but not to the structural floor above. The anchorages in both cases

are important to the stability of the partitions during an earthquake. This

is discussed under the "Falling Ceilings" hazard.

Glass Breakage ( FMB-2

)

Glass breakage can occur when the glazing and setting of the glass does

not permit sufficient movement of the enclosing structural frame relative to

the glass pane. For instance, if the story-to-story drift of a building

were 1/2 inch and the glass pane were of a height equal to half the story

height, a quarter inch of play in the glazing setting would be required.

Otherwise the glass will crack. Most of the glass breakage during earthquakes is caused by forces parallel to the plane of the glass. This is in

contrast to wind, where risk of breakage is a result of relatively higher

normal pressure and glass may break in flexure.

The Uniform Building Code (1973 edition) as published by International

Conference of Building Officials contains minimum glazing requirements,

shown here in table 3.1 [2.5]. These requirements are reproduced as a guide

to recommended hazard reduction requirements in areas where earthquakes are anticipated. If possible, the conformance to these provisions should be

determined where glass windows and doors are so located that breakage could

endanger life in public ways, exit corridors or stairs. Some typical details providing for drift are shown on figure 3.5.

Falling Exterior Appendages or Units of Wall CI addi ng ( FMB-2

)

Exterior appendages or wall cladding elements, unless properly anchored

to the basic structure, pose a high hazard to life if located above a public

way or other locations where people will normally congregate or pass. Exterior appendages may be architectural ornamentation of cast stone, precast

concrete, or terra cotta. These are relatively heavy. On the other hand, some may be made of sheet metal and be comparatively light. Wall cladding

may be heavy or light and composed of thin veneer or stone, clay products, or metal. The degree of hazard depends primarily on the anchorage which should

be able to resist lateral forces or motions which are a function of the

weight of the element, the flexibility of the frame, and the seismicity of

the area involved. Both spacing and strength of anchors should be determined. See table 3.2 for a listing of the probable type of anchorages to be

found for different wall cladding materials.

3-15
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3-16
CONTINUOUS

METAL STOP

FIXED

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GRIP

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GLASS EDGE

CLEARANCE

SEALANT MATERIAL

PANEL

OPERATING

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FIXED

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CLEARANCE

MULLIONS

JOINING CLIPS

NOT SHOWN

SEALANT

MATERIAL

HEAD DETAIL-SIMILAR

JAMB DETAIL A MULLION WITH FIXED

GLASS AND WALL PANEL

JAMB DETAIL B MULLION WITH FIXED GLASS

AND OPERATING SASH COMBINATION

FIXED GLASS

CONTINUOUS

METAL STOP

SETTING

BLOCKS

SEALANT MATERIAL

POLYETHYLENE

JOINT BACKING

DENSITY 1.8 TO 2.2

POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT

SILL DETAIL C

Figure 3.5 Typical Window Details

3-17
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3-18
Excessive Gas Leakage ( FMB-2

)

The breaking of gas lines during an earthquake can result in excessive

leaks which would lead to serious fires or explosions. Special automatic

gas shut-off valves have been developed for areas of high seismicity which,

if used, would mitigate this hazard. Flexible type connections just outside

a building are sometimes provided to minimize the risk of a rupture at that

point. A typical specification for earthquake valves reads as follows:

"Earthquake valves shall be furnished complete with remote manual

control. This control shall be mounted in an acceptable location

on the exterior of a building or meter enclosure 6 f t 0 i n above

grade and shall consist of continuous unspliced phosphor cable in

galvanized steel screw pipe with brass roller elbows at each change

of direction in the line."

The presence or absence of such connections should be noted.

Falling Ceiling (FMB-2)

Falling ceilings frequently have been a high hazard to life. As a building sways during an earthquake shock, a suspended ceiling may sway with its own natural period of vibration unless braced to walls or braced to structural floors with diagonal braces (usually wires). Where tee-bar system

members or rolled channels terminate at a wall or other structural member,

the attachment is frequently very loose and may easily slip off its support,

causing the adjacent ceiling area to drop. After observing damage to sus- pended ceilings in recent earthquakes, earthquake resistant recommendations

have been and are still being formulated to control this damage. Few

existing structures are provided with ceilings designed to meet these requirements.

As a rule of thumb, the present state-of-the-art requires that suspended

ceiling systems be provided with X-brace wire diagonals in addition to the

usual vertical wire hangers with the spacing of these wire hangers limited to

the X-bracing's ability to carry laterally 20% of the ceiling weight. The

ceiling weight should include the weight of light fixtures supported laterally by the ceiling system. Where removable or dejnountabl e partitions terminate at the ceiling they must also be stayed laterally by the ceiling system

and the lateral force should be added in when the adequacy of the bracing

system is analyzed. Where bracing is not used and the ceiling system members

are tied firmly to exterior walls or structural elements, the continuity of

ceiling framing members should be investigated as well as the end connections

to the walls.

3-19
Falling Light Fi xtures ( FMB-2

)

Heavy light fixtures should generally be independently supported from

the floor or roof above. Such fixtures will tend to sway and are actually

pendulums. Anchorage of lighting fixtures is described in chapter 13, page

8-11, of the Tri-Service Manual [3.1]. This is reproduced here.

Lighting Fixtures in Buildings : In addition to the requirements

of the preceding paragraphs, lighting fixtures and supports will

conform to the Standards for Safety L)L-57 and requirements given

herei naf ter

a . Materials and Construction

(1) Fixture supports will employ materials which are suitable for the purpose. Cast metal parts, other than those of

malleable iron, and cast or rolled threads will be subject to

special investigation to assure structural adequacy.

(2) Loop and hook or swivel hanger assemblies for pendent

fixtures shall be fitted with a restraining device to hold the

stem in the support position during earthquake motions. Pendent

supported fluorescent fixtures shall be provided with a flexible

hanger device at the attachment to the fixture channel to preclude breaking of the support. The motion of swivels or hinged

joints shall not cause sharp bends in conductors or damage to

insulation.

(3) Each recessed fluorescent individual or continuous row

of fixtures shall be supported by a seismic resistant suspended

ceiling support system and shall be bolted thereto at each corner

of the fixture; or shall be provided with fixture support wires for

individual fixtures and one wire per unit of continuous row of

fixtures.

(4) A supporting assembly which is intended to be mounted

on an outlet box will be designed to accommodate mounting features

on four-inch boxes, three-inch plaster rings, and fixed studs.

(5) Each surface mounted fluorescent individual or continuous row of fixtures shall be attached to a seismic resistant ceiling support system. Fixture support devices for attaching to sus- pended ceilings shall be a locking type scissor clamp or a full

loop band which will securely attach to the ceiling support.

Fixtures attached to underside of a structural slab shall be

properly anchored to the slab at each corner of the fixture.

(6) Each wall mounted emergency light unit shall be secured

in a manner to hold the unit in place during a seismic disturbance.

3-20
D. Rating of Building Resistance to Wind Hazards (FMC Forms)

The purpose of FMC Forms is to determine the capability of buildings to withstand wind forces that can reasonably be expected to occur in the particular area involved. A probable wind velocity will be assigned to individual areas by the user. This usually will be given in terms of anticipated wind

velocities at a height of 30 ft above ground level at a mean recurrence interval. Wind velocities can be varied by such factors as height above ground

and the exposure which considers the character of the environment. Research

on these items has given a basis for developing criteria for effective velocity pressures based on these factors. ANS I -A58 . 1 - 1 972 [3.2] (Articles 6.3.3,

6.3.4, 5.3.4.1, and 6.3.4.2) describes "Effective Velocity Pressure" and how

this pressure is varied by various factors. The exposure factor of course

has to be generalized. The height factor can perhaps be easily determined.

Section 3.4 of this chapter discusses in detail the factors affecting and the

methods of obtaining wind pressures. The reader is referred to that section

in addition to ANSI-A58.1 to supplement the comments made in this section.

Damage to a building is dependent on two basic considerations. One side

of the equation is the effective wind force, usually in terms of pressure,

positive or negative given in pounds per square foot of surface. On the other

side of the equation is the resistive capacity of the structure to lateral

forces and also to uplift forces on the roof created by the structure's shape.

ANS I -A58 . 1 - 1 972 is currently the most accepted source of design criteria

for winds other than tornadoes. For the purpose of this report, this publication will be referred to for use in the evaluation of buildings subjected

to wind hazards. Subsequent editions of ANSI-A58.1 would supersede these

criteria if and when adopted. The publication gives criteria, curves, charts,

and formulas for the design of structures subjected to severe winds. These

criteria will be used in the evaluation of possible damage to structures by

the Approximate and Detailed Analytical Methods. Criteria other than 1972

ANSI may be used but should be clearly noted on the forms.

3-21
For structures to be evaluated by the Field Evaluation Method, certain

simplification must be made. The basic factors which can vary the effect of

wind forces on structures are:

9 Exposure

9 Height

9 Degree of Enclosure

9 Weight and Foundation Anchorage

9 Shape Factor

For simplicity all but shape factors should be considered in the formulation

of a Field Evaluation Method rating.

Rating of Structural Systems - Wind (FMC-1)

This type of evaluation is limited by the information that can be collected by a field team without major calculations. The necessary information

on structures for the Field Evaluation Method for both wind and earthquake is to be obtained from the DC Form. The evaluation is done on Form FMC-1.

The rating system used for structural systems in resisting earthquakes

can be used also for wind because the rating is a measure of a building's

ability to resist lateral forces. In the case of wind, in addition to lateral pressures, there are factors which involve high suction or uplift forces

on the roofs of light buildings, overhanging roofs, roof anchorage, and an- chorage to foundation and internal pressure. Internal pressures are greatly

affected by the degree of building enclosure. The distribution of openings

in the walls and the location of openings on windward, leeward, or side

walls will also be important factors in determining actual internal

press ures

The rating of the structural system is given in the form of a ratio of

the design unit wind pressure to an effective capacity unit pressure.

The "Effective Unit Velocity Pressure (P^.)" is given in pounds per

square foot for each of the "Corrected Structural Ratings." Obviously,

without calculation, these capacity ratings will be very approximate. They

are based on experience, judgment and previous calculations made on various

types of buildings.

A "Corrected Structural Rating" is determined by taking the highest

numerical rating of the "Foundation Anchorage" factor, "Roof Anchorage"

factor, or the "Basic Structural Rating" since these factors affect the

building's capacity to resist wind independently.

3-22
In buildings subjected to high velocity winds, the entire building may

have net uplift forces on the connections to the foundations. This may be

quite critical in buildings with little weight to resist the uplift. An

approximate estimate of the building weight will be needed to determine this

factor. The roof must be adequately anchored to resist uplift forces which

may exceed the weight of the roof.

Calculations for enclosure factors are beyond the scope of the Field Evaluation Method. An approximation of the degree of enclosure should be obtained from the DC Form. In unenclosed buildings or partially enclosed

buildings, the uplift factor on the roof may be very severe and the "Foundation" and "Roof Anchorage" factors noted on FMC-1 should be increased num- erically by half a point. The major problem involved with unenclosed or partially enclosed buildings is the anchorage of roof to vertical supports

and the anchorage of wall elements. Where this anchorage is questionable

or cannot be confirmed by original design computations, a review by the

Approximate Analytical Method should be made.

Rating of Other Life Hazards - Wind (FMC-2)

During extremely high winds, special hazards to life may be caused by

such phenomena as breaking glass, wind borne objects which in effect be- come missiles, and/or the tearing loose of roof panels, exterior wall

panels, wall cladding or ornamental exterior appendages.

Glass in exterior walls or skylights is subjected to direct wind pressure. In a direction normal to the surface this can be much greater than

earthquake forces which are a function of the weight of the glass itself.

Therefore, the strength of the glass, as well as its anchorage is of utmost

importance in evaluating the wind hazard. In the direction parallel to the

plane of the glass, the critical item is the distortion of the enclosing

frame. In a flexible structure, the glass may crack up unless the attachment to the frame allows for such distortion through the use of resilient

materials or a space allowance. The size of pane should be checked with

respect to these provisions.

Missile damage has been recorded in many high wind occurrences. Wind

has been known to pick up gravel from roofs and even relatively heavy

objects. The effects of such flying objects can be severe, such as when

the point of impact is a glass panel on the exterior of a building.

3-23
For structures to be evaluated by the Field Evaluation Method, certain

simplification must be made. The basic factors which can vary the effect of

wind forces on structures are:

9 Exposure

• Height

• Degree of Enclosure

• Weight and Foundation Anchorage

0 Shape Factor

For simplicity all but shape factors should be considered in the formulation

of a Field Evaluation Method rating.

Rating of Structural Systems - Wind (FMC-1)

This type of evaluation is limited by the information that can be collected by a field team without major calculations. The necessary information

on structures for the Field Evaluation Method for both wind and earthquake is

to be obtained from the DC Form. The evaluation is done on Form FMC-1.

The rating system used for structural systems in resisting earthquakes

can be used also for wind because the rating is a measure of a building's

ability to resist lateral forces. In the case of wind, in addition to lateral pressures, there are factors which involve high suction or uplift forces

on the roofs of light buildings, overhanging roofs, roof anchorage, and an- chorage to foundation and internal pressure. Internal pressures are greatly

affected by the degree of building enclosure. The distribution of openings

in the walls and the location of openings on windward, leeward, or side

walls will also be important factors in determining actual internal

press ures

The rating of the structural system is given in the form of a ratio of

the design unit wind pressure to an effective capacity unit pressure.

The "Effective Unit Velocity Pressure (P^.)" is given in pounds per

square foot for each of the "Corrected Structural Ratings." Obviously,

without calculation, these capacity ratings will be very approximate. They

are based on experience, judgment and previous calculations made on various

types of buildings.

A "Corrected Structural Rating" is determined by taking the highest

numerical rating of the "Foundation Anchorage" factor, "Roof Anchorage"

factor, or the "Basic Structural Rating" since these factors affect the

building's capacity to resist wind independently.

3-22
In buildings subjected to high velocity winds, the entire building may

have net uplift forces on the connections to the foundations. This may be

quite critical in buildings with little weight to resist the uplift. An

approximate estimate of the building weight will be needed to determine this

factor. The roof must be adequately anchored to resist uplift forces which

may exceed the weight of the roof.

Calculations for enclosure factors are beyond the scope of the Field Evaluation Method. An approximation of the degree of enclosure should be obtained from the DC Form. In unenclosed buildings or partially enclosed

buildings, the uplift factor on the roof may be very severe and the "Foundation" and "Roof Anchorage" factors noted on FMC-1 should be increased num- erically by half a point. The major problem involved with unenclosed or parti al ly end osed buildings is the anchorage of roof to vertical supports

and the anchorage of wall elements. Where this anchorage is questionable

or cannot be confirmed by original design computations, a review by the

Approximate Analytical Method should be made.

Rating of Other Life Hazards - Wind (FMC-2)

During extremely high winds, special hazards to life may be caused by

such phenomena as breaking glass, wind borne objects which in effect be- come missiles, and/or the tearing loose of roof panels, exterior wall

panels, wall cladding or ornamental exterior appendages.

Glass in exterior walls or skylights is subjected to direct wind pressure. In a direction normal to the surface this can be much greater than

earthquake forces which are a function of the weight of the glass itself.

Therefore, the strength of the glass, as well as its anchorage is of utmost

importance in evaluating the wind hazard. In the direction parallel to the

plane of the glass, the critical item is the distortion of the enclosing

frame. In a flexible structure, the glass may crack up unless the attachment to the frame allows for such distortion through the use of resilient

materials or a space allowance. The size of pane should be checked with

respect to these provisions.

Missile damage has been recorded in many high wind occurrences. Wind

has been known to pick up gravel from roofs and even relatively heavy

objects. The effects of such flying objects can be severe, such as when

the point of impact is a glass panel on the exterior of a building.

3-23
Roof panels are subjected to frequent high uplift pressures during

winds. When not securely fastened down, individual light roof panels can

be torn loose and become flying missiles. Exterior wall panels, cladding

and ornamental appendages may be subjected to severe positive or negative

pressures. If the attachments are not adequate to resist the forces resulting from these pressures, such elements may also become flying missiles.

Where such elements occur adjacent to a public way, they can be especially

hazardous

E . Rating of Building Resistance to Tornado Hazards (FMD Form)

Tornadoes, although having some statistical influence on the climatology records on which design winds speeds are based, pose special difficulties because of their short-time duration, small radial extent, and

wide-range of maximum forces. The effective radial extent of a tornado

may be less than a few hundred feet and is usually less than a mile.

Tangential wind speeds of 200 miles per hour are probable. The pressure

drop may be as much as 2 to 2.5 p.s.i. [3.3]. In the immediate path of

a tornado, these wind pressures, both vertical and tangential can be

devastating to certain types of buildings. Suction forces in the order

of 400 lbs per square foot have been observed [3.3]. Obviously such

uplift forces can pick up very heavy objects and pull a roof off a building.

3-24
Comments on the Use of FMD Rating Form

Damage from tornadoes has been most severe to small, light buildings;

although, tall, flexible, and heavier buildings have sustained some severe

structural damage. The most extensive damage to buildings has been to roofs

and exterior cladding, including glass. This includes damage from wind

blown debris. For the Field Evaluation Method, with the present state-of-theart, a bad risk rating must be given to small, light buildings. A medium

risk rating to small, heavy buildings, and to large, multi-story buildings

that could be rated high in wind resistance or earthquake resistance. A good

rating can only be given to heavy vault-like structures or structures known

to have been designed for tornadoes under the criteria given by the Atomic

Energy Commission. Very few buildings have actually been designed to resist

tornadoes. Since 1967 the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) has required designers of nuclear reactor facilities to carefully consider the effects of

tornadoes on such facilities and have developed design criteria for this

[3.4]. These criteria are very severe and would impose large additional

costs on an average commercial building.

For the Field Evaluation Method considerable judgment must be exercised. For the building as a whole, the evaluation for wind is made on Form FMC. Tornado velocities can be much higher than other wind velocities

but the capability of a building to resist high wind or hurricane velocities gives us some comparison. The "P^" as determined for wind is used as a basis for tornado evaluation. The highest rating given based on the com- parison is "Fair." However, there are certain vault-like buildings which

are inherently highly resistant to tornadoes. For the purpose of this method a vault-type building is defined as a building with a length-width ratio

and a height-width ratio of two or less which has exterior walls of reinforced

concrete or reinforced masonry and a reinforced pou red- i n- pi ace concrete roof

with not over 15% of the area of the walls or roof having openings.

The hazards from flying debris originating outside the facility can only be roughly evaluated. There are two sources of damage: one is from

debris originating outside the building; the other is from elements of the

building itself, such as broken glass, loose cladding, and appendages.

3-25
The path of a tornado cannot be predicted. The facility in question

may be protected by surrounding structures but these surrounding structures

themselves may have cladding or appendages which may be potential wind-blow

missiles if a tornado moves through the area. In a lightly built-up

area, the proximity of storage yards for such things as lumber, masonry

units, and even automobiles may create a hazard for buildings.

The DC Form includes a space for comment on the availability of loose material in the nearby area that could be airborne in a tornado and for obvious

looseness of cladding or appendages on nearby buildings. Ratings for this

type of hazard for the Field Evaluation Method can be given as large hazards

or small hazards only. The data collectors will not be expected to survey

all structures or all areas within, say, a quarter mile of the facilities.

The hazards from broken glass, loose appendages, or cladding originating in the building itself are similar to those discussed in wind evaluation, but the forces produced by tornadoes can be much greater. The criteria set up for anchorage of appendages and cladding will not protect from

tornadoes. Neither will the criteria for wind set up for glass, glazing,

and window frame anchorage. Localized pressures of over 250 p.s.f. positive

or negative may occur in tornadoes and this will break most glass or blow

it out or in.

The FMD Form has a space for noting the availability of basements for

emergency storm shelters. Since tornadoes move laterally up to, say, 60

miles per hour, the duration of use for such a shelter is short. The form

merely notes the presence or absence of such a basement and the capacity

based on 15 square feet per person. Basements of buildings having heavy

concrete ground floor slabs are potentially good emergency storm shelters

for tornadoes. This is true even if the superstructure is heavily damaged.

The DC Form has spaces for noting this information. The basement should be

dry and not contain hazardous equipment such as those in a transformer vault

or highly flam able materials in large quantities.

3-26
F . Resume of Ratings - Structural Systems - Capacity Ratios (FME Form)

Form FME takes data from Forms FMA-1 , FMA-2 and FMC-1 to determine "Capacity Ratios." The "General Rating" for earthquake is weighted with "SubRating (SRI)" and "Sub-Rating (SR2)" to arrive at the "Basic Structural

Rating.

Reference is made on Form FME to the Modified Mercalli Scale. This scale

is a measure of ground motion intensity at a particular location. Other

scales have been used or are being proposed. However, the Modified Mercalli

Scale is the most commonly used at the present time. Table 2.1 presents a summary of the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI). On Form FME the re- lation of Intensity Level Factors to Modified Mercalli Scale is based on judgment and interpretation of the Modified Mercalli Scale. The "Basic Structrual Rating" is compared to the "Intensity Level Factor" to obtain the

"Capacity Ratio" for earthquakes. The "Capacity Ratio" for wind is taken

directly from FMC-1. For capacity ratios greater than 1.5 on important buildings, an evaluation using either the Approximate or Detailed Analytical Method

should be made.

Table 2.1 should be used to select MMI intensity. The reader may find it

helpful for his particular region of the United States to relate UBC Seismic

Risk Zone ratings with general MMI intensity levels. Figure 2,3 and table 3.3

should assist in such a characterization.

Table 3.3 UBC SEISMIC RISK. ZONES AND MMI INTENSITIES

UBC Seismic Risk Zone

(see Figure 2.3)

Modified Mercalli

Intensity (MMI)

0

3

1

2

below V, no damage

V and VI, minor damage

VII, moderate damage

VIII or higher, major damage

3-27
3.3 APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

A . Introduction

The approximate analytical procedures are developed in this section.

The capability of an existing building to resist natural hazards is evaluated by determining stress ratios of critical structural and nonstructural

elements. These stress ratios are the ratios of the stresses produced

by the loading to limiting stresses of the critical building elements. This

method can be used only when plans and personnel capable of making structural

calculations are available. If original calculations are available, the

method becomes a checking procedure. If not, new calculations must be made.

The procedures for calculations are described later in this section. This

method gives more accurate results than the Field Evaluation Method. It can usually be done by hand calculation, although computer programs may be used

if available. The Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method in general, does

not include the use of a dynamic analysis except in special cases.

B . Rating of Building for Resistance to Earthquake Hazards

Information Necessary for the Method

The establishment of the seismicity for any given site will be selected

by the user. This seismicity may be determined in several different ways.

If they can be obtained, the recurrence rate and probability of occurrence

at the site for earthquakes originating along various faults at varying distances from the site should be taken into consideration to establish the

appropriate level of seismic motions. The seismicity factor may be simply

that specified on macrozoned maps, it may be determined from an assumed site

earthquake intensity, or by one of several methods as described later.

It is assumed that detailed construction plans are available for review

and that these plans have been verified roughly by a field team and that the

Data Collection Form, see Appendix A, has been completed. This field verification will show whether additions or major changes have been made since

the plans were produced. If changes have been made, plans showing these

changes should be obtained to show the "as-built" conditions.

3-28
If possible, the original structural calculations should be obtained.

In areas where seismic design is required by governmental authorities, such

calculations will be of valuable assistance in the evaluation of the earthquake hazard. In other areas where there are no seismic requirements, calcu

lations may cover only vertical load design, or possibly vertical load plus

wind. Even these will aid in the evaluation.

A soils report may be available giving recommended bearing pressures,

or pile capacities. If such a report is not avai 1 able .the adequacy of the

foundation design may be roughly estimated by the test of time. Thus, if

the building shows no evidence of settlement damage over a period of several

years and has been subjected to probable weather hazards, the foundation design criteria originally used was probably adequate, at least for vertical

loads. If there is evidence of settlement, which usually shows up in diagonal cracks in walls or partitions, the foundation design criteria will be

questionable and additional data should be obtained. If no foundation, or

soil report is available, information possibly may be obtained from soils

investigation of adjoining properties, or from the local building officials.

Criteria for the Method

The criteria used for the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method will

be an appropriate building code. Any building code containing compatible load

and resistance functions may be used. However, the explicit code used herein

will be the 1973 Edition of the Uniform Building Code [2.5], Specifically,

Chapter 23 of the code relating to earthquake design and Chapters 24, 25, 26,

27 and 28 giving allowable working stresses and design criteria for masonry,

timber, concrete, steel and iron, and aluminum respectively.

Limitations of the Method

A more complex type of evaluation called Detailed Analytical Evaluation

Method is given in section 3.4. In that method the seismicity of the particular area will be determined using a predetermined base rock motion modified

by the dynamic amplification of the soil. The surface ground motion will be

found in terms of maximum velocity, acceleration, and displacement. From

this, elastic spectral response curves for single degree of freedom masses

are derived and plotted. Modified spectra are developed for the effects of

variations in damping and inelastic behavior. Thus, if the dynamic characteristics of the structure are known (including the damping) the acceleration,

velocity and displacement of each mode can be determined.

3-29
For multi-degree of freedom systems, the participation of each mode is

determined and these are superimposed to arrive at the building response.

In the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method, these types of dynamic

analyses, in general, will not be used. However, if the site data are available, say from a complete analysis of an adjoining building, a procedure is

provided in the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method to make use of this

information for site seismicity. Also, the mode shapes of the building may

be needed if the building is highly irregular in the mass to stiffness ratios

of adjoining stories as described later.

Base shears as computed using 1973 UBC [2.5] specified values in the

various zones are less than would be determined by the more explicit dynamic

methods but is compensated for by the use of working stresses in material

resistances. Dynamic response of a structure has been simulated in the 1973

UBC by the use of a triangular distribution of base shears and by varying these

base shears with the natural period of the building. Experience has shown

that most buildings designed by UBC criteria have come through earthquakes

satisfactorily. The philosophy in seismic design is expressed by the

Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) in their recommendations that structures designed in conformance with the provisions and principles set forth in the SEAOC Code [3.6] (incorporated in the UBC seismic

design criteria) should be able to:

• Resist minor earthquakes without damage.

a Resist moderate earthquakes without structural damage but with

some non structural damage.

• Resist major earthquakes of the intensity or severity of the

strongest experienced in California, without collapse, but with

some structural damage as well as non structural damage.

The 1973 UBC criteria does not include an explicit parameter for the

influence of the supporting soils in the base shear formula. In the

n R formula C = - ,((14-2) on page 128 of 1 973 UBC), arbitrary methods

of computing T fre^permi tted to be used or "properly substantiated technical

data may be submitted." In Formula (14-1) on the same page of 1973 UBC,

V = ZKCW, the selection of values for K recognize variations in response of

different types of buildings and lateral force resistant systems. These

are judgment factors reflecting expearience and evaluation of the performance

of structures in major and moderate earthquakes.

3-30
The distribution of forces throughout the height of the structure is

primarily a triangular distribution of forces which approaches the dynamic

response of uniform multi-degree of freedom systems. Deviations from this

distribution for very flexible type buildings are recognized by the inclusion of a portion of the base shear as a special force applied to the top

level designated F^.

There are computer programs for checking moment-resistant frames for

lateral forces. If it is not desired to use such a computer check there are several hand calculation methods frequently used. The Structural Engineering

Handbook by Gaylord and Gaylord, 1968 Edition, [3.7] describes such methods

as the portal method and the cantilever method in which the relative stiffness of columns and girders is disregarded. The more accurate moment distribution method is also mentioned. In this book reference is also made to

the Spurr, Goldberg, and Grinter metnods which add certain refinements.

Another reference is the Theory of Modern Steel Structures, Volume II,

Chapter 6, by Grinter, [3.8] which gives several methods for analyzing

rigid frames subjected to lateral forces. The method most consistent with

the degree of accuracy required for the facility being investigated should

be used.

The earthquake effects on a structure that are evaluated using the

Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method procedures are those resulting from

shaking. Not evaluated are the earthquake effects which produce foundation

settlements or failures, ground lurching or liquefaction, surface trace of

earth faulting, failure of the slope beneath the structure, tsunamis, seiches,

or inundation resulting from dam or reservoir failure.

Commentary on Setbacks and Dynamic Irregularities

Forces on irregular structures are covered in 2314(d)l on page 128 of

1973 UBC in Exception 2 to Equation 14-2 as follows:

"Buildings or structures which have highly irregular

shapes, large differences in lateral resistance or stiffness between different stories or other unusual structural

features affecting seismic response shall be designed

for forces which their dynamic properties induce.

Setbacks are covered in 2314(i), page 130 of the same code and states^

"Buildings having setbacks wherein the plan dimension

of the tower in each direction is at least 75 percent

of the corresponding plan dimension of the lower part

may be considered as a uniform building without setbacks

for the purpose of determining seismic forces."

3-31
"For other conditions of setbacks the tower shall

be designed as a separate building using the larger

of the seismic coefficients at the base of the tower

determined by considering the tower as either a separate building for its own height or as part of the

overall structure. The resulting total shear from

the tower shall be applied at the top of the lower

part of the building which shall be otherwise con- sidered separately for its own height.

EXCEPTION: Nothing in this subsection

shall be deemed to prohibit the submission

of properly substantiated technical data

for establishing the lateral design

forces by a dynamic analysis."

For the purpose of this evaluation, at least the first three mode

shapes and periods for irregular buildings over two stories are required to

be determined. The first step is to determine the mass and stiffness associated with each story. Next, the periods and mode shapes are determined

using standard equations and procedures. This step can be very difficult

and time-consuming to perform by the hand methods. Computer solutions, see section 3.4Eor [3.9]. are readily available and should be used. Modal participation factors can be determined after the mode shapes are known. These

frequently are part of the computer program, but can be easily done by hand.

Using this information and the prescribed base shear from the code, the

shear distribution of the lateral forces can be determined.

Commentary on Diaphragms

Floor and roof systems can function as diaphragms to distribute horizontal forces to vertical resisting elements. These functional characteristics

are discussed in the Tri-Service Manual "Seismic Design for Buildings" [3.1,

section 2]. Portions of this are presented here to illustrate items to be

considered in analysis of diaphragms.

3-32
"2-04. DIAPHRAGMS : Horizontal forces at any floor or roof

level may be distributed to the vertical resisting elements by

using the strength and rigidity of the floor or roof deck as a diaphragm. A diaphragm may be considered analogous to a plate

girder laid in a horizontal (or inclined in the case of a roof)

plane where the floor or roof deck performs the function of

the plate girder web, the joints or beams function as web

stiffners, and the peripheral beams or integral reinforcement

function as flanges. A diaphragm may be constructed of materials such as concrete, wood, or metal in various forms. Combinations of materials are possible. Working stresses for such

materials as cast-in-place reinforced concrete and structural

steel are well-known and present no problem to the designer

once the loading and reaction system is known. Other materials

frequently used to support vertical loads in floors or roofs have

well established vertical load characteristics but have required

tests to demonstrate their ability to resist lateral forces.

Various types of wood sheathing and steel decks fall in this

category. Where a diaphragm is made up of units such a plywood,

precast concrete floor units or steel deck units, its characteristics are, to a large degree, dependent upon the attachments of one unit to another and to the supporting members (see figure 3.6).

a. Seismic Loadings . Floors and roofs used as diaphragms

will be designed for a lateral force of F = ZC„W„ acting in

^ P P P any direction unless a greater force is required by the basic

seismic formula V = ZKCW (see figure 3.7).

b. Distribution of Seismic Forces . The total shear

(F or V) at any level will be distributed to the various

vertical elements of the lateral force resisting system

(shear walls or moment-resisting frames) in proportion to

their rigidities considering the rigidity of the diaphragm.

The effect of diaphragm stiffness on the distribution of

lateral forces is discussed and schematically illustrated

in figure 3.4. For this purpose, diaphragms are classified

into four groups of relative flexibilities. These are rigid,

semi-rigid, semi -f 1 exi bl e and flexible diaphragms. No diaphragm is actually infinitely rigid and no diaphragm capable of carrying a load is infinitely flexible.

(1). A rigid diaphragm is assumed to distribute

horizontal forces to the vertical resisting elements

in proportion to their relative rigidities. In other

words, under symmetrical loading a rigid diaphragm will cause each vertical element to deflect an equal amount

with the result that a vertical element with a high

relative rigidity will resist a greater proportion of

the lateral force than an element with a lower rigidity

factor

3-33
Floor Slab (Web)

Spandrel Beam

or Wall (Flange)

(Flange)

Depth

FLOOR SLAB DIAPHRAGM

Roof Decking (Web)

Depth

ROOF DECK DIAPHRAGM

() (Flange) ( Flange

)

Horizontal truss in plane of lower

chord used as a diaphragm

Depth

P

TRUSS DIAPHRAGM

Figure 3.6 Structural Diaphragms

3-34
(Loads generated by inertia of end wall

mass, between mid floor-to-floor heights)

t f t t t t f

I fH

Fp^(Load generated by partition)^

F (Loads generated by permanent parts such

^ as the deck and equipment plus any transient live load that would reasonably be

expected to be on the deck at time of

any earthquake)

NOTE: Generally, it is assumed that the in-plane mass of a shear wall does

not contribute to the diaphragm loading unless the shear wall is interrupted

at the specific level. In case a shear wall does not extend below the floor

level, both its horizontal and vertical loads must be distributed to the

remaining walls. Of course, major differences in rigidities may be cause

for redistribution.

Figure 3.7 Diaphragm Loading
(2) . A flexible diaphragm is analogous to a shear

deflecting continuous beam or series of beams spanning

between supports. The supports are considered non-yielding as the relative stiffness of the vertical resisting

elements compared to that of the diaphragm is great. Thus

a flexible diaphragm will be considered to distribute

the lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements

on a tributary load basis. A flexible diaphragm will

not be considered capable of distributing torsional

stresses resulting from concrete or masonry masses.

(3) . Semi-rigid and semi -f 1 exi b1 e diaphragms are those which have significant deflection under load but

which also have sufficient stiffness to distribute a portion of their load to vertical elements in proportion to the rigidities of the vertical resisting elements. The action is analogous to a continuous concrete

beam system of appreciable stiffness on yielding supports. The support reactions are dependent on the

vertical elements. A rigorous analysis is sometimes

very time-consuming and frequently unjustified by the

results; at best, the results are no better than the

assumptions that must be made. In such cases a design

based on reasonable limits may be used; however, the

calculations must reasonably bracket the likely range

of reactions and deflections.

(4) . Torsional moment is generated whenever the

center of gravity (eg) of the lateral forces fails to

coincide with the center of rigidity (cr) of the vertical resisting elements, providing the diaphragm is

sufficiently rigid to transfer torsion. The magnitude

of the torsional moment that is required to be distributed to the vertical resisting elements by a diaphragm

is determined by the sum of the moments created by the

physical eccentricity of the trans 1 ati onal forces at

the level of the diaphragm from the center of rigidity

of the resisting elements (Mj = ^p^> where e = distance

between eg and cr) and the "accidental" torsion of 5%.

The "accidental" torsion is an arbitrary code requirement

equivalent to the story shear action with an eccentricity

of not less than 5% of the maximum building dimension

at that level. The torsional distribution by the more rigid diaphragms to the resisting elements will be

assumed to be in proportion to the stiffness of the

elements and its distance from the center of rigidity.

Negative torsional shears will be neglected. The more flexible diaphragms will not distribute torsional shears.

Cantilever diaphragms on the other hand will distribute

transl ati onal forces to vertical resisting elements,

even if the diaphragm is flexible. In this case, the

diaphragm and its chord act as a flexural beam on supports

(vertical resisting elements) whose resistance is in the same direction as the forces, see figure 3.8.

3-36
NO ROTATION ON DIAPHRAGM

Negative torsional shears

ROTATION ON DIAPHRAGM

Negative torsional shears

i I

CANTILEVER DIAPHRAGM

Figure 3.8 Torsional Force Considerations

3-37
c. Diaphragm Deflections . A diaphragm should be capable

of providing such stiffness and strength so that walls and other

vertical elements laterally supported by the diaphragm can safely sustain the stresses induced by the response to seismic

motion. The total computed deflection (A^) of the diaphragms

under the prescribed static seismic forces consists of the sum of two components. The first component is the flexural

deflection (^^) of 'the diaphragm which is determined in the same manner as the deflection of beams. The assumption that

flexural stresses on the diaphragm web are neglected will be

used except for reinforced concrete slabs. For such slabs the

proportional flexural stresses also may be assumed to be

carried by the web. The second component is the web deflection (A^) of the diaphragm. The specific nature of the web

deflection will vary depending on the type of diaphragm.

The deflection of the diaphragm under the prescribed static

forces will be used as the criteria for the adequacy of the

stiffness of a diaphragm. The limitation on deflection is

the allowable amount prescribed for the relative deflection

(drift) of the walls between the level of the diaphragm and

the floor below. In design a limitation imposed on diaphragms supporting flexible walls is a maximum span-todepth ratio, see table 3.4.

d. Flexibility Limitations . The determination and limitations of the deflections of a diaphragm is a design function.

The deflections of some diaphragms can be computed with rea- sonable accuracy. However, other diaphragms have characteristic and fabrication variables making an accurate solution of

deflection characteristics meaningless. Thus the methods

of determination of the deflection characteristics for diaphragms of all materials given herein will be used to keep

the range of diaphragm deflections within reasonable limits.

In order to provide a means of properly classifying and

identifying the stiffness of a diaphragm web, the factor "F" will be introduced. -

F (3.3.1)

where

L Distance in ft. between vertical resisting

element (such as shear wall) and the point

to which the deflection is to be determined.

q a ve Average shear in diaphragm in pounds per ft. over length L-, .

A,w Web component of A

3-38
CDa:c

o.I—

Q

z:o

z:oI—

1—I—

X

CO

<u -Q

QJ 0

at

s-

(/)

<u

QJ , , 1 (/) JZ

rT3 4-> JD I/) OsJ CO CM Q.

cu

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x: 0

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4-> <u - E 4-> 1— Its +J +-> CM r— E s_ CD

CC S- 3:

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u_ 4J 4J ro

•r- SC CD (O sz

(/) -C >, 0 C I/) JZ. 4J

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(/) "r—

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O ro o c rO 4-> 0 s_ (— -t- •1- O E 0 •r- C*- (U Q 40 1 CU 4J 1— O 0 +-> +J 1

ro ro +J tt , , CM cu - 1— E

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c: c s_

C E a o o o rO 0 "O cr <— >>'—

C CU 0) 1 1 +J cu C 1

CL CU 0 -o

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(U 00 S- 1 1 VI •f- x> CLX3 10 0 U- <u o rO ro S- CO o> CU c/) 3 0 CJ

_J 1— 0 5Z 1

CU ro 4J 0

<c

>- ro r— SI x: 0 UJ h- X

TD 3 CO 3 (/) 2: C>0 _i >- d) cu cn

1—1 cc

CD

O u_ CC CM ro

^-1 CD 1 -0 X UJ

UJ H- ex E E CD te —1 <c OJ O! 0

u_ o Ll. (/I

3-39
Conversely, the web deflection will be determined by the equation

~ 10^ (3.3.2)

Using the factor F, the flexibility categories of diaphragm webs

have designated values as prescribed in table 3.4. The span-depth

limitations do not directly reflect deflections. But, if the

diaphragm is designed within the proper ratio, the deflection

requirements will be considered to be met unless an unusual

building layout is used wherein deflection criteria would

become critical.

Floor and roof diaphragms may be of poured-i n-pl ace concrete, wood with

diagonal or plywood sheathing, metal decks with or without structu'ral con- crete topping, precast concrete units a poured- i n

- pi ace topping and, in the case of roofs, a cast-i n-pl ace gypsum deck. Horizontal steel bracing systems

are sometimes used. These are commented on in the next few paragraphs.

Design examples of these can be found in the Tri-Service Manual [3.1].

Poured-i n-pl ace concrete floors or roofs can be analyzed in accordance

with Chapter 26 of UBC. Flexural stresses in the diaphragm resisted by chord

elements should be analyzed. For instance, in a rectangular building where

the vertical resisting elements are in the exterior walls, there may be con- crete beams acting as supports for vertical loads, plus functioning concurrently as a horizontal diaphragm chord. The reinforcing steel stress should

be checked for the combination of these two functions. Reinforcement around

openings in concrete diaphragms should be checked for adequacy to carry diaphragm shears and bending moments. Minor holes frequently can be ignored in

their effect on diaphragm capacity.

Where a stairwell is adjacent to a shear wall, the interface between

diaphragm slab and shear wall is reduced in length and should be checked for

shear. The transfer of forces from the concrete diaphragm to interior shear

walls or vertical bracing elements walls should be checked. Special tiestruts developed into such shear walls and diaphragms are sometimes required

for this transfer.

Where a vertical resisting element occurs in an upper story but is not

present in the same location in the story below, the diaphragm must be able

to transfer the horizontal force from the upper element to a lower element

inanotherplanlocation.

3-40
For wood diaphragms the allowable stresses and shape limitations of

various types are given in paragraph 5-07 of the Tri-Service Manual and in

Section 2514 of the 1973 UBC.

There are many types of metal deck diaphragms . There are different con- figurations, gauges and fastening patterns. Allowable stresses in metal

decks acting as diaphragms have generally been determined by tests and

special approvals have been given for most of the commonly used decks by

building code authorities based on these tests. In most cases the deck

manufacturer has published the diaphragm shears approved by such agencies.

The governing building agency for the area involved may be contacted for

such values or special approvals [3.10]. For example, the International

Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) will furnish these on request [3.10].

Formulas for computing metal deck diaphragm shear values may be found in

paragraph 5-05 of the Tri-Service Manual. Metal decks with concrete topping

slabs are also covered therein.

Precast concrete floor diaphragms units such as concrete plank, concrete

tees or double tees are frequently used as floor construction. The diaphragm resistance of such units depends on the connections between units and

their supporting elements and the connections to the diaphragm strut and tie

elements, where no structural topping slab is used. Some tests have been

made on such assemblies with considerable variations in attachment technique.

These can be verified with the fabricator and usually confirmed with the

governing code agency in the area involved. (ICBO will do this on request.)

[3.10] Where a structural cast-in-place concrete topping is used, such con- crete topping may be considered as a diaphragm slab provided it is reinforced with steel qualifying at least as temperature reinforcement.

Shear values for cast-in-place gypsum diaphragms are given in Paragraph

5-05 of the Tri-Service Manual or in the UBC Standards [2.5]. Typical

details of this type of construction are also shown in the Tri-Service

Manual on PI ate 5-5-1 .

3-41
Steel horizontal bracing systems may be analyzed as a truss. It may be

continuous over several supports. Care should be taken that horizontal forces

are delivered to vertical resisting elements at truss bracing panel points.

Commentary on Masonry or Concrete Walls

In computing the relative stiffness for analyzing the distribution of

shears to vertical resisting elements, masonry or concrete walls (whether

infill walls, curtain walls, or bearing walls) must not be ignored. Some

buildings have been designed without considering masonry or concrete filler

walls, assuming all lateral resistance to be supplied by the structural frame.

This will not happen until the filler walls are severely damaged. All masonry

or concrete walls should be checked to assure stresses will not exceed the

allowable design stress, see figure 3.9. Where such walls are not isolated

but are bounded by elements of the structural frame, they must deflect with

the structural frame. In so doing, they assume a portion of the total resistance to lateral forces. This portion may be a relatively high percentage

depending on the size and location of such walls. The difference between the

lateral force resisting behavior of a structural frame and the combination of

a structural frame and infill wall is illustrated in figure 3.10. Test results

[3.62] indicate the drastic difference between the behavior of frames without

filler walls and those with filler walls. Frames with filler walls were con- siderably stronger and stiffer than frames without walls. They were also much

less ductile. The tests by Fiorato et. al.[3.62] also describe the influence

of frame reinforcement, size, shape and location of wall openings, etc. on the

behavior of frames with filler walls. Thus, when the walls are not considered

in the design, the entire distribution of resistance to lateral forces may be

different than that assumed.

Methods for computing the deflections of concrete and masonry walls, including a design aid chart, are shown in Section 6 of the Tri-Service Manual,

a portion of which follows for ease of reference [3.1].

3-42
SAMPLE COMPUTATION - UNREINFORCED BRICK WALLS

ASSUME SOLID BRICK MASONRY - 4500 PSI TYPE M OR S MORTAR

INSPECTED

ASSUME ALLOWABLE SHEAR OR TENSION IS 20 PSI

10,000#.

FLOOR LINE

/ ^DEFLECTED

POSITION

WALL THICKNESS

13"

FOOTING

lO'-O"

HORIZONTAL LOAD IN PLANE OF WALL

CHECK I 10000

IT SHEAR

= 6.5 PSI 10x12x13

CHECK OVERTURNING

M = 10000 X 15 = 150000'#

S - 13x^20!=

31.200

M = 150000 X 12

31 ,200

VERTICAL LOAD

+ 15 X 130

= 57.5 PSI 1000# COMPRESSION

= 1950

29501 PER LIN FT.

= 2950 = 18.8 PSI 156

MAXIMUM COMPRESSION = 57,5

+ 18.8

76.3 PSI (COMPLIES)

MAXIMUM TENSION = 57.5

-18.8

38.7 PSI (DOESN'T COMPLY:

oI

ASSUME WALL HINGED AT BOTTOM

[__]

M

25 X 15'

S PER LIN. FT. M 730 X 12

VERT.

338

LD =

= 730'#/LIN.

12 X 13^

6 = 26 PSI

FT.338

1000 = - 6.4 PSI 156 19.6 PSI NET TENSION

(COMPLIES)

HORIZONTAL LOAD NORMAL TO WALL

Figure 3.9 Sample Computation - Unreinforced Brick Walls
LATERAL DEFLECTION (A)

Figure 3.10 General Infill Wa 1 1 - Frame -force

Deflection Characteristics

3-44
CONCRETE AND MASONRY SHEAR WALLS:

a. Wall Deflections . The deflection of a concrete shear wall

can be determined from the sum of the shear and moment deflections.

In the case of a solid wall with no openings the computations of

deflection is quite simple. However, where the shear wall has

openings in it, as for doors and windows, the computations for

deflection and rigidity are much more complex. An exact analysis

considering angular rotation of elements, rib shortening, etc.,

is very time consuming. For this reason, several short-cut

approximate methods involving more or less valid assumptions

have been developed. These do not always give consistent

or satisfactory results.

b. Shear Distribution . Where several independent shear

walls are reacting forces from a rigid diaphragm in any one- story structure, the relative rigidity of the various walls

must be determined. This is necessary so that a logical and

consistent distribution of story shears to each wall can be

made. The total height of wall from diaphragm level above to

diaphragm or foundation level below frequently must be considered. Exact determination of stiffness is very difficult and

not necessary. Approximate methods in which the deflections

of portions of walls are combined usually are adequate.

c. Deflection Charts . Figure 3.11 shows deflection charts

for concrete or masonry shear walls and piers. Curves 1 and 2 are for shear deflection only. Curve 1 is for shear deflection

of a corner pier or pier with flanges and Curve 2 for a rectangular pier. Curves 3 and 4 are for fixed-ended corner and rectangular piers. Curves 5 and 6 are for cantilever corner and rectangular piers. The corner pier curves are for the special case where the I of the corner pier is 1.5 times the I of a rectangular

pier. For other I values the bending portion of the deflection

would be proportional. The deflection shown on the charts

are for a horizontal load of P of 1,000,000 pounds. The deflections shown on the charts are reasonably accurate. The

formulas written on the curves can be used to check the results.

However, the charts will give no better results than the assumptions made in the shear wall analysis. For instance, the point

of contraf 1 exure of a vertical pier may not be in the center of

the pier height. In some cases the point of contraf 1 exure may

be selected by judgment and an interpolation made between the

cantilever and fixed conditions."

The rigidity is the inverse of deflection. Figure 3.11 also provides

an approximate method for checking possible damage to infill walls. Assume

that the story drift has been computed. Then enter the chart and find the

load which would produce this drift in the type and shape of wall being

checked. If this load would produce stresses in the wall in excess of twice

tne allowable working stresses, then the wall should be considered to be

critically stressed.

3-45
3-46
Effect of Damaged Elements on Evaluation

If the Data Collection Form indicates damage to a particular element of

the lateral force resisting system, it should be reviewed in the field and

the degree of damage assessed. The percentage of its rigidity and its capacity to resist forces should be estimated and these modified values used in

the calculations.

Determination of Critical Elements

Any important earthquake resisting element having the highest unit

stress as related to allowable design stresses is a critical element to be

considered in the evaluation of the structural system. The term "important"

element means an element which, if it failed, would seriously reduce the

capacity of the structure as a whole to resist lateral forces. Some members

would, not be critical when deformed beyond their yield level deformations.

In other members, yielding may cause an important redistribution of loads.

With a multiplicity of wel 1 -di stri buted similar elements, the redistribution of loads would add only a small percentage of stress to adjoining

or parallel elements. In a shear wall building, for instance, if a pier in

a wall is highly overstressed and its force redistributed to the remaining

piers without overstress i ng them, then the pier in question would not be a critical element. For another example^ assume a large multi-story structure

supported on only four columns. The failure of one of these columns could

cause collapse and, in such cases, the evaluation of such columns and top

and bottom connections should be viewed with special conservatism.

In most buildings the critical elements will be the vertical resisting

elements (shear walls or moment resistant frames) and the horizontal resisting elements (diaphragms). This is for earthquake forces acting in the plane

of the elements. Earthquake forces normal to a wall are a function of the

weight of the wall itself. Where a wall has a long span between floor diaphragms or vertical frame elements it might be a critical element if its

failure would produce collapse of the building as a whole from vertical

loads or in plane lateral forces. Good engineering judgment in selection

of critical elements may save considerable checking time. If original

calculations are available, stress ratios taken from these calculations

are useful in determining the most critical elements even though the

original design criteria may be different from the criteria for which it

is being checked.

3-47
Determination of Critical Stress Ratios

The highest ratio of stress resulting from the required seismic forces

(f^) to the allowable material design stress (f,) (including 1/3 increase

e a where permitted but deducting capacity required by gravity loads) on any critical element is termed the critical stress ratio ^ . The critical stress

f

a ratio is the indicator for evaluating the seismic resisting capability of the

structure. Load factors and ultimate capacities are used for concrete design

and for plastic design of structural steel.

Site Seismicity for the Method

Several choices are available for the determination of the site seismicity. The simplest is to use figures 1, 2, or 3 on pages 131 and 132 of

UBC [2.5], or similar zoning maps which specify the seismicity by designating

broad zones in which the value of Z in the base shear formula V = ZKCW is

specified. If the max imum Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) is specified or determined by others for the site, the Z factor (Z^) can be determined using

the equation "2 log 5Z^ = -1.973 + .375 MMI" where Z^ shall not be greater than

2.0. This equation is not based on derivation but an empirical relationship

constructed for this project from the data in Ref. 3.20. The equation produces

Zj values which are consistent with past experience in relating the general

effects of various Modified Mercalli Intensity ratings to observed response of

buildings having varying design resistances. It is given in the form so that

data developed by the methods covered in section 3.4 may also be used for the

Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method of the building. Empirically it is

found that a good relationship between Z^ and is 25Z^ = in which is

the soil particle velocity as indicated in equation (3.4.22). Z^ values can

be higher than those specified in 1973 UBC but would account for a fault near

the site or an important structure which are not explicitly mentioned in

1973 UBC.

C . Rating of Building Resistance to Wind Hazards

Information Necessary for the Method

This method should be used only when plans and specifications are available and it has been determined from the Data Collection Form, see Appendix

A, that the plans represent the "as-built" structure. Original calculations,

if available, will be of assistance in assessing the resisting capabilities

of the various members. It is assumed that personnel familiar with the design

of buildings to resist lateral forces will make these analytical evaluations.

3-48
Criteria for the Method

The standards used in analyzing the effects of wind or hurricanes on structures is ANSI A58. 1-1972 [3.2] except as modified herein. Other

loading functions may be used if deemed more appropriate for the site but

criteria used should be stated (see section 3.4).

For the purpose of this evaluation, elastic analyses of building re- sponse will be compared with material design capacities. Design stresses

will be those designated by latest nationally recognized material specifications. In the evaluation, buildings are being analyzed, but not designed.

Stresses in structural elements will be checked for the combined effects of

wind and vertical loads. Where wind loads are included, the combined

stresses may exceed code working stresses by one-third, except where not

permitted in the specifications, with the provision that the stresses re- sulting from design vertical loads alone will not exceed code design stresses.

Determination of Wind Forces on Building as a Whole

A Basic Wind Speed must be assigned to the area by the user. If no other basic wind speed is designated, the values will be taken from figures

3.22 to 3.26 and table 3.10. Unless the building to be evaluated is of un- usual importance, the basic wind speed will be determined using a 50-year recurrence interval as shown in figure 3.25. The wind speeds to be used

are for the annual extreme fastest mile speed 30 feet above the ground.

The building involved will be given an exposure rating corresponding to

Exposures A, B, and C of table 5 in 1972 ANSI which converts the basic

wind speed to effective velocity pressures (q^) at varying heights. From

the qp found in this manner, the horizontal force loading can be determined

for each major axis of the building; these are for application to the ex- ternal surfaces of the building.

Response Analysis of the Building as a Whole

In making a horizontal force loading diagram for a building as a whole,

step functions may be made with height zones as described in section 6.3.4.1

of 1972 ANSI. This will simplify computational work on tall buildings.

The horizontal loading on windward walls and leeward walls is modified

by coefficients Cp as expressed in the 1972 ANSI, table 7. For the building

as a whole the effects are additive and for most buildings the applicable

wind forces will be 1.4 to 1.3 times the effective velocity pressures (qp)

taken from table 5. This value is the design pressure for application to

the building as a whole.

3-49
For tan buildings where height exceeds 5 times the least horizontal

dimension or for buildings which may have unusually wind sensitive dynamic

properties, a dynamic approach to calculating the building's response may

be required. This is beyond the scope of this method. However, an example

of this method is given in 1972 ANSI, Appendix A6.3.4.1. Figures A2 through

A6 provide curves for simplifying the computations. Also, since the

structures to be evaluated using the Approximate Analytical Method do not

exceed 16 stories in height, it is improbable that many will exceed the 5 to 1 height-width ratio.

In determining the response of the building as a whole, the type of diaphragm system must be considered. A stiff diaphragm will distribute horizontal forces to vertical resisting elements in proportion to their relative

rigidities. A flexible diaphragm will distribute forces to vertical elements more nearly proportioned to the tributary exposed wind surfaces.

Detailed commentary of diaphragms is given in section 3.3B.

Assuming that the structural resisting system is known from field

measurements and plans, and that the wind loading has been determined as described above, the calculations for the adequacy of the building to resist

these forces can be made using any of the standard analytical procedures.

The lateral loading to each level is determined with positive pressures on the windward side and negative pressures on the leeward side. The path by

which these forces are transmitted to the vertical resisting elements is

determined and the adequacy of such diaphragm or horizontal bracing system

to transmit these forces is checked. A discussion of various types of

diaphragms is given in section 3. SB. The vertical resisting elements, either

shear walls, moment-resisting frames, or braced frames are then checked for

these forces. Lateral forces are applied to these vertical resisting elements at each level and the stresses analyzed. The overturning stresses

should be checked, including uplift on foundations. If the original computations are available they can be reviewed to see whether wind forces have

been properly computed and distributed and whether the allowable stresses

have been exceeded.

3-50
Computer programs are available which may be used for wind response on buildings, particularly for tall buildings with moment-resisting frames. If

it is desired not to use such a computer check, there are several simplified

hand calculation methods frequently used, such as the cantilever method, the

portal method, the Spurr method [3.8]. These all make certain assumptions

as to points of contraf 1 exure and distribution of vertical load increments

from overturning forces. The method that is most applicable to the facility

being investigated should be used.

Determination of the Critical Elements

In analyzing a building for the assigned winds, some elements will have

higher stress ratios than others. The building element having the highest

stress ratio may be the most critical but may be of little importance to

the building as a whole. For example, lateral resistance is provided by a large number of moment-resisting frames and one beam column connection is

much more highly stressed than the rest. The higher stress of this element

would cause redistribution of loads and stresses to other elements. Suppose

there were fifty such connections at a particular level and that five of

these, when analyzed, had 20% higher stresses than the others. If these

five were stressed to yield, the stress redistribution to the other elements

would involve only small increases. Therefore, these elements would not be

considered the most critical and the critical stress ratio would be based on the lower stressed elements. Conversely, if the lateral forces are resisted

by, say, only 4 to 5 vertical elements in a story, and one or two of these

were found to have higher stresses than the others, these one or two elements would be considered important and should be listed along with their

critical stress ratio. Where elements were found to be stressed beyond their

design stress, a re-analysis of the probable path of redistribution of

forces is recommended. This may involve the capability of the diaphragm to

make such redistribution. If the forces can be redistributed without severe overstressi ng , the determination of the critical element will be easier to

determi ne

The usual critical elements for wind resistance are, as in earthquake

resistance, the vertical resisting elements (shear walls, braced bays, or moment resistant frames) and the horizontal resisting elements (diaphragms).

There is a major difference, however, in that wind forces are applied to

exposed surfaces while earthquake forces originate at centers of mass and

are proportional to mass. Thus a lightweight exterior wall might have a relatively small earthquake force normal to the wall but would be exposed

to wind forces which are independent of the weight of the wall.

3-51
Determination of the Critical Stress Ratios

The highest ratio of stress resulting from the wind forces applicable

to the site (f^) to the allowable material design stress (f^) (including

1/3 increase where permitted but deducting capacity required by gravity

loads) on any critical element is termed the critical stress ratio f.J'f^-

The critical stress ratio is the indicator for evaluating the capability of

the structure to resist wind forces. Load factors and ultimate capacities

are used for concrete design and for plastic design of structural steel.

Analysis of Portions of Building

Both internal and external pressures must be considered on portions of

buildings such as roofs and walls. Methods of calculating the internal pressures on roofs and walls are given in 1972 ANSI [3.2] (6.5.3.2.4 and 6.5.4).

Corners of walls are exposed to high negative pressures. These corners should be checked as specified in 6.5.3.1 of 1972 ANSI.

Where structures are not enclosed, the roof is somewhat similar to a flat plate and tables 13 and 14 in 1972 ANSI (page 22) give coefficients for

determining the net pressures to be used in design. If one end (or one side) or 25% of any exterior wall is open, the structure will be considered

not enclosed.

The critical stress ratio is applicable to elements not part of the

structural system of a building. For instance, the anchorage of wall cladding can ordinarily be computed. Given the horizontal force on such an element and knowing the distribution of anchors, the load to each anchor can

be determined. For example, assume these anchors are bolts placed in tension by lateral forces on the element in question. The ratio of this com- puted tension to the allowable bolt tension is the stress ratio and is a measure of the adequacy of the anchorage.

Analysis of Anchorage of Exposed Elements

The wind forces (positive and negative) on exposed elements can be determined from 1972 ANSI as previously noted. If the anchorage of such elements is known, the adequacy of the anchorage devices can usually be computed by stress analysis. However, should the initial field examination re- veal damage to exterior veneer, appendages or looseness of wall cladding

panels which might be caused by corrosion or other chemical deterioration

of anchorage, the anchorage should be reviewed in the field to determine

whether such a condition is typical or is confined to one location. Also,

after the Approximate Analytical Method evaluation has been made and the

drawings examined, certain specific items or elements may be found critical

and warrant an additional field inspection.

3-52
Commentary on Drift

In tall buildings, or other buildings with a high degree of flexibility,

drift becomes important. Drift is usually expressed as a ratio of the lateral movement in a story to the story height. Excessive drift may cause damage to non structural elements such as partitions, wall cladding, and

glass panels unless these elements are so isolated or cushioned that relative

movements of adjacent stories will not exceed the isolation. Stiff, brittle

elements such as partitions of unreinforced masonry or glass are more sus- ceptible to this type of damage. Where such brittle elements occur on or near public ways, or from portions of exit enclosures, damage to these elements can be a hazard to human life. Reinforcement of brittle partitions

can provide a basketing effect to reduce the hazard from falling pieces.

Metal lath on wood or steel studs provides such a basketing effect. Glazing

with resilient boundary materials provides a degree of isolation for glass

panels. An old rul e-of-thumb drift limitation is .0025. For the purpose of

this method, wind drift can be ignored on obviously low, stiff buildings.

However, the taller, more flexible buildings with moment-resisting frames

should be checked for drift, and the effect of this drift considered in its

effect on elements other than those of the structural system.

For example, assume that the computed story drift in a 12 ft story

height is 0.3 in. Also, assume that an 8 in steel riser pipe is tightly em- bedded in the concrete floor construction at each level and is fixed at each

floor.

Thus , Pipe - Moment of inertia (I) = 72.5 in^

- Section modulus (S) = 16.8 in'^

- Modulus of elasticity (E) = 29,600,000 psi

- Allowable stress (f. ) = 26,700 psi

Story height (h) = 144 in

Deflection (A) = 0.3 in

Moment (M) = ^ , where P =

Stress in pipe = = = 1 1 ,300 psi

This stress is well below the allowable stress and a drift of this magnitude will not break the pipe.

In this same story is a metal stud and plaster partition fastened to

the top of the floor below and the bottom of the slab above. The net partition height is 1 2 ft - 6 in. Limited tests have indicated that such a partition may deform 1/16 in per foot of height with only minor cracking but without failure. Using this limited empirical limitation a drift of 0.75 in

would be permissible. A procedure for checking the effect of drift on masonry walls or partitions is given in this section under EarthquakeCommentary on Masonry and Concrete Walls.

3-53
D . Rating of Building Resistance to Tornado Hazards

General Considerations

The purpose of this portion of this section is to establish a method

for analytical evaluation of a building's resistance to the hazards imposed by tornadoes. Little has been published on design of buildings to

resist the tornado hazard. Some excerpts of the available data are presented for assistance in implementing this method:

" Tornadoes , the most violent of all storms, have long been

viewed by many engineers as natural phenomena which should

not be considered in design except for possible provision

of emergency personnel shelters. However, since 1967, the

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) has required designers of

nuclear reactor facilities to carefully consider the effects

of tornadoes on such facilities. The AEC has included

tornadoes as one of the natural phenomena which the nuclear

power plant designer must consider in the design so such

facilities can be constructed to successfully withstand

the additional forces that might be imposed by a tornado

without loss of capability to protect the public." [3.4]

The reader is referred to chapter 2 and also section 3.4 for further

general comments concerning tornadoes. However, the following three poln are worthy of further comment.

3-54
" Tornado Phenomena . The effects of a tornado that are manifested

in structural damage are generated from two separate phenomena:

( 1 ) wind, and

(2) changes in atmospheric pressure.

These tornadic effects interact with structures and cause damage through three principal mechanisms:

(1) pressure forces created by air flowing around

the structure,

(2) pressure forces created by relatively rapid changes

in atmospheric pressure, and

(3) impact forces created by missiles.

Pressure forces are applied to a structure when the flow of

air (wind) is interrupted by the presence of the structure.

The windward face of a structure will experience pressures

acting inward, while the roof, side walls, and leeward face

of the structure may experience wind induced pressures which

act outward as shown in figure 3.12.

The atmospheric pressure change associated with the tornado

is produced by the circular movement of air within the vortex.

The minimum atmospheric pressure occurs at the center of

the tornado. As a tornado approaches and passes over a structure the atmospheric pressure outside the structure

reduced to a minimum value and then returns to ambient. The

effects of tornado induced atmospheric pressure change on an unvented structure are illustrated in figure~3.13.

Missiles are generated by extreme winds associated with a tornado. They pose damage threats ranging in degree from

breakage of a window glass caused by the impact of roof gravel

to stability failure of a structural frame produced by the

impact of an automobile." [3.3j

" Tornado - Structure Interaction -- When a structure is en- gulfed by a tornado field, wind velocities and atmospheric

pressure changes do not act uniformly over the entire structure. Furthermore, these interdependent effects do not

attain maximum values simultaneously at a point. These two

observations have implications in the establishment of wind

velocity and atmospheric pressure change criteria for use in

structural design. The significance of the observations

relates to the size of the structure relative to the diameter of the tornado. One of the methods of developing

rational loading for the design of structures is to consider

two extreme cases: (1) small structure - large tornado,

and (2) large structure - small tornado. By consideration

of these two extreme cases it would be possible to consider

tornado diameter, structure size, structure orientation, and

tornado trans 1 ati onal velocity as variables. The results

obtained using the two extreme cases would be utilized to

develop guidelines for the design of tornado resistant

structures." [3.3]

3-55
^

5^ 5?9$ ^999 0<>S> <X><><

Figure 3.12 Typical Wind Induced Pressure Forces on a Structure

r t t t

>$$«^ 5$$^ 55$$^ xxxx^ $$$$

Figure 3.13 Typical Forces on an Unvented Structure Created

by Rapid Atmospheric Pressure Change

3-56
" Degree of Protection Anticipated In structures where there

is danger of releasing radioactive material to the atmosphere,

for example in cases of a nuclear reactor containment vessel

or a Plutonium processing plant, degree of protection against

tornado damage should be absolute. The absolute protection

implies no structure damage and no damage to contents of the

building from wind, water or missiles. However, in structures

such as hospitals, fire stations, civil defense headquarters,

etc., some structural damage can be tolerated as long as services are not interrupted. In such cases the degree of

protection can be moderate. Researchers at Texas Tech

developed design criteria for different degrees of protection

for a warehouse. This particular warehouse was designed for

tornado protection because unusually expensive material was

to be stored in the warehouse." [3.3]

Information Necessary for the Method

It is assumed that plans of the building to be evaluated are available.

It is also assumed that the probabilities and frequency of tornado phenomena

in the area involved have been determined. Where the probability of occurrence is determined to be low, no tornado evaluation need be made.

Criteria for the Method

For the purpose of the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method it will

be assumed that only moderate protection is required for the building to be

evaluated. Therefore a free field velocity of 200 miles per hour and a pressure drop of 1.2 psi will be used. These values are taken from table I in reference [3.3]. Using the formula P = .0025V to convert velocity to

pressure gives P = 100 psf. The 1.2 psi pressure drop is, converting units,

equal to a suction or uplift of 172 psf.

From figures 3.12 and 3.13 it is obvious that the building as a whole is subjected to a total lateral force from both windward and leeward

sides. If it is assumed that tornadoes are similar to other high winds,

such as hurricanes, with respect to the relationship of pressures on windward and leeward sides, one finds these coefficients of the velocity pressures to be 0.8 and either 0.5 or 0.6, respectively; depending on the heightwidth ratio of the building. Thus the total lateral force on a building

subjected to tornadoes for a moderate degree of protection will be 100 x (0.8 + 0.5 or 0.6) = 130 or 140 psf. These coefficients are taken from

table 7 of 1972 ANSI and apply to enclosed structures.

3-57
There are probably very few buildings that will be undamaged if in the

direct path of a strong tornado. The least likely to be severely damaged

will be heavy reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry vault like structures

one or two stories in height, with relatively heavy and solid walls. Taller

buildings designed to resist hurricanes may have limited damage but probably

will not collapse unless they are of unusual configuration or have large

roof overhangs or open sides. Light buildings of wood frame or steel frame

and metal sidings have been known to have been torn from their foundations

and blown considerable distances. It is possible, however, to provide such

light buildings with some resistance to winds by proper anchorage to foundationstoresistuplift.

The structural systems of some buildings designed for earthquake may be

capable of resisting forces created by tornadoes. For example, a warehouse

100 ft X 100 ft and 20 ft high with concrete roof and walls has been designed

for an earthquake force of 0.133g. If the walls weigh 100 lbs per sq ft and

the roof dead load is 100 psf, the total design horizontal force for an earthquake in either direction would be about 1,530 lbs per linear foot at the

roof line as compared to 10 x 140 pounds or 1,400 pounds per linear foot for

the moderate tornado design force.

Analysis of Building as a Whole

It should be obvious that many buildings will not warrant analytical

evaluation. A short perusal of the plans of a building should determine

whether a roof system has the weight, reverse load capacity, and anchorage to

resist the extreme uplift forces associated with tornadoes, or whether an en- tire building is heavy enough to resist such forces. A quick look at the

foundation details should show whether any special hold-down provisions have

been used. Pile or caisson footings will have good potential uplift characteristics if anchored to foundations. For example, in a steel frame building,

the presence of many large anchor bolts from base plate to concrete footing

would indicate that uplift forces were probably considered in the design.

Some concrete piles may have no reinforcing bars or only a single small reinforcing bar extending down from the pile cap into the pile a short distance.

This would indicate that little or no consideration had been given to uplift

forces. Deep basements will have good hold-down characteristics. In general,

therefore, a light, one-story structure without special hold-down foundation

characteristics can be given an inadequate rating without analytical calculations beyond a very rough assessment of weight as indicated in the Field

Evaluation Method, section 3.2.

3-58
Light roofs of wood or steel are usually designed for a live load of not over 30 psf. For tornadoes, structures are to be checked for an uplift force

of at least 172 psf. It will be found in most such cases that the net uplift

is several times the design dead load. Such roofs can be considered inadequate

to resist maximum tornado forces. This reasoning may not be true in areas where a heavy snow load is used in design.

If a building has been evaluated for wind and given a poor rating, it

will be considered to be inadequate to resist tornadoes. The ability of roof

systems, designed only for gravity loads, to resist reversals from uplift needs

discussion. Steel beams with their compression flanges braced by the deck un- der usual gravity loads may have lower flanges unbraced and subject to compression buckling under uplift loads. Deep concrete beams, wood girders, and

trusses need to be checked and analyzed for their capacity under such reversals.

Even though these reversals may be only for a few seconds, the effect of such

reversals must be considered and the roof anchorage details checked.

So far, these comments have been related primarily to uplift. The wall

capacities must be checked for direct horizontal positive and negative force.

The floor and roof systems must be checked for adequacy as diaphragms to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements. Once again the anchorage is of major importance. Anchorage of walls to footings should be checked

for capacity to resist sliding combined with vertical uplift and overturning.

The footings themselves should be checked for sliding resistance, uplift, and

overturning forces. In checking these calculations, the purpose is to determine the ratio of stresses resulting from the imposed tornado loads to the

capacity of the structure.

In each of the various resisting systems, such as roof, floors, shear

walls, or moment-resisting frames, there may be one or more critical elements

which will fail before the other elements. Care must be taken not to derate

a building because of one non-important element. Where the failure of such

an element would not cause failure of a system, but would only cause minor re- distribution of loads, such a member would not be a critical element. Reference is made to further discussion of critical elements in this section.

Analysis of Portions of Building

It should be obvious that with positive and negative pressures of the magnitude encountered in tornadoes, such building items as exterior doors and

windows, wall cladding, exterior appendages, and balconies will be very vulnerable and the average installation and anchorage of such items will not be adequate but will be checked to determine the critical stress ratio. Glass

panes, unless designed especially for such pressures, as to size, thickness

and strength must be checked for their adequacy for resisting tornado wind

pressures

3-59
3.4 DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

A . Introduction

This section discusses the methodology and rationale involved in the development of a computer program that estimates the damageabi 1 i ty of buildings

under the following natural conditions:

Earthquake

Wind - General

Tornado and Hurricane.

he methodology has intentionally been presented in a user oriented manner regarding the:

Determination of environmental loads

Definition of structural models and response computation

Estimation of potential damage.

'he method presented is essentially s tate-of -the- practi ce when balancing the uncertainties in the various fields against the value of detailed

analysis at the most elementary level. Reference [1.4 ] presents a collection of various state-of-the-practi ce papers.

The section presents the methodology behind a modular computer program

which brings together the many aspects of the damageabi 1 i ty prediction

problem. The computer program may be readily updated to incorporate new developments in any selected module.

The reader must realize that by the very nature of structural engineering and more specifically, the architect-structural engineer relationship,

that one computer program cannot hope to structurally model all possible

building types and still be economical to use. Therefore, a procedure is

presented which is appropriate for a reasonably large class of building

structures. In particular, the program can be used to estimate the damageability to the following structural types:

• Braced and unbraced steel frame buildings

• Concrete shear wall and shear wall plus frame buildings

tBearingwallbuildings

• Long span roof structures.

3-60
An buildings are assumed to act in a two-dimensional or inplane manner

and hence, buildings with significantly irregular floor plans (e.g., T or L shaped) or structural framing, cannot, with a high degree of confidence, have

their damageabi 1 i ty assessed with this program. Also, damage in buildings

for which soi 1 -structure interaction is important cannot be estimated with

high confidence. Only an experienced structural and/or soils engineer can establish whether the building under consideration is in one of the two latter

categories

The developed computer program utilizes the professional experience of

the engineer. The engineer must provide judgmental input as to the (1)

quality of building construction, (2) deformation for the structural components to yield and failure, (3) completeness of the site description properties, and more. Therefore, the computer program enables the engineer to

quantify his professional experience about many component aspects of the

problem without having to specify how they all interrelate in establishing

building damageabi 1 i ty

A direct comparison of this method with the two previously discussed

evaluation methods is not simple. The Detailed Analytical Evaluation offers

the engineer a computer program with many options. It is possible to obtain

damage estimates for a building using this program in a matter of minutes or

it can take days depending upon the complexity of the structural model. Also,

much of the required input for the procedure can be obtained using the judgmental values of engineers documented in this section or the establishment of

these input values may require days of study so as to obtain the best estimated values for the building under study. Philosophically the Approximate

Analytical and Detailed Analytical Evaluation Methods differ in two respects.

One, the Approximate Analytical Method is based upon a stress damage evaluation. The stress in critical elements is calculated and compared with code

stress levels. The methodology discussed in this section relates structural

and most nonstructural damage to interstory drift. Local member stresses are not calculated. Earthquake nonstructural damage is related to an effective

floor MMI through an estimate of floor response. The second major difference

is the sophistication of the analytical building model. A finite element

type model is used in the latter method whereas a more simple model is usually

used in the former method.

B . Natural Hazard Loading - Earthquake

General Comments

3-61
The method used for generating earthquake loads on buildings entails four

basic steps:

1. Determination of seismicity, A, as a function of geographic

location. The Richter magnitude, M, of a representative

earthquake is derived from the seismicity of a particular

site.

2. Determination of an effective hypocentral distance, r, which

locates the representative earthquake with respect to the

building site. Computation of r involves the attenuation

properties of the Earth's crust in the vicinity of the site.

3. Specification of a hard-rock particle velocity spectrum,

V^p(T), for the site. This too will involve the attenuation properties of the Earth's crust.

4. Generation of a soil amplification factor, (OAF) , for the

site which, when multiplied by the hard-rock vel§city spectrum results in a ground site particle velocity spectrum,

^iteC^)-

The ground site spectrum characterizes the dynamic environment of the

building and will be referred to as the "earthquake load." A flow diagram

depicting this sequence of operations is shown in figure 3.14.

The procedure used to develop the ground site spectrum parallels that

presented by Algermissen [1.4]. It does not, however, explicitly consider

proximity of the site to known faults. Efforts are underway by the U.S.

Geological Survey to develop earthquake risk maps incorporating this factor.

Recognizing that a professional consensus does not exist relative to the

most appropriate procedure for obtaining a ground site spectrum, an option

was included in the computer program for the Detailed Analytical Evaluation

Method to permit the user to bypass the computation of earthquake loads

described in this section and input directly a ground particle velocity

spectra (see Section 2.1.1.3 Appendix E).

The earthquake load generation approach is empirically based wherein

certain relationships are derived by dimensional analysis and curve fitting

of observed earthquake data. The seismicity at a site is a parameter which

represents the amount of seismic activity (number of earthquake events per

year) within a specified radius of the site. This area defined by this radius

is referred to as the "felt area" about a given site. The radius which defines the area is a function of the attenuation properties of the earth's

crust within that region. The seismicity at a site is defined in accordance

with all available historical earthquake data [3.12], [3.13]. Typically,

these references provide the date of earthquake occurrence, its location, and

its magnitude or intensity.

Other recorded data provides the-; maximum ground acceleration, velocity

and displacement experienced at a sight for earthquakes occurring within the

felt area. These data are not available for all parts of the country, but

coupled with known geological characteristics, can be extrapolated and used

as the basis for establishing attenuation characteristics for the earth's

crust. Since measureable ground motion characteristics include the effects

of local soil conditions, prior to developing attenuation characteristics a soil model must be generated to relate the site ground motion to the motion

of basement rock which underlies the site.

3-62
SITE LOCATION

RADIUS OF SEARCH

RISK PARAMETERS

RECORDED PAST

EARTHQUAKE DATA

COMPUTE SITE SEISMICITY

AND REPRESENTATIVE EARTH

QUAKE MAGNITUDE M

COMPUTE EFFECTIVE

HYPOCENTRAL DISTANCE

FOR REP. EARTHQUAKE

ATTENUATION 1 PROPERTIES OF >— EARTH'S CRUST f

COMPUTE HARD-ROCK

VELOCITY SPECTRUM

LOCAL SITE SOIL

CHARACTERISTICS

COMPUTE SITE GROUND

VELOCITY SPECTRUM

SITE GROUND

VELOCITY SPECTRUM

(EARTHQUAKE LOAD ENVIRONMENT)

Figure 3.14 Generation of Earthquake Load Environments

3-63
The remaining paragraphs of section 3.4B are organized according to the

following four steps. First, historical data is used to determine seismicity

A as a function of geographical location. An equation is presented which

relates earthquake magnitude to frequency of occurrence with A as a parameter.

In order to determine the dynamic environment of a building due to earthquake of magnitude M, the earthquake hypocenter must be located relative to

the site. Therefore, the section contains a description of the method used

to determine an effective hypocentral distance r. Next, a description is

presented of how a hard-rock velocity spectrum is obtained for a site using

available records of maximum acceleration, velocity and displacement cor- responding to particular earthquakes of known magnitude and distance from

the recording site. Finally, various techniques available are presented

for generating soil models and corresponding amplification factors for

computing earthquake loads from hard-rock spectra.

United States Seismicity

Earthquake loads derived herein for a particular site are based on past

earthquake data. Some areas of the country have exhibited a great amount of

seismic activity while others have exhibited little or none. Thus, the distribution of seismicity throughout the country is of fundamental importance.

A tabular format has been chosen for the presentation of seismicity characteristics throughout the country. The continental U.S., Alaska and Hawaii

have each been subdivided into one-half by one-half degree grid areas (4360

for the Continental U.S., 2516 for Alaska and 92 for Hawaii)as shown in

figures 3.15 to 3.17. For each grid area this section discusses how one calculates a mean seismicity. A, and a seismicity standard deviation, a^,

based on a statistical analysis of all available earthquake data. Values of

A and are given in Appendix H for each grid area. These values are

based on a statistical analyses of all available earthquake data.

This treatment of the past earthquake data is based on an approach proposed by Wiggins and Moran [

1 • 1 ], and involves the seismicity relationship

. log^gN = A - bM (3.4.1)

where

A = seismicity at a given site

M = Richter magnitude

N

= frequency of occurrence (events per year) of earthquakes

of magnitude M or greater

b

= a distribution characteristic governing the relative

frequency of earthquakes of different magnitude

(1/N) = earthquake return period

3-64
3-65 1\

3-67
The value of b = 0.9 appears to be a constant independent of location

as evidenced by the following:

(1) World Seismicity [1.1 ] reveals b = 0.88.

(2) Recent work by Nuttli [3.14] reveals that b = 0.927,

(3) Bollinger [3.15] derived a value for b = 0.87

+ .12 for all shocks in the Eastern United States.

(4) Chinnery [3.16] and Gordon [3.17] obtained similar I results as above.

Equation (3.4.1) allows one to compute the seismicity A at a particular ' site in the United States in the following manner:

Step 1: Input of Earthquake Data Sources

The earthquake data bank consisted of two types of information:

a) Recent (NOAA) Data - these are earthquake data recorded since 1961

(see [3.13]) which give complete information about each earthquake

including its location and Richter magnitude. These data are as- sumed to be a complete record of seismic activity of Richter magnitude 3.5 or greater over the 12 year period, 1961-1973.

b) Historical Data - these are earthquake data taken prior to 1961

(see [3.12]) and include data recorded as long as 323 years ago

in the Northeast region of the United States. Information about

each earthquake includes date, location. Modified Mercalli Intensity

(MMI)and felt area (area throughout which earthquake was felt). Be- cause of the non-scientific measurements used for this type of data

(Modified Mercalli Intensity) and knowledge that smaller earthquakes may have not been recorded due to sparsity of population

in some areas, the historical data were modified in the following

two ways:

e Intensity Modifications for Adjustment to Epicenter - From

data published by Wiggins [3.18], attenuation equations

(found from regression techniques) have been developed to

relate the Modified Mercalli Intensity at a site, to magnitude and hypocentral distance in the western region of the

United States, namely California (Ferndale and El Centro)

where 16 significant earthquakes were recorded on strong

motion accel erographs at each site. The resulting equation

for the western region ( 1 ongi tude ^ 1 05° ) of the United States

is:

MMI = 2.786 + 1.5M - 3.742 log.^r (3.4.2)

3-68
where

r = hypocentral distance (miles)

MMI = Modified Mercalli Intensity at site of interest

M = Richter magnitude at epicenter

The value for the coefficient to M was forced to be 1.5

in equation (3.4.2) since Gutenberg and Richter [3.19]

give the relationship that M = 1 + 2/3 MMI^ (MMI^ = maximum Modified Mercalli Intensity at the epicenter).

Usina relationships presented by Algermissen in [1-4,

Daqe 119], a similar attenuation equation can be developed

for the eastern region of the United States. The value

of the coefficient of M in the equation was again forced

to be 1.5, since various tests of the data and theoretical

examinations for energy revealed that this simple relationship held for all parts of the country (for shallow earthquakes) as well as for California. The resulting equation

for the eastern region is:

MMI = 1.622 + 1.5M - 2.61 log,^r (3.4.3)

Equations (3.4.2) and (3.4.3) can be used to express MMI

in terms of the felt area by substituting an isoseismal

value of 4 for MMI (lowest intensity felt), replacing M with (1 + 2/3 MMIq) and noting that Area ~ irr^ . The two

resulting equations are: Western Region (longitude > 105°)

MMIq = -.286 + 1 .871 log^Q (Area felt)

TT (3.4.4)

Eastern Region (longitude < 105°)

MMI 878 + 1 .31 log

10

(Area felt)

TT (3.4.5)

Therefore, for historic data [3.12] where the subjective

Modified Mercalli Intensity is used, a comparison is made

for each earthquake between the intensity recorded and the

intensity given considering the area felt via equations

(3.4.4) and (3.4.5). The larger of the two values is kept.

• Intensity Modifications for Low Population Density - The

historic earthquake data were further modified by multiplying the number of MMI^ values reported or computed from

felt area reports (whichever was the larger) by the factors

in table 3.5. These factors were based on population density

statistics given in various World Almanacs and Statistical

Abstracts of the United States. It was assumed that MMI^ = 9 and above would be noticed since the beginning of

recorded time. The number of events less than MMI^ = 9 was increased by relating the ratio of population densities over

time before 1930 to the felt area.

3-69
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3-7 0
After obtaining the modified MMI^ intensity values

for the historical data, the final conversion from

MMI to M was made using the equation M = 1 + 2/3 MMI^.

Step 2: Creating N versus M Cumulative Histograms

With the earthquake data properly modified and divided into two sets

(recent and historical), each earthquake may be placed into the appropriate grid area based on its latitude and longitude (and then into

one or more storage bins within that grid as shown in table 3.6). The

parameter N denotes the number of earthquakes above a certain magnitude

divided by the time period spanned by the data. For example, if one

is considering data showing the occurrence of ten earthquakes of magnitude greater than or equal to Richter Magnitude 5.5 within a period of

ten years, one would place ten earthquakes in bin number 5 and divide

by ten to obtain N = 1. If one does this for each bin and then forms

a Histogram, the results might appear as shown in figure 3.18.

Table 3.6 STORAGE BINS FOR TYPICAL GRID AREA

Bin Number

Earthquake Magnitude M Greater than

1 3.5

2 4.0

3 4.5

4 5.0

5 5 . 5

6 6.0

7 6.5

8 7.0

9 7.5

10 8.0

3-71
MEAN + 1 STANDARD DEVIATION

0 2 4 6 8 10 .

RICHTER MAGNITUDE, M

ure 3.18 Cumulative Frequency of Occurrence Histpgram

3-72
A regression fit to the cumulative frequency of occurrence data using

equation (3.4.1), with the slope b set at b = 0.9, will produce a mean value, H^, for the intercept of the regression line and the vertical

axis. The mean seismicity, for the grid, A, is now defined to be

The corresponding standard deviation of the grid seismicity is denoted

a^. The value of is obtained directly from the previously discussed regression fit. Although the grid seismicity. A, has been treated

as a random variable in determining A and a^, it will be convenient to

henceforth consider A to be deterministic in the sense that

To amplify this point, A, as defined in (3.4.7), is hereafter referred

to as the grid's Engineering Seismicity . The parameter n may be set equal

to zero in which case one's confidence, based upon a normal probability

density function, would be 50 percent that the seismicity for that

grid (i.e., site) does not exceed A. If n = 2 the corresponding confidence level would be 95 percent.

Step 3: Define Radius of Search

In calculating the seismicity A, it is appropriate to determine which

earthquake events in the vicinity of the site are able to cause

damage. This is done as follows:

a) Define the maximum probable earthquake for the site, M , as having a return period (1/N) equal to 400 years. This value

may be compared to Gordon's estimate of 450 years for New

England [3.17] and Nason's estimate of 220 years or longer

for a specific location on the San Andreas fault [1.4].

Then from equation (3.4.1), assuming that the seismicity of

the site does not change with time, one may write

A = log (3.4.6)

A = A + no (3.4.7)

log-,f,Nu + bMu = log

10 ( 1/400) + bM,max

(3. 4. 8. a)

If is the magnitude of the largest earthquake recorded

during historic time Tn = 1/Nu» then one finds that

^ax - i ^°9i0 (^°0/'^h) (3.4.8.b)

3-73
b) By using M^^^ from equation (3.4.8), the attenuation equations

IT! a X (3.4.2) and (3.4.3) which relate magnitude to hypocentral distance for the western and eastern regions of the United States,

and by specifying that a value of intensity below MMI = 6.7 will cause no damage (see [3.11], Appendix H), a radius is found beyond

which the maximum probable earthquake for a region will cause no damage even if it occurs. This gives

Longitude > 105°

2.785 + 1 .5M„_ - MMI

log^Qr = (3. 4. 9. a)

; ^ 3.742

• For regions: Washington, Oregon, Northern California, Western

Nevada, Southern California, Alaska and Hawaii.

Longitude < 105°

1 .622 + 1 . 5M„,,. - MMI

2.61

log^Qr^ = Oiax (3.4.9.b)

For regions: Central, North and East

where

'<' • r = radius of search beyond which the maximum

probable earthquake specified for each

region will cause no damage.

Table 3.7 gives the radius of search for each of the regions listed

] above. It is noted that on the computer, the search was made more efficiently and economically by converting the search area to a square having the same area as the circle of influence. Thus,

logiQ(4/TT) was subtracted from the above equations to obtain the

radius of search for each of the regions listed in table 3.7. It

is noted that earthquake data were stored in the grids beyond the

dark line boundaries shown in figures 3.15 to 3.17 to accommodate

searches extending past these boundaries.

Numerical Example for Computing A Having divided the past seismic data into two separate sets (historic

and NOAA), creating the N versus M histograms for each grid shown in figures

3.15 - 3.17, and defining a radius of search for each region, the seismicity

(assumed constant in each 1/2° by 1/2° grid) can be calculated for all grids

using the historical and NOAA data separately.

3-74
Table 3.7 DISTANCE OF SEARCH FOR AN EQUIVALENT

SQUARE FOR VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE

UNITED STATES

Region

MMIp(max)

Historic

(MMI

)

Years of

Data

**

M (400^yr)

Distance Search

for a Square (mi

)

North

Eastern 9 335 7 . 1 105

Eastern 10 310 7.8 264

Central 10 274 7.8 264

Western

Mountai n 10 1 20 8.3 1 58

Hasni nylon/

Oregon 9 1 32 7.5 76

Northern

uaiiTorma \\J .0 1 D J o . 0 (8.63)*

1 Q 1

jouLnern

California 1 1 204 8.5

^ O . U J J 191

Western

Nevada 11 114 8.5

(8.94)*

191

Al aska 11.1 187 8.5

(8.77)*

191

Hawai i 10 1 39 8.2 145

* Computed values. 8.5 is assumed upper bound magnitude for the U.S.

= 1 + 2/3 MMlQ(max)

3-75
A sample grid area in Hawaii (marked by an X in figure 3.17) is used to

illustrate the procedure for computing A.

From table 3.7. fh^ radius of search for Hawaii is found to be 145 miles.

Therefore, a square is created around the grid marked X that is approximately

290 miles across (approximate because if the radius of search falls in the

middle of a grid it is extended out to the end of it). This square is indicated by bold lines in figure 3.7.

For each set of data (historic or NOAA) used, the N's for each M are summed over all grids falling within the area of search. (In this example

there are 121 grids over which to sum). This allows N versus M histograms

to be created for the entire area of search, similar to that shown in

figure 3.18. Then a line with -0.9 slope is drawn through a point at the

top center of each rectangle in the histogram. Each line so drawn defines

an intercept A^. and this intercept corresponds to a seismicity value appropriate for a certain magnitude of past earthquakes, i.e., that magnitude

which corresponds to that rectangular grid in the histogram. The average

seismicity for the grid is then found by averaging the A.'s, i.e..

where the index i (corresponding to the Bin No. in table 3.6) ranges over all

of the bins.

The standard deviation of grid's seismicity is found from the equation

be established after specifying a value for n.

A complete summary of the United States Seismicity is contained in

Append ixH.

A = A. (3.4.10)

(3.4.11

)

Having obtained A and a., an Engineering Seismicity , A = A + na„, may

3-76
Definition of Earthquake Risk Parameters

Having computed A and for all of the grid areas shown in figures 3.15

to 3.17, one is in a position to establish representative earthquakes, for use

in computing earthquake loads for buildings, for any part of the country based

on historical data. There are two ways to do this. The first is to specify

a return period, 1/N, for the representative earthquake. In this case, the

earthquake represents the maximum earthquake likely to occur during a return

period T = 1/N. Its magnitude is given by

M = 5" (A - log^Q N) (3.4.12)

where

A = A + na^

and n is specified by the engineer according to a desired level of confidence. The set value of n establishing the percent confidence that M will

not be exceeded during the time T.

An alternate way to compute M is to recognize that the random occurrence of earthquakes of magnitude M or greater can be described by a Poisson process where the probability of non-occurrence, p, is given by

p = e"'-'^ (3.4.13)

and L denotes the lifetime of the building. Thus, a representative earthquake of magnitude M may be established such that the probability of M not

being exceeded in a period of L years is p. For example, if the life of the

building is 20 years (i.e., L = 20) and an acceptable probability of non- occurrence is 0.90 (i.e., p = 0.90) then the corresponding return period,

T, is obtained from (3.4.13) is

T = (1/N) = -L/ln (p) = 20/0.1045 =191 years and

N = 0.00522

If the engineering seismicity. A, is equal to 5.0 then the computed

Richter magnitude is

M = ^(5.0 - log^Q .00522) = 8.10

3-77
Effective Hypocentral Distance

In order to estimate the ground motion at the basement rock underlying

a site, both the magnitude and distance of a representative earthquake are required. This section explains how the latter is obtained using past earthquake data. The distance from a particular site to the source of a seismic

disturbance is called the hypocentral distance and is denoted by r. Since

the source of an earthquake is usually some distance below the surface of

the earth's crust, the hypocentral distance is defined as the hypotenuse of

the right triangle shown in figure 3.19, assuming a flat earth for the relatively small distances involved. It is furthermore assumed that the focal

depth of all earthquakes is 10 miles below the surface.

In contemplating ways to compute an effective hypocentral distance

from a site to some representative earthquake whose magnitude is determined

from equation (3.4.12), the need for some means of averaging the hypocentral

distances to individual earthquakes contained in the data base becomes

apparent. Further consideration reveals that a simple arithmetic average

is inappropriate because the seismicity of the site (and therefore the

magnitude of a representative earthquake) is dominated by the stronger

earthquakes recorded around the site. Simple averaging does not take into

account the relative magnitudes of the earthquakes which have occurred,

only their respective locations. Thus, for example, if the data base con- tained only two events over a time period L, a magnitude 8 earthquake directly under the site, (r = 10 miles) and a magnitude 6 earthquake 100 miles

away (r = 100), the representative earthquake for the same period of time

would have a magnitude of at most 8, and an effective hypocentral distance

equal to 55 miles. Clearly, the ground motion resulting in this case will

be considerably lower than that resulting from the magnitude 8 earthquake

with its epicenter at the site, and therefore will underestimate the

dynamic environment of the site.

An averaging method which uses magnitude in some form of weighting

scheme would seem to be desirable. A second alternative considered involved the use of an energy equivalence involving particle velocities at

basement rock due to the various earthquake events occurring in the vicinity of the site. This led to the equation

=E (3.4.14)

i

where V^- represents the particle velocity at basement rock due to the ith

earthquake event some distance r^. away, and V represents the particle velocity of the representative earthquake at a distance r away. In order to use this equation, we must be able to determine V (or V^. ) given M (or ) and r (or r^ ) . The velocity attenuation equation

3-78
3-79
V = Cn 10 r (3.4.15)

discussed in later paragraphs of this section is applicable here, the subscript on r and V being omitted for notational convenience. Thus, the attenuation relationship involving M^, may be written

CM. -C

V. = 10 ^ ^ r. (3.4.16)

Substitution of V and V^. from equation (3.4.15) and equation (3.4.16)

into equation (3.4.14) enables one to solve for r in terms of M, and r^.

Although this approach has some appeal and tends to give reasonable

values for r, the stipulation of an energy equivalence is somewhat arbitrary

and in fact, turns out to be inconsistent with the basic seismic ity equation (3.4.1). In Appendix J of [3.11] the derivation of an alternate equation which is used in place of equation (3.4.14) is derived and is

b/C b/C2

V ^ =E V. (3.4.17)

i

It is seen to be similar in form to equation (3.4.14), but replaces the

exponent 2 with the constant b/C2 = 1.60 where b = 0.9 and C^^ = 0.563 as given in later paragraphs of this section.

Equation (3.4.14) suggests a possible interpretation for equation

(3.4.17). Instead of interpreting equation (3.4.14) as an energy equivalence, we may take the point of view that V is given as well as each of the

V^'s, and furthermore that all of the V^'s are equal. Then the upper limit

n of the index i becomes the unknown variable in the equation

n V? = n vj (3.4.18)

i=l

Thus the equivalence factor is n which specifies how many earthquakes

causing a site (basement rock) velocity are equivalent to one earthquake

causing the velocity V. In the case of equation (3.4.14), for example, if

the ratio V/V^. = 10, then n = 100. In the case of equation (3.4.17) one sees that for the ratio V/V. = 10, n = 10^'^ = 40.

3-80
Therefore, forty earthquakes producing a hard-rock velocity of = 1 are equivalent (from the standpoint of seismicity) to one earthquake producing a hard-rock velocity of V = 10.

This relationship is even more apparent from the relationship

derived in Appendix J of [3.11]).

also

log^QN A + 1 og 10^1 - C. (^°9loO

]

log^oV (3.4.19)

which comes about from substituting equation (3.4.15) into equation (3.4.1)

to eliminate M. This equation when compared with equation (3.4.1) reveals

the same linear form, treating the quantity in square brackets as a constant

with a negative slope of b/Z^ instead of b which appears in equation (3.4.1).

Thus it is evident that the quantity b/C2 is just the slope of the IoQiq N versus log-jQ V histogram which could be developed directly from the data

using equation (3.4.16).

Finally then, substituting for V and from equation (3.4.15) and

equation (3.4.16) into equation (3.4.19) gives the result

^ (M.-M) -bC^/C„

2^ 10 ^ r,

^

Equivalently, using equation (3.4.1) one concludes that

(A. -A) -bC./C„

E ^0 r.

•C2/bC3

(3.4.20)

(3.14.21)

In actually computing r, an approximation was made to reduce computing

time. Instead of treating each recorded earthquake individually where the

index i ranges over the number of earthquakes within the radius of search,

representative earthquakes of magnitude were computed for each 1/2 x 1/2

degree grid area and located at the center of that area. The i^^'s then re- presented the distance between the site and the center of each of these

grid areas.

3-81
Generation of a Hard-Rock Velocity Spectrum

This section describes how a hard-rock velocity spectrum is developed

'

from the Richter magnitude and hypocentral distance which are appropriate

for the building site under consideration. The approach taken herein is

parallel in concept to that proposed by Newmark and Rosenblueth [3.5]

in that a hard-rock velocity spectrum is established from the maximum ac- celeration, velocity and displacement that is expected at the site. Figure * 3.20 shows how a hard-rock spectrum is defined in terms of:

A^=maximumhardrockacceleration(g)

= maximum hard rock velocity (in/sec)

= maximum hard rock displacement (in)

Therefore, in order to define a spectrum, a relationship must be established between the Richter magnitude (M) and hypocentral distance (r) and the

maximum bedrock acceleration (A^), velocity (V^) and displacement (D^). Such

relationships are commonly referred to as attenuation relationships.

Donovan, see [1.4 ], has presented a survey of several attenuation re- lationships. The approach used herein is based upon the relationship between the site Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) and the site Richter magnitude and hypocentral distance, see equations (3.4.2) and (3.4.3). Also

using El Centre and Ferndale earthquake data it can be shown [3.18] that the

maximum soil particle velocity (V^) can be expressed in terms of MMI using

the following equation

log^Q

^s

" -''•973 + 0.375 MMI (3.4.22)

When taking into account the soil conditions at the El Centre and Ferndale sites it follows, see [3.20] and [3.21], that the hard-rock particle

velocity, V^, and the site Richter magnitude and hypocentral distance

related by the following equations.

Western United States (longitude >_ 105°)

log^pV^ = -1.625 + 0.563M - 1.403 log^gr (3.4.23)

o Eastern United States (longitude < 105 )

log^gV^ = -2.062 + 0.563M - 0.979 log^Qr (3.4.24)

The cut-off longitude choice between the western and eastern regions of

the United States is based upon:

3-82
All 301 3A 313 1 iy

3-83
(1) the knowledge that the great plains regions ends at

about 105° prior to encountering the Rocky Mountains

[3.22],

(2) technical presentations by several seismologists at

the May 1973 meeting of the Sei smol ogi cal Society of

Ameri ca

Comparing the above attenuation equation with that derived by Nuttli

[3.23] for the Central regions of the United States, one obtains -0.955 versus

the value in equation (3.4.19) of -0.979. References [3.24 and 3.25] develop

an attenuation relationship for particle velocity from underground nuclear

explosive data in Nevada to be -1.39. This value agreed very well with the

exponent - 1 . 403 . Empirical evidence indicates that the maximum hard-rock acceleration

and displacement are related to the maximum hard rock velocity. Figure 3.21

shows a plot of maximum hardrock acceleration and displacement versus velocity for the data in [3.18]. It is seen that the following relationships are appropriate:

Generation of Site Response Spectrum

The previous section discussed how a hard-rock velocity spectrum is

established for a particular building site. This spectrum is amplified by

the soil between the basement rock and the foundation of the building. In particular, expressing the site hard-rock velocity spectrum as a function of

period using the notation

log-iQA^ = -1.5675 + 0.7781 log^Q(V^) (3.2.25)

log^QD^ = -0.61 44 + 1 .1438 log^Q(V^) (3.2.26)

V|,p(T) = site hard-rock velocity spectrum

then the site spectrum can be written as

V site (T) = (DAF)^ X V^p{T) (3.4.27)

where

(DAF) = soil dynamic amplification factor

(in general also a function of period)

3-34
DISPLACEMENT (inches)

sC7>

{£>) NOiivnaiaDDv OO

3-85
The dynamic amplification factor of a site is a very difficult function

to characterize. Opinions range from the idea that all sites give random

characteristics, so it is impossible to model them, to the idea that all

sites are very predictable in their dynamic behavior [3.24]. The computer

program gives the user a number of options for computing this controversial

property. The options are as follows.

Opti on No . 1 : Compl ex Reference [3.20] discusses a methodology employed for modeling the

response of continuous, viscous damped, horizontally layered media

to shear waves traveling vertically through the media. The theoretical development of this method is attributed to Sezawa and Kanai

in 1931 and the soil response equation takes the form

at*- 3z \ dz^dt

where

= shear modulus

u=displacement

n

^

= density

Z = depth

h = layer number

t = time

= damping factor

As noted in [3.20] this method is only valid for periods less than

one second since surface waves, not shear waves, significantly influence the spectral magnitudes in the higher period regions. Also,

if the soil layers extend to hard rock in deep sedimentary deposit

areas, the amplification factors can significantly under estimate

a site spectrum in both the low and high period regions.

Option No. 2: Semi-Complex

The second option is the same as No. 1 with the exception that each

soil layer's shear wave velocity is calculated in the program using

the results of conventional static soil properties as opposed to

being measured in the field. The user must input for each layer:

(a) Damping of the layer {% of critical)

(b) Thickness (ft)

(c) Wet density (lb/cubic ft)

(d) Water content (% of dry density)

3-86
A discussion of the derivation of shear wave velocities from the

above static soil parameters and a guide for the estimation of

soil damping is presented in Appendix I of [3.11].

The remainder of the options presented herein calculate a soil amplification function which is independent of period. For this reason they are referred to as simple methods. The following options should only be applied

when limited soil data are available.

Option No. 3: Simple Method (a)

Wiggins [3.20, 3.21] has developed the equation confirmed by

Campbell and Duke [3.26],

V^^ = average shear wave velocity of the site soil (ft/sec)

= shear wave velocity of basement rock (ft/sec)

Under this option the user estimates soil density, layer thickness, and

water content. From this data an approximate shear wave velocity profile is calculated in the program and the average values are used in

equation (3.4.29).

Option No. 4: Simple Method (b)

If available dynamic data do not enable the use of Simple Method (a),

but the static data are adequate for deriving site shear wave velocities (either for one or multiple layers of soil) then this option

is to be used. Also, it is noted that this option uses equation

(3.4.29).

Option No. 5: Simple Method (c)

Medvedev [3.27] has proposed an approach for calculating the site

amplification which is essentially independent of period. His

equation is given by

0.5

(3.4.29)

P

0

average density of site soil (lb/ft ) density of basement rock (lb/ft )

, .503

2 V .301e -.0037h

(DAF)^ =

0

X 10 (3.4.30) V

P J

3-87
where

= P-Wave velocity of granite (basement rock) (ft/sec)

Vp = P-Wave velocity of site (ft/sec)

h = Depth to water table, (ft)

For various site characteristics, Medvedev [3.27] gives values for V see table 3.8.

Table 3.8 MEDVEDEV'S VELOCITIES FOR P-WAVE [3.27]

Material Vp (ft/sec)

Granite (basement rock) 18,383

Limestone and sandstone 10,856

Gypsum and marl 7,024

Rock debris and gravel 4 ,423

Sandy and clayey ground 3,618

Fill or soft soil 1,194

The values for h must be determined or estimated by the user in

addition to the specification of the material under the site.

Option No. 6: Simple Method (d)

Reference [3.20] has suggested a method for computing the (DAF)^

using equation (3.4.29) and knowing only the geologic description

of the material to compute V^j^. The equation is

V^^ = 41 .8 (ZT)^/^ (3.4.31

)

where

Z = depth of deposit

T = age of deposit in years

Table 3.9 gives the ages of the materials that are specified to be

located under the user's site [3.20].

3-88
Table 3.9 MATERIAL AGE VERSUS PERIOD

Era Period Age ( X 10^ years)

C a m n 7 n 1 f n U 1 U C c ri C

n nil u . U 1 1

r 1 ei SLOcene 1 .

fill '^»"i"/^v^irt ~% tf^tf i^udLerna ry 0 c

PI iocene \ b .

I'll 0 c e n

9 P.

III u 1 igocene J D .

A

Mesozoi c Cretaceous 93.

Jurassic 152.

T r i a s s i c 175.

r a 1 c U £ U 1 C r c rni 1 d n

1 Q 9

rcnnsy i vani an 9ecu. 9 0

l"iS5iSSippian 9 A t;

Utr V 0 n 1 a n

9 R/1 t 0 f .

o 1 1 u r 1 a n

"5J D D .

Ordovi ci an 390.

Canadian 41 5 .

Ozarki an 440.

Upper Middle

Cambri an 490.

Lower Cambrian 515

3-89
C . Natural Hazard Loading - Wind

General Comments

The "fastest mile" wind speed is used as input to the wind load generation program. Caution must be exercised so as not to use published wind

speeds based on averaging techniques that significantly differ from the

"fastest-mile" wind speed determination since gust factors to be discussed

in this section are dependent on the tvoe of velocity data used to characterize the structural loading. Thus, the determination of a gust factor

based on wind data from one averaging technique will not constantly describe

random fluctuation about a mean wind velocity based on a fastest-mile

averaging scheme.

Selection of Site Wind Speeds at 30 Feet Elevation

As the result of extensive work by Thom [3-28, 3.29, 3.30] using daily

fastest-mile wind speed data from 141 open-country stations, extreme value

statistics and instrument correction factors, annual extreme mile wind

speeds for 2, 10, 25, 50 and 100 year mean return periods at various locations in the United States have been calculated. These data are presented

in a form commonly referred to as Thom's maps. Figures 3,22 to 3.26 present the most recent of Thom's maps available at the time of this writing.

The mean wind velocities are given only for a height 30 feet above ground.

Table 3.10 presents Thom's wind data for Hawaii [3.30].

Although the physics of wind loading is indeed time dependent, at the

present time demands of practicality preclude a dynamic approach. Instead, an equivalent static approach that uses a mean pressure distribution and gust

factors is employed. The governing equation for the static approach is,

2a

(3.4.32)

where

P Equivalent static pressure intensity at height H (psf)

V

h Fastest-mile wind velocity at 30 feet from Thom's maps (mph)

3-90
3-91
3-92
3-93
3-94
3-95
height above ground (ft)

30 feet

air density (at 15°C, 760 mm of mercury)

surface roughness coefficient

shape factor

gust factor at height H

Table 3.10 HAWAII FASTEST MILE DATA (mph) AT SEA LEVEL*[3.30]

Return Period (years)

2 10 25 50 100

Leeward

Exposure 38 51 60 67 75 mph

Wi ndward

Exposure 42 59 70 80 91 mph

* The following comment applies only to Hawaii. Since the data

of table 3.10 is taken at sea level stations it must be con- verted to an equivalent fastest mile wind velocity at 30 feet

above the ground for a site at an elevation Z feet above sea level. The user must do the following conversion before en- tering the data into the wind program:

V,^n = V Z30 '30 30

Z + 30 1/7

where

V^Q = a velocity from table 3.10 (mph)

Z = elevation of site above sea level (ft)

^Z30~ fastest mile wind velocity at 30 feet

above ground for the site (mph)

3-96
Equati on ^3 . 4 . 32) applies to either a statistical or single-valued

analysis of wind loading. The statistical analysis is done using Thorn's

maps for all return periods. For example, at some arbitrary site we find

that Thom's maps yield the following information:

Return Period

(years

)

(1/N) N Vel oci ty

(mph)

2 (figure 3.22) 0.50

10 (figure 3.23) 0.10 h

25 (figure 3.24) 0.04

50 (figure 3.25) 0.02

100 (figure 3.26) 0.01

Where N is defined as the number of times per year a wind with a speed greater

than or equal to V^. (i = 1 to 5) occurs. Plotting the above data for the hypothetical site on a semilog scale

(see figure 3.27) allows the regression equation

log^Q (N) = - C2 (3.4.33)

to be fitted to the data. The coefficients C-j and are site dependent con- stant coefficients determined by a least squares linear fit of data of the

type given in figure 3.27. Note the similarity between (3.4.1) and (3.4.33).

Equation (3.4.32) may also be used for a single value analysis of wind

loading. This may be accomplished by using one value of and solving directly for p, independent of the statistical approach. It is noted that

need not be derived from Thom's maps. The user may select a wind speed which

is based upon a detailed local velocity study. Regardless of the source,

must be the "fastest-mile" wind velocity at 30 feet above the ground.

Site Wind Speeds at Various Elevations

Thom's maps only give the basic wind velocity at 30 feet above the

ground. Therefore, a relationship must be obtained in order to find the distribution of velocity with height. The most important factor affecting the

shape of the wind velocity variation with height is surface roughness.

3-97
Vj^ - velocity at 30 feet

Figure 3.27 Regression Analysis of Wind Data From Thorn's Maps

for a Hypothetical Site

3-98
Surface roughness is the cumulative drag effect of buildings, trees,

rocks, vegetation, etc., on the wind flow. Surface roughness does not include effects of local shielding of near-by objects. The variations of wind

flow due to near-by ridges and valleys, etc., are also not included in the

effects of surface roughness. Surface roughness is a minimum over the ocean

and a maximum in a large city. Based upon the principles of fluid mechanics

the mean velocity profile for turbulent flow at relatively low Reynolds

numbers is described by,

Vh = (^f (3.4.34)

If the reference velocity is taken at 30 feet, it then follows that

equation (3.4.34) becomes

30") (3.4.35)

The exponent a incorporates the influence of surface roughness. Based

on studies by Davenport [3.31, 3.32], as interpreted by Vellozzi and Cohen

[3.33], the suggested exponents are given in table 3.11.

Table 3.11 POWER LAW EXPONENTS FOR VARIOUS

TERRAINS

Description of the Terrain

Power Law

Exponent (a)

Gradient

Height

For open country, flat

coastal belts, small islands

situated in large bodies of

water, prairie grassland,

tundra, etc.

1/7 900

For wooden countryside,

parkland, towns, outskirts

of large cities, rough

coastal belts

1/4.5 1200

For centers of large cities 1/3 1 500

In table 3.11 Z is the height to the gradient velocity V, (the

y y point above ground where the velocity distribution becomes uniform).

3-99
Gust Factors

The gust factor coefficient is used to describe the effects of random

fluctuation of wind pressure about the mean wind pressure. The term "gust

factor" is a relative one. A 10 second average wind is a gust on a 1-minute

average wind while a 1-minute average wind is a gust on a 1-hour average

wind. Thus, a measure other than duration should be used for a consistant

evaluation of gust factors.

The method for the formulation of gust factors (Cg) in the wind load

generation program is based on the work of Vellozzi and Cohen [3.33].

Several formulations of the gust factor result in a single numerical

value for a building [3.2, 3 . 32], however , the approach of Vellozzi and

Cohen yields a gust factor which is a function of height and is also a function of the dynamic characteristics of the building and its surroundings. The details of the Vellozzi and Cohen gust factor formulation which

is the method used in this procedure are given in [3.33].

It has been emphasized that Thom's maps refer to a wind velocity in

terms of fastest-mile wind. Vellozzi and Cohen's gust factor formulation,

however, is in terms of a mean hourly wind velocity. The conversion of a fastest-mile wind velocity to a mean hourly wind velocity, is accomplished

using a formula proposed by Vellozzi and Cohen [3.33]. Reference [3.33]

uses gust factors for fastest-mile and mean hourly wind speeds and concludes

that both sets of gust factors result in the same loading on the building.

Thus, although gust factor formulation is dependent on type of wind data

used, the quantity of interest - the loading - is essentially the same for

both approaches.

A limitation of the gust factor formulation is that it applies to

situations where the principal wind loading is drag. Other loadings induced

by Von Karman Vortex shedding and by vortices shed from other structures are beyond its scope. Instability of the galloping and flutter types is also

not included [3.32].

Shape Factors

The shape of a building in the wind stream greatly affects the distribution of wind pressure over the structure. The shape factor coefficients

are designed to take into account the effects of the building's configuration on the wind stream flowing over, around, and through the structure.

The term "shape factor" is somewhat misleading in that it is not one number unique to one particular building. Instead it is made up of a series

of pressure coefficients which, in turn, depend on the building's size and

orientation in the wind stream. For example, figure 3.28 shows the pressure

coefficients for a typical building and how these pressure coefficients go

into calculating the shape factor in each building direction.

3-100
face C

e = Wind Direction

X

Plan View

Elevation View

0-10^

Roof Slope =

h:b:£ = 2.5:2:5

Pressure Coefficients on Faces A,B,C,D

Faces

e A B C D

0 .9 -.5 -.7 -.7

45 .5 -.5 .4 -.3

90 -.3 -.3 .9 -.3

(+) ^ Direct Pressure into face

(-) ->- Suction Away from face

Building Shape Factors

= (pressure co

= shape factor in x-direction

= (pressure coefficient on fa

= shape factor in Y-direction

(Cp)^ = (pressure coefficient on face A) -(pressure coefficient on face B)

(C )^ = (pressure coefficient on face C) - (pressure coefficient on face D)

P

Figure 3.28 Shape Factors and External Pressure

Coefficients [3.35]

3-101
In 1958 the ASCE Committee on Wind Forces [3.34] presented its findings

on wind forces on enclosed structures. Data from the ASCE, Swiss Building

Code, [3.35], Danish Building Code and the University of Iowa were presented

and discussed. Admittedly, the Swiss data based on wind tunnel tests were

the best to that date in the ASCE's Review. As recently as 1968, McGuire

[3.36] notes that the Swiss data is the most comprehensive for general use.

Since the Swiss data most efficiently describes the distribution of wind

pressure and includes the effect of wind direction on the external loading,

it is the procedure used herein for determining "Shape Factor Coefficients"

in the wind load program. More study in this area is certainly needed,

especially for turbulent flow on building structures.

Table 3.12 shows a sample of the structures that are included in the com- puter program for the calculation of "Shape Factors." A complete list of all

structures is given in the Users Manual, see Appendix E. Note that the Swiss

data are for specific building dimension ratios. In order to accommodate the user who may not wish to use the Swiss data, two additional options are provided from the ANSI Standards [3.2] for the calculation of "Shape Factors

Coefficients." Thus, if the building under study does not satisfy the Swiss

dimensional requirements, one may use the ANSI shape factors. If the user chooses, he may by-pass the shape factor available in the computer and input

his own selected values for the shape factors.

Internal Pressures

In addition to pressure loading on the exterior of the building, the

wind stream flowing around the building causes changes in the internal pressure of the building depending on the amount and location of openings, i.e.,

windows, vents, etc. Figure 3.29 shows a typical set of internal pressure

coefficients. Although internal pressures are present, their effect on the

frame action of the building for all practical purposes is zero since the

assumed uniformity of the change in internal pressure cancels in the specification of lateral frame loadings. Internal pressure coefficients are important in the design or analysis of individual walls, roofs and other local

features

3-102
Table 3.12 Building Identification by Code I Type Using Swiss [3.35] External

Pressure Coefficients

ITYPE = Building Shape Code

Gabled Roofs 0°-3°

L b A

hihzSL = 1:4:4

"7^ E G

A

F H

A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.3 -.4 -.4 -.8 -.8 -.3 -.3

45° .5 -.4 .5 -.4 -.9 -.6 -.6 -.3

90° -.4 -.4 .9 -.3 -.8 -.3 -.8 -.3

Gabled Roofs 0^-10°

h:b:il = 1:1:1

"A

E G

F H

D

A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.5 -.6 -.6 -.7 -.7 -.5 -.5

45° .5 -.5 . 5 -.5 -.8 -.5 -.5 -.4

90° -.6 -.6 .9 -.5 -.7 -.5 -.7 -.5

Gabled Roofs 0°-15°

hzh'.l = 2.5:1:1

^bH

C

E G

F H

A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.6 -.7 -.7 -.8 -.8 -.8 -.8

45° .5 -.5 -.5 -.5 -.8 -.7 -.7 -.5

90° -.7 -.7 .9 -.6 -.8 -.8 -.8 -.8

3-103
0-10° Slope =

Only Internal Pressure Shown

Internal Pressure Coefficients

e Mainly

Side A

Mainly

Side B

Mainly

Side C

0° + . 8 -.4 -.6

45° + .5 -.4 + .3

90° -.4 -.4 + .8

Figure 3.29 Internal Pressure Coefficients

3-104
The wind pressures calculated using equation (3.4.32) with a prescribed

shape factor Cp are only appropriate for calculating gross frame response.

This limitation is due to the neglecting of local wind pressure rises and

internal pressure coefficients. When considering gross frame response the

latter cancels and the former is assumed to be averaged out over the spacial

extent of the structure.

The estimation of window damage caused by wind pressure is a function

of the direction of the wind, exposure, external pressures and gust factors,

and internal pressures. While frame response considers only wind loading

along the line of action of the two-dimensional planar model, the estimation of window damage is based on wind pressures on all exterior walls of

the building in a three-dimensional sense. To accomplish this, the ex- ternal pressure distribution with height for each wall (windward, leeward

and sides) is specified by use of the external pressure coefficients. Next,

a determination of the internal pressure (or suction) coefficient is specified in terms of two parameters: the wall with the majority of the window

area (windward, wall, leeward wall, side wall(s) or a uniform distribution)

and a ratio of the open area to solid area of the wall with the majority of

the openings. Internal pressures are assumed to be uniform on all interior

surfaces at a given height. Note that while external pressures incorporate

the effects of gusting, internal pressures do not, due to damping provided

by restricted exterior openings.

Having now specified a distribution of external and internal pressures,

the net pressure loading on the windows is determined for each wall. In addition, changes in local pressures at the corners of the buildings are considered. This analysis yields a net pressure distribution with height

for pressure loading on windows adjacent to the corners within a region of

one-tenth the least building dimensions. Thus, five net pressure distributions are determined for the three-dimensional analysis of window damage:

four for the walls and one for the corners, see figure 3.30. The formulation of internal pressure calculations is consistent with ANSI A58. 1-1972

recommendations [3.2].
WALL C

INTERNAL

PRESSURE

DISTRIM BUTION

~~

1 T

WALL D

,1 W TYP.

EXTERNAL PRESSURE

DISTRIBUTION

'/-CjK Pg

WALL B

INTERNAL PRESSURE

DISTRIBUTION

FRAME

ACTION

PgW = LEAST PLAN DIMENSION OF BUILDING

PLAN VIEW

OF iTH FLOOR

(a)

FREE BODY

OF WALL A

IN PLAN

(b)

FREE BODY ANALYSIS OF WALL A (SEE b ABOVE)

CORNERS

-(Ck) Pg - (Ci) Pf = Pi

WALLS

(Ca) Pg - (Ci) Pf = P2

where

^A

=

C,, =

C.

1

Pg

Pi =

P2 =

External pressure coefficient Wall A (Figure 3.28]

External pressure coefficient for building corners [3.35]

Internal pressure coefficient [3.35]

Pressure at i^^ floor level approaching

building with gust factor included

Pressure at i^h floor level approaching

building without gust factor

net pressure acting at the corners for window

damage calculations

net pressure acting on wall for window damage

calculations

Figure 3.30 Specification of Net Pressure for Window

Damage Calculations

3-106
D . Natural Hazard Loading - Tornado and Hurricane

General

The extent to which a building is damaged due to tornado or hurricane

loads is a function of the user's specification of the wind velocity. The

procedure utilized herein requires the user to specify the wind speed for

a tornado or hurricane but presents guidelines to assist in the decisional

process

Tornado - General Comments

The Atomic Energy Commission has debated what the maximum tornado wind

velocity is for a number of years and has arrived at an extreme velocity

estimate of about 325 mph for computational purposes. Other estimates of

tornado wind velocities range from 100 to 500 mph [3.37],

The design of buildings to resistant tornado forces and the accompanying

problem of damage evaluation is perhaps the most complex problem discussed in

this report. At the time of the writing of this report considerable research

effort is being expended in the tornado risk area. Therefore, the procedure

presented herein represents a first step. Prior to presenting the approach

used herein, a few general comments about the current topics under study

seems appropriate. First, the classification of tornadoes as to wind velocity, pressure drop and other intensity parameters is felt to be very important. At the present time only Thorn [3.38] has presented a statistical

analysis of tornado occurrence and his data does not distinguish between

small and large tornadoes. The data only reflects the occurrence of a tornado. Serious attention is being directed at this intensity factor and it

appears that one scale (called the FPP scale) will be adopted by NOAA. Second, the correlation between the numerical values of tornado parameter values

must be more carefully studied before confident damage predictions can be

made. For example, a statistical analysis must be made of parameter values

such as rotational wind speed and pressure drop for a set tran s 1 a t i ona 1 tornado velocity. Certainly a correlation exists and it must have a significant statistical scatter which must be taken into account. Third, missle

motion during a tornado needs and is receiving careful attention. Damage

due to flying debris (often the debris is an automobile or a water tankl)

is considerable and only after this topic has received considerably more study can such items as window damage be confidently predicted. The questions are many but research is progressing at an accelerated pace. This

section discusses an approach which is state-of-the practice and by using it

good general damage estimates can be obtained.

3-107
The recommended procedure for selecting a tornado wind speed for use in

the detailed damage evaluation procedure involves the use of statistical

studies conducted by Thom [3.38]. In particular, using historical data. Thorn

discusses the probability of a tornado hitting a particular building located

within a 1° by 1° grid. This probability of hit is a function of grid area,

tornado return period for the site and the tornadoes path area. Therefore,

the user may for his particular building site evaluate the probability of the occurrence of a tornado during a structure's life or any time span he wishes

and also by selecting the width of the tornado path establish what the maximum tornado wind velocity will be.

The user evaluates the wind pressure loading on a building due to a direct tornado hit by using the same loading program as discussed in section

3.4. C.

Tornadoes are usually accompanied by severe pressure drops at their

centers which cause buildings to explode as well as deform, if entirely

closed. The internal pressure models in the wind loading program would underestimate this effect for a direct hit since the internal pressures from the

tornado would change as more and more windows failed. In the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method, only external pressure effects from tornado winds

are considered. The user should recognize this limitation when evaluating

tornado damage results using this loading model. It is believed that to include the pressure drop factor would be inappropriate due to the present un- certainty in the assigned values of the tornado parameters. Similarly, post

tornado damage inspections have not established this as the primary cause of

damage.

3-lOS
An evaluation of the damage to a building that does not suffer a direct

hit is presented with certain limitations. To accomplish such an analysis

the user would use the general wind loading program discussed in secti on 3. 4 . C

For this analysis the user must specify a value of tornado wind velocity

(this should be less than the wind velocity of a direct hit), assume a site

exposure and make use of both internal and external pressure coefficients.

This wind model approach suggested for the "fringe" areas is based on the

design example in [3.37] for wind velocity only, and from information presented in [3.39] which presented a gradient velocity distribution with building height to describe window damage to the Great Plains Life Building,

Lubbock, Texas.

Tornado - Probability of Being Hit by A Tornado

The selection of a tornado wind velocity should start by using the as- sumption of a Poisson process and evaluating the probability of non-occurrence of an event (in this case, not being hit by a tornado) using

where:

p = probability of not being hit by a tornado

L = lifetime of the building (years)

N = number of tornados per year hitting the site

(1/N) = return period of tornado

It then follows that the probability of a structure being hit by a tornado is given by.

The parameter N is a function of the tornado statistics and is specified as [3.38]

p

- e (3.4. 36)

(3.4. 37)

N

=

z f (3.4.38)

A

whe re

z mean path area of the tornado, square miles

f annual number of tornados per grid

A area of the grid wherein the site is located, square miles.

3-109
Using a normal distribution for tornado path data from Iowa and Kansas

tornados, Thorn assigns a mean path area of 2.82 square miles. The area of

the 1° grids of figure 3.31 is a function of latitude and longitude and may

be found from geographical tables. For convenience, table 3.13 may be used

to determine the grid area. Linear interpolation is suggested between values.

Table 3.13 AREAS OF 1° GRIDS (SQUARE MILES)

Latitude of Middle of Grid

25°30

30°30

35°30 ' 40°30

45°30 ' 50°30

Area (square

mi 1 e s ) 4300 4109 3887 3634 3354 2983

Substitution of equation (3.4.38) into equation (3.4.37) yields

= 1 - e-2-82 (Lf/A) (3.4.39)

as the probability of a site being hit by a tornado.

The following are examples of how the tornado probabilities are computed

Example 1 - Site A

Site: 41°N latitude

99°W longitude

f = 1.7 tornadoes per year (figure 3.31)

3634 - (^^) ( 3634-3345 ) = 3606 mi^ (table 3.13)

3-110
gure 3.31 Mean Annual Frequency of Tornadoes 1953-1962,

Parameter f [3.38]

3-ni
L, Structure

Lire \yrS)

Pq, Probability of

Site Being Hit by

Tornado (%)

10 1 . 32

20 2.62

50 6.43

100 12.45

Example 2- Site B

Site: 30°30'N latitude

80°30'W longitude

f = 0.6 tornados per year (figure 3.31)

A = 3887 mi sq (table 3.13)

L, Structure

Life (yrs)

Pq, Probability of

Site Being Hit by

Tornado {%)

10 0.43

20 0.87

50 2.15

100 4.26

Tornado - Selection of a Tornadoes Wind Velocity

Thorn [3.38] has presented tornado occurrence frequency as a normal distribution and the area felt by a single tornado as log normal. Thus,

, - /_] \ ^ " (3.4.40

^n V1760 / ^

^

where:

= path area (square miles)

V = 8.51 = natural logarithm of the mean path area, [3.38]

= 2.057 = standard deviation of V, [3.38]

n = number of standard deviations

3-112
The Thorn data extends only to an n = + 2.0, thus, the maximum felt

2 2 area observed is 172.6 mi and the minimum felt area is 0.046 mi . The velocity of tornado can be computed as a function of the area covered. The

engineering judgment that area and velocity are correlated stems from the idea

that a large area of coverage implies a wel 1 -devel oped and stable tornado. A small area implies that the tornado is partially developed and somewhat un- stable. That is, of course not true in all cases. However, the assumption

is reasonable and allows one to compute a velocity knowing the path area.

Equating 200 mph velocity with the lowest level of tornado area observation and 325 mph with the greatest area observation, it is desired to find

the coefficients and C-j which satisfy the following simultaneous equations:

^1 Velocity = (tornado area)

or Q 200 = Cq(0.046) ^

^1 325 = Cq(172.6)

C = 240 miles per hour

0

= 0.059

Thus, it follows that the estimated tornado velocity as a function of

thepathareais:

V(T)^ = Tornado wind velocity in mph

..059

, e^ + n a ,\ 0.059

= 240

[ ,,,,

- 2.40 (ZJ (3.4.41)

where + 2 _< n £ -2

It follows that corresponding to equation (3.4.38) one obtains

^n^

- A

(1/N) = return period = (A/Z^f)

(3.4.42)

3-113
Example 1 - Site A

n = 1,0, + 1 (user selected)

for n=+l, = 22.1 mi^, (1/N) = 100 yrs, V(T)^ = 288 mph

n=0, = 2.82 mi^, (1/N) = 750 yrs, V(T)^ = 255 mph

n=-l, Z^ = 0.36 mi^, (1/N) - 5,900 yrs, V(T)^ = 225 mph

Example 2 - Site B

n = -1, 0, + 1 (user selected)

for n=+l, Z^ = 22.1 mi^, (1/N) = 290 yrs, V(T)^ = 288 mph

n=0, Z^ = 2.82 mi^, (1/N) = 2,300 yrs, V(T)^ = 255 mph

n=-l, Z^ = 0.36 mi^, (1/N) = 17,850 yrs, V(T)^ = 225 mph

Hurricane Occurrence and Selection of Wind Velocity

Friedman [3.40] has recently developed statistics for hurricane occurrence and velocities similar to Thom's approach to tornado and wind. The

maps thus prepared are produced in figures 3.32 to 3.35.

The user must first establish whether he is going to analyze the

structure for a minimal, major or extreme hurricane. As shown in figure

3.32 this decision is directly related to the wind velocity. The figures

present the number of times in the past 100 years that the noted sites ex- perienced the various levels of hurricanes. If this number of times is denoted f^ then the hurricane return period is (f^/lOO) years. It is also

assumed that unlike the tornado, the hurricane envelops the entire grid and

therefore there is no area based reduction in the data given in figure 3.32<

In using figures 3.32 to 3.35, the tornado probabi 1 i ty-of -occurrence methodology outlined earlier can be used; however, equation (3.4.37)

becomes

Pq = 1 - e (3.4.43)

As an example, consider the New Orleans area. It follows from figure

3.32 that

Return period (75 mph <_ V(H) _< 100 mph) = 12.5 years

Return period (101 mph <^ V(H) _< 135 mph) = 25 years

Return period (V(H) > 135 mph) = 25 years.

3-114
Figure 3.32 Number of Times in the Past 100 Years That Segments

of the Coastline Were Affected By Minimal, Major and

Extreme Hurricanes [3.40]

3-115
104° 100° 96° 92° 88° 84° 80° 76° 72° 68° 64°

Figure 3.33 Number of Times in Past 100 Years, Path of a Minimal Hurricane (winds reaching somewhere

between 75 and 100 mph sometime during the

storm's life cycle). Passed through 1° Latitude

by I'P Longitude Squares [3.40].

3-116
Figure 3.34 Number of Times in Past TOO Years, Path of a Major

Hurri cane (winds reaching somewhere between 101 and

135 mph sometime during the storm's life cycle) Passed Through 1 " latitude by 1' Longitude Squares [3.40]

3-117
4 8

Figure 3.35 Number of Times in Past 100 Years, Path of Extreme

Hurricane (winds reaching more than 135 mph sometime during the storm's life cycle) Passed Through

1" Longitude Squares by 1° Latitude Squares [3.40]

3-118
Since the hurricane data are presented over a range in velocity a kinetic energy balance is necessary to obtain a single numerical value for the

velocity in each class. So doing it follows that:

minimal hurricane = 88 mph

major hurricane = 119 mph

extreme hurricane = 139 mph

The user must therefore be guided in his selection of the hurricane

wind velocity by the site location, the severity of the hurricane expected

and the structures life. Also, when using Friedman's maps to estimate

loading due to hurricane winds the assumption of fastest mile of wind mea- sured at 30 feet above the ground must be made for a consistent evaluation

using the wind loading program.

E . Structural Characterization

This section presents several structural modeling options which are incorporated in the program. The program requires the user to select which

option is appropriate for his particular problem. While later in this

section insight is provided into how to make this selection, it is essential

to point out that such a selection is often difficult, and no standard rules

can be constructed. To think that one can computerize this selection process would be professionally naive because it fails to recognize the individuality exercised by the architect and structural engineer in the building

design process. Therefore, while helpful suggestions are offered which are appropriate for a large general class of common buildings, it is important

to note that the addition of a small amount of professional input at this

stage of the damage prediction procedure by an experienced structural

dynamist can produce a significant improvement in the accuracy of the final

damage estimate.

Three general levels of detail are offered herein for structural

dynamic modeling:

• A detai 1 ed model

• A story-stiffness model.

• An empi r i cal model

It is noted that all of the modeling options lead to the same basic

dynamic characterization: building natural frequencies and modal displacements. These characteristics are used in a manner to be described later.

3-119
Detai Ted Model

Two options are available for the detailed modeling of the building

structure. Generally speaking, Option 1 is intended for steel frame type

buildings and offers the user convenience in being able to specify standard

framing members by code number rather than sectional properties. This option

must be used whenever diagonal bracing is present. Option 1 allows for non- rigid joints in the building by permitting framing members to be pinned, with

rotational springs inserted at joints to transmit moment.

Option 2 is intended for concrete buildings and must be used to model

shear walls since Option 1 has no direct shear-wall modeling capability.

Option 2 does not allow for non-rigid joints and does not accommodate diagonal bracing. Otherwise it can be used in place of Option 1. While the

beam and column inputs for Option 1 are tailored for steel structures, those

in Option 2 are tailored for concrete structures by allowing the user to input characteristic cross-sectional dimensions corresponding to rectangular,

circular, I, box and T sections. It is noted that this option will handle

buildings with combined steel or concrete frames and shear walls.

Both of the structural models use the stiffness method of structural

analysis. Materials are assumed to remain linearly elastic over the range

of response. All displacements are assumed to be small compared to the

overall dimensions of the structure. All beams and column members must be

prismatic and all connections which are not rigid are represented by rotational springs connecting pinned members.

The details of the analytical models are available in the published

literature. In particular, for Option 1 the program follows the procedure

presented by Lionberger and Weaver [3.41]. That procedure is an extension

of an earlier procedure presented by Weaver and Nelson [3.42]- The program used in Option 2 follows the method proposed by Clough, King and

Wilson [3.43]. In this method all beams are plane frame members with no axial deformations but with shearing and bending deformations, and all

the columns or shear wall elements are treated as vertical frame members.

Axial deformations are included for columns and shear walls. It is assumed

that plane horizontal sections remain plane as the column or wall deflects.

This model is usually referred to as the "deep beam" model for shear walls.

3-1 20
Story-Stiffness Model

The second general level of modeling is called the Story Stiffness

Model. If selecting this option, the user must specify a weight, , and a stiffness, k^. , for each ith story. The resulting homogeneous equations of

motion for the building have a diagonal mass matrix with elements m. (g denotes the acceleration of gravity)

banded and takes the form

w . /g

The building stiffness matrix is

[K]

-k-

-k

(kT+k2)

-ko (k2+k3)

-k. (ks-Hk^)

-k. -k

n-1

The numbering convention is such that the stories are numbered from 1 to n, beginning at the top.

Using this method for estimating story stiffnesses the vertical framing members are assumed to deform such that their ends are constrained

against rotation.

Empirical Model

The third level of modeling complexity involves the least user time to

prepare input but is the least descriptive of the building under consideration. It requires only that the characteristic depth of a building and its

height and/or number of stories be specified.

Various investigations and codes attempt to correlate empirical equations for first (fundamental) natural period (T-]) with measured data

[3.44-3.49]. It has been the experience of researchers that no one equation can consistently estimate T-j . The variables to be considered are ex- tensive and include: (1) amount, type and distribution of steel or reinforced concrete framing, (2) shear wall or shear wall and frame action, (3)

rectangular, L-shaped or U-shaped plan dimensions, (4) the variation of mass and stiffness, (5) the influence of non-structural elements, (6) an assumed dynamic behavior, (7) the extent of soi 1 -structure interaction, and

(8) the level of excitation. In fact, regression equations built from data

taken in one country, do not necessarily yield good period estimates of

buildings in other countries.
Figure 3.36 shows the scatter of first mode period data plotted against

the number of stories for U.S. frame structures [3.44, 3.50, 3.51]. Figure

3.37 shows the same trend for shear wall buildings as that for frame structures.

All of the San Fernando earthquake data was obtained from reference [3.50]

and [3.51].

These remarks serve to preface the suggested equations for estimating

fundamental building periods. The equations for 1 which are programmed are those recommended by the Structural Engineers Association of California

(SEAOC) [3.6 ], see figures 3.36 to 3.38.

It is noted that the computer program allows the user to input estimates of a building's fundamental natural frequency obtained by any method,

including his judgment. Reference [2.9] discusses some experience with using

ambient building periods to estimate earthquake building periods.

Selection of Modeling Options

This section provides insight into the selection and usage of the previously discussed structural model. Model selection is usually based upon

two underlying considerations: (1) economics associated with input formulation and (2) the modelability of the structure.

Certain buildings (e.g., modern steel or concrete frames with non- structural partitions) may be accurately modeled using the detailed

analytical model. That is to say that if such an analytical model is

developed from the structural plans of the building to include each

structural member, then the calculated values of the building's natural

periods and mode shapes of vibration can be expected to represent observed

behavior.

The engineer may wish an estimate of the building's dynamical properties for a building of the type described above, but may not wish to go

to the man-hour expense of compiling and inputting to the computer the data

required by such a detailed modeling approach. To answer this desire, the

first level modeling option may be employed with the user inputting beam and

column structural properties of each floor of a typical structural frame, or structural frame with averaged member properties (rather than representing

each frame individually) in each building direction. The structural properties may be obtained in either of two ways.

3-122
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3-123
1 -

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^ I I I I ' t _l I I I I I I L. 0 200 400

H^/D

600 800 1000

H = Building Height (ft)

D = Building Depth in

Direction of Vibration (ft)

T = Fundamental Period of Buildings

Data source - Ref. 3.49

Figure 3.37 Data DeveTo.^p.ed for Shear Wall Structures Relating

to PerWd Plotted Together With UBC Code Value for T

3-124
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3-125
One, an inspection of the structural plans will indicate the appropriate structural properties based on the building's particular framing system

and professional experience. Two, a "walk-through" inspection of the building by an experienced structural dynamics engineer can provide rough approximations as to member sizes and hence structural properties for input to the

detailed model. Of course, the "walk-through" approach is not recommended

unless structural plans do not exist or time dictates its usage.

A second general class of buildings exist which possess partitions which

certainly contribute significant lateral stiffness to the building frame.

Examples of such partitions are concrete block or brick. To hope to ac- curately model a particular inhomogenous wall material using a shear wall

analytical model may be unrealistic since the parti ti ons are generally not

continuous from floor to floor; yet some rational modeling technique must be

used. The Story Stiffness Model is recommended for this case. This model

requires the engineer to input to the computer program the resultant stiffness of the partition(s) plus frame at each floor. Estimates of these

quantities must be made by the engineer. This model is particularly appropriate for low rise buildings which exhibit "shear-beam" behavior as opposed

to "cantilever" or "bending-beam" behavior.

Certain buildings are so structurally irregular that the assumptions

made to force them to fit into the first two levels of characterization

would cause an analytical misrepresentation of their actual dynamic behavior.

There also exist many old structures which were built prior to the enforcement of strict inspection procedures and quality control of materials and

workmanship that are observed today. These same buildings might also have

suffered prior structural damage which has since been masked by plaster and

paint. To attempt to characterize such old buildings with an analytical

model that inherently assumes adequate construction procedures and no prior

damage would be an exercise in futility. In order to permit some sort of

rational analysis of the above mentioned structures standard code type

formulas are considered to be adequate to estimate their dynamic properties

within the framework of the limitations imposed. An alternative to code

formulas and certainly recommended would be to conduct full scale testing

of the structures for the determination of dynamic and static properties

from the measured data. Such a task should certainly be done prior to any

building modification dictated by the results of a damage evaluation study.

3-126
F . Structural Response

Response to Earthquake Loading - General Comments

The site motion response spectrum for a building site obtained as discussed in section 3.4B is used to calculate maximum seismic response. The user may elect not to use this procedure and the option has been provided

for input of any site motion response spectrum. The proposed procedure for

calculating building response is a response spectrum approach. A procedure

is used wherein damping variations with response level can be accounted for

in the analysis. Also, the user of the computer program may, if he desires,

with an input option incorporate modifications in the building response spectra which approximate the building's non-linear response behavior. Also,

with this option the building's natural periods of vibration are modified

based upon the amplitude of interstory displacements.

In order to provide an overview the following steps give a general

picture of the response computation procedure which has been programmed.

(1) Calculate building natural periods and mode shapes of

vibration.

(2) Set ductility equal to unity for the first response

iteration.

(3) Compute modal damping for a building ductility level of one.

(4) Modify base motion response spectra for damping.

(5) If user desires , modify damped structural response spectra

for ductility level greater than unity.

(6) Calculate building maximum interstory displacements.

(7) Evaluate the effective building ductility.

(8) Calculate building damping based upon ductility

evaluated in (7).

(9) Repeat Steps (4) through (8) until damping and ductility

converge

(10) Calculate maximum values of building response parameters

for damage evaluations.

The response spectrum approach for evaluating modal contributions to

total dynamic response has been found to yield reasonable engineering

approximations in the case of buildings subjected to base excitation

[3.5 , 3.52], The response quantities used in predicting damage include

the following:

t Floor acceleration

• Floor velocity

• Interstory displacement

3-127
The computer program allows the user to choose any one of three options

for calculating spectral response. The options are:

• Fundamental Mode Response

• Root-Sum-Square Response (RSS)

f Absolute Sum Response.

Response to Earthquake Loadings - Response Spectrum Amplification Factors

For Damping

The value of structural damping has an effect on the amplification of

the basement response spectrum. Figure 3.39 shows a plot of the amplification factor versus damping for each of three regions of the response

spectrum. Inspection of this figure leads to three observations. First,

amplification is greatest for systems with lower periods. Second, as the

damping increases beyond ten percent critical the slope of the amplification plot becomes small and an increase in damping value has relatively

little effect upon response maxima. Third, at twenty percent damping all

amplifications approach unity.

In reference [3.11] an analysis of 20 earthquake response spectrum,

obtained from the California Institute of Technology [3.53], was performed

for damping factors of 0, 2, 5 and 20 percent damping. The two horizontal

components were studied and the results averaged. The earthquake records

used were:

1 . El Centro , May 8, 1940

2. Ferndale, October 7, 1941

3. Kern County, July 21, 1952

(a) Pasadena

(b) Taft

(c) Santa Barbara

(d) Hollywood Storage basement

(e) Hollywood Storage parking lot

4. Eureka, December 21, 1954

(a) Eureka

(b) Ferndale

5. San Jose, September 4, 1955

6. El Centro, February 9, 1956

7. El Centro, February 9, 1956 aftershock

3-128
0 5 10 15 20

DAMPING FACTOR - 6(%)

Figure 3.39 Base Motion Amplification Factors vs Various Grades of Damping

(After Newmark [3.5])

3-129
8. San Francisco, March 22, 1957

(a) Southern Pacific Building

(b) Alexander Building

(c) Golden Gate Park

(d) Oakland City Hall

(e) San Francisco State Building

9. Hollister, April 8, 1961

10. Borego Mountain, April 8, 1968

(a) El Centro

(b) SanDiego

These earthquakes considered had magnitudes up to 7.7 and hypocentral

distances up to 90 miles. The mean pseudo velocity amplification factors

obtained from this study are shown in figure 3.40. It is apparent from

this figure that a general trend exists for amplification as a function of

both natural period of vibration and damping. A smoothing of the curves in

this figure produces the following expressions for mean response

ampl i f i cati on

0 < T„ < 0.2 sec

n —

(AF)g = [2.18 - 0.147 log^Q(T^) -0.633 log^Q (3 X 100)] (3.4.44a)

T > 0.2 sec

n

(AF)g = [2.28 - 0.633 log^Q (3 X 100)] T^ (3.4.44b)

where

(AF)o = pseudo velocity spectrum amplification factor due to damping

p

3 x 100 = percent critical damping

T^ = undamped period of vibration

The amplification factor values exhibit scatter about the mean amplifications shown in figure 3.40. The Coefficient of Variation, C^, for this

sample set of 39 earthquake components was calculated and it is shown in

figure 3.41.

The detailed analytical model computer program uses equation (3.4.44)

to amplify the site spectrum.

3-1 30
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3-131
O O O O in (N rH o in csi iH

001 X uoTt^PTJ^A JO r^uaTOTjjsoo

3-132
Response to Earthquake Loading - Response Modifications for Ductility

Response spectra plots are obtained assuming that the building responds

entirely in the linear elastic range. In order to extend its usage beyond

the elastic limit several studies have been made [3.54 - 3.56]- These studies

have been on el astopl asti c single degree-of-f reedom systems. For such

systems a term called ductility, denoted y, is defined to be:

_ Hiir + iiitu = (maximum relative displacement)

y - auci:ini:y (relative relative displacement at yield limit)

Therefore, for all values of ductility greater than unity the structure

responds beyond its elastic limit.

Comparisons made between response spectra computed for el asto-pl asti

systems and those computed for elastic systems reveal that the two are related by the ductility y. This result provides a means of adjusting elastic

response spectra to compensate for y > 1. The empirical equations recom- mended by Newmark [3.54] are given in table 3.14. Refer to figure 3.39 for

definitions of (AF)^, (AF)^, and (AF)^.

Table 3.14 DUCTILITY MODIFICATION FACTORS

(After Newmark [3.54])

Response

Type

Cal cul ated

Pseudo-Velocity Amplification (AF)

Acceleration

(AF),

Vel oci ty

(AF),

Di s pi acement

(AF),

Forces 1

1 y2y-l

(1/y)

Deflections y y v/2y-l1

3-133
Note that three factors are given depending upon which structural res- ponse parameter and spectral domain are considered. The domains are reflected by (AF)g, (AF),^ and (AF)|^ and correspond to amplifications of the same

type as are shown in figure 3.39. Since Newmark's damping amplification

factors are for use in design and hence are inherently conservative, the

J. H. Wiggins Company has studied the spectral amplification factors in

references [3.54 - 3.56] and have proposed adjustment parameters which re- flect an average of the analytical study results. Table 3.15 presents

these ductility modification factors and they are the ones used in the

computer program.

Table 3.15 DUCTILITY MODIFICATION FACTORS FOR USE

IN ANALYSIS

Response

Type

Cal cul ated

Spectrum Adjustment Factors

T < T*

y T > Ty

Force l//y" 1/y

Deflections 1

2tt (Maximum Pa r ticle Velocity at_SjJte)_

(Maximum Particle Acceleration at Site)

In order to extend the use of these single degree of freedom results to

multi-story buildings, an effective y must be computed based upon the res- ponse of the building. This may be done by first forming an energy ratio

of the maximum elastic strain energy computed from a linearly elastic

analysis, to the energy capacity of the building when all floor interstory

drifts are equal to the user prescribed yield interstory drift. If the vector

{z} represents the relative displacement vector associated with the former

state, while {z}^ represents that of the latter, then the energy ratio is

given by

{z}' [ K] {z}

{z}""" [K] {z},

(3.4.45)

3-1 34
The square root of this ratio represents an average of the ductiliti

defined at each story and hence what is herein defined as the Effecti ve Building Ductility . Such a ductility is defined as

(3.4.46)

In the special case of a single story building,

y = /eTe^ = A/Ay (3.4.47)

according to the usual definition.

Therefore, once a response state is established, equation (3.4.46) may be

used to obtain an effective building ductility and then the appropriate

values from table 3.15 can be utilized.

The modification of response spectra to incorporate ductility is an area of controversy. Besides the tentative assumption that the structure

behaves in an el asto-pl asti c manner, it is important to recognize that only

when the structure responds in a manner where one mode dominates the res- ponse that the ductility amplification factors cited in tables 3.14 and

3.15 can be used in a manner consistent with the way in which they were

derived. It is recommended that future nonlinear design studies be undertaken to consider the response of actual multi-story buildings.

Response to Earthquake Loading - Amplitude Dependence of Damping

The variation of modal damping value with amplitude of excitation is

understood to exist in buildings. Table 3.16 and figure 3.42 show two

alternate forms of this amplitude dependence. Herein, damping is expressed as a function of effective building ductility using response data from

the February 9, 1971, San Fernando earthquake.

The fundamental mode damping estimates cited in [3.50] were studied on

a building by building basis and correlated with each building's effective

ductility. This ductility was subjectively estimated using on-the-site

damage estimates, computer response studies for the building, and estimated maximum building base shears during the earthquake compared with code

design shears. The dots appearing in figure 3.43 represent these damping

versus ductility estimates. Because of the considerable scatter in the

data, only one curve is used to model the data and it was obtained using

a least squares analysis of data for both steel and concrete buildings.

3-1 35
Table 3.16 REPRESENTATIVE DAMPING VALUES

(After Newmark and Hall [3.52])

Stress Level Type and Condition of Structure

Percentage

of Critical

Dampi ng

Low , well be 1 ow proporti onal

limit, stresses

below 1/4 yield

poi nt

Steel, reinforced or prestressed

concrete, wood; no cracking; no

J U 1 M L O 1 1 [J

0.5-1 .0

Working stress,

no more than

about 1/2

yield level

Welded steel, prestressed concrete,

well reinforced concrete (only slight

cracking)

2

Rpin"fnK*rpH rnnrrptp with rnn<^irlprahlp

cracking 3-5

Rnl'f'pH UUiLCU UIIU/Ul r\ r\ / n k'Iup'I'pH 1 IVCLCVJ ^"hppl OLCCI ) wnnH WUUU

structures with nailed or bolted

joi nts

5-7

At or just

bel ow yield

point

Welded steel, prestressed concrete

(without complete loss in prestress) 5

Reinforced concrete and prestressed

concrete

7-10

Bolted and/or riveted steel, wood

structures with bolted joints 10-15

Wood '?trijrtijrp<; with nailed ioints 15-20

Beyond yield

point, with permanent strain

greater than

yield point

limit strain

Welded Steel 7-10

Reinforced concrete and prestressed

concrete

10-15

Bolted and/or riveted steel, and wood

structures

20

3-1 36
ONIdWVa IVDIliaO lN3Dd3d

3-137
3-138
The curve's equation based upon the San Fernando earthquake data is

(3 X 100) = percent damping for concrete or steel

buildings

= 2.16 + 5.2y - 0.74y^ (3.4.48)

For timber, bolted and riveted steel buildings, this formula, multiplied by a factor of two, is recommended and programmed for estimating damping. This gross relationship is based on experience [3.52].

Response to Earthquake Loading - Amplitude Dependence of Period

The computer program which preforms a detailed analytical damage

analysis allows the user the opti on of directly including a variation in

the magnitude of building period with ductility level. A computer algorithm

is included which relates the variation in period with ductility level for

an el asto-pl asti c response model. Appendix C of [3.11] presents the original

work of W. T. Thomson in this area and figure 3.44 summarizes his findings.

The computer algorithm utilizes the equation noted in this figure.

Response to Wind, Tornado and Hurricane Loading

As discussed in section 3.40 the wind loads acting on a building are a function of the building's fundamental natural period of vibration and damping. The latter quantity must be input by the user to the computer program

whereas the former is evaluated using any one of the three characterizations

detailed in section 3.4E. The user is advised to estimate the building

damping using his professional experience and, because of the lack of damping

estimates during strong winds, to use damping values from seismic response

studies. The forces acting on the building, while static in character, are

a function of the dynamic parameters of the building. Both tornado and

hurricane loads are based upon wind loads resulting from a prescribed wind

velocity and therefore the response procedure for these types of natural

disasters does not differ from that used for strong winds.

A force vector {F} is computed from a net pressure distribution along

the building by multiplying the pressure at each story, P^ , by the tributary story area A^ . Thus, the wind pressure force F^ acting at the ith

story is

F, (3.4.49)

3-1 39
3-1 40
A displacement vector {z} is computed from the matrix equation

{z} = [K]'"" {F} (3.4.50)

where [K] is the building's stiffness matrix. The interstory drift due to

wind loading is given by the vector {A} where

i + l ^i

1 < n

1 = n (3.4.51)

If the detailed or story stiffness characterization option is chosen,

see section 3.4E, then the building stiffness matrix is calculated

directly. However, if the empirical modeling option is chosen then only

the building's fundamental period of vibration and mass are available. In this latter case the building response is calculated using a simplified

analysis. Considering the building to be a uniform cantilever beam its

fundamental period of vibration can be expressed in terms of the roof deflection if the beam is assumed to be acted upon by a uniformly distributed

1 0 a d i n g , i . e . ,

3.524

Tn = fundamental period of cantilever beam

Elg

and

6 = deflection at the end of a uniform fixedsubjected to a static uniform load equal

weight divided by the beam length (i.e.,

building height)

wl^/8EI

end cantilever beam

to the total beam

building wei ght/

therefore

6 = (3.89 T. inches (3.4.52)

Since the total wind force acting on the building is known from the

load generation part of the program the total deflection at the top of the

building is calculated to be

Z-i = deflection at top of building

Total Wind Force on Building)

Total Weight of Building)

(3.4.53)

A straight line deformation shape is assumed to obtain interstory displacements. This approach is very simple and involves assumptions which can be

eliminated if the user goes to the extra effort of using a story stiffness

model .

3-141
G . Earthquake Damage Evaluation Methodology

This section presents the methodology which is used to evaluate the

damageabi 1 i ty of a building due to earthquake excitation. Two Damage categories are considered - sjtructural and nonstructural. Structural damage

is based upon the calculated level of interstory drift. Nonstructural

partition damage is based upon the level of floor velocity and acceleration

via an Effective Floor Modified Mercalli Intensity and window damage is

dependent upon interstory drift. All types of damage are estimated on a floor- by -floor basis.

Prior to proceeding with the details of the earthquake damage algorithm,

a general discussion of the philosophy behind the approach seems appropriate .

Any engineer who has performed laboratory tests realizes that the re- sponse level at which a test specimen fails is a random variable. Stated

differently, the value of the response level at failure is not the same for

all test specimens. The scatter in the values of the failure response

levels usually has a central tendency, and engineering experience indicates

that the scatter in failure values tends to be distributed about this mean

in a bell-shaped form.

The following hypothetical example is used to clarify the point. A frame (see figure 3.45) is acted upon by a force, denoted F. As the magnitude of the force is increased, the frame deflects laterally and its value,

denoted A, increases. At a drift of A = A the frame reaches its yield

y point, and at the greater drift value of A = A^, the frame reaches failure.

Now, imagine that this experiment is repeated many times (say, 100 for this

hypothetical example) and the magnitude of the failure drift is recorded

for each experiment. If these 100 failure data points are plotted against

A^ and a smooth curve drawn through them one would expect them to follow

a bell-shaped curve as indicated in figure 3.46(A). Figure 3.45(B)

shows the same data presented in an alternate from where the area under

the curve in figure 3.46 (A) to the left of represents the cumulative

percentage of failures of levels up to and including The vertical

axis of the plot in figure 3.46(A) is labeled the "Probability Density

of Failure" and the vertical axis of the corresponding S-shaped curve

in figure 3.46(B) is labeled "Percentage of Specimens failing at drift

iA^." Mathematical expressions can be written for both of these curves.

It follows that if one defines

X =A^ and I E A

3-1 42
(A) SIMPLE FRAME

A = A. A = A

DRIFT,

(B) FORCE - DRIFT CURVE

Figure 3.45 Description of Hypothetical Example

143
f

(B) S-SHAPED FAILURE CURVE

Figure 3.46 Failure Curves

3-144
then for the Bel 1 -shaped curve in figure 3.46(A), one has

f(X) =

1 ex p

2

1 X - X /W 2 a

a

and corresponding to the S-shaped curve in figure 3.46(B), one has

(3.4.54)

F(X) = 100

/21t o ex p

2

1 Z - X

2 0

dZ (3.4.55)

It is apparent from an inspection of equations (3.4.54) and (3.4.55) that

F(X) ~ 100 / f(Z)dZ (3.4.56)

0

The curves defined by equations (3.4.54) and (3.4.55) are the well-known

Normal Density and Distribution curves. In the above equations the two

constants X and a are given the special names of:

a = standard deviation of failure

X = mean failure

The mean is the central tendency parameter and the standard deviation is

the dispersion parameter. Large values of standard deviation mean a flatter

bell-shaped curve. An important parameter which is often used in place of

the standard deviation because of its nond imen s i ona 1 i ty is

C = = coefficient of variation (3.4.57)

^ X

The significance of the numerical value of the coefficient of variation is

evident from a study of F(X) at different values of N where

X = X (1 + NCy) (3.4.58)

In particular, table 3.17 shows the value of F(X) corresponding to various

values of N. Therefore, it is apparent that as increases, the product

of NCy increases without an increase in N.

3-1 45
TABLE 3.17 FAILURE PERCENTAGE VERSUS RESPONSE LEVEL

(^)

Percentage of Specimens

Which Have Failed

F(X )

Percentage of Specimens

Which Have Not Failed

1 -F(X)

0. 0 50. 0 50.0

0. 5 69.2 30.8

1 . 0 84 .15.9

1 . 5 93 .0.7

2 . 0 97. 7 2.3

2.5 99.4 0.6

3 . 0 99.9 0.1

The preceding discussion outlines the classic introduction of the cumulative probability distribution curve. However, a somewhat different point

of view is adopted herein for its application to damage estimation . For a particular building, one is not interested in the distribution of failure

characteristics with respect to a field of 100 identical buildings. The

concern, rather, is with the percentage of structural elements or components

which fail in a single building as a function of its response level. In general, many structural members comprise the primary or secondary structure

of one story of a building. As the building responds to earthquake induced

ground motion, the structural elements in that particular story are strained

to varying degrees for a single value of interstory drift, A. As interstory

drift increases, the strain in each member increases and corresponding to

three levels of drift, say < A2 < A3, one may find that 1%, 5% or 30%

of the structural members at that story are strained to their ultimate

capacity and therefore fail. Equation (3.4.55) is used to characterize this

percentage of structural members failing at a particular floor level for a specified amplitude of interstory drift. In particular, if the interstory

drift is equal to X = and and X have been defined then the percentage of structural components or members which will fail is F(X = X^),

i.e..

F(X ^o)

1 00 ^ xc.

'0

1 1 Z-X

2 exp

2 dZ (3.4.59)

3-1 46
structural Damage

The extent of structural damage experienced by a building during an earthquake is expressed on a floor-by-floor basis. For each floor of the

building a percentage of damage between 0 and 100 is calculated which re- flects the percent of structural members which fail for that floor (0 percent

is no damage and 100 percent is complete damage). This damage is dependent

upon (1) calculated interstory drift, denoted A; (2) interstory drift to yield, denoted A^ ; (3) ductility of component which can be expected prior

to failure, y^; (4) duration of motion at significant response levels. Also

inherent in the selection of a component's drift to yield and ductility to failure is its quality. This subjective factor will be discussed later, however, for the present discussion it is sufficient to note that the quality of

the structure is dependent upon its construction materials, supervision

during construction, etc. Insight into the selection of numerical values for

A^ and is discussed later.

The response parameter used to indicate the extent of structural damage is story ductility. Story ductility, y^, is calculated using the equation ^

" lA^i (3.4.60)

where

A^ = calculated interstory drift of ith story

(A^)^ = user specified interstory drift to yield of ith story

The interstory drift A^ is calculated in the structural response module of

the computer program and the interstory drift to yield (A^) is input by the user. Attention is now turned to response capacity.

The ductility which a structural component can experience prior to failure in a single load to failure test is denoted yf. This ductility

value corresponds to a monotonic loading to failure. To reconcile the

difference between a laboratory monotonic test value and a ductility to

failure that an in-place building member can experience prior to failure,

Wiggins and Moran have proposed the following formula based upon a regression analysis of el asto-plastic response (see [3.11], Appendix K).

(y ). = ductility to failure during an earthquake of Richter

*' ^ magnitude M for a building with fundamental period T^

^1

M 0046 e"

(Mf)^; l<_(yc^• -^^f^•

3-147
The concept of this factor (y^) is an important one and studies should

be made to see if the above relationship is appropriate for a wide range of

force-deflection relationships. To better understand this factor consider

figure 3.47. Because of the cyclic nature of dynamic structural response the

structural component can reach its failure ductility level with one single

large cycle of motion, or alternately from the cumulative yielding effect of

several cycles of response. This cumulative effect results from the properties of the structural components. A pictorial representation of this characteristic is shown in figure 3.47. In the earthquake problem the transient

character of the response (usually less than one minute of strong motion) can allow the structure to undergo yielding and yet it is possible that the com- ponent may never reach the failure drift level.

The building period and Richter magnitude which are to be used in this

equation have been specified or calculated as part of the Earthquake Loading

Module. This formula reduces the ductility to failure based upon the number

of cycles of fundamental mode response experienced by the building components during the strong motion phase of the earthquake.

It is recognized that the value of ductility to failure will vary among

the various structural members comprising any given story. To account for

this dispersion a parameter, denoted C^, is defined and associated with

(p^)^. . This parameter may be interpreted as a coefficient of variation when

damag ea bi 1 i ty is interpreted probabilistically.

Once this coefficient is specified and assuming that the ductility to failure is a normally distributed curve (i.e., S-shaped) then the percent

structural damage associated with the ductility at any floor level is un- iquely determined, see figure 3.48. The equation for the percent structural

damage at the ith floor is

Nonstructural Damage

The estimation of nonstructural damage in a building during an earthquake is a very difficult problem. Historical damage data have not differentiated between the financial loss associated with structural and non- structural damage (see Appendix H of [3.11]). However, it is apparent that

there exists a correlation between nonstructural damage and such factors as

(1) level of absolute floor acceleration, (2) level of interstory displacement and (3) the quality of the building.

The approach taken herein to estimate nonstructural damage is based upon

past research in single family dwelling damage estimation and professional

engineering judgment.

where

12

dZ .. (3.4.62)

coefficient of variation of i u^) ^ for the ith floor

calculated ductility of the ith floor

3-1 48
3-1 49
3-1 50
First, a general correlation exists between site Modified Mercalli Intensity and nonstructural damage (see table 2,1). Second, empirical

relationships exist between Modified Mercalli Intensity and maximum site

acceleration and velocity, see equations (3.4.20) and (3.4.21). Therefore,

the presented nonstructural damage estimation procedure considers each

floor of the building to be a potential damage site. The building response

calculations produce for each floor the maximum acceleration and velocity

and therefore these are used in

where

3.50 log^Q(A. ) + 10.28

2.73 log^Q(V.) + 5.16

maximum velocity of ith floor (in/sec)

maximum acceleration of ith floor (g's)

(3 .4. 63a

)

(3 .4. 63b)

to estimate the Effective Floor Modified Mercalli Intensity , I^.. Since two

intensities are possible, the computer program takes the maximum intensity

from equation (3.4.63) and estimates the percent non-structural loss for

each floor using the equation

Percent Damage

(ith floor)

10

4.62 + 0.552 I, 1 - Qr3

(3.4.64)

where

I^. = Effective Modified Mercalli Intensity of ith floor

Q. = Quality Factor for the ith floor (to be discussed in later

parag raphs )

Equation (3.4.64) is an empirical equation and is an extension of an earlier formula [l.l ] where the inclusion of the building quality factor

into the equation represents the extension. The empirical constants in

(3.4.64) were obtained from a regression analysis of the data presented

in [3.57 - 3.59]

The nonstructural damage associated with window breakage is calculated

in a separate computer module. Glass damage results from distortion in

the window frame of the type shown in figure 3.49.

3-151
3-152
The selected algorithm for window damage is based on an uncertainty

model concerning the binding or degree of fixity of a window as it cracks

during an earthquake. An assumption is that the glass breaks when it reaches

the drift value

2d. / h.

(Ag)^.

= y

' tr I (3.4.65)

where:

d^. = mean clearance of mullions on the ith floor windows

h^ = mean height of windows on the ith floor

b^. = mean width of windows on the ith floor

(Ag)^ = drift to failure of window glass on the ith floor

Uncertainty in the mean mullion clearance, d^, produces uncertainty in the

window drift to failure, (Aq)^.. Therefore, it is readily apparent that

associated with a calculated interstory drift for the ith floor, A^. , -one can obtain a percentage of windows broken which depends, in addition to the above

parameters, upon the coefficient of scatter of the drift to failure of the

glass, (Cyg)^-. The percent of windows broken at the ith floor may be

expressed as.

Percent of Windows\

with broken glass

on ith floor

100 ^

(Ae).(Cyg). 0 exp

(^G^•(CvG^•.

dZ

(3.4.66)

Building Quality Factors

The previous section introduced the concept of a building quality factor, and it was noted that the level of both structural and nonstructural

damage depends upon this factor. Therefore, to give the computer program

user some guidance in evaluating the quality of a building and its parts,

qualified professional engineers in the field of structural damage investigations present herein their judged opinions of "Quality" regarding structural and nonstructural elements. These engineers, Donald F. Moran and

Roy G. Johnston have prepared table 3.18 for the structural materials

most commonly encountered in practice^ Donald F. Moran prepared

quality rating table 3.19 for nonstructural categories.

3-1 53
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3-1 56
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O r— 1- >> 0) o l| o • +J 01 a> +->

O l/> f

o» *—

_

QJ

O 0 " 0 •1- Ot S f— o E U I. CL O t 4—* t— <4- to >, O' •-> S • 0) Al ro 0^ Q. OJ o O <_) r

ro • rO •r- QJ 0

(J (/) (/) 4-> 0) <U 0>

O •o

C «t- 3 t/> roO ••- 0) c •«-> (O • i. a> XJ a> c c "o c C +J (->

C coo 1— 3 >> o +J O s. ro OJ to o •>- •4-> • O E ^ o ^ O- 1

CT

C -1-

O CT r— «- Q.-(-)

O lOO QJ ro to oa XJ Q.<4- ^

*TM oo o +-> ^ 0) s- to "O (U OJ i- 1

c -4—' OJ ro O 0) o -o lO T3 ro 1— c XJ T3 o S- o T3 1— •>— ro o -o S- S- U

QJ -(-> 0) T3 <0 S. <i} iC •I- ro 0) t»- 4-> OJ OJ QJ ro OJ +-> ^ QJ Q. OJ

O +-> XJ QJ

C 0^ c Ol a> T3 ro lO S- c to +J +J +-> 3 ^ C rO

C ro I-) ^ to s. 'r—C

-C +J !-> r— 0) x> 4-> CO 3 •1— 0) 1— ro ro

O ' ^

1—

O QJ i~"

C

(o ••- o to

O ro 01 -C QJ =tfcO O) 0) s~

O 3 S_ M- +-JN Ol o OC

O > 0 0 J S S_ O •r- C .— 5 to O X3 Q. 3 S- Q. CO O" U O ro *^ to 03 ro Z 0 (/) 0

fV- -C to 1 1 1 CD J- 1 •r- -O >> 0) t/> I XJ 01 1— J3 o 1 i C c

<— > S- E to E c •- E * QJ

QJ

O (U 0)O U. LlI 3 !-> to to to . s s_ Q-S _I f "m ol 

f—

O QJ T3 1— ro c CT >^ QJ to oil

^5 I/) Q.

O rO ro S- QJ

OO ^ 4— !->

C 1— __ 3 J*

— XI Q. s- . :^ +-> x>

O

O to ^ (—

C -r- ro CD •r- O Ct Q. . (/) o; a> to to QJ lO Q.+J nt" *^

•t- +J 3

ro

O rO 0) o . 1/1 S- -!-> +-> Q. 1— ro o m

OO to CO 4-> CT to 0) to to QJ r— rO to 0) o •r-J O O to 1 OJ E •-> ro >— XJ C O) -Q O 3 to E +^ <4- -•-> OJ T3 S- S- 0) O %~ a; E s- E -Q cr >, QJ s- rv O 0) +j a> OJ Al i o 3 +-> QJ O) 1— -!-> QJ

"Irt ro

O to • ro

r—y

C7) -Q (/I c 4->Q s- 1— to E - x> E • ro +->

O 4-> QJ S- </) 3

>_ c i/i e >> c ro S- o O O) to < s- 1/5 3 c OJ 0

h— •1- 4-> QJ to o r—

O cn «4- o s_ XJ sO c cr to to ^ !-> XJ +-> •r- 0 E .— E o c c Q. QJ O <+- O 01 , S- to •r- QJ 1— +-> 1 Q (O o 0) •r- XI -O ro o (/> S- i. Q.+-> iS_ -Q O 0) X3 o 0) Q. S_ 3 O to c -!-> CC c: rt ^ to c U O ro 14- 3 C XJ

—

f n 1- 4->

O 0) S- ro >> o OC QJ 3 o roO 3 O -C S_ Q. 0 OJ -C T3 fO ro -O ro Q. to 4-> S- ro 01 OJ C I— +-><_)+->«*• u

O) 4-> l/> S- 1— 0) to a. <u !-> (/> C7> 4J " s- • to •(-> (O Q.4-> fO c to TJ +-> s_ 1— CT)>— X> T3 J3 a> -c 3 1— to S- XJ XJ •r- XJ S- ro o ro XJ OJ 0 0

CO •1-

C •>- 0) 0) 3 to 0) S- ro lO 0) >> OJ Q. QJ XJ QJ OJ 3 CL to QJ \A 1

01 to OJ t|_

+-> 0> ns 4-> -O to S- +J S_

O -Q I— -a ro

O c ro r— c +-> 1— QJ 0 to c C

(J S- 4-> to 1

r— CT>

O

u •1- 0) E r— XJ t. S_O 1— L.

m~^ 1.

— I— 1— QJ <o 3 C

ro 3 4-> OJ O) 0) 0) c c +-> 3 Q. S- 0) 3 OJ 4->

O 3 -rO *-> ro

O 0 QJ !-> a. s- 0 01

Q to "O -!-> 3 3 •-- o l/J

Q OO Q. E u. ^ to t|- +-> (J OO 3 (J CO 3 OO to 1— 0

BLE X)

1— +J Ol

(0 "O x> to to

L.C OJ 0) O) ro tn 3 fO a> 4-> S- O O 1 (U >> XJ

s_ 4-> c 3 ro OJ 0) i. S- S- 0 E

<u (J

— 1— sO S- s- -!-> c: QJ 0 3

+-> 3 0) n3 o Q. Q-O. Q. to

O JH 3 to

S- OJ 4J

u c IA E >> a.

+j !-> at 0)

O ro •r- >> oo 00 s: Q o ro O z: 1— Q. CD

3-1 57
to 1 , -o CD • ro

OJ 1 1 c TJ • >> S- c >> •t- to CU s. cu 4-> cu >> 3

•r- S- +J 3 S- ro e +-> o i- +J 1

c: S- to

O 4J o •r— 3 C

C

O

s- Q. • o • ro cu -C s_ •1— IZL ro

O 3

in (/I to ^ C3. >, CJ o O

O -i-> S- s_ l/l

O S- ca CU ro O J3 C E <o to o -C ro ro Z +-> S_ 1

E O S- ro !-> cu u +-> CU E >/> 1

= O -i- ro cu S- c 3 r— , 1— •»-> TJ -Q CJ> CU -Q cu +-> o cu +-> T3 3 u TJ • O

II c <U •rO c o o E fO

C CU i- -)-> <-> E CU ro cu C Q. ro +J ro -c cu O ro cr o t <o S- 3 ^ i. t— > to - to 1

S- 4-> CU

(U >> CJ

O to - _!Z s- to ro -O

O 1- Ol • X) <0 -r- M- a. C7) >> to +J o to cu (/> •!— O ro CD

s_ 1— 4-> c >» c - TJ %- cn-i- ro

C E iC o 0) •1— CD •1— to CU c c S >> C3. TJ -f- r- O o CL-C 3 CU <— C TJ o > -c cu CU 1— <U t- ^ E

00 a. l/l +J

O i- TJ •r—

O l/l

O TJ ro cu

X o> SO

O ro 1— •r- O c C (O ro C 3 +-> •I- CU C O C S_

LlI OO 3 (O

—> ro ( 3 +J 2: It- lO ~T~ to to r3 Q. ro <4-

OQ-s: T3 "O TJ o CU C CU o C7> 1— (O 1

o TJ S- T3 • C •1— ro CU ro CU Ol

—J nj -c ro 4_) S_ 4-> cn >>

C

<: E C !->C CU

O S_ c •-> SO -r- Cd n3 S; •> T3 -C O •r- 0) c x: E

S- T3 _i TJ (J c:

O E 4-) (O

OO ro 1— «- s- O • "o a) rO !0 c c: </) c s_

c_> II ro 1—

O Ol t. ro »-> 3 •> C7) ro ro ZD >1 TJ O <T3 S c ro to &- C o cu c E

oc +J cy

O 00 +J >>•<- ro cu r— CU s: o •.- S_ t—

1— •r—

O CU

— E TJ '

cu

— E C E T3 ro ro oo 1

E S O. ro 1. Q. CU cu CJ ro ro CU +-> S- z. (O cu S_ ro rO cu 3 o •- S_ S- (J S- 3 o 13 CT o to XJ TJ 1- o *o > S- ro S_ O +J cr fO cu o. cu • cu CQ C "O CU cu O E CJ

S- o T3 T3 ro d) 3 >> to +J E '—

C t|_ 3 C CJ3 CO) d O t. +-> s- cn-r- O c^ OJ C ' O > (U cu +-> cu o 3 to O CJ c 3 +-> cu •r- C +-> Ll. Q.^ Q. 1/1 Q. S l/> "O -C 3 o to = 3 CU CU to

(/) -l-> to ro Q_ 3 U S- i/j (J TJ ro «^ -»-> i- E

CO •1- 3 r— 3 O >.+->

a +-> ro ro

C .— \ 0) c cu o

C3 C>0 S C>0 Q. 00 +J CD c/> ro to <4- ro 1 UJ 1— ^ o o +-> z:»—

1—

<:

or

>- 1 •»-> = 1. s_ • 1— C C\J - O T3 cu cu 1—

o. o 3 \TJ t»- a» TJ 4-> s_ _J -J +J O — C O <U 1- C to 3

ct s: E 3 +->

O ro ro +-> =» OO >> c +-> O CU OJ -C r— O

cr o 1— ro

O to 1_ TJ i. (J

— Q. 3

II

U E--~ »— i_ ••- <a ro •!- <J

C rO Sro O rO TJ CU cu U 01 to C ro +-> TD !-> czy CU s- CU 3 CU r- 1— 4-> O CU C to 1

•a TJ (U E r- 3 CJ t— Z ro

•rC • C J- ro

O +-> roO <—O

CO x> (0 T3 i— CU

— ro 3 CJ 4J ro TJ ro CO +J o o ro Q. CU •4-> to CU +-> CU 3 • -o

UJ o TJ J- lO

C T3 o ro -C

O cuO CU 3 TJ 1 C3 CU 3 3 ro 0) 3 O. I— +-> C to i- >i E QJ CO E ^ +J to Q. S- S- Q. CU -r- ro C O J- ro to S- «c O O O »-> cC 3 i. to »»- C S- O

1— 1/1 ro 3 (-> TJ ^ to 1— ro to E C

O t»- TJ -C

a.+-> i. o O

O -u 1— ai CU rO ro •r- to

OO

>>•*-> +-> c O

C

O o 3 C r— r— CU ro

OO

C

(O to

— 3 <0 +-> U_ -1- o CD ti_ a: E +J 3 ro

+-> toc c I/) o

O) CD

C (31 to c c +-> S- s- CU c s- o eu cu to cu ••- cu a. +-> E cu l/l r-,- 3 E -Q E S- TJ £= ro 1— 4-> ro E O cu ro S- c cu •r- <0 <U S- CU o a. 1— ro > C3 U. 3 CQ U_ S

3-1 58
i/l cu

-!-> +-> QJ >> c ^ S- 3 CJ c o CJ o

t/) 4-' 3 CU Uj o l/l O ^ )-> o> o ro o E C +->

t/1 re Dl e re CU

II ** (J o cz • o Q) <U >- o 5-, QJ x: 3 (O CD' (-> o o "O i- o o cr CJ

S- o c: e c s_ s- o i- "O CO CO o o <a fO M— o <u +-> 4-> CO 4- E CL o E S- </) "O t/1 ro c >> CII. o o na QJ E '

>> ct

00 Q. cu S- -C o T5 QJ QJ S- >

s»

O CJ cu QJ "O S- o -1-J o c S- CU o QJ o

Q. 5 Lu fO ID a. ^ o cu

s_ o o 1 3 •4->

CO Ct "O ed CO 1

-J +-> 3 cu •—

S- o <o 4— • 3 (-> 3 O

ID i- ^-J 3 l/l fO o O 1

C\J o fO

O T3

to +-* 3 CU o 4-* ID ^3 II ^ S- -!-> +-> CO (0 E O +J CU o

h— CD* e CO 73 Ol • o o CU na co

O l/l cu +J o c: s- **" QJ O S- o C -l-> o o E T5 E S- Q) • O ^TM (U o -C <o • Q) (O 3 "O

"O fO lO o E -O o S- CT) <J s~ c: o cu

CU 3 &- 4- cu <u !-> c U.

C S- u- o +-> >)

Z3 CD' (J s- I/) o 3 o > o fO r— T3 1— CO 1— CD

Li. oj -o -c (J '

(O r— QJC (U

O (J CU <

+-> 'r— OJ Ol QJ -i->

C c O

C s- CU QJ 3 QJ 4-> ••- +->

O o rD ox: Q. s Ct: C/) C/) Ul c C ) I

o£ o

£= H— (O o ' ' cu e— cu —J CU S- <TJ CU 5

CO

O +J s

(U -C (U CO

II s-o o sc

cr> £:

l/l 3 • • ^ c •1— S- 0) 0) QJ o o 4-> 1

o 1— <U •1— CO ~o -Q .a l/l "O 1— S. CO (O (O ro CO o T3 CU 3 O o CJ QJ o CU 3 !-> •o 3

LLl CD o O c T3 -O o

_l t. >> 3 CO CU CU CI. Q. Q. 1— o S_ S- Q. CX C 4J CU o o <: <c =t '— "O 1

c O l/l E QJ QJ

l/l lO

O CJ -l-> 4J QJ >^

(U (TJO S- c c o o O +-> 3

cei E +-> c<- lO (T3 CD

•-> 4->

O CO l/l T3

O) CT) Q»

C l/l QJ

(U CO <U CO e <a QJ <o c Q) <o >> QJ c o (/) •!— Q. O l/l 3

C3l +-> 1 (/) E cu QJ ro s_ C31

C CT QJ E s_ 1— +J (O c S- O QJ -o L. Ol s- (-> O 3 ro 3 s_ •r- CO > c (0 •1- (O o C_5 2 O H- Ll_ UJ o lO C3 CO S

3-159
The damage evaluation program uses the quality of the structure in

two separate ways. First, as direct input to the computer program the user must specify the quality of each floor of the building. This quality

factor only relates to nonstructural components and the values input are used in equation (3.4.64). Table 3.19 is presented so as to assist the user in the selection of nonstructural quality factors (note, one quality

factor is input per floor). Since it is possible that different quality

ratings may exist for each of the component types noted in tables 3.18 and

3.19 the user must average the ratings and obtain one rating value for each

floor. The final floor rating need not be an integer. The second way in

which building quality is utilized is indirectly through the selection of

the drift to yield and the ductility to failure of the building's structural

components. Table 3.18 is presented to assist in the establishment of the

quality level of the structural system components. Later in this section

it is shown how this latter quality is used to estimate drift to yield and

ductility to failure. Therefore, in summary the quality factor for

structural components is used to estimate drift to yield and ductility to

failure.

Estimating Drift to Yield and Ductility to Failure

The estimation of structural damage using the methodology presented

herein requires the user to input on a floor-by-floor basis his estimates

of drift to yield, A^, and ductility to failure, y^, for structural framing,

shearwall members and floor diaphragms. To assist in this respect three

professional engineers have presented their estimates of these values for

various structural elements and quality factors. Tables 3.20 and 3.21 con- tain these estimates. It is apparent that the scatter among estimates by

qualified professional engineers can be considerable. However, it is ex- pected that the scatter would not be as great if attention were focused on one actual building.

If the engineer does not wish to use the guidelines presented in tables

3.20 and 3.21 he may (1) set values for the parameters based on his own professional judgment, or (2) attempt to find test results which provide

parameter estimates for his particular problem, see [3.11]. To assist the

engineer who wishes to utilize his own professional judgment the following

comments are appropriate.

3-1 60
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LO CM f~~ CM CO CO

10 o o o o O o o o O o

(U o o o o o o o o O o

s: • • • • • • • • • •

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<u o o o o o o o o o o 1

•

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3-161
to oo

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s:

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3-162
The load deflection characteristics of simple steel and/or concrete elements is reasonably well understood. For example, figure 3.50 shows a typical

load deflection curve for structural beams and beam-columns. In each case

the shape of the curve is basically the same. The question to be answered is

what values of drift to yield and ductility to failure can be inferred from

data of this type and observed building response during earthquakes? Two

alternate approaches to answering this question appear to be appropriate.

Prior to discussing these approaches, it is to be noted that since there have never been any detailed measurements of interstory drift for buildings subjected to severe earthquakes, no method can be stated as best.

One approach to specifying drift to yield during earthquake response is

to relate the drift to SEAOC recommended design drift levels [3.6]. In particular, the recommended design drift limitation is 0.005. The basic notion

now is to use one's professional experience to specify what multiple of this

0.005 value corresponds to a drift at which story yielding occurs. One may

use a multiplication factor of unity but any design engineer knows that many

factors of safety exist and the factor should be greater than unity. A com- plete study of the San Fernando building response data is not yet complete.

However, it was observed that building response exceeded code design base

shears by up to two without any observable damage. One could infer from this

that it is possible to exceed the 0.005 drift by approximately a multiple of

two and not experience damage. In fact, the judged factors in table 3.20

indicate such thinking. Therefore, one approach which could be followed is

to relate ones estimate of yield drift levels to design drift levels.

A second approach to estimating drift to yield involves conducting an analytical study of one of the building stories. This study should be con- sistent with the analytical modeling assumptions which were discussed in section 3.4E. That is, if a story stiffness model is used then only column

stiffness should be considered and drift to yield should correspond to beamcolumn, shear wall, a braced frame, etc, values. However, if the detailed

analytical building model is used then a more refined story model is appropriate. Axial shortening and joint rotation should be included. One

approach to analytically modeling such a story drift to yield relates to common laboratory modeling techniques. That is, if the frame is a rectangular moment resisting frame then column mid-height inflection points allow a no moment assumption to be made. Then, detailed linear or nonlinear stiffness matrices may be used to calculate the force deflection behavior of that

floor level. Nonlinear force deflection relationship of the type shown in

figure 3.50 are examples. From this data one can then estimate story drift

to yield by systematically using component forces-deflection relationships.

3-1 63
Loco I buckling observed

Deflection

3-164
Which option is correct? The approach recommended herein is to do an analytical study utilizing laboratory component test results where possible

and then compare the calculated drift to yield with experience and the latest

laboratory test results.

Comments on Estimating Coefficient of Variations for Input to Computer

Program

This section presented three damage evaluation equations, (3.4.62),

(3.4,64) and (3.4.66). Two of the equations (3.4.62) and (3.4.66) involved

a coefficient of variation. The user must input to the program his estimated

value of these coefficients of variation. The mathematical definition of this

statistical term is straight-forward, see equation (3.4.57), and the user may

use the definition to estimate the coefficient. Alternately, table 3.23 ex- presses the coefficient of variation is a percentage of the mean for three

categories of confidence.

Table 3.22 GUIDELINES FOR UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION

Level of

Confidence

Coefficient of Variations

as a Percent

excellent below 5

f ai r 5 to 25

poor above 25

An alternate way of quantifying this coefficient is presented in table

3.23. Therein ninety -five percent confidence range about the mean is related

to the coefficient of variation. Consider for example the case where one is

ninety-five percent confident that the true value of the parameter (always un- known) is between plus or minus twenty percent of the mean. It then follows

that the coefficient of variation is 0.10. The numerical relationship given

in this table is based upon a normal probability density function and if an alternate distribution is more appropriate a corresponding table follows

di recti y

3-165
Table 3.23 CONFIDENCE RANGE AND UNCERTAINTY

QUANTIFICATION

Ninety Five Percent

Confidence Interval

about the Mean

Coefficient of

Variation as a Percent

(Percent)

+ 10 5

+ 20 1 0

+ 30 1 5

+ 40 20

+ 50 25

+ 100 50

H. WIND. TORNADO AND HURRICANE DAMAGE EVALUATION METHODOLOGIES

The damage experienced by a building during strong winds is estimated

from the building interstory displacements and floor level wind pressures.

The former response parameter is used to estimate structural and partition

damage whereas the latter parameter is used to estimate window damage. Failure of walls due to normal pressure loading and glass breakage due to interstory drift are not considered to be significant failure modes.

Wind damage is estimated on a f 1 oor-by- f 1 oor basis and varies from zero

to one hundred percent for each damage category. Analogous to the earthquake structural damage algorithm, an S-shaped curve is used to define damage

variations about a mean damage value.

Tornado and hurricane damage is evaluated using the same procedure as employed for strong winds. The only difference is that instead of obtaining

a site wind velocity directly from Thom's maps, see section 3.4C, the user must specify a tornado or hurricane wind velocity. To assist in the

selection of such a velocity magnitude, section 3.4D provided guidelines.

3-1 6G
structural Damage

The ductility associated with a particular building floor is obtained by

dividing the floor interstory displacement by the floor drift to yield. As discussed in section 3.4G, the drift to yield is established by the user

and depends upon the quality of the building. The damage associated with the

calculated ductility is obtained using an S-shaped curve identical in shape

to that used in the earthquake damage algorithm. In particular, the percent damage is calculated as shown in figure 3.51 with 50% damage corres- ponding to = 1.

A dispersion parameter is used to characterize the steepness of the curve and it is noted that this coefficient of variation or dispersion

parameter, C^^, is in general much smaller for wind than for seismic analysis.

The selection of a value for this coefficient can be done using table 3.22

While for the earthquake problem the coefficient of variation represents

the scatter in which is a function of the variables p^, magnitude, period

and quality, in the wind analysis the scatter only depends upon the drifts

to yield, i.e., .

The wind response of a building differs from the earthquake response in the sense that the duration of strong wind loading is usually orders of magnitude greater than the earthquake strong motion. Therefore, in the development of the damage algorithm, the conservative approach taken in the wind problem assumes that if the wind response is large enough to induce yielding then

the component will always have a sufficient number of cycles of motion to cause

the cumulative cyclic yielding to reach to components failure level, see figure

3.47. This implies that the for wind is unity, or 50% damage at u

= 1 . The equation for the percent structural damage corresponding to wind

loading is written in terms of the calculated interstory drift at the ith

floor, (a)., and the user input interstory drift to yield, (A )., i.e.,

Percent Structural Damage

(ith floor)

(3.4.67)

Nonstructural Damage - Partitions

The partition damage during strong winds, tornados or hurricanes is estimated in the same manner as the structural damage. The only difference

is in the numerical values of the input interstory drifts to yield. Therefore, equation (3.4.67) is again used but with (Ay)^ and (C^^) being the drift

to yield and the coefficient of variation for partitions.

3-167
3-

39VWVa iN33y3d

3-1 68
Nonstructural Damage -'Windows

The percent of windows which break at a particular floor depends upon

the wind pressure at the floor level plus the window's physical parameters.

In particular the pressure required to break a window in flexure is (see

[3.60])

a.t^ [1 + 1 .61 (a^/c-^)]

p = breakage pressure = 5 (3.4.68)

° 0.75a^

where

2 Og = mean breaking stress of glass (lb/ in )

a = minimum glass dimension, either h or b (in)

c = maximum glass dimension, either h or b (in)

b = average window width (in)

h = average window height (in)

t = glass thickness (in)

Analogous to the structural and partition damage an S-shaped curve is

used to evaluate the percent damage. The fifty percent damage level is at a window pressure equal to p^ and a coefficient of variation or dispersion

coefficient, C^q, is input by the user.

The equation for the percent window breakage at the ith building floor

i s

Percent of Windows Broken

(ith floor)

100

2^ (Po)i(C„rJ vGM /

2

1

1 exp " 2 (Po^i^^G^J

dZ (3.4.69)

where

p = wind pressure (lbs/ in )

In calculating (Pq)^ for the ith floor the average values of the glass

parameters for that floor are used in equati on ,( 3 . 4 . 68 ) . The computer program estimates the percentage of corner windows damaged using corner pressure values and the percentage of non-corner window damage using the corres- ponding pressure values.

3-169
I . LONG SPAN ROOF DAMAGE EVALUATION

General Comments

Before beginning this part of the study, roof damage information of a statistical nature was gathered in order to determine the critical parameters

which affect failure. C. Wayne Parish, President of Haag Engineering Co. of

Dallas, Texas and Jack Janney of Wiss, Janney, Elstner and Associates of

Northbrook, Illinois searched their extensive files and completed forms of

the type shown in figures 3.52 and 3.53. Both of these companies have ex- tensive experience in damage inspection and evaluation for insurance com- panies and other organizations who require a high level diagnosis of failure

causes

Table 3.24 describes roof failures due to severe wind. The following

conclusions are made:

• Roof peeling is by far the primary mode of failure.

• Roofs collapse in winds, primarily due to water ponding from

debris clogging the drains, or wall failure.

• Structural members of the roofing system rarely fail, and

then only moderately under severe (200+ mph) winds.

' • t Roof fly-off is rare. Methodo 1 ogy

' In evaluating the damageabi 1 i ty in this case, the methodology assumes

that the roof will:

;,; • f ly of f due to upl i f t , or

• collapse due to ponding.

Failure by wall collapse due to interstory drift would be automatically ac- counted for in the structural damage portion of the program. Also, the possible peeling of the roof covering is not considered since it does not cause

a major financial loss or a potential loss to life.

Of special modeling consideration is the roof where uplift may cause a serious failure. The determination of the probable risk associated with

such a failure is highly dependent upon roof connection details. Therefore,

the computer program creates an uplift model for roof risk evaluation.

This model, admittedly simple, assumes that the roof is infinitely rigid

and sums the capacity of all the connection elements which restrain the

roof from uplift. This total vertical resistive force is then compared

with the uplift forces on the roof and the computer program calculates

whether or not the roof could fly off.

3-170
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Collapse due to ponding is simply treated by requiring the user (1) to

estimate the total depth of ponding that can occur per vertical load carrying member (e.g., truss spacing), (2) to state whether or not rain ac- companies the wind, (3) to judge the quality rating of the roof in relationship to the code loads that should be resisted by the design, and (4) to

define the dead load per vertical load carrying member. The program then

simply computes whether or not the roof could collapse due to wind-driven

rain ponding on the roof. Guidance on the effect of roof flexibility on the depth of ponding is given in Ref. [3.63].

Quality Rating Techniques

The evaluation of long span roof systems is based on the premise that

the structure was originally designed according to the requirements of the

governing building codes. If the structure does not appear to be seriously

deficient when visually surveyed, it should be assumed to have been adequately designed. The capacity of the structure to carry the design code

loads should then be assumed sufficient.

The evaluation of the structure should point out any major deficiencies

in the original design, and it should give a survey of the present condition

of the structure. The major portion of the evaluation will be a field

examination of the building with some office calculations to check the

elements that seem to be lacking in strength. Some of the more important

items that should be evaluated are described in the following paragraphs

for wood, steel, and concrete long span roofs. The following points refer

to a good, Q=3, quality roof design.

• Wood trusses : Wood trusses are common load carrying members for long span

roofs. If the following items appear to conform to code

design requirements, the truss should be able to easily

carry the design vertical loads with an appropriate factor

of safety:

(a) The wood members should be sound and free from

weakening cracks.

(b) The connections should not appear to have been

overloaded by showing signs of slipping or having bearing failures.

(c) The chord members should be adequately braced

perpendicular to the plane of the truss by struts

or bracing to keep the chords in line.

(d) The bolts should be tight.

(e) The connections to the columns or walls should

appear free from movement or distress.

(f) The truss should not have excessive sag.

3-174
• Steel Trusses and Girders:

Steel trusses and girders are common load carrying members for long

span roofs when properly designed and detailed. The following

items should be checked to evaluate the condition of the steel

truss or girder:

(a) The elements should be sound, straight, and free from

visual damage.

(b) The bolted connections should be tight.

(c) The chords of the truss or flanges of the girder should

be stayed properly by either bracing or struts perpendicular to the plane of the truss or girder.

(d) The connections to the columns or walls should appear

to have had no movement or distress.

• Concrete and Wood Arches : Concrete and glue laminated wood arches are not a common load

, carrying member for long span roofs, but there are some throughout the country and should be evaluated for the

following items:

(a) The members should be free from visual damage or overstress

(b) The supports should appear solid and free from

lateral movement.

(c) A solid buttress or tie rod is required for the

horizontal forces at the heel of the arch.

• Concrete and Wood Girders : Concrete girders may be either of the typical reinforced type

or of the prestressed or post-tensi oned type. Wood girders for

long spans are usually glue laminated straight or cambered

members. These girders need to be evaluated for the following

two items:

(a) The members should be free from visual damage.

(b) The connections to the walls or columns should be

free from signs of overstress or movement.

The quality rating factors used in section 3.4G can be used to

degrade the capacity of the structural systems described above

in the same proportions as estimated in table 3.19 for Structural

Systems. The judged degrada.tion values for the various Q

values are listed below and are only given as guidelines:

Q Vertical uplift Vertical downward

load capacity load capacity

3 1.5 X code 1.5 X code

2 1.0 X code 1.0 X code

1 0.5 X code 0.5 X code

3-175
Description of Damage Evaluation Procedure

• Uplift : The user has 3 options as to the specifications of uplift forces.

Option A : Forces calculated under option A make use of internally

stored pressure coefficients for symmetrical gabled roofs assuming

a zero wind angle. The pressure coefficients are formed after the

general specifications of the Swiss Building Code [3.35], see

tabl e 3 . 25.

User Input : a) angle of roof, a, (degrees) b) total vertical

load capacity (dead load + connection resistance)

Output : program compares roof forces calculated internally

with user input AND determines whether roof is ON or OFF.

Option B: Forces calculated under option B again make use of internally

stored pressure coefficients for symmetrical roofs with a zero wind

angle. The pressure coefficients are formed after the general specifications of the ANSI-A58-1 972 standard [3.2] table 3.26.

User Input : Same as Option A Output : Same as Option A Option C : If the user desires a more detailed approach, he is given the

option of specifying pressure coefficients for the individual building.

An example of such a specification is shown in Figure 3.54 as derived

from the Swiss Wind Tunnel Tests [3.35], The user must bear in mind that

the coefficients shown apply only to buildings with the shape and

configurations designated.

Userlnput : Same as Option A plus a vector of the pressure

coefficients shown in the figures

Output : Same as Options A & B

• Collapse : The user estimates the dead load of the roof including frame.

The user estimates the mean depth in feet of ponding that could occur if

all drains are plugged. The computer program computes total water load,

adds it to the dead load and compares it to the downward vertical load

carrying capacity related to code which is specified by the user. If the

former loads exceed the latter capacity then the roof collapses.

3-176
Table 3.25 GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FROM SWISS CODE FOR CLOSED

BUILDINGS WITH RECTANGULAR PLAN, WIND DIRECTION=0°

2/5 < L/B < 5/2

2/3 ^ B/M ^ 3/2

Windvyard Slope (E)

0° i a 20° 20° < a < 50° 50° < a < 85°

Pressu re Coefficient -1 . 0 (5a - 200)

1 00

a

1 00

Pressure

Coefficient

Leeward Slope (F)

0° < a < 85°

-0.7

WIND

B 1

3-177
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3-179

4. DEMONSTRATION OF HAZARD EVALUATION

METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the damage evaluation analysis of a two-story

building using each of the three evaluation methods described in chapter 3. Additional examples demonstrating the use of the three methods are presented

in Appendix D.

The building is a reinforced concrete office building. Roof and floor

systems utilize reinforced concrete joists and girders and lateral force

resisting elements consist of concrete shear walls which are non- 1 oadbeari ng

The building has a complete vertical load-carrying concrete frame. The thin,

architectural precast concrete panels with exposed aggregate are a veneer and were used as a form for the poured concrete walls. The anchorage of these

panels is considered to be excellent. The results of the damage evaluation

obtained using the three methods are presented in section 4.5.

4.2 DATA COLLECTION FORM (DC FORM)

The data collection form which are completed for this building are given

in this section. The information in DC Form is used for the Field Evaluation

Method and the Approximate Analytical Method.

4-1
DC-1

DATA COLLECTION FORM

NATURAL HAZARDS EFFECTS

(Extreme Winds, Earthquakes)

A. GENERAL DATA

1. Facility No. A! <r. Bi//£/)//V6-l. Building Name

3. Address

5. State - Zip Code

City —

7, Year Built

8. Date of Major Modifications or Additions, if any

9. Building Code Jurisdiction: City CountyQ State []] Federal | |

10, Latitude 11. Longitude

12. Current Bldg. Use g/^^/CB

13, Basement Yes ^ No

Orig. Bldg. Use -6/?/)^^

Number of Basements /

No. of Stories Above Basement "2. (See also Item A23)

14. Height of First Story / 4' O"

ft.

15. Upper Story Height J ft. Special Story Height /Ja/^£' ft.

16. Is the exterior of first story different from upper stories?

Street Front Side Yes No Other Sides Yes No >

17. Approximate Roof Overhang Distance /'3 Side jtld-L, ^/£>^i

18. Proximity to Adjacent Buildings: Sketch Below with North Arrow

North Side /34' South Side "7./ 3

East Side /fS' West Side //<if'

Note Street or Alley Sides 6r^^eT- a/^ V<y/g7y/

To be filled in by Field Supervisor.

CO

//6

4-2
DC-2

19. Are plans available? If so, where obtainable ^(Z. c^/rSC* 7~

Are original calculations available? 5 If so,

where obtainable S/y/^

/

Ay£^£-/Z

Name of: Architect

Contractor

Engineer

Regulatory Agency C> / T"/

20. Basic Building Plan

a. Sketch overall plan.

b. Locate shear walls, if any.

c. Locate main frames.

d. Locate expansion joints, if any.

e. Give approximate north arrow and label sides "A", "B", "C", "D", etc. Show street or alley sides.

f. Note any common or party walls,

g. If plan changes in upper floors, sketch this plan and note level of

change.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

6

3

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t Nf t t

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15-4" D

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21. Elevation of Exterior Walls.

Sketch a. All openings or note pattern of openings.

b. Note exterior finish and appendages.

c. Note material of walls.

d. Major cracks or other damage. (Note if cracks are larger

at one end.

)

e. Note previously repaired damage.

f. Note any evidence of damage to cladding or appendages.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

27i" P1^<^AiT co^c. COPii^C-,

WALL /\

-+- 53 -1

tWALL.

ROQF

LA z-eo FACING. Tile.

Z'/a P RECAST coi-ic. M<riM<r-,-TYP.

w All WA LL D

4-4
DC-4

22. Elevation of Interior Shear Walls, a/^J-v^

Sketch: a. All openings.

b. Major cracks or other damage. (Note if cracks are larger

at one end,

)

c. Note any previously repaired damage.

4-5
DC

23. Adaptability of Basement to Storm Shelter.

a. Floor Over Basement - Concrete YPC Other Q

b. If concrete, give thickness J^T Si S'Ly^/g - /Z" -Jsr f 3" sZ^tS

c. Available Space (approximate) f SOQ sq. ft.

d. Dangerous Contents. Storage of Flammable Liquids

Presence of Transformers or Other Dangerous Equipment Q

Other Hazards

None 0^

24. Is this a Vault-like Structure? Yes Q No

4-6
DC-6

25. EXTERIOR WALL SUMMARY SHEET

Exterior Characteristics Side A j Side B Side C Side D

Extensive Architectural

Ornaments or Veneer

I—

WALLS

Metal Curtain Wall

Precast Concrete

Curtain Wall

j Stone

Brick

Concrete Block

Concrete

Other 1

f

i For Concrete Block and

Brick, indicate

R for Running Bond

' S for Stacked Bond

i

i

1 Condition of Wall

-

I

i

1 OPENINGS

If — '

1 Percent of Open Area

j! per Story

'

;

1. No cracks, good mortar,

2. Few visible cracks.

3. Many cracks

4. Evidence of minor repairs.

5. Evidence of many repairs.

4-7
DC-7

B. SITE RELATED INFORMATION

1, Exposure

a. Centers of large city 1 1 b. Very rough hilly terrain

c. Suburban areas, towns, city outskirts, wood areas, or rolling terrain | | d. Flat, open country | |

e. Flat coastal belts | | f. Other I I

2. Topography

a. Building on level ground [ | b. Building on sloping ground | J

c. Building located adjacent to embankment | |

*3. Geologic formation -

*4. Location of known faults: Name — Miles J]]^^;^;;^;^

Miles

*5. Depth of water table • ft. When measured: ^HZZ—

(Month) (Year)

*6. Depth of bedrock ft.

*7. Soil type — ~

" ' ~

*8. Bearing capacity p.s.f., or * blows per inch

9. Proximity to potential wind-blown debris - Type Z 1/Aff3£^ YA/€. ^

Location Distance

'

*To be filled in by Field Supervisor.

4-8
DC

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1, Material

Concrete [ Masonry [ J

Steel [ | Wood [

2. Vertical Load Resisting System

Frame

[ Bearing Wall f

Wall and Pilasters

For frame system, check one for typical column cross-section

Other

0

3. Lateral Load Resisting System

Masonry Shear Wall | |

Concrete Shear Wall [ \ Plywood Shear Wall [ |

4. Floor System

Frame

Concrete Beams | \ Steel Beams | 1

Deck

Steel Bar Joist ( |

Concrete Flat Plate |

Concrete Flat Slab

Concrete Waffle Slab

Steel Deck I I

Wood Joists [ Wood Plank IZZD

CZZl

u

Braced Frame j"

Moment Resisting Frame

Are resisting systems

symmetrically located? I Yes No

Wood Beams

No Framing Members | |

Precast Concrete Beams \ \

Straight Sheathing \ \ Plywood Sheathing I \

Diagonal Sheathing \ \

Precast Concrete Deck I

\ Concrete Joists I t-^X

Concrete Plank I I

Note if concrete topping slab is used over metal decks or concrete

plank.

4-9
DC

Framing

Connection Details

Bolted

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers |

Anchorage Floor to Walls

Type ^^'^/'0^4S^/^<^, /S/^/gr

1

CZZ)

CZZI

Decking To Framing

[ZD.

CZZ]

cizi

CZZIi

[ZZ3

]

Steel Truss | |

Wood Truss I I

No Framing Members [_

Spacing ^'t //oKT/^ ^Soor^ W^LL'i - /S'!> ^- £^sr4-^^i^ ^^'^^

Roof System

Frame

Concrete Beams T

Steel Beams [ Steel Bar Joist f . _ ^. |

Wood Beams I I

Wood Rafters f ]

Deck

Concrete Flat Slab | |

Metal Decking | |

Concrete Slab ! 1

Concrete Joists

Precast Decking

Precast Concrete Beams or Tees

Concrete Waffle Slab | ]| Plywood Sheathing [ ] Diagonal Sheathing,; | |

Straight Sheathing I i

Concrete Fill Yes Q No

4-10
DC- 10

Connection Details

Bolted

Framing Decking to Framing

Welded || 1

Metal Clips ["

|

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers

[

| j J Anchorage Roof to Walls

Type /^iT/*^/^oac.//-yc, s^/es

Spacing s't /^/^rH 4 CoUrf^ k/^ie-i - ^'^ST 4 l^£-sr >y>*^/

D, NONSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Partitions

Type

Typical Corridor

Partial Height |

'

[ Full Height Floor- To-Ceiling [

| | Floor To Floor | I

Movable

Composition

Lath and Plaster p^i^*^ - St£SL. irc^DS

Gypsum Wallboard \_

Concrete Block | 1

Clay Tile | |

Metal Partitions

4-11
DC- 11

Celling

Typical Room

Material

Acoustical Tile | *^ \ Gypsum Board | | Plaster | "

]

Method of Attachment

Suspended | Metal Channels | | Tee Bar Grid | Attached Directly to Structural Elements | |

Typical Corridor

Material

Acoustical Tile [ i

\ Gypsum Board ] [ Plaster [ —'

| Method of Attachment

Suspended PX*^^ Metal Channels [ »— | Tee Bar Grid | 1

Attached Directly to Structural Elements \ \

Light Fixtures

Typical Room

Recessed | *^ \ Surface Mounted | | Pendant (Suspended) ! | Typical Corridor

Recessed | \ Surface Mounted [ | Pendant (Suspended) ! [

Mechanical Equipment

Location of Mechanical Equipment Room

Basement |

\ Other Floor [

's^'] Which Floor / Z

Roof ! "J

Is Equipment Anchored to Floor? No Yes

Location of The Following Units

Liquid Storage Tank

Cooling Tower ac/rS/D£ ££.D'^

Air Conditioning Unit / ^ ^ /^^ifarz^

4-12
DC- 12

Roofing

Description

Flat 0" Arched Gabled If arched or gabled, sketch section.

Pitched Slope ( :12)

Parapet No Q Yes Q' Height ( 3 ft. S'/ff. in. ) Thickness ( SVz in.

)

Material 6" Car^c.

Type

Special Anchorage or Bracing Yes Q No

Built-up gravel \^ Gravel Q

Clay Tile Other

Windows

Type

Fixed \pf Movable []] Frame Material:

Aluminum Steel

Size: Average Size of Casing

Average Size of Glazing

How Casing is Attached to Structure

Asphalt or Wood Shingles [__]

Stainless Steel []] Wood Q

( ^''f" ft. X ft.) ^g^£ S^£V4T-/O^S

( 4 ft. a in. X 4 ft. S" in.)

Bolted 0^ Screwed Clipped Q Welded [~] Nailed Q

Glazing Attachment to Casing

Elastomeric Gasket [U Glazing Bead 0^ Aluminum or Steel Retainer Q

Other [j

Gas Connection

Flexible Connection to Building \P(^ Rigid Connection to Building | | Automatic Shut-off [3 None Unknown Q

INSPECTED BY

DATE •

FIELD SUPERVISOR

4-13
4.3 FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

A. Earthquake

The rating forms are completely based on the information in the Data

Collection Form. From the elevation of Wall A, it will be noticed that

two large concrete wall elements in the first story do not appear in the

second story. A second floor plan was not drawn, but a note was placed

on the first floor plan that these two piers are not present in the

second story. This creates some eccentricity in the upper story vertical

resisting system for longitudinal loading which is reflected in the

symmetry rating.

The field investigation showed no cracks in the concrete shear walls

and no evidence of cracks or looseness of the precast exposed aggregate

or granite veneers. The anchorage of these veneer elements, according to

the plans and specifications, appeared to be adequate.

The plans show that this building was constructed in the 1960's and

the building code of that period would require earthquake resistant design.

4-14
FORM FMA-1

FACILITY NO. /?C. EXPECTED SITE MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY ^

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

VERTICAL RESISTING ELEMENTS

General

Rating (GR) Symmetry

(S)

\ —Quantity

(Q)

Symmetry 1 Quantity

Rating (SQR)

Present

Condition

(PC)

2 Sub-Rating

(SRI) Type E W

TRANSVERSE LOADING

/ / / z 2 /

LONGITUDINAL LOADING

/: / / z 3 Z.S /

FOOTNOTES:

1. Symmetry- Quantity Rating (SQR) = .§--±_2.

o ^ , . . -, SQR + 2PC

2. Sub- rating SR-1 = — —

^

• TYPE GENERAL RATING (GR)

Earthquake Wind

A Steel Moment Resistant Frames 1 1 B Steel Frames - Moment Resistance Capability Unknown 2 2

C Concrete Moment Resistant Frames 1 1 D Concrete Frames - Moment Resistance Capability Unknown 2 2 E Masonry Shear Walls - Unreinforced 4 2 or 3 F Masonry or Concrete Shear Walls - Reinforced 1 1 G Combination - Unreinforced Shear Walls and Moment

Resistant Frames 2 2 H Combination - Reinforced Shear Walls and Moment

Resistant Frames 1 1 J Braced Frames 1 1 K Wood Frame Buildings^ Walls Sheathed or Plastered 1 or 2 2 or 3 L Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Without Wood Sheathing

or Plaster

SYMMETRY (of Resisting Elements)

1 Symmetrical

2 Fairly Symmetrical

2 or 3 Symmetry Poor

3 or 4 Very Unsymmetrical

NOTE: Add 1 (not to exceed 4) to each

rating if a high degree of vertical

non-uniformity in stiffness occurs. PRESENT CONDITION (of Resisting Elements)

QUANTITY (of Resisting Elements')

1 Many Resisting Elements

2 Medium Amount of Resisting Elements

3 Few Resisting Elements

4 Very Few Resisting Elements

NOTE: If exterior shear walls are

at least 15% of building length,

this rating will be 1.

No Cracks, No Damage

Few Minor Cracks

Many Minor Cracks or Damage

Major Cracks or Damage.

NOTE: If masonry walls, note quality

of mortar - good or poor. If lime

mortar is poor, use next higher

rating.

4-15
FACILITY NO, A.C. ^C//l.i>//^^ FORM FMA-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

HORIZONTAL RESISTING ELEMENTS

Type Rigidity

(R)

Anchorage & Connections

(A)

Chords (C)

Sub -Rating

(SR2)

Longitudinal Transverse

Roof A /. / / / / Floors / / / / 1

Note; Sub-rating SR2 = Largest of R, A or C.

Type

A Diaphragm

B Steel Horizontal Bracing

Rigidity - Ratings

1.1.5

2.0

2.5

Rigid

Semi-rigid

Semi-flexible

Flexible

Anchorage and Connections - Ratings

1 Anchorage confirmed - capacity not computed, but probably adequate.

2 Anchorage confirmed - capacity not computed, but probably inadequate.

3 Anchorage unknown.

4 Anchorage absent.

Chords - Ratings

1 Chords confirmed, but capacity not computed.

2 Chords unknown, but probably present.

3 Chords unknown, but probably not present.

4 Chords absent.

4-16
FORM FMB'

W

o

! o C/3 PC J

H

ZO

M P3 H C/3 < O

u <

> w

9 < u H M CO

<

oio

Q

M

PS

OSo

u

H

M

Xw

3

C

o o z c

bS

CO 4-)

0) o o

OT U

o

)-l

4J !-l M c

o o

c

o o

Pm b >-)

>-, o <

H 3 u

(1) o o

c o

O <-!

0) JJ

01o o c o

O .-I

T3

0)O 0) M i-l 0 01 C O

•H C

01 O

o

01 d u) OJ

I «

4J O O H CJ

u

0) en 4.) O 3 o u 5 w PL. O -H

u

3 vi) 01 O -u

i-l 0) U5 I—< 1—I (0 O -H 1-1 a H pLi

4-17
tACiLITY NO. /f C Saf^O//^<r- FORM FMB-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

TYPE OF RISK RATING

Partitions Other Than on Corridors or Stair Enclosures A

Glass Breakage 6

Ceiling 3

Light Fixtures 3

Exterior Appendages and

Wall Cladding* A

Ratings

A = Good

B = Fair

C = Poor

X = Unknown

A description of some of the ratings for Exterior Appendages

and Wall Cladding are:

Description

Spacing of anchors appears satisfactory

Size and embedment of anchors satisfactory

J Spacing of anchors appears to be too great

!Size and embedment of anchors appears

' unsatisfactory

Anchorage unknown

Anchorage corroded or obviously loose No anchorage

Ratini

EARTHQUAKE GAS CONNECTION

Present Not Present Not Known

4-18
B . Wind

This two-story, reinforced concrete structure is exposed to a basic

wind speed of 100 miles per hour with Exposure "C."

The comments in the preamble for earthquake relative to location of

shear walls and attachments of precast concrete panel veneer are also

applicable to wind evaluation.

The information necessary for evaluation of the structural system is

given with the earthquake evaluation on Form FMA-1.

4-19
FORM FMC-1 o>w9wM Hu

:=) H

7ZOH

I—

C/D WQ

•r^

O

to 4-1

nj OS U 3 •H > O CO O o

•H o CO 4J 1—4 a. O 0) «

fe > 0^ o

Ef

XI

(1) 4-1

d

^'< o 4-1 60

it 01

U

C

u

d •H

u >-i 4-1 o 4-1 W u W a;

OJ P-i

C S-1 II 60 4-1 3 <t

i* to c en r-<

•it OJ 1=1 (U

X * Q ^4

>, 0) 4J ^4

•r4 3 W > P400C 4-1 •H x:

TD 00 ^ -r-l

•r-l 01 D K

PQ « S C/2U

O

d

<n jj o o ^ 03< o u

60

i-l 0)>o

•>-< x:

1^

w

o- fa •a E C u d o o fa a.

60c

•r4 4J

CO Pi

f—

COUd

4J • Od • CMC

tfl oH u

CO

(0 to pa to

01 I—

4J o

•H

U 4-) O CO

)J o

4-1 o 00

Pi c

0)

1—4 o o c 4J 0

•H 4J

4-1 CO 60

-a •H c 0) do

fa

CO c

:n fa

fa 01 0) 1—1 cr 4J 00 •H

CO

d

u

C%) LO o

1-H

O

i-H CD

C

cw

(J <: 00 d fa in 4-1 < o II 3 e

1— CO 

U •H

CO 4J

X

CO 1—

< a e J< o 11

OJ !-i CO fa

C/1 fa cr

•X it -!c i<

ft ic oPA

Or-* X PS O O o o o Z H< fa fa oo

(ii

faoo

;c fa o o

2; CD •n XI ^ (13 n oQ H fa O PM

faO

M

UPL wo

HOI o^ Pio

2;H LO

O (J M < f—

f—

r-H

H fa <QO

fawo^§O M W H U < n-1 2 Q O o < Z Q o o o

fa o PLI

H

O

fa fa M O

PMH

1=1

CO

m CO to 00 60 60 oo

w

C c c c

PM •r-l •r4 •r-l •r-l >- •a XI XI XI H —1 1—1 J—I

•r4 •r-l •r4 d d 3 d Z M CQ

1—1 Q 4-1 4-1 h-J > x: x;

I—

CO CO 00 60

0) •r4 •H

oq

w 1-1

J

X)

(U

?l too

QJ tjc O CD1

4-1

d o

•H in ^4

CO o G

*'"' XJ ^4

QJ

t/) to 11 •r-l u 60 c c

•^^ •r4 XI

OJ 1—4

•r-l d

•o 4:3 —

3 ai O x:

x: 4J

to

ll-l to •H o

4J 0 o

to fa

m o o o o m

<t <f CO CM 1-1

in o o in o

.-I cvj ro <|-

4-1 00000 4-1 4-1 4-1 4-1

f-H VO »—I *—I O

,—I I-H 1-4 cvj ro 00

4-20
FACILITY NO. /}*.C. S^<U^>//^^ FORM FMC-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - WIND RATING

TYPE OF RISK RATING

Glass Breakage

1

Window Frame Anchorage e

Roof Panel Anchorage

i Wall Panel Anchorage

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

t 4

A = Good; B = Fair; C = Poor; X = Unknown.

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

4-21
C. Tornado

The building is assumed to be in a location subject to tornado hazard.

The basis used for tornado evaluation is the information obtained in wind

evaluation and is shown on Form FMC-1 and FMC-2. Using this information,

the tornado ratings are placed on Form FMD. Form FMD only rates buildings

capable of sustaining an effective unit velocity pressure of 40 psf or over. The tornado wind pressures, both positive and negative, are much

higher than this. However, the relatively short duration of extremely

high tornado wind forces is recognized in these ratings on Form FMD.

4-22
FACILITY NO. ^- C. FORM FMD

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

TORNADO RATING

EFFECTIVE UNIT VELOCITY PRESSURE

CAPACITY Pj, (From FMC-1)

DOES BUILDING QUALIFY AS

A VAULT-TYPE STRUCTURE?

TORNADO RATING

BUILD ING-AS-A- WHOLE

AO Yes No \^

BUILDING-AS-A-WHOLE RATINGS

Vault Type Building - Good

Pj, = 40 p.s.f, or over - Fair

Pc = 20 to 40 p.s.f. - Poor

P^, = Under 20 p.s.f. - Very Poor

HAZARD FROM WIND-BLOWN DEBRIS

Wall Cladding,

Appendages, or

Glass

LOCATION TYPE

NOT

PRESENT RATING

P <£>«><

Other

Potential

Debris Not Part of The

Building

WIND-BLOWN DEBRIS RATINGS

Not Present - Good

Small Quantity of Potential Hazard - Fair

Large Quantity of Potential Hazard - Poor

BASEMENT STORM SHELTER AVAILABILITY

Present Yes 0^ No 1

I

it Capacity

Suitability*''

*Based on

15 sq. ft. per

person.

See Section

3, 2E.

4-23
D. Resume

Earthquake

The Field Method of Evaluation rates this building "Poor" for its ability

to resist an earthquake of Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity of 9.5, which is

a very severe earthquake. It would rate "Fair" for an earthquake of Modified

Mercalli Scale VIII, and "Good" for an earthquake of Modified Mercalli Scale

VI I or 1 ess .

The steel stud and plaster partitions are rated "A" (Good). Some plaster

cracking would be expected in earthquakes of MMI VI or greater. Failure of

the structural elements would cause severe damage to the partitions,

however

S.ome glass breakage and falling of light fixtures could be expected in

earthquakes of MMI VIII or greater. Some ceiling panels would probably fall

in the hig-her intensity earthquakes.

Wind

The rating of this example is "Fair" for a Basic Wind Speed of 100 mph

Very little damage to "Other Life Hazards" would be expected from winds of

a Basic Wind Speed of 100 mph.

Tornado

The rating of this example for tornado is "Fair." It is a rather heavy

building and the reinforced concrete roof will probably resist considerable

uplift. Most of the exterior glass would be broken. The basement has an effective area to house over 600 people for a short period of time. The

concrete joist system of the first floor is considered the equivalent to

a solid 6 in slab.

4-24
FACILITY NO /?.C. FORM FME

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

CAPACITY RATIOS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

General Rating Sub- Rating Basic Structural Capacity

(GR) SRI SR2 Rating'' Ratio""

EARTHQUAKE / /.5 / /.£

WIND

) L6 / /./

Basic Structural Rating = GR + 2 (Largest of SRI or SR2)

,

Capacity Ratio for wind shall be obtained from Form FMC-1. For earthquake,

the ratio is obtained from the Basic Structural Rating divided by the Intensity

Level Factor at the site as determined from the table below.

Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity Level Factor

VIII or Greater 1 VII 2 VI 3 V or Less 4

A description of Modified Mercalli Scale is

included on table 3.3.

Capacity Ratio Rating

Capacity Ratio Rating (In Terms of Risk

Less than 1.0 Good

1 through 1.4 Fair

1. 5 through 2.0 Poor

Over 2,0 Very Poor

4-25
4 . 4 APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

A . Earthquake

In this example the critical elements to be analyzed for resisting

seismic forces are the wall piers, particularly on the first story and the

floor and roof diaphragms. The seismicity of this location is assumed to

be a MMI of 9.5. Thus the factor is 1.25 (from Formula 2 log 5 =

- 1.973 + .375 MMI). Computations for this building were available. These

were made based on seismic design criteria of 1961 UBC. Since 1973, UBC

criteria [2.5] are somewhat different, particularly for shear wall design.

New computations were necessary. However, the original calculations were

of assistance.

This building has a complete vertical load-carrying frame with K of 1.0. As the building is two-story, the C value is .10. The base shear

as determined from the formula V = ZKCW is therefore V = 1.25 x .1 x W,

where W is the total dead load.

The concrete shear walls are assumed to resist 100% of the lateral

forces. The concrete joist systems of the second floor and roof act as horizontal diaphragms to distribute lateral forces to these shear walls.

The dead loads of floors, roofs and walls are computed and a loading

diagram is made for each level in each direction and the reactions are computed. See Computation Sheets E2 and ElO. The centers of mass for

the two levels are then computed.

Next the relative stiffnesses of the various shear walls are obtained,

see Computation Sheet E5. It is convenient to use Wall Analysis forms for

this. Deflections are read from the chart given in figure 3.11. Walls A,

B. C. and D as shown on the DC form are listed in the first column. The

next column lists the piers in each wall. In this example, Walls B and

D are alike in both stories. The terms "h" and "d" refer to the clear height

and width of the piers. The term "A" is the deflection of a pier under a load of 1,000,000 pounds and is read from the chart. "K" in this case is

the stiffness factor which is the recriprocal of the deflection.

Since all the walls have the same concrete strength and only relative stiffnesses are in the analysis, the modulus of elasticity of 3,000,000 psi

as used in the chart may be used in the analysis.

The stiffness of each pier in each wall is combined to obtain the total

wall stiffness. This simplifies the computation of the center of resistance. These centers are shown on the loading diagram computation sheets

(E-2 and E-10 in the manner shown on Sheets E3 and E4).

4-26
The total horizontal force is distributed in proportion to the

relative stiffness of the walls. Because of this method of proportioning, the center of mass does not coincide with the center of

rigidity. This results in eccentricity thereby creating torsion.

The code requires an arbitrary or "accidental" torsion considered

in the analysis. These torsional increments are computed in tables

on Computation Sheet E18. A legend of terms in these tables is given

on Sheet E19. Either direct or accidental torsional moments add to

the direct loads computed on the basis of relative stiffnesses alone.

The "Factored Design Load" uses a 1.4 multiplier applied to the "Design

Load." This 1.4 factor is taken from the Tri-Service Manual [3.1]

from Section 2609(d) of the 1973 UBC [2.5] rounded off to the nearest

tenth. It is this Factored Design Load that is used in analyzing the

individual piers by the Strength Method.

In this example all of the wall piers are potential critical elements

and require a specific determination of stresses to determine which is the

most critical element. Since these wall piers are non load-bearing, the

effect of vertical loads are not considered in the analysis for earthquake

forces to the wall. The ratios f./f. are then computed. These ratios show

6 a the relative compliance or non-compliance and the most critical fg/f^ ratios

are noted on Form AMA-1. A typical wall is also checked for earthquake

forces normal to the wall. This is shown on Computation Sheet E20. The

diaphragm shears are noted on the loading diagram sheets. The unit shears

and chord stress ratios are then computed on Sheets E9 and E16.

In filling out Form AMB-2, some computations would normally be needed.

For this example, some of the items are indicated with critical stress ratios

of greater than 1. In the case of "Partitions Other than on Corridors" or "Stair Enclosures" the metal stud and plaster walls with 4 ft metal studs

at 16in on center are adequate to span the comparatively low story or ceiling heights in this building and no computations were made.

The only "Exterior Appendage" is the narrow concrete canopy. Unless

the earthquake had a vertical component in excess of 1g, this would not fc.il

No computations are made to verify chis.

The wall caldding is a thin precast concrete slab used as a form or is

thin granite or tile veneer anchored by adhesives. The bond is considered

to be good. No computations are required for this item in this case.

4-27
FACILITY NO. /f C, S<://Z.JD///0- FORM AMA-1

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

BUILDING DESIGNATION:

Type of

Frame

Type of

Diaphragm

Modified

Mercalli

Intensity

z

c

Critical Elements Critical

Stress

Ratio

(fe/fa) Type Location

P

P

7.5" /.25' /.a

(SHT, £.-/^)

v

1

TYPE A Steel Moment Resistant Frames

B Steel Frames - Vertical Load Carrying Only

C Concrete Moment Resistant Frames

D Concrete Frames - Vertical Load Carrying Only

E Masonry Shear Walls - Unreinforced

F Masonry or Concrete Shear Walls - Reinforced

G Combination - Unreinforced Shear Walls and Moments Resistant Frames

H Combination - Reinforced Shear Walls and Moment Resistant Frames

J Braced Frames

K Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Sheathed or Plastered

L Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Without Wood Sheathing or Plaster

M Other

Zg = Zone factor determined for site from Modified Mercalli Intensity.

Zf, = Zone factor from Code.

NOTE: For rating of Structural Systems, use Form AME.

4-28
FORM AM15-1

X

c

CO C

W CO (U

bO

njO

uc<

(U

3

0)o

CO

o

4-1 c

<u

uiM

\

u

CO

4-1 u ^

o o

c o

o

CJ CQ

\

c o O 1-1

U 4-) O 0) IH M

C O

•H C

(U O

A

toD 0.1 4J 4J CO U)

to •O .-I O Oi o O -H W H

\

H U H 0) 4J 3 tn O <fl t-i 1-1

1-1 PM O

o

B

o

l-l

(Uc

J3o

4-29
i'ACi.j,i.i i NO. /P. c. S^y^.o/Af& FORM AMB-2

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAICE RATING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING*

Partitions Other Than on Corridors

or Stair Enclosures

^ AO

Exterior Appendages and Wall

Cladding < /.o

Ceiling

Light Fixtures

i

See Form AME - Rating of Critical Stress Ratios.

4-30
0(='S/C7JU C/Z/TG-/Z/A

S Pcy IZOOf=-IXfG, + GilZAVGL = 7.0 p.s.f.

JOIST 72.

/^G-^MS - 9.0

CG-ILIJJG, = lO.O

/='^/ZYf'nOAJ - /O.O

g/vo /=~c.oo/a.

z'/i'UQhir we/c,Hri'/u=23.op.3/.

CG-/C/JJG,

= lO.O

- /O.O

20. o

/03.0/O.S.A l35.0/p.sJ.

COXJC/Ze-TG- UK^LCS - ISO p.c.^.

ZVz" F>/ZG-C^ST COXJa/ZG-TG- VG-JL/G-C-ZZ - p.s.-fi.

BOOf=- C/yG COAO - 20.0 p.s.-P.

/=-COO/Z LIVG- COA/D = /OO.O jO.^.A

CNG-CK. C^^TG/Zyi^L. COAOS /^O/Z /9V3 UjU/f^O/ZM /^/CO/JUCh

COOGV - Z fCC W =/, 2S xi LO O./ W = O. /2S W

Z = ^5 = 1.2s

f<.= f.O

C = O./

(^SGISMIC f-OIZCG- OXJ /2.00/=') f=-,z - (sG/sM/c f^o/zce- OJU 2^'=' /=-COO/Z ) f^z ^ -^2^ Wz

= 100 % WG/C^Z-ZT 0/=- /ZOO/='

- 100 Vo WG/G,NT 0/=- 2'^'^ /=-COO/2.

Vz - ./2S ( W/z -f- Wz)

OG-SlCtXJ ST/ZG-SS C/ZlTG-fS/A (f^/ZOM Tf-IG FCAXJS 4 Sf=>GC//=-/OAr/OXfS)

COXJCIZ&TG = 2500 p.s.i.

' IZG-lJUf^-O/ZCfjUOi STG-e-C = *f-0,000 jo.s.i.

ACCOWAJhCG- SO/C /=>/ZG3SU/ZG- - ISOO (O&AO i- Lf^G)

4-31
fZOOf=^ Se-lSUJC AXJALVSIS

1^

CG-JUrSiZ OF- IZIdDITV

74.33'

Q&XJYC-tZ OF='\mASS-A

5^

®

•

v3

4.07'. 3.0r

s.or_\

T

'I 12.22"/,

P, =132.99'-

2 / er3

^ vi I in "i. «i ft) if! is OO ^5

"

; s

e-3

P, = 135.99*

IZ3 + 12^ = /os<^.e3 + roti8.<^a. = W/g = e/2s ^ LOADS F-O/Z rzOOf=- OlARHra/^GjM

PIG-ZS AJOJUa>e-/EG-0 /\ /^IZG- fJU WALL p>e-cow

3.7S K /.<&S X ISO p.c.-f. ^ 92S fD.J.A

coxJgrzG-TG- c^jjopy

/.<S9 X 0.3 7S i< ISO/D.a ./.'

lO" WyACC ^'/z" /='/ZG-Cy^ST VG-JJ&G-fZ, '

I. OS X. 3.2S ^ /SO = S/e fs.£.f.

3.S X. 0.71 X ISO - 37.3 /o.^.fi

W^CL, /5" 012 "D

"

Pi =(.373 -h. 92S) S7.33 ^ C09S x 72.79')

i-C.S/e X S-^.SS) = /32.99^

4-32
A/U -G-3

WALL "y^"

WALL "C"

P3 - (.373 +.923) J^S.(2>(2> + >^ /Z8./7) * (. S/2 ^<^'f.7/) ^ 234. S/-

COXJC/ZG-'TG- COLUAyfJJS

/ZOOF- LOArO - /OS

SFAJUOJZG-L

CAJUOF y

X. 37. 3 3 ~ K 9 23

X 9S - X 37. 3 -

GXT&/Z/0/Z yz /^AVS COLS, -h IZOOPSPy^XJ/D/ZGL.

PA/ZAFG-T

WA LL. -2

= <2>7a:o /o.-F.^. 9<^3 1 .cs, /D.r/.

1 3 Sc^ . o

I 90. o

7<^.

I2Z2.2. 2 p.J>.fi

I

CG^yTG/2.

WALL. =

^ S/2

P'O/Z T/OJU

2 ^ :5/2

<^3a /D.if.

9 a 31 .c.

1 3 Sci, . o

- /2222

= 10 2<^

Z p. /.A E3

13 2 '^<i> p.J>.f.

D/APf-//2AG,Ay(

we-}G,Hr OP-

/ZGACTIOXJ

s/VGA/z = /ZGAcr-roxy op- loa/d vo

WALL /2> r/Zf&UT'A/Z'r' TO /ZOOP- = OP- WG-IG,NT yAT WALL P> =

niAP'/-/.

F,

9/9.^^

J32.99

JZ, - 1 05 2.4-7

G3

DG-TC-/ZJ^/JUG CGAJTG/Z OP- /Z/Ch/ZD/ry (C./Z.) AXy/D CG-JUT'G-JZ

Of^ A^yA3S (C.J^.) P-O/Z JUO/ZTH - ^OUTH 3G-/3JL^/C

WALLS "&"AAJn "O" A/ZG S/A-^/LA/Z :. (C./Z.) /S /JJ CG-AJTG/Z

l'4-3.<^c:^ ^ Z - 7'^.33fi-(. p-/ZOAyf G-XT&/Z/0/Z OP- WALL "fb"0/Z"/D"

iC.A^.} = /OSZ.'^V X .<i^25' aS'7r79

/OSS. £/ X /<^7. 92 - /S'(^ /33. 7C>

2/07.9S /Sa79/.S^

(CM) = ''^lOT^S^ 33' /=-/ZOAyf G-XTG/ZIO/Z OP- WALL "/S"

4-33
rzooF- se-JSMic ^jualvs/s

DG-YGrlZMIJJG- CG-JJTG-/Z OF- JZfG,l/Diry (C./Z.) AJJO QexJTC~/Z OF- MASS

(C.Ay.) F-O/a G-AST - WG-ST S&ISM/C

W^LC 'A' IZJGilOlTV ML - S'^-SS ShfT. G-5

93 . 7V S/a2.'^0

(Cig.)- ^'<f^'y7 = ^^^^

G-XyG-JZfO/Z OF- W/^LC 'A"

(CM.) = /OSC.Z3 X .<^ZS ' C<ZO./<f212<^.a9 93323. as

(C.M.)= = <*3.9e' F-IZOM G-XTG-ZZIO/Z OF- WACC W

Se-lSJ^fC F-O/ZCG- OJU fZOOFF-iz - .iSS W/z

= ./ZS X ZI2S = Z<i.S.C,3 /</F*^

4-34
WALL A

WALL H TO

K. WALL

H TO

pieiz A. /Z&X<AlZhiS

wesr)

A

UJOJ!Tft\ Z

1 7.0

3'^'^\ 7.0

7.0

5.0

S.O

7.0

I.O

I.40

t.40 I.O

0875 lh<Z

.190

.0675 11.42

33:3<2>

197.7 C7. 7

3/.Z

31.2

G7.7

237

J09

/OJ

237

I. 28

0.8(i>5 0.865

L28

237

153

153

237

WALL\ M

BAkJo \ 7.0 9WWDOW \ A I, 2,, 3, 4.

8<i>.<^0./<i>\.0/4

\0.03 \.007

(A. SOL//D kV^L^f,) \ \ (A. a>AJJD W/JUnOW He/GiHT)

3. 3. 3a, = .03(A P/&/2S r, 2,3,4)

ACC /=>/G-/2S

NAVG- ^-'*7

JAMFb BAIZS

^<4(S) 20"o. c. .'.ALLOWA/hLG

= ISO/D.s.r.

WAUX - .014- .007 -h .03 - . 037 (A WALL W/TH W/XfOOWS OUT)

CF- 7.0 \W.2S^O.C8

7.0 \10.2^0.<£>S

WALL\».0 ''J48.?5.094 BAVO\ 7.0 ^^8.Zi.047

.053\/S.S7\

.053

,00i5

18.87 \

\J52.7\ 7S6.4 2(^7.4\0.99

\7il>.4 2(^74 0.99

132.7

182.7

37.74 \ (A SOLm WALty

.0033\(A AAJJ/D WJJU/:>ObV UC-fCjk/r)

I

WALL

2/2C

WALL

- .<?2(i {A P/ejZS Ir 2)

ROTN P/G/ZS . JAM/b a>A/23

=/. 20 SQ. lJU. PO/2 M,As AX/O

ITu. SG-GSNGGrs GG

AJUO G r

37.74

.0O<i>5 -.0033 -h 02<^ '.029Z

I ; ,

. f^mLl'-\J^^34^^

7.O\/0.2S,0.a3\.0S3'/S.87

' y.O \Z3.8 \0. Z9\.02a 135. 71 i 7.0 \I0. 250.^8 \.053 I6.S7 \ \73.4S:\

I

\Z48.t\ <i3.3

120.7

223 \.8e9]/52.<S,

844.9 I.O \l24.<i \&3.8 223 .S29y52.<i,

3 = 73.45

- .Oq&S ' . 0033 * .0/3& i.O/<i8\

ALL P'/G/as

HAVG Z-*C>

-.asssq. w.

diO&PrH /JUP-GGT (CGJL/Crrfi/)

A -IZ&LATiyG DGPCG-cr/O/J P-ZSOM C»A/2r

<i-3't T/2/ SG/2V/CG MA/JUAL

(c= sr//^p-juGss p'Acr'ojz

hi ^NO/ZlZOAJrAC P-O/ZCG lAJ AC/PS M-MOMGJUr /JUP-OOr al/ps

A$ zA/ZGA OP- SrGGC /JLf sa. fXJC/-/G5

V = dJJ/r SA/GA/Z lJU LP>5. /ggyg SO.. /JJC/-/

%^CP - COfZJUG/2 P/e/Z P/XGD

I2P i/ZG-crAAJGCfLA/2 P/G-ZZ

P/XGD

12C = IZ&CTAJUGULA/Z P/GIS CAJUT- ICGVG/Z /JJO/CAT/JUC TAZG

CU/Z VG C/SGO CiXJPLAre<2.-3-r

OP m.1 SG£y/CG MA/jgAC

H TO WALL fSPACro/ZeO DeSlQAJ

4-35
WAC.lL 4 "O"

2 * r &xisriAJc-7 /zG-fju/^o/acG-Mc-AJT jambs = /. eo sq. iju

12,000 ~ rsooo ~ ' {spxJo.tyJ ^ r 237 iJ^^ 2

2 37

2- 9<^ ><<5- = a99'^x 1.3schemes./) - !.es°'

sr/aess /zatjo = t4o = ''-^'^^ C^CG-xu/ZAt. tg-jusioaj)

CQ> tir (a.) )

-yc ' Z Of. 4./ A)Cf 3/S-7/J

Vc -- Z -\j2SOO - fOO/s.s./.

WALLS /ZC-/jU/=-0/ZCG-0 U(/^rt-/ (® 20"o.c. ROT-H WAYS fbOTN F-ACC-S

. .40.40000 ^

^ ' 10 >^ zo

Vu - ISO ^.s./. ALLOi^^A^FbLG- W/Tf-/ &XfSr/JJC /aG-/XJf=-0/ectJJC

Sr/ZG-SS /ZATfO - = f-Se iSUG-Ai/Z)

f-a. /c3C

CHG-CK. COMf=>/3G-SS/V(^ ST/ZCSS f/J Tf-fG- aOXJC/ZG-TC=-

fc = .SS /i = .S5.23O0 = 2/2S p.s. /.

O.SS^ib 2/ZSkIO

J

4-36
WALL, '^"4 "m"' ((BOyUr.)

CMG-C/<L (m^k^JS/S-S^/t/G- ST/ZG-SS IJU THGr COJUC/ZG-re- (COAJT)

c - e. X z/es" x /o - <*sooo c/t.

srize-ss jz^^t/o =-^^7—- ^o.sz juot' c/zjt/c^c zs v: S3

/=-OJZ T/-fG- COM/=>/ZC-S'S/OAJ Sr/Z&SS /Zy<^T/0 Tf/G- G-f^f^c-cr o/=^

COX^P/ZG-SSiy& STGGC W/^S JUOr COJUS//DG/ZG/D. /A/A^OST C^SGS

TN& COJUfP/ZGSS/l/G Sr/Z&SSGS /JJ /='/G/ZS y^/ZG AJOr CfZ/T/C/^C A/JD

. ir /s juor cj-/Gc/^GO fju Tf^G /ZGsr Of^ rnts gx^m/='ilg.

THG OVG-/Zyi\L.L. /^U/C/DJJL/C-, f/ZO/^G/ZT/GS yi^/ZG /^GCCGCTG/O /=-0/Z OGTG/ZA^^JJ^JUa, JZGfJJ/=-O^ZCGJ>tGAJ7' /2GQU//ZG/^GAJ7'S O/^

/JJO/y/OUAC /=>/G/ZS fBiGCAUSG /=-0/Z LOi^ fhU/Cn/AJGS OF- TN15

TV/^G IT DOGS JL/OT" CHAJiJGiG TNG /ZG/JUF-O^CGA^GAJT' /ZGQU//ZGA^GJUTS.

PIG/Z Z43

•^^•^/^ =/o9^ exu. - Z.9'f ^-'^y JAM/^ f^A/ZS - /.20

As - —^^^ = 0,<2,S S<Ci. fJU. X /.33 = 0.87 SCi. /JU

ST/ZC-SS IZATfO ? ^'^^ - O. 73 C/=-CGXiy/ZAL T&JUSIOJU>- „ _ Zx3l ZOO ^ , _

. 35 X ro ((io x.S)

VVAiCCj^C

P/G/Z Z (FO/Z COCAT/O/J SGG PL.A/J S/^G&T AA^-G 2 )

Z-'^ y J^J^/b /^A/ZS G-XIST/JLyC, - /. ZO SQ. /AJ. Olu- Z-'^T

Sr/ZGSS /ZAT/O - -0.83 (P-LGXU/ZAC TGAJSIOJU)

4-37
WACL^ "A" (cojur.)

WALL, "a"

JAMa> f^A/ZS G-X/sy/JUG? = O.SSSQ. /M eXu. = e.*?S

M - 223 —

sr/ZC-SS J2AT/0 - ^-^^ = O. 9** (F-CG-XU/2AC TG-JJS/OAJ)

STIZG-SS /ZATfO - ^ = Q.S5 (SUC-A/Z

)

P/e-/2. 2

z-*<2> tj^Ax/h /s>A/2s G-x/^r/jua - o.sa sq./ju. ctu. - 2. 99

/X - 120. r ^ -TT— - "^{cojusf/DG-zz F'/G-jz /"A/zr/xiLcy /^-/xc-o)

I. a

' 2%9f 2S2 ' ^''^ 2<:> ^ /.33 ^O.S3 SQ. /UJ.

SrZZG-SS /ZAT/O - '^^ = O. 9<g (f'-L G-XCJ/2AC. TG-JUS/OAJ )

2 A f20, 700 .^^ ^

Iso

4-38
962.^- (/OOYoC) X ^^^^^^ - CSG-/SA^/C)

Vic -- /. X l/^ 300

_ 90. 3 3T/ZG-3'S /Z^T/O /OO

= 90. :ir /o.s./.

- O. 9/

JU= 9Z2.se ^ 73.27 =<^7S93

320ZS A ZCfS.C»3 _ t:fc>03

21 ZS

-(.IZ.S<^ fO-ZS) >^ <2>S. S - S9&3.S

-{/Z.Z2 X <7-Z.73) X <fS^.a<i^ = Z38<i>9.7

(20. za)"^

- 13. 2<- -K - 27/ / .9

r

ZG-f/JFO/ZCUJCr

= /. 79 ^-C?. />6C

sr/zG-ss /Z/^-r/o

z. zo ^"

z.zo

' o.sr

4-39
©

t70.33'

©I

' 0

! N

.00

5

/7<i0.73- -.DJAPH. SHGAIZ

HI

H —I

A5. 13%

T

* IZz - 1331. 34 f- i34S.9S = W-g = 2CSOLOADS F-OIZ Z""^ F-LOOIZ D/APf^f2ACiM

3.7S X LCS K ISO = 9?<e p.Jl.f.

(!) /.(Z9 X .3VS X /so = 9S p.je.f.

(Z) 9 X ^. <^5' A /SO = d/O/o.je.^

. AVG- = 2 - SS3 /z>.je. jT 7' W/AJ/30W +3' W/!\LL iSVi")

(7x/0) -h C 3 X . -7/ X /SO ^ p.je..f,

/O" WALC^ Z'/z" F'/ZG-Oi^ST VG-AJG-G-/Z

/.OS X lO. 2S -K. /SO - /CIS p. f.

4-40
P/ ' - (.^Z8 ^ a-r.33) -t-Cl.C/S X -afT-.Se) •h(.39^<^3.//)-i-(.353x73.-S)

P3 =(.9eS X /aS.(2><2?) +(/.e:>/S xdro.r<£>)+ (.39 97. 9/) hC3S3 X /es./(2>) - 303. 3<2> /-C/Z^S-

= 3/3: 9<^ f</PS

fZOOP- C^O^O - !3S X S7.33 -n'73 9.<^

C/^JUOf^-y -2k 3S3 - 70Cp-0

wijunow 3' w/^cc -2 X 390 r 730.0

fSI 31 p.^.A

DIAPHlZ^GjM ^f-fG-^^ =^ /ZG-A^C-r/O^J OF- CO^DS TO DJAPf-Z/ZAC^M =f/<^0.73

WG-ICNT Of=- WACL fb T/a/a>UT^/ZV TO P-COO/Z P, ' = IIO.G,!

/ZG-^<ZT/OjU OP- WG-/G{-/r lAJ f<L/PS AT lY^CC Pa - /Z , ^ 133/ .3<^

I Ell

Pz -- . /ZS X Zc^ so = 33S' J<L/PS

Vz = . /2S (W/z Wz)

- . /ZS ( Z12S -h 2<i,SO) :i <^00.(^ /<L/PS'

4-41
WALL AJUALVSIS ' Se-/SAy(/C

WALL

A

mm)

e>ANO

9 WINDOW

ALL F'/e-/2S

NAVG- 2-*

- /. eo °" WALLS HAVeAUOW/ifiLCr

syeA^ Vu '/sop.s.

ALL P/G-/ZS

HAVG- e-*7

WALL .ooe .003 + .Ol3--.OI^

I

I

i

J< WALL-'\-iTT-\ <i?^50

ifs& Ave. Pfe/z

t/EfGNT S.S'- rosiM/»L/F-y F^/z

JJOTG-: po/z syMaocs

see- AU'C-s

4-42
4-43
ACCO\M^/^CG~ ZTu. - /SOp.S./. (3/-/e-&T ^M-G-(^ )

z-'^/o j/^/ytf^ /^^/zs ^x/sr/AJG, = e.s<^ S-Q. /JU. - 2- 9/

= ^^^'ffo^^s<J-^ s) '^(^^^ ^^<^ ^^<= ?<£?7r«0

sr/ZG-ss /z^T/o = "^^^ = e. 9<i. (s/-/g-^/z )

P/G-ZZ 24 3

z-'^ro a>/^/zs G-x/sr/juo - z.s^ sq. fjj. a.u -- 2.S7

5T/ZG-S:5r /Z^T/O = ^ = a (F-L^XU/Z/^C TG-/JS/OJU)

Z. o*?

sr/ZG-ss /Z^T/O - ' ~ Z9/ (3f-/G-/^/Z

)

Wy^LL "A" {PfGfZ J 4^)

2-** y J/^A^/^ F^AfZS G-XlST/JUa? - /. ZO SQ. /JJ. O-u. - 2. 97

AX- 2^^fJLJL...373.S

As = -flS' - I.07 ^ /.33 - /.<X3 SQ. lAJ. Sr/ZG-SS /ZAT/O = - /./9 (F-CGXU/Z/^L yc-JUS/OAJ)

4-44
AM-E-I5

Wy^CC "A" (COAJTT)

.as>^/o(l'^ox.8)

STiZG-ss "rye::? = -T^:^ -- Las' (3h<s-^/?)

r/&/z 2

2-"^ 7 c/^^/S /^A/aS G-X/sr/JJG, = /. SQ. /JU. =

e X /fS ZOO - ,c>^

Sr/ZG-SS /Z^T/O - t'^ = 1.23 (3/-/G-^/S)

/<30

PfG-/Z 3

As = 2 9^ J / ^ -S-o" = /. SQ. /AJ.

5T/ZG-SS ^/O = = /. OO J. 20

Wy^CC "C"

P/G-/Z I ^ <^

Z.97x in

STfZG-SS /ZAT/O - = /. / 3 (/=-LG-X U/ZAC TG-Ays/OAJ)

4-45
WAf^L. "C" (COAJr)

/0/700 _ _

e-"*7 Jy^M/^ /^/^/ZS = /.eo SQ. fAJ. X,-

''^^-'^^

-339.3

Z-'**9 JAX^& /Sy^/ZS G-XJSr/JUC? = ^<?. /JU. aa - 2.93 —^ _ •y2<?.3'-!^

- -i^^f^ "

-

''^

IfcL - ; ^rr - IS3. S /d-S-/. .8S X /O X (27S^. S)

fa. /SO

= 33S /<^//='S (SHG-G-r- /^M-C-l/)

OlA/=>H/ZAC,/^ S/-/Gy^/Z (S/-/&erAA^-G;0)^ //7S.37 >^ I47.S kl/PS

/ZOOF- n/XlPA-Z/Z/na,/^ Sf-/G^/Z - 90.^ /^^.^.j. (SfVGGT /Q^-G^)

I ID - 3

Z'/e" SC^yn/?:> /ZG-/.AJr^O/ZCe-0 W/r/-/ <^"k -^/O G. \A/.A^.

JUo. /O - O. /3S /yU. n/y^/^GTG/Z - O. OOZ/ S<^. /JJ. y^/ZG^

4-46
-h/OO - //3/p.s./.

1/3

~/5'./3 A

<z<? 9 / O .T

- 1V3./-2 X. yo.3<9S - 12 130>.3

33S'

Z(2>80

j5'3<^3.j5' >^ /.<=?-

As- 3G>. S

9^ <^0

USG- FO/Z Ch'O/ZD-

/2G-/JUF-0/ZC/JJG7

/Z/qr-zo^ ^

^ 0.3-7

CALcuc^r'G- K. uoy^ns to W^CCS

-4

2^0 ^-ro/zy

M 7^/ZOJ^ S^'C-G-T ^AA-G-S"

F-fZ f=-/ZOAyf .SHG-G-r yAM-G- <!. - ZC:.:5.C. K./F'S

kL Wy^LC /5 = e 7. 03

D - 27. 03

K CO^n - ^. X e7.03-/33.S KfPS

= /3 Z.S

/C LO^/O ' ^^3 -77 ^ 3^.ZS^ 97.0

93.77

l^'^ srofzv

K. 7^/ZOA^ SH&G-r /^M-G-IZ 4 AA-f-G-/3

Vz F-fZOA^ SH&G-r ^A-C-^r-n - (1.00. (2> /</r='s

C^OO.cl, K y^ALC fh = 27.03

O -27.03

K Wy^LC A - CZ.50

C - (1><^,G7

/ ?9.f 7

K. C^OA/D X Z7 03 - 300. 3 K./FS

= 300. 3

!Z9./7 X (1,2.5' - 2 90.<1- X (1><1>.(1,7 : 3 10. O

4-47
s YOfz y (/so 0/==- a/^/='/-//a^^ c?/^) ^_

WALL K dMr

<tKd--- d ^A/ - 5 ^3 'Vs/ LO/:)r:>D^SIQf/

FACro/2C-0

OG-S/G,JU

LOAD ^

/S 27.03 5433 146856

1

1,—s).

-73.7/ -.056, 9.4C^ 8.43 /32.8 /4/.2 /97. 7

O 27.03 5433 /46S5S S 73.7/ i-.05& -9.4<2> 8-43 /32.S /<?/. ^ /'9 7. V

54. 0&

'

1

1

A 34: Z5 2985.5 102854 ^^^^ -54.<£,4 -.05

/2.07 7. 92 97.® /09./ /S2. 7

C 59.52

1 34.45

\ i:058 - 9. 74 /6>8.<i> /77.3 24S.2

93.77 Z=4Cii(i>06

Mt (JJ-S) = 26,5. C3 . 05 - + /3. 28

Mt (G--W) - 2(^S.<i.3 X - //.3'<? = -30/2. ? ^ ACC/O&AJTy^L ror2S/0/J = 2<£>S. (2>3 x . x /<S. (i.<^ = ± 79 TV.

WALL X. Mr

- d 3fj-s Saccio. /<

LOAID

DESIGN

LOAO

l=-ACrO/ZGD

OG-S/CAJ

LO^/Z)

Z7.03 5433 14^858 -73.7/ -.90 2.<^2 300.3 3/7.0 443.

O Z7.03 543 B m858 — 73. 7/ -2.(2,2 /6>.70 300.S 3/7.0 443. £

\ -1 54. Od.

trs 7 JJ A (i2.50 1974 123377 -44.43 -/. Z<2> 23.27 29a. 6> 3J3.9 4 3 9.4

C <i(i>.<i>7 /734 1/5596 47.(^4 + /.26> 23,27 3/0.0 333.3 4C^<i'. <^

/ 29.17 Z^532Co9/

X4t (yU-S) - ( 2C>5.6,3 :<.05) -h (3 35 x . a> 9) = 24-4.4.!^

Ut (G--W) - (Z<:,5.C>3 X 5:39) +(335 K 5.94)^ -3SS4.S'—

ACC/OejJTAL TO/ZS/OJU - <^OO.C>3 x.05 x 743.(^6, ^ t <;/ <4<!, 4. S '-^

4-48
CG-JU ITG/Z Of=- /Z/0,/G)/r'r^ /JU /^^GG TT

- TO/ZS/OXJ^C A^OA^GAjy = STO/SY ^^/G^/Z T/MG^

n/sr^xJCG a>GywG-GJu cG^yrG/z 0/=^ A-f^ss /^jun

CGJUTG/Z <9/=- /Z/Gjja/TY (COAJS/OG/ZGO /XJ G/QC/-/

O/ZBGaT/OjU y<^XJO /^O/Z /QCC/nGAJTXiC TO/ZS/OXJ)

= Sf-ZG,^/Z. TO W/<1L.C /DUG TO TO/ES/OA^ /=-/ZOAyf

AJO/ZTf-/- S-OUTA-/ S'G/J'Ayf/C.

= SNG^/a -TO lA^^cc /DUG vo r'a/zs/oxJ G-zzaxyf G^^T- WGST SG/^M/a.

-Sh/G^/Z TO l^^CC /DUO- TO TO/ZS/OAU /^/ZOA^

/QCC/rDGAyT^/L. TO/ZS/OAU.

- CO^/D TO UVy^CL. /^^SG/D OXJ /ZGCy^T/iyG ST'/^^/^-AJGSS

DG3/aJU LO/^D = a: CO/^/D /=>CU^ T/-/G G7/ZG/<^TG/E O/^ /QCC//DGjUT^C.

TO/2S/OAJ O/Z TO/ZS/O/U OUG TO C/^TG/Zf^C LOyQOS

/Xy T/-/G /D//eGCT/0/U 0/=- T/-/G \A//£)C^<^:S.

kL i-O/Q/D

4-49
/^"^ /=-coo/zV IS y/-/^ WG'/GjHr 0/=- THG- W/^CC fCC/S /='/2G-C^Sr COAJC/SG-TGC/o -- O. so

!0"cojuc/eGrr'e- w/^cl. =/?<r. 5"%'

2 '/2 " MOSy^ / = 31.3'^/q'

155.3

f'c- 2SOO p.s.r. /'y r Q.0,000 p. 5./. n - lO

^^(MOS/^/) -37-3 X 7 - 2/9./

/O 90. 6 ^= /=>

Pa. - .9x/090.c^ - 93/.

M{MOS^/)= 2/9. / X e^.es - /3<:Z>9.<i''^ X .9

2

(K

•s

;:

= /Z32.S

M(S&/SM/C) - 3 9x /<?

/eG/AJ/=-0/2C/JJG, @ 20"o.c. P =-^4- - , ^ ,^ « ^ fod /.<^7x /? X S.S

-.oa/2

f7p - /Ox .oo/e = .o/e = /^. <^S

200

^5 -- - o./e

P M/XJ. -

A

- .005 > .oo/e

<p /'s Jd

sr/ze-ss /Zy^T/o = Mm

,9 X "fO OOO X . S TSx a. 5

.OS<i'

/<=95 /2GQ. /. 33

- - . 0<^S /.33 = . OS<i> •

P _

2_ _\ /_72SS

98/. S

7x /2 X /O

x/2x (3.5)^

= //. 7 p.s.f.

h <^/7. Z

K /<^.<^S = <?/7. 2p. 5./.

'r/ZG3s /a^T/o

<fZ8. 9 P S./. <72S. 9

Z500 -0./7 (PL G-XUJZ/QL CO/yfP/ZGSS/OXJ)

4-50
B . Wind

In this example, the critical elements to be determined for resisting

wind forces are the wall piers and the floor and roof diaphragms. The

assumed Basic Wind Speed is 100 mph with Exposure "C." No wind calculations

were found. Earthquake calculations had been made and were of assistance,

since a ratio of the design base shear for earthquake to total wind forces

could be obtained.

The computations shown for this example are limited to the determination

of wind forces and the distribution of these forces to the building, determining the critical elements and the critical stress ratio so that a final

wind rating can be given.

From 1972 ANSI [3.2], Table 5, Exposure C, an effective velocity

pressure, qp, of 33 psf for a height of 30 feet is obtained. From

table 7 the positive pressure coefficient on the windward side is 0.8

and the negative pressure coefficient on the leeward side is 0.5 for the

ratio of wall height to least width less than 2.5. The total horizontal

wind force on the building therefore is 1.3 times qp. A suction coefficient of .7 for side walls is used. This is taken from 1972 ANSI [3.2,

Paragraph 6.5.3.2.].

A plan of the roof with computed horizontal wind forces and reactions at roof lavel is shown on Calculation Sheet W2. The loads are determined using as tributary wind area one-half the story height

(second floor to roof) plus the parapet. A similar computation is

mad€ for forces tributary to the second floor and these wind forces are shown on Sheet W5.

Uplift is computed on the narrow concrete projecting canopies. The

coefficient of -1.25 is taken from 1973 UBC, [2.5, Section 2308 (c)].

The uplift is less than the dead load, thus, having all the reinforcing

bars in the top is not critical. However, it would not fall off the buildi-ng because the anchorage of the reinforcing steel would prevent this.

This canopy is not a critical element in the evaluation of the building as

a wh 0 1 e

With the wind loads to the building as a whole determined, the shear

walls are checked next. In section 4.4A^ the relative stiffnesses of these

walls have been computed and the total seismic force at each level determined. The ratio of wind forces to the seismic forces is computed. In the

second story this ratio is 0.257 in the north-south direction and 0.151 in

the east-west direction. Similar ratios are developed for the first story.

The shear capacity is determined and compared with factored wind shears.

4-51
A typical wall panel had been checked for tornado forces normal to the

wall. This is shown on Calculation Sheet AM-T9. Since the wind forces are

less than the tornado forces, a calculation for wind was not considered

necessary. However, a check of the wind pressure was made of wall corners

using a coefficient of -2.0 (1972 ANSI, Paragraph 6.5.3.1) showing that this was less than the tornado pressure.

The Critical Stress Ratio is determined to be 0.26 for the second story corner piers 1 and 4, Walls B and D.

In filling out Form AMC-2 for "Other Life Hazards," some computations

would normally be made. In this example the window frame anchorage, according to the architectural details on the original design drawings consists

of 3/8 bolts at 2 ft on center. This gives only about 7 sq ft of window per

anchor. This is obviously satisfactory so no written calculation was made;

however, the Critical Stress Ratio would be less than 1.

The only wall cladding is a thin exposed aggregate precast concrete

veneer that was used as a form for the poured concrete. The bond in this case should be adequate. Steel anchors are also used at the floor line however, and the Critical Stress Ratio would be less than 1. There is a small area of granite facing near the entrance. This is a thin 7/8 in veneer applied with adhesive which is considered adequate. The

usual requirement for this type of adhesive is 50 p.s.i. in tension or shear. Since a visual examination revealed no deterioration of this veneer

or the veneer joints, the veneer is considered adequately attached to the

wall.

Computations were made on the exposed walls and the canopy as previously noted, including the Critical Stress Ratios.

4-52
FORM AMC-1 o

I!I

^1< o Q Z OX H H ' MH I >-i

i-J CO < s H CO

>< ^ O D

.Ti

H

P-i

u

CM< k;H

CO <

I—

COwQ

2=3

CO o w o

•r-l OJ •H cw

4-J 4-i

•r-( CO

l-l CO

CJ

-a

QJ II flj a. CO CN > 3

T) cw c >.

•I-l 4J ca

•r-l cw O o (0 •H a. r—

CO TO >

CO o

CU

>^ H

•H -H cn CO C U3

a

•H 3 W > PhMC 4-1 60

.—t -H H CJ 3 X.

•H -a <u

Cn

C 0) r-l CO -H D. >

pa 3 CO

01

u

u3 >J

CO

O o -> a. P3 w <

n3

it

ai' r-l

to

CJ

H •M ^

D.

CL, E

to l-i o

CD tl^ tn 1-1 OJ 0) tu

1-1 to 3 D

CO

CO cn

d) t^ CO

1-1 e

D. 1—

CU c X to

(JO •H CO

CO CO

QJ CO i-H cu (0

1-1 1-1 e J-J 3 o CO 4-1

1-1

O

CM 3

CD J-i 60 •r^ 4J C 1-1 CO

•r-l <u

4-1 CH

n) o

CM

r-- CO 60

<u CD

C

t—

u •r4

4-1 CO CO to to

CO 1-1 < 0) O

S-i r-H 1-1

Mu 1-1 0

CO CO <

AN

0)

II II

w

<y

H

CO IS CO

O

Cl-I t4-l Z

4-53
FACILITY NO. /f. C. £<y/l^/A'6- FORM AMC-2

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTlll'K LIFE HAZARDS - WIND l^TING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

Glass Breakage"

,

CJazing

Window Frame Anchorage

Wall Cladding Anchorage </.o

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

Exposed Walls L\.o ^ OOD

Canopies and Eaves .81 COoi>

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE*

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

Z 0 ss/z. Y^/to /y4 /2.C, £

'"^See Instructions for ratings.

CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

< 1.0 Good

1.0 to 1.5

( Fair

> 1.5

1 Poor j

1

4-54
rzoof=- oG-y^o c^o/^os

93. 0 p.^. /. COXJC/^.G'T'er W/^CCS /t^O /p. C./.

2 'z'?" /='/e<^c^sr coAJa/ae-r-G- yc-.uc-iS'/z ^ 3/. 25' jo. s./t

f2oo^ c/yG- co/^n = 20. o /s-s. /

SF'GG-/0 /OOm.p.h. /^T 30 -^^ GCG-V/^T/OAJ /=-0/Z &XPOSU/2G- C

- 33 p.s.-P. (r>n/^cG 5)

e-xTG-fZJu^c p/ZG^S(j/aG- cae-z^-^/a/GAjr'^ r-o/a w/nccs, C/o

upc/r-T /='/2.GssujzG caGp-p-zc/G-Ay-r o/y /zoop- - -o.7(ss-cr C. -5.3.2.1)

W/QGLS - COC^C P/eGSSU/ZG- COG-p-p-fCJG-AJT' ~ - Z. O(SGCK 5. 3./

)

p-/aOM UP=C /9V3

UPUPT P/ZGSSU/ZG COGP-P-ZC/GAJT P-O/E O^jUOP/G-S = - /. ZSCSGCT. ?308(c\)

p-/so/^ /na / 3JS - y/

(P/20M T/-/G- PC^AJS /^AJ/D SPG-C/P-/C^T/OJUS)

COAJC/ZG-PG- /c ^ 2SOO p.s./.

/ZGrjUP-O/ZC /AJG7 SPG-G-C /y - <^0,000 p.s./.

ALLOWX^jPiLG- SO/L. P/ZGSSU/ZG- = rSOO p.^.A (P)G/QO ^ C/VG-)

LG-G-y\//QiZP) IA/X)C.C^

0.&

0.£

4-55
Ax^- we

/EOOf^ W/JU/D AJU^LV3IS

K

•0

/<z.<5. C><Z>'

@

3<^.0'9- O!^PHIZACM ^NC-^IZ

LOADS F-O/Z /200/=^ OfAPH/ZAGi/^

Coo

I

I

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0

C)

(V)

5S

P/ZG-SSU/ZC- 33/o.s./'.

WALC mi&UTAfZy TO !ZOOF^

PA/Z^P'G-T --3.(^9

r-Loorz TO r-Loo/s.

= O' -f 2 - -7.00

RrZG-SSU/ZG- COG-P-P-/C/G-/JT W/JUOWA/Z/D S'/ZDC- ^ O.S

P/ZG-SSU/ZE- COG-J^-F-ICIG-JUT CG-C-WAIZO SlOC- - O.S

1.3

PO/ZCG- AT YHG- fZOor- CG-VG-C

3^.09 W'2 .45S& 37.33 -?0.02 KIPS W2

uPLfF-r oAJ /2oo/=^ - 33 x .yo - ? 3. / r^.s.-P.

COAJC/Ze-TG- CAlAJOPy U/=>L/F-T - 3 3 x /. 35' = <?/. eS/s.s.r^.

cojyc/ZG-TG- cAiAJap'y n.c. = s^. 2:s- ^ ,9 = SO-a3 /=>.s./.

(AJO/J C/31 Ti CAJL e-C G-A^G- T)

4-56
yQAy<-W 3

Vu. = r.3 X 3cf..09 = =?<?.3 f<./F>S

~ .S:5'x Z.S K(Sy.33 X 12 ^.S) ~ '^'^

ra. /O'C

As = <^^^o " ^-^'^ SQ./JJ. (SHG-e-Y AM-Gr9 = 20)

ST'/ZG-SS /Z/^T/O - ^

= O. 2-^ ( F-LG-XU^^L T-G-AJS/OAj)

AJo/zYH - sour/-/

TOTAL. W/AJ/D CO/^/D = 2x 3^.09 -(^S./S k^//='S (SHGGT W2)

CO/^/^^/ZG- W/TN SG/S/yf/C /Q/J^C'r'S/3 /^-O/Z A^GTA-/0/D

SG-/3A^/C CO/^/D = 2c:>S.(^3 K./f'S ( S//GGT ^Ayf-G- <l-)

/Z,^T/C iA//JLf/D TO SG/S/^/C = ^^•/'^ O.ZS7 2& 5^.(^3

/^-^cro/z /=^o/z /=-cGxu/2G - ae^Tx ^' ^ -.239

F-ACTO/Z f^O/Z ^/-/G-A/Z ^ 0.2Sy K -^"^ -.//9

(U./E,.C. SG-CTIOAJ ZC:,0^ (d) AAJ/D Zc^^Zy Cc^))

P1&/Z 14^ Z-'^T JAIA^/^ /^A/ZS - /. 20 SQ. {F-ZZO/^ /='C^QAJS)

3GISM/C /Qs - LZS SQ. /AJ. 1^ - 237/o-S./. (S/-/GG-T /QA^-GC)

W/JJ/D /Q<, ^ /.2£ ^ .239 - O. 3/ SQ. /JJ. ST/ZGSS /ZAIT/O = ^ 0.2<^ (f^CGXU/ZAL. TG-AJS/OXJ)

/. 20

4-57
W/QCC Fb 4 n (COJUTT)

'P 'P

/so p.s./. ^ ^C.COy\/^/^C(!=- -Vu. f^O/e /O" COAJC/ZG-rG- i/vaolls

/Za'/JU/='0/ZCG'/D WZ-r/-/ ^'T-C^ 20"o.<z. /=h.W. Z^./=T{SHC-&TA/y(-e(^)

THE-SG- WG-ZZG- r-f^G- OAJLW C/a/T'/C/^C STO/Z'r' l/\/^<LCS

^JJO P/G-/eS /='0/Z G-^/ZTHQUr^kLG- LO^n S/J^aG- THG IV/JU/D

UO^/D /S ^^G-SS "TH^jy T/-VG- Gy^/ZTHQU^kLG- LO/^O. THG- /SGM^/AJljuch Wy^ccs y^j-y/o /=>/Gzas no juor /eG-QUz/ZG- czzG-c^/jucy.

4-58
SG-coju.o F-coo/a w/jua ^ju^cy^/s

\

=a^-E-z z-a-:

I W5

@

i

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in

CM

/gg >U. I-,'. UV/JUO G-XROSUf2.G- C

G-LG-Vy^TlOjJ /aoo^ - ZS'-O"

<2.' AT 33 "Va' = 173

/.3x37<^^/, : <^Sc::'.S p.J'.-P. \W5\

UPLlf^T COJUC/ZC-rc- CAJJOF'V 2Z ^ I.ZS -- fD.s.f". CAJJOPy O. C = SC^.ZS X .9 = SO.C>3 p.s.f\.-. JJO JUG-T UPLIp-T

C/^JJOPy /D.C. - C>7. y X . 9 -- <SO. 9 /o.s.-f. j(^JJOX/ ClZlTfCAL G-LG-MOJJT)

eg 7. 35 Zl. -23 K./P3-

4-59
-i- (2:3 IS (SHG-G-T^AX- W3)

SG-ZSA^/C CO^/D V-2 = <2>00.<2, /<//^S ( SUG-G-y^y^-G- / f)

^Z^T/O ]A//yU/D TO SGr/SA^/C = ^T^.^f' -0.^33

Qp Cy C/.

/- 3

/. 3

Sr. c5

W/QCC i ZD

/^/G-ZZ /^'^ Z-'^ZO tJ^AyCZ=h /^^/g"^ G-XZS-TZyUC^ = Z. S'^ . ZAJ. SG-ZSA^/C X)s 3.0 SQ. ZUJ. -ITuc - S3Z. 9 z=> s./. (SZVGG-T^/^-G/<})

W/XJZD yQs - 3 X . 2Z<^ = 0.<^£' 3Q. ZXJ. STZEG-SS ZBXiTZO = - O.Z<i> (/=-CGXUZ^X)(^ TGJUSZaAJ)

WZJJZD TTu. - ^3Z. 9 x . ZOS = ^y.<l ro.s/.

STZZG-SS ZZA^TZO = ^1'^ - 0.3Z9 (SHC-XIZZ)

/cs o

P/GZZ Z ^ 3 Z-'^ZO Ay^J^Z^ /=t./QZc:s G-XZ^TZAJCy - Z- S-^ S^Q. ZJJ. SC-ZSJ-^ZC X)s = Z.99SQ.ZJJ. IZU = 3<^3.Z/o.s.z. (Sf-ZGGr A)A^-G Z<^)

V/JAJZj A) 5 - Z.9 9 X . e/cS' = SO.. ZUJ. SYZZG-S-S /S^r'/C? = "^"^^ - O. zy (Z=-LG-XUZZ^G T-G-AJ^ZOAJ)

W/XJZD -Vu. - 3<=^3.Z X . ZOS - 3y.Z/=>.s./.

3rz?.G3s z2X)rza = f?;/ = o.zz (s/-/gx)zz)

4-60
-h e X -21.23 = <Z 2. <;Z<^ C SHC-£ r /^'A^- lYS

)

V2= 32. so f<L//=>S

ap -5"

/=v<9c r'o/a /^a/e /='CGxu/^G- -o /sy x ^' ^

= o. /

2- CJ W/QCC

PfG/2 /^<^ 2-"^ '7 o/^^/e f±>/^/2S G'XfS-T'/XJG? - /.2a SQ. /UJ.

3e-lSZyf/C ^5 = /.<7-3 SQ. /JU. Vu. = 2i^/.S' (S/-/S-GT yQ^-G- /<4 4(rl5)

W/JJ/O /^s = /.<^3 ^ ./2y = O. /<5 SQ. /AJ. sr/ZGss /z^T'/a ^ /

= o./^ (^c-G-yo/z^c rs-AJs/oju)

/so ST/2G-SS /S^T-/0 = ^fi'^J = a.0 9 (SNGXI/Z)

WyQLC C

F'/G-ZZ / 4-<^ 2-'^y /^yQ/2S G-X/sy/XyO, = /. 20 SQ. /JJ. SG/SJ.^/0 X\s = /.3C> SQ. /UJ. TTu, =^ 2^ 9. 3 /o. s /. (SMGGT X)A><'-GI5$e/G)

W/JU/D ^5 = /.3<:^ X ./2V- 0./7 SQ. /JU.

ST/Z&SS /ZyQT/OAy = ^ O. /a ( /=-CG-XU/2^C -TGAJS/OJU)

W/JJ/D TAj. ^ 2'^9.3 X .Oc/^a ~ /C..O

SY/ZG-ss /zxi-r/a = /f'

,

= .09 (S/-/Gy^-)/2)

S/AJCG TNG- G-y^/ZTHQU.^f^G- XIAJ^'QCYS/S S/ZOiA/G-fJ r/-/G or/.'G.Z

P/G-,2S T'O /=^G- AJOAJ C/Z/r'/OXiC , YZ-ZG- SAXy.O<LGGZZ WZXJ/D

L OX)ZDS WOUG/D zQGSO JJOr OVG-/Z Sr/ZG-SS YZ-JG- /ZG-MX/Z.-U-

/JJG7 /='/GZZS.

4-61
r-o/z ^ ve-zzT/cy^c s7'/z//=' 0/=^ v\//r:>rHo./w = o./^37.35-s.ys'

A /^/ze-SSU/ZG- COG-Z^r^JCIG-J^JT -2.0 /S L/SG-O : 33^ 2 -<^a /='.s.A

MG-'Tf'/oro.

IZ/QY/G OF- y^/yun f^o/zaG- tT) sg-zsa^/c: f-o/zcg- - = /, <a 9

F-^ayO/Z F-O/Z F-CG-XU/ZG- (CO^O Fv^cro/Z /Z/QT/O) - Z.(2>9 k -J—-

- /.S7

W/J~y/D - cir7.2 (Sf^G-G-y /QA^-G- 20 ) K /. "^7 = i^SS.O p.s./.

Cr<^(i>.7 /O.S.I,

SY/EG-SS /Z^y/O- ^^^Q^ - .27 (F^CG-xa/e^^C aO/yfF>^G-SS/OAJ)

/Qs SG-/S/^/S = . 03<:^ CS!-/G-G-y -G- 20)

W/AJ/D ' /.S7 X .OS<^ - O./a SQ. /X/

Sy/ZG-SS ZZ^y/O =

• = Z.Z7 ( F-l.G-XUZZ/^1. TG-JJSZOJLZ)

JJOyG- : TZ-ZG-SG IVy^GCS Z-Z/QI/'C- COAAyZAJC/zy'r' W/YZ-Z T'Z./G- F-OOTZjUG^S /QJJZD yZ-ZG- Z^^ ^JJ/D 2'^'=' Z=^COO/ZS. yZ-ZG- MOAyfG-JUy C/SG/D

zjj yz-zG- SGzsx^zc ^jjy^c yszs {^z-ZGG-y x'xy- g- 20) w^s f^Vs

yz-zGzzGz^ozzG- use- i^<v-/c? yz-zG-Aj sy/^Gss zz^rzo ^- z.zy ^.s = 0.9^^

ZAJ yCjZDDZy/OXJ yz-ZZS Z^-OJZCG- ZS COAASZZDGZ^G-ZD ^ayzAJG /Qy

COZZAJG-ZZ y^l-ZG-ZZG- YZ-ZG- AyfOA^G-AJy 0/=- ZA^G-ZSyz^ ZS C^^/ZC^G-/Z

A^lAJZD TZ-ZG /2G-QUZZZG-ZD /Qs SA^^CCG-ZZ. YHG-Z^G-Z^^^ZZG- YZ^G-

/QdYU/QC ^Y/ZG-SS ZS,^yzO ZS DGZ=-ZAAZyG-Cy CGSS YZ-Z/i:)AA Z.O.

4-62
C . Tornado

For this example the building is assumed to be subject to tornado hazard

with probability of occurrence once in a 100-year period.

No original computations for tornado hazards were available. The com- putations made for this example consist of the determination of tornado

wind pressures, positive and negative, and the distribution of these forces

to the building. A brief check is made on the probability of glass breakage

and window frame anchorage. The anchorage of the thin precast concrete

veneer panels is considered satisfactory. The elements felt to be probably

the most critical were the roof framing elements subjected to negative or uplift pressure and the shear walls subjected to horizontal pressure. The

critical stress ratios of these elements were computed.

As noted in Section 3.3 under "Criteria for the Method," the suction or uplift on the roof for moderate tornado protection is assumed to be 172 psf

and the horizontal velocity pressure is assumed to be 100 psf. In this buildi

the height/width ratio is less than 2.5, so the windward and leeward coefficients will be 0.8 and 0.5, respectively. Calculation Sheet T3 computes

the total uplift on the building. The horizontal force loading diagram i/

shown for loads applied at the roof level on Sheet T2. On sheet T4, the uplift on the individual roof concrete joists and girders is acceptable. Since

the uplift on these members is greater than the dead load, these members are checked in detail since these are potential critical members.

Since computations for this example have already been made for earthquake and the distribution of lateral forces to the various shear walls and

piers determined, it was not necessary to repeat this for tornado. A ratio

of tornado forces to seismic forces is computed at each level and these

ratio factors used in determining the critical stress ratios shown on Sheets

T5, T7 and T8 for vertical resisting elements.

A typical wall panel is checked for direct normal pressure on Sheet T9.

The maximum diaphragm shear from tornado forces is shown on Sheet T5.

The anchorage of the roof to the walls is accomplished by the vertical

wall steel and column bars. This is calculated on Sheet T3.

Since there was no net uplift on the structure, the footings and footing anchorage critical stress ratios are listed as less than 0.46, the

critical ratio of uplift forces alone.

4-63
The glass and glaring items listed under "Other Life Hazards" are rated

as "Compliance" with normal wind requirements. It is known from experience that such normal compliance will not prevent damage in a tornado.

However, the window frame anchorage was found to be reasonably adequate.

4-64
FACILITY NO. /?.C. 36//LQ//l/Cr FOIW AMD-1

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL MJiiTllOD RATING FORM - TORNADOES

SYSTEMS CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS

SYSTEM

Roof

Roof Anchorage .44

Floor

Floor Anchorage

Vertical Resisting Element

Anchorage to Footings < >A<^

Footings

Use highest Critical Stress Ratio. For Structural Systems Rating - Tornado, see Form AME.

''frj, = Capacity required to resist tornado forces,

fg^ = Capacity based on design criteria.

4-65
FACILITY NO. /P. C- Si/JtP/A/&- FORM AMD

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - TORNADO RATING

TYPF L 1 IT Hi OFWr Ry^K ixiijlx CRITICAL STRESS RATIO

1 RATING i

Glass Breakage''

A- Glazing

Window Frame Anchorage J ^ . /I( QOC> w i-^

Wall Cladding Anchorage (jOQP

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

Exposed Walls /-^

\ !

Canopies & Eaves 3.40 pOOf^ j

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE*

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

*See Instructions for ratings.

CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

< 2,0 Good

2.0 to 3.0 Fair

> 3.0 Poor

4-66
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4-67
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4-68
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4-69
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4-70
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4-71
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4-72

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4-73
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4-74

1

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4-75
D. Resume

Earthquake

The Approximate Analytical Evaluation Method gives this building a rating of "Very Poor" for the 9.5 Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity earthquake

used for this site. This is an extremely high intensity and this building

would rate better for earthquakes with a lower MMI.

The Exit Enclosure Walls are rated "Fair" to "Good." There is no problem with Partitions and Wall Cladding, but the Ceilings and Light Fixtures

are not laterally braced and these Life Hazards are rated "Poor."

Wind

The Basic Wind Speed applicable to this site has been designated as 100 miles per hour, which is of hurricane velocity. The rating of the

Structural System as a whole is "Good," however. There appears to be no problem with Other Life Hazards except that there is a potential hazard

from windblown debris from the lumber yard 400 feet away.

Tornado

This building rates "Good" for Tornado hazard as far as the structural

system as a whole is concerned. Because top reinforcing steel was provided

in the concrete joists and girders, the roof was found capable of taking the

uplift forces below ultimate strength of concrete or yield stress in the

reinforcing steel. The diaphragm critical stress ratio is 1.0. The diaphragm shears here are the same as for Earthquake. There is a potential

hazard from windblown missiles from the lumber yard 400 feet away.

4-76
FORM AMi

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS - STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Critical Stress Ratio Rating

Earthquake

Wind ^ ao o

Tornado

1

RATING OF CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS

Critical Stress Ratio Earthquake or Wind

1 1

i

! Tornado

Less than 1.0 Good Good

1 to 1.5 Fair Good

1.5 to 2.0 Poor Good

2.0 to 3,0 Very Poor Fair \

i

' 3.0 to 4.0 Very Poor Poor :

Over 4.0 Very Poor Very Poor

4-77
4.5 DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

The same two-story reinforced concrete building evaluated by the Field

Evaluation and the Approximate Analytical Evaluation Methods is evaluated in

this section. It was assumed that the building is subjected to an earthquake

of Richter magnitude of 7.0 with a hypocentral distance of 10 miles. This

earthquake is equivalent to MMI of 9.54 according to equation (3.4.3). For

wind and tornado load analysis, wind velocities of 100 and 200 miles per hour,

respectively were used.

A listing of the computer program results is contained on the following

pages

4-7s;;
FORTRAN IV COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTING

4-79
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4-82
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

NUMBER OF STORIES = 2 TOTAL BUILDING WIDTH (INCHES) = 1050.0

TOTAL BUILDING LENGTH (INCHES) = 1780.0

HEIGHT OF PARAPET (INCHES) = ^+5.0

NUMBER OF FRAMES = 9

*** FRAME NO. 1 *** FRAME MODELING OPTION = 2

NUMBER OF BAYS = 5

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W (LBS/CU.FT) = 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000.0 G= 1300,0 W (l-BS/CU.FT) = 150.00

BEAM TYPE AB IB FB

1 720.0 121500.0 1.20

COLUMN TYPE AC IC FC

1 860.0 530046.7 1.20

2 600,0 180000.0 1.20

3 201.1 3217.0 1.11

BAY WIDTHS

1 BAYS AT 122.000 INCHES

1 BAYS AT 109.000 INCHES

1 BAYS AT i+i+O.OOO INCHES

1 BAYS AT 109.000 INCHES

1 BAYS AT 122.000 INCHES

STORY HEIGHTS

2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

*** FRAME NO. 2 *** FRAME MODELING OPTION = 2

NUMBER OF BAYS = 5

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W ( LBS/CU . FT) = 150.00

4-83
COLUMNS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W(LBS/CU.FT)= 150.00

BEAM TYPF Ar IR FB

1 720.0 121500.0 1.20

COLUMN TYPE AC IC FC

1 860,0 5300*^6.7 1.20

2 600,0 180000.0 1.20

3 201.1 3217.0 1.11

BAY WIDTHS

Bays at

Bays at

Bays at

BAYS AT

Bays at

STORY HEIGHTS

122,000 INCHES

109,000 INCHES

4'+0,000 INCHES

109,000 INCHES

122,000 INCHES

2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

*** FRAME NO. 3

** FRAME MODELING OPTION

NUMBER OF BAYS = 3

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W(LBS/CU.FT)= 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000,0 G= 1300.0 W ( LBS/CU , FT) = 150.00

BEAM TYPE

1 COLUMN TYPE

12

3

BAY WIDTHS

1 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

AB

300,0

AC

201,1

32*+, 0 400,0

IB

8814.2

IC

3217.0

8748.0

13333.3

296,000 INCHES

440,000 INCHES

296,000 INCHES

FB

2,16

FC

1.11

1.20

1.20

STORY HEIGHTS

2 STORIES AT 168,000 INCHES

** FRAME NO. 4 ** FRAME MODELING OPTION =

4-84
NUMBER OF BAYS = 3

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W{LBS/CU.FT)= 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W (LBS/CU.FT)= 150.00

BEAM TYPE

1 COLUMN TYPE

12

3

BAY WIDTHS •

1 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

AB

300.0

AC

201.1

32«+.0

1+00.0

IB

8814.2

IC

3217.0

8748.0

13333.3

296.000 INCHES

440,000 INCHES

296.000 INCHES

FB

2.16

FC

1.11

1.20

1.20

STORY HEIGHTS

2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

*** FRAME NO. 5

*

FRAME MODELING OPTION =

NUMBER OF BAYS = 3

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G=

COLUMNS E= 3000.0 G=

1300,0 W{LBS/CU.FT)= 150,00

1300,0 W(LBS/CU.FT)= 150.00

BEAM TYPE

1 COLUMN TYPE

12

3

BAY WIDTHS •

1 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

STORY HEIGHTS

AB

300,0

AC

201,1

324,0

400.0

IB

8814.2

IC

3217.0

8748.0

13333.3

FB

296.000 INCHES

440,000 INCHES

296.000 INCHES

2.16

FC

1.11

1.20

1.20

4-85
2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

** FRAME NO. 6 *** FRAME MODELING OPTION = 2

NUMBER OF BAYS = 3

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W ( LBS/CU . I^T) = 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W ( LBS/CU . FT ) = 150.00

BEAM TYPE

1 COLUMN TYPE

12

3

BAY WIDTHS

AB

300,0

AC

201.1

32'+.0

£+00,0

IB

881i+.2

IC

3217.0

8748.0

13333.3

FB

2.16

FC

1.11

1.20

1.20

1 BAYS AT

1 Bays at

1 bays at

296,000 INCHES

tf'+O.OOO INCHES

296.000 INCHES

STORY HEIGHTS —

2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

*** FRAME NO, 7

*

FRAME MODELING OPTION = 2

NUMBER OF BAYS = BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W ( LBS/CU. FT ) = 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000.0 G= 1300.0 W(LBS/CU.FT)= 150.00

BEAM TYPE

12

3

COLUMN TYPE

12

3

H

5

AB

'+20.

39t+.0

t+92,0

AC

s^+e.o

32'+,0

256,0

201.1

400.0

IB

1U014.5

12473.8

16516.4

IC

7424.0

8748.0

5461.3

3217.0

13333.3

FB

1.51

1.12

1.36

PC

1.20

1.20

1.20

1.11

1.20

4-86
BAY WIDTHS

1 BAYS AT 296,000 INCHES

2 BAYS AT 220,000 INCHES

1 BAYS AT 296.000 INCHES

STORY HEIGHTS

2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

** FRAME NO, 8 *** FRAME MODELING OPTION = 2

NUMBER OF BAYS = BEAMS E= 3000,0 G= 1300.0 W (LBS/CU,FT) = 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000,0 G= 1300.0 W ( LBS/CU, FT ) = 150.00

BEAM TYPE

12

3

COLUMN TYPE

12

3

5 BAY WIDTHS -

1 BAYS AT

2 BAYS AT

1 BAYS AT

AB

420,0

39«*,0

492,0

AC

348,0

324.0

256.0

201,1

400,0

IB

14014.5

12473.8

16516,4

IC

7424.0

8748.0

5461,3

3217.0

13333.3

FB

296,000 INCHES

220,000 INCHES

296,000 INCHES

1,51

1.12

1.36

FC

1.20

1.20

1.20

1.11

1.20

STORY HEIGHTS ~

2 STORIES AT 168.000 INCHES

** FRAME NO. 9 ** FRAME MODELING OPTION

NUMBER OF BAYS = 4

BEAMS E= 3000.0 G= 1300,0 W ( LBS/CU . FT ) r 150.00

COLUMNS E= 3000.0 6= 1300,0 W ( LBS/CU , FT ) = 150.00

BEAM TYPE AS IB FB

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4-98
4.6 SUMMARY

Table 4.1 presents a general summary of the damage evaluation obtained

using each of the three methods noted in chapter 3. Earthquake, wind and

tornado loadings were considered. While each method presents the evaluation

in a somewhat different format it is clear from table 4.1 that the general

evaluation of the building is consistent.

It is not the intent of this demonstration example to compare the

relative merits of the three methods. This example problem demonstrates

the benefits of performing a building evaluation using all of the methods.

Such an approach provides the engineer with a total insight into the problem

which would not be possible if only one method were used.

Table 4.1 Summary of Evaluation for Demonstration Building

Natural

Hazard

Field Evaluation

Method

Approxi mate

Analytical Method

Detailed Analytical

Method

Earthquake

(MMI 9.5)

Poor Structural

Rating

Fair Nonstructural

Rating

Very Poor Structural

Rating

Door Nonstructural

Rati ng

2% Structural Damage

63% Non structural

^ Damage

Wind

(100 mph)

Fair Structural

Rating

Fair to Good NonStructural Rating

Good Structural

Rating

No Interior NonStructural Damage

0% Structural Damage

44% Corner Window

Damage

Tornado

(200 mph)

Fair Structural

Rating

Good Rating for Walls

Poor Rating for

Wi ndows

Good Structural

Rating

Noted Potential

for Missile

Damage

0% Structural

100% Window Damage

At the present time there exists very few full scale structures which

have been severely damaged during the occurrence of a natural hazard a_nd have

recorded building response or wind velocity data. Insight into the area of

damage evaluation can only be improved as more such quantitative data are obtained. Therefore, the user must recognize not only the inherent uncertainty

in his selection of values of input parameters for each of the damage evaluation methods presented, but also the uncertainty in what seismic and wind

4-99
excitation levels cause damage to different classes of buildings. To be sure,

this area requires considerable research. By the working of examples of the

type presented in this chapter, however, the user will gain an appreciation

for what the key parameters are and what general levels of damage he can ex- pect for a particular building. Learning of this type is a significant and

essential step toward safe design.

4-100
5. SUMMARY

This report presents a methodology for evaluating the potential damage

of buildings due to earthquake and extreme wind including tornado and hurricane. Three independent, but related, sets of procedures are developed.

These ranged from a qualitative procedure based on field survey data to a detailed analytical procedure involving a digital computer program. Historical seismic and meteorological data are used as the basis for establishing

environmental loads. Damage estimates are based on empirical correlations

between structural response and observed damage coupled with engineering

j udgment

The methodology presented in this report incorporated the state-of -thepractice techniques available in the engineering profession. However, it is

recognized that because of the increased social and political interest in

disaster mitigation in recent years, this entire area of research is in a stage of rapid development. Therefore, it is anticipated that the methodology will be periodically up-dated.

Based on experience gained in the development of this methodology, it

is recommended that consideration be given to further study of the following

topics to improve its further application:

1 . Sensitivity Study

The present methodology incorporates many parameters from many

diverse areas of engineering. Some parameters have a direct

effect upon the final answer whereas the influence of other

parameters is indirect and difficult to visualize. Therefore,

an analytically based sensitivity study using perturbation theory

concepts should be undertaken. The alternative to such a systematic sensitivity study is a parametric study involving

many hundreds of problem solutions; this is inefficient and

undesirable.

5-1
2 . Damage Data

More structural and nonstructural damage data from future disasters will contribute greatly to the refinement of the present

methodology. It is highly desirable that the data be recorded

in a format which is compatible with the methodology. Thus,

the data should be obtained in a systematic manner with the

mechanics of the data gathering established prior to the occurrence of the natural disaster.

3 . Program Module Modification

The building modeling techniques should be extended to include

torsional motions. Recent full scale test data indicate that

this response mode is important in both wind and earthquake

excitation, and because it seems to most significantly effect

floor accelerations away from the building's center of mass,

it should have a significant influence upon nonstructural

damage estimates. While modeling techniques for threedimensional tier buildings are available, certain problems

associated with the inclusion of a torsional modeling capability exist. They are, (i) the specification of torsional

modal damping values, (ii) evaluating the distribution of

damage to floors, i.e., to corners, center, etc., and (iii)

generation of earthquake ground motion spectra and wind loads

which reflect the characteristics of observed loading in the

two perpendicular trans 1 ati onal building motion directions.

The inclusion of a module for analyzing a building for its

earthquake inelastic time dependent response should be con- sidered. Presently, the user has the option of modifying

the site spectra for ductility. The modification factors

are meant to provide intelligent estimates of inelastic

response without a detailed inelastic response analysis.

It is recognized that such estimates are approximate.

Significant problems exist in incorporating an inelastic

response procedure. Among these problems are, (i) the

need to generate ground displacement time histories for

a site, and (ii) the characterization of acceptable

analytical strain-displacement relationships (e.g.,

elastic-plastic, stiffness - degrading, etc.) for

each of the building types noted in this report.

5-2
Finally, the quantification of uncertainties introduced at

various stages of the analysis, and a systematic treatment

of their combined influence on damage estimates is essential.

Such an effort would not only result in a quantitative assessment of uncertainty in the damage estimates, but would point

out the sensitivity of the final rjesxilts to specific sources

of error. A separate subprogram module could be developed

to operate on the uncertainties associated with each scage of

computation.

This report represents a first step in the area of damage evaluation.

It should and will be modified and improved with time and experience. The

modular form of the computer program was purposely designed for this reason. The importance of this report can best be appreciated by recognizing that it

brings together a detailed modeling of the many areas of natural hazard

damage evaluation by utilizing a systems engineering approach.

5-3

6. REFERENCES

[1.1] Wiggins, J. H., Jr., and Moran, D. F. , Earthquake Safety in the City

of Long Beach Based on the Concept of Balanced Risk , J. H. Wiggins

Company , Redondo Beach , Cal i forni a (September 1 971 ) .

[1.2] Earthquake Resistance Design Requirements for VA Hospital Facilities , Handbook H-08-8, Office of Construction, Veterans Administration,

Washington, D.C. (June 1973).

[1.3] Phase III and Phase IV Seismic Study of Puget Sound Naval Shipyard,

Bremerton, Washington, Prepared for Western Division Naval Facilities

Engineering Command, San Bruno, California by John A. Blume and

Associates (May 1973).

[1.4] National Bureau of Standards (U.S.), Building Science Series 46,

(February 1973).

[2.1] Gutenberg, B. and Richter, C. F. , "Seismicity of the Earth and Associated Phenomena," Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J.,

(1954)

[2.2] Benioff, H. and Gutenberg, B., "General Introduction to Seismology,"

Earthquakes in Kern County During 1952, State of California, Division of Mines, Bulletin 171, San Francisco, (1955).

[2.3] Richter, C.F., Elementary Seismology , W. H. Freeman and Co., San

Francisco, (19587"^

[2.4] U.S. Department of Defense, "The Effects of Nuclear Weapons,"

S. Glasstone, Editor; Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

( 1962)

[2.5] "Uniform Building Code," 1973 Edition, published by International

Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Road,

Whittier, California 90601.

[2.6] Greensfel der , R. , "Maximum Expected Bedrock Acceleration from Earthquakes in California," Unpublished California Division of Mines and

Geology Map, ( 1 972 )

[2.7] Davenport, A.G.and Milne, W. G., "Earthquake Probability," Proceedings of the Fourth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering , Santiago, Chile, (1968).

[2.8] Whitman, R.V., Roesset, J.M., Dobry, R. and Ayestaran, L., "Accuracy

of Modal Superposition for One -Di men s i ona 1 Soil Amplification Analysis,"

Proc. of International Conference or Mi crozonati on

,

Seattle, Washington,

October, 1973.

[2.9] Hart, G.C, DiJulio, R.M. and M. Lew, "Torsional Response and Design

of High-Rise Buildings," Proc. Paper No. 2266, ASCE National Structural

Engineering Meeting, April, 1974.

[2.10] Berg, G.V., and Degenkolb, H.J., "Engineering Lessons From the Managua

Earthquake," Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Conference Proceedi ngs--Managua , Nicaragua Earthquake of December 23 , 1 972 , Vol. II,

November 29 and 30, 1973, San Francisco, California, 1973.

6-1
[2.11] Hanson, R.D., and Degenkolb, H.J., "The Venezuela Earthquake--July 29, 1967," American Iron and Steel Institute, New York, New York, 1969.

[2.12] McKaig, T.H., "Building Fai 1 ures--Case Studies in Construction and Design," McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, New York, 1962.

[2.13] Mehta, K.C., et al, "Response of Structural Systems to the Lubbock

Storm," T T U SRR 03, Texas Tec h Un i vers i ty , 1971.

[2.14] Dikkers, R.D., Marshall, R.D., and Thom, H.C.S., "Hurricane Camille--

August 1967," Technical Note 569, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. , 1971

[2.15] Somes, N.F., Dikkers, R.D., and Boone, T.H., "Lubbock Tornado-A Survey

of Building Damage in An Urban Area," Technical Note 558, National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D, C, 1971.

[2.16] Koppes, W.F., "Design Wind Loads for Building Wall Elements," Building Science Series 30, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 1970.

[3.1] "Seismic Design for Buildings," by Departments of the Army, the Navy

and the Air Force, (April 1 973). (Army TM 5-809-10 ; Navy FAC P-355-,

Air Force AFM 88-3, Chapter 13).

[3.2] "Building Code Requirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings

and Other Structures" (ANSI A58. 1-1972), American National Standards

Institute, Inc., 1430 Broadway, New York, New York 10018.

[3.3] Mehta, Kishor C, Minor, Joseph E., and McDonald, James R., "Tornadoes and Extreme Winds Research Program," ASCE Annual and National

Environmental Engineering Meeting, Houston, Texas. Meeting Preprint 1797, (October 1972).

[3.4] Dunlap, James A., and Weidner, Karl, "Nuclear Power Plant Tornado

Design Considerations," Journal of the Power Division, Proceedings

of the American Society of Civil Engineers , (March 19717^

[3.5] Newmark, N.M., and Rosenblueth, E., "Fundamentals of Earthquake

Engi neeri ng , " Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,

1971 .

[3.6] "Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary," by Seismology Committee of the Structural Engineers Association of California, 1973 (173 Second Street, San Francisco, California 94105).

[3.7] Gaylord, E.H. and Gaylord, C. N., Structural Engineering Handbook , McGraw-Hill Book Company (1968).

[3.8] Grinter, L..

Theory of Modern Steel Structures. Volume II ," MacMillian

Company, 194?T '

[3.9] Wilson, E.L., and Dovey, H. H., "Three Dimensional Analysis of Building Systems - TABS," Report No . EERC 72-8 , Earthquake Engineering

Research Center, College of Engineering, University of California,

Berkeley, California, (December 1972). (For sale by the National

Technical Information Service, National Bureau of Standards, U.S.

Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151)

[3.10] "Research Recommendations" of International Conference of Building

Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Road, Whittier, California 90601.

6-2
[3.11] Wiggins, J. H., Hart, G. C, Hasselman, T.K. and White, R. W.,

"Methodology for Hazard Risk Evaluation of Buildings," J. H. Wiggins

Company Technical Report No. 73-1152, October 1973. (Available

from NTIS)

[3.12] United States Earthquakes, Parts I and II , U.S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey (1966).

[3.13] World Earthquakes, 1961-1972 , NOAA, published bi-monthly since

January 1 , 1 961 .

[3.14] Nuttli, Otto, "On the Recurrence Rate of Lower Mississippi Valley

Earthquakes," Presented at the Seis. Soc. Am. Meeting , May 16-19,

1973.

[3.15] Bollinger, G.A., "Seismicity of the South Eastern United States,"

Presented at the Seis. Soc. Am. Meeting , (May 16-19, 1973).

[3.16] Chinnery, M.A., "Earthquake Risk in Southern New England," Presented

at the Seis. Soc. Am. Meeting , (May 16-19, 1973).

13.17] Gordon, D.W., "An Interpretation of New England Seismicity," Presented at the Seis. Soc. Am. Meeting , (May 16-19, 1973).

[3.18] Wiggins, J. H., "Construction of Strong Motion Response Spectra from

Magnitude and Distance Data," Bull. Seis. Soc. Am. (1964).

[3.191 Gutenberg, B. and Richter, C. ."Earthquake Magnitude, Intensity,

Energy, and Acceleration," Bulletin of the Se i smol ogi cal Society

of America , 46: 1 05-145 (1956r

[3.20] Wiggins, J. H., The Effect of Soft Surficial Layering on Earthquake

Intensity , Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research Series

No. 216, University of Illinois, (1969).

£3.21

[3.22;

[3.23;

[3.24:

{3.25:

[3.26:

[3.2?:

[3.28:

Wiggins, J. H., "Effects of Site Conditions on Earthquake Intensity,"

Journal of the Structural Division . ASCE, (1964)

USGS, Landforms of the United States , Stock Number 2401-2192, (1972).

Nuttli, 0., State of the Art for Assessing Earthquake Hazards in the

United States. Report #1. Design £arthquakes for the Central United

States . Barosh, P.O., Use of Seismic Intensity Data to Predict the Effects

of Earthquakes and Underground Nuclear Explosions in Various Geo - logic Settings , Geological Survey Bulletin 1279. (1969).

Orphal , D.L. and Lahoud. J. A. , "Prediction of Peak Ground Motion

from Earthquakes," Presented at the Seis. Soc. Am. Meeting , May 16-

19, 1973.

Campbel 1 ,K. W. and D-uke, CM., "Bedrock Intensity Attenuation and

Site Factors from San Fernando Earthquake Records." Presented at

the Seis. Soc. Am. Meeting . (May 16-19, 1973).

Medvedev, S. V., Engineering Seismology . Translated from Russian by

the U.S. Department of Commerce. (1969).

Thorn, H.C.S., "Fre^^uency of Maximum Wind Speeds," Proceedings, ASCE , Volume 80, (1954)

^-3
[3.29] Thorn, H.C.S., "Distribution of Extreme Winds in the United States,"

Journal of the Structural Division , ASCE, (April 1960).

[3.30] Thorn, H.C.S., "New Distributions of Extreme Winds in the United

States," Journal of the Structural Division , ASCE, (1968).

[3.31] Davenport, A.G., "Rationale for Determining Design Wind Velocities,"

Journal of the Structural Division , ASCE, (May 1960).

[3.32] Davenport, A.G., "Gust Loading Factor," Journal of the Structural

Di vi si on , ASCE, (June 1967).

[3.33] Vellozzi, J.W. and Cohen, E., "GUST Response Factors," Journal of

the Structural Division , Volume 94, (June 1968).

[3.34] Singell, Thomas W., "Wind Forces on Structures: Forces on Enclosed

Structures," Journal of the Structural Division , ASCE, (July 1958).

[3.35] Standards of the Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects on Load Assumptions, Acceptance and Supervision of Buildings,

Schei zeri scher Ingenieur and Architekten Vasein, Technische Normen

No. 160, (1956).

[3.36] McGuire, William, Steel Structures , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,

New York, Chapter 3.7, (1969).

[3.37] Sherman, Z., "Residential Buildings Engineered to Resist Tornadoes,"

Journal of the Structural Division , ASCE, (April 1973).

[3.38] Thorn, H.C.S., "Tornado Probabilities," Monthly Weather Review,

(1963).

[3.39] Mehta, K.C., et al , Response of Structural Systems to the Lubbock

Storm , Texas Tech University Storm Research Report 03, Lubbock,

Texas , (October 1971).

[3.40] Friedman, D.G., "Perspective View of the Natural Disasters in the United States," " (July 18, 1973)

United States, Presented at the Systems Safety Society Symposium .

[3.41] Lionberger, Steve R., and William Weaver, Jr., "Dynamic Response of

MQco\ ^^^"^ Non-Rigid Connections," J. Engr. Mech. Div. . ASCE .

( 196 9 ).

[3.42] Weaver, Wm. , Jr., and Nelson, M.F., "Three-Dimensional Analysis of Tier Buildings," Journal of the Structural Division. ASCE . (1966).

[3.43] Clough, R.W., King, I. P. and Wilson, E.L., "Structural Analysis of Multistory Buildings," J. Structural Div. , ASCE . ( 1 964).

[3.44] Housner. G.W., and Brady, A.G., "Natural Periods of Vibration of Buildings," Journal of Engineering Mech. Div. ASCE . (1963).

[3.45] Husid, R., and Conrad, P., "Fundamental Period of Framed Structures,"

Bull, of International Institute of Seis mology and Earthquake Engineering . (197Tr

[3.46] Takeuchi, M. , "Vibrational Characteristics of Buildings," Procee dings

11 World Conference on Earthquake Engineering . (I960).

[3.47] Ifrim, M. , "Dynamic Analysis of Tall Structures Subject to Earthquake

P'^oceedinqs II World Conference on Earthquake Engineering .

6-4
[3.48] Husid, R., and Bustamante, J., "Discussions of Natural Periods of

Vibrations of Buildings," J. of Engr. Mech. Div. ASCE. (1964).

[3.49] Rinne» J.E., "Building Code Provisions for a Seismic Design," Pro - ceedings from the EERI Symposium , "Earthquake and Blast," (June

1952 )

[3.50] Hart, G.C., M. Lew and R. M. DiJulio, "High Rise Building Response:

Damping and Period Nonlinearities," Proceedings of the Sixth World

Conference on Earthquake Engineering , Rome, Italy, (1973).

[3.51] Jennings, P.D. (Editor), "Engineering Features of the San Fernando

Earthquake," EERI Report No. 71-02 , California Institute of Technology, Pasadena"^ (1971).

[3.52] Newmark, N.M. and Hall, W., "Seismic Design Criteria for Nuclear

Reactor Facilities," Proceedings Fourth World Conference on Earth - quake Engineering, Santiago, Chile, (1969).

[3.53] California Institute of Tech., Earthquake Engineering Research

Report No. EERL 72-80 , August, ( 1972)

[3.54] Newmark, N.M., "Current Trends in the Seismic Analysis and Design of

High-Rise Structures," Earthquake Engineering , Chapter 16, Prentice

Hall, (1970).

[3.55] Velestos, A.S. and Newmark, N.M., "Effect of Inelastic Behavior on the Response of Simple Systems to Earthquake Motions," Proceedings of

the Second World Conference on Earthquake Engineering , (1960).

[3.56] Velestos, A.S. and Newmark, N.M., "Deformation Spectra for Elastic

and El asto-Pl asti c Systems Subjected to Ground Shock and Earthquake

Motions," Proceedings on the Third World Conference on Earthquake

Engi neeri ng^ ( 1 965 )1

[3.57] Wiggins, J. H., Earthquake Damage Inspection Manual , San Fernando

Earthquake, February 9, 1971 , Prepared for the Small Business

Administration under contract with the National Bureau of

Standards, (April 1972).

[3.58] Steinbrugge, K.V., Schader, E.E., and Moran, D.F., "Building Damage

in San Fernando Valley," California Division of Mines and Geology , Sacramento, California, ( i n press )

[3.59] Steinbrugge, K.V., Schader, E.E., Bigglestone, H.C. and Weers, C. A.,

San Fernando Earthquake, February 9, 1971 , Pacific Fire Rating

Bureau, San Francisco.

[3.60] Connor, Logcher and Shing-Ching Chan, "Nonlinear Analysis of Elastic

Framed Structures," J. of St. Div. ASCE (June 1968).

[3.61] Wiegel, R.L., Earthquake Engineering , Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1970.

[3.62] Fiorato, A. E., Sozen, M. A. Gamble W. A., "An Investigation of

the Interaction of Reinforced Concrete Frames With Masonry Filler

Walls", University of Illinois Report , Urbana, Illinois,

November, 1970.

[3.63]Chinn, James, "Failure of Simply Supported Flat Roofs by Ponding

of Rain," Engineering Journal , American Institute of Steel

Construction, Vol 2, No 2 April 1965, New York.

6-5
[C.l] "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-71),"

American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, (1971).

[C.2] "Manual of Steel Construction," American Institute of Steel Construction,

New York, N.Y. (1969)

[C.3] "Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members,"

1968 Ed. American Iron and Steel Institute, New York, N.Y. (1968)

[C.4] "Specifications for Structures of Aluminum Alloys," Aluminum Construction \ Manual , The Aluminum Association, New York, N.Y., ( 1 967 ) [D.l] Moran, D.F. and C. Rojahn, EERI/NOAA Report on the San Fernando Earthquake ,

[I National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (to be published February

1974).

[D.2] Hart, G. C. and G. Stillman, "Owner and Occupant Financial Loss to Two

Modern High-Rise Buildings During the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake,"

UCLA Technical Report No. UCLA-ENGR-721 7 . ( 1 972 )

[D.3] Hart, G. C, Lew, M. and G. Stillman, "Ambient, Aftershock and Mainshock Response of Two High-Rise Buildings," Proceedings of the International Conference on Mi crozonati on , Seattle, Washington. (November 1971)

[0.4] Lew, H.S., et al., "Engineering Aspects of the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake," Building Science Series 40 , U.S. Department of Commerce,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1971)

6-6
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Development of the methodology reported herein was carried out by the

Center for Building Technology (CBT), Institute for Applied Technology,

National Bureau of Standards (NBS) under the auspices of the Defense Civil

Preparedness Agency (DCPA) of the Department of Defense. Coordination with

DCPA's National Shelter Program was maintained through Paul Rogers. Paul

Rogers and John Dirst, DCPA, provided helpful suggestions and assistance

during the course of this project.

The methodology is the result of a cooperative effort involving CBT,

the J. H. Wiggins Company and S. B. Barnes and Associates. Procedures for

the Detailed Analytical Method were developed by the J. H. Wiggins Company

in consultation with the CBT staff. Individuals from the company who made

significant contributions include: John H. Wiggins, Jon Chrostowski, Gary

C. Hart, T. K. Hasselman, Donald F. Moran, W. T. Thomson, and Richard W. White. Procedures for the Approximate Analytical Method and the Field

Evaluation Method were developed by S. B. Barnes and Associates in consultation with CBT staff. S.B. Barnes and Clarkson W. Pinkham, from S. B. Barnes

and Associates made significant contributions.

During the course of this study, comments on the methodology were received from the following individuals: Glen V. Berg, University of Michigan; Thomas M. Black, Building and Zoning Department, Metropolitan Dade

County, Florida; Mark Fintel, Portland Cement Association; Charles A. Hagberg, Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations, Wisconsin;

James Kesler, Structural Engineer, California; Robert M. Powell, Structural

Engineer, California. Professor Richard N. Wright of the University of

Illinois, formerly Deputy Director-Technical of the Center for Building

Technology participated in the initial development stage of this project.

7-1
V
APPENDIX A

DATA COLLECTION FORM

A.l COMMENTARY ON THE USE OF DATA COLLECTION (DC) FORM

Purpose

Data Collection Form (DC-1 through DC-12) are provided for the Field Data

Collection Teams. Comments on the use of this form and suggested methods of

procedure are presented herein along with suggestions for equipment to be used

by the team. While the data contained on these forms is not necessary for the use of the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method it does provide significant

engineering insight into the building and therefore should in general be

col 1 ected . Data Collection Teams should consist of a Team Leader who is familiar

with construction and has been briefed on, or is familiar with, lateral

force design principles. Other Team members hopefully will be somewhat

familiar with construction methods and construction materials. In reporting on stability of equipment it is advantageous to have team members who

have some experience in the mechanical and electrical fields so that

equipment may be properly identified.

It is intended that the DC Form be used to obtain data for evaluation

of earthquake, wind, and tornado hazard. Forms will be supplied to the

team with spaces for noting the items expected to be pertinent. Only those

building features which are visible are expected to be noted. It is not

anticipated that this team will cut into the structure or ceilings to un- cover conditions. No form can be expected to cover every conceivable building feature. Thus, notes should be made of unusual conditions not covered

by the form.

Entry of buildings for the data collection should be arranged with the

Building Owner or Manager and a schedule set up. Some buildings may take more or less time than anticipated, so some adjustments in schedule will

probably be necessary. Experience in making the survey and filling out the

forms will develop increased accuracy in scheduling. The Owner or Building

Manager may know something of the history of the building, such as dates of

construction or alterations. The local building code in effect at the time

of design may be approximated from the date of construction. Tax records

can also be searched for the date but this would usually be done by other

than the Data Collection Team members.

A-1
When contact is made with the Building Owner or Manager, inquiries

should be made as to availability of plans, calculations, and soil or geologic reports. Sometimes these may be available at the site. If not,

it is possible that the local Building Department may have plans on file.

If plans are not available elsewhere, the name of the architect, engineer,

or general contractor should be ascertained. It is possible that plans

can be made available through these sources. In some cases plans may not

agree with "as built" construction. Change orders, additions and other

alterations may have occurred. Field data are therefore essential for

verification, even if plans are available.

Field Equi pment

A sketch board or clipboard of suitable size for the DC Form should be

available. Binoculars will be valuable for checking exterior walls of the

taller buildings. A camera should be taken along for taking pictures of

exterior walls and items of special interest. Each member of the team

should have a small steel tape for measuring wall thicknesses, etc, and a flashlight. However, most building dimensions may be paced off or otherwise estimated. A plumb bob or a carpenter's level is useful in determining the amount of tilt in low rise buildings if some tilt is visible

to the eye. A tape recorder will frequently be of considerable value in

describing certain conditions for later reference.

Data Collection

The current use of the building should be noted, such as "warehouse,"

"industrial building," "office building," "retail store," "theater,"

"church," "apartment house," etc. The presence and location of any large

assembly areas should be noted for the file and possible life risk

aval uati on

The DC Form calls for sketches of the overall plan and elevations of

exterior and interior shear walls, if any. They also call for sketching

in the location of shear walls in plan. This may vary from story to story.

Additional blank sheets may be required. In sketching the exterior walls,

any setbacks should be noted and the presence of veneer, architectural

appendages and ornamentation commented on. It should be noted if ex- terior walls are plastered on the outside.

A-2
Exterior Wall Characteristics

The DC Form provides space for describing the exterior walls. Whether

the walls are bearing walls, non-bearing walls, curtain walls, or filler

walls should be noted as well as the material of the wall and their thicknesses. In a multi-story building with masonry or concrete bearing walls,

variations in the thickness of walls with the story height should be noted.

Veneer and architectural appendages should be itemized.

The mortar in masonry walls may be roughly checked by digging into the

joints with a knife. In some cases, it is possible that the exterior surface of the joints has been pointed up with hard cement mortar, but the rest

of the joints may be soft lime mortar. Thus it may be desirable to dig into

interior joints.

Data for the evaluation of the lateral force resistance of these walls

is the desired. For this reason, all openings should be sketched in walls

that could act as shear walls.

Shear Wal 1

For the purpose of this data collection, a shear wall should be defined.

In any building, any masonry or concrete walls not isolated from the frame

of the building will attempt to resist lateral deformations between floors

and will be considered to be shear walls. If the walls are isolated so that

the building may deflect parallel to the plane of the walls without requiring the walls to deflect with the building, the walls are not considered to

be shear walls. Usually this isolation requires a separation on three sides

with confinement at top or at sides in a direction normal to the wall.

Such isolation is expected to be a rare occurrence. In light frame structures or structures without concrete floors or roofs and without masonry or concrete walls, shear walls may be composed of wood studs with wood sheathing or plaster or they may be composed of metal studs and plaster. It is

emphasized that curtain or filler walls of concrete or masonry will resist

lateral force shears unless isolated.

Interior Shear Walls

The comments made above relating to exterior walls apply also to interior shear walls except that there will probably be no veneer or architectural appendages. All of the openings in these walls may be difficult to

determine, particularly in ceiling spaces. An effort should be made at

least to scan visible ceiling spaces to determine location of holes in the

walls for items such as ductwork. The location of these holes with respect

to door openings below the ceiling is important information in the evaluation of these wal 1 s .

A-3
Reinforced Concrete or Masonry Walls

It is usually not possible to determine the size and spacing of reinforcing steel in these walls by field inspection. There are electronic and

magnetic devices that can assist in this but it is not contemplated that

such devices be used nor that any extensive cutting be done in the process

of collection of data on the DC Form. The thickness of wall, the age of

the wall, or the laying of units may be clues in determining whether a unit

masonry wall is or is not reinforced.

Common or Party Walls

Some adjacent buildings may have one common wall which, usually, is

legally described in a party wall agreement. The presence of party walls

should be determined, even though there may be separate ownership, because

both buildings must act together in resisting lateral forces.

Parapet Walls

Parapet walls, if not properly reinforced or braced, are possible

sources of earthquake hazard, particularly when they are adjacent to a public way. Thus the height, thickness, and material of parapets should

be noted as well as their location. Any special anchorage of the parapet

wall to the roof system should also be noted on the DC Form.

Expansion Joints or Separation Joints

Long buildings are frequently divided by use of expansion joints to

limit the effects of concrete shrinkage or creep or temperature change.

Also, separation joints are frequently placed in buildings designed for

earthquake resistance to insure that each unit will vibrate independently

without banging the other. The location of such joints is usually visible

as the joints are covered by a sliding plate or a V-shaped sheet metal

device. Such joints should be located on the plan sketches and the effective width of joints noted, where this width can be determined in the

field.

In structures such as schools, hospitals, shopping centers, etc.,

there may be covered walkways between buildings. In most cases these

covered walkways may be connected to one or both buildings by a sliding

joint. This should be looked for and it should be noted whether or not

such joints do exist.

A-4
Nonstructural Elements

Partitions may be of many types. In large general office areas, partitions may not extend to the ceiling and are frequently moved. Other partitions which are attached to the ceiling or floor above may not be frequently

moved or modified. In such cases the partitions should be stayed laterally

by the ceiling or floor and the method of attachment is important. This is

particularly important in the case of corridor partitions, elevator en- closures, and stairway enclosures. The method of fastening may be difficult to determine in a small ceiling space, but if available this information should be obtained. Access to ceiling spaces may be possible

through access scuttles or doors to attic spaces.

Masonry partitions of hollow tile, brick or concrete block are frequently used in buildings, often where little or no attempt has been made

to provide earthquake resistance. When unrei nf orced , such partitions may

represent a hazard to life safety when subjected to a major earthquake

shock. When anchored to the undersides of a structural floor or roof

system they will act as shear walls until they crack up. This can also

happen when such partitions are enclosed by vertical structural elements.

There is a special hazard when such partitions enclose exit ways, since

their collapse would make the exit way unusable.

It may not be feasible to plot the locations of all non-bearing partitions, but the location of masonry partitions enclosing corridors, elevators,

and stairs should be noted. For others, sufficient data of a typical nature

should be noted.

Some ceilings are applied directly to the underside of floors or roof.

Some are suspended to allow space for ducts or other utilities. Some sus- pended ceilings use T-bars in which acoustical panels are placed loose. The

method of hanging suspended ceilings, and bracing by diagonal suspended

wires or other means, and the general type should be noted on the forms.

Damage and Deterioration

The presence of severe cracking in walls should be noted. An experienced engineer can determine the probable cause of such damage from the crack

pattern. For instance, in wood frame structures, fine vertical cracks at

multiples of stud spacing may be found which are caused by plaster shrinkage. These need not be noted. Diagonal cracks on opposite corners of

openings are usually caused by differential settlement. Diagonal cracks

at all corners may indicate that earthquake, wind, or other vibration was

the cause. X-cracks in wall piers are a typical result of earthquake res- ponse. All large diagonal cracks and X-cracks in walls should be noted.

Usually these can be sketched on the wall elevations.

A-5
It is not feasible on the DC Forms to note or plot all cracks in concrete

floors. However, usually large cracks in floors should be noted. Cracks in

concrete slabs on grade usually need not be noted.

Some industrial operations involve acids or steam which deteriorate con- crete or wood. If there is visual evidence of this, it should be noted.

Lactic acid in industries utilizing dairy products may be a cause of such

damage. Wood trusses and other timber construction exposed to excess moisture

or steam can deteriorate rapidly. Exposed wood trusses over an enclosed

swimming pool is one example.

There may be locations where loose stone or tile veneer or an ornamental appendage has fallen off. This would indicate the presence of poor or corroded anchorage. If this condition exists over a public way, it could be

a hazard to life and should be noted on the elevations.

Exposure

That portion of the DC Form devoted to "Exposure" includes terminology

corresponding to ANS I -A58 . 1 - 1 972 [3.2] for use in entering the ANSI wind

tables. Later in the forms there is space to give the rise and span of arched

roofs and the shape of gabled roofs. These are to be noted so that the

hazards from internal and external wind pressure can be properly evaluated.

A. 2 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING DATA COLLECTION FORM FOR NATURAL

HAZARDS EFFECTS

• These letters and numbers for items shown in these instructions are those appearing on the DC Form.

A. GENERAL DATA

1. Facility Number - This is to be provided by Field Supervisor.

2. Building Name - Enter the name of the building, e.g., John Hancock Center, XYZ Elementary School, etc.

3. Address - Enter street address.

4. City - Enter city or county.

5. State - Enter the name of the state.

6. Zip Code - Enter at least the first three digits if all five

digits are not known.

7. Year Built - Obtain from Building Manager or Owner, from plans, or from the corner stone or dedication plaque. It can also be obtained

from Sanborn maps if they are available. If none of the above are available, estimate the year built. It is important that this item

be obtained as accurately as possible.

A-6
8. Date of Major Modifications or Additions, if any - Enter date of any

major modifications or additions. In cases where additions have

been made, report multiple years if similar type of construction and

indicate on Item 20 which part of the building corresponds to which

year. Use complete separate DC Form if addition is of a different

type.

9. Building Code Jurisdiction - Check appropriate square.

10. Latitude and Longitude - Enter latitude and longitude in degrees,

& minutes, and seconds to the nearest 30 seconds. Obtain from COE

11. Field Offices or from U.S. Geodetic Survey maps.

12. Building Use - Enter the current use of the building. Enter

also the original use of the building if the current use is

different. Otherwise, enter "same." For example, a building

can be designed as an apartment house and later modified for

commercial use by removing partitions, etc. Such changes

usually result in changes in the structural characteristics.

13. The basement is defined as the story with no single wall com- pletely above ground. See figure A.l. Correct assessment of

the number of stories above and below ground surface is important for determination of structural response. Enter the

number of stories below the first floor according to the above

definition. See figure A. 2.

14. First Story Height - The height of the first story in some cases

may be different from the stories above. It can be approximately

determined as the distance between the elevation of the first

floor and a point located about half way between the top of

the first story window and the bottom of the second story

window. If building plan is available, it can be obtained

from an elevation view (see figure A. 3).

15. Average Upper Story Height - If building plan is not available,

it can be determined approximately as the distance between

either the top or bottom of windows of two successive stories.

See figure A. 3. Special story heights should be noted.

16. Exterior of First Story - Usually the exterior treatment of

the first story of a building is different from the rest of

the stories (figures A. 3 and A. 4). In some instances it may

be the same as the ones above the first story as shown in

figure A . 5

17. Roof Overhang - Some buildings have roof elements projecting

beyond the face of wall below. These may be ornamental cornices

or other features such as shown on the upper portion of figure

A. 10. Note the approximate extent of such overhangs and on which side of the building this occurs.

18. Proximity to Adjacent Building - Indicate approximate distance

in feet to adjacent buildings on each side, front, and rear of

building surveyed.

19. Availability of Building Plan - The availability of building

plans and calculations is important for possible future detailed studies. The source for obtaining these plans should

be indicated.

A-7
20. BasicBuildingPlana. The plan of the building layout at the first floor

level is to be drawn to scale. Indicate appropriate

scale used. Sample sketches are shown in figure A. 6.

b. Location of Shear Walls, Load Bearing Partitions, Cores,

and Bracing Systems - The primary function of shear walls,

shear cores, and bracing systems is to resist lateral

forces on the building. Both shear walls and shear cores

are found in steel, concrete, and masonry (load bearing)

buildings. Usually, timber buildings also have shear

walls. Bracing systems, usually X or K bracing, are found in steel structures.

Shear Walls - Shear walls can be located either around

the exterior perimeter of the building or in the interior as shown in figures A. 6 and A. 7. They usually

extend from the foundation to the roof of the building.

In most cases, shear walls consist of reinforced con- crete, brick, or concrete block. Usually their thickness is not less than six inches. Shear walls are frequently symmetrically disposed about the geometric center of the plan. This may not be the case where the

plan of a building does not possess symmetry about both

axes

Shear Core - Enclosure walls of elevator shafts or stairwells usually comprise the shear core. As such they

usually extend from the building foundation to the roof.

The function of the shear core is the same as the shear

wall.

Bracing System - Bracing systems are mainly found in steel

buildings which do not have shear walls and/or shear cores. Typical bracing system configurations are illustrated in

figure A. 8. The bracing system is usually found either

in the exterior envelope of a building or hidden inside

the elevator shaft or stairwell.

c. Location of Main Frame - Accurate location of the main

load resisting frames in a building is important in the

assessment of building response to lateral loads. The

framing plan in both the longitudinal and transverse

directions is required.

d. Expansion joints are sometimes provided in extremely

long buildings to control the effect of temperature

change. Also, they may be provided in buildings designed for earthquake to separate portions of a building

having dissimilar vibration characteristics. The effect

of expansion joints is to separate the building into

separate units. In such cases the structural system

of each unit may need to be rated separately.

A-8
e. The location of the streets and alleys should be noted

on the overall plan with an approximate north arrow. The sides should be labeled "A," "B," "C," "D," etc.,

for simplifying identification at a later date.

f. Party Wall - The party wall is a wall commonly shared by

two adjacent buildings. This type of wall is frequently

found in older buildings.

g. Setback - Buildings are sometimes set back from the base

story on one or more sides and at various levels. If

this occurs, more than one plan will need to be sketched.

This may also be shown on the elevations of exterior

walls under I tem 21

Elevation of Exterior Walls - It is not uncommon to find openings in shear walls for windows and corridors (figures A. 9a

and A. 9c). These openings may weaken the walls, causing them

to sustain serious damage as illustrated in figure A. 9b. In some cases, total collapse of a building could result from

weakened shear walls. Therefore an accurate assessment of

openings in the shear walls is one of the important items

in the survey. For load-bearing structures, locations of

shear walls are not apparent. In this case, all solid walls

are to be considered as shear walls. A simple line sketch

as shown in figure A. 9c is required for each shear wall.

The sketch should indicate as close to the true proportion

as possible all openings in the walls from the lowermost

story of a building to the roof. If the shear walls do

not extend continuously from the foundation to the roof,

points of termination should be indicated.

a. In sketching the elevations of the exterior walls, we need to note the openings and their approximate size

and spacing. Those portions of wall between openings

may be potential shear walls. If the pattern of openings is repetitive, all of the openings on a repetitive

series need not be shown. The first two and the last

two will normally be sufficient.

b. The exterior walls may be faced with a veneer or cladding, or may be concrete or masonry plastered on the

outside. This should be noted on the elevations as well as the presence of appendages such as ornamental

cornices, balconies, gargoyles, etc.

c. The material of the exterior walls should be noted.

They may be concrete, masonry, metal studs and plaster,

wood studs and plaster, or all glass. If veneered or plastered, the material of the walls may not be evident

from the inside or the outside. In such cases, tapping

the wall with a small solid object will help to determine whether the wall is hollow block, solid grouted

block, solid concrete or brick, or studs and plaster.

Reinforcement in masonry or concrete walls is not

discernable from the surface and such information can only be obtained from the plans.

A-9
d. Major cracks or other damage should be noted on the

elevations. Cracks larger at one end than the other

should be noted, since this may be a clue to the cause

of the crack. Other damage includes extensive spalling or weather deterioration.

e. If there is evidence of past damage repair, this should

be noted.

f. If there is evidence that appendages have fallen off or have been loosened, or other cladding such as veneer or sheet metal facing has been cracked or otherwise damaged,

such items should be noted on the elevations.

22. Interior Shear Walls - Shear walls to be either interior or exterior. In Item 21, instructions for sketching elevations

of exterior walls have been given. Interior shear walls are usually the permanent walls around stairway and elevator

shafts or the corridor walls. They may be composed of reinforced concrete or masonry. In wood frame buildings they

may be made of wood studs with wood or plywood sheathing

or of metal studs and plaster or wallboard. All masonry

or concrete interior walls should be noted whether reinforced or unreinf orced

a. All openings in these walls should be sketched with

approximate sizes.

b. As in exterior walls, the presence and location of

major cracks should be noted. Whether or not a crack is wider at one end or the other is a clue

to the cause of the crack, so this should be noted

on the sketch.

c. If there is evidence of past damage repair, this should

be noted.

23. Basement Shelter - A basement is a potential storm shelter

if properly protected by a heavy concrete first floor slab.

a. Note whether the floor over the basement is concrete

or other by checking the appropriate box.

b. If the floor above is concrete, note the approximate

thickness. If concrete joists are used, give the

depth and spacing of joists. The weight of this slab

is important in resisting uplift pressures from high

winds or tornadoes.

c. As a potential shelter, it is important to know how

many people can be sheltered for a short time period.

For this the space available is required. Sometimes

a basement is used to house equipment or to store

materials. If so, only the remaining space is available. This available space should be estimated in

square feet.

d. Some basements may house dangerous equipment or highly

flammable materials. Such a condition should be noted,

since this could make the basement unsuitable for a storm shelter.

A-10
24. Vault-Like Structure - If this building has a length-width ratio,

and a height-width ratio of 2 or under, exterior walls of reinforced

concrete or reinforced masonry and a poured-i n-pl ace reinforced con- crete roof, and if the opening in any wall or in the roof do not ex- ceed 15% of the wall or roof area, check the box marked "Yes." If

the building does not conform to this, check the box marked "No."

25. Exterior Wall Summary Sheet - From the description of the

exterior walls, some estimate can be made of the age of

structure and the type of framing. A typical example of

the exterior wall treatment which falls in the category

of "extensive architectural ornaments" is shown in figure

A. 10. The different between running and stacked bond

masonry construction is illustrated in figure A. 11.

The condition of the wall should indicate:

For concrete wa 1 1

0 Whether or not reinforcing bars are exposed.

t Spallingofconcrete, ifany.

• Cracks, if any.

For Masonry wall:

« Condition of masonry unit, i.e., whether or not

cracks appear on the surface (see figure A. 12).

0 Condition of mortar - In order to determine this

item, rubbing or scratching (about 1/2") is needed

to see whether the mortar crumbles or not.

The thickness of the wall can be determined by measuring the

width of the wall at window or door openings.

SITE RELATED INFORMATION

1. Exposure - Check one of the six categories which closely

approximates the surrounding conditions.

2. Topography - Enter one of the three ground features sur- rounding the building. Estimate the rise of the slope on the base of 12. For example, one on twelve (i.e., 1:12)

etc

3. Geologic Formation - The field supervisor should check as to availability of information on the site geology. This

can usually be obtained from governmental sources. Geological maps for the entire area may be available.

4. Location of Known Faults - Enter in order of proximity the

major active faults in the vicinity of the site of the building being surveyed. If a building is located in a region

where a network of faults exists, list the three major active

faults within a 100 mile radius from the site. Information

on fault locations and whether faults are active or dormant

can be obtained from state maps prepared by the U. S. Geological Survey. These maps are available from the USGS

Libraries located at Menlo Park, California; Denver, Colorado; and Washington, D.C. These maps are also usually on file in offices of the Division or Department of Geology

in each state.

A-1
5. Depth of Water Table - Enter number of feet. This information

can be obtained from building plan or from a local structural

or soils engineering office.

5. Depth of Bedrock - Enter number of feet. This information

can be obtained from building plan or from a local soils

engineering office.

7. Soil Type and Bearing Capacity - Information regarding these

& items can be obtained from building plan or from a local soils

8. engineering office.

9. Wind Blown Debris - Potential wind blown debris from outside

the building should be noted, where it can be observed by a look around the facility to be evaluated. Material such as lumber, junk yards, piles of sand or gravel are potential

missiles in a tornado or other windstorm. Light sheds may

be wind transported. Even gravel blown from adjoining roofs

can cause damage. The presence of any material that is such

a potential hazard should be noted with approximate locations

and distance. Investigation of thi^, from a practical standpoint is limited to a distance of 100 yards from the building in urban built-up areas and the area within view of the

facility in open or rural areas.

C. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1. Material and Vertical Load Resisting Systems - The material

& used for the mainload carrying members. For example, for

2. frame structures, identify whether beams and columns are made of concrete, steel, or timber. For load-bearing

structures, identify whether the wall is made of concrete

or masonry. Care must be exercised in determining this

entry. Frequently, frame structures have brick-veneer

cladding as shown in figure A. 13a. These structures appear

as masonry load-bearing structures. However, a large number

of openings in the wall in all four elevations could serve

as a clue that these walls cannot be load-bearing walls. It

is apparent from Figure A. 13b that the building is a concrete

frame structure. A clue for load-bearing structures is that

while a building may have many window openings, some portions

of the wall which carries the vertical load must be solid and

usually extend continuously through the height of the structure

as shown in figure A. 14. Unless a building has metal curtain

walls, the exterior appearance does not usually lend itself

to identifying whether the structure is made of steel or con- crete. Correct identification can be made only when observations are made of exposed frames as shown in figure A. 15.

3. Lateral Load Resisting System - Refer to description given for

Items 20, 21 , 23 , and 24.

4. Floor System - Common floor systems used in engineering buildings are illustrated in figures A. 16 through A. 21. Unless the

underside of the floor is exposed for visual examination, it

is necessary to examine the space between the ceiling and the

bottom of the floor above to determine types of framing and

decking. For the suspended ceiling with acoustical tiles,

this can easily be accomplished by lifting one of the tiles

and examining the underside of the floor. For the suspended

ceiling with lath and plaster, an examination can be made

through inspecting openings which are usually provided in

the ceiling for checking utility systems.

A-12
Connections - Unless it is a steel frame structure, the types

of structural connections used are difficult to determine.

For concrete frame structures, monolithic connections are

used. For steel frame structures, one of the three connections

illustrated in figure A. 22 can be expected. They are riveted,

bolted, and welded connections. Some connections use combinations of these fastening techniques as illustrated in

figure A. 23.

Anchorage - The anchorage of floors to walls (either bearing

walls or shear) walls is to be noted. The anchorage between

cast-i n-pl ace concrete floors and walls is usually satisfactory

but cannot be checked by visual observation. The anchorage

of metal decks to steel frame elements of walls is usually

through welds or screws which cannot be seen in the completed

structure. Metal decks with concrete topping slabs may have

dowels extending into masonry or concrete walls, but here

again these cannot be seen by the field team. If plans are available, the type and spacing of anchors should be shown.

In cases where there is a wood floor and no ceiling, some types

of anchors may be visible and the type and spacing noted.

Similarly, where no ceilings occur or where there is sufficient

crawl space above the ceiling, the anchorage of steel frame

members to the walls may be seen and noted. Even in such cases that portion of the anchors embedded in the walls cannot

be seen. Figure A. 19 shows a typical open web joist anchor

detai 1

If the type and spacing of anchorage can be determined, either

from observation or from plans, fill in the appropriate box.

A small sketch at the side may help describe the type. If the

anchorage type and spacing cannot be determined from either

observation or plans, mark "unknown" under the anchorage item.

5. Roof System - Structural framing system of the roof is usually

essentially the same as the floor system. Instead of a flooring surface consisting of concrete, the roof usually has rigid

insulation boards as illustrated in figures A. 24 and A. 25.

Similar to the case of the floor, the roof framing has to be

determined from the story below through the ceiling. It is

probable that the same types of connection details are used

for the roof framing members as for the floor framing members.

The same comments and instructions given for Floor System

anchorage are applicable to Roof System anchorage.

A- 13
D. NONSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Partition (non-load bearing) - In concrete or steel frame

structures, non-load bearing interior partitions are not

designed to resist any loads, either vertical or horizontal. However, when structures having masonry partitions

are subjected to lateral forces, these partitions participate in resisting lateral forces together with the

structural frame. Such partitions may change the structural response characteristics to such an extent that the

structure either sustains severe damage or reaches a state

of collapse. These partitions, also called "infill walls,"

are usually made of brick, concrete block, clay tile and

gypsum wallboard partitions. Gentle tapping of a partition with a solid object helps to identify the gypsum

wallboard partitions from the rest. This tapping technique

can also be used to identify lath and plaster on studs.

2. Ceiling - The most common materials used for ceiling include

acoustical tiles, gypsum board, and plaster. Acoustical tiles

and plaster on lath are usually used in commercial buildings,

whereas gypsum boards are commonly used in resi denti al -type

structures such as apartments, dormitories, etc. Both

acoustical tile and lath and plaster ceilings are either

attached directly to the structural members or suspended

from them, while gypsum board ceilings are directly attached

to structural members. The typical appearance of acoustical

tile ceilings is shown in figure A. 26. Directly attached

and suspended acoustical tile ceilings are illustrated in

figure A. 27 and lath and plaster ceilings in figure A. 28.

3. Light Fixtures - Check one of the three methods which describe

the fixture attachment (see figure A. 29). This should be done

separately for the typical room and corridor.

4. Mechanical Equipment - Enter the location of the mechanical

equipment room. Examine whether or not heavy equipment, such

as motor, pump, generator, etc., is securely attached to the

floor. Usually the supporting legs of heavy equipment are anchored to the floor by means of anchor bolts. If anchor

bolts are not found, it is assumed that the equipment is not

fastened to the floor.

Indicate where the water tank, cooling tower, and air conditioning units are located and examine whether or not these items

are securely anchored.

5. Roofing - Indicate the slope of the roof. If flat, simply indicate by checking the appropriate box. If the roof has a slope,

estimate the vertical rise per foot. If gravel is placed on the

roof, gravel stops are usually used instead of a parapet (see

figure A. 30). The height of the parapet if present is to be

measured as illustrated in figure A. 31. Examine whether or not the parapet is anchored to the roof by means of anchor

straps (figure A. 32 or by other means).

A-14
6. Windows - The windows can be categorized broadly as fixed

windows and movable windows. Fixed windows are those which

cannot be opened. Usually these windows have a large single

pane of glass. Movable windows are those which can be

opened as illustrated in figure A. 33. Frames for both fixed

and movable windows are made of different material. Check

one of the materials indicated.

The sizes of casing and glazing are illustrated in figure A. 34.

If more than one type of window of each category is used, select

the predominant one to measure the size.

The method of attachment of the casing to the structure is

seldom apparent from a cursory inspection. Unless the method

of attachment can be obtained readily by visual inspection,

enter "unknown."

The glazing is usually placed in the window casing by means of

an elastometric gasket or glazing compound.

7. Gas Connections - In areas subjected to severe earthquakes, a type of gas connection has been developed which permits the

building to vibrate independently from the gas line so as not

to break the gas line. These connections utilize flexible con- nections and may have an automatic shut-off valve. Such a connection will usually be before the gas meter but adjacent

to the building and may be in a pit or in a box or may be

buried. The type of connection may or may not be visible

for inspection but the building manager may know whether or not an earthquake resistant connection has been provided.

Some buildings, of course, may be all electric and use no gas. If so, this should be noted by a check in the "none"

box

A. 3 DATA COLLECTION FORM

The remaining pages of this appendix present the data collection form

used in this methodology.

A-15
DC-1

DATA COLLECTION FORM

NATURAL HAZARDS EFFECTS

(Extreme Winds, Earthquakes)

A. GENERAL DATA

"l. Facility No. 2. Building Name

3. Address 4. City

5. State 6. Zip Code 7, Year Built

8. Date of Major Modifications or Additions, if any

9. Building Code Jurisdiction: City County [Jj State [j Federal []j

'^10. Latitude 11. Longitude

12. Current Bldg. Use Orig. Bldg. Use

13. Basement Yes No Number of Basements

No. of Stories Above Basement (See also Item A23)

14, Height of First Story ft.

15, Upper Story Height ft. Special Story Height ft,

16, Is the exterior of first story different from upper stories?

Street Front Side Yes No Other Sides Yes No

17. Approximate Roof Overhang Distance Side

18, Proximity to Adjacent Buildings: Sketch Below with North Arrow

North Side South Side East Side West Side

Note Street or Alley Sides

"To be filled in by Field Supervisor,

J2u

<U CO

A-16
DC-2

19. Are plans available? If so, where obtainable

Are original calculations available? If so,

where obtainable

Name of: Architect Engineer

Contractor

Regulatory Agency

20. Basic Building Plan

a. Sketch overall plan.

b. Locate shear walls, if any,

c. Locate main frames.

d. Locate expansion joints, if any.

e. Give approximate north arrow and label sides "A", "B", "C", "D", etc. Show street or alley sides.

f. Note any common or party walls.

g. If plan changes in upper floors, sketch this plan and note level of

change.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

A-17
DC

21, Elevation of Exterior Walls.

Sketch: a. All openings or note pattern of openings.

b. Note exterior finish and appendages,

c. Note material of walls,

d. Major cracks or other damage. (Note if cracks are larger

at one end.

)

e. Note previously repaired damage.

f. Note any evidence of damage to cladding or appendages.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

A-18
DC-4

Elevation of Interior Shear Walls.

Sketch: a. All openings.

b. Major cracks or other damage. (Note if cracks are larger

at one end.

)

c. Note any previously repaired damage.

A-19
DC

23. Adaptability of Basement to Storm Shelter.

a. Floor Over Basement - Concrete Q Other Q

b. If concrete, give thickness

c. Available Space (approximate) sq. ft,

d. Dangerous Contents. Storage of Flammable Liquids

Presence of Transformers or Other Dangerous Equipment

Other Hazards

None

24. Is this a Vault- like Structure? Yes No Q

A-20
DC

25, EXTERIOR WALL SUMMARY SHEET

Exterior Characteristics Side A Side B Side C Side D

Extensive Architectural

Ornaments or Veneer

T.7 WALLb A T T C

Metal Curtain Wall

Precast Concrete

Curtain Wall

1

:

Stone

Brick

1

i

1

i

)

i

' \

1

Concrete Block |

i

;

i Concrete j

I

i Other J

i

1 For Concrete Block and

Brick^ indicate

R for Running Bond

S for Stacked Bond

Condition of Wall'

OPENINGS

Percent of Open Area

per Story

1. No cracks^ good mortar,

2. Few visible cracks.

3. Many cracks

4. Evidence of minor repairs.

5. Evidence of many repairs.

A-21
DC-7

SITE RELATED INFORMATION

1. Exposure

a. Centers of large city b. Very rough hilly terrain F

c. Suburban areas, towns, city outskirts, wood areas, or rolling terrain | | d. Flat, open country [

"

j

e. Flat coastal belts f ]

f. Other | j

2, Topography

a. Building on level ground [ j b. Building on sloping ground T

c. Building located adjacent to embankment [

"

|

3. Geologic formation

Location of known faults: Name Miles

Miles

5. Depth of water table

6. Depth of bedrock

7. Soil type

ft. When measured:

ft. (Month) (Year)

Bearing capacity p. s. f . , or blows per inch

9. Proximity to potential wind-blown debris - Type

Location Distance

be filled in by Field Supervisor,

A-22
DC-8

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1. Material

Concrete Masonry Steel P Wood

2. Vertical Load Resisting System

Frame I ; Bearing WallWall and Pilasters

For frame system, check one for typical column cross-section

3. Lateral Load Resisting System

Masonry Shear Wall i |

Concrete Shear Wall

Plywood Shear Wall [_ J

Other

Braced Frame

4. Floor SysCem

Frame

Concrete Beams [

Steel Beams ]

Steel Bar Joist [ Deck

Concrete Flat Plate

Concrete Flat Slab

Concrete Waffle Slab

Steel Deck [

'

Wood Joists [ j Wood Plank '

.

Note if concrete topping slab is

plank.

Moment Resisting Frame ^ j Are resisting systems

symmetrically located? Yes No

Wood Beams [

No Framing Members

Precast Concrete Beams ]

Straight Sheathing \ j Plywood Sheathing .

Diagonal Sheathing |

Precast Concrete Deck j

Concrete Joists j

;

Concrete Plank \

"

,

used over metal decks or concrete

A-23
Connection Details

Bolted

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers

Anchorage Floor to Walls

Type

Framing Decking To Framing

Spacing

J

Roof System

Frame

Concrete Beams

Steel Beams

Steel Bar Joist

Wood Beams i

,

Wood Rafters

Deck

Concrete Flat Slab j Metal Decking j Concrete Slab

Concrete Joists

Precast Decking

Steel Truss

Wood Truss

No Framing Members [

Precast Concrete Beams or Tees

Concrete Waffle Slab "

Plywood Sheathing

Diagonal Sheathing

Straight Sheathing ,

Concrete Fill Yes Q No r

A- 2 4
DC- 10

Connection Details

Bolted

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers

Anchorage Roof to Walls

Type

Framing Decking to Framing

[I

Spacing

D. NONSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Partitions

Type

Partial Height

Full Height Floor- To-Ceiling

Floor To Floor

Movable

Composition

Lath and Plaster ( J

Typical

Gypsum Wallboard \ \

Concrete Block [

j

Clay Tile | 1

Corridor

Metal Partitions j]_

A-25
DC- 11

Ceiling

Typical Room

Material

Acoustical Tile

Method of Attachment

Suspended | ~

|

Gypsum Board [ ] Plaster [ |

Metal Channels j Tee Bar Grid

Attached Directly to Structural Elements

Typical Corridor

Material

Acoustical Tile ["

j Gypsum Board '

Method of Attachment

Suspended j j

Plaster

Metal Channels f j Tee Bar Grid

Attached Directly to Structural Elements

Light Fixtures

Typical Room

Recessed | Surface Mounted [ Typical Corridor

Recessed 1 Surface Mounted V

Pendant (Suspended)!

j Pendant (Suspended)

4. Mechanical Equipment

Location of Mechanical Equipment Room

Basement |

, | Other Floor

Roof ["

j

Is Equipment Anchored to Floor?

Location of The Following Units

Liquid Storage Tank

Cooling Tower

No

Which Floor

Yes

Air Conditioning Unit

A-26
DC- 12

5. Roofing

Description

Flat Arched Gabled Qj If arched or gabled^ sketch section.

Pitched r] Slope ( :12)

Parapet NoQ Yes Q Height ( ft, in.) Thickness ( in.)

Material Special Anchorage or Bracing Yes rj No ] j

Type

Built-up gravel Q Gravel Q Asphalt or Wood Shingles [_J

Clay Tile Q Other Q

6. Windows

Type

Fixed Q Movable Q

Frame Material:

Aluminum Q Steel Q Stainless Steel Wood Q

Size: Average Size of Casing ( ft, x ft.)

Average Size of Glazing ( ft. in, x ft, in.)

How Casing is Attached to Structure

Bolted [J Screwed Clipped [j Welded Pl Nailed Q

Glazing Attachment to Casing

Elastomeric Gasket Q Glazing Bead Q Aluminum or Steel Retainer Q

Other

7. Gas Connection

Flexible Connection to Building Rigid Connection to Building Q

Automatic Shut-off \ j None Q Unknown

INSPECTED BY

DATE

FIELD SUPERVISOR

A-27
GROUND LEVEL — FIRST STORY

.. .

f 1 -BASEMENT

-SUB-BASEMENT

Figure A.l

GROUND LEVEL

BASEMENT

SUB-BASEMENT

FIRST STORY

Figure A.

A-28
Figure A.

A-29
A-30
SKETCH ON PLAN APPROX.

LOCATION OF SHEAR WALLS 8

ltd

Dimensions in ft.

INDICATE LOCATION

OF COLUMNS

SHEAR WALL

INDICATE ON PLAN WHETHER THE SHEAR WALL AND CORE

ARE REINFORCED CONCRETE OR MASONRY

Figure A.

A-31

BRACING AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

Figure A.

A-33
-SHEAR WALLS LOCATED AT

THE ENDS OF BUILDING

(a)

II ////// J /////)))}> )

(b) DEFORMATION OF SHEAR

WALL WITH OPENINGS

WINDOW

OPENING'

T r

UL

.SHEAR WALL

-DOOR OPENING

NOTE SHEAR WALL

'TERMINATION

I 1 1 r i i

(c) TYPICAL SKETCH OF SHEAR WALL

ELEVATION WITH DOOR AND WINDOW

OPENINGS

THIS TYPE OF SKETCH IS REQUIRED

FOR ITEM A.

Figure A.

A-34
31

RUNNING BOND STACK BOND

Figure A. 11

A-35
A-36
Mimmi

Am

;iiiiil!S

ifiuiin

IFIIIUVH

MPT

npr

mw

mrr

mrr

wrr

(b)

Figure A. 13

A-37
A-38
Beams

Typical

Girder

Spandrel

Beam

Spandrel

Wall

Basement

Wall

1

'Foolir)g

(a) CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURE

FLOOR GIRDER

EXTERIOR

COLUMN

STEEL JOISTS

INTERIOR COLUMN

(b) STEEL FRAME STRUCTURE

Figure A. 15

A-39
CONCRETE BEAMSi GIRDERS

AND SLAB SYSTEM

FLAT SLAB CONSTRUCTION

Figure A. 16

A-40
ONE WAY JOIST-SLAB FLOOR SYSTEM

2-1/2" to 4-l/2" slab

H ^ 1^ Varies

20"to30"

typ.

ONE WAY JOIST-SLAB

FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

WAFFLE-SLAB FLOOR SYSTEM

t^l—

/ \ f

1*- 5" to a"

1 typ. Varies

WAFFLE -SLAB FLOOR

CONSTRUCTION

Structural Clay Tile Concrete

Combination Clay Tile and Concrete Slab

Figure A. 17

A-41
Concrete Topping Tee Beam

SIN6LE-T FLOOR

CONSTRUCTION WITH

LOAD-BEARING WALL

CONCRETE TEE BEAMS

SIN6LE-T FLOOR

CONSTRUCTION WITH

CONCRETE FRAME

BUILDING

DOUBLE-TEE FLOOR SYSTEM

Figure A. 18

DOUBLE-T FLOOR

CONSTRUCTION

A-42
STEEL JOIST CONSTRUCTION

-FEED-WAY ACCESS HATCH -CORRUFORM ORTUFCOR FLOOR DECK FACTORY INSTALLED DUAL INSERT FEED-WAY HEADER

• CEl-WAY bUAl CELL

Figure A. 19

A-43
Figure A. 20

8'x12' Floor Beam

4'x 12' Wail Plate

Wood Colymn

Heavy- Timber or Mill Construction

Figure A. 21

A-44
(I

1*——

3) ^Seal 4

[/Aliemote Location

[ r

of Top 4

I

(q) Framed simple connection (bolted or riveted) (l>) Sealed stmple connection (bolted or riyeted)

Erection'

Bolt

- Cnd Return

(c) Framed simple connection (welded)

Structural Tee

(a) Structural tee connection (b) Bracket connection

(c) Welded moment-resistinq connection (d ) Welded momenl-resislmg connection

Figure A. 22

A-45
(a) (b) (c)

FIELD WELDED FIELD BOLTED FIELD WELDED

SHOP RIVETED SHOP WELDED

OR BOLTED

Figure A. 23

Figure A. 24

A-46
Figure A. 25

A-47
A-48
A-49
WOOD JOISTS

SUSPENDED CEILING BELOW WOOD JOISTS

FURRED METAL LATH ON WOOD JOISTS

% FURRIMG CHANNELS

FURRED METAL LATH ON OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS

CONCRETE

OVER ''e

" RIB METAL LATH

OPEN- WEB

STEEL

JOISTS

PLASTER

DIAMOND MESH

METAL LATH

SUSPENDED CEILING BELOW OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS

SUSPENDED CEILING BELOW CONCRETE JOISTS

CONCRETE JOISTS

RUNNER CHANNELS

FURRING CHANNELS

•CONTACT) RIB METAL LATH ON CONCRETE JOISTS

ILLUSTRATION OF DIRECTLY ATTACHED AND SUSPENDED PLASTER

CEILINGS

Figure A. 28

A-50
A-51
SECTION A-A SECTION A-A

METAL EAVE FOR CONCRETE DECK METAL EAVE FOR WOOD DECK

Figure A. 30

Figure A. 31

A-52
CONCRETE

BONO COURSE

CUT LINE

^4"x8"x2"'<EY

AT 32 O.C.

13 WALL

6 x6 x3/8

STEEL WASHER

EXISTING PARAPET

REMOVED

INSTALL JOIST ANCHORS ON

SHEATHING AT 4 -0 O.C. (SEE

ANCHOR DETAIL BELOW)

- „ RHOF SHEATHING

EXISTING ROOF JOISTS AS

SHOWN OR PARALLEL TO WALL

PUNCH TO MATCH PARRALLEL

RAFTERS, OTHERWISE 12

5/8" dl a. l/2"x3/l6" STEEL

WALL 24" FOR TAIL RAFTERS, MUST

ENGAGE 3 PARALLEL RAFTERS

ANCHOR DETAIL

STANDARD PARAPET CORRECTION DETAIL

Figure A. 32

A-53
Figure A. 33

A-54
APPENDIX B FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

8.1 PROCEDURE IN EVALUATING BUILDING FOR EARTHQUAKE HAZARD - FIELD

EVALUATION METHOD

The Data Collection Form should be checked with the plans if they are available. The seismicity of the site shall be determined by the user. From

the information given on the Data Collection Forms or the plans, the "Type" of

building can be determined and the "General Rating" selected from the data

given on Form FMA-1. The "Symmetry" and "Quantity" of the Vertical Resisting Elements is estimated. A discussion of these items is given in section

3.2. This procedure is followed for both "Transverse" and "Longitudinal"

loading. The method of rating these is given on Form FMA-1 and a "Symmetry

Quantity Rating (SQR)" is determined. The DC Form is checked to see if any

of these elements are damaged and an estimate of the degree of damage is

made. It may be desirable to revisit the site to check on this damage or refer to pictures. This is necessary to give the "Present Condition: rating.

Finally, the "Sub-Rating (SRI)" is obtained as shown on Form FM-1,

The Horizontal Resisting Elements are next investigated for "Rigidity",

"Anchorage and Connections" and "Chords" are rated for their presence or non-presence. Then a "Sub-Rating" is obtained as shown on Form FMA-2.

Finally, "Sub-Ratings (SRI) and (SR2) as well as the "General Rating"

are used to establish the "Basic Structural Rating" and the "Capacity Rating." The method of doing this is described on Form FME. The "Capacity

Ratio" then gives a measure of the ability of the building to resist an earthquake at the site.

Exit corridors and stair enclosure walls are rated for general safety

on Form FMB-1. The various types of walls and their anchorages are given

relative ratings.

Other Life Hazards such as Partitions Other Than on Corridors or Stair

Enclosures, Glass Breakage, Ceilings, Lijgiht Fixtures, and Exterior Appendages and Wall Cladding are rated as shown on Form FMB-2. If the building

has an earthquake gas connection, this is also noted on Form FMB-2.

B-1
B.2 PROCEDURE IN EVALUATING BUILDING FOR WIND HAZARD - FIELD EVAtUATION

METHOD "

The Data Collection Form should be checked with the plans if they are available. The type of exposure and the height of the building is taken

from the DC Forms and put on Form FMC-1. The basic wind speed for the site

must be determined by the user. With these data the tables in ANSI A58.1-72

[3.2] are used to determine the effective velocity pressure and the design

unit pressures for positive and negative pressures determined for use in

rating the b^uilding as a whole.

Sub-Ratings SRI and SR2 for vertical and horizontal resisting elements

are obtained as described in section B.l and Forms FMA-1 and FMA-2. The

"General Rating" is selected from the data given on Form FMA-1. The "Basic

Structural Rating" is then determined by the formula given on Form FME.

The "Uplift Anchorage Factors" rating is taken from the information

given on Form FMC-1 and the "Corrected Structural Rating" is selected. With

the "Corrected Structural Rating," the "Effective Unit Velocity Pressure

Capacity" 1s obtained from the bottom of the form.

The "Capacity Ratio" which is the ratio of the anticipated wind pressure to the pressure^ which the building can withstand is then computed and

entered or. Form FME.

The evaluation of Other Life Hazards such as Glass Breakage, Window

Frame Anchorage, Roof Panel Anchorage, Wall Panel Anchorage, and Anchorage

of Exterior Appendages is given from information obtained from the DC Form

or the plans, if they are available. Without calculations, these can only

be approximate ratings. These ratings are noted on Form FMC-2.

The presence of potential wind blown missiles is noted, along with

"Type," "Location" and "Distance" from the structure in the table at the

bottom of Form FMC-2.

B.3 PROCEDURE IN EVALUATING BUILDING FOR TORNADO HAZARD - FIELD EVALUATION

METHOD

The procedure for evaluating a building for tornado hazard is similar to

that described for wind except that a so-called "Moderate Tornado" is used as standard with arbitrarily assumed positive and negative pressures.

B-2
The "Basic Structural Rating" is obtained from Form FME as for wind.

"Uplift Anchorage Factors" and a "Corrected Structural Rating" are determined as for wind. From this "Effective Unit Velocity Pressure" is obtained

as for wind. The ratings are then assigned as given on Form FMD. One other

item is used in the rating. If this building is a "Vault-Type" structure

as described in section 3.2, it is given a "Good" rating.

The hazards from wind blown debris, both from the building being

analyzed and from outside the building, are described as to "Type" and

"Location" from information given on the DC Form. The ratings for these

hazards is obtained from Form FMD.

Information relative to the suitability and capacity of a basement to serve as a storm shelter is placed in the lower table on Form FMD.

B.4 INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF FIELD EVALUATION METHOD RATING FORMS

FORM FMA - 1 - STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATI NG

Form FMA - 1 evaluates the vertical resisting elements.

In filling out Form FMA-1 , in the column headed "Type," the letter

designating the type of construction should be placed in the first

column. The number indicating the "General Rating" (GR) should

also be placed in the form with the earthquake general rating in

the column indicated by the symbol "E" and the wind general rating

placed in the column designated with the symbol "W." This applies

to both transverse and longitudinal loadings.

The next two columns are for "Symmetry" (S) and "Quantity" (Q).

Section 3.2 discusses the basis for evaluation of these categories.

The next column is for the "Symmetry-Quantity Rating" (SQR) which

S + 0 IS —2-^ . 3 + 2 Thus if S

= 3 and Q = 2, this rating will be —g— "

The appropriate rating for "Present Condition" is selected based on the categories listed on the form.

"Sub-Rating" (SRI) is the weighted average in which the "Present Condition" (PC) is given 2 times the value of the "Symmetry-Quantity Rating

(SQR). Thus ^ SQR + 2PC

^

FORM FMA - 2 - STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATIN G

Form FMA-2 evaluates the horizontal resisting elements. Both roof and

floors are evaluated. Section 3.2 discusses floor and roof systems

and this form provides for the development of a rating.

In the "Type" column, insert either "A" for Diaphragm or "B" for Steel

Horizontal Bracing. Under "Rigidity" (R) place the appropriate rating

number from the categories listed.

The ratings for "Anchorage and Connections" and "Chords" are selected

from the data given below the table.

"Sub-Rating (SR2)" for both floors and roof is the highest number under

"Rigidity," "Anchorage" or "Chords."

B-3
FORM FMB-1 - EXIT CORRIDOR AND STAIR ENCLOSURE WALLS - EARTHQUAKE:

The necessary information for filling out this form will be obtained

in the field and be available from the Data Collection Form (DC) or may be obtained from the plans. If the information for "Reinforcement" or "Anchorage" is not available, the column entitled "Not Known"

should be checked.

"Wall Rating" is determined as follows:

• Where the enclosure walls are of reinforced, cast-in-pl ace concrete or reinforced masonry, and the floors or roof are cast-i n-pl ace concrete, it is very probable that such walls

will be wel 1 -anc hored and be a good risk. In such cases an

"A" rating will be given.

• Where walls are of unreinforced masonry, unless special anchorage devices are found, a "C" rating will be given.

fl Metal stud and plaster walls, or metal studs and drywall walls,

if anchored, will be given an "A" rating. Tilt-up concrete

walls or pre-cast concrete walls are usually reinforced. They

are usually provided with some anchorage but this may or may

not be adequate, and the anchorage is usually not visible.

If plans show a substantial type of anchorage, an "A" rating

should be given. If the anchorage is unknown, an "X" rating

should be given. If it is obvious that there is no positive

anchorage to the floor or roof above, a "C" rating should be

given.

• Wood stud and plaster walls are usually nailed to wood floors

and since they are light should be given an "A" rating if

attached directly to floors or roof. If free-standing and

only attached at the bottom by nails or drive-in fasteners,

a "C" rating should be given.

• Hollow tile walls are rarely reinforced and are usually only

anchored by a mortar joint. Unless there is positive evidence

of special anchorage or of wall reinforcement, the rating

will be "C."

The letter ratings are used here rather than numerical ratings because

of the generalized nature of the data available from the DC Forms and

because mathematical analysis of these exit corridor and stair enclosure walls is not contemplated by the Field Evaluation Method. This

is true also for the ratings on Form FMB-2.

FORM FMB-2 - OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE : Glass Breakage . This hazard usually will be evaluated only on street

fronts or adjacent to public ways unless other special locations are deemed to have a high hazard to life. Where the upper levels of a building are set back adjacent to a street front, and if the set back

wall has windows whose height above the low roof of the setback is

greater than the roof width, such window glass will be considered on

a street front. If the glazing requirements of table 3.1 are com- plied with, the rating given will be "A." If there is very little or

no compliance, a "C" rating will be given. Degree of compliance in

between these two will be given a rating of "B." If it is not possible to determine the degree of compliance, then an "X" rating should

be given. See figure 3.5 where some typical details are given showing how provisions for drift may be made. Earthquake forces normal to

the plane of glass are relatively minor because such forces are proportioned to the weight of the glass.

B-4
Exterior Appendages and Wall Cladding . The anchorage of exterior

appendages and wall cladding elements will probably not be visible

unless such an element has fallen off and left the anchorage exposed.

If this is noted on the elevations on the DC Form, the remaining

anchorage should be checked for corrosion if possible and if corrosion

is found, anchorage of other similar elements is suspect. In most

cases, however, the anchorage must be determined from plans and specifications. The adequacy of anchorage can be accurately determined

only through calculations. This is beyond the scope of the Field

Evaluation Method. However, with the exercise of some judgment and

"feel," a very approximate hazard rating can be given. The probable

types of anchorage for exterior appendages and wall cladding is shown

on table 3,2 with appropriate rating recommendations.

Ceilings . For the Field Evaluation Method, the ceiling hazard will be

determined by visual observation or perusal of plans and specifications.

The items to be determined are whether there is wire X-bracing in the

ceiling space, whether the suspended ceiling structural elements (teebars or channels) are well-connected to exterior walls or structural

members, and whether the structural elements are connected together so as to form an adequate strut between bracing. The presence of heavy

light fixtures supported laterally by this ceiling will be noted and,

if -possible, a determination made as to whether such heavy light fixtures are independently supported. An approximate rating system is

suggested as follows:

• Suspended ceilings with good anchorage or confinement

of structural ceiling elements to structure of

building and good continuity of elements A

• Suspended ceilings with frequent wire cross-bracing,

both directions A

• Incomplete bracing but good continuity B

• Suspended ceilings without either X-bracing or adequate connections to walls C

• Suspended ceilings with heavy light fixtures

supported vertically or laterally by the ceiling C Light Fixtures . If access to attic space is available it may be possible to view the support systems for heavy light fixtures. If swivel

joints and restraining devices are found, it is probable that the

fixture will respond satisfactorily in most earthquake shocks. If not,

the fixture supports may break loose and drop. Heavy fixtures supported by the ceiling system itself are covered under the ceiling rating. For the Field Evaluation Method, it is suggested that if no swivel joints or restraining devices are found, unless independently

braced, a rating of "C" be gi ven. If they are found, the "A" rating

is suggested. No "B" rating is used for this item. If obvious looseness of vertical support connections are noticed, give a "C" rating.

The rating should be "A" if no heavy light fixtures are found. An "X" rating should be given if the fixture connection cannot be seen. Earthquake Gas Connection . Note the presence or non-presence of an earthquake gas connection. If this cannot be determined, check "Not

Known .

FORM FMC - 1 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM - WIND RATING

In filling out the rating form, FMC-1 , the "Basic Wind Speed" will be

that assigned to the area based on information in ANSI A58.1-72. "Exposure" ("A," "B," or "C") is determined from the information on Form

DC-7.

B-5
When the "Exposure" and "Height" have been determined, go to table 5 of ANSI (there is a table 5 for each of the three exposures) and select

the "Effective Velocity Pressure." Multiply by 1.3 or 1.4 (for consider

ation of the effect of both windward and leeward pressure on the building as a whole) to arrive at the "Design Unit Pressure." "Basic

Structural Rating" is taken from Form FME.

The "Uplift Anchorage Factors" are determined from the data on the DC

Form and the information given on FMC-1 . The "Corrected Structural

Rating" is simply the highest numerical rating of either the "Foundation Anchorage," the "Roof Anchorage" or the "Basic Structural Rating."

Go to the bottom of the form and select the "Effective Unit Velocity

Pressure Capacity - P^.." Now compute the "Capacity Ratio" with the

formula P/Pq. Obviously if P/Pc is greater than 1, the risk is greater; if less than 1, the risk is less. The maximum Pq given on this

form is 45. Some buildings, because of height or exposure, may be

subjected to much higher pressures "P." Important buildings with a "Capacity Ratio" of 1 or greater should be reviewed by Analytical

Methods when P^- is over 45.

FORM FMC-2 - OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - HIND RATING

The important items involved are the strength and size of glass panels,

their frame and glazing attachments, and the anchorage of roof panels

and of light exterior wall panels and appendages. The rating of some

of these may not be determinable by visual inspection. If plans and

specifications are available they may show details of glazing and

other pertinent anchorages. Proximity to potential wind-born missiles

may or may not be obvious, but if a structure were to be located adjacent to an unenclosed lumber yard or similar source of airborne debris,

it should be noted. Space is provided on the DC Form for this. With

such limitations the Life Hazard rating must be very approximate.

Even where anchorages or attachments are present, it would require detailed calculations to fully check them for adequacy.

Glass breakage from forces normal to the plane of glass is more of a hazard in wind than in earthquake. Here the strength of the glass

and its thickness and span are the important factors. This is difficult to determine in the field. However, where size of glass panes

and thickness of glass can be determined, these items can be compared

with the requirements shown on table 3.1. If these comply, the rating should be "A;" if there is medium or partial compliance, the rating should be "B;" if there Is little or no compliance the rating is

"C;" if unknown, the rating is "X."

Window frame anchorage is important on tall, flexible buildings.

Buildings with moment-resistant frames and light exterior curtain walls

over 3 stories high and buildings with exterior concrete or masonry

walls over 8 stories high fall into this category. In these instances

the wind forces parallel to the plane of glass are important and details providing for drift similar to those shown on figure 3.5 should

be provided. If drift details have been provided, the rating should

be "A;" if not, the rating should be "C." There is no provision for

a "B" rating on this item.

The anchorage of roof panels, light wall panels, and exterior appendages

is also important. Where the anchorage can be determined, the best

judgment must be exercised since detailed computations are not available

in the Field Evaluation Method. If what appears to be good anchorage

is confirmed, the rating should be "A;" if the anchorage is known to be

poor or is obviously missing, the rating should be "C;" if the anchorage

is confirmed but appears to be somewhat inadequate or questionable, the

rating will be "B;" if the anchorage is unknown, the rating is "X."

B-6
In filling out the rating form, the best judgment should be exercized.

Place rating terms ("A," "B," "C," and "X") in the appropriate squares.

Under 'Potential Missiles from Outside of Structure," note the type of

material, the "Quantity" (large or small), and the distance.

FORM FMD TORNADO RATING

The purpose of the FMD Form is to rate the facility as to its exposure

and resistance to tornado hazards. The probability of tornado occurrence to the particular area will be provided. The tornado funnels

usually move laterally fairly rapidly so that the time of full exposure

of any one structure is of comparatively short duration.

The "Effective Unit Velocity Pressure Capacity Pc" may be taken directly from Form FMC-1 if the building has been rated for wind; if not, evaluate as for Wind Rating.

The DC Form have information which will determine whether or not the

building will qualify as a vault-type structure. The definition of

such a structure is given in section 3.2. If it does so qualify, check

the "Yes" box; if not, the "No" box. The " Bu i 1 d i ng -As-A-Whol e" is then

rated from information in previous columns of the table and the ratings

given below the table. For example if Pq = 40 or over, the rating

"Fair" is given.

In the table entitled "Hazard from Wind-Blown Debris," the "Location"

and "Type" columns are filled out from material given in the DC Forms.

The location and type of potential debris inside the building is placed

in the columns opposite "Wall Cladding, Appendages, or Glass;" location and type of potential debris outside the building is placed

opposite "Other Potential Debris Not Part of the Building." The hazard

is then rated. If there is no potential wind blown debris present,

the rating "Good" is given; if there is a small amount of potential

debris, the rating will be "Fair;" if there is a large quantity, the

rating will be "Poor."

The table "Basement Storm Shelter Availability" is primarily informative. Note the presence or non-presence of such a basement. If present, the effective area of the basement should be obtained from the

DC Forms and "Capacity" computed on the net effective area based on

15 sq. ft. per person. The building may be either "Suitable" or "Unsuitable" from criteria given in section 3.2.

FORM FME CAPACITY RATIOS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

Form FME gives the "Capacity Ratio" to be used in evaluating the ability of the structure to respond to anticipated winds or earthquakes.

The "General Rating," taken from Form FMA-1 , is placed in the first

column. "Sub-Rating SRI" is also taken from Form FMA-1 and is the

larger of either the "Transverse Loading" or the "Longitudinal Loading."

"Sub-Rating SR2" is taken from Form FMA-2. If the "Sub-Rating (SR2)

for "Roof" and "Floors" are not the same, use the larger of the two

ratings. Compute the "Basic Structural Rating" using the formula shown

below the table. This rating system is intended to provide relative

resistive capacities of the buildings evaluated. Without analytical

review such ratings can only be approximated.

B-7
Capacity Ratio . For Earthquake, the relationship of the "Basic Structura 1 Rating" to ground intensity as given by Modified Mercalli Scale

as described by the Seismic Capacity Ratio = Basic Structural Rating

^ r J Intensity Level at Site

in which an approximate "Intensity Level Factor" is assigned for the

pertinent Modified Mercalli Scale. The Modified Mercalli Scale is

given on table 3.3. The "Capacity Ratio" is a measure of the capacity of the building to resist an earthquake of the intensity level

expected at the individual site. "Capacity Ratio" for Wind is obtained

from Form FMC-1

The "Capacity Ratio Rating" included on Form FME gives an approximate

meaning to various "Capacity Ratio" values.

B. 5 EVALUATION FORMS FMA TO FME

This section presents the evaluation forms for the Field Evaluation

Method

B-8
FORM FMA-1

FACILITY NO. EXPECTED SITE MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

VERTICAL RESISTING ELEMENTS

Type

General

Ratine (GR) E 1 W

Symmetry

(S) Quantity

(Q)

Symmetry 1 Quantity

Rating (SQR)

Present

Condition

(PC)

2 Sub-Rating

(SRI)

TRANSVERSE LOADING

I

1

!

i LONGITUDINAL LOADING

FOOTNOTES:

1. Symmetry- Quantity Rating (SQR)

<) c u ^- OT, 1 SQR + 2PC

2. Sub- rating SR-1 = — —

^ •

S + Q

TYPE GENERAL RATING (GR)

Earthquake Wind

A Steel Moment Resistant Frames 1 1 B Steel Frames - Moment Resistance Capability Unknovm 2 2 C Concrete Moment Resistant Frames 1 1 D Concrete Frames - Moment Resistance Capability Unknown 2 2 E Masonry Shear Walls - Unreinforced 4 2 or 3 F Masonry or Concrete Shear Walls - Reinforced 1 I G Combination - Unreinforced Shear Walls and Moment

Resistant Frames 2 2 H Combination - Reinforced Shear Walls and Moment

Resistant Frames 1 1 J Braced Frames 1 1 K Wood Frame Buildings^ Walls Sheathed or Plastered 1 or 2 2 or 3 L Wood Frame Buildings^ Walls Without Wood Sheathing

or Plaster 4 4 SYMMETRY (of Resisting Elements)

1 Symmetrical

2 Fairly Symmetrical

2 or 3 Symmetry Poor

3 or 4 Very Unsymmetrical

NOTE: Add 1 (not to exceed 4) to each

rating if a high degree of vertical

non- uniformity in stiffness occurs, PRESENT CONDITION (of Resisting Elements)

QUANTITY (of Resisting Elements')

1 Many Resisting Elements

2 Medium Amount of Resisting Elements

3 Few Resisting Elements

4 Very Few Resisting Elements

NOTE: If exterior shear walls are

at least 75% of building lengthy

this rating will be 1,

No Cracks, No Damage

Few Minor Cracks

Many Minor Cracks or Damage

Major Cracks or Damage.

NOTE: If masonry walls, note quality

of mortar - good or poor. If lime

mortar is poor, use next higher

rating.

B-9
FACILITY NO, FORM FMA-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

HORIZONTAL RESISTING ELEMENTS

Type Rigidity

(R)

Anchorage & Chords (C)

Sub-Rating

(SR2)

Connections

(A)

Longitudinal Transverse

Roof

Floors

Note: Sub-rating SR2 = Largest of R^ A or C.

IZEe

A Diaphragm

B Steel Horizontal Bracing

Rigidity - Ratings

1. Rigid

1.5 Semi-rigid

2.0 Semi-flexible

2.5 Flexible

Anchorage and Connections - Ratings

1 Anchorage confirmed - capacity not computed, but probably adequate.

2 Anchorage cobfirmed - capacity not computed, but probably inadequate.

3 Anchorage unknown.

4 Anchorage absent.

Chords - Ratings

1 Chords confirmed, but capacity not computed.

2 Chords unknown, but probably present.

3 Chords unknown, but probably not present.

4 Chords absent.

B-10
FORM FMB- ozMH<£w<

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h4O <> td

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Oi

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B-11
FACILITY NO. FORM FMB-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

TYPE OF RISK RATING

Partitions Other Than on Corridors or Stair Enclosures

Glass Breakage

Ceiling

Light Fixtures

Exterior Appendages and

Wall Cladding"

, ,

Ratings A = Good

B = Fair

C = Poor

X = Unknown

"a description of some of the ratings for Exterior Appendages

and Wall Cladding are:

Description

I Spacing of anchors appears satisfactory

Size and embedment of anchors satisfactory

Spacing of anchors appears to be too great

Size and embedment of anchors appears

unsatis factory

I Anchorage unknown

'Anchorage corroded or obviously loose

'No anchorage

' EARTHQUAKE GAS CONNECTION

Present Not Present Not Known

B-12
FORM FMC-1 I o

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B-1 3
FACILITY NO. FORM FMC-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - WIND RATING

TYPE OF RISK RATING

Glass Breakage

Window Frame Anchorage

Roof Panel Anchorage

Wall Panel Anchorage

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

A = Good; B = Fair; C = Poor; X = Unknown.

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

;

B-14
FACILITY NO. FORM FMD

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

TORNADO RATING

EFFECTIVE UNIT VELOCITY PRESSURE

CAPACITY P^ (From FMC-1)

DOES BUILDING QUALIFY AS

A VAULT-TYPE STRUCTURE?

TORNADO RATING

BUILD ING-AS-A- WHOLE

Yes NoQ

BUILDING-AS-A-WHOLE RATINGS

Vault Type Building - Good

P(, = 40 p.s. f. or over - Fair

Pc = 20 to 40 p.s.f. - Poor

P^ = Under 7.0 p.s.f. - Very Poor

HAZARD FROM WIND-BLOWN DEBRIS

LOCATION TYPE NOT

PRESENT RATING

Wall Cladding,

Appendages, or Glass

Other

Potential

Debris Not Part of The

Building

WIND-BLOWN DEBRIS RATINGS

Not Present - Good

Small Quantity of Potential Hazard - Fair

Large Quantity of Potential Hazard - Poor

BASEMENT STORM SHELTER AVAILABILITY

Present Yes No Q

Capacity"

Suitability

Based on

15 sq. ft. per

person.

B-15
FACILITY NO FORM FME

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

CAPACITY RATIOS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

General Rating Sub-Rating Basic Structural Capacity

(GR) SRI SR2 Rating" Ratio""'

EARTHQUAKE

WIND

'Basic Structural Rating = GR + 2 (Largest of SRI or SR2)

_

Capacity Ratio for wind shall be obtained from Form FMC-1. For earthquake,

the ratio is obtained from the Basic Structural Rating divided by the Intensity

Level Factor at the site as determined from the table below.

Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity Level Factor

VIII or Greater 1 VII 2 VI 3 V or Less 4

A description of Modified Mercalli Scale is included on table 3.3.

Capacity Ratio Rating

Capacity Ratio Rating (In Terms of Risk)

Less than 1,0

1 through 1.4

1.5 through 2.0

Over 2.0

Good

Fair

Poor

Very Poor

B-16
APPENDIX C APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

C.l GENERAL PROCEDURES IN EVALUATING BUILDING FOR EARTHQUAKE HAZARD USING

THE APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

The plans should be checked with the Data Collection Form to see if they

represent the "as built" structure and that any additions and alternations are incorporated in the plans.

The site seismicity, based on anticipated ground motion for the design

earthquake or earthquakes, would be obtained by assigning the factor or calculating the factor Z^.

The original design calculations may or may not be available. If they

are available they may have followed code criteria other than 1973 UBC [2.5],

in which case all its provisions may not be incorporated into the building.

Procedures in checking where seismic design calculations are available will

vary somewhat from procedures where they are not available.

Calculations Available

1. Check seismic zone used (Z^ which is the code zone factor Z).

2. Check type of structure and type of framing to see if proper K values have been used (Table 23-1 of [2.5]).

3. Check whether the structure is highly irregular. Does it have

setbacks or highly dissimilar stiffness of vertical resisting

elements at various levels. Setbacks are covered in Paragraph

(i) and Exception 2 to equation 14-2 [2.5]. These are quoted

in section 3.3.

4. Check calculation for "T" and determine if "ZKC" has been properly

determined (Equations 14-2, 1403, [2.5]).

5. Check calculations for typical dead loads (W) to assure that no important item has been omitted or a decimal point misplaced.

(Note that partition loads are dead loads.)

6. Check if base shear, V, is properly computed and distributed.

(Equation 14-1, [2.5]).

7. See is proper distribution of horizontal forces has been made

from top to bottom of structure as per equations (14-4) and

(14-5) of Chapter 23 of UBC.

8. Check lateral force resisting system and the paths of resistance

used to see if the assumptions made are reasonable. Check whether

the horizontal diaphragms are capable of distributing lateral

forces to the vertical resisting elements. This, of course,

should be checked for loads in both directions. If vertical re- sisting elements are not continuous from upper levels to lower

levels, make sure that the diaphragms and struts are capable of

redistributing the lateral forces. This is for a general check of

the system of lateral resistance used.

C-1
9. See if relative rigidities of the vertical elements have been con- sidered and whether torsional effects have been considered. It should be kept in mind that a flexible horizontal diaphragm will

not transfer lateral loads to vertical elements in proportion to

their relative rigidities. (See section 3.3B for quotations from

the Tri-Service Manual [3.1] regarding diaphragm flexibility.)

Neither will a flexible horizontal diaphragm distribute torsional

forces without excessive deformations.

10. Assuming that the calculations have been consistent with code re- quirements and that the items above listed have been reasonably

considered, check unit stresses in the vertical and horizontal

resisting elements for the forces assumed. If not, additional

calculations may be required to evaluate items not covered. All

the elements need not be checked. For instance, in a shear wall

resisting system, the stiffest pier or wall element will usually

have the highest unit stresses. Sufficient checks with assistance from eyeball interpolations or extrapolation should be made

to ascertain critical elements. In multi-story buildings, the top

and bottom stories and, say, at least one intermediate story between should be checked. Where multi-story moment resisting frames

are used, the logical check levels would be at the lower story of

a column section where changes occur. Steel column sections are usually maintained constant for two or three stories.

11. The overturning calculations should be reviewed to determine if

properly carried out and the foundations and soil pressures

checked for total compression or net tension adequacy.

12. Drift calculations are not necessary on one or two story buildings

with reinforced concrete or masonry shear walls. Tall buildings

using moment resistant frames or obviously flexible type buildings

should be checked for storv to storv drift to determine compatibility with nonstructural items but this information will not L>e needed for structural system evaluation.

13. Determine the critical stress ratio (fe/fa) based on the used

in the original calculations. This ratio shall be modified by

Zg/Zg if the site seismicity is different from that used in the

original design. These items are summarized on Form AMA.

Calculations Not Available

Where calculations are not available, it will be necessary to make

sufficient calculations to determine the building's resistance capacity.

1. Determine the appropriate seismic zone factor as discussed previously.

2. Proceed as described in "Calculations Available" (starting with

Item 2) except that calculations are made instead of checked.

Calculations to determine the forces to be applied to the building

for a static analysis should be complete. Stress analysis need

be only as complete as in the checking analysis previously described in paragraph entitled "Calculations Available." the

critical element stresses are determined and the critical stress

ratio (fe/fa) calculated as in Item 13 above.

C-2
Exit Corridor and Stair Enclosure Walls

The failure of brittle masonry walls surrounding exit corridors and

stairs may cause loss of life in a severe earthquake. The evaluation of

such enclosure walls and their anchorage should be given special attention.

The evaluation of these elements will be indicated on Form AMB-1 . The

forces to be used in analysis are those for the applicable portions of

buildings as described below.

Portions of Buildings

Parts or portions of buildings and their anchorage should be analyzed

for lateral forces in accordance with the formula Fp = ZgCpUp. Table No.

23-J of 1 973 use [2.5] gives the value for Cp with applicable footnotes.

Some of the items involved here are important in that life hazards are involved. Falling parapets or appendages on a public way, for instance,

constitute such a hazard and a separate rating form (AMB-2) is provided

for noting any non-compliance.

C.2 GENERAL PROCEDURES IN EVALUATING BUILDINGS FOR WIND HAZARD USING THE

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

The plans should be checked with the Data Collection Form to see if

they represent the "as built" structure. Proceed as follows:

1. Determine the Basic Wind Speed assigned to the site.

2. Determine the Effective Velocity Pressure (qp) from table 5 of

ANSI [3.2] and the External Pressure Coefficients from table 7.

3. Make a pressure diagram for the building as a whole.

4. If original wind calculations are available, check these pressures

obtained from ANSI Tables with the pressures originally calculated,

5. Check the adequacy of the horizontal distribution system (diaphragms) to distribute wind forces to the vertical resisting

el emen ts

6. Check the adequacy of the vertical resisting elements for shear

and axial loads. Also check if the center of resistance coincides

wity the center of applied wind forces. If there is significant

eccentricity in either axis of the building there will be torsion

and this should be considered in the check of both horizontal and

vertical elements.

7. Determine the Critical Element or Elements and the Critical Stress

Ratio. With this the rating of the Bu i 1 di ng -As-A-Whol e is made on Form AME.

8. Using the coefficients given in ANSI 6.5.3.2 [3.2], check for uplift on the roof.

9. Check exposed elements for positive or negative pressures.

C-3
10. Check Anchorage of exposed elements, such as Wall Panels, Wall

Cladding, and appurtenances such as Canopies.

11. Check the Anchorage of such elements as Window Frames, Wall Cladding and Exterior Appendages and determine the Critical Stress

Ratio for these anchors. From this a rating can be placed for

these items on Form AMC-2.

12. Check the DC Form for presence and distance of Potential Windblown

Debris and note same on Form AMC-2.

13. Check the adequacy of Window Glass and Glazing for the pressures

noted and rate these items on Form AMC-2.

C.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE IN EVALUATING BUILDING FOR TORNADO HAZAR D USING THE

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

Check the plans with the Data Collection Form to see that the plans

represent the "as built" structure. Proceed as follows:

1. Calculate the wind forces on the building as a whole using 80

p.s.f. on the windward side and 60 p.s.f. on the leeward side.

Use a suction force on all exposed roofs or horizontal areas

of 172 p.s.f. The stresses on various resisting elements

produced by these forces is fy. These stresses (fj) will be

related to a design ultimate capacity of the resisting systems.

The ultimate capacity of the elements is used for f tornado because

of the relatively short duration of full tornado forces and the limited area over which these forces would act at any one instant of

time. Since the tornado forces assumed are rough estimates, it is

felt that the use of ultimate capacities of resisting elements is

warranted.

The stress (fg) is the capacity of the member in excess of that

required to support the gravity loads, fg at the ultimate capacity of the members shall be based on the values indicated in

the following table:

MATERIAL BASIS FOR STRESS AT ULTIMATE CAPACITY

Concrete ACI 318-71 [C. 1 ] Structural Steel Part 2, AISC 1969 Specifications [C.2]

Light Gauge Steel 1.7 times AISI 1968 Specifications [C.3]

Aluminum 1.7 times 1967 Specifications of

The Aluminum Association [C . 4

]

Masonry^ 2.0 times UBC 1 973 [2.5]

Wood^''^ 2.5 times UBC 1 973 [2.5]

a. Other Code or Specifications containing working stress material

capacities may be used.

b. When data is based on the inclusion of the 1/3 increase on working stresses for wind or earthquake loading (such as diaphragms)

the multiplier is reduced by (2.5/1.33) = 1.9.

C-4
2. Calculate the effect of uplift on exposed roof areas considering

the weight of the roof.

3. (a) Check capability of roof and floor systems to transmit later

al forces to vertical resisting elements. This includes

anchorage check.

(b) Calculate the critical stress ratio, fT/fa» on critical

el ements

4. (a) Check capability of vertical elements such as shear walls or moment resisting frames to deliver forces to the foundations.

This includes a check of the anchorage of these elements to

f oundati ons

(b) Calculate the critical stress ratio, fj/fa, on critical

el ements

5. (a) Check capability of foundations to resist net forces of

sliding, overturning, and suction.

(b) Calculate the critical stress ratio, fj/fa' °n critical

el ements.

6. Note any special cases such as large canopies or roof structures.

These should be checked for capacity to withstand these forces.

7. Check strength and anchorage of wall cladding and appendages. If

the stress, fj* is less than fg, they will be considered adequate.

If not, they will be considered inadequate. These are the only

rati ng s

8. Check strength and anchdrage of doors and glazed areas. The same assumptions and ratings as given in Item 7 will apply to glass

panes and their frames and attachments, and to doors and their

attachments.

The critical stress ratios, fj/f^^* approximate indicators of the

ability of a building to withstand tornadoes. The real capacity of the

element may vary from f^, but the degree of variation is dependent on the

materials considered. Consistency in quality and workmanship, in accuracy

in load calculations, and uncertainty in loads influences the reliability

of fj.

Since failure of any of the resisting systems could cause failure of

the entire structure, the final building rating is based on the lowest

of any of the systems.

Damaged Elements

Where any of the resisting elements are found to be badly cracked,

bent, or otherwise severely damaged, they may very well fail under tornado

loadings. If such a member is critical to the system it should be field

evaluated and its computed capacity arbitrarily reduced by judgment.

C-5
Debri sThe presence or non-presence of potential wind blown debris in the

area outside the facility can be noted on the rating form. If such potential wind blown missiles are observed in the area, the box marked "Present"

should be checked; otherwise, check "Not Present." If the "Present" box is

checked, a supplemental note describing the material and its general location should be attached to the rating form.

C 4 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD RATING FORMS

FORM AMA-1 - Structural Systems - Earthquake

In the first column, "Type of Frame," enter the applicable letter from

the list of types given below.

The second column is headed "Type of Diaphragm." Enter in this column

the type of material the diaphragm consists of, such as reinforced concrete,

metal deck, wood floor, precast concrete units, etc.

In the column headed "Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity," enter the MMI

for the site if explicitly assigned by the user or determined using the con- cepts of section 3.4. For example. Eqs. (3.4.2) and (3.4.3) relate MMI to a selected earthquake magnitude and hypocentral distance.

In the next column, the "Z^" factor should be entered as determined from

the formula given in' the paragraph entitled Site Seismicity for the Approximate Analytical Method in section 3.3. The "Z^" factor on which the original calculations were based should be entered in the next column. If calculations were for the site "Z^" factor, enter this also in the "Z^"

column. If no Z^ is determined, enter Z^ in the "Z^" column.

In the "Critical Elements" column, there are two items. Under "Type,"

designate the kind of element such as column, beam, girder, truss, or shear

wall. Under "Location," give the location such as "1st Floor," "3rd Floor,"

etc

In the last column "Critical Stress Ratio," enter the ratio f-/f,

c a modified by Z^/Z^. This should be done for the various critical elements

analyzed so that the greatest fg/fg ratio can be readily selected. The

greatest critical stress ratio is transferred to Form AME to determine

rating for earthquake.

FORM AMB-1 - Exit Corridors and Stair Enclosure Walls - Earthquake : Most of the types of walls commonly used are listed on this form.

More than one type of wall may be used for this purpose in any one building.

In the column under "reinforcement," place a check in the appropriate subcolumn as to whether or not reinforcement is present on the type of wall

being considered. For wood or steel stud types of walls, leave the "reinforcement" column blank.

C-6
Under "Anchorage," place a check in one of the sub-columns opposite

the type of wall being considered. If a check is placed in the sub-column

labeled "Other," describe this briefly below the table or on a supplementary sheet.

In the "Critical Stress Ratio" column, enter the ratio of stresses in

these as determined by analyzing these walls and anchorages for lateral

forces, both normal and parallel to the walls.

The "rating" for these exit corridor and stair enclosure walls is

taken from the table on Form AME entitled "Rating of Critical Stress "Ratios" and entered in the last column.

FORM AMB-2 - Other Life Hazards - Earthquake :

The critical stress ratio for members and anchorages for the items

listed oh this form are determined and entered opposite the appropriate

types of risk. With these ratios, determine the proper rating from the

table on AME entitled "Rating of Critical Stress Ratios" and note this

rating in the "Rating" column.

FORM AMC-1 - Structural Systems - Mind :

The rating of the building as a whole is determined by the ratio of

the stresses (f^) resulting from the design pressure to the material design

stresses (f,) - including 33-1/3% increases where permitted. A rating form

a (AMC-1) has been provided for this. The "Building Designation" is given

at the top of sheet. In the first column, list "Exposure A, B, or C"

conforming to ANSI designations. In the second column, fill in the "Basic

Wind Speed" assigned to the site. This is assumed to be for the 50-year

mean recurrence interval. If any other recurrence interval is used, such

as the 100-year recurrence interval, it should be noted in parenthesis - (100). In the third column give the height of the building and in the

fourth give "Effective Velocity pressure" as determined from table 5 of

ANSI [3.2].

In the "Critical Elements" column, list the type and location. The

type might be "Column" and the location "1st Story." Or the type might

be "large brick pier" with location given as "front wall, second story."

Compute the critical stress ratio and enter it in the column provided.

C-7
The "Basic Wind Speed Capacity" is a measure of the capability of the

building given as a wind speed at 30 feet above ground. This speed can be

used to assess the general capability of the building to resist wind forces

but is not used as a rating. The stress-ratio factor "f /f " gives the

w a relation between the stresses resulting from design pressure and the material design stresses in excess of that required to support gravity loads.

Since wind velocity is a function of the square root of the pressure, the

"Basic Wind Speed (V^)" can be proportioned to "Basic Wind Speed Capacity

(Vo)" by multiplying V, by the square root of f,/f,,. Thus, if the Basic

L I aw

Wind Speed at the site is 100 m.p.h. at 30 feet height, and the inverted

stress ratio factor fnf^f^ is 1.4, the Basic Wind Speed Capacity (V2) will

be 100 X /f ^/f ^ = 118 miles per hour. It should be noted that wind pressures at various heights do not vary in a constant proportion. Therefore,

this is only an approximate solution.

FORM AMC-2 - Other Life Hazards - Wind : Glass Breakage

Table 54-A of the Uniform Building Code [2.5] gives the allowable

areas of glass in square feet for various wind loads in p.s.f. up to ICQ

p.s.f., with required thickness of plate or float glass or sheet glass.

Select the proper wind pressure (positive or negative) and check for com- pliance with this table. The ratings for this item are simply "Compliance"

or "Non-Compliance" for the various types of glass, including wired glass,

as given in table 54-B "Adjustment Factors" of UBC.

Glazing

Glazing requirements are given in table 54-C of UBC for both doors

and windows. The ratings for this item will be "Compliance" or "NonCompliance."

Window Frame Anchorage

The applicable wind pressure is distributed to the anchors and

the stress in the anchors determined based on the anchorage pattern.

The stress in the anchor produced by the wind is compared with the

allowable design stress in the anchor to determine the critical

s tres s rat i 0

C-8
Wall Cladding Anchorage

The applicable wind pressure on the cladding is determined.

The wind force (positive or negative) assigned to the anchors can then be computed, considering their spacing and location. Except

for extremely light wall claddings, such as 16 gage sheet metal or under, the vertical loads on the anchors should also be considered in

the computations. The stresses so computed in the anchors or in the

material to which the anchors are connected are then compared with the

allowable design stresses to obtain the critical stress ratio.

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

The anchorage of exterior appendages can be computed and rated as described for "Wall Cladding Anchorages."

Exposed Wal 1

The maximum wind pressure, either positive or negative, applied

normal to the wall, is used for the appropriate heights above ground.

Such walls are checked as vertical slabs and may be considered as one- way slabs or two-way slabs with or without continuity as the situation

may warrant. The stress ratio is then computed. The rating is obtained from the table at the bottom of Form AMC-2.

The walls at corners of the building for a horizontal width equal to

1/10 of the least width of the building should be checked for a suction equal

to twice the effective velocity pressure in a similar manner. These ratings are entered in the appropriate boxes.

Canopies and Eaves

Where these occur, they will be checked for an uplift force of 0.7

times the effective velocity pressure and the critical stress ratio computed. From this, the rating is obtained from the lower table and entered

in the appropriate box. The dead load of canopies and eaves should be

subtracted from the uplift force.

Potential Missiles from Outside of Structure

This item is noted but not rated. See section 3. 2D on potential

wind blown missiles in the Field Evaluation Method. This is based on field

observations only. Under "Type", note the type of material in the adjacent

area that might be wind blown. Under "Quantity", note "large" or "small.

Under "Distance", note the approximate distance of the potential missile

material from the structure being evaluated.

C-9
FORMS AMD-1 AND AMD-2 - Tornadoes ;

Reference is made to section C.3 "General Procedure in Evaluating

Building for Tornado Hazard." The Critical Stress Ratios "fj/^g^" are determined as described therein. These ratios are then placed in the

appropriate spaces after each of the "Systems" listed. The highest

critical stress ratio of any of these Systems is used to fill in the space

after "Tornado" in the upper table on Form AME. The Tornado Ratings for

various Critical Stress Ratios are given in the table "Rating of Critical

Stress Ratios" on Form AME.

On Form AMD-2, the strength and anchorage of Wall Cladding and Appendages is analyzed as described in section C.3, and the rating "Adequate or Inadequate" entered in the appropriate space. Similarly the strength and

anchorage of glazed areas is determined and rated in the adjoining space.

For Exposed Walls use the maximum wind pressures, either positive or negative applied normal to the walls. This is 80 psf on the windward side

and 50 or 60 psf on the leeward side depending on the height-to-width

ratio of the building (ANSI, 6.3.4.1. [3.2]) Check these walls as vertical slabs as given in the Instructions for Wind and compute the

Critical Stress Ratio. The rating is then obtained from the table at

the bottom of Form AMD-2 and placed in the appropriate box. No special

consideration is given to corner walls.

For Canopies and Eaves , these elements are checked for uplift values

of 172 p.s.f. as for roofs. Dead loads should be subtracted. The Critical

Stress Ratio for these elements is computed and the rating obtained from

the table at the bottom of the form. The rating is placed in the proper

box

Potential Missiles from Outside of Structure

The presence or non-presence of potential wind blown debris is taken

from the Data Collection Form and noted in the table near the bottom of

this form.

C-10
FORM AME - Structural Systems Rating Form - Earthquake, Wind, Tornado :

This form relates the Critical Stress Ratios to final ratings for

Structural Systems and is for the hazards of earthquake, wind, and tornado.

The Critical Stress Ratios for Structural Systems are taken from the applicable Approximate Analytical Method Forms for the hazards being considered

and placed in the second column. The "Rating" is then taken from the table

below. This table gives different ratings for Tornado than for Earthquake

and Wind. In the tornado ratings ("good," "fair," etc.), consideration has

been given to the probability of a direct hit by a tornado over the entire

structure and to the fact that these extremely high forces are in effect

for only a few seconds.

C. 5 EVALUATION FORMS AMA TO AME

T he , f ol 1 owi ng pages contain the above noted forms.

C-11
FACILITY NO. FORM AMA-1

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

BUILDING DESIGNATION:

Type of

Frame

Type of

Diaphragm

Modified

Mercalli

Intensity

Critical Elements

Type Location

Critical

Stress

Ratio

(fe/fa)

TYPE A Steel Moment Resistant Frames

B Steel Frames - Vertical Load Carrying Only

C Concrete Moment Resistant Frames

D Concrete Frames - Vertical Load Carrying Only

E Masonry Shear Walls - Unreinforced

F Masonry or Concrete Shear Walls - Reinforced

G Combination - Unreinforced Shear Walls and Moments Resistant Frames

H Combination - Reinforced Shear Walls and Moment Resistant Frames

J Braced Frames

K Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Sheathed or Plastered

L Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Without Wood Sheathing or Plaster

M Other

Zone factor determined for site from Modified Mercalli Intensity.

NOTE: For rating of Structural Systems, use Form AME.

C-12
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C-13
FACILITY NO. FORM AMB-2

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO rating"

Partitions Other Than on Corridors

or Stair Enclosures

Exterior Appendages and Wall

Cladding

Ceiling

Light Fixtures

! See Form AME - Rating of Critical Stress Ratios.

C-14
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C-15
FACILITY NO. FORM AMC-2

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - WIND RATING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

Glass Breakage"

Glazing'

r- -

Window Frame Anchorage

Wall Cladding Anchorage

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

Exposed Walls

Canopies and Eaves

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

"See Instructions for ratings.

CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

< 1.0 Good

1.0 to 1.5 Fair

> 1.5 Poor

C-16
FACILITY NO. FORM AMD-1

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

RATING FORM - TORNADOES

SYSTEMS CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS*

SYSTEM

Roof

Roof Anchorage

Floor

Floor Anchorage

Vertical Resisting Element

Anchorage to Footings

Footings

Use highest Critical Stress Ratio. For Structural Systems Rating - Tornado, see Form AME.

frj, = Capacity required to resist tornado forces,

f^ = Capacity based on design criteria.
FACILITY NO. FORM AMD

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - TORNADO RATING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

(41 o 7 n -no

TJ T nr1 rtT.7 V T*a mA An r* h o 0^ p

Wall Cladding Anchorage

1

1

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

;

Exposed Walls

]

!

1!

Canopies & Eaves

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE*

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

See Instructions for ratings.

CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

< 2.0 Good

2.0 to 3.0 Fair > 3.0 Poor

C-18
FACILITY NO. FORM AME

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS - STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Critical Stress Ratio Rating

Earthquake

Wind

Tornado

RATING OF CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS

Critical Stress Ratio Earthquake or Wind Tornado

Less than 1.0 Good Good

1 to 1.5 Fair Good

1.5 to 2.0 Poor Good

2.0 to 3.0 Very Poor Fair

3.0 to 4.0 Very Poor Poor

Over 4.0 Very Poor Very Poor

C-19

APPENDIX D

EXAMPLES

D. 1 INTRODUCTION

This appendix presents nine example problems. The examples are intended to familiarize the reader and user with the methods presented in

chapter 3. Section D.2 presents a Field Evaluation Method example, sections

D.3 and D.4 present solutions using the Approximate Analytical Evaluation

Method, and the Detailed Analytical Evaluation Method is applied to several

building structures in section D.5 and D.6.

D-1
D.2 EXAMPLE 1

A. Preambi

The example selected here is an old two-story building with exterior,

unreinforced brick masonry walls, a wood roof and a wood second floor. It is

located on a corner with the front and one side facing streets. The rear

faces an alley and the other side is on a property line. The front wall has

very large glass display windows in the first story and a large glass area in

the second story. The side wall facing the street also has large glass areas;

the other two walls are nearly solid. The wood roof and floor systems are

not properly anchored to provide adequate diaphragms.

The rating forms have been devised to assist in evaluating such factors

as mentioned above. Since plans were not available for this building it is

rated only by the Field Evaluation Method. It is rated for Earthquake , Wind , and Tornado . Since the Wind rating is rather poor, the rating for Tornado

is somewhat unnecessary but this has been included to demonstrate the use of

the Field Evaluation Method Forms.

B . Data Collection Form

The Data Collectipn Form containing Sheets 1-DC-l to l-DC-12 has been

completed for the building in Example 1 and is included in this section.

D-2
/-DC-1

GENERAL DATA

12.

Facility No,

Address —

DATA COLLECTION FORM

NATURAL HAZARDS EFFECTS

(Extreme Winds^ Earthquakes)

2. Building Name £Xy^A^/'^^^ /

4. City -

5. State — 6. Zip Code

8. Date of Major Modifications or Additions^ if any

7. Year Built

9, Building Code Jurisdiction: City [7^ County Q State Q Federal | |

10. Latitude 11, Longitude

Current Bldg. Use 1/6//r A^^^. Orig. Bldg. Use i//^/<A/Ol>\rry

13, Basement Yes No

No. of Stories Above Basement

14. Height of First Story fS

15. Upper Story Height //

Number of Basements

2. (See also Item A23)

ft.

ft. Special Story Height ft.

16. Is the exterior of first story different from upper stories?

Street Front Side Yes No Other Sides Yes ^ No

17. Approximate Roof Overhang Distance a^Q >^S Side /^

18. Proximity to Adjacent Buildings: Sketch Below with North Arrow

North Side TO ' South Side ^ East Side ZO^ West Side ?o'

Note Street or Alley Sides

'^To be filled in by Field Supervisor.

/

CO

1

D-3
/-DC

19. Are plans available? aJO If so, where obtainable

where obtainable

Are original calculations available? //o If so.

Name of: Architect C>f^/<)^otOr^

Contractor t/A//tCA/a u/

Engineer C/ h/K/^^**^i^

Regulatory Agency C > 7"^

20. Basic Building Plan

a. Sketch overall plan.

b. Locate shear walls, if any.

c. Locate main frames.

.,. d. Locate expansion joints, if any.

e. Give approximate north arrow and label sides "A", "B", "C", "D", etc. Show street or alley sides.

f. Note any common or party walls.

g. If plan changes in upper floors, sketch this plan and note level of

change,

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

k

.1^

/50- o"

3& /S-a" = /-za'-o"

r. r. e— v~ a B 3 t

1- ra-i6S ^ <--o-L:

/5'0"

? r

D-4
/' DC-3

Elevation of Exterior Walls.

Sketch: a. All openings or note pattern of openings,

b. Note exterior finish and appendages.

c. Note material of walls,

d. Major cracks or other damage. (Note if cracks are larger

at one end.

)

e. Note previously repaired damage.

f. Note any evidence of damage to cladding or appendages.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

50-0

/7"x 26" /s^z-i^ /^/£-/zs /'^r/'-f/?-/

/so '- o I

I

II 1 II II II II 1 II

D

2=-
/- OC-3A

/5" /6£./£:ykr

2.-0" To 2-0"

/^C) /Z ^ (2. 2'^"'^ ^

(2

/"//V, //aa/S/z-y^; fr^/iJ<r->^'r

/

" ^<^/S - /'d.o<^ Z - £>/46,

Ty/^/<^^/^ l/^£p^^ S£ 7^/ (D

^

D-6
/-DC-4

22. Elevation of Interior Shear Walls, A/oryS

Sketch: a. All openings.

b. Major cracks or other damage, (Note if cracks are larger

at one end,

)

c. Note any previously repaired damage.

D-7
/-DC-5

23. Adaptability of Basement to Storm Shelter. A/O 3j9S£''^£'^>^

a. Floor Over Basement - Concrete Q Other Q

b. If concrete, give thickness

c. Available Space (approximate) sq. ft.

d. Dangerous Contents. Storage of Flammable Liquids Q

Presence of Transformers or Other Dangerous Equipment Q

Other Hazards

None

24. Is this a Vault- like Structure? Yes Q No fvf^

D-8
EXTERIOR WALL SUMMARY SHEET

Exterior Characteristics Side A Side B Side C Side D

Extensive Architectural

Ornaments or Veneer

WALLS

Metal Curtain Wall

Precast Concrete

Curtain Wall

Stone

Brick

Concrete Block

Concrete

1

S , Other

1

For Concrete Block and

Brick, indicate

R for Running Bond

S for Stacked Bond

!

1 /Z1

ii Condition of Wall* f 2

t _________

2.

1 |H OPENINGS i;

' Percent of Open Area |

per Story l/*''-<i»0^

r,

1. No cracks, good mortar.

2. Few visible cracks,

3. Many cracks

4. Evidence of minor repairs,

5. Evidence of many repairs.

D-9
/- DC-7

B. SITE RELATED INFORMATION

1, Exposure

a. Centers of large city I I b. Very rough hilly terrain

c. Suburban areas^ towns, city outskirts, wood areas, or rolling terrain [ *

| d. Flat, open country \_

e. Flat coastal belts | | f. Other | 1

2. Topography

a. Building on level ground | t—-

[ b. Building on sloping ground r**""!

c. Building located adjacent to embankment | |

*3. Geologic formation __ZZZZZIII

*4. Location of known faults: Name ' Miles "

Miles

*5. Depth of water table ft. When measured:

"6. Depth of bedrock ft.

*7. Soil type — -

(Month) (Year)

'^8, Bearing capacity IZZZZI P^s.f.^ or " blows per inch

9. Proximity to potential wind-blown debris - Type ^ £

Location /i'MB£-n^ Vw^/eo ro /s/^/erv/ Distance /QO ^

To be filled in by Field Supervisor.

D-10
/- DC-8

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1. Material

Concrete Masonry Q

2. Vertical Load Resisting System

Frame I Bearing Wall 1

Steel I I Wood | |

Wall and Pilasters Q

For frame system, check one for typical column cross-section

Lateral Load Resisting System

Masonry Shear Wall

Concrete Shear Wall j |

Plywood Shear Wall I I

4, Floor System

Frame

Concrete Beams p

Deck

Steel Beams I J

Steel Bar Joist j |

Concrete Flat Plate | Concrete Flat Slab I

Concrete Waffle Slab [

Steel Deck \ \ Wood Joists L. Wood Plank

Other

Braced Frame

Moment Resisting Frame f

Are resisting systems

symmetrically located? Yes No

Wood Beams | i-^ |

No Framing Members

Precast Concrete Beams

Straight Sheathing

Plywood Sheathing

Diagonal Sheathing

Precast Concrete Deck

Concrete Joists |

Concrete Plank I

Note if concrete topping slab Is used over metal decks or concrete

plank.

D-n
DC-9

Connection Details

Bolted

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers

Anchorage Floor to Walls

Type ti-ai/4.o»/'r' iS.B

Framing Decking To Framing

Spacing

Roof System

Frame

Concrete Beams

Steel Beams J

Steel Bar Joist \ \

Wood Beams I ^-"^ \

Wood Rafters

Deck

Concrete Flat Slab | | Metal Decking | j

Concrete Slab I 1

Concrete Joists

Precast Decking

Steel Truss | [ Wood Truss I I

No Framing Members \_

Precast Concrete Beams or Tees

Concrete Waffle Slab

Plywood Sheathing

Diagonal Sheathing

Straight Sheathing I I

Concrete Fill Yes [J No

D-12
/-DC- 10

Connection Details

Bolted

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers

Anchorage Roof to Walls

Framing Decking to Framing

lis

Type ^/s"^ree //eyfDe£> S£c/: /eeL£>fs^A*ci ^y»fe^>^

Spacing 4- - O" o •

D. NONSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Partitions

Type

Partial Height

Full Height Floor- To-Ceiling

^

Floor To Floor

Movable

Composition

Typical Corridor

Lath and Plaster \ a^/ Woo p ^rao S

Gypsum Wallboard | 1

Concrete Block ]~ 1

Clay Tile | | Metal Partitions 1 1

)( Sroo yt/^CLS /A^ t/^/'^y^ SToMy A/^/l£o TO /^ATe^S '4^0

D-13
/-DC-11

2. Celling

Typical Room

Material

Acoustical Tile

Method of Attachment

Gypsum Board | | Plaster

Suspended j

| Metal Channels | 1^ \ Tee Bar Grid

Attached Directly to Structural Elements | |

Typical Corridor

Material

Acoustical Tile [ | Gypsum Board | | Plaster [] Method of Attachment

Suspended

\

\ Metal Channels [' >—' ] Tee Bar Grid |

I

Attached Directly to Structural Elements \

Light Fixtures

Typical Room

Recessed | | Surface Mounted | ] Pendant (Suspended) r' !

Typical Corridor

Recessed [""j--^

] Surface Mounted | j Pendant (Suspended) I 1

Mechanical Equipment

Location of Mechanical Equipment Room

Basement | | Other Floor

Roof r

"

' "1

Is Equipment Anchored to Floor?

Location of The Following Units

Liquid Storage Tank a/O/VC.

Cooling Tower

Which Floor /

No 0^ Yes Q

Air Conditioning Unit \/^/ji>/0<»<*^ c/f^ /rj
/- DC-12

Roofing

Description

Flat 0^ Arched Gabled If arched or gabled, sketch section.

Pitched Slope ( :12)

Parapet No Q Yes 0* Height ( ft. in.) Thickness ( /3 in.

)

Material MytSO*>//Z. V Special Anchorage or Bracing Yes [

[ No 0^

Type

Built-up gravel Gravel Q Asphalt or Wood Shingles Q

Clay Tile |~] Other Q

Windows

Type ^Zawea. ^rarzy. W4LL ^

Fixed Movable aTMS/^S

Frame Material:

Aluminum Q Steel \Pf Stainless Steel [^j Wood Q

Size: Average Size of Casing ( ft. x

*^^'ft77\ S^S^^^if^J^

Average Size of Glazing ( ft. in. x ft. in.)

How Casing is Attached to Structure

Bolted [_J Screwed LJ Clipped [_] Welded [_] Nailed [J

Glazing Attachment to Casing

Elastomeric Gasket Q Glazing Bead p""]^^ Aluminum or Steel Retainer Q

Other LJ

Gas Connection

Flexible Connection to Building Rigid Connection to Building

Automatic Shut-off None Unknown

INSPECTED BY

DATE

FIELD SUPERVISOR

D-15
C. EARTHQUAKE EVALUATION

The mortar on this building was picked with a knife and found to be soft

lime mortar. There was no ceiling in the upper story so the roof construction

could be seen. The type of roof anchorage could also be seen and it is as- sumed that the second floor anchorage is similar. A sketch was made of this

detail in the Data Collection Form.

It is noted that Wall D has no openings. This is probably a property

line wall. Wall C has only one opening. The other two walls have many

openings. A steel plate could be seen over the large windows of Wall A with

rivet heads, showing that this plate must be attached to a steel lintel beam.

The 1" diagonal roof sheathing indicates that the roof diaphragm is quite

flexible. There are no interior masonry walls, so the diaphragm must span

between exterior walls and will be unable to transfer any significant torsional

effects. The lateral loads then will be resisted by the exterior wall vertical elements and the lateral loads to each wall will be tributary loads. Thus,

the obviously critical wall will be Wall A in the lower story, where there are only four 17" x 28" brick piers. The difference in rigidity between Wall A and Wall C is noted in the Symmetry Rating.

The second floor diaphragm consists of both straight sheathing and diagonal sheathing. This combination produces a more rigid diaphragm than the

single diagonal sheathed roof. This is taken into consideration in the

rigidity ratings given on 1-Form FMA-2.

Some explanation of the ratings given for "Other Life Hazards" should be

given. Under "Partitions Other Than on Corridors and Stair Enclosures," a rating "A" has been given. On 1-DC-lO the partitions are noted to extend full

height floor to floor. This could be seen in the upper story and it is probable that this occurs in the first story.

The "Glass Breakage" item is rated "C." The large, front, plate glass

windows are very vulnerable. The casing has a projection that appears to be

embedded in the masonry. There is no provision for lateral movement in the

plane of the glass. Thus, it is anticipated that this glass would crack and

shatter if this building were subjected to a strong earthquake.

The "Ceiling" item is rated "B." There was no bracing found, but it is

probable that the metal channels are nailed to the wood girders.

D-1 6
"Light Fixtures" are rated "C." They are recessed and no special bracing

was noted.

The rating "X" for the cast stone ornamentation on Wall A is because the

anchorage is unknown.

A resume of the Field Evaluation is given on 1-Form FME.

D-17
/-FORM FMA-1

FACILITY NO. ^Xy^AiP6£ ^ SITE MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY V// '.

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

VERTICAL RESISTING ELEMENTS

General

Rating (GR) Symmetry

(S) Quantity

(Q)

Symmetry

Quantity

Rating (SQR)

Present

Condition

(PC)

Sub-Rating

Type E w (SRI)

TRANSVERSE LOADING

£ 4 2 z

LONGITUDINAL LOADING

e 4 / 3 / 2.0 2

NOTES: Symmetry- Quantity Rating (SQR) = -^-i2 PC Sub-rating SR-1TYPE

SQR +

3

A Steel Moment Resistant Frames

B Steel Frames - Moment Resistance Capability Unknown

C Concrete Moment Resistant Frames

D Concrete Frames - Moment Resistance Capability Unknown

E Masonry Shear Walls - Unreinforced

F Masonry or Concrete Shear Walls - Reinforced

G Combination - Unreinforced Shear Walls and Moment

Resistant Frames

H Combination - Reinforced Shear Walls and Moment

Resistant Frames

J Braced Frames

K Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Sheathed or Plastered

L Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Without Wood Sheathing

or Plaster

GENERAL RATING (GR)

Earthquake Wind

1

1

1 or

12

12 or

1

1

1 or

SYMMETRY (of Resisting Elements)

1 Symmetrical

2 Fairly Symmetrical

2 or 3 Sjnnmetry Poor

3 or 4 Very Unsymmetrical

NOTE: Add 1 (not to exceed 4) to each

rating if a high degree of vertical

non-uniformity in stiffness occurs. PRESENT CONDITION (of Resisting Elements)

QUANTITY (of Resisting Elements'!

1 Many Resisting Elements

2 Medium Amount of Resisting Elements

3 Few Resisting Elements

4 Very Few Resisting Elements

NOTE: If exterior shear walls are

at least 7 5% of building length,

this rating will be 1.

No Cracks, No Damage

Few Minor Cracks

Many Minor Cracks or Damage

Major Cracks or Damage.

NOTE: If masonry walls, note quality

of mortar - good or poor. If lime

mortar is poor, use next higher

rating.

D-18
FACILITY NO. £xAMPI- ^ / /-FORM FMA-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

HORIZONTAL RESISTING ELEMENTS

Type Rigidity

(R)

Anchorage &

Connections

(A)

Chords (C)

Sub -Rating

(SR2)

Longitudinal Transverse

Roof A t.5 z 4 4- 4.0

Floors A t.O z 4-

Note: Sub-rating SR2 = Largest of R^ A or C.

Type

A Diaphragm

B Steel Horizontal Bracing

Rigidity - Ratings

1. Rigid

1.5 Semi-rigid

2.0 Semi-flexible

2.5 Flexible

Anchorage and Connections - Ratings

1 Anchorage confirmed - capacity not computed, but probably adequate.

2 Anchorage confirmed - capacity not computed, but probably inadequate.

3 Anchorage unknown.

4 Anchorage absent.

Chords - Ratings

1 Chords confirmed, but capacity not computed.

2 Chords unknown, but probably present.

3 Chords unknown, but probably not present.

4 Chords absent.

D-19
/-FORM FMBo

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<

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D-20
FACILITY NO. Bx4'*lP^^ / /- FORM FMB-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

TYPE OF RISK RATING

Partitions Other Than on Corridors or Stair Enclosures A

Glass Breakage a

Ceiling s

Light Fixtures

Exterior Appendages and

Wall Cladding* X

X = Unknown

A description of some of the ratings for Exterior Appendages

and Wall Cladding are:

Description

Spacing of anchors appears satisfactory

Size and embedment of anchors satisfactory

Spacing of anchors appears to be too great

!Size and embedment of anchors appears

unsatisfactory

Anchorage unknown

Anchorage corroded or obviously loose

No anchorage

EARTHQUAKE GAS CONNECTION

Present Not Present Not Known

D-21
D. Wind Evaluation

The same Data Collection Form material is as applicable for wind evaluation as for earthquake. A basic wind speed of 100 miles per hour is assumed

with Exposure "B." Because of the light roof and its poor anchorage, and its

poor basic structural rating of 3, the "Effective Velocity Pressure Capacity"

is relatively low. The information necessary for evaluation of the structural

system is given with the earthquake evaluation on 1-Form FME. A resume of

the field evaluation is given in section D.2F.

D-22
/- FORM FMC'

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D-23
FACILITY NO. ^X^Ai PL^ / /-FORM FMC-2

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - WIND RATING

TYPE OF RISK RATING

Glass Breakage 3

Window Frame Anchorage e

Roof Panel Anchorage o

Wall Panel Anchorage

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages ><

A = Good; B = Fair; C = Poor; X = Unknown.

POTENTIAL MISSLES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

D-24 .
E . Tornado Evaluation

Evaluation of this structure utilizes the same Data Collection material

as for earthquake and wind. It is obvious that this building does not conform to the requirements of a Vault-Type structure. Because of the light

roof, its poor anchorage and its poor structural rating, the "Effective

Velocity Pressure Capacity" is very low (see 1-Form FMC-1) and the tornado

rating of the building as a whole is "very poor." The anchorage of the cast

stone ornamentation on the front of the building is unknown and rated "Fair."

As noted on the Data Collection Form, there is a lumber yard close by which

could be a source of danger from windblown debris. There is no basement

available as a storm shelter.

D-25
FACILITY NO. £X^M^^£ / I - FORM FMD

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

TORNADO RATING

EFFECTIVE UNIT VELOCITY PRESSURE

CAPACITY P^ (From FMC-1)

DOES BUILDING QUALIFY AS

A VAULT-TYPE STRUCTURE?

TORNADO RATING

BUILD ING-AS-A- WHOLE

Yes No

BUILDING-AS-A-WHOLE RATINGS

Vault Type Building - Good

Pj. = 40 p.s.f. or over - Fair

Pc = 20 to 40 p. s, f. - Poor

Pj, = Under 20 p.s.f. - Very Poor

HAZARD FROM WIND-BLOWN DEBRIS

Wall Cladding,

Appendages, or Glass

LOCATION TYPE

NOT

PRESENT RATING

Other

Potential

Debris Not Part of The

Building

WIND-BLOWN DEBRIS RATINGS

Not Present - Good

Small Quantity of Potential Hazard - Fair

Large Quantity of Potential Hazard - Poor

BASEMENT STORM SHELTER AVAILABILITY

Present Yes Q No 0^

Capacity

•k-k Suitability

Based on

15 sq. ft. per

person.

"See section

3.2E.

D-26
F. Resume

COMMENTS ON RATING RESULTS : (For resume of structural systems ratings,

see Form FME)

Earthquake

The Field Evaluation Method rates this building "Poor" for its ability to

resist an earthquake of MMI VII. It would probably have some structural damage

in an earthquake of MMI VI. The wood stud and plaster partitions would probably have little damage in an earthquake of MMI VI but would have some plaster damage in an earthquake of MMI VII, or greater.

The Other Life Hazards, such as the cast stone parapet ornamentation and

glass breakage, are rated "Unknown" and "Poor," respectively.

Wind and Tornado

This example rates "Very Poor" under the Field Evaluation Method for a wind of 100 mph wind velocity. Poor roof anchorage is a major factor in this

poor rating. The rating would be much better, of course, for winds of, say,

50 mph. Some glass breakage would be expected in the event of 100 mph winds

and the large window frames might be damaged.

The Field Evaluation of this example for Tornado would not ordinarily

be made where the evaluation for winds of hurricane intensity is "Poor,"

since the wind pressures from a "moderate" tornado are more severe. The

hazard of a nearby lumber yard is noted as a potential source of flying

missiles.

D-27
FACILITY NO ^X4MPL£ J /- FORM FME

FIELD EVALUATION METHOD

CAPACITY RATIOS - EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RATING

General Rating Sub-Rating Basic Structural Capacity

(GR) SRI SR2 Rating" Ratio""

EARTHQUAKE 4 4- 4

WIND 3 t.3 4 J.7 4.5

Basic Structural Rating = GR + 2 (Largest of SRI or SR2)

,

Capacity Ratio for wind shall be obtained from Form FMC-1. For earthquake,

the ratio is obtained from the Basic Structural Rating divided by the Intensity

Level Factor at the site as determined from the table below.

Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity Level Factor

VIII or Greater 1 VII 2 VI 3 V or Less 4

A description of Modified Mercalli Scale is included on table 3.3.

Capacity Ratio Rating

Capacity Ratio Rating (In Terms of Risk)

Less than 1.0 Good

1 through 1.4 Fair

1. 5 through 2.0 Poor

Over 2.0 Very Poor

0-28
D.3 EXAMPLE 2

A. Preamble

The building chosen for this example is a 6-story steel frame office

structure. Steel trusses clear-span the 54 feet building width. For this

example, as the plans and calculations were available, only the Approximate

Analytical Evaluation Method is used. Some of the pertinent plans follow.

The wind calculations were made for low wind pressures. The lateral resistance in the transverse direction is furnished by the truss-column and kneebraced column system acting as moment-resisting frames. In the longitudinal

direction, the columns and truss spandrels form a moment-resisting system.

The exterior walls are metal studs and plaster. The roof and floor system

utilize intermediate steel beams with metal deck and concrete topping.

B. Data Collection Form

The Data Collection Form containing Sheets 2-DC-l to 2-DC-12 has been

completed for the building in Example 2 and is included in this section.

D-29
e,U/LDlNG N° Z 5/V/

D-30
D-31
2/ Z' 54-0'

® © ® ®

fo^ use i/i/rti:

bUILDiNG N'' Z SA/r

3*" rt^J^U 6'"'' HOO^ PLAN 3

D-32
© ® ®

R oof FL fog iJS£ i^/r/if:

QU/LDIf^G A/' ^ 0 O f PL 4 N 4

D-33
(S>-

1

5

9-0

3-0'

II— _0-

-llaiil.

-L.

bUILDiNG N° Z £L E V ATI ON "A- 5 11

D-34
J...___L,_J.„.1.._I.__.L__,J.

/•O'js \//'0'Jl /S'3~ l4'-0' \ I4'0' .14'

2l'-0' \ /4'0

,

bU/LD/NG A/' ELEVATIONS 6

D-35
? * * ° ? ^ ^

fox. use i/^/r^ :

6U/L0//V0 /V" 2 5//^ ELEVATION "C" 7

D-36
^ - DC-1

GENERAL DATA

DATA COLLECTION FORM

NATURAL HAZARDS EFFECTS

(Extreme Winds, Earthquakes)

2. Building Name

4. City — '

'

7. Year Built

8. Date of Major Modifications or Additions, if any

9. Building Code Jurisdiction: City \PC CountyQ State Q Federal [[]

10. Latitude 11, Longitude

12. Current Bldg. Use 0 ^piC^ Orig. Bldg. Use ^/f^^S

13. Basement Yes No

No. of Stories Above Basement

14. Height of First Story /

15. Upper Story Height

Number of Basements /

(See also Item A23)

ft.

ft. Special Story Height A/ef/^S" ft.

16. Is the exterior of first story different from upper stories?

Street Front Side Yes No Other Sides Yes No

17. Approximate Roof Overhang Distance r>/ {> £ Side /\/&^&

18, Proximity to Adjacent Buildings: Sketch Below with North Arrow

North Side t^^n' South Side 7S' East Side 2^e>' West Side tOc'

Note Street or Alley Sides

To be filled in by Field Supervisor.

o

4J

— \

D-37
^-DC-2

19. Are plans available? If so, where obtainable jfn. g/V/ 7"^

Are original calculations available? VffS If so,

where obtainable S^6ffA/££^

Name of: Architect Engineer

Contractor

Regulatory Agency

20. Basic Building Plan

a. Sketch overall plan.

b. Locate shear walls, if any,

c. Locate main frames.

d. Locate expansion joints, if any.

e. Give approximate north arrow and label sides "A", "B", "C", "D" Show street or alley sides.

f. Note any common or party walls.

g. If plan changes in upper floors, sketch this plan and note level of

change.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

etc.

J2S-o"^ . 7S^YS (? zo'-o'-' /^a '-o

'

, ^P'^^

f=- j 1 I ] 1 I

a -tA

\]S ^:-'/?fO /.2,4J= 3/^/^c£ /^/^/iMf

D-38
;Z,- DC-3

21. Elevation of Exterior Walls.

Sketch: a. All openings or note pattern of openings.

b. Note exterior finish and appendages.

c. Note material of walls.

d. Major cracks or other damage. (Note if cracks are larger

at one end.

)

e. Note previously repaired damage.

f. Note any evidence of damage to cladding or appendages.

(Use additional sheet if necessary)

PL.

2""

A/orc: £KP£g/a/^ P/S//J-M- Pi^sPdK i/*JiPss aj^ep^^ise

L £ VATI ON "W" p/iCJt^^

pp. SQ

ST

—

P/zeCy^iP £a^^:/z£P^

£ 1 £VA Tf Of^ "3"
Z- OC-3A

1 \

I I

Nora: £xr^^/o/( /"//v/s//- /^i/t^rd^ d^y^ess

£ L £ V/1 r/o /</ "c

£ i£ V/} r/ O ^"O

D-40
Elevation of Interior Shear Walls. fVo^G:

Sketch: a. All openings,

b. Major cracks or other damage, (Note if cracks are larger

at one end,

)

c. Note any previously repaired damage.

D-41
Z — DC-5

23. Adaptability of Basement to Storm Shelter.

a. Floor Over Basement - Concrete Other

b. If concrete, give thickness Z'/z" COXJC. OVC-e. /^e" ST-'i.. O&CK,

c. Available Space (approximate) /O, SOO sq. ft.

d. Dangerous Contents. Storage of Flammable Liquids Q

Presence of Transformers or Other Dangerous Equipment [Tj^

Other Hazards

None

24. Is this a Vault- like Structure? Yes Q No \^

D-42
Z- DC-6

EXTERIOR WALL SUMMARY SHEET

Exterior Characteristics Side A Side B Side C Side D

Extensive Architectural

Ornaments or Veneer ,

WALLS

Metai Lurtain waii

Precast Concrete

Curtain Wall

Stone

Brick

Concrete Block

Concrete

Other

ST'I SrOo

For Concrete Block and

Brick, indicate

R for Running Bond

S for Stacked Bond

1

Condition of Wall 1 / I /

OPENINGS

-- 2rf/*^ C0 Percent of Open Area

per Story Z*'^ .a
 % 35%

1. No cracks, good mortar.

2. Few visible cracks.

3. Many cracks

4. Evidence of minor repairs.

5. Evidence of many repairs.

D-43
^- DC-7

B. SITE RELATED INFORMATION

1. Exposure

a. Centers of large city | | b. Very rough hilly terrain [ [

c. Suburban areas, towns, city outskirts, wood areas, or rolling terrain [ \ d. Flat, open country |

'

|

e. Flat coastal belts | | f. Other | 1

2. Topography

a. Building on level ground [ t-^^[ b. Building on sloping ground | |

c. Building located adjacent to embankment | |

*3. Geologic formation -

Location of known faults: Name - Miles

Miles

*5. Depth of water table ft. When measured:

*6. Depth of bedrock ~ ft.

'''7. Soil type "^^^^^^

(Month) (Year)

'8. Bearing capacity —^— p.s.f., or ' blows per inch

9. Proximity to potential wind-blown debris - Type Li/Aj 3 S Yj9f2,Z> Z^^^

Location /)/on.r

Distance ^ffC*

To be filled in by Field Supervisor.

D-44
Z - DC-8

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1. Material

Concrete Masonry Steel Wood

Vertical Load Resisting System

Frame | u-^" | Bearing Wall |_ Wall and Pilasters

For frame system, check one for typical column cross-section

Other

3. Lateral Load Resisting System

Masonry Shear Wall | |

Concrete Shear Wall | | Plywood Shear Wall I I

4. Floor System

Frame

Concrete Beams | |

Steel Beams C

Steel Bar Joist

Deck

Concrete Flat Plate

Concrete Flat Slab

Concrete Waffle Slab

Steel Deck | t-—' I

Wood Joists \_ Wood Plank f

Braced Frame V

Moment Resisting Frame | ^-"^^

Are resisting systems

symmetrically located? Yes No

Wood Beams

No Framing Members | ~

] Precast Concrete Beams ["" ~\

Straight Sheathing | j Plywood Sheathing | |

Diagonal Sheathing | |

Precast Concrete Deck I I

Concrete Joists | |

Concrete Plank | 1

Note if concrete topping slab is used over metal decks or concrete

plank.

D-45
Z. -DC-9

Connection Details

Bolted

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection

Nailed

Metal Hangers

Anchorage Floor to Walls

Framing Decking To Framing

Type ^UPPt.^ i^^L.oj sr£^L. p£<^K 'Sr££t' S£^^t

Spacing 3 S^^^T

Roof System

Frame

Concrete Beams [ ^

Steel Beams [ /-"^

Steel Bar Joist f

Wood Beams |

I

Wood Rafters | | Deck

Concrete Flat Slab [ | Metal Decking [ *"*

1

Concrete Slab | |

Concrete Joists \ \

Precast Decking 1 I

Steel Truss

Wood Truss Q

No Framing Members

Precast Concrete Beams or Tees

Concrete Waffle Slab |f

'

]

Plywood Sheathing | | Diagonal Sheathing | |

Straight Sheathing | 1

Concrete Fill Yes [7^ No Q]

D-46
2. - DC- 10

Connection Details

Framing Decking to Framing

Bolted I 1 1

Welded

Metal Clips

Wire Fastener

No Connection 1 I | |

Nailed I I f I

Metal Hangers | | I I

Anchorage Roof to Walls

Type PooOi,S W£CDjS Sr£^£C VSeJij r€> Sr££L. S^yfMS

Spacing 3 fi^a. 2>ea^4: S/^^^

NONSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Partitions

Type

Partial Height

Typical Corridor

IZZJ

Full Height Floor- To-Ceiling ["iii^

Floor To Floor

Movable | |

Composition

Lath and Plaster { ) Gypsum Wallboard | 1^—

Concrete Block \_ Clay Tile | |

Metal Partitions I 1

D-47
Ceiling

Typical Room

Material

Acoustical Tile | \ Gypsum Board [ | Plaster | Method of Attachment

Suspended [ \ Metal Channels ] [ Tee Bar Grid Q

Attached Directly to Structural Elements \ \

Typical Corridor

Material

Acoustical Tile [ \ Gypsum Board | | Plaster f"" Method of Attachment

Suspended \ \ Metal Channels

[

| Tee Bar Grid \_ Attached Directly to Structural Elements [ |

Light Fixtures

Typical Room

Recessed | \ Surface Mounted | | Pendant (Suspended)|I

Typical Corridor

Recessed |^ Surface Mounted | \ Pendant (Suspended)!^

Mechanical Equipment

Location of Mechanical Equipment Room

Basement | \ Other Floor [ | Which Floor

Roof I

Is Equipment Anchored to Floor? No Q Yes

Location of The Following Units

Liquid Storage Tank aJoa/E

Cooling Tower &e>o^

Air Conditioning Unit B^SBM^ ^^7"

D-48
Z - DC-12

Roofing

Description

Flat Arched Gabled Q If arched or gabled, sketch section.

Pitched Slope ( ^

:12)

Parapet NoQ Yes Height ( ^ ft. O in. ) Thickness ( Co in.)

Material ^<//> ^Ai^S. Special Anchorage or Bracing Yes []J No

Type

Built-up gravel Gravel Q Asphalt or Wood Shingles

Clay Tile Other

Windows

Type

Fixed [g-^ Movable Q

Frame Material:

Aluminum [T^ Steel Q Stainless Steel Q Wood Q

Size: Average Size of Casing ( 6 -o" ft. x (p'-Cp'' ft.)

Average Size of Glazing ( $ ft, ^ in. x ft. ^in.)

How Casing is Attached to Structure

Bolted Screwed Q Clipped Welded Nailed Q

Glazing Attachment to Casing

Elastomeric Gasket Q Glazing Bead 0^ Aluminum or Steel Retainer Q

Other

Gas Connection

Flexible Connection to Building @^ Rigid Connection to Building Q

Automatic Shut-off None Unknown \ [

INSPECTED BY -

DATE .

FIELD SUPERVISOR -

D-49
C . Earthquake Evaluation

The building had been designed for earthquake using the UBC criteria in

effect in 1957 for Zone 3. These criteria are different from UBC 1973. For

this reason, new calculations have been made.

For the purpose of this example, the building is assumed to be located

where it may be exposed to an earthquake of MMI 9.5. By entering this value

into the formula (2 log 52^ = -1.973 + .375 MMI) (see section 3.3B), the

for the site is determined to be 1.25. This Z^ factor is used for Z in the

UBC formula V = ZKCW (equation 14.1) for determining the base shear. The

total base shear is distributed to each level in accordance with equation

14-4 and 14-5 of UBC. These equations are F^ = .004V^P^^ and

(V - F )w h F^ = — . These symbols are defined in Section 2314(i).

E ^^•

i = l

Computations for this example have been limited to determining the proper

horizontal forces and their distribution, critical elements and critical stress

ratio. Overturning of the structure in the transverse direction has also

been checked using the resistance to overturning by the vertical loads as determined in the original calculations.

The penthouse is two stories high, but small in plan. In accordance with

the provisions in Section 2314(i) of the 1973 Uniform Building Code the penthouse is treated as a separate structure. Its horizontal reactions are applied to the roof of the main building.

Since this structure has a 100% moment-resistant frame, a K factor of

0.67 is used for the base shear computation.

The dead loads used for W were taken from the original calculations,

after checking for reasonable compliance with the actual structure.

The horizontal loads in a N-S direction for Column Lines 3 and 4 are illustrated on calculation sheet 2-AM-E3. On Line 3 the frame columns bend

about their strong axis and on Line 4 about their weak axis. The first story

columns of Lines 3 and 4 were selected as the most critical members by

reviewing the original calculations. These columns had the highest stress

. . / computed stress \

\ allowable stress /

*

D-50
The first story columns, because of their height, normally would be suspect in any case. Similarly, a check of the original calculations for the

clear span steel trusses indicated that the stresses at the ends of the trusses

from lateral force moments could be safely increased in the order of 25%.

Therefore, these trusses were not considered to be the most critical elements.

The steel bents in this structure receive lateral forces in proportion

to their relative rigidities. In this example some bents are more rigid than

others, depending on the direction the columns are oriented. The original

calculations computed the story-to-story deflections for a unit load. The

reciprocal of this is a measure of the relative rigidity. After these relative rigidities are determined, the horizontal force at each level is distributed to the bents as shown on calculation sheet 2-AM-E-3. The method of

distribution, in principle, is illustrated in detail in the example of a twostory structure in section 4.4.

The concrete and metal deck diaphragm used here is considered to be a rigid diaphragm. As such it will deliver torsional loads to the vertical

elements. The center of mass and the center of rigidity for each level are computed. The eccentricity between these two centers produces torsional

rotation. This results in forces to each bent being added or subtracted to

the transl ati onal forces. This computation had been made on the original

computations. Since fo-r this example only the magnitude of lateral forces

has been increased, the effects of torsion can be directly factored, which

are shown on the diagram on calculation sheet 2-AM-E3. The method of computing the effect of torsion is illustrated in detail in the example of a twostory structure in section 4.4.

The code criteria upon which the original design was based, included a

J factor which reduced the axial loads caused by overturning.. This old

equation was J = T=r For this example, J was 0.72. The 1973 UBC criteria

omits this J factor. Except for this, the bending moments and axial loads

due to overturning could have been directly factored from the original cal

culations. This made it necessary to recompute the effect of overturning.

This is shown on calculation sheet 2-AM-E3.

D-51
The first story column on Line 3 was first checked for combined axial and

bending stresses and the stress ratio determined. These are shown on Sheets

2-AM-E4 and D-5. It is noted that the columns on Line 3 are oriented in the

strong direction to resist north-south lateral forces. The combined stresses

in the columns on Line 4 are checked on calculation sheet 2-AM-E6. These are oriented in the weak way for resisting north-south lateral forces. The stress

ratio for Line 4 columns is higher than that for Line 3 columns. Thus, this

becomes the critical stress ratio.

The adequacy of the diaphragm had been determined in the original calculations. Because of the comparatively short spans involved, the margin of

safety was quite large and adequate even for these larger seismic forces.

For this reason, no diaphragm calculations are included in this exampe.

Because of the light weight of the metal stud and plaster walls, the

earthquake forces normal to the walls are very small. Wind would govern the

design of these walls. Thus, no computations have been shown in this example

for earthquake. In the original calculations the interior partitions were required to resist a 5 psf force normal to the walls. As the original calculations made showed these to be adequate, a stress ratio of <1.0 was given.

Tne metal sun shades are very light and therefore, wind governs the

design of these elements and no earthquake computations aVe made. For this

reason, the critical stress ratio for these elements for earthquake is listed

as <1 .0.

From the limited number of calculations necessary for this example, it is

obvious that the availability of the original calculations saved a great deal

of time in the analysis of this structure even though the earthquake forces

are of a different magnitude and the overturning criteria changed.

D-52
OG-S/GjXJ C/Z/TG-za/A

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D-53
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D-54
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D-55
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D-55
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D-57
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D-58
FACILITY NO. G-X^M/=*i.C- ^ FORM AMA-1

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

BUILDING DESIGNATION:

Type of

Frame

Type of

Diaphragm

Modified

Mercalli

Intensity

Z

c

Critical Elements Critical

Stress

Ratio

(fe/fa) Type Location

A Z'/z"CQJUC. /. 2S COL..

TYPE A Steel Moment Resistant Frames

B Steel Frames - Vertical Load Carrying Only

C Concrete Moment Resistant Frames

D Concrete Frames - Vertical Load Carrying Only

E Masonry Shear Walls - Unreinforced

F Masonry or Concrete Shear Walls - Reinforced

G Combination - Unreinforced Shear Walls and Moments Resistant Frames

H Combination - Reinforced Shear Walls and Moment Resistant Frames

J Braced Frames

K Wood Frame Buildings/ Walls Sheathed or Plastered

L Wood Frame Buildings, Walls Without Wood Sheathing or Plaster

M Other

Zg = Zone factor determined for site from Modified Mercalli Intensity.

Zp = Zone factor from Code.

NOTE: For rating of Structural Systems, use Form AME.

D-59
FORM AMB-1

I

<

Q

O

H

<Ol-H H

Ws < i-l H

X V] O

Oi Q

o rt

n) (0 Qj

S

<4-l O

(U H(J o O U C O

o

01O O c o oo CO c

0) o

Pi u

o

a. 4-1 jj n w 0)

I CO M

4-1 o o

rH OJ C

•H !-l O H PLi O

i

0

V

3

—I nJ

0) 1—

0) 04

4-1

COd 0)

4-1 U

CO U)to o cu o O -H

X

^ cn o M

l-( r-4 o O

D-60
FACILITY NO. G->r^M/='LG' Z FORM AMB-2

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE RATING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING*

Partitions Other Than on Corridors or Stair Enclosures

< AO CrOOO

Exterior Appendages and Wall

Cladding

< l.O CfOO/D

Ceiling juor &/z^G/> /=>oo/a

Light Fixtures UUJ&^y^CGr> CGiLlAJCj

See Form AME - Rating of Critical Stress Ratios.

D-61
D. Wind Evaluation

It is assumed that the structure is located where it will be subjected to

a basic wind speed of 90 miles per hour. Exposure "B." This gives a larger

wind force on the building than was used in the original calculations.

The computations for this example have been carried only so far as to

determine the forces on the building as a whole and determine the critical

element and the critical stress ratio. The lateral force distributions have

been pro-rated from the original calculations. The contributions of vertical

loads are those in the original calculations.

The wind forces qp are taken from table 5, Exposure B, ANSI 1972 for a Basic Wind Speed of 90 miles per hour for the various height levels of the

building. These are shown in the tables on calculation sheet 2-AM-3 where

the forces are given for each level. The qp values are multiplied by 1.3

to be in accordance with table 7 of ANSI for the effect of both windward and

leeward pressures on the building as a whole. This is done for both northsouth and east-west directions. Because of the greater exposure to northsouth winds, this wind direction is the most critical.

The relative stiffness of bents, centers of rigidity and wind forces had

originally been computed for lesser wind forces and for a different vertical

distribution. However, the center of wind loads at each level was nearly the same and the small differences in eccentricity were considered negligible.

Therefore, that portion of the wind load at any level going to any bent could

be obtained by a direct ratio of loads. The diaphragm was considered to be

rigid for distribution of lateral forces.

The original calculations were checked to find which elements had the

highest stress ratios (design stresses/allowable) under combined vertical and

lateral loads. Since the vertical loads are the same as for the original

calculations, variations in the lateral forces alone will vary the stress

ratios but not in direct proportion. However, these stress ratios from the

original design calculations serve as a very good clue.

The highest stress ratios in the original calculations occurred in the

first story columns in Lines 3 and 4. There was considerable margin of safety

in the horizontal trusses and their end connections so these were not investigated. A check was made, however, on the fourth story column on Line 3 which in the original calculations had the highest stress ratio in the upper

stories.

D-62
The stress ratio for the new wind load criteria was found to be highest

for the first story columns on Line 4 and these are the critical elements for

the building as a whole.

The adequacy of the exterior steel stud and plaster walls was checked at

the penthouse where the wind load was the highest and the vertical span of

the studs the greatest. This computation is shown on calculation sheet

2-AM-W9.

Computations for uplift on the roof were not made because the uplift

forces are less than the dead load, as indicated in the original calculations.

The precast concrete panels are attached to the steel frame in such a manner as to permit lateral sway of the frame. For normal loads, the panels

are attached to the lower flanges of the spandrel beams with clip angles and

5/8"0 bolts at 3 ft centers. These connections were designed for a 15 psf

wind which at this first story level is greater than the wind force the

structure is being checked for. For this reason, the stress ratio given is

simply <1 .0.

The exterior architectural fins or screens are anchored by complicated

steel details to the main frame. Since the upper stories of this building

were designed for a 20 psf wind pressure which is approximately the same criteria for which the building is being checked, no additional calculations

are made and the stress ratio for "Anchorage of Exterior Appendages" is

noted as <1 .0.

D-63
PC-JUTHOUSC- /ZOO/=- - 91 /o.S.-P

/^G-JUY!-/OUSC=- F-C^oa/Z. = I03 - UJCLUDIXJC, J-^G-CNAJU/C/f^L

•7 -Tf^ r-COO/Z fOZ " >U^/>C/ /ZOOf^ - 75 "

'Z'^'=' YO (^^'^ J=^COO/ZS - 73 " COW /ZOOf^ = 75 >' LIVG- LOADS

JZOOr-S - 20/D.S.P.

r-cao/zs - so " TA/<? fDC-A/D AjUn Cri/C- COAn AXiAL. LOA/DS AAJjO AytOMG-AJTS

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CGc-WA/zn WACL = o.s

TOTAL. nGSfChAJ W/JUO = 1-3

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)

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D-64
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1.3% --F/^^SS(//ZC- OJUfSJlLDUJC,

D-65
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D-66
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D-67
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D-68
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D-69
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aocux^j^ w/<f- X /so

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D-70
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D-71
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D-72
FORM AMCO M H • MH I >-i

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D-73
FACILITY NO. EXAMPLG- Z FORM AMC-2

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - WIND RATING

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

•k Glass Breakage

Glazing COMFLiAA/C6-

Window Frame Anchorage <t.O C7OOO

Wall Cladding Anchorage </.o QOOO

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages </.o CjOOD

Exposed Walls L 7/ POO/Z

Canopies and Eaves Ji/OJJ&

* POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

JJOAJGSee Instructions for ratings.

CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

< 1.0 Good

1.0 to 1.5 tair

> 1.5 Poor

D-74
E. Tornado Eval uati on

The design forces for tornado for this example are direct horizontal wind

pressures of 80 psf on the windward side and 50 psf on the leeward side. The

uplift pressure on the roof and horizontal surfaces is 172 psf. The basis of

this criteria for moderate resistance to tornadoes is explained in section 3. 3D.

This building has a moment-resisting steel frame available to resist lateral forces. Calculations were available for earthquake and for a lesser wind

pressure. Calculations are made for the tornado forces at each level.

Original calculations show a distribution of horizontal forces to the individual bents based on relative rigidities. This same distribution (percentage

of total load to a bent) is used for tornado forces.

The critical members as determined from the original wind computations

were the first story columns on Line 4. This bent has columns oriented the

weak way in resisting north-south lateral forces. A load diagram is shown

for this bent and the corresponding bending moments in the columns are computed. The axial loads for overturning are also computed and the vertical

loads are taken from the original calculations. These have been checked and

found to be reasonably accurate. The columns are checked for combined

stresses and the stress ratio computed. The allowable stresses are based on plastic design criteria.

The uplift on the roof could be critical since this exceeds the dead

load. The roof trusses are braced only at mid-point and the capacity of the

lower chords to take compression checked. One intermediate penthouse roof

beam is also checked for uplift. For uplift on the total building it was found that sufficient dead loads are provided by the roof, sixth and fifth

floors so that no net uplift occurs below the fifth floor.

The "Other Life Hazards" have not been calculated. The glazing, wall

cladding, exterior appendages, window frames, and their anchorages are satisfactory for the usual heavy winds, but for positive and negative pressures

more than twice that of most winds considerable damage should be expected.

The horizontal portion of the projecting canopies at floor levels is supported by steel sections cantilevered from the main steel frame and probably

would not become airborne.

D-75
The exterior steel studs of the penthouse would be expected to fail in a tornado since the stress ratio for wind analysis was high.

Reference is made to section 3.3D where these items are discussed in

greater detai 1

The metal deck anchorage is checked for uplift. There is no accepted

value for tension on puddle welds of this type, but it appears reasonable to assume that this tension value would be approximately equal to the shear

value.

D-76
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D-77
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D-78
TO/ZAJ^OO AXJ/^LVSfS

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,

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D-79
TO/ZJJy^OO AXJALVS/S'

A-y SYC-G-L. F-<j = 33 K.s.f. A - S9. 39°

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/Ap^ = X : 39/ x33 - /?, 902'"^ Mpy = 193 x33 - S<?-

D-80
fi>C-JUr:>/JUC-7 x^OA^G-Jwrs

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. ^/3 -h 3 SS (23.^ >: /e )

. <S 5- (?<^ + /03'S)x /2

D-81
uPL/F-r co/£\n - /7? /^.s.-P ^Jer uPL//=-r = iv2 - 9/ = si /o.s.

Sr/ZG-SS /Z^IQj;^.j^^ ^ r.oos

T^L/3S MOMGJUT' ^.097;k?0 = 707^^^ LOVrG/Z Cf/O/^D FOJZCG --^--fS?"

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?. Z5 V

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D-82
UJ='C^//=^T OJU ^r'GG-L, /Z<:>€?/=' /DG-aJ<L

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D-83
FACILITY NO. ^>VW^/^^6^ Z FORM AMD-1

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

RATING FORM - TORNADOES

SYSTEMS CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS*

SYSTEM

Roof

Roof Anchorage < /.o

Floor

Floor Anchorage II It

Vertical Resisting Element 2. 3

Anchorage to Footings </.o

Footings <L/.0

Use highest Critical Stress Ratio.

For Structural Systems Rating - Tornado, see Form AME.

= Capacity required to resist tornado forces.

= Capacity based on design criteria.

D-84
FACILITY NO. 2 FORM AMD

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

OTHER LIFE HAZARDS - TORNADO RATING - h/oT (taA^^dT^O

TYPE OF RISK CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

Glass Breakage*

Glazing*

Window Frame Anchorage

Wall Cladding Anchorage

Anchorage of Exterior Appendages

Exposed Walls

Canopies 6e Eaves

POTENTIAL MISSILES FROM OUTSIDE OF STRUCTURE

TYPE QUANTITY DISTANCE

*See Instructions for ratings.

CRITICAL STRESS RATIO RATING

< 2.0 Good

2.0 to 3.0 Fair

> 3.0 Poor

D-85
F . Resume

Earthquake

This building has been evaluated for an earthquake of MMI 9.5 which is

quite severe. It rates "Fair" in its capacity to resist this earthquake and

would rate "Good" for earthquakes of lesser intensity.

The Stair and Exit Enclosures rate "Good" for earthquake. Except for the

unbraced ceilings and light fixtures, the Other Life Hazards are rated "Good."

Mind

This building has been evaluated for a Basic Wind Speed of 90 mph with

Exposure "B." The Structural Systems rating is "Fair." The Other Life

Hazards are rated "Good" except the high steel stud penthouse walls which

are rated "Fair." No potential wind blown missiles were noted near this

site.

Tornado ...

This building has been evaluated for moderate resistance to Tornado

using an uplift force of 172 psf on the roof and a direct horizontal force

of 130 psf on the building as a whole. Ultimate capacities were used for f^

values. The highest stress ratio was found to be in the first story column

on Line 4. The fy/^, ratio is 2.3 and the rating for Tornado is "Fair."

Other Life Hazards from Tornado were not calculated in this example,

but from experience and judgment it is probable that a good deal of glass

would be lost and that there would be considerable damage to exterior metal

stud and plaster walls and the exterior appendages.

It is noted that the Tornado rating of "Fair" is the same as that for

Wind, even though the Tornado forces are much greater than the Wind forces.

This is because consideration is given to the short duration of Tornado

forces and the probability that Tornado forces will not act on all of the

building at the same time with the same intensity.

The calculations show that the metal deck will not be stripped off due

to the Tornado suction. However, little is known about the bond of concrete

to metal decks and it is probable that some of the concrete fill would be

stripped from the metal deck.

D-86
The attachment of the roofing felts to the concrete could not be determined from the plans and specifications. If not unusually well mopped down,

it is possible that the roofing would be stripped from the concrete topping

if subjected to suction forces from a tornado.

D-87
FACILITY NO. (rXAM/^L£- g FORM AME

APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL METHOD

CRITICAL STRESS RATIOS - STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Critical Stress Ratio Rating

Earthquake

Wind A /

Tornado Z.3

RATING OF CRITICAL STRESS RATKDS

Critical Stress Ratio Earthquake or Wind Tornado

Less than 1.0 Good Good

1 to 1.5 Fair Good

1.5 to 2.0 Poor Good

2.0 to 3.0 Very Poor Fair

3.0 to 4.0 Very Poor Poor

Over 4.0 Very Poor Very Poor

D-88
D.4 EXAMPLE 3

A. GENERAL DISCUSSION

This example is a building simulation to demonstrate in the most simple

fashion the manner in which buildings having irregularities in dynamic characteristics will be analyzed for earthquake resistance using the Approximate

Analytical Evaluation Method. A portion of a long 4-story building is assumed

to have moment-resistant frames in both directions. The building is also as- sumed to have shear "walls as a primary shear resisting system above the

second floor in the transverse direction.

In order to determine the equivalent size of force input to evaluate

05 the building, it is assumed that the 1 973 UBC base shear factor C = ^-7=^

for a building with uniform dynamic characteristics can be approximated by

a single degree-of-f reedom spectrum of S^ = ^7=^ ~ O.lOg. In other words,

V Tm

if the modal responses of a dynamically uniform building to the empirical

single degree-of-f reedom spectra are combined by the method of the square

root of the sum of the squares, the resulting multi-degree of freedom

response will be approximately that specified in 1973 UBC. If other spectra

are determined as being appropriate for comparison with code design resistances (see section 3.4), these may also be used. The example is carried

out to the point of indicating the shears and moments to be used for

evaluation.

D-89
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D-90
3'

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D-91
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EXAMPLE 4 PROGRAM FRESH

FREQUENCY AND MODE SHAPES BY INFLUENCE COEFF.

INPUT DATA

DIAGONAL MASS MATRIX

.'+0373 .57971 . 57971

FLEXIBILITY MATRIX

.tt623E-02 .4623E-02

.4623E-02 .46576E-02

.%23E-02 .'+6576E-02

.4623E-02 .i+6576E-02

.5176

.it623E-02 .4623E-02

.%576E-02 .1+61+76E-02 .'+6922E-02 .46922E-02

.%922E-02 .tt7268E-02

ASSUMED SHAPES FOR DESIRED MODES

.99 1.026 1.099 1.21

.995 .^71 -.85 -2.276

.998 -.395 -.958 2.191

1 -1 1 -1

D-92
3-ef

OUTPUT

MODE NO. 1 FREQUENCY= 10.1583

NORMAL COORDINATES

RAD/SEC.

19 ITERATIONS

l.OOOOOOOE+00

2.00853'+7E-15

1. 10863'+1E-15

2.2389059E-16

MODE SHAPE

. 98826599

.99W3791

.99815195

1

2 0 ITERATIONS

l.OOOOOOOE+00

2. 00853'+7E-15

1.10863'+1E-15

2.2389059E-16

<<<<<<>>>>>>

MODE NO. 2 FREQUENCY= 188. 76^+9 NORMAL COORDINATES

RAD/ SEC.

19 ITERATIONS

4.2399100E-13

l.OOOOOOOE+00

1.8948193E-13

l.tt337807E-14

MODE SHAPE

1.0^+93652

.53^+89924

-.36186'+31

20 ITERATIONS

tt.2399100E-13

l.OOOOOOOE+00

1.8948193E-13

1.4337807E-lit

<<<<<<>>>>>>

MODE NO. 3 FREQUENCY= 336.9828

NORMAL COORDINATES

RAD/SEC.

19 ITERATIONS

1.2tt73371E-07

3.6632386E-07

l.OOOOOOOE+00

3.2633389E-06

MODE SHAPE

1.2316926

-.71291092

1.0336953

1

20 ITERATIONS

1.2tf7'+247E-07 3.663'+957E-07

l.OOOOOOOE+00

3.2635679E-06

<<<<<<>>>>>>

D-93
MODE NO. h FREQUENCY^: t+22. 0058

NORMAL COORDINATES

RAD/ SEC.

19 ITERATIONS

3.8224t+L2E-02

1. 122537'+E-01

1.4099453E-01

l.OOOOOOOE+00

MODE SHAPE

1.6497059

-2.'+419968

2.1894015

-1

<<<<<<>>>>>>

RUN COMPLETE.

2 0 ITERATIONS

3.8224412E-02

1. 1225374E-01

1.4099453E-01

l.OOOOOOOE+00

f^OAi coMFor£fi OUTPUT r/f£ /^/?£^0£^U5(ra^/i.7is/sfc)are

it. ^4

8) SP£CT/?AL MOJ^M /i/V^LYSIS

D-94
3-£6

r-ff, r /^£}r(//^ffi pB/?Joo /y Moo£

5^^-/=" H/JS 6££^ c/i/?j?jep oor er ^ compute/?

EXAMPLE 4

FLEXIBILITY MATRIX

4 .62300E-03

4 .62300E-03

4 .62300E-03

4 .62300E-03

4 .62300E-03

4.65760E-03

4.65760E-03

4 .65760E-03

4 .62300E-03

4 .65760E-03

4 .69220E-03

4 .69220E-03

4 .62300E-03

4.65760E-03

4.69220E-03

4.72680E-03

>>RESPONSE TO MODE NO. 1 SPECTRAL ACCELERATION 26.140 IN. /SEC. /SEC.

LEVEL

4

3

2

HX(IN)

144

144

144

144

WX(K)

156

224

224

200

PX

1.000

.998

.994

.988

FX(K)

10.6

15.2

15.2

13.4

VX(K)

10.6

25.8

41 .0

54.4

OTM(IN-K)

1529

5248

1 1 149

18988

DEFL(IN)

.2543

.2540

.2531

.2516

D-95
3'£7

>>RESPONSE TO MODE NO. 2

SPECTRAL ACCELERATION 36.640 IN. /SEC. /SEC.

LEVEL

4

3

2

1

HX(IN)

144

144

144

144

WX(K)

156

224

224

200

FX

-1«000

-.362

.535

1 .049

FX(K)

-3.1

-1.6

2.4

4.1

VX(K)

-3.1

-4.7

-2.3

1 .8

>>RESPONSE TO MODE NO. 3

SPECTRAL ACCELERATION 38.640 IN. /SEC, /SEC.

LEVEL

4

3

2

1

HX(IN)

144

144

144

144

WX(K)

156

224

224

200

PX

1 .000

-1.034

-.713

1 .232

FX(K)

.2

-.3

-*2

.3

VX(K)

.2

-.1

-.3

.0

OTU(IN.K)

-443

-1117

-1450

-1187

OTII(IN.K)

31

16

-30

•^8

OEFL(IN)

.0081

.0082

.0084

,0085

DEFL(IN)

.0001

.0001

.0001

.0001

>>RESPONSE TO MODE NO. 4

SPECTRAL ACCELERATION 38.640 IN . /SEC . /SEC

VEL HX(IN) WX(K) PX FX(K) VX(K) OTM(IN-K) DEFL(IN)

4 144 156 -1 .000 -.6 -.6 -85 ,0020

3 144 224 2.189 1 .9 1,3 97 ,0021

144 224 -2.442 -2.1 -.8 -19 .0020

1 144 200 1 .650 1 .2 .4 45 .0020 —SUMMARY

LEVEL ROOT OF SUM OF THE SQUARES ABS SUM OF TWO LARGEST MODE

NO SHEAR(K) OTM(IN-K) DEFLdN) SHEAR(K) OTM(IN-K) DEFL(IN)

4 11.1 1594 .2545 13.7 1972 .2624

3 26.3 5366 .2541 30.5 6365 .2622

2 41.1 11243 .2532 43.3 12600 .2614

1 54.5 19025 .2518 56.3 20175 .2601

RUN COMPLETE.

0-M
COM^UTB/? OOTPUT A/or/jT/OA/S

/^x A/^r£/?/fi £o/fce /)ppij£ii rorp£ ploo/^ C^n^iC)

Vx -- ror/9/. LPTSfiPL 6H£Pf? /}! 7/Y£ PlOO/i

D£PL =D£PjL£CrJ0rY T/YS PlOO^ WJ7H /^£5PeCT TO T//£ SASB

9j CH£Cf< S^£/f/? miL

- Fsj over c/piTic/n

)

D-97
JO) CH£Cf<. y//4>^04 COWMA/

3 '/ // ft - 6 8

b"^ (^jCf 20, zc +60,5*10 tm^ao ^100^20)//ooo r 5^

ffoof (30^20 fso, 5)//00a = riOe/esCf^jS^ Z'^J -31.20 (20,20*20.5) - ^O*"

'60 A5J^

fry 3.02 TT^-TTT-'^^'^

D-98
^-£10

^ 3SH) :r/.206 <J'^S^ C'K

/I) /^^ ^ro/er j^/^j/^t {/^ssum£ a coiumi/^ /^s 6ujd£.p c/)/^TU£)f£/?s)

D-99
D.5 BUILDINGS USED TO DEMONSTRATE THE DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD

A. Earthquake Damage Evaluation Buildings

The buildings used in these example problems are each described in detail in [D.l]. Six general structural types have been studied. The types

are: (1) Moment Resisting Steel Frame, (2) Braced Steel Frame, (3) Moment

Resisting Concrete Frame, (4) Concrete Shear Wall, (5) Concrete Frame with Infill Walls and (6) Masonry Load Bearing, Since the damage in each of these

buildings is to be evaluated for the San Fernando Earthquake -- February 9,

1971, each section presents a brief qualitative summary of building damage.

Steel Frame Building - Moment Resisting

This steel building is described in [D.l] in a technical paper by

William E. Gates entitled Building Report No. 32. The paper presented the

results of a detailed analytical model of the building and compared the calculated dynamic response with that recorded on strong motion instruments

during the San Fernando earthquake. Earthquake and ambient natural periods

for this building are available in [3.50] and [3.51].

Building No. 32 is a 16 story office building. A typical floor plan is

shown in figure D.l with North-South and East-West elevations shown in

figure D.2. The vertical load carrying system is a three-dimensional steel

space frame. Lightweight concrete slabs are used in composite construction

with the beams of the frame to support the floor loads and to form a rigid

floor diaphragm under lateral forces. The four frames around the perimeter

resist all lateral forces as moment resisting frames. The frames are con- structed from deep welded plate girders and standard wide-flange columns.

All connections are full moment connections obtained by welding the girder

flanges and web to the column.

Estimated cost of the building when constructed in 1970 was four milIfan dollars. The building is located in the San Fernando Valley and is

approximately 17 miles from the February 9, 1971 San Fernando earthquake

epicenter. Soil site conditions are mainly clayey sands and silty sands.

The building rests on Raymond step-tapered piles averaging 54 feet in

length. Peak ground acceleration in the longitudinal and transverse directions during the San Fernando earthquake were 13.2 and 15.3 percent

gravity, respectively. Corresponding peak roof accelerations were 22.0 and

23.1 percent, respectively.

D-lOo
D-101
PENTHOUSE

27' 6 27' 6" 27' 6"

BRACING 2-1/2 x 1/4|bAR--X<(

ROOF

'

17

16

14

11

12_

li

10_

9

8

SHEAR WALL ON LINE 20

21 ' 2"

13' 6"

CO

RO

CO

<Sj

</) O

O

111

0"

111' 0"

11 ' 0"

GROUND

21' 0"

a BASEMENT

12' 8"

1

' 0 1

LEGEND:

ITPINNED CONNECTION

t COLUMN SPLICE

STRONG MOTION INSTRUMENT

Figure D-2a North-South Frames on Lines '5' and '20'-

Building No. 32

D-102
165' 0"

27' 6' 27' 6" 27' -6" 27' 6" 27' 6 27' 6"

PENTHOUSE

BRACIN(^

2-1/2 X 1/4 BAR

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

GROUND

MENT

ffl H H H H

LEGEND:

KPINNED CONNECTION

+ COLUMN SPLICE

STRONG MOTION INSTRUMENT

21' 2"

ROOF

=1: *O

CO

13' 6"

CO

o

3^ O

;ir 0"

:ii' 0"

(ir 0"

21 •

12' 8"

Figure D.2b East-West Frames on Lines "C and 'G' Building No. 32

D-103
The following conclusions are quoted from the paper by William E,

Gates

" 1. Calculated first mode, dynamic force response exceeded current 1970 Uniform Building Code seismic force values by 70%

in the North-South direction, and by 120% in the East-West

direction.

2. The envelope of dynamic maximum force response exceeds current code design forces by an average value of 110% in the

North-South direction, and by 170% in the East-West direction.

3. Maximum stress levels in 30% of the members in the North-South

frames were calculated to have exceeded yield values at least once during the earthquake. In the East-West direction, 80%

of the lateral force resisting members were calculated to have

exceeded initial yield stress.

4. Columns reached initial yield stress before the girders.

5. The general performance of the structure was linear-elastic

with only minor lengthening of building periods during the

earthquake.

6. A significant portion of the maximum building response was in

the second and third modes. In fact, the story forces produced

by the second and third modes exceeded the first mode values in

both of the horizontal directions of building motion.

7. Structural damping was found to vary from mode to mode with the

higher damping values associated with the longer period or fundamental modes.

8. The office tower and adjacent parking structure are known to have

impacted at the 5th floor level during major North-South building

motion. This was evident by the marks left from building pounding at the seismic separation.

9. The influence of local soil conditions upon the ground motions

recorded at the site was distinctly evident in the North-South

response spectrum. Site amplification effects would have easily

doubled the forces produced by this earthquake in a building

constructed at the site with a fundamental period of 1.7 seconds.

10. Vertical roof accelerations equaled the horizontal acceleration,

indicating that vertical amplification of ground motion can be

significant.

11. No structural damage occurred during the earthquake. Nonstructural damage to drywall, seismic closures, and equipment

supports amounted to an estimated $3,000 in repairs or roughly

one cent per square foot of usable building space." [D.l]

Steel Frame Building -- Lateral Bracing

This building is described in [D.l] in a paper by Gary C. Hart entitled

Building Report No. 37. The building is located approximately 24 miles from

the San Fernando earthquake epicenter and is 19 stories above ground. There

are four parking levels below ground level and the foundation rests upon steel

piles averaging approximately 72 feet in depth. The building is located in

the southern California building complex known as Century City. The building

was built in 1967 at an estimated cost of 17 million dollars.

D-104
Figures D.3 and 0.4 show plan and elevation views of the building. Lateral forces are resisted in the East-West direction by four moment resisting

frames. However, in the North-South direction, five cross-braced steel frames

resist all lateral forces.

Peak basement accelerations in the longitudinal and transverse directions

during the San Fernando earthquake were recorded to be 17 and 14 percent of

gravity, respectively. Corresponding roof peak accelerations were 7 and 14

percent, respectively.

A detailed damage survey was carried out on this building after the

San Fernando earthquake, see [D.2] and table D.l.

Table D.l SAN FERNANDO EARTHQUAKE LOSS BUILDING NO. 37 [D.2}

I. OWNER INCURRED REPAIR COSTS

Repair three corner sofitts over podium

around building $ 761.00

Ground floor broken window replacement 113.00

Repair corridor vinyl wall covering damage 337.00

Ceiling Tile replacement, labor 969.00

Ceiling tile replacement, materials 2 , 000. 00

Subtotal 'Repair Costs (a) $4,180.00

II. OWNER INCURRED PAINTING COSTS

Stairwells $8,400.00

Suites 938, 1261, 1401, 540. 670, 1521, 1145 270.00

Suite 1800 250.00

Suite 1 500 35.00

Suite 750 480. 00

Suite 800 1 00.00

Suite 590 69.00

Subtotal Painting Cost (b) $9,604.00

TOTAL OWNER INCURRED NON-STRUCTURAL COSTS (a + b) $13,784.00

III. OCCUPANT INCURRED OFFICE CLEAN-UP COSTS $ 5,604.00

D-105
V 317' n-1/2"

no'-o

MOMENT RESISTING FRAMES

9 & ROOF INSTR

LOCATION

XXX

XXX

BSMT INSTR

LOCATION

MINOR AXIS

N46°W

Figure D.3 Typical Floor Plan - Building No.

D-106
PENTHOUSE ROOF

ROOF

20 th

19

18

17

16

I5_

14

12

11

10

ITd

INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

^ St

FLR.

FLR.

ELEVATOR MECH. FLR. tlO'e"

10'6"

o

CsJ

CO

<Sj CO

l2'0"

LEVEL "A"

LEVEL "B"

LEVEL "C"

LEVEL "D"

FLrT^ 19'0 "

3 @10'6"

=•31 '6"

INSTRUMENT LOCATIONS

0' 50'

SCALE-FEET

Figure D.4 Elevation of N46'W Frame -- Building No. 37

D-107
Concrete Frame Building -- Moment Resisting

Reference [D.l] contains a paper entitled Building No. 28 by John A. Blume and Associates which describes the earthquake response of a twelve

story reinforced concrete building to the San Fernando earthquake. The

building is located approximately 17 miles from the earthquake epicenter

and incurred repair costs of $44,000. Of this loss, approximately $12,000

was structural damage. It is to be noted that while not stated in the cited

paper the fourth through seventh floors were not occupied at the time of the

earthquake and hence no internal partitions existed. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that the nonstructural damage would exceed the amount re- ported if the building had been occupied. The building was constructed in

1970 at an approximate cost of $4 million.

Figures D.5 and D.6 show a typical plan and elevation view of the building. Typical floor construction consists of 4-1/2 inch slab on a 17-inch

deep pan-joist system, which spans from girder to girder. Lightweight con- crete is used for all floors and girders. Columns are rectangular and tied

and regular weight stone aggregate is used.

Besides the referenced study, an estimate of ambient, aftershock and

earthquake dynamic response parameters was reported in a paper at the Inter - national Conference on Microzonation , see [D.3].

The following conclusions are quoted from Building Report No. 28 [d> 1 ]

"(1) The building resisted the earthquake largely by inelastic means with local yielding of reinforcement and with cracking and localized spalling of column and girder concrete.

(2) The structural response of the building was non-linear and

cannot be well described or modeled by linear elastic

dynamic analysis techniques.

(3) Calculated earthquake forces were substantially greater than

prescribed code minimums. Calculated story shears were greater than 2.5 times code values, and calculated overturning moments were about 2.0 times code values with

J = 1 .

(4) Architectural damage was related to interstory displacements

and consisted largely of cracking, racking, and working of

partitions. Some mechanical equipment and building contents

were damaged by shaking alone.

(5) Structural dcimage did occur, but it was limited to cracking

and minor spalling of concrete. Yielding of reinforcement in

localized areas also occurred." [D.l]

D-108
-0- O- -DUJ o

3: z:

l-i I—< z

<C LlJ f- Q-O

z

—IQ

ID

1—

UJ e3

I— z — o

z: +-> o

o <:

CD a. o q:

Qc: o

I— o

oo ti: UJ • r- _j q:

I UJ o

(_> o

s: o _i

oo <: uN79W ^

TRANSVERSA

C3 O «C UJ

ZD ^ Q. Q O

'N79W

JiRANSVERSE

<:

Q. ZD

>- —1 H- O

O

CO oI—

X en

00 X

CD

o

I—

a.>-

CO

CM

I o

5 BAYS @ 12'0" = 60'0'

D-109
7

ROOF

STRONG MOTION

ACCELEROGRAPH

( PENTHOUSE

FLOOR)

12 th

n

th

10

th

,th

.th

7^^FL00R

th

th

th

2"^ FLOOR

8'4• A 11

in 7'0

CO

o

CO

CO

oco

o

_J

Ll_

GROUND FLOOR

Figure d.6 Typical Transverse Section - Building No. 28

D-no
Concrete Frame Building -- Shear Wall

Building Report No. 35 in [D.I] presents the seismic investigation of a high-rise building following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. Among the

instrumented buildings investigated following the San Fernando earthquake

and reported on in [D'l] this 14 story building was the only building with a lateral force resisting system composed of shear walls extending throughout

the full structural height. This building was constructed in 1966 at an es- timated cost of 3 million dollars. The price does not include tenant improvements. Nonstructural damage was estimated at $2,000. Mechanical repair

costs on the air conditioning chiller amounted to $30,000. There was no observed structural damage.

Figures D.7 and D.8 show plan and elevation views of the building. The

vertical load carrying system consists of reinforced concrete flat slabs supported by columns and bearing walls. These bearing walls also serve as shear

walls under lateral loads. All floor slabs are constructed from lightweight

concrete. Twelve inch thick shear walls comprise the lateral force resisting system. Stone aggregate concrete weighing 150 pounds per cubic foot was used for the shear walls.

On the basis of an elastic dynamic structural analysis described in

[D.i] the following conclusions were made:

"(1) Acceleration response in the North-South direction

was 50% greater than East-West.

(2) First mode damping in the North-South direction was estimated to be 5% while the East-West direction was

set at 7%.

(3) In the North-South direction maximum building displacements were 300% greater than those produced by

current code practice and design values. For EastWest displacement, the envelope of dynamic earthquake response was 80% greater than current code

design.

(4) The maximum story drift of 1/4 inch occurs between

the 8th floor and the roof for the North-South

direction.

(5) Comparing the envelope of dynamic maximum shear

response to code values, at ground level in the

North-South direction, enveloped shears are 70%

greater than code shears, while in the East-West

direction dynamic values are 30% greater than

static code shears.

(6) The general performance of the structure was linear-elastic with only minor lengthening of

building periods during the earthquake." [D.l]

D-1 1
o

00

o

CVi o

o

CM

t

o

CVJ

in

o

CM

o

CM

o

CM

O

CM

= 0

o

00

o

—1

<

1— 1—

o Qc: 2: 0

C3 _i

2: Ll_ 0 t—

OH 00

1— z: 4-> 1—

K£3

Lf) CO

CT>

-o

Q

smO ,6L !.o ,6l'

mO .9Z

mO ,6l'

0-112
121' 0"

^22' 6;^^22' 6"J^i9'oi^i9'o::^i9'o:^^i9'o:;^

TAPERED COLUMNS

AND BEAMS

(ROOF ONLY)

12' CONCRET E SHEAR WALL

ON LINE 'G'

SPANDREL FRAMES' SEISMIC

SEPARATION

ADJACENT

PARKING

GARAGE

PILE CAP

(TYPICAL)

00

CO

(Sj

</1 o

00

MECHANI CAL

ROOM ROOF

ROOF

E LEVATIO N 164.00'

PENTHO USE

12

11

10

n '0" -MEZZANINE

12'0"

GROUND

GRADE

BEAM

(TYPICAL)

SECTION A TRANSVERSE SECTION

AT LINE 'G'

BATTERED PILES

NOTE:

ALL PILES ARE RAYMOND

STEP-TAPER PILES

Figure D.8 Transverse Building Section - Building No. 35

D-1 13
Concrete Frame Building -- Infill Walls

Building Report No. 29 in [ 1 ] was authored by John A. Blume & Associates and describes the earthquake response of a concrete building. The re- ferenced paper conducted a detailed dynamical model of this seven story re- inforced concrete structure. Recorded San Fernando basement accelerograms

were input to an analytical model and the calculated building response

compared with recorded response.

Figures D.9 and D.IO show plan and elevation views of the building.

All lateral force resisting columns are regular weight reinforced concrete.

Spandrel beams surround the perimeter of the structure and reinforced con- crete flat slabs are used -- typically 8 inches thick. Interior partitions

are gypsum wallboard on metal studs. One inch thick cement plaster is used

for exterior facing at each end of the building. Double 16-gauge metal

studs support the cement plaster. All lateral forces are resisted by interior column-slab frames and by exterior column-spandrel beams.

The building construction cost was approximately 1.3 million dollars

in 1966 and after the San Fernando earthquake the repair cost to the building was approximately $145,000 (approximately $2,000 was structural). The

following conclusions were made in [D.l]:

"(1) During the earthquake, the structure responded

at amplitudes that exceeded the elastic limits

of a substantial number of girders.

(2) Calculated earthquake forces exceeded prescribed

code minimums by a factor of 4 or 5.

(3) Interstory displacements exceeded 1 inch. This

accounts for the large amount of nonstructural

damage

(4) On the basis of calculated building response,

maximum lateral displacements were from 15 to 20

times prescribed code minimums, but observed

structural damage was relatively minor.

(5) Estimates of ductility indicate average ratios

of 8 for beams and slabs in the transverse

direction and 6 for beams and slabs in the

longitudinal direction.

(6) Damping was approximated to be 5% to 10% of

critical viscous damping.

(7) Although there was some vertical amplification

of vertical ground motion, peak resulting stresses

were only approximately 20% of dead and live load

stresses.

0-114
o3

D TRANSVERSE

AR 240 STRONG MOTION

ACCELER06RAPH #210

AT 4th FLOOR

-Q

Q

ELEVATORS

STAIRWELL,

El

^20'1 62' 8"-^h-20'

20-10" H

0 10' 20'

SCALE IN FEET

NORTH

Figure D.9 Typical Floor Framing Plan -- Building No. 29

D-115
m8,8 „9.eL

,,2/ I 8 ,8 IV S

o

C/) 00

t—

en o1— CO CO

1—

•a:

• 00 o

>-o

I—

oo

PC

o

o

00

>—

>-

o

•—

Q.

>-O

o

00

CO

00

cvj

Ll. O -C -SZ T5 •->

4-> •4-> +-> 4-> C

OH IT) oo CM

o

3

CO

c

3

co

Q.

O

at

s.3

0-116
ROOF

th

th

th

rd

St

® © ® ®

20' 1" 20' 10" 20' 1"

1 0.71'

; 8.00'

i 0.83'

12.67'

00' CLEAR STORY HEIGHT

CO

CO

TYPICAL

00

00

I—

<:in

vo

ro

COLUMN WIDTH

1.67

TYPICAL

INTERIOR FRAME

1 .67'

TYPICAL

EXTERIOR FRAME

Figure D.lOb Typical Transverse Frame -- Building No. 29

0-117
Masonry Building -- Load Bearing

Morningside School, Building #1, in the City of San Fernando, California

was constructed in 1915. Of the pre-1933 Field Act Schools, Morningside was closest to the center of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake (about 8 miles).

A limited description of the building is given [3.51] and [D.4].

"The building is a two-story "T" shaped concrete bearing

wall structure. The original construction had a wood framed

gabled roof with heavy slate roofing. Floor framing con- sisted of wood joists and sheathing. The exterior walls

were concrete having an ultimate compressive strength of

approximately 900 psi. The partitions were wood studs with

plaster on wood strip lath. The building rests on spread

foundations. In 1964, the building was reinforced by re- moving the heavy slate roofing, installing new plywood

sheathing in the plane of the second-story ceiling, anchoring the floors and roof to the walls, installing a plywood

shear-resisting element in the attic to stabilize the

gabled roof framing in the longitudinal direction, and

the installation of additional roof supports. New concrete

shear-resisting wall panels were added since Title 21 considers concrete with a compressive strength below

1500 psi the same as unreinforced brickwork."

"The reconstructed building was designed for a 15%g

acceleration force, and it came through the earthquake

with no structural damage except some overstraining

where the gable walls were anchored to the roof framing.

Some plaster fell off the 1915 interior partitions.

This was a good test of the program for rebuilding old

schools to meet the Field Act requirements."

B. TORNADO AND HURRICANE DAMAGE EVALUATION BUILDINGS

Steel Frame Building

There is a lack of good quality damage data for steel frame buildings

during strong wind storms. A Texas Tech Report [3.39] describes in some detail the damage to the Great Plains Life Building in Lubbock, Texas during

the May 11, 1970 tornado. This report presents a general structural description of the building as well as considerable pertinent and interesting

observations

The building is a 20 story steel frame with a 125 x 56 ft tower plan

and a 125 x 75 ft three-story base plan. Of particular importance in the

structural dynamic behavior of this building, is the existence of a very

stiff north end relative to south, thus causing significant structural

torsional eccentricity.

D-1 18
The following quotations from the Texas Tech report indicate the character of the building's damage:

"Damage to the building was classified as severe. All

tenants have vacated the building and will not return until

extensive repairs are completed. The steel frame sustained

permanent deformation which exceeds the tolerances allowed

for a structure to be out-of-plum. The top of the frame

is deformed 12 in. to the east with respect to the base.

The damage to the exterior face brick is such that a com- pletely new exterior cladding will likely be required.

On the interior many partition walls have collapsed and

the plaster on the walls and ceilings is extensively

cracked

A quick glance at the building immediately after the storm

revealed that it had been through quite an ordeal. Twentyseven percent of all window panes were broken. The most severe glass damage was at the southwest corner of the

building where there were large rooms with windows on both the south and west sides. This seems reasonable

since the wind was from the southwest. Window glass was broken primarily by missiles. The interior hallway partitions did not collapse, so it was not possible for debris

to blow completely through the building.

Beginning at the fourth floor level, the damage at the

south end of the building was very severe. Interior partitions, particularly those running in an east-west direction, were cracked by diagonal tension. Between floors

five and nine all east-west partitions have moved approximately 1 in. to the east with respect to the floor. In the hallways a bulge occurred at each east-west partition.

These partitions were not anchored to the floor and extended up to the suspended plaster ceiling. Where partitions

collapsed, it appears that they were first cracked by the

racking of the building. Then, having been weakened, they

collapsed due to either positive or negative pressure from

the storm.

The encasements around the columns, formed by gypsum block

and covered with 1 in. of plaster, were severely cracked.

These cracks then propagated into the adjoining walls. In some instances, these vertical cracks in the column encasement remained open by as much as 1 in. Since there was a clear space of at least 1 in. between the steel column and

the gypsum blocks, the relative column deflection must have

been 2 in. or more on a given floor.

With a few exceptions, the aluminum window frames were

not damaged by the wind. Glass breakage was inconsistently

high for the wind velocities estimated at the lower elevations. This high incidence of glass breakage was attributed

to racking of the building frame and to missiles. At the

upper elevations the percentage of glass broken was consistent with estimated wind velocities.

D-1 1 9
It was first thought that the deformation of the frame was elastic and that the frame was prevented from returning to its original straight position by frictional resistance

developed in the partitions and walls. The interior partitions, suspended ceiling and the south exterior wall at the

fifth and sixth floor were removed. However, no elastic

rebound occurred. The frame was indeed permanently deformed.

With the steel skeleton stripped at the fifth and sixth

floors, it was possible to take a closer look at the structural frame. The column splices which are located immediately above the fifth floor level were found to be intact.

There was no evidence of failure of any rivets. The relative movement of one end of the column with respect to the

other end was considerable at this level. The maximum slope

observed was 0.375 in. in 24 in. This corresponds to a relative movement of 2.25 in. in the 12 ft story height.

The major bending deformation due to sidesway takes place

in the columns rather than the beams (strong beam-weak

columns). There is, however, some evidence of yielding

in the beams. A check of the column flange with a carpenter's level revealed that the column has a slope of 0.125 in.

in 12 in. The column flange is plurab opposite the beam

connection, indicating that there is no measurable rotation

ofthe joints.

The location of the service shafts and the solid masonry

wall at the north end of the building resulted in a structure which was more flexible at the south end of

the building. If the service shaft had been in the center of the building or at both ends, the structure would

have sustained much less structural and superficial

damage. The lack of stiffness at the south end permitted

excessive deformations causing damage to the steel frame

and extensive cracking of walls and partitions.

Because the north end of the building is much stiffer

than the south, the structure tended to rotate about

a vertical axis near the north end of the building. Thus

the building deflected in a 1 ateral -tors i onal mode. Evidence of this mode of deflection is found in the large

diagonal cracks in the masonry at the north end of the

building. Cracks produced by torsional shear were also

found in the stairwell on the lower floors. The extent

of the damage due to this mode of response appears to

be in the exterior walls and possibly in the elevator

shafts . " [3. 39]

D-120
It is evident from the preceding comments that the particular structural framing character of this building lead to significant torsional re- sponse. The damage evaluation program used herein does not, as mentioned in

section 3.4, enable the modeling of a building's torsional motion. However,

the damage based on a two-dimensional building model will be evaluated be- cause of the wind engineering significance of the Great Plains Life Building

and also to see if the state-of-the-art two-dimensional wind damage model'

would have predicted serious damage for this building.

The exact cost of the building and its dollar damage are not detailed

in the Texas Tech report. However, it is evident that the damage was very severe and a general reference figure of $1.8 million is cited in the report.

Based upon average building costs this dollar loss can be approximately es- timated to represent fifty percent of the building's cost.

Concrete Frame Building

In Lubbock, Texas the First National Bank-Pioneer Gas Company Building

experienced severe damage during the May 11, 1970 tornado. The cited Texas

Tech report [3.39 also describes this 15-story reinforced concrete frame and

the damage it experienced. The building was constructed in 1968 and was located near the edge of the extensive destruction zone. It is approximately

two blocks from the Great Plains Life Building.

The Texas Tech Report offers the following interesting comparison bet- ween the response of the two noted Lubbock buildings:

"The structural response of the Great Plains Life Building and

the First Nati onal -Pi oneer Building makes an interesting

comparison. In the case of the First Nati onal -Pi oneer Building the structural frame behaved adequately with no damage or excessive deflections. The damage resulted from

failure of the exterior cladding. On the other hand, the

exterior cladding of the Great Plains Life Building re- mained essentially intact and the damage was primarily

due to racking of the structural frame. Yet the amount

of damage to the two buildings in dollars is essentially

the same.

The structural integrity of the First Nati onal -Pi oneer Building was never questioned in the press or by the

general public. The Great Plains Life Building, on the

other hand, suffered from bad publicity and rumors both

prior to and after the tornado. As a result many people

in Lubbock today would not enter that building. The

First Nati onal -Pioneer Building has not experienced the

bad psychological response of the general public." [D.5j

D-121
The report also offers the following comments relative to the observed

damage to the building.

"Damage to the building is classified as severe; however, it was not necessary to completely vacate the building. Many

offices were not disturbed at all; some had only window damage

and scattering of contents by the wind, while other offices

were virtually destroyed. The private club on the top floor

was completely demolished.

Unlike the Great Plains Life Building, the First National -Pioneer

Building received no damage to the structural frame. The

rigidity of the reinforced concrete frame, due in part to the

shape of the building, prevented excessive deformations of

the structure. Hence, the damage due to racking of the building was minimal. Yet the cost to repair the First NationalPioneer Building is equal to, if not greater than, the

cost to repair the Great Plains Life Building. Cost of repair

to First Nati onal -Pi oneer was reported to be $1.8 million.

Each glass panel on the north and south exterior walls was

49 X 72 in. and had a nominal 13/64 in. thickness. The north

leeward face of the building surprisingly suffered 60 percent

more broken panes than the south windward face. This unex- pected distribution has been attributed to some combination

of two factors:

(1) After windward panes broke, interior partition

panels, office material, etc., were broken

and the debris contributed to breakage on the

far wall.

(2) With windward panes out, stagnation pressure on the inside combined with occasional outward

pressure on the leeward side generated differentials across leeward plate glass.

However, the correlation between broken panels on the windward and leeward sides by floors was not good. "[3. 39]

Long Span Roof Structure

The Texas Tech Report [3.39] described in limited detail the damage done

to the Tech Village Apartments by the Lubbock storm of May 11, 1970. The

Tech Apartments is a complex of seven identically constructed buildings, see figure d.11. Each building in the complex is two story and rectangular in

plan with loadbearing concrete block walls and metal deck roofing. The

size of the buildings ranges from 14,000 to 21,000 square feet.

D-122
t

NORTH

SECOND PLACE

Figure D.ll Tech Village Apartment Complex

D-123
"The exterior walls are constructed of concrete block.

At the short end of the building the 12-in thick walls

are made of 4-in brick backed by 8-in concrete block.

A double concrete block wall runs in the longitudinal

direction and divides each building in half. All interior partitions are concrete block and are load-bearing.

The exterior walls and those partitions which separate

individual apartments have bond beams at roof level.

The bond beams are reinforced with two no. 8 bars.

The second floor slab is 4-in thick concrete resting on load-bearing masonry walls. The roof is made of light

weight metal deck with fiber board insulation and builtup roof. The metal deck is spot welded to a small

.steel angle embedded inthe concrete of the bond beams.

A 5 ft. wide exterior corridor gives access to the

second floor apartments. The roof extends out to form

a canopy for the corridor. The roof overhand and the

second floor walkway are supported by 3 in. diameter pipe

columns spaced 12-ft on centers. The overhand at

roof level is supported by 6-in channels welded to the

pipe columns and attached to small angles anchored to

the bond beam at the exterior walls. The overhand at

roof level is an integral part of the roof system. " [3.39]

Damage to the complex is rated as severe. Again, quoting from the cited

report

"The four buildings in this complex which sustained

structural damage were the ones with their 1 ong i tudi n i nal axes oriented in the north-south direction. The major

damage was the stripping off of the roof. Apparently

the force of the wind striking the roof canopy on the

west side of the buildings dislodged the metal deck

from the top of the walls and peeled back the roof.

The steel angles anchored in the bond beams pulled

out, but they served to tie the metal deck together

in large pieces; thus allowing the force of the wind

to strip metal deck from the building. Some of the

exterior walls collapsed, but most interior partitions

at the second floor level remained intact. First

floor apartments suffered very little structural damage . " [ 3 . 39

]

D-1 24
D.6 DAMAGE EVALUATIONS USING THE DETAILED EVALUATION METHOD

A. General Comments

This section presents damage evaluation estimates for earthquake, tornado and hurricane natural disasters. The buildings noted in section D.5

have been used in this evaluation. As noted in section 3.4 there exist

many input parameters which require professional engineering judgment. Examples of these include: (1) building quality factor, (2) ductility to

failure of structural and nonstructural members, (3) drift to yield, etc.,

This necessity to input professional judgment means that it is extremely

likely that two independent engineers will when using the detailed computer

program obtain different damage estimates. To assess the sensitivity which

the different decisions have upon the final evaluation is beyond the scope

of this study, however, the following example problems certainly provide

some engineering insight into this area.

B . Earthquake Damage Evaluations

The results of damage evaluations conducted on each of the buildings

noted in section D.5a are summarized. The earthquake damage evaluations

are based upon magnitude and epicentral distances for the actual San Fernando earthquake. From the nature of the developed computer program, there

exists a multitude of possible parameter permutations. In this section,

the values of the parameters used to perform the evaluations are based upon

data presented in section 3.4 and are realistic for the building under

consideration.

For each building which is modeled using the empirical building model

the estimated building period was obtained from [3.50] and reflects the

observed San Fernando earthquake building period. When actual seismic res- ponse data does not exist the following two alternatives can be used: (1) use ambient building periods scaled up in magnitude by a value believed to

be appropriate for the earthquake size and epicentral distance under con- sideration (e.g., usually 1.33 to 1.5) or (2) use existing formulas of the

type described in section 3.4.

Table D-2 summarizes for each of the noted buildings the selected values

of several of the important input parameters. The damage experienced by each

of the buildings is estimated in two damage evaluation procedures. Option 1 in table D.3 is a summation of the floor-by-floor damage. All damage estimates are based upon the methodology described in section 3.4. Option 2 presents damage estimates which are based upon one engineer's professional

experience. As the computer program outputs MMI values for each building

floor it is only necessary for the engineer to average the MMI from all

building floors to obtain an average building MMI.

D-125
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Then using the average building MMI and a table of the type shown in

table D.3, one can estimate the percent nonstructural, structural and total

damage

It is noted that Option 2 is presented for the purpose of indicating how

one engineer may use the output from the program to estimate damage. That

is, if one wishes to use a relationship between damage and building MMI based

upon professional experience, one may create a damage estimate. While such

individualism is often commendable, it may also be unwise because the formulas used in Option 1 were obtained from a study of considerable historical

data

The correlation between the observed and predicted damage estimates is

good. It is noted that the damage estimates reflect the results of only one computer run on each building and are not the results obtained after several

iterations aimed at producing an estimate that correlates almost exactly with

observed damage. Therefore, the user can expect the same level of accuracy

as indicated by the results in table D.4.

C . Tornado Damage Evaluations

The structural and nonstructural damage data available for a tornado

natural disaster are very limited. This section performs a damage evaluation

of the three buildings noted in section D.5b. These estimates are compared

with values cited in [3.39].

Table D.5 presents a summary of the values of the structural input

parameters used in this study. Tornado maximum wind speed was set at 200

miles per hour. Table D.6 summarizes the computed and observed damage for

each of the three buildings.

D . Hurricane Damage Evaluations

The same buildings noted in section D.5b and table D.6 were also used

for the estimation of damage due to a hypothetical hurricane. The hurricane

is selected to have a maximum wind speed of 120 miles per hour at a height of

30 feet. All building parameter values are the same as used in the Tornado

example, see table q.S.

Since the hurricane evaluation utilizes a hypothetical example there is no observed damage data. Table D.7 presents the predicted percent damage for

each building.

D-127
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APPENDIX E

DETAILED ANALYTICAL EVALUATION METHOD - COMPUTER PROGRAM USERS MANUAL

This appendix contains the User's Manual for the Detailed Analytical

Method computer program. The manual is presented as a self-contained

document so as to provide the user with a package which may be more conveniently used in the evaluation process. The manual represents the combined

efforts of T. K. Hasselman, Richard W. White and Gregg Brandow.

E-1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1.0 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION £_4

1.1 Loads E-6

1.2 Structural Model - E-8

1.3 Response E-13

1.4 Damage E-18

1.5 Flow Diagrams . E-20

1.6 Capacity E-28

2.0 INPUT PREPARATION £_29

2 . 1 Loads E

- 3

2.1.1 Earthquake E-31

2.1.1.1 Input to Subroutine SEISMC £.3]

2.1.1.2 Input to Subroutine S0IL0D E-36

2.1.1.2.1 Complex Model E-36

2.1.1.2.2 Semi-Complex Model E-37

2.1.1.2.3 Simple Method (a,b,c) e-38

2.1.1.2.4 Simple Method (d) e-39

2.1.1.3 User Input of Specified Site Particle E-41

Velocity Spectrum

2.1.2 Wind: Input to Subroutine WNDL0D E-42

2.1.3 Tornado: Input to Subroutine TRNL0D E-52

2.2 Structural Model: Input to Subroutine E-54

STRUCT

2.2.1 Level 1 - Detailed Frame Model: E-54

Input to Subroutine STIFFl

E-69 2.2.2 Level 2 - Story Stiffness Model:

Input to Subroutine STIFF2

2.2.3 Level 3 - Empirical Model: Input E-70

to Subroutine STIFF3

2.2.4 Floor Weight: Input to Subroutine ^"^^ FLMASS

E-2
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

Page

2 . 3 Response t- /

2.3.1 Input to Subroutine DYNAMC E-71

2.3.2 Input to Subroutine STATIC E-72

2.3.3 Input to Subroutine LSR00F ^"84

2.4 Damage ^"86

2.4.1 Input to Subroutine DAMAG for Either ^.qq Earthquake, Wind, Tornado

2.4.2 Additional Input to Subroutine DAMAG E-88

for Earthquake Only

2.4.3 Additional Input to Subroutine DAMAG E-90

for Wind Only

3.0 OUTPUT DESCRIPTION ^_g2

3.1 Loads Output E-92

3.2 Structural Modeling Output E-93

3.3 Response Output E-93

3.4 Damage Output E-94

Input Instructions for The CDC 3600 Computer E-107

E-3
1.0 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

The computer program described in this User's Manual provides

the basic tools for evaluating potential damage to buildings

due to earthquake, wind and tornado. Environmental data are provided along with the program describing the seismic and wind

activity for the entire continental United States, Alaska and

Hawaii. Historically based tornado activity for the continental

United States is included. With these data, the program will

compute, in a probabilistic sense, the specific environment of

any given building site in the country. Alternatively, the user may choose to input any of these loads directly. For

example, an earthquake of Richter magnitude 6.5 at a distance

of 10 miles may be input by specifying only those two parameters.

The user may also bypass the earthquake loading portion of the

program and input directly a ground particle velocity spectra

for the site. Damage predictions are made on the basis of the

building's response to the appropriate loading conditions.

Structural models of varying complexity can be generated depending on the availability of structural data and the level of effort

selected for a particular task. Damageab i 1 i ty data characterizing the capacity of the building to resist failure must be

input by the user. Guidelines are provided in Section 3.4

of the main text of this report. Algorithms for computing

damage are based on the assumption that percent damage

varies continuously with key response parameters. These

key parameters have been selected and are incorporated in the

program. The forms of damage distribution curves as functions

of response are also built into the program. The user may

choose the parameters of these functions in accordance with

prepared guidelines and exercise his judgement according

to the application at hand.

The computer program is currently operational on the UNIVAC 1108

computer at the National Bureau of Standards and the CDC 3600

computer at the Defense Civil Preparedness agency. Special

requirements for the input data for the CDC 3600 are provided

at the end of this appendix.

A more detailed discussion of the program is given in the paragraphs which follow. Flow diagrams are included at the end of

E-4
this section which illustrate the top and secondary levels of

program organization. Detailed input preparation is explained

in Section 2.0 and a discussion of the printed output is

included in Section 3.0.

The entire program is organized in modular form. This tends to

provide a simple framework for understanding the program and

offers flexibility for subsequent updating anticipated as the

result of user experience. Considerable effort has been made

to maintain clean interfaces among the different modules to

facilitate maintenance and avoid repetitive operations and un- necessary data handling. The overall flow of information within the program is shown in flow Diagram 1. The four major

parts of the program include:

1) the generation of site loads

2) the generation of a structural model

3) computation of response, and

4) assessment of damage.

Subroutine L0ADS constitutes the first part, STRUCT the second,

DYNAMC, STATIC and LSR00F the third, and DAMAG the fourth. As

shown in the flow diagram, operations proceed in that order.

Options are provided to allow consideration of the three environmental hazards singly or in combination.

Damage to longspan roofs is treated independently of structure

related damage as discussed in Section 1.3 of this Appendix and

Chapter 3 (Section 3.4 I)' of the main text.

E-5
1.1 Loads

The L0ADS subroutine, Flow Diagram 2, calls four other subroutines, depending on the hazard options selected. The options

are

NHAZ (1) = 0 ¥ 0 NHAZ ( 2 ) = 0 ¥ 0 NHAZ (3) = 0 ¥ 0bypass earthquake loads

generate earthquake loads

bypass wind loads

generate wind loads

bypass tornado loads

generate tornado loads

Site loads for earthquake are defined by a ground site response

spectrum. This response spectrum reflects an amplification of

the hard-rock spectrum for the site, which is frequency dependent. The hard-rock spectrum is generated in Subroutine SEISMC.

This is done in either of two ways (See Section 2.1.1.1 and

Chapter 3 of the main text). If the risk option is

selected, LRISK ^ 0, the user must input seismicity data from

the Seismic Map provided with the program. By further specifying

either a return period or building life and probability of non- occurrence, a risk earthquake defined by its Richter magnitude

EM is computed. If LRISK = 0, the risk option is bypassed and

the user must input a magnitude EM and hypocentral distance REAR.

In either case, hard-rock acceleration, velocity and displacement characteristics are computed and transmitted to Subroutine S0IL0D.

A soil model is generated in S0IL0D as a basis for determining

soil amplification of the hard-rock ground motion. Four basic

E-6
modeling options are provided ranging from a complex model

requiring detailed soils data to a simple model requiring only

standard geological soil characterization (See Section 2.1.1.2

and Section 3.4 of the main text. A dynamic amplification factor (DAF)^ for the soil is computed as a function of

frequency (or period) . A hard-rock spectrum is generated from

the acceleration, velocity and displacement characteristics

computed in SEISMIC and then multiplied by (DAF)^ to generate

the ground site spectrum. The procedure for directly inputting

a ground particle velocity spectra is discussed in Section 2.1.1.3.

If NHAZ(2) 7^ 0, a wind velocity is generated for the specified

site (see Section 2.1.2). If ITEST = 1, a statistical regression analysis is used to compute a mean wind velocity given

either a return period or building life and probability of non- occurrence. A standard deviation is also computed and may be

used to establish some degree of confidence in the wind velocity

selected for analysis. If ITEST = 2, the user must input a wind

velocity for analysis. As in the case of earthquakes, local

site conditions modify the wind velocity which is determined

on the basis of historical data. For example, free-field wind

velocities in large cities are attenuated by the presence of

buildings, whereas, on an open prairie, the attenuation is com- paratively small. Thus, in figuring the wind load on a building,

surface conditions are accounted for by specifying the parameter ISITE as described in Section 2.1.2.

If NHAZ(3) f 0, the probability of being hit by a tornado is

computed from map data giving the mean annual frequency of tornados. In addition, the user may specify a tornado wind velocity by setting IT0R f 0 and inputting a velocity VT as explained

in Section 2.1.3. In this case, the static response of the

building will be computed and damage assessments made.

E-7
1.2 Structural Model

Subroutine STRUCT (Flow Diagram 3) accepts structural modeling

data and generates a model of the structure for subsequent

response analysis. Dynamic characteristics are either input

or computed by this subroutine. Three modeling options are provided

NM0D = 1: Detailed frame model

NM0D = 2: Story stiffness model

NM0D = 3: Empirical model

Sketches of these modeling configurations are included in

Figures 1 through 3 to illustrate the scope of model complexity.

If the user selects NM0D = 1, STRUCT calls STIFFl which is

used to generate a detailed stiffness matrix for the structure

(See Section 2.2.1). The stiffness matrix is constructed

frame by frame, story by story, from top to bottom. Coordinate numbering conventions are shown in Figure 4. As shown

in Flow Diagram 4, the user must first input a value for NFRMS

which specifies the number of frames to be used in the model.

Each frame is parallel to the direction of motion in a vertical

plane. Stiffness and mass contributions from each frame are superposed in formulating the two-dimensional model of a building. The user may choose between two frame modeling options:

N0PT = 1: Steel frame model (SFRAME)

N0PT = 2: General frame model (GFRAME)

The steel frame model is most convenient to use for steel

frame structures because standard framing members may be

E-8
MODE

SHAPES

DEFLECTION

AND SHEARS

N0PT = 1

(Steel Frame Model

)

MODE

SHAPES

N0PT = 2

(General Frame Model

)

DEFLECTION

AND SHEARS

Figure 1. NMOD = 1 Detailed Frame Model Options

E-9
! |-WWl

1

\

^

\

h

1

;! l-AAAAr^ 1 w » w V

1

i |-AAAAr^

; |-AAAArl

I rAAAArJ

! hA/WV-i

f

1

1 HWWI

1 1

MODE DEFLECTION

SHAPES AND SHEARS

Figure 2. NMOD = 2 Story Stiffness Model

MODE DEFLECTION

SHAPES AND SHEARS

Figure 3. NMOD = 3 Empirical Model

E-IO
REMARKS:

3. BEAMS, COLUMNS, AND JOINT LOCATIONS AT EACH FLOOR ARE NUMBERED FROM LEFT TO RIGHT, STARTING WITH 1. 2. STORIES ARE NUMBERED FROM TOP TO BOTTOM.

BEAM NUMBER

COLUMN NUMBER

JOINT NUMBER

^1 2

1 i 3

2 3

J\f\/\r-

-'VAr-

-\AAr-

-AW

NB STORY NUMBER

1

NC = NB+1 2

NC-1

i i

NC

10

n

12

NS-l

NS

Figure 4. Numbering Conventions

E-n
specified by code rather than having to enter detailed section

properties. In addition, it offers the capability for including non-rigid joints. The general frame model is intended

primarily for concrete frame and shearwall type structures,

although it could be used for steel frame structures as well.

This option must be used to model frames with shearwalls since

N0PT = 1 offers no shearwall modeling capability. (See Section

2.2.1) .

Although it is not shown explicitly in Flow Diagram 4, SFRAME

or GFRAME, C0NDEN and FRMASS are called once for each story

of the model. C0NDEN operate on the detailed stiffness matrix

generated for the current story and condenses it into a reduced stiffness matrix corresponding to floor translations

for the current story and all of those above it. If no dead

load for framing is zo be included in the final mass m.atrix,

the user may set NDLC = 1 and FRMASS, the subroutine which

lumps framing mass at each floor, is bypassed.

If NFRMS >1, stiffness matrices for additional frames are generated and superposed, i.e. the frames act in a parallel

configuration. N0PT may be reset so that a mixture of

SFRAME and GFRAME models can be combined. When the frame

counter reaches NFRMS, control is returned to STRUCT.

If the user specifies NM0D = 2, STRUCT calls STIFF2 which reads

story stiffness and story height data as described in Section

2.2.2. As with NM0D =1, an NS x NS stiffness matrix is

created.

Floor mass is added to framing mass (if any) by calling subroutine FLMASS. This subroutine reads floor weights in KIPS,

converts to mass and adds them to a mass vector, which, in the case of NM0D = 1, may contain framing mass already. The lumped

E-12
mass model is shown in Figure 5. After forming the total mass vector for either NM0D = 1 or 2 , subroutine EIGENS is called to

compute modal deflections and frequencies.

If NM0D = 3, STIFFS is called and an empirical model is generated. A fundamental period and story heights are read as discussed in Section 2.2.3. A straight-line mode shape is

assumed to compute deflections. FLMASS is called to read in

floor weights but EIGENS is, of course, bypassed.

1.3 Response

The site loads generated in L0ADS and the structural characteristics generated in STRUCT are used in this part of the

program to determine structural response to the site environments. Response computations are made in DYNAMC for earthquake loads, in STATIC for wind and tornado loads, and in

LSR00F for uplift due to wind. Ponding loads are also com- puted in LSR00F.

The response of a building to earthquake ground motion is

evaluated by determining the peak modal response in each of

the modes (a maxim\am of six is considered) , and combining

their contributions to the total response in some fashion.

Inputs to DYNAMC are explained in Section 2.2.3 and include a damping code, a ductility code, a modal combination code and

story drift-to-yield used to compute an effective ductility

y for the building. Since damping is defined as a function

E-13
E-14
of y , and y is response dependent, an iterative procedure must

be used to establish consistent values of damping and response.

While this operation seems to be stable and typically converges

in a few cycles (three or four), an upper limit (e.g. six) on

the number of iterations, ITERMX, is input and used to transfer

control out of the iterative loop in case the computations do

not converge to within 5%. This may only occur when elastoplastic response is considered as discussed below.

Two damping options (See Section 3.4 of the main text are available by specifying appropriate values of the variable

NDAMP . If NDMIP = 1 the nominal damping curve is used which

is applicable to steel frame and reinforced concrete structures.

In this case, modal damping ranges from about 2% for y = 0 up to about 10% for a y of 3.5. If NDAMP = 2, these values are doubled. NDAMP = 2 is intended to be used for bolted or riveted

steel frames, or timber structures.

An effective ductility y is defined as

where is the maximiim energy storage capacity of the structure in the state of uniform incipient yielding, and E is the

(hypothetical) strain energy which would be stored if the

structure were assumed to remain elastic for the linear res- ponse computed. If the computed response is sufficiently

large that y > 1, then by setting LD 7^ 0 , the response of the

structure is altered to reflect some of the effects of yielding.

These operations are performed by subroutine SPECTR.

E-15
Four operations in all are performed in SPECTR:

1) Increase modal period if u > 1 and LD 5^ 0.

2) Interpolate between points defined for the ground

site spectrum to compute a spectral velocity, SV.

3) Form an amplification factor (AF)^ to account for

structural damping and multiply (AF) ^ x SV.

4) Form a second amplification factor (AF^ to account

for ductility and multiply (AF)^ x (AF) ^ x SV,

(LD 7^ 0 only). Actually, two different values of

(AF)^ are computed. One is used to obtain a final

spectral velocity SVF for use in computing forces

or accelerations and the other is used to obtain a final spectral velocity SVD for computing displacements and velocities.

Referring back to Flow Diagram 5, one may now follow the entire

sequence of operations. It is seen that the total response is

computed in an iterative manner until the values of u and ^ converge (or the iteration counter reaches ITERMX)

In computing total response, one of three options is available:

Thus

SVF (AF)^ X (AF) X SV

SVD

MC0P = 1

MC0P = 2 MC0P = 3 Absolute sxam of first six modes.

First mode response only

RSS of first six modes

E-16
Interstory drift, pseudo-velocity, and absolute acceleration

are computed for each story and passed through the call statements to subroutine DAMAG. In addition, story forces and

shears are computed for all three options and are printed for

comparative purposes only, unless N0PRT = 1. These latter

quantities are not used in damage evaluation.

Structural response to wind (and tornado if IT0R =1) is

evaluated in subroutine STATIC (Flow Diagram 6) . The stiffness matrix is first inverted if NM0D /= 3. Either of subroutines WIND or TRNAD0 is then called to compute a distribution

of pressure forces for the building. Data input required by

WIND is covered in Section 2.3.2. No data are input for TRNAD0.

For either NM0D = 1 or 2 , the inverted stiffness matrix is used

to compute deflection of the building. If NM0D = 3 , an alternative method is used as discussed in Section 3.4 of the

main text.

Only two simple failure modes are considered for long-span

roofs. These are separation due to excessive uplift forces

or collapse .due to excessive ponding. Response is a binary

quantity in either case, fail or no fail, and is determined

by whether the respective forces exceed or do not exceed the

total vertical support capacity in the upward direction or the

capacity of the roof structure in the downward direction.

Thus, most of the computation is devoted to determining the

forces which are configuration dependent and are included in

the response part of the program rather than the loads part.

Three alternative methods are provided for computing uplift as indicated in Section 2.3.3. Each of these options is explained

in Section 3.4 of the main text.

Potential roof damage to any building may be evaluated for the

two modes of failure mentioned above. The intent, however, is

E-17
that long-span roofs will be of main concern since larger uplift forces are developed for longer spans and adequate support

is more difficult to achieve. Ponding is not likely to create

excessive loading for short-span roofs and, of course, will not occur with proper drainage.

1 . 4 Damage

Potential damage to a building which may result from exposure

to the environmental loads computed for the building site, is

evaluated in Subroutine DAMAG (Flow Diagram 8) . Damage is ex- pressed in percent of total damage on a story by story basis.

Damage is computed independently for earthquake, wind and tornado. It is segregated into three categories: structural,

nonstructural and glass. In the case of structural damage,

the damage is further subdivided into damage to frame, walls,

and diaphragms.

The key response parameters used to predict damage in each

case are outlined below.

1 . Earthquake

a. Structural: interstory drift

b. Nonstructural: floor velocity or acceleration

c. Glass: interstory drift

2 . Wind or Tornado

a. Structural: interstory drift

b. Partitions: interstory drift

c. Glass: direct pressure

For earthquake, nonstructural damage includes partitions as well

as other types of nonstructural damage. With the exception

of nonstructural damage due to earthquake, damage is computed

by comparing the key response parameter to a strength capacity

E-18
characterized by a nominal value and a dispersion parameter

(coefficient of variation) which are specified by the user

(See Section 3.4 of the main text of this report.) Thus

damage is considered to vary in a continuous manner with

response level. Although a probabilistic interpretation of the

distribution functions is plausible and has some appeal, it is

not essential. Thus, some of the conceptual obstacles which

arise in trying to justify a particular function, which happens

to follow from certain well-defined statistical phenomena, may

be avoided. The salient feature of the damageability curves used in this program is their ability to represent the tendency

for percent damage to increase monotonically (i.e. in a non- decreasing manner) with response level. As stated at the outset, it is deemed to be the user's responsibility to select

capacity distribution parameters to fit a particular situation.

In computing nonstructural damage due to earthquake, percent of

component damage is computed on the basis of a Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) as discussed Section 3.4 of the main text.

Values for MMI at each story are computed form both floor

acceleration and velocity and the largest of these is used to

compare percent damage

Damage to long-span roof is considered to be either zero or

100%, corresponding to the fail/no-fail response parameters.

Appropriate statements are printed out by DAMAG.

In computing tornado damage, the program cycles through DAMAG

once, and then goes back to STATIC, computes pressure forces

and drift for tornado and then calls DAMAG a second time.

Thus, while the pressure forces and drift are different for

tornado than they are for wind, the same damage algorithms

and damageability data are used.

E-19
1 .5 Flow Diagrams

Flow Diagram 1. MAIN Program

NHAZ (I), 1=1,3, DLAT DL0NG, LRISK, NM0D,

LSRI3PT

Environmental Data for Earthquake,

Wind and Tornado as Required for Selected

Hazards

Structural Modeling

Data According to Specified Model ing

Option

( Start )

Damping Code

Ductility Code

Interstory Drift

To- Yield

Bui Iding Data Needed to Compute Pres- sure Distribution

Roof Configuration Data,

and Analysis

Options

Damageabi 1 ity

Data

Compute Site Loads

Defined to be Independent of Structural

Configuration

Define

Structural

Model

Evaluate Dynamic

Response to Site

Ground Motion

© no

LSR00F

®,

DAMAG

®.

Evaluate Equivalent

Static Response to Wind and Tornado

Evaluate Equivalent

Static Response of

Long-Span Roof to Uplift and Ponding

Evaluate Structural and

Nonstructural Damage to Building due to Earthquake, wind, and/or

Tornado

E-20
Flow Diagram 2. Subroutine L0ADS

Seism icity

data

See 2.1.1.1

Site soil

data

(See 2.1.1.2)

or direct input

of ground particle

velocity spectra

(See 2.1.1.3)'

Wind data

See 2.1.2

Evaluate HardRock Ground

Motion

Modify Hard -Rock

Ground Motion

According to Site

Soil Conditions

Evaluate Site

Wind Velocity

NHAZ (3)=0 yes

Tornado data

See 2.1.3

Evaluate Probability

of Tornado Occurrance for Given Site

and Establish Tornado

Wind Velocity if

desired

E-21
Flow Diagram 3. Subroutine STRUCT

Structure

Conf i guration

Data

See 2.2

Fundamental Period

Story Heights

See 2.2.3

Story Stiffnesses

Story Heights

See 2.2.2

Detai led Structural

Data

See 2.2.1

f yes

STIFF3

STIFF2

STIFFl

Generate

Empirical

Model

Generate

Story Stiffness

Model

Generate

Detailed Frame

Model

Floor Weights

(KIPS)

See 2.2.4

FLMASS

r

EIGENS

Add Floor Masses

(weights) to Frame Mass, if any

Compute

Eigenvalues and

Eigenvectors

(NM0D = 1 ,2)

E-22
Flow Diagram 4. Subroutine STIFFl

NFRMS

N0PT

See 2.2.1

/"\.

Detailed

Frame

Data

See 2.2.1

Detailed

Frame

Data See 2.2.1

©

N0PT=1

FRMASS

Sum frame stiff- ness matrices

no

yes

READl

yes

Read All Input Data

For Steel Frame

Model

Compute Stiffness

Matrix for Steel Frame Model

GFRAME

C0NDEN

Read All Input Data for General Frame

Model

Compute Stiffness

Matrix for General

Frame Model

Condense Stiffness

Matrix

Compute Framing Mass

and Accumulate for

Multiple Frames
Flow Diagram 5. Subroutine DYNAMC

Damping Code

Ductil ity Code

Iteration Limit

Modal Combination Code

Drift-to-Yield

See 2.3.1

O

Set p = 1 Call DAMPR ^ <;

u = Effective Ductility

5 = Critical Damping

Ratio DAMPR Computes

Compute modal param.

Call SPECTR

Compute modal resp.

SPECTR Interpolates Site

Ground Spectrum and

Amplifies for Structural

Damping (and Ductility,

if desired)

Compute total resp,

using selected option

no

no

Compute u Call DAMPR- ^

Compute and print

story forces and

shears (N0PTy«l)

E-24
Flow Diagram 6. Subroutine STATIC

Invert stiffness

matrix (NM0D?«3)

Building data

used to compute pressure

distributions.

See 2.3.2.

Compute pressure

forces. Call

WIND or TRNAD0

Compute wind

deflections

Compute interstory

drift and shear

E-25
Flow Diagram 7. Subroutine LSR00F

TYPEA

Roof angle _

Depth of ponding

Uplife capacity

Collapse capacity

External

Pressure

Coefficients

0

Detailed Swiss

Analysis, Compute

upl if t force

General ANSI

Analysis, Compute

upl if t force

no

General Swiss

Analysis, Compute

uplift force

Compute uplift

force to uplift

capacity

Compute ponding load

and compare to collapse capacity

E-26
Flow Diagram 8. Subroutine DAMAG

Damageabil ity

data for both

earthqua ke and wind

Damageab il ity—

data for earthquake only

Damageabi 1 ity

data for wind

only

Evaluate damage due

to earthquakes

Evaluate damage due

to wind or tornado

LSR0PT=O^>_2£1

no

Evaluate damage to long-span roof

©

E-27
1.6 Capacity

The following restrictions apply to each two-dimensional frame

generated; none of the restrictions may be exceeded:

Number of stories 30

Number of bays 9 Beam section types 99

Column section types 99

Total number of beams 200

Total number of columns 200

There is no limit to the number of frames which may be generated.

Stiffness matrices of framed structures are usually well con- ditioned and round-off error is rarely a problem. The program

basically works in single precision arithmetic; therefore, care should be taken when members with very large relative stiffnesses

are used. A good rule of thumb is to avoid the use of relative

4 stiffness ratios greater than 10 . Numerical problems can occur

in both matrix equation solving subroutines and the eigenproblem

subroutine if an ill-conditioned problem is formulated.

E-28
2.0 INPUT PREPARATION

Input is free form; that is, each card is identified by its

logical sequence in the input stream (no card identification

code is included) , and each field within a card is delimited

by commas and identified by its sequence within the card.

Any omitted fields are identified by two adjacent commas, i.e. n adjacent commas signify n-1 adjacent fields which are omitted.

Data entered in vector form, e.g. VEL(I), 1=1, NPTS as shown in

Section 2.1.2, are entered in consecutive fields on one card

or more as required. Numerical values must be input in either

integer or floating point format as indicated by I or F . All

units are in KIPS, INCHES and SECONDS except as noted.

The data for a computer run must be organized in the sequence

described in the following paragraphs.

Input to Program MAIN

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 TITLE

B 1 NHAZ (I) , 1=1,3

C 1 DLAT, DL0NG

D 1 LRISK, NM0D, LSR0PT

A: Title Card - Up to 72 characters beginning in Column 1.

B: Hazards Option Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NHAZ (1) ^ 0 Consider earthquake

2 I NHAZ (2) 0 Consider wind

3 I NHAZ (3

)

^ 0 Consider tornado

* Free form input may not be used on the CDC-3600 computer. A

special version of the program is available for this machine.

See Appendix.

E-29
C: Site Location

Site location is specified by reading in latitude and

longitude relative to standard global coordinates.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F DLAT North Latitude

2 F DLONG West Longitude

D: Program Control Options

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I LRISK ^ 0 Exercise risk option for

earthquake

2 I NM0D Structural Modeling Option

= 1 Detailed Frame

= 2 Story Stiffness

= 3 Empirical

3 I LSR0PT 7^ 0 Evaluate damage to longspan roof

E-30
2.1 Loads

2.1.1 Earthquake (See Section 3.4 of the main text.)

2.1.1.1 Input to Subroutine SEISMC

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 EM, REAR (LRISK = 0)

B 1 LP (LRISK 7^ 0)

C 1 RNI (LP = 0)

D 1 BLIFE, PN0C (LP 0)

E 1 A, ASIG, RBAR

F 1 ENSIG, EMMAX ' G 1 LC0P

H 1 CI, C2, C3 (LCOP 7^ 0) I 1 CAl, CA2

J 1 CDl, CD2

E-31
A: Deterministic Earthquake (LRISK == 0)

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F EM Richter Magnitude for

deterministic earthquake

2 F REAR Hypocentral distance from

building site to earthquake source (miles)

B: Life and Probability Option (LRISK i- 0)

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I LP - 0 : User input return

period

7^ 0 : User input life and

probability of non- occurrence

Return Period (LRISK 7^ 0, LP = 0)

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F RNI Return period in years

Life and Probability (LRISK 7^ 0 , LP 7^ 0)

Field No.

1 F

2 F

Symbolic Code

BLIFE

PN0C

Description of Contents

Life expectancy of building in years

Desired probability that

an earthquake of computed

magnitude or greater

will not occur during a period of BLIFE.

E-32
E: Seismicity Data (LRISK 0)

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F

2 F

3 F

A

ASIG

REAR

Seismicity obtained from

map for specified Location

Standard deviation of A

also from map

Effective hypocentral

distance of risk earthquake (miles)

F : Parameters for Specifying Risk Earthquake (See Section 3. 4 of the main text.) of Magnitude EM

EM =

where

M = 1/.9 [(A

EMMAX

+ ENSIG*ASIG) -log^O^J :Mn EMMAX

:M>EMMAX

N = 1/RNI :LP = 0

-ln(PN0C)/BLIFE :LP 7^ 0

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F ENSIG Number of standard deviations

above mean seismicity

used to determine Engineering

Seismicity

2 F EMMAX User imposed upper limit on magnitude of Risk

Earthquake

E-33
G : Input Option

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I LC0P = 0 Use internal constants

for computing hard rock

ground motion from EM

and KBAR

7^ 0 User supply constants

if available from independent source

H: Velocity Constants (LC0P f 0)

If LC0P = 0, the user must input constants to be used in com- puting hard-rock ground velocity from the formula

V = CI X 10^2 (EM) ^ RBAR-(")

r

These may be computed independently by the user based on regression analysis if data are available (See Section 3.4

of the main text) , or determined by an other means available

to him, e.g. recommendations by another source.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F CI See above formula

2 F C2 See above formula

3 F C3 See above formula

E-34
I : Acceleration Constants (LC0P f 0)

If LC0P 7^ 0, the user must input constants (Refer to card H

above) to be used in computing hard-rock ground acceleration

from the formula

log A = CAl + CA2 x log V

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F CAl See above formula

2 F CA2 See above formula

J : Displacement Constants (LC0P 7^ 0)

If LC0P 7^ 0, the user must input constants (Refer to card H

above) for computing hard-rock ground displacement from the

formula

log D^ = CDl + CD2 x log

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F CDl See above formula

2 F CD2 See above formula

E-35
2.1.1.2 Input to Subroutine S0IL0D (See Section 3 . 4 of

the main text.

)

Card No. No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 IPR0C, SIG

A: Soil Model Option and Standard Deviation Specification

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I IPR0C A code for which soil model

is to be specified.*

2 F SIG The number of standard deviations to be applied to the

calculated amplification

spectrum. SIG=0.0 is for mean

analysis; SIG=1.0 is for 1 Sigma analysis, etc.

* IPR0C = 1 -> Complex Model

= 2 ->- Semi'-Complex Model

= 3 -y Simple Method (a, b or c) = 4 ^ Simple Method (d)

= 5 -^^ Ground Particle Velocity Spectra Input directly

2.1.1.2.1 Complex Model: IPR0C = 1

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A

B

1 ITYPE, N

N THICK (I), DENSI(I), VEL0C(I),

PHI (I)

A: Option Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I ITYPE = 1 Complex Model

^ 1 Semi-Complex Model

2 I N Number of soil layers

E-36
B : Complex Model Data

Read data in ascending order , i.e. from base-rock up.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F THICK (I) Layer Thickness (ft)

2 F DENSI (I) Layer Wet Density (pcf)

3 F VEL0C (I) Layer SH-Wave Velocity

(ft/sec)

4 F PHI (I) Layer damping

(fraction of critical)

2.1.1.2.2 Semi -Complex Model : IPR0C=2

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 ITYPE, N

B 1 DAMP

C N T(I) , DE(I) , W(I)

A: Option Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I

2 I

B: Top Laye

ITYPE

N

r Damping Card

= 1 Complex Model

i- 1 Semi -Complex Model

Number of Soil Layers

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F DAMP Damping of Top Layer

(fraction of critical)

E-37
C : Semi-Complex Model Data

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F T(I) Layer Thickness (ft)

2 F DEd) Layer Wet Density (pcf)

3 F W(I) Layer Moisture Content

(% of Dry Weight)

2.1.1.2.3 Simple Method (a,b,c) IPR0C=3

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 IAPR0, N

B N T(I) ,DE(I) ,W(I) (IAPR0=1)

C 1 IS0IL,H20 (IAPR0=2)

D N V(I) , DE(I) (IAPR0=3)

A: Simple Method Option Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I IAPR0 = 1 Simple Method (a) = 2 Simple Method (c) = 3 Simple Method (b)

2 I N Number of Layers if IAPR0=1,

3. N=0 if IAPR0=2. Zero must

appear on the Data Card.

B: Simple Method (a) Data Card (See 2.1.1.2.2 C, above)

C : Simple Method (c) Data Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I IS0IL Soil Code for DAF calculation.

See Table 1.

2 F H20 Depth to Water Table in Feet.

E-38
Table 1. Soil Codes for Simple Method (c)

IS0IL Material

1 Fill or Soft Soil

2 Sandy and Clayey Ground

3 Rock Debris

4 Gypsum and Marl

5 Limestone and Sandstone

6 Granite

D: Simple Method (b) Data Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F V{I) Layer Velocity (ft) See

sample equations - Ref. 3.20

2 F DE(I) Layer Wet Density (pcf)

2.1.1.2.4 Simple Method (d) : IPR0C=4 (Section 3 . 4 of main

text)

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A

B

1 IC0DE, I SAT

1 H,DEN

A: Simple Method (d) Data Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I IC0DE Geologic Period Code

See Table 2.

2 I I SAT Saturation Code

= 1 Soil is Saturated

7^ 1 Soil is Unsaturated

E-39
Table 2. Geologic Codes for Simple Method (d)

ICODE Period Era

c Age (x 10 years)

X Holocene Cenozoic nil

£. Quaternary

Pleistocene ^

)

A4 Pliocene Id

D Miocene ZD

D ux igocene

'n1 Eocene 4i

8 Cretaceous Mesozoic 93

C\y Juraissic 152

10 Triassic 175

11 Permian Paleozoic 192

12 Pennsylvanian 22 0 13 Mississippian 245

14 Devonian 284

15 Silurian 355

16 Qrdovician 390

17 Canadian 415

18 Ozarkian 440

19 Upper-Middle Cambrian 490

20 Lower Cambrian 515

*Note: In establishing the ICODE shown, the chronological sequence was

not followed for these two periods.

E-40
B: Simple Method (d) Data Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

I F H Depth of Soil Model , usually a minimum of 1/2 maximum plan

dimension (ft)

2 F DEN Soil Wet Density (pcf)

If user desires, he may use the internally set value of

DEN = 135 pcf by setting DEN< 0 . 0

2.1.1.3 User Input of Specified Site Particle Velocity Spectrum

If the user desires, he may input his own site particle

Velocity spectrum. This option is invoked by specifying

IPR0C = 5 (See Section 2.1.1.2). Following Card A of input

to subroutine S(5IL0D, three additional cards are required.

On the first, the number of data points, NDATA, to be input

is specified. On the second, values of the input period,

TIN (I) are specified. On the third, corresponding values

of input velocity, YIN(I), are specified. No other input

data are required.

Any number of data points may be input. Subrountine S0IL0D

uses linear interpolation to compute the vectors T(I) and Y(I)

corresponding to period increments of 0.1 sec. ranging from 0.1 sec. to 10 sec. One word of caution: although the user may

specify as few as two input spectrum data points, the program

will compute 100 spectrum points by linear not logarithmic interpolation. Thus if the user has picked points off a log-log plot,

intermediate points may deviate significantly from straight lines

on the log-log plot. To adequately define the entire spectrum

from 0.1 sec. to 10 sec. periods, at least 8 to 10 points should

b e i n p u t

E-41
2.1.2 Wind: Input to Subroutine WNDL0D

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 ISITE, ITEST, ITY, ISHAPE

B 1 SIG (ITEST 1)

C 1 NPTS (ITEST 1)

D 1 VEL(I), 1=1, NPTS (ITEST 1)

E 1 RETRN(I), 1=1, NPTS (ITEST 1)

F 1 PERIOD (ITY = 1, ITEST 1 ) G 1 BLIFE, PROB (ITY = 2, ITEST 1)

H 1 VF (ITEST 2)

Wind Load Control Card

Field No, Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I

2 I

3 I

4 I

ISITE

ITEST

ITY

ISHAPE

B: Specification of Standard

Code that describes terrain

surrounding the structure-Table 3 = 1 Statistical Analysis

= 2 Deterministic Analysis

ITY specifies statistical

approach to be used.

= 1 Return Period Analysis

= 2 Life and Probability of

non-occurrence analysis

= 0 Deterministic Analysis

= 1 External Pressure Coefficients

stored in program will be used

= 2 User will specify external

pressure coefficients

Deviation

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F SIG Number of standard deviations for

specification of wind velocities

SIG = 0.0 is for mean analysis

E-42
Table 3. Power Law Exponents for Various

Terrains and Input Codes

ISITE Description of the Terrain Power Law

Exponent (1/a)

1 For centers of large cities 1/3

2 For wooden countryside,

parkland, towns, outskirts

of large cities, rough

coastal belts

1/4.5

3 For open country, flat

coastal belts, small islands situated in large

bodies of water, prairie

grassland, tundra, etc.

1/7

E-43
statistical Analysis Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I

D: Wind Velc

NPTS

cities for Statis

Number of velocities and return

periods from Thom's maps (Fig.

6 to 10 and Table 4.

for use in regression analysis.

tical Analysis

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F

E: Wind Velc

VEL(I), 1=1,

3city Return Perio

Velocities (fastest-mile, mph)

from Thom's maps for regression

analysis

ds for Statistical Analysis

(for use Field No.

if ITEST = 1 Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F

F: Return P< Field No.

RETRN(I), 1=1,

NPTS

sriod

Symbolic Code

Return periods in years corresponding to velocities in D above

Description of Contents

1 F PERIOD Return period in years to find

design velocity use the results

of regression analysis from

C, D, E above

E-44
G: Life Probability of Non-occurrence Analysis

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F

2 F

BLIFE

PROB

Life of the structure in years,

Probability that the calculated wind velocity from

regression analysis will not

be exceeded during BLIFE.

H: Deterministic Wind Velocity

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F VF User value of wind velocity - fastest mile data in mph.
E-46
E-47
E-48
E-49
E-50
Table 4. Hawaii Fastest Mile Data (mph) at Sea Level*

Exposure Return Period in Years

2 10 25 50 100

Leeward (Westerly) 38 51 60 67 75

Windward (Easterly) 42 59 70 80 91

The following footnote applies only to Hawaii.

Since the data of Table 4 is taken at sea level stations,

it must be converted to an equivalent fastest mile wind

velocity at 30 feet above the ground for a site at an elevation Z feet above sea level. The user must do the

following conversion before entering the data into the

wind program:

V„,^ = V

where

Z + 30 1/7

Z30 30 30

V^Q = a velocity from Table 4.

Z = elevation of site above sea level in feet.

^Z30 ~ fastest mile wind velocity at 30 feet

above ground for the site

E-51
2.1.3 Tornado: Input to Subroutine TRNL0D (See Section 3.4 of

the main text.

)

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 BL, Fl, IT0R

B 1 VT (IT0R f 0)

A: Site Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F BL Building Life

2 F Fl Number of tornados per year

from Figure 11.

3 I IT0R = 0 Omit Wind Loads

7^ 0 Compute static response

and damage due to

pressure loads

B: Velocity Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F VT Tornado Wind Velocity

E-52
E- 53
2.2 Structural Model: Input to Subroutine STRUCT

See Section 3.4 of the main text.

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 NS, TWB, TLB, PHR, N0PRT

A: Structure Configuration Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NS Number of stories

2 F TWB Total width of building

3 F TLB Total length of building

4 F PHR Parapet height

5 I N0PRT = 1 Suppress portions of

printed output

2.2.1 Level 1 - Detailed Frame Model:

Input to Subroutine STIFFl

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 NFRMS

B 1 N0PT

2 See Sub-Chart for each N0PT

E-54
A: Number of Frames

Any number frames may be used to model a building. Since the

model is two-dimensional, stiffness matrices for the various

frames are superposed (summed) . Each frame is assumed to lie

in a vertical plane parallel to the direction of motion. Thus,

for example, if the outside frames contain concrete shearwalls

while the inner frames are constructed primarily of steel beams

and columns, each may be modeled separately and their contributions to the overall stiffness of the structure will be

additive, analogous to springs acting in parallel.

The framing options presented herein offer the user considerable

latitude in types of building framing options. However, it

should be noted that the user may, by placing "near zero"

virtual members (properties down to 10"^ magnitude levels may

be used without numerical i 1 1 -condi ti oni ng ) extend the range

of framing types. K bracing and other bracing systems may be

handled in this manner. Once experience is gained in this area

the program usage is greatl)' inhanced.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NFRMS Number of frames to be

used in detailed model

B: Frame Option Card

Individual frames for a particular building may be modeled using

either N0PT = 1 or 2 in any combination. The only restriction

is that story heights for all frames be the same.

Field No. Symbolic 'Code Description of Contents

1 I N0PT = 1 Steel frame

(may have non-rigid

= 2 General frame

(used for concrete

structures)

E-55
Sub-Chart for N0PT = 1: Steel Frame Model

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

C 1

E, NB, NBT, NCT, NBB, NBRT,

NRFJ, NDLC

D NBT J, AB (J) , IB (J) , WB (J)

E NCT J, AC (J) , IC (J) , WC (J)

F NBRT J, ABR(J)

ABR = Area of brace

G NB* NUM, BW

H NS* NUM, SH

I NB* NUM, BT, (IFR,A,B,SCJ,SCK)'^

J w NC* NUM, CT, (IFR,A,B,SCJ,SCK)

K NBB BN, BTl, BT2

+ Omit if NRFJ=1

* May be less (refer to detailed explanation)

Sub -Chart for N0PT = 2: General Frame Model

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

C 1 NB, NBT, NCT, E, G, EB, GB,

WTB, WTC, NDLC

D NBT J, Bl, Dl, ISECT/Tl, T2

E NCT J, Bl, Dl, ISECT/Tl, T2

G NB* NUM, BW, BLl, ALl

H NS* NUM, SH

I

Ui2

NB* NUM, BT

J NC* NUM, CT

* May be less (refer to detailed explanation)
Frame Description Card

Only one Frame Description card is used per frame.

N0PT = 1, the card contains:

If

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F E Young's modulus

2 I NB Number of bays

3 I NBT Number of beam sections

4 I NCT Number of column sections

5 I Number of braced bays

6 I NBRT Number of bracing types

7 I NRFJ If NRFJ=1, frame joints

are non- rigid.

8 I NDLC If NDLC=1, the dead load

of the framing is not

included in the building

mass

If N0PT = 2, the card contains

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NB Number of bays

2 I NBT Number of beam sections

3 I NCT Number of column sections

4 F E Young's modulus for columns

5 F G Shear modulus for colximns

6 F EB Young ' s modulus for beams

7 F GB Shear modulus for beams

8 F WTB Weight of beam (Ibs/cu. ft.)

9 F WTC Weight of coliamn

(Ibs/cu. ft.)

10 I NDLC If NDLC=1, the dead load of

the framing is not included

in the building mass.

E-57
Df Beam Properties Card

The Beam Properties card is used to override beam properties

already included in the data base or to add additional beam

properties for use in this particular run (refer to Table 5)

The total number of cards must equal the number entered for

NBT in the Frame Description card. If N0PT=1, the card

contains

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I J Beam niomber; if it is

jjtitween j. anu oj., lu over

rides corresponding properties in the data base;

IE It IS Detween oz an.u yy,

it adds additional properties to the data base.

2 F AB 2 Area {in. ) 3 F IB 4 Moment of inertia (in. ) 4 F WB Weight (lb/ft)

If N0PT = 2, the card contains:

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I J Beam number

2 F Bl Beam dimension, see Fig. 12

3 F Dl* Beam dimension, see Fig. 12

4 I ISECT Beam section code, see Figure 12

1

2

F

F

Tl

T2

Beam dimension ^ enter

values

on next

card, if

Beam dimension ^ ISECT >2

* If ISECT = 2, Dl is not used in computation. However,, the

beam properties card must still contain 4 fields. Either

two adjacent commas or a dummy value must be soecified.

E-58
Table 5. Beam Sections Included in Stored Data Base

Beam No. Section Beam NoSection

1

23

4

5

6

7

89 10

11

,12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

W16X

W18X

W21X

W24X

26 42

31 43

36 44

40 45

45 46

50 47

58 48

64

71

78

88

96

49

50

51

52

53

35 54

40 55

45

50

55

60

64

70

77

85

96

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

105 64

114 65

44

49

55

62

68

66

67

68

69

70

73 71

82 72

96 73

112 74

127 75

142 76

55

61

68

76

84

77

78

79

80

81

W27X

W3 0X

W33X

W3 6X

94

100

110

120

130

145

160

84

94

102

114

145

160

177

99

108

116

124

132

172

190

210

118

130

141

152

200

220

240

135

150

:160

il70

-182

L94

230

2543

-2"60 280

300

E-59
Bl

ISECT = 1 Q

ISECT = 2

CO A

Bl

ISECT = 3

T2

T2

T2

T2

Tl

Bl

11

2

o oH

C -P o o

•H <

O Q)

(1) E

V4 nj •HQ b

T2

ISECT = 4

Bl

Figure 12 . Beam and Coliomn Sections

E-60
Coluitin Properties Card

The Colvunn Properties card is used to override column properties already included in the data base or to add additional

column properties for use in this particular run (refer to

Table 6) . The total number of cards must equal the number

entered for NCT in the Frame Description card. If N0PT = 1,

the card contains:

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I

2 F

3 F

4 F

AC

IC

WC

Coliimn number; if it is

between 1 and 38 or 51 and

88, it overrides corres- ponding properties in the

data base; if it is between

39 and 50 or 89 and 99, it

adds additional properties

to the data base.

2 Area (in. ) 4 Moment of inertia (in. ) Weight (lb/ft)

If N0PT ='2, the card contains;

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I J Column number

2 F Bl Column dimension. see Figure 12

3 F Dl * Column dimension. see Figure 12

4 I ISECT Column section code.

see Figure 12

1 F Tl Column dimension r enter

values

on next

card if

2 F T2 Column dimension ISECT >2

If ISECT = 2, Dl is not used in computation. However, the

column properties card must still contain 4 fields. Either

two adjacent commas or a dummy value must be specified.

E-51
Table 6. Column Sections Included in Stored Data

Base

Column Number

Section

Strong Axis Bending Weak Axis Bending

1X ^ X W14X 61

68

•3 74

4 54 W14X 78

5 55 84

6 56 W J. *i A o / 7 57

8 58 X u o

9 59 111

10 60 119

11 61 127

12 62 136

63 W14X 142

1 4 64 150

65 158

X \J 66 XV/ 1 fi7 17 67 X1 7fi / V 18 68 184

19 69 X ^ 20 70 202

21 71 ^ X X 22 72 ^?1X 9^ 23 73 228

24 74 237

25 75 W X *4 A ^ t o 26 76 <C D *t 27 77 £.0 ? P 71 28 78 J X ft 29 79 342

30 80 370

31 81 398

32 82 426

33 83 W14X 455

1 34 84 500

! 35 85 550

' 36 86 605

37 87 665

38 88 730

E-62
F: Brace Description Card

One Brace Description card is required for each bracing

type. A bracing type is associated with a diagonal bay

member of a particular cross-sectional area. Any one bracing type may be used repeatedly throughout the frame

and is specified by either of the variables BTl or BT2

which are defined for Card K.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I J Integer numbers identifying

bracing type

2 F ABR (J) Cross-sectional area of

bracing member type J

G: Bay Description Card

One Bay Description card is required for each set of

consecutive bays with identical widths. The total number of cards is always less than or equal to the number

of bays NB in the Frame Description card. If N0PT = 1,

enter only items in fields 1 and 2. If N0PT = 2, enter

all four items.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NUM Niimber of consecutive

bays of identical width

2 F BW Bay width

3 F BLl Distance to face of column

left end of span

(see Figure 13)

4 F ALl Distance to face of column

right end of span

(see Figure 13)

E-63
Shearwall

r

Shearwall Shearwall

BW,

AL, BL,

BW,

1^

AL, BL.

First Bay Second Bay

Figure 13. Bay Dimensions for N0PT = 2

E-64
H: Story Description Card

One Story Description card is required for each set of

consecutive stories with identical height. The total number of cards is always less than or equal to the number of

stories indicated in field 3 (NS) of the Control card.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

Number of consecutive stories

of identical height

Story height

1 I NUM

2 F SH

Beam Card

One Beam card is required for each set of consecutively

identical members for each story. The total number of

cards per story is always less than or equal to the num- ber of bays . if n0PT = 1 and NRFJ = 1, omit fields 3 through 7. If N0PT = 2, omit fields 3 through 7.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NUM Number of consecutively

identical beams, starting

from the left.

2 I BT Type of beam from data

base (Table 5) or input

(Beam Properties card)

3 I IFR IFRt^ 1 joints are assumed

rigid and the values for

SCJ and SCK that are read

in are ignored.

4 F A Dimension of rigid joint

at left end (see Fig. 14).

5 F B Dimension of rigid joint

at right end (see Fig. 14).

6 F SCJ Spring constant left end

(see Figure 14) . 7 F SCK Spring constant right end

(see Figure 14)

E-65
Rigid

Column Center Line

Rigid

SCJ

BT

A

BEAM

Beam Center Line

Rigidid

Rigid

CT

SCK

Beam Center Line

COLUMN

Figure 14. Beam and Column for N0PT = 1

E-66
J: Column Card

One Column card is required for each set of consecutively

identical columns. The total number of Column cards per

story is always less than or equal to the number of bays

plus 1 (Figure 4). If N0PT = 1 and NRFJ = 1, omit fields

3 through 7. If N0PT = 2, omit fields 3 through 7.

Field No. Symbolic Code

1 I NUM Number of consecutively

identical columns, starting

from the left.

2 I CT Type of column from data base

(Table 6) or input (Column

irropeiTuieo carQ^ .

3 I IFR IFR=1, joints are assumed

rigid and the values for

SCJ and SCK that are read in are ignored.

4 F A Dimension of rigid joint at

top end (see Figure 14)

5 F B Dimension of rigid joint at

bottom end(see Figure 14).

6 F SCJ Spring constant top end

(see Figure 14)

,

7 F SCK Spring constant bottom end

(see Figure 14)

K: Brace Card

The niimber of Brace cards is always equal to NBB. Refer

to Figure 15 for the orientation of the pair of braces.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I BN Beam number (refer to

Figure 11)

2 I BTl Brace type for first brace.

3 I BT2 Brace type for second brace.

E-67
Beam No. BN

BTl ^ ^BT2

BRACING

Note - K bracing and other bracing systems may be handled by

inserting "ficticious" members or members with near zero stiffness.

Figure 15. Braces for N0PT = 1

E-68
2.2.2 Level 2 - Story Stiffness Model:

Input to Subroutine STIFF2

Card No. of Cards Input Variable

A 1 SK(I) , 1=1, NS

B 1 LC (I) , 1=1, NS

A: Story Stiffness Card

Story stiffness coefficients are read form this card, top to

bottom. These stiffnesses correspond to the springs shown in

Figure 2 . They need not represent translational stiffnesses

of column type structures where both ends of the column are constrained against rotation. Although this is one interpretation, resHalting modal frequencies may be too high so that

somewhat smaller stiffness coefficients should be used.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F SK(I) Stiffness coefficient

for the Ith story

B: Story Height Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F LC(I) Height of Ith story

E-69
2.2.3 Level 3 - Empirical Model: Input to Subroutine STIFF3

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 TI

B 1 LC (I) , 1=1, NS

n

A: Fundamental Period

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F TI Fundamental Period

B: Story Heights

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F LC (I) Height of Ith Story

2.2.4 Floor Weight - Input to Subroutine FLMASS

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 FWT(I) , I = 1, NS

A: Floor Weight

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F FWT (I) Weight of Ith floor in KIPS

E-70
2.3 Response (See Section 3 . 4 of the main text)

2.3.1 Input to Subroutine DYNAMC

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A

B

1 NDAMP, ITERMX, LD, MC0P

1 DRFTY{I) , 1=1, NS

A: Option Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I NDAMP

2 I

3 I

ITERMX

LD

4 I MC0P

= 1 Damping for steel and

reinforced concrete frame

structures

= 2 Damping for bolted

steel frame or timber structures

Maximum number of iterations

allowed to converge on damping and ductility.

= 0 Do not modify damped

response spectrum to ac- count for ductility.

7^ 0 Modify response spectrum for ductility.

Modal Combination Option

= 1 First Mode Only

= 2 RSS

= 3 Sum absolute values

B: Story Drift to Yield

This quantity, A^, is used to compute ductility A/A and

y

represents the drift of each story at which yielding begins

to occur somewhere within the primary structure of that

story. The user should input appropriate values according

to whether yielding occurs first to frame or structural walls.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to N F DRFTY (I) Interstory drift to yield

each story

E-71
2.3.2 Input to Subroutine STATIC, NHAZ(2) ?^ 0 See Section 3.4 of the main text.

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

A 1 BS

B 1

* ITYPE , ANGLE (ISHAPE = 1)

C i CA, CB, ANGLE (ISHAPE = 2)

D 1 CC, CD (ISHAPE = 2)

E 1 RATIQ^, IWALL

*See Table 7 for values of ITYPE for specific building

configurations

A: Ambient Damping for Wind Analysis

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F BS Building Damping Under Wind

Conditions as a fraction of

critical. This value should

be less than the damping of

the building under strong

earthquake conditions.

B. Specification of External Presure Coefficients Using

Stored Data

For Use if ISHAPE = 1. See Section 2.1.2, Card A.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I ITYPE Code from Table 7 for specification of

building's shape

2 I ANGLE Code from Table 8 for specification of

wind direction.

E-72
Table 7. Building Identification by Code

ITYPE Using Swiss and ANSI A58.1 - 1972

Data, External Pressure Coefficients.

All Data Are Swiss Unless Otherwise

Noted.

I TYPE

Gabled Roofs 0°-3°

h:h:l = 1:4:4

E G

F H

A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.3 -.4 -.4 -.8 -.8 -.3 -.3

45° .5 -.4 .5 -.4 -.9 -.6 -.6 -.3

90° -.4 -.4 .9 -.3 -.8 -.3 -.8 -.3

Gabled Roofs 0"-10O

7^

h:h:l = 1:1:1

E G

A

F H

<)) A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.5 -.6 -.6 -.7 -.7 -.5 -.5

45° .5 -.5 .5 -.5 -.8 -.5 -.5 -.4

90° -.6 -.6 .9 -.5 -.7 -.5 -.7 -.5

Gabled Roofs 0°-15°

h:b:£ = 2.5:1:1

--b-H

C

E G

F H

A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.6 -.7 -.7 -.8 -.8 -.8 -.8

45° .5 -.5 -.5 -.5 -.8 -.7 -.7 -.5

90° -.7 -.7 .9 -.6 -.8 -.8 -.8 -.8

E-73
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

I TYPE

h:b:£ = 1:8:16

E G

F H

A B C D E F G H

0° .8 -.5 -.5 -.5 .2 .2 -.6 -.6

45° .5 -.5 .4 -.3 .1 -.1 -.8 -.5

90° -.3 -.3 . 9 -.3 -.5 -.1 -.5 -.1

0-10'

E G

F H

h:b:£ = 2.5:2:5

A B C D E F G H

0° . 9 -.5 -.7 -.7 -.6 -.6 -.5 -.5

45° .6 -.5 . 4 -.5 -.9 -.7 -.6 -.7

90° -.5 -.5 . 9 -.4 -.8 -.2 -.8 -.2

30'

E G

F H

h:b:£ = 2.5:2:5

A B C D E F G H •

0° .9 -.5 -.7 -.7 -.6 -.6 -.5 -.5

45° .6 -.5 .4 -.4 -.4 -.5 -.6 -.7

90° -.5 -.5 . 9 -.4 -.7 -.2 -.7 -.2

E-74
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

E-75
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

I TYPE

10

-yf- 60'

h

y

30^

c

E G

F H

h:b:£ = 1:1:5

<{> A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -..5 -.6 -.6 .6 .6 - .5 -.5

45° .5 -.8 .4 -.5 .2 -,1 -1.0 -.8

90° -.4 -.4 .9 -.3 -.4 0 - .4 0

11 EFGHJKLM

60^ 30^

h

Neglect Wind

Friction h:b:ii = 1:4:5

A

EFGHJKLM B

A B C D E F G H J K L M

0°

.9 -.3 -.4 -.4 .6 -.6 -.6' -.5 -.5 -.4 -.3 -.3

45° .5 -.4 .5 -.3 .2 -.8 -.5 -.4 -.2 -.4 -.2 -.5

90° -.4 -.4 .9 -'.3 -.3 -.4 -,4 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.3

12

30'

h

c

h:b:i!, = 1:3:4

A B C D E F G H J K L M

0° .9 -.5 -.6 -.6 -.8 -.8 -.4 -.4 i.0 -.4 .5 -.5

45° .5 -.5 .5 -.4 -.6 -.5 -.5 -.5 -.^5 -.5 -.5 -.5

90° -.5 -.5 . 9 -.4 -.8 -.4 -.8 -.4 -.4 -.4 -i^O -.4

E-76
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

I TYPE

13 TTpH,

• 5h I

^rVK h:b:Jl = 1:4:8

A E g|h K

1

.61

A B C D E F G H J K

0° .8 -.5 -.7 -.7 .2 .6 -1.0 - .6 - .5 -.6

45° .4 -.5 .4 -.5 - .3 .2 -1.3 -1.4 -1.0 -.7

90° -.4 -.4 .8 -.3 -.4 -.2 -.3 -.3 -.2 -.4

14

30° ^.(C^ -th

E G

F H

h:b:£ = 1:8:16

A B C D E F G H

0° .9 -.3 -.3 -.3 -.5 -.1 -.5 -.1

45° .4 -.3 .5 -.5 .1 -.J. -.8 -.5

90° -.5 -.5 .8 -.5 .2 .2 -.6 -.6

15 o-io^;x

E G

F H

h:b:Jl = 2.5:2:5

A B C D E F G H

0° . 9 -.4 -.5 -.5 -.8 -.2 -.8 -.2

45° .4 -.5 .6 -.5 -.9 -.7 -.6 -.7

90° -.7 -.7 .9 -.5 -.6 -.6 -.5 -.5

E-77
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

E-78
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

I TYPE

19 30^

A

E G

F H

h:h;l = 1:2.4:12

A B C D E F G H

0° . 9 -.2 -,4 -.3 - .3 0 - .3 0 45° .4 -.4 .5 -.6 -1.2 -.7 -1.1 -.7

90° -.6 -.6 .9 -.5 - .5 -.5 - .5 -.5

20

60

E G

F H

h:b:J!, = 1:1:5

A B C D E F G H

0° . 9 -.3 -.4 -.4 -.4 0 - .4 0 45° .4 -.5 .5 -.8 .2 -.1 -il.D -.JB 90° -.6 -.6 .9 -.5 .6 .6 - .5 -o5

21 EFGHJKLM Neglect Wind Friction

60

h:b:il = 1:4:5

GH JK LMD z

4> A B C D E F G H J K L M

0° ..a) -.3 -.4 -.4 -.3 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.3

45° .5 -.3 .5 -.4 .2 -.8 -.5 -.4 -.2 -.4 -.2 -.5

90° -.4 -.4 .9 -.3 .6 -.6 -.6 -.5 -.5 -.4 -.3 -.3

E-79
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

I TYPE

22

30^

T735h

h

h:b:£ = 1:3:4

D a

A B C D E F G H J K L M

0° .9 -.4 -.5 -.5 -.8 -.4 -.8 -.4 -.4 -.4 -LO -.4

45° .5 -.4 .5 -.5 -.6 -.5 -.5 -.5 -.5 -.5 - .5 -.5

90° -.6 -.6 .9 -.5 -.8 -.8 -.4 -.4 -1.0 -.4 -.5 -.5

23

24

h:b:il = 1:4:8

<)) A B C D E F G H J K

0° .8 -.3 -.4 -.4 -.4 -.2 - 3 - 3 - .2 -.4

45° .4 -.5 . 4 -.5 -.3 .2 -L3 -lA -10 -.7

90° -.7 -.7 .8 -.5 -.2 .6 -1.0 -.6 -.5 -.6

Essentially Flat

h:b:2. = 1:^2.5:^2.:

c

A B C D E F G H

0° .8 -.6 -.7 -.7 -.8 -.8 -.8 -.8

90° -.7 -.7 .8 -.6 -.8 -.8 -.8 -.8

E G

F H

B

ANSI A58.1 - 1972 ^

(No Specifications for = 45 )

E-80
Table 7. Building Identification (Continued)

I TYPE

25 Essentially Flat

E —

G

F H

L:b:« = 1 :<2. 5:<2 .5

A B C D E F G H

go .8 -.5 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7

90° -.7 -.7 .8 -.5 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7

ANSI A58:i - 1972

(No Specification for = 45°)

Table 8. Codes for Specification of Wind

Direction With Respect to Line

of Frame Action

ANGLE Direction

1 0°

2 45°

3 90°

E-81
C : User Specification of External Pressure Coefficients

For Frame Action Analysis . For use if ISHAPE = 2. See Section 2.1.2, Card A.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F CA Pressure coefficient for

windward wall for frame

action analysis. See

Fia . 16 . Wall 1

2 F CB Presure coefficient for

leeward wall for frame

action analysis. See

Fig. 16, Wall 2

3 I ANGLE Code for wind direction

with respect to line of

frame action. Table 8.

D: User Specification of External Pressure Coefficients

for Window Damage Estimates for Side Wall, i.e.. Walls

Parallel to Line of Frame Action.

Field No, Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F CC External Pressure Coefficient for Wall 3. See

Fig. 16.

2 F CD External Pressure coefficient for Wall 4. See

Fig. 16.

E: Window Damage Due to Wind Data.

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 F RATIO Ratio of open area to

solid area 0.^ ratio S 1.

2 I IWALL Wall code specifying which

exterior wall has the

majority of openings.

=1 Wall 1 See Fig. 16

=2 Wall 2 See Fig. 16

=3 Wall 3 See Fig. 16

=4 Wall 4 See Fig. 16

=5 Openings uniformly

distributed

E-82
CM

u

u

Q

o (1) •H

-P rO C U >

c m

o o u

0) C -iH H J

>-l Q) O

XI -P e2 U

iH m

u

3

in

•H

fa

E-83
2.3.3 Input to Subroutine LSR00F

Cards No. of Cards Input Variables

A

B

1 TYPEA, ALPHA, VL, CL, D0P , Np"*"

1 VECTOR (I j"^"^, 1=1, NP

(TYPEA = 3)

+ Set NP=0 only if TYPEA ?^ 3 ++ See Table 7 for User Input Options to VECTOR (I)

A: Long Span Roof Data Card

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 I TYPEA Analysis Type Code

= 1 General Swiss Approach*

= 2 ANSI Specifications*

= 3 Detailed Analysis, User

inputs roof pressure

coefficients

2 F ALPHA Slope of Roof in Degrees

3 F VL Roof uplift resistance

capacity in pounds.

Dead weight and connection

capacities to vertical uplift

4 F CL Collapse Capacity of walls

in pounds

5 F D0P Depth Of Ponding in Feet

6 I NP Number of data points to be

read for detailed analysis.

If TYPEA 7^ 3, some value

must be input, say Zero (0)

* Roof pressure coefficients are generated internally for

TYPEA = 1 and TYPEA = 2.

E-84
B: External Pressure Coefficients (TYPEA = 3 only)

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NP F VECTOR (I) VECTOR (I) contains roof

external pressure coefficients. Suggested values

are presented in Table 7.

Starting with data in column

E = VECTOR (1) F = VECTOR (2)

,

etc. through H or M, depending on structure selected.
2 . 4 Damage

2.4.1 Input to Subroutine DAMAG for either Earthquake, Wind , Tornado, or any Combination of the Three .

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

Al

Bl

11

DELTY

CVDY

(1,1)

,

(1,1) ,

1=1,

1=1,

NS

NS

Frame

A2

B2

1

1

DELTY

CVDY

(1,2) , (1,2) ,

II

II

H

H

NS

NS

Walls

A3

B3

1

1

DELTY

CVDY

(1,3) , (1,3) ,

1= 1,

1 = 1,

NS

NS

Diaphragms

C 1 HW(I) , 1=1, NS

D 1 BW(I) , 1=1, NS

Al: Interstory Drift to Yield - Frame

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F DELTY (1,1) Interstory drift to yield

See Methodology Report for

empirical data.

Bl: Coefficients of Variation - Frame

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F CVDY (1,1) Coefficient of Variation on DELTY (1,1)

A2 : Interstory Drift to Yield - Walls

See Bl above for description.

B2 : Coefficients of Variation - Walls

See C2 above for description.

E-86
A3 : Inters tory Drift to Yield - Diaphragms

See Bl above for description.

B3 : Coefficients of Variation - Diaphragms

See CI above for description.

C : Height of Windows

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

, 1 to NS F HW (I) Nominal window height

D: Width of Windows

Field TSIo. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F BW (I) Nominal window width

E-87
2.4.2 Additional Input to Subroutine DAMAG for Earthquake Only

Card No. of Cards Input Variables

Al 1 DMUF (I, 1) 1=1, NS

Frame Bl 1 CVDMUF (I, 1) 1=1, NS

A2 1 DMUF (I, 2) 1=1, NS Walls

CVDMUF (I, 2) 1=1, NS

A3 1 DMUF (I, 3) 1=1, NS , Diaphragms

B3 1 CVDMUF (I, 3) 1=1, NS

C 1 Q (I) 1=1, NS

D 1 DC (I) 1=1, MS

E 1 CVDLTG(I) 1=1, NS

Al; Ductility to Failure - Frame

Field No, Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F DMUF (1,1) Ductility to failure for

structural frame. Section 3. of the main text for data.

Bl: Coefficient of Variation on DMUF - Frame

Field No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F CVDMUF (I ,1) Coefficient of variation

on DMUF (1,1)

A2: Ductility to Failure - Walls

See Al above for description.

E-38
B2: Coefficient of Variation on DMUF - Walls

See Bl above for description.

A3 : Ductility to Failure - Diaphragms

See Al above for description.

B3 : Coefficient of Variation on DMUF - Diaphragms

See Bl above for description.

C: Quality Factor of Nonstructural Materials

Field No. Symbolic Code Description

1 to NS F Q(I) = 1 Poor quality

= 2 Minimum code quality

= 3 Superior quality

D: Mullion Clearance

Field No. Symbolic Code Description

1 to NS F DC (I) Average clearance in mullions

for nominal windows

E: Coefficient of Variation on Mullion Clearance

Field No. Symbolic Code Description

1 to NS F CVDLTG (I) Coefficient of variation

on DC (I)

E-89
2.4.3 Additional Input to Subroutine DAMAG for Wind Only.

Card No. Cards Input Variables

A 1 DELTYP (I) 1=1, NS

B 1 CVDYP (I) 1=1, NS

C 1 THG (I) 1=1, NS

D 1 SGB

E 1 CVPZR (I) 1=1, NS

A: Interstory Drift to Yield

Field No. Symbolic Code

1 to NS F DELTYP (I) Interstory drift to yield

(for nonstructural partitions)

caused by wind loads.

B: Coefficients of Variation - Partition

Field No. Symbolic Code Description

1 to NS F CVDYP (I) Coefficient of variation on DELTYP (I)

C: Thickness of Glass

Field No. Symbolic Code Description

1 to NS F THG (I) Thickness of glass used in

nominal windows

E-90
D: Breaking Stress Of Glass

The only failure mode considered is the overstressing of

glass due to direct pressure. Failure of window supports

is not considered.

Field No. Symbolic Code Descriptidh of Contents

1 F SGB Breaking stress of glass (psi)

E: Coefficients of Variation on Breaking Pressure

J"ield No. Symbolic Code Description of Contents

1 to NS F CVPZR (I) Coefficient of variation

on the breaking pressure

for nominal windows

E-91
3.0 OUTPUT DESCRIPTION

Printed output is generated by the computer program. Generally,

speaking, the output has been chosen to indicate which data

have been read into the program, to display the primary output

from loads, structural modeling, response and damage computations, and to display certain intermediate results which are helpful in interpreting the primary output. A brief discussion of output from the four major parts of the program is

given in the following paragraphs, followed by a sample listing.

3.1 Loads Output

For earthquake loads the program prints out input data, the

Richter Magnitude of the selected earthquake and its effective

hypocentral distance from the site. Hard rock acceleration,

velocity and displacement are also printed. Soils data

selected as input by the user are printed next, followed by the

ground velocity spectrum.

For wind loads the program prints out input data, statistical

data generated by the regression analysis based on Thorn's

maps which, includes a mean return wind velocity for specified

life and probability or return period, and a standard deviation. In case the risk option is bypassed, the user input

wind velocity is printed.

For tornado loads the program prints out input data on the

probability of strike for the site location. If a tornado

wind velocity is specified (IT0R = 1) , it too is printed.

E-92
3.2 Structural Modeling Output

The program will print out all of the modeling data either

input or selected from internal storage. However, the user may suppress portions of the printout by setting N0PRT = 1,

in which case detailed framing data are not printed. This

option is particularly useful when operating the program

from a remote terminal where printed output is time consuming

and costly. Gross modeling characteristics such as exterior

geometry, number of stories, frames, and bays per frame are output. A stiffness matric, weight vector, and modal matrix

are printed in any case.

3.3 Response Output

Input data read in this part of the program are printed. In

the iterative loop of DYNAMC where damping and ductility are being computed, these quantities are output along with modal

parameters and their corresponding spectral velocities. This

output is helpful in establishing the sensitivity of response

to these parameters. If the N0PRT option is not used (N0PRT f

1) , additional modal data are printed and story forces and

shears are printed for each of the three modal combination

options. The latter information is useful in illustrating the

range of total response obtainable by selecting among the

various options.

Output from STATIC consists of story drift and shears due to

wind pressure forces. The same output is provided for both

wind and tornado.

E-93
3 . 4 Damage Output

Output from DAMAG includes all of the damagiability data input by the user, as well as the results of damage computations

for earthquake, wind and tornado — structural, non-structural

and glass. This output is given story by story. In the case

of nonstructural damage due to earthquake, the values of

Modified Mercalli Intensity which form the basis of damage

computations are also printed out.

Damage to long-span roofs is simply indicated by a fail or

no fail type statement for each of the two modes of failure

separation and collapse.

E-94
@PRT,S NBSF.BXIO LISTING OF SAMPLE DATA INPUT PAGE 1/2

FURPUR T25-09/28-15 : 16

HASSELMAN-T-NBSF. BXIO

1 BRANDOW EXAMPLE 10

2 1,0,0

3 3^+. 2, 1 18 . 5 4 1,1,0

5 1 6 50 . , . 5

7 5 . 209, . 350, 50.

8 1 . , 8 . 5 9 0 10 3,1.0

11 2,1

12 2,40.0

13 6, 600.,300.,0.,0

14 1 15 2 16 2, 1,2, 3800. ,1520. ,2100., 840. ,0.,0.,0

17 1,12. ,28. ,4

18 5. ,48.

19 1, 18 . , 18 . , 1 2 0 2, 8., 150. ,1

21 1,480. ,9. ,80.

22 1, 480. ,80. ,9.

23 5,144.

24 2, 1 25 1,1

26 1,2

27 1,1

28 2,1

29 1,1

30 1,2

31 1,1

32 2 ,1

33 1,1

34 1,2

35 1,1

36 2,1

37 1,1

38 1,2

39 1,1

40 2,1

41 1,1

42 1,2

43 1,1

44 2,1

45 1,1

46 1,2

47 1,1

48 1000. ,1000. ,1000. ,1000. ,1000. ,1000.

49 1,6,1,2

50 . 013, .013,. 013, .0 1.3-, . 0 1 3 , . 0 1 3 51 .013, .013, .013, .013, .013, .013

52 . 2 5 , . 2 5, . 2 5, . 2 5, . 2 5, . 2 5 53 . 013, . 013, . 013, . 013, . 013, . 013

54 . 2 5, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 2 5 55 .013/. 013, .013, .013, .013, .013

56 . 2 5, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25

57 60. ,60. ,50. ,60. ,50. ,60.

58 50. ,50. ,60., 60. ,50. ,60.

59 18. ,18. ,18. ,18. ,18. ,18.

E-95
60 .25, .25, .25, .25. .25. .25 PAGE 2/2

61 11. ,11. ,11. ,11. ,11. ,11.

62 . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25

63 11. ,11. ,11. ,11. ,11. ,11.

5^+ . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 2 5 65 3. ,3. ,3. ,3. ,3. ,3.

66 . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 2 5, . 2 5 67 . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25, . 25

E-96
O CN o oo

en CM

O .-H <

COo O 00

00 CM

to

tJJ mQo >- <>

LUQQ<Q<

I—to o j- O CO cD t-o o 00

cD CN • _J 0 0 1—

0 00 o 00 LO LTl LA CN

r—

< II

Y I—

t—

< 0 r-^ ^- Z Z LU Q (—

1—

LO o >- Z

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Q LU cn 00 C^l LA J- O hA LA 1-1 J- tA 0 LU 0 1—

0 1^ 0

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LU > LL >- LL >- LL

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E-103
LU

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I I

o

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o o o o o o

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hA iJD o i-H r-^ o o o o o o

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h- W U_ Qo

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I-H cn J- J- rA LA OLUOOcDlAi-HOOCM

u_ o <Ti 00 rA cn lA cn QOLAcDr^i^cncM

LU iJ_ -i- rA c-4 i-H

CM rA J- LA CD rDQ

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u

CM rA J- lO

E-104
UJi

w

H

M

fH OJ i-H CM rH rH o O O O O O o O

1 1 1 1 1 1 + + o O o O o o o O

LPv m Ln oo Ln o o

rH CM iH CM rvi

CM ro

Q Q O o

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H CO 1- cn

LJJ a. ro LPv iH C7^ c— LU CL o CM m t~- (>^ s: moo \o r-\\0 5: a\ ro Lnv£) ro ct\ ^ CM ^ ^ H OO c\j -=r 1^ CM C7>

CO O CM ^ OO CX) CO V£) CI^ Ln rH Ln

LU < CX5 O iH O C^VD LLl < LnvD OO CO CM r\j Q UJ LTv CT^ iH m^ LPi Q LU o^ CM oo'o o OO O rH rH rH rH o I rH rH H CM CM

5: (/) s: CO

_i _J < <

CO CO

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UJ LU O rH CM OO CTnOO LLI LU MD O OO Lnvo ^

o O OO CM rH 0> VO CX3 o CJ Ln rH CM CJN OO O

ai Ln f>n CM rH rH CT\ OO rH CM OO ro O o o O

u. u. LL U- Q Q

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o o o O O o O O

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CD LU CM rH CM 1— H 11 OM 1— rH z H U H

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LL OO CQ Ln 2 OO CQ Ln Q ro CQ Ln >- o o 1-

a!. >- • co < rH z OJ H Z CM H z O yo

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ca OO > Ln CQ OO > Ln CO ro > Ln s O CO o

o s • <

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_i o _l o _1 o z Q

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ro Ln OO Ln OO LO 1- o O _1

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Q U Q o Q O X Q

E-105
1—

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CO Lr\ rH rH Ln o LTv in

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E-106
INPUT INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CDC 3600 COMPUTER

One of the stipulations regarding the development of this program

was that it be operational on the CDC 3600 Computer. In order to

satisfy this requirement, a modified version of the program was

created. The modified version is identical to the basic program

except for the input format and certain variations in the Fortran

language. The latter are of no concern to the user. The purpose

of the appendix is to describe the input format required by the

modified version.

The primary difference between the input format in this version

compared to the basic version of the program is that it is not

free form as noted in Section 2.0. However, the organization of

the input is identical. That is, there is a one-to-one corres- pondence between data cards except for overflow onto auxilary cards

whenever all of the information for a given card (e.g. Card A)

does not fit onto one card. This situation may arise whenever the

elements of a vector are entered sequentially on a single card,

such as "Card C" specified in Section 2. 4.1, on which numerical

values for the vector "HW" are punched.

All of the input data for the CDC 3600 version must be entered in

fields of eight (8) colximns each. There may be as many as ten

fields on any one card. Integer and floating point fields

(Format 18 and E8.3) may occur on the same card. These are indicated by I of F as discussed in the main body of this manual.

All interger values must be right justified in their particular

fields. Floating point values may be punched anywhere in the

field. Exponential format may be used for the latter. In this

case, the exponent must be right justified, e.g. the number 29.0E3

must be written such that the "3" appears in the eighth column of

the field.

E-107
The following examples illustrate the format requirements. These

examples have been chosen from the Listing of Sample Data Input

in Section 3.4.

Example 1: Line 2 (Card B, Section 2.0)

Column

1 1 1 1 1

8

1 |1

16

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

24

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0| 1 1 1

Field 1 2 3

Example 2 : Line 3 (Card C, Section 2.0)

Column

j3,4,

|2|

8

1 1

16

|1|^|8|-|5| 1 1 1 1 1

Field 1 2

Example 3; Line 3 (Card C, Section 2.0) Alternative format

Column 9 16

1 3l4| • |2| 1 1 .ll,l|8,5, |E|3[ 1 1 1

Field 1 2

Example 4: Line 10 (Card A, Section 2.1.1.2)

Column

1 1 1 1 i

8

1 |3 |0| t

16

1 1 1 1 1

Field 1 2

£-108
APPENDIX F

DETAILED ANALYTICAL METHOD - COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTING

This appendix contains a listing of the computer program used in the

Detailed Analytical Method. The program is written in Fortran IV and is

modularized to provide maximum flexibility for any future modification.

F-1
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR COMPUTER PROGRAM

1. LOAD

SEISMIC

SOILOD

WINDLOD

TRNLOD

2. STRUCT

STIFF 3 STIFF 2 STIFF 1 READ 1 SFRAME

READ 2 GFRAME

CONDEN

FRMASS

FLMASS

EIGENS

3. DYNAMC

DAMPR

SPECTR

COMPUTE

COMPUTE

COMPUTE

MODAL RESPONSE

TOTAL RESPONSE

DUCTILITY

Subroutine Subroutine

Call Statement Location

Page (Row) Page

F-4 / 1- '^ \

( 53

)

F-32 (21 ) F-48

F-32 (22) F-73

F-32 (24) F-72

F-32 (26) F-67

F-35 (1)

F-35 (34) F-31

F-35 (37) F-30

F-35 (40) F-33

F-33 (45) F-28

F-33 (53) F-17

F-33 (46) F-15

F-34 (54) F-21

F-34 (58) F-13

F-34 (56) F-23

F-35 (47) F-6

F-35 (53) F-9

F- 37 (1)

F- 37 (36)

F- 38 (59)

F- 38 (70)

F- 38 (96)

F- 39 (136)

F-2
Subroutine Subroutine

Call Statement Location

Page (Row) Page (Row)

4. C T A T T r0 1 A 1 i L

r

r - A O / 1 ^

TW\/rDT J.lNVtKI CrTTCCMCQCr oIlrrlNtoo MATDTY nAIKlA c

r - A 9 (lb)

r\ c r o M D U t L Un r c

r - A 0 1 ^ Q \

i IN V t K i

r

r - A 0 4 ^1 COMPUTE WIND PRESSURE F- 42 (25)

WIND F- 42 (28)

TORNADO F- A O / 1 A \

( 34}

COMPUTE WIND DEFLECTION F- A O

( 39 ) COMPUTE INTERSTORY DRIFT

AND SHEAR F- 43 (59)

LSROOF F- 68 (1)

DETAILED SWISS ANALYSIS F- 70 (120)

GENERAL ANSI ANALYSIS F- 68 (51)

GENERAL SWISS ANALYSIS F- 68 (35)

COMPUTE PONDING LOAD F- 71 (201 )

DAMAG F- 44 (1)

EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE F- 45 (103)

WIND AND TORNADO DAMAGE F- 46 (151 ) LONG-SPAN ROOF DAMAGE F- 47 (197)

F-9 (1)

F-12 (1)

F-58 (1

)

F-67 (1)

F-3
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hA 1^ jF-74
APPENDIX G

UNITED STATES SEISMICITY TABLES

This appendix contains tables of seismicity for the United States, according to geographical location. Three geographical areas are represented:

the continental United States, Alaska and Hawaii. Each of the areas has

been subdivided into grid "squares," one-half degree on a side as shown in

figures 3.15 through 3.17. Seismicity, A, is herein defined by the relationship

log^Q N = A - bM

for a specified are^ surrounding a site, where N is the frequency of occurrence (events per year) of earthquakes reported in the area having Richter

magnitudes greater than or equal to M, and b is a distribution constant set

equal to 0.9. The seismicity of a site is treated as a random variable as discussed in section 3.4. Its statistical parameters including a mean value A and a standard deviation have been computed from past earthquake

data. The data incl.ude the date, location, and magnitude of events having

M >^ 3.5. The data were used to construct log N versus M histograms for

each site (grid area), which take into account all of the recorded earthquakes close enough to cause potential damage, see figure 3.18. A regression analysis was performed for each grid area to determine values of A and a^.

The tables which follow contain ten columns of data. The first two columns

define the longitude sector of the grid area while the second two columns

define the latitude sector. Knowing the geographical coordinates of a particular site, one may go through the table until the appropriate longitude

is found and then read down the latitude columns to find the appropriate

latitude sector.

G-1
Two sets of data appear for each grid area, each containing three columns.

These are defined as follows:

A(H) = Mean seismicity A based on "Historic" data

which includes all recorded data up to the

year 1961.

0(H) = Standard deviation based on Historic data.

R(H) = Effective hypocentral distance to the source

of a representative earthquake (defined in

the following paragraph) of magnitude M, where

M is obtained from the above equation, given

N. The inverse of N (i.e., 1/N) may be interpreted as an average return period associated

with earthquakes of magnitudes >^ M.

The second set of data including A(N), 0(N) and R(N) correspond to the same three parameters above except that NOAA data from 1961 to 1973 form

the data base in lieu of the "Historic" data prior to 1961. A discussion

of how the two groups of data were used is included in section 3.4. In most cases, the data which produce the higher response spectrum are recom- mended .

These tables are intended to be used in the following way. First determine

an Engineering Seismicity (seismicity used for engineering purposes to es- tablish a representative earthquake of magnitude M). This is defined as where n is specified according to the level of confidence desired in bounding A, e.g., zero, one or two-s i gma- conf i dence levels. Specify a return

period (1/N) or compute N on the basis of risk parameters defined in section

3.4. Next compute the magnitude M of a representative earthquake (M will

represent the maximum probable earthquake having a return period of 1/N).

Having computed M, read the appropriate value of effective hypocentral

distance, R(H) or R(N), from the tables. Then, M and R specify the magnitude and location of the representative earthquake with respect to the site

location.

As pointed out by Algermissen [1.4] the development of seismic zoning maps

and the characterization of site seismicity is a "relatively recent development

in s ei smol og i ca 1 and engineering research." Therefore, the reader should avail

himself of the opportunity to read reference [1.4] so as to better understand

this area and the position which the maps presented herein hold in this general

field of applied research.

G-2
SEISMICITY FOR

THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES

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G-205
NBS-1 14A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

• U n 1^ IL- A I HJN L'K l\r.l OKI 1\U. NBS ESS- 612. Gov't Ac cess ion No.

3, Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Natural Hazards Evaluation of Existing Buildings

5. Publication Date January 1975

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

C. Culver, H. S. Lew, G. C. Hart, C. W.iPinkham

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 4605501

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Defense Civil Preparedness Agency

Pentagon

Washington, D. C. 20301

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final (6/72 -- 1/74)

14, Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-28136

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less [actual summary of most sigpiiicaTtt information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) A methodology is presented for survey and evaluation of existing buildings to

determine the risk to life safety under natural hazard conditions and estimate the

amount of expected damage. Damage to both r-^^ii^tural and nonstructural building

components resulting from the extreme nat!"~a" tr,.';ronments encountered in earthquakes,

hurricanes, and tornadoes is considered. The h.-^thodology has the capability of

treating a large class of structural types including braced and unbraced steel frames,

concrete frames with and without shear walls, bearing wall structures, and long-span

roof structures. Three Independent but related sets of procedures for estimating

damage for each of the natural hazards are included in the methodology. The first set

of procedures provides a means for qualitatively determining the damage level on the

basis of data collected in field surveys of the building. The second set utilizes a structural analysis of the building to determine the damage level as a function of the

behavior of critical elements. The third set is based on a computer analysis of the

entire structure. All three sets of procedures are based on the current state of the

art. The procedures are presented in a format which allows updating and refining.

Numerical examples illustrating application of the procedures are included.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons)

Buildings; Damage; Disaster; Dynamic Analysis; Earthquakes; Hurricanes;

Natural hazards; Structural engineering; Tornadoes; Wind.

18, AVAILABILITY [X Unlimited 19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

21. NO. OF PAGES

1 For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS UNCL ASSIFIED 958

1 Xi Order From Sup. of Doc, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington. D.C. 20402. SD Cat. No. CU 29:2/61

20. SECURITY CLASS

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22. Price

1

! Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151 UNCLASSIFIED

$ 11.10

USCOMM.DC 29042-P74

6U.S. Government Printing Office: 1975 — 566-296
ANNOUNCEMENT OF NEW PUBLICATIONS IN

BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402

Dear Sir:

Please add my name to the announcement list of new publications to be

issued in the series: National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series.

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$21.25. • .Mathematical Sciences (Section B)

Studies and compilations designed mainly for the mathematician and theoretical physicist. Topics in mathematical statistics, theory of experiment design, numerical analysis, theoretical physics and chemistry, logical design and programming of computers and computer

systems. Short numerical tables. Issued quarterly. Annual subscription: Domestic, $9.00; Foreign, $11.25. DIMENSIONS/NBS (formerly Technical News Bulletin) —This monthly magazine is published to inform

scientists, engineers, businessmen, industry, teachers,

students, and consumers of the latest advances in science and technology, with primary emphasis on the work at NBS. DIMENSIONS/NBS highlights and reviews such

issues as energy research, fire protection, building

technology, metric conversion, pollution abatement,

health and safety, and consumer product performance.

In addition, DIMENSIONS/NBS reports the results of Bureau programs in measurement standards and techniques, properties of matter and materials, engineering standards and services, instrumentation, and automatic

data processing.

NONPERIOOICALS

.Monographs—Major contributions to the technical liter- ature on various subjects related to the Bureau's scientific and technical activities. Handbooks—Recommended codes of engineering and

industrial practice (including safety codes) developed

in cooperation with interested industries, professional

organizations, and regulatory bodies. Special Publications—Include proceedings of high-level national and international conferences sponsored by

NBS, precision measurement and calibration volumes,

NBS annual reports, and other special publications

appropriate to this grouping such as wall charts and

bibliographies.

Applied Mathematics Series—Mathematical tables, manuals, and studies of special interest to physicists, engineers, chemists, biologists, mathematicians, computer programmers, and others engaged in scientific and technical work.

National Standard Reference Data Series—Provides

quantitative data on the physical and chemical properties of materials, compiled from the world's literature and critically evaluated. Developed under a world-wide program coordinated by NBS. Program under authority

of National Standard Data Act (Public Law 90-396).

Building Science Series—Disseminates technical infor- mation developed at the Bureau on building materials, components, systems, and whole structures. The series presents research results, test methods, and performance criteria related to the structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety characteristics of building elements and systems. Technical Notes—Studies or reports which are complete

in themselves but restrictive in their treatment of a

subject. Analogous to monographs but not so comprehensive in scope or definitive in treatment of the subject area. Often serve as a vehicle for final reports of work performed at NBS under the sponsorship of other government agencies.

Voluntary Product Standards—Developed under pro- cedures published by the Department of Commerce in Part 10, Title 15, of the Code of Federal Regulations. The purpose of the standards is to establish nationally

recognized requirements for products, and to provide

all concerned interests with a basis for common under- standing of the characteristics of the products. The

National Bureau of Standards administers the Voluntary Product Standards program as a supplement to the activities of the private sector standardizing

organizations. Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUBS) —Publications in this series collectively constitute the Federal Information Processing Standards Register. The purpose of the Register is to serve

as the official source of information in the Federal Gov- ernment regarding standards issued by NBS pursuant

to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 as amended, Public Law 89-306 (79 Stat. 1127), and as implemented by Executive Order 11717

(38 FR 12315, dated Mav 11, 1973) and Part 6 of Title 15 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). FIPS PUBS •

will include approved Federal information processing standards information of general interest, and a complete index of relevant standards publications. Consumer Information Series—Practical information, based on NBS research and experience, covering areas

of interest to the consumer. Easily understandable language and illustrations provide useful background

knowledge for shopping in today's technological

marketplace.

NBS Interagency Reports—A special series of interim

or final reports on work performed by NBS for outside sponsors (both government and non-government). In

general, initial distribution is handled by the sponsor;

public distribution is by the National Technical Infor- mation Service (Springfield, Va. 22151) in paper copy

or microfiche form. Order NBS publications (except Bibliographic Subscription Services) from: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. BIBLIOGRAPHIC SUBSCRIPTIOiN SERVICES

The following current-awareness and literature-survey

bibliographies are issued periodically by the Bureau:

Cryogenic Data Center Current Awareness Service (Publications and Reports of Interest in Cryogenics).

A literature survey issued weekly. Annual subscription: Domestic, $20.00; foreign, $25.00. Liquefied Natural Gas. A literature survey issued quarterly. Annual subscription: $20.00. Superconducting Devices and Materials. A literature survey issued quarterly. Annual subscription: $20.00. Send subscription orders and remittances for the preceding bibliographic services to the U.S. Department

of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 22151. Electromagnetic .Metrology Current Awareness Service (Abstracts of Selected Articles on Measurement

Techniques and Standards of Electromagnetic Quantities from D-C to Millimeter-Wave Frequencies).

Issued monthly. Annual subscription: $100.00 (Special rates for multi-subscriptions). Send subscription order and remittance to the Electromagnetic Metrol- ogy Information Center, Electromagnetics Division, National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colo. 80302.
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