MARSHALL 

- 

SPACE FLIGHT 

CENTER 

1960 

1985 

4i 

ANNIVERSARY REPORT 

NASA 

National Aeronautcs and 

Space Ad ministration 

Marshall Space Flight Center 

For sale by the 

Syperinmdent ofDocuments 

US. Government Printing office 

Washington. D.C. 20402 

25Y1285 
PREFACE 

he Marshall Space Flight Center 

marks its 25th anniversary with a 

record of notable achievements: T > Launch vehicle for the free 

world’s first manned spacecraft 

> World’s largest launch vehicles 

> Launch vehicles that sent man to the moon 

> World’s only manned lunar surface vehicle 

> Free world’s first space station 

> Nation’s largest orbital observatories 

> First materials processing experiments in 

> Propulsion systems for world’s first Space 

> First commercial product made in space. 

These accomplishments are the essence of 

the Marshall Center’s history. Behind the 

scenes of our space launches and missions, 

however, lies a story of challenges faced and 

problems solved. The highlights of that story 

are presented in this illustrated report of our 

first 25 years. 

space 

Shuttle 

This book is organized not as a straight 

chronology but as three parallel reviews of 

the Center’s major assignments: propulsion 

systems and launch vehicles, space science 

research and technology, and manned space 

systems. Our general goals have been to 

reach space, to know and understand the 

space environment, and to inhabit and utilize 

space for the benefit of mankind. The text of 

each chapter reports on the past achievements, present activities, and future plans of 

the Center as an entity; the photographs 

show people at work, making history. 

This three-part treatment of the Center’s 

history is a convenience that enables us to 

trace the development of Marshall’s major 

roles with thematic continuity. In reality, of 

course, there is considerable interdependence and inter-relationship throughout the 

Center. For example, the Apollo Telescope 

Mount and Skylab, discussed here in different 

chapters, were not two separate programs; 

rather, the telescope was an integral part of 

Skylab. Within our matrix organization, all 

projects benefit from the shared technical and 

managerial capabilities of the Center. 

This report also includes a chronology of 

major events, presented as a fold-out chart 

for ready reference. At a glance, the reader 

can see concurrent events in each of the 

Marshall Center’s major endeavors - space 

vehicles, space science, manned systems - 

and place them in the context of developments within the Center and the community. 

We are aware that the story of Marshall 

Space Flight Center can be told in many 

voices, with different themes. Each employee 

has a unique perspective on the accomplishments of the past 25 years. This report 

speaks of the Center’s achievements and 

challenges in general, none of which would 

have been possible without the specific 

accomplishments of dedicated individuals. 

On this anniversary, we celebrate their successes and encourage all to learn from Marshall’s history as they remember it. We 

consult the past to guide our progress into 

the future. 

.. 

II 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Preface i 

Commitment to Excellence V 

'A I Unique National Resource 1 

Thrust into Space: Propulsion Systems and Launch Vehicles 5 

Saturn 6 

Space Shuttle 20 

Advanced Transportation Systems 30 

A Glimpse of the Future 32 

Research on the New Frontier: Space Science 35 

Small Scientific Payloads 36 

Space Observatories 38 

Spacelab Investigations and Other Flight Experiments 46 

Materials Processing in Space 50 

Research and Technology 52 

A Glimpse of the Future 56 

A Permanent Presence: Manned Space Systems 59 

Lunar Roving Vehicle 60 

Skylab 61 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 68 

Spacelab 69 

Space Station 74 

Foundation for the Future: The Marshall Center People 81 

Chronology: 25 Years at Marshall Space Flight Center 86 

I 

iii 

n this 25th anniversary of the founding of Marshall Space Flight Center, we 

whose careers are linked to the space program feel a nostalgia that is both 

communal and individual; the history of NASA and our personal lives are 

so intertwined as to be virtually inseparable. We have changed and 

matured, and so has the Center. We have grown professionally in response 0 to the challenges of space, and we have also become a family united by 

shared goals and aspirations. While we reflect on the past, we are eager to 

proceed into the exciting future. 

The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, established by Presidential Executive Order 

to support a vigorous national program for the exploration of space, was officially designated 

on July 1, 1960. During its first quarter century, the Marshall Center has been recognized as 

one of the most capable, most versatile science and engineering institutions in the world. 

Marshall has a well-earned reputation as a developer and manager of large, complex systems 

as diverse as launch vehiqles, satellite observatories, and manned work places in space. Marshall is NASA's leading center for propulsion systems and launch vehicles, yet we have broadened our base to include many other quite different projects. By virtue of its multidisciplinary 

talents and resources, the Center has been, and continues to be, a major force in the nation's 

space program. 

The history of Marshall Space Flight Center is a chronicle of hard work and dependable 

hardware. Our products - the giant Saturn launch vehicles, Skylab, the Space Shuttle propulsion systems, Spacelab, Space Telescope, the many scientific spacecraft and payloads - are 

tremendous achievements. Our people are true pioneers, visionary leaders who extend the 

limits of technology and boldly advance into the new frontier of space. 

fested in the work of its people. One success after another - 2 Mercury-Redstone launches, 

32 Saturn launches including 9 lunar missions, 3 Skylab missions, 3 High Energy Astronomy 

Observatories, some 20 Space Shuttle launches, 3 Spacelab missions, a remarkable new 

Space Telescope to be launched in 1986, and a host of other achievements -testify to the 

highest standards of performance in our day-to-day business. The Marshall Center is a disciplined organization dedicated to the common goal of a successful space program for the 

benefit of mankind. 

time and budgetary pressures, the history of the past 25 years is a sterling record of success. 

Now we are poised at the threshold of another great endeavor that will challenge us far into 

the future -the establishment of a permanent presence in space in an inhabited Space Station. What we do today and what we are capable of achieving tomorrow depend on our continued, unstinting commitment to excellence in thought and deed, in theory and practice. 

We have certain traditions at Marshall: professionalism and quality in all disciplines, effective management, teamwork, pioneering scientific research, and advancing technology. This 

heritage continues in our work today, and it must remain vital in our future efforts. Our history 

is not a closed book; it inspires and guides us. 

As I look back to the origins of Marshall Space Flight Center, our history appears in the 

blinding light of rockets and launch vehicles. Looking ahead, I see a future equally bright with 

challenges that will tax our ingenuity and demand our best efforts. As always, we will succeed 

if in our daily work we honor our commitment to the standard of excellence. 

The motivating force of Marshall Space Flight Center is a commitment to excellence, maniBecause our people adhere tenaciously to the standard of excellence, despite often severe 

That is the Marshall tradition; may it remain so. 

W. R. Lucas, Director 

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center 

July 1985 
German rocket experts in Fort Bliss before moving to Huntsville 

PJabama Space and Rocket Center Archives photo 

The United States’ first satellite, Explorer 1 

Pioneer 4 probe, first U.S. L* 

satellite to orbit the sun, 

launched in 1959 

In the blockhouse at Cape Canaveral awaiting launch of 

Pioneer 4 (1 959) 

A UNIQUE 

NATIONAL 

RESOURCE 

ABMA laboratory 

directors 

Fireworks in 

downtown 

Huntsville to 

celebrate Explorer I 

launch 

agency, Dr. von Braun was a strong proponent 

of the scientific exploration of space and the 

development of large launch vehicles for this 

purpose. 

Meanwhile, the von Braun team was busy 

solving the theoretical and practical problems 

of rocketry. Already members of the group 

were studying the feasibility of larger boosters 

with much greater thrust and payload-carrying 

capability for orbital and deep space missions. 

Through dozens of Redstone and Jupiter 

static firings and test flights, they were resolving some of the difficulties in rocket design, 

propulsion, and performance. 

aration, the ABMA group was ready for the 

United States’ first launch of a satellite. HavDue to their foresight in planning and preping anticipated the space age, the rocket team 

responded quickly when launch was authorized. In January of 1958, the ABMA lofted 

America’s first satellite, Explorer I, into orbit 

aboard the Army’s Jupiter C rocket, just three 

months after authorization. During the next 

two years, the ABMA launched six other scientific satellites, including a Pioneer that 

orbited the sun. 

The initial success with the Jupiter rocket 

spurred the von Braun team and the ABMA 

toward an even more ambitious big booster 

program, originally named the Juno, for 

advanced space missions. In 1959, a separate 

Defense Department organization, the 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 

authorized ABMA to begin a research and 

development program for a vehicle having .a 

1.5 million pound thrust capability. This tremendous advance was to be achieved by 

clustering eight available rocket engines into 

one stage. The major goal of the program was 

a demonstration static firing by the end of 

1959. The Juno program was renamed Saturn 

in 1959, and soon thereafter the project 

received the highest national priority rating. 

Members of the rocket group in Huntsville 

were enthusiastic about the new project; they 

had been nurturing the concept for years, and 

they were eager to proceed. 

In the meantime, NASA was founded in 

1958 by an Act of Congress to support a vigorous civilian space program. The new space 

agency included elements from various existing laboratories and installations, but it did not , have a strong capability for developing launch 

vehicles and propulsion systems. After extensive negotiations, the ABMAs Development 

Operations Division headed by Dr. von Braun 

and the Saturn project were transferred from 

the Department of Defense to NASA in 1960. 

I 

President Eisenhower and Mfs. George C. 

Marshall at dedication ceremony for NASA’s 

Marshall Space Flight Center 
“After thousands of years 

of clinging to our planet, 

man is finally about to 

burst the bonds of terrestrial gravity and embark on 

the greatest voyage of his 

entire existence. . . the 

exploration of the space 

around him.” 

Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1958 

This transfer strengthened the agency considerably and also guaranteed the rocket team’s 

active participation in the scientific exploration 

of space. 

On July 1, 1960, the George C. Marshall 

Space Flight Center officially came into being 

as 4,670 civil servants previously associated 

with the Army became NASA personnel, and 

1,840 acres of Arsenal property and facilities 

worth $100 million were transferred to the 

space agency. For several months, the 

Marshall group continued to work at the same 

desks in the same Army buildings. The new 

organization resembled the old, and the continuity of personnel and activity was hardly 

affected by the transfer. In addition to the 

Saturn project, Marshall assumed responsibility for the Juno II rocket, the 1.5 million pound 

thrust F-1 single engine, development of the 

Agena B stage of the Atlas and Thor boosters, 

development of the Centaur launch vehicle, 

and development of the Mercury-Redstone 

vehicle for NASA’s first manned program, 

Project Mercury. 

Dedicating the new NASA center in September, President Dwight Eisenhower 

remarked that General George C. Marshall, 

the distinguished soldier and statesman, was 

a builder of peace. The decision to name the 

center in his honor was also a fitting tribute to 

both the agency and the team of rocketry 

pioneers whose origins were in military 

research but who aimed for the peaceful scientific exploration of space. 

Thus, when Marshall Space Flight Center 

opened for business in July of 1960 it was 

already a thriving enterprise. Its work force 

included many people who had already 

worked together for a decade or longer. Its 

founding director was Dr. Wernher von Braun, 

an advocate of space research and develop- 

’. < r- 

‘% 

? 

ment activities for more than 20 years. Major 

programs were already established and in 

progress, and its organizational philosophy 

laboratories for rocket propulsion system 

design, development, manufacturing, and testing. Its technical capabilities were unsurpassed, and its morale and team spirit were 

vigorous. 

urgency, at a time when the nation’s goals in 

space were not yet clearly focused. The space 

environment was unfamiliar territory and there 

were many uncertainties about appropriate 

technology and suitable missions. To those 

who had been working with rockets, the next 

step seemed obvious: bigger, more powerful 

boosters to place communications and 

weather satellites into orbit, to send planetary 

probes into deep space, to carry people and 

their living quarters or workshops into space, 

and to begin studying and using space for the 

benefit of all mankind. 

cadre of rocket experts in Huntsville proceeded apace with the task of developing 

awesome new launch vehicles -the massive 

Saturn family. Despite the unparalleled experience and expertise that made this group an 

invaluable national resource, the Saturn project challenged all their technical and managerial abilities. From this beginning arose the 

traditions that still characterize Marshall 

Space Flight Center today: engineering excellence and the disciplined concentration of 

energy essential for success. rn 

was in place. The new center had excellent G3:Girut PAGE 

WLOR Pi-;OFmRApH 

The Center was born in an atmosphere of 

While public consensus was forming, the 

i Breakingnew ,‘ ground for the 

nation’s space 

program 

3 

of years of hard work. While others watch 

expectantly, those who have designed or built 

a vehicle wait tensely for the moment of relief 

and jubilation, the spectacular moment of 

proof that their work has been done well. 

the engines and vehicles that boosted our 

nation into space. Transportation systems 

have been a crucial part of the Center’s business, from the early Redstone rockets to the 

sophisticated Saturn launch vehicles and on to 

the Space Shuttle and the advanced craft that 

will serve us in the Space Station era. At every 

stage, the development of propulsion systems 

and vehicles for space flight has posed technical and managerial challenges. There was no 

precedent for the pioneering work of establishing safe, reliable transportation service into 

space. The history of this Marshall Center 

achievement is one of problems solved, challenges met, and successes recorded. 

Marshall Space Flight Center developed 

“I think we’ve got a fantastic 

and remarkable ca pa b i I it y 

here. We’re really not too far 

. . . from going to the stars.” 

John Young 

Commander, STS-1,1981 

5 
)Saturn 

Marshall Space Flight Center came into being 

with a charter to develop a launch vehicle of 

unprecedented size and power. As the pace of 

the space program quickened in the late 

1950’s, a bold leap was urgently needed to 

establish American technological pre-eminence. That advance, of almost inconceivable 

proportions, was the Saturn series -the 

Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V launch 

vehicles. 

The new vehicles would be gigantic compared to their predecessors, which were themselves barely off the drawing boards and test 

stands. They would have remarkable thrust and 

lift capability. Whereas the 70-foot Redstone 

generated about 75,000 pounds of thrust for 

suborbital flight, the Saturn I was first envisioned as a 165-foot, 1.5 million pound thrust 

THRUST 

lNTO SPACE 

“I believe that this nation 

should commit itself to 

achieving the goal, before 

this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon 

and returning him safely 

to Earth.” 

President John F. Kennedy 

May 25,1961 

First Saturn V launch 

(Apollo 4), 

November 9,1967 

6 

giant capable of attaining Earth orbit. Those 

initial specifications were soon revised upward, 

and the largest member of the family, the towering 363-foot Saturn V, ultimately became a 

multi-stage, multi-engine vehicle standing taller 

than the Statue of Liberty. With a first-stage 

thrust of 7.5 million pounds and another 1.2 

million pounds in combined upper-stage thrust, 

the Saturn V was capable of sending man to 

the moon. 

Although the origins of the Saturn concept 

lay in ongoing rocket research within the Army 

Ballistic Missile Agency and other military programs, a strong impetus to the Saturn program 

was President John F. Kennedy’s 1961 

announcement of the nation’s foremost goal in 

space: a manned lunar landing within the decade. As early as 1959, NASA was already 

looking toward this goal in its long-range plan- I 

ning, but not within the same time frame; a 

lunar landing in the early 1970’s was contemplated. Now, before a single American had 

been thrust into orbit, NASA and the nation 

were committed to an extremely ambitious 

Saturn engines and stages 

ORIGINAL PAGE 

cocof? P’ :?TW? “‘4 
ORlGfMAL PAGE 

=OR Pl-iOWRAPH 

endeavor. The Saturn program, the Marshall 

Center’s first major responsibility, crystallized z 

about this goal. The new family of extraordinarily large launch vehicles was required for 

the Apollo lunar missions. 

Marshall Space Flight Center was a fountainhead of activity during the months of early 

Saturn-Apollo planning. NASA had decided to 

use the Army’s Redstone ballistic missile and 

the larger Air Force Atlas missile as boosters 

for Project Mercury, which would lay the foundations of manned space flight in preparation 

for the Apollo missions to the moon. To 

Marshall fel! the responsibility of modifying the 

Redstone vehicle for the first manned suborbital missions. 

After several unmanned test launches in 

1960 and a flight by the chimpanzee “Ham” in 

early 1961, the Mercury-Redstone systems 

were judged flight-worthy for a manned mission. In May of 1961, Marshall’s Redstone vehicle boosted America’s first astronaut, Alan B. 

Shepard, on a successful but brief suborbital 

flight. A modified Redstone was used on a 

subsequent Project Mercury flight, and 

Marshall’s track record of successful launches 

began to grow convincingly. 

The original Marshall organization included 

a Launch Operations Directorate responsible 

for launching test flights and the MercuryRedstone flights. In 1962, this Marshall launch 

team moved to Cape Canaveral and its leader, 

Dr. Kurt Debus, became the first Director of the 

Launch Operations Center there, later 

renamed as Kennedy Space Center. An 

exceptionally close working relationship 

between the two Centers has continued since 

that time. 

For the next several years, other elements 

of NASA methodically perfected spacecraft 

systems and orbital rendezvous techniques 

through the Mercury and Gemini missions. 

Meanwhile, Marshall surged ahead to prepare 

the launch vehicle for the Apollo lunar 

missions. 

3 

, 

)Scaling Up 

In the interests of time and economy, the 

developers of the Saturn vehicles relied heavily on contemporary rocket design and propulsion technology. Nevertheless, the Saturn 

represented a dramatic departure from early 

single-engine, single-stage rockets. To achieve 

the thrust necessary for manned lunar missions, it was essential to develop a multistage 

vehicle with clusters of engines and to use 

higher performance propellants and propulsion 

systems. Advanced missions and heavy payloads meant more engines, bigger launch vehicles, and higher-energy fuels. 

Saturn I test firing at Marshall 

Scaling up to the massive Saturn dimensions was a major challenge. Even though prototypes of some components existed, they 

were not as large as the new vehicle required. 

In addition to basic advances in rocket technology, related developments in materials, analytical techniques, tooling, fabrication techniques, 

and test facilities were necessary. In fact, rapid 

advances in the state of the art were necessary in almost every technical area. 

How did the Marshall Center turn the 

Saturn concept into reality? What technical 

challenges did Marshall people meet, and 

what did they contribute to the state of the art 

in critical engineering disciplines? These questions have been explored in detail in other documents; a summary here will distill the 

essence of the Marshall Center’s achievement. 

To manage the tasks of developing, producing, and integrating the large multistage 

vehicles, Marshall’s initial organization 

included a Saturn Systems Off ice with responsibility for managing all aspects of the Saturn 

program. As the program evolved and 

matured, the Systems Office was subdivided 

into three project offices for Saturn IAB, 

Saturn V, and engines. The project offices in 

turn were subdivided into off ices for each 

vehicle stage or engine. By 1963, a large 

amount of Saturn work was being performed 

under contracts, and the Saturn management 

offices were organized under the aegis of a 

new Industrial Operations Directorate. 

7 
Technical expertise for Saturn was provided by the Center’s nine engineering laboratories: Aero-Astrodynamics, Astrionics, 

Computation, Manufacturing, Propulsion and 

Vehicles, Quality and Reliability Assurance, 

Test, Launch Vehicle Operations, and 

Research Projects. These specialized discipline laboratories, which had their origins in 

the ABMA organization, constituted most of 

the Research and Development Operations 

Directorate. Their importance to the Saturn 

program was incalculable; the laboratories 

continually pushed the limits of the state of 

the art in all fields to develop the designs, 

materials, and technology that made Saturn 

possible. A major factor in the success of the 

program was the creative technical excellence 

of the Marshall Center laboratories. 

The Saturn family of boosters included 

three vehicles: the Saturn I and IB for development purposes and early Apollo flights, and 

the Saturn V for the actual lunar missions. 

Even before the Saturn project was officially 

NASA’s responsibility, the von Braun group 

and other space program officials vigorously 

debated the question of configuration. It was a 

foregone conclusion that the giant boosters 

would need several stages and clusters of 

engines, but dozens of arrangements were 

possible. Deciding upon the basic architecture 

of each Saturn vehicle was a dilemma 

resolved by careful deliberation. How many 

stages, of what height and diameter, how 

many engines per stage, what type and 

arrangement of engines would stack up to 

make the best booster? The Saturns were 

“Few of man’s technological endeavors compare in 

scope of significance to 

the development of the 

Saturn family of launch 

vehicles. . . . Saturn was an 

engineering masterpiece.” 

Dr. W.R. Lucas 

E 

Test firing of Saturn IC stage at MSFC 

n OR1 G I NAL PAGE 

Apollo 

Comma, 

Module 

Service 

Module 

Lunar 

Module 

Instrumc 

Unit 

Third Sti 

(S-IVB) 

1 J-2 En! 

Second 

(S-11) 

5 J-2 En! 

it i nt-- -1 

UXOR PWOTffiRAPH U 
hybrid vehicles combining newly designed 

clustered-engine stages and new engine 

technology. 

Marshall Space Flight Center personnel 

were deeply involved in the vehicle concept 

work. The decision was made in early planning 

studies to use a first-stage cluster of eight 

modified Jupiter engines burning a kerosene 

distillate fuel called RP-1 with liquid oxygen. 

The choice of upper-stage engines and configurations, however, was less clear. After initial 

consideration of various conventional missile 

stages, NASA opted in 1959 to use new liquid 

hydrogen engines in the second and third 

stages. Saturn configurations stayed in flux as 

various concepts for stages and engines were 

evaluated and parallel development efforts 

proceeded. By 1962, the broad configuration 

issue was settled, though many interfacing 

details remained to be worked out. 

Marshall Space Flight Center carried out 

development, testing, and production of the 

Saturn I first stage in-house until Chrysler Corporation became the prime contractor in late 

1961. The in-house effort established the basic 

design for clustered engines and clustered 

propellant tanks, the pumping scheme for a 

steady and balanced propellant flow from 

tanks to engines, the structural skeleton and 

skin for the unusually large stage, and the 

guidance and control mechanisms for steering 

the vehicle during powered flight. 

The flawless first launch in October of 1961 

validated the Saturn vehicle concept nurtured 

at Marshall. In ten successful Saturn I 

launches between October 1961 and July 

1965, engine performance and vehicle reliability were convincingly demonstrated. Eight of 

the ten Saturn I first stage boosters were built 

at Marshall, the others by Chrysler Corporation 

Space Division. Five second stages (two for 

testing and three for flight, all unpowered 

“dummies”) were built at Marshall before 

Douglas Aircraft Company began to supply 

them under contract. In addition, five Saturn V 

first stages (three for ground tests and two for 

flight) were fabricated in-house at Marshall. 

After this initial production, all stages of the 

three Saturn vehicles were produced by contractors (Douglas, North American, IBM, 

Rocketdyne, Pratt and Whitney, and Boeing) 

under Marshall Center management. 

Launch vehicle configuration was contingent upon powerful rocket engines, the prerequisite for space flight. Much of the Marshall 

Center’s early effort was directed toward 

advanced engine technology and higherenergy propellants. Fuel-efficiency assessments pointed to liquefied gases as the most 

Working overtime to keep Saturn on schedule 

CQ 

ORIGINAL PAGE 

LO R P I-i OTCG R ,4 P H 

J-2 engine static firing 

Saturn launch vehicle engines 

9 
THRUST 

lNTO SPACE 

ORIGINAL Pk.GE 

UXOR PHOTOGRAPH 

Early Saturn I launch, with 

“dummy” second stage and 

payload 

promising new propellants for advanced missions, and to liquid hydrogen in particular, 

because conventional propellants could not 

supply the necessary thrust and high performance for heavy-payload lunar missions requiring escape velocities. 

When liquid hydrogen was selected for 

Saturn’s upper stages, its use as an engine 

fuel was experimental. In addition to proving its 

performance, engineers faced a host of logistical problems associated with storing, pumping, 

and transporting the fuel, which is highly 

explosive and must be maintained at 

extremely low (cryogenic) temperatures, more 

than 400°F below zero. Advances in insulation 

materials and in the design of large cryogenic 

storage tanks and pumping systems were 

required by the selection of liquid hydrogen as 

a propellant for Saturn upper stages. 

As the Saturn program evolved, the 

Marshall Center worked closely with contractors to improve or develop engines for each 

vehicle stage. Two first-stage engines (the H-1 

and F-1) and two high-energy upper stage 

engines (the RL-10 and J-2) were ushered 

through research and development, testing, 

production, and launch. The most visible (and 

10 

audible) evidence of Marshall’s role was the 

static firing test activity in Huntsville. Local citizens had frequent thunderous reminders that 

the space program was in progress just next 

door. 

The first-stage engines used a conventional kerosene-liquid oxygen propellant and 

existing engine concepts. The main engineering challenges were to cluster and enlarge the 

engines for much higher thrust, which introduced problems that required innovative solutions. For example, some of the engines were 

gimballed for directional control of the vehicle 

powered by the combined thrust of eight 

engines. New ducting and venting techniques 

were used to deliver propellants to the multiple 

engines. Manufacturing problems resulted in 

new materials and manufacturing processes. 

Turbopumps and thrust chambers were 

improved for uniform propellant flow and combustion under very severe temperatures and 

pressures. Special instrumentation was developed to evaluate engine performance under 

dynamic conditions. While the first-stage 

engines had a heritage of proven technology, 

scaling up resulted in many advances. 

A prototype uprated H-1 engine developed 

by Rocketdyne was first tested in 1958; an 

eight-engine cluster was tested and flight rated 

at Marshall in 1960, during the Center’s first 

year. Models of this workhorse ranged in thrust 

from 165,000 to 205,000 pounds per engine, 

for a total thrust of more than a million pounds 

in a Saturn I or IB first-stage cluster. The F-1 

engine, developed to meet the greater thrust 

demands for Saturn V launches, yielded an 

awesome 7.5 million pounds of thrust in a fiveengine first-stage cluster. Also developed by 

Rocketdyne, this engine was first tested in 1961, 

then tested in a cluster at Marshall in 1963, and 

first flown in 1967. Both first-stage engines 

proved highly reliable. 

While suitable engines for Saturn first 

stages were developed by enlarging and modifying existing designs, there were no available 

liquid hydrogen propulsion systems. Without 

proven technology, NASA undertook the development of entirely new engines for Saturn 

upper stages. Management responsibility for 

this pioneering engine work was assigned to 

Marshall Space Flight Center at its founding. 

The new engines represented major technological breakthroughs in propulsion system 

design and performance. 

The initial upper stage engines used in 

Saturn I vehicles were derived from the RL-10 

hydrogen/oxygen engine under consideration 

in the late 1950’s by the Air Force. When built 

into an upper stage, this engine would enable 

; 
Atlas missiles to launch heavier payloads, 

such as communications satellites. NASA 

inherited responsibility for the RL-10 engine 

under development by Pratt & Whitney, and by 

1959 it was destined for use in the Saturn IB 

upper stage. Engine testing occurred at 

Marshall Space Flight Center and other sites, 

and by 1961 the high-performance RL-10 liquid 

hydrogen engine was flight rated. The selected 

configuration for the Saturn I second stage 

was a cluster of six engines, each having 

15,000 pounds of thrust; its first flight occurred 

in 1964. 

Concurrently with RL-10 engine development, NASA was planning ahead to liquid 

hydrogen engines of even greater thrust, 

200,000 pounds each, to be used singly or in 

clusters. Beginning in 1960, development of 

the J-2 engine was undertaken by Rocketdyne 

under Marshall Center management. These 

huge engines became the powerhouse for 

Saturn IB and Saturn V upper stages. A single 

J-2 engine was used in the Saturn IB second 

stage and Saturn V third stage; five of these 

engines were clustered in the Saturn V second 

stage for a million pounds of thrust. Following 

successful tests in 1962, the engine entered 

production in 1963 and was first flown in 1965. 

As manager of the engine development 

projects, the Marshall Center was immersed in 

all the design issues and technical problems 

facing its contractors. Together, the government-industry team faced the challenges of 

scaling up existing concepts and simultaneously working out new technology. The Center 

relied on its in-house laboratory expertise in 

propulsion systems, metallurgical and materials research, fluid dynamics, structures, 

dynamics, and other disciplines for the necessary engineering advances. Notable achievements included the application of lightweight, 

durable materials capable of withstanding 

extreme temperatures and stress, new heat 

Altogether the Saturn V 

engines produced as 

much power as 85 Hoover 

Dams. 

F-7 engine static firing test at Marshall 

J-2 engine assembly line at 

Rocketdyne facility in 

Canoga Park, California 
12 
ORIGINAL PAGE 

COLOR PPi3TKMPH 

Temporary quarters in the 

Huntsville lndustrial Center 

as MSFC grew 

tests were among the tallest buildings in the 

state. They also made up a comprehensive 

test complex for static firings of extremely powerful engines, storage and pumping of cryogenic fuels, and structural evaluation of 

inordinately large objects. The Marshall test 

areas were unique within the nation and the 

free world, and they remain so today because 

they were constructed with foresight to meet 

future as well as original needs. The Center 

also expanded its local production facilities for 

in-house fabrication of the early Saturn stages. 

The Michoud Assembly Facility in New 

Orleans, Louisiana, a component facility of the 

Marshall Space Flight Center, became the 

manufacturing and assembly site for the 

Saturn IB and Saturn V first stages. Jointly 

occupied by the two prime contractors, Chrysler and Boeing, the plant had over 3 million 

square feet of production and office space, 

with 43 acres under one roof. The facility, 

located on the Gulf intracoastal waterway, was 

well situated for barge transport of the stages 

to test and launch sites. 

Nearby in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, the 

A government-owned computer facility in 

Slidell, Louisiana was enlisted to support the 

Michoud plant and Mississippi test site. A component installation of the Marshall Center, the 

Slidell Computer Complex provided critical 

data processing services for Saturn test, 

checkout, simulation, and engineering 

activities. 

In parallel with the development of engines 

and stages, Marshall Space Flight Center was 

engaged in developing the Saturn vehicle’s 

instrument unit for guidance, navigation, and 

control. This “brain” controlled all the ignition 

sequences, stage separations, guidance and 

control, and telemetry functions to keep the 

vehicle operating properly and on course. 

Begun as an in-house project, which evolved 

through several versions, the sophisticated unit 

eventually was contracted to IBM for final 

design and manufacture. Its continuing refinement was marked by notable advances in 

computer memory, logic, and instrument 

design using new alloys and miniaturization 

techniques that found a ready commercial 

market in a variety of consumer products. 

)Building Confidence Marshall Center constructed a massive new 

engine test complex. Three huge test stands 

surrounded by laboratories, fuel storage tanks, 

and support facilities rose from the wilderness. 

Saturn stages were test fired and qualified 

here by a contractor workforce under Marshall 

management. Originally a part of the Marshall 

Center, the Mississippi Test Facility later 

became an independent NASA installation. 

The key word for the Saturn development 

effort was performance. Given a highly visible 

and costly space program, strong pressure to 

meet goals on schedule, and the importance 

of crew safety, everything possible was done 

to ensure the reliable performance of every 

Saturn element. As program manager, 

Marshall Space Flight Center led the way in 

establishing both technical and managerial 

practices that built confidence in the Saturn 

vehicles. The result was 32 consecutive successful Saturn launches, the complete program including 9 lunar missions. A fleet of 

extraordinarily reliable vehicles boosted the 

space program to success. 

The confidence factor derived from conservative design, extensive testing, and stringent quality control, all based on meticulous 

attention to detail. Simplicity, building blocks, 

and tests were the key tenets of this 

philosophy. 

At virtually every point, Marshall engineers 

favored design simplicity. Undue complexity 

introduced greater risks that could jeopardize 

the schedule or the entire program. As they 

scaled up existing components and systems, 

engineers kept a keen eye on ways to streamline the designs. While they developed designs 

for new items, they also looked for ways to 

Construction of towering new test stands at 

Marshall, 1960- 1964 

13 
make things work without burdensome complexities. The novel J-2 engine design admirably illustrated this principle; many components 

in this propulsion system served more than 

one purpose. 

Marshall engineers and managers favored 

a building block approach to the ambitious 

Saturn program. To ensure steady progress 

toward a launch vehicle that had no precedent, 

they organized the development effort in 

phases to prove the technology for each phase 

in a relentless step-by-step fashion. Each 

major element - an engine or an entire stage, 

for example -was a building block that was 

added to the configuration in due course. Systems were gradually built up as components 

were tested and proved; likewise, the vehicle 

gradually evolved as one element after 

another was added and exercised. 

building block approach to development by 

successive additions: initially only the first 

stage was live, with a dummy upper stage; 

after more checkout flights, a live upper stage 

was added; then a functional payload was 

added. The Saturn I itself was a building block 

THRUST 

INTO SPACE 

cz\GlML pp;GE RAPH I OR PHOW CUIThe Saturn I launch series illustrated this 

Saturn I build-up at MSFC 

Assembly of the Instrument 

Unit, Saturn’s complex 

“brain” for guidance, 

navigation and control 

14 

for the IB vehicle, which in turn was a building 

block for the Saturn V. This methodical development scheme proved so reliable that the 

Saturn I was rated operational three flights 

ahead of schedule, and the first Saturn V flight 

was an “all-up’’ mission with all stages live. 

The decision for an all-up first launch was a 

bold break from precedent, made after much 

deliberation; in balance against the inherent 

risk of initial failures was the confidence factor 

so painstakingly nurtured at Marshall. 

Marshall also was firmly committed to rigorous testing. To avoid surprises in flight, engineers subjected Saturn components to every 

conceivable stress and strain anticipated during a mission. Extremes of temperatures, 

pressure, vacuum, and vibration even greater 

than those predicted for launch and space 

flight were devised in laboratories and test 

stands. New facilities were built and existing 

test facilities at both the Center and at contractor locations were scaled up to accommodate 

the massive Saturn elements. Saturn test and 

checkout activities spawned remarkable 

advances in electronic simulators and automated test equipment. This apparatus could 

c 

-m ”- 

Installation of engines Checkout of the completed booster 
create a high-fidelity simulation of launch and 

flight or could take the pulse of hundreds of 

different parts to provide engineers with 

detailed performance data. In addition to test 

and checkout data, hundreds of measurements of actual flight performance were collected via telemetry. 

ity penetrated all levels of the Saturn program 

from top-tier management to production Iind 

workers. The strategy of technical competence 

-of doing things right - was evident everywhere. Dr. von Braun, for example, expressed 

a “dirty hands” philosophy, encouraging 

Center personnel to keep themselves steeped 

in technical matters. This would make them 

better engineers and better managers of contract work. One of the Saturn program’s best 

insurance policies was the distinctive competence resident in Marshall’s laboratories and 

shops. 

Although all Saturn launches were successful, there were occasional problems and 

moments of anxiety. A particular cause of concern on the first Saturn V flights was the “Pogo 

effect,” vertical vibrations that occurred during 

powered flight. Lasting only a few seconds, 

these “bounces” increased stress on the vehicle. A Pogo task force did the necessary 

detective work to understand the Pogo phenomenon and implement corrective measures. 

The vibrations were successfully suppressed 

in time for the first manned Saturn V flight. 

The emphasis on performance and reliabil- 

)Working as a Team 

Marshall Space Flight Center faced a management challenge beyond the scope of any previous technological endeavor. As many as 

20,000 contractor companies across the 

nation were involved in producing the millions 

of parts that made up each Saturn launch vehicle. Furthermore, the engines and stages for 

the three different vehicles were evolving rapidly and in parallel, which complicated planning and coordination. To stay abreast of the 

status of all program activities and to foster 

reliability everywhere, the Center used a number of new management, systems integration, 

and program control methods both in-house 

and in the contractors’ territory. 

Teamwork characterized Marshall’s relationships with its contractors. As the Saturn 

program evolved in scope, the development 

and production requirements exceeded the 

Center’s capacity to do all work in-house. 

Therefore, the Center set about building a 

strong government-industry-university team 

with joint participation in working groups and 

extensive Marshall involvement in contractor 

activities. In this tripartite endeavor, the academic community contributed substantially to 

study and design activities, and the industrial 

community played major roles in development 

and manufacturing. This mutually beneficial 

cooperation resulted in the successful Saturn 

program. 

The purpose of the teamwork philosophy 

was to ensure success by frequent and candid 

interactions between the government customer 

and the industrial supplier. This was accomplished by formal and informal meetings, by 

periodic progress reviews, and in most cases 

by a resicfent management office at the prime 

contractor sites staffed by Marshall personnel. 

Such close coordination and monitoring 

ensured that problems were recognized and 

resolved early, with minimal impact on costs or 

schedule. 

OR~G~MAL PAGE 

mLOR ?’ ‘?TGCRAPH 

1. Manhall S, - -. 

Huntsville, Alabama 

Vehicle Management 

Boeing 

Systems Engineering 

General Electric 

Ground Support Equipment 

ISM 

Instrument Units 

Kent, Washington 

Lunar Rowing Vehicle 

3. SAC10 lest Facility 

Douglas Aircraft 

Sacramento, California 

S-IVB Test Operations 

Huntington Beach, California 

North American Rockwell 

Seal Beach, California 

s-11 

North American Rockwell 

Canoga Park, California 

H-1, J-2, F-1 engines 

2. Boeing 

4. McDonnell Douglas 

S-IVB 

5. Manned Spacecraft Center 

Houston, Texas 

Spacecraft, Mission Control 

6. Michoud Assembly Facility 

New Orleans, Louisiana 

Boeing 

s-IC 

Chtysler 

Saturn IB 

Bay St. Louis, Mississippi 

S-IC & S-11 lest Operations 

8. Kennedy Space Center 

Launch Operations 

9. NASA Headquarters 

Washington, D.C. 

10. Bendix 

leterboro, New Jersey 

Inertial Guidance Platform 

7. Mississippi lest Facillty 

15 
)Saturn Legacies ! 

A special application of team effort was the 

“Tiger Team.” Technical performance has 

always been a critical and untouchable constant at Marshall. Therefore, when a difficult 

technical problem occurred, the Center identified a group of experts from the relevant laboratory disciplines to examine and penetrate the 

problem on-site. After thorough study to understand the intricacies of the problem and systematically evaluate alternatives, the team 

continued its focused effort until a workable, 

effective, and reliable solution was achieved 

and implemented. The Tiger Team concept 

that originated with the Saturn program subsequently remained a valuable means of resolving technical problems with dispatch. 

The evolutionary nature of Saturn development activities created a need for careful configuration control. Marshall established 

stringent new guidelines for documenting all 

design specifications, design changes, engineering discrepancies, and related matters 

that could affect the integrity of any Saturn elements or their interface characteristics. For a 

reliable launch vehicle, everything had to mate 

exactly. There could be no surprises on the 

launch pad. 

To further motivate the contractors, 

Marshall began to offer incentive fee and 

award fee contracts. These incentives encouraged the best possible performance to meet 

hardware deliveries on schedule. Incentives at 

the individual worker’s level were offered by 

Manned Flight Awareness programs within the 

agency and at contractor plants to remind 

employees of the importance of their work. The 

message was clear: No one could afford to 

make mistakes. 

effective teamwork techniques that promoted 

accountability - keeping track of who was 

responsible for what - and enabled managers 

to make well-informed decisions. From the outset, Marshall had a democratic propensity for 

convening committees, working groups, and 

panels to resolve problems or advise policy. An 

important device for fostering such teamwork 

was the Saturn Program Control Center, a 

briefing room outfitted with charts, projection 

screens, closed-circuit audio and television, 

and other aids for communication and information display. A hub of activity for several years, 

this was the place where managers met to 

monitor progress and keep the program’s 

course on target. 

In-house, Marshall developed several very 

mGIr\lAL PAGE 

mOR PHOTOGRAPH 

16 

As the Marshall Center’s first major assignment, and a spectacularly successful one, the 

Saturn program left its imprint on the institution 

and its surroundings. During that time, the 

Center expanded into its own new buildings 

and, in 1965-1966, reached its peak work force 

of 7,327 employees and budget of almost $1.7 

billion. The rapid physical expansion of the 

Center was accomplished by an enormous 

effort to plan, establish, and manage the new 

facilities. Similarly, the growing work force and 

increasing complexity of technical activities 

resulted in a sustaining administrative services 

and support organization. 

As NASA began to procure more technical 

services, a large support community of aerospace contractors and high-tech industry grew 

in Research Park and stimulated the local 

economy. During the Saturn era, the population of Huntsville increased 8-fold from 16,000 

in 1950 to 136,000 in 1970. The face of the city 

changed as new roads, residential areas, civic 

facilities, a university, and the Alabama Space 

and Rocket Center opened. That close ties 

bound the institution and the community was 

perhaps most evident in the spontaneous public celebrations of the first American satellite 

launch and the successful landing on the 

moon; Wernher von Braun, the man who had 

been so influential in making Marshall and 

Huntsville the “Home of Saturn,” was carried 

along the streets in triumph, like the coach of a 

winning team. 

For a decade, Marshall’s human and physical resources were largely devoted to Saturn 

work. The institution survived its growing 

pains, and the practices that proved effective 

became habitual. A changing organization 

chart reflected the Center’s evolution toward 

more diverse and complex responsibilities. 

Many of the Center’s lasting strengths are 

Saturn legacies: its multidisciplinary technical 

competence, its flair for large-scale systems 

engineering and systems management, its 

partnership with industry and universities, its 

perfectionism expressed in reliable products, 

and its dedicated work force committed to 

exce I le n ce . 

the last Apollo mission in 1972. Saturn vehicles 

were used to launch four Skylab missions in 

1973 and the Apollo-Soyuz mission in 1975. 

These grand finales launched two new concepts in America’s space program: a long-term 

presence in space for scientific research, and 

international cooperation in manned spaceflight. On those notes, the Saturn era closed. 

During the Saturn-Apollo era, much of 

Marshall’s attention and energy had been 

The Saturn program did not quite end with 

I 

Celebration of the lunar landin! 

downtown Huntsville, Jury 1969 

At the Marshall Center 

family picnic a few days 

after the lunar landing 
THRUST 

lNTO SPACE 

I 

Hunhviiie-Madison County Pubiic Library photo 

centration In the firing room 

Saturn launch 

'A 

Elation in the launch control center after 

ApOllO I/ lift-off 

President Kennedy greeting 

employees during 1962 visit 

to Marshall 
18 

focused on one goal, the development of propulsion systems and launch vehicles for the 

lunar landing program. As the Apollo program 

waned, the Center made a deliberate and prudent decision to become more diversified. The 

key event in Marshall’s transition from a single 

project to a multi-project Center was the creation of the Program Development directorate in 

1969, under the leadership of today’s Center 

Director, Dr. W. R. Lucas. 

At the nucleus of the new directorate were 

future planners drawn from the laboratories 

and now charged with responsibility for coordinated long-range planning to conceive new 

programs for the agency and the Center. This 

group formed task forces to focus on promising new programs and conducted advanced 

studies, feasibility studies, preliminary design 

and program definition. The Program Develop 

ment directorate rapidly became an effective 

advocate of Marshall Center capabilities and a 

“think tank’ for original project concepts. 

Through its efforts, the Center participated in 

early Space Shuttle concept work that evolved 

into major assignments for the Shuttle propulsion systems. This group also did the forethought and planning that later culminated in 

major new space science programs, including 

the High Energy Astronomy Observatories. 

Spacelab. and Space Telescope. 

The tenure of Dr. Wernher von Braun as 

Director of the Marshall Center ended in 1970 

when he assumed a new position at NASA 

Headquarters. His long-time associate, Dr. 

Eberhard Rees, became Director and, until his 

retirement in 1973, ushered Marshall through a 

difficult period of reduced funding and manpower. During his term, emphasis at the 

Center shifted from the Saturn program to 

Skylab and initial planning for the Space 

Shuttle. His successor, Dr. Rocco A. Petrone, 

then presided over the dramatic series of 

Skylab missions in America’s first space station. Since 1974 when Dr. William R. Lucas 

became Director, the Center has assumed 

major new responsibilities for the Space 

Shuttle and other projects. 

As the Center looked ahead to the Space 

Shuttle, it was fully confident that the experience gained in the Saturn program would be 

well applied to its next assignments. With 

some changes to meet the technical and managerial challenges of developing new propulsion systems for a new launch vehicle, 

Marshall Space Flight Center had its blueprint 

for success. 
“Houston. .. Tranquility Base here. ORfGlNAL PAGE 

Neil Armstrong, July 20,1969 

The Eagle has landed.” aoR PHOmRAPH 

19 
)Space Shuttle 

Despite the feverish pace of Saturn development and test activities, NASA was already 

planning a new launch vehicle for the next 

generation. Impressive and powerful though 

they were, the Saturns had one disadvantage: 

they were expendable. Used only once, they 

were expensive to manufacture, stock in inventory, and use, and the cost per pound of payload delivered into orbit was high. When the 

agency began looking ahead to a manned 

space station as the next step beyond lunar 

exploration, alternatives to expendable rockets 

were considered. The concept of a reusable 

Space Shuttle was particularly appealing as an 

economical vehicle to ferry people and supTHRUST 

INTO SPACE 

plies to and from orbit. With its expertise in 

large launch vehicles and propulsion systems, 

it was only natural that Marshall Space Flight 

Center should play a major role in the Space 

Shuttle program. 

By 1970, NASA initiated Space Shuttle 

development activity. At first, Marshall was 

heavily involved in the program definition 

phase leading to the current Shuttle configuration. When the final concept was selected, the 

Center became responsible for the development of the advanced propulsion systems. Of 

the principal Shuttle elements - the Orbiter, 

Main Engines, External Tank, and Solid 

Rocket Boosters - all but the Orbiter were 

developed under Marshall Center 

management. 

Much of the Shuttle effort at Marshall was 

performed by the same personnel and in the 

same facilities that had served the Saturn program so well. As Saturn activity subsided, 

these resources were mustered for the Space 

Shuttle effort. Necessary administrative and 

physical changes occurred to accommodate 

the Shuttle program, but in general the Center 

continued its proven practices in the development of large propulsion systems. Marshall 

Space Flight Center was well prepared to mee 

the challenge of developing a new, improved 

thrust into space. 

“You know when you ride 

a launch vehicle, the 

future standard launch 

vehicle of the United 

States of America, if it 

doesn’t work right, if all 

those engines don’t work 

right, you don’t get very 

far down range. The Space 

Shuttle worked perfectly. It 

was a beautiful thing.” 

John Young 

Commander, STS-1,1981 

Readying the Orbiter Enterprise 

for dynamic tests at Marshall 

20 

ORGtMAL PAGE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH 
)Design Solutions 

The Shuttle posed a number of technical challenges to Marshall engineers. Serving as both 

a passenger and cargo vehicle, the Orbiter 

required highly efficient propulsion systems. 

How could that capability best be achieved? 

By integral engines? By external boosters? By 

a combination of both? How could enough fuel 

be provided for lift-off without burdening the 

Orbiter with empty tanks in flight? How could 

fuel efficiency be improved to get the most 

energy from every gallon? 

For Saturn vehicles, the answer to these 

questions was expendable booster stages that 

provided thrust and then were discarded. The 

Shuttle, however, had to meet a new requirement - reusability - and that introduced a host 

of new questions. What sort of rocket engine 

could withstand repeated use? How much of 

the propulsion system could be recycled and 

reused on successive flights? What materials 

could survive the rigors of repeated launches 

and reentries? 

For each of the propulsion elements, the 

Marshall Center developed unique solutions. 

The end product was a totally new launch 

vehicle; its track record to date is just as 

impressive as that of the Saturns. 

most advanced cryogenic liquid-fueled rocket 

engines ever built. From the outset, it was 

The Space Shuttle Main Engines are the 

Ascent 

Landing 

Lift-off 

n 

I 
recognized that the Main Engines required the 

greatest technological advances of any element in the Shuttle program. The three highpressure engines clustered in the tail of the 

Orbiter each provide almost a half million 

pounds of thrust, for a total thrust equal to that 

of the eight-engine Saturn I first stage. Unlike 

Saturn engines, the Shuttle Main Engines can 

be throttled over a range from 65% to 109% of 

their rated power. Thus, the engine thrust can 

be adjusted to meet different mission needs. 

The design goal for each engine is multiple 

starts and a total firing lifetime of 7% hours, as 

compared to the Saturn J-2 engine’s lifetime 

of about 8 minutes. The engines are gimballed 

so they can be used to steer the Shuttle as 

well as boost it into orbit. 

To get very high performance from an 

engine compact enough that it would not 

encumber the Orbiter or diminish its desired 

payload capability, Marshall worked closely 

with its prime contractor, the Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell International. The greatest 

problem was to develop the combustion 

devices and complex turbomachinery - the 

pumps, turbines, seals, and bearings -that 

could contain and deliver propellants to the 

engines at pressures several times greater 

than in the Saturn engines. The Shuttle engine 

components must endure more severe internal 

environments than any rocket engine ever 

built. Working out the details of this new highpressure system was difficult and time-consuming, but the resultant engines represent a 

significant advance in the state of the art. 

The Shuttle Main Engine is the first propulsion system with a computer mounted directly 

on the engine to control its operation. This digital computer accepts commands from the 

Orbiter for start preparation, engine start, 

thrust level changes, and shutdown. The controller also monitors engine operation and can 

automatically make corrective adjustments or 

shut down the engine safely. Advances in electronic circuitry were required for the addition of 

this unit to a rocket engine. Because it operates in a severe environment, special attention 

was paid to the design and packaging of the 

electronics during an extensive design verification program. 

Improved fuel efficiency was achieved by 

an ingenious staged combustion cycle never 

before used in rocket engines. In this twostage process, exhaust gases are recycled for 

greater combustion efficiency; part of the fuel 

is combusted in preburners to drive the turbines, after which the exhaust gases are channeled into the main combustion chamber for 

full combustion at higher temperatures with the 

balance of the propellants. The rapid mixing of 

propellants under high pressure is so complete 

that a 99% combustion efficiency is attained. 

Even though they are extremely efficient, 

the three Main Engines consume a tremendous quantity of propellant, and the tank that 

feeds them is much larger than the Orbiter 

itself. Marshall also was responsible for developing the External Tank, a massive container 

Space Shuttle Main Engine 

-the most advanced 

liquid-fueled rocket engine 

ever built. 

Test firing of single Space 

Shuttle Main Engine at 

National Space Technology 

Laboratories in Mississippi 

Roll-out of a new External Tank at the 

Michoud Assembly Facility in Louisiana 

22 
almost as tall as the Center’s main office 

building. The External Tank actually contains 

two tanks, one for liquid hydrogen and one for 

liquid oxygen, and a plumbing system that 

supplies propellants to the Main Engines of 

the Orbiter. 

The External Tank presented a variety of 

technical problems, both as a fuel tank and as 

the structural backbone of the entire Shuttle 

assembly. Standing 154 feet tall with a 27-foot 

diameter, the External Tank is a towering structure; fully loaded, it contains more than a half 

million gallons of propellant and weighs more 

than one and a half million pounds. Marshall 

personnel worked closely with the prime contractor, the Martin Marietta Corporation, to 

devise appropriate design solutions for its unusual requirements. 

The Center’s prior experience on the 

Saturn V second stage was directly applicable 

to the cryogenic propellant design requirements of the External Tank. To maintain the 

extremely low temperature necessary for the 

liquid hydrogen, the exterior skin of the tank 

was covered with about an inch of epoxy 

spray-on foam insulation. This thermal wall 

reduces heat into the tank and also reduces 

frost and ice formation on the tank after propellants are loaded. The tank is further protected 

in critical areas from the severe aerodynamic 

heating during flight by a localized ablative 

undercoat that dissipates heat as it chars 

away. 

Structurally, the External Tank is attached 

Preparing to mate the 

External Tank and Solid 

Rocket Boosters at 

Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida 

to the Orbiter and the Solid Rocket Boosters. 

The load-bearing function, both on the launch 

pad and during liftoff and ascent, was a major 

design driver. Engineers devised several solutions to make the tank as strong and as lightweight as possible. The aluminum alloy 

structure was designed to handle complex 

loads, and the problem of propellant sloshing 

in the tanks was solved with baffles to avoid 

instabilities that could affect the Shuttle’s flight. 

Another important design consideration 

was the fact that the External Tank is not reusable. Therefore, its design must be simple and 

its cost minimal. Solutions to these requirements included locating the fluid controls and 

valves in the Orbiter and drawing power for the 

electronics and instrumentation from the 

Orbiter. With these economies, expendable 

hardware has been minimized. 

The External Tank is manufactured at the 

Michoud Assembly Facility by Martin Marietta 

under Marshall Center management. New 

tooling, such as a welding fixture half the span 

of a football field, was required to handle production of the huge tank. Eventually, production of 24 tanks per year is planned. The barge 

transportation system developed to deliver 

Saturn stages is now used to transport External Tanks to the launch sites. 

23 
Lowering Solid Rocket Booster into MSFC 

structural test stand 

The Solid Rocket Boosters are the first 

solid propellant rockets built for a manned 

space vehicle and the largest solid rockets 

ever flown. Burning for approximately two mi: 

Utes, each booster produces almost three m.. 

lion pounds of thrust to augment the Shuttle’s 

main propulsion system during liftoff. The 

boosters also help to steer the Shuttle during 

the critical first phase of ascent. The ll-ton 

booster rocket nozzle is the largest movable 

nozzle ever used. The Solid Rocket Boosters 

were designed as an in-house Marshall Center 

project, with United Space Boosters as the 

assembly and refurbishment contractor. The 

Solid Rocket Motor is provided by the Morton 

Thiokol Corporation. 

simple in appearance, considering their various functions. On the launch pad, the boosters support the entire Shuttle assembly. In 

flight, they provide six million pounds of thrust 

and respond to the Orbiter’s guidance and 

control computer to maintain the Shuttle’s 

course. At burnout, the boosters separate from 

the External Tank and drop by parachute to 

the ocean for recovery and subsequent 

refurbishment. 

The major design drivers for the Solid 

Rocket Boosters were high thrust and reuse. 

The desired thrust was achieved by using 

The Solid Rocket Boosters are deceptively 

c descent of spent Solid 

Rocket Booster for recovery 

and reuse 

state-of-the-art solid propellant and by using a 

long cylindrical motor with a specific core 

1 

x 

L 

Newly developed 

filament-wound motor 

case for Solid Rocket 

. Booster segments 
design that allows the propellant to burn in a 

carefully controlled manner. 

The requirement for reusability dictated 

durable materials and construction, which led 

to several innovations. Paints, coatings, and 

sealants were extensively tested and applied 

to surfaces of the booster structure to preclude 

corrosion of the hardware exposed to the 

harsh seawater environment. Specifications 

called for motor case segments that could be 

used 20 times. To achieve this durability, engineers selected a weld-free case formed by a 

continuous flow-forming process. Machining 

and heat treatment of the massive motor case 

segments also were major technical efforts. 

Reusability also meant making provisions 

for retrieval and refurbishment. The boosters 

contain a complete recovery subsystem that 

includes parachutes, beacons, lights, and tow 

fixtures. The 136-foot diameter main parachutes are the largest ribbon parachutes ever 

used in an operational system, and the Solid 

Rocket Boosters are the largest objects ever 

recovered by parachute. The boosters are 

designed to survive water impact at almost 60 

miles per hour and maintain flotation with minimal damage. 

Besides fulfilling its primary responsibilities 

for propulsion systems, Marshall supported 

many other efforts in Shuttle systems engineering and analysis. The Center's technical 

competence in materials science, thermal 

engineering, structural dynamics, aerodynamics, guidance and navigation, orbital mechanics, systems testing, and systems integration 

all proved valuable to the overall Shuttle development program. Rigorous testing and a score 

of successful launches attest to the design 

achievement of the Shuttle propulsion 

systems. 

IShuttle Testing 

Shuttle test activities were a major responsibility of the Marshall Space Flight Center for 

several years in the late 1970's. Both in Huntsville and at the related NASA facilities in Louisiana and Mississippi, as well as at contractor 

sites around the country, Marshall personnel 

participated in many development and qualification tests. Whether they worked with individual components within a laboratory or 

participated in engine static firings or dynamic 

tests of the mated Shuttle elements, these 

people held to the standard of excellence necessary for a successful Shuttle program. Long 

before the first Shuttle launch on April 12, 

THRUST 

lNTO SPACE 

Solid Rocket Booster - the 

largest solid rocket motor 

ever flown and the first 

designed for reuse. ORJGNAt' PAGE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH 

Test firing of Solid Rocket 

Motor at Morton Thiokol 

1981, Marshall had built confidence in the pro- facility in Utah 

pulsion systems. 

Preparing for and coordinating the many 

different test programs was a significant technical challenge. Rather than build new test 

facilities for the massive Shuttle elements, 

Marshall modified existing resources. Test fixtures and equipment that had stood idle since 

the Saturn era were revived and remodeled to 

support various Shuttle test efforts. In addition, special new equipment was constructed. 

The busiest year was 1978, when the 

External Tank structural and vibration tests, 

the Solid Rocket Booster structural tests, and 

the Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Tests 

were done in Huntsville by Marshall Center 

employees. Meanwhile, single engine tests 

and main propulsion system cluster firings 

were in progress at the National Space Technology Laboratories (formerly Marshall's Mississippi Test Facility). Solid Rocket Motor tests 

were underway in Utah, and subsystems 

tests, such as checkout of the booster parachutes, were being completed elsewhere. 

Marshall played a prominent role in the year- 25 
ORlGtNAL PAGE 

Arrival of Enterprise at Marshall for year-long test series 

The Space Shuttle - a 

launch vehicle, cargo 

carrier, service station, 

research lab, and home in 

space. 

Congressman Ronnie 

Flippo touring Marshall 

during Shuttle , 

test period 

long Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Test program, the critical evaluation of the entire Shuttle complement - Orbiter, Tank, and Boosters - 

assembled for the first time. The phased test 

sequence began in March of 1978 when the 

Orbiter Enterprise arrived at Marshall and was 

greeted by throngs of employees and citizens. 

The Orbiter was hoisted into the modified 

Dynamic Test Stand originally built for Saturn 

V testing, mated first to an External Tank, and 

subjected to vibration frequencies comparable 

to those expected during launch and ascent. 

Several months later, the Solid Rocket Boosters were added for tests of the entire Shuttle 

assembly. The test series confirmed the structural interfaces and mating of the entire Shuttle system and allowed mathematical models 

used to predict the Shuttle’s response to vibrations in flight to be adjusted so that effects for 

future flight environments could be predicted 

adequately prior to launch. Marshall managed 

and conducted this important test program 

with support from the Shuttle contractors. 

the Solid Rocket Boosters underwent independent structural tests. These activities 

occurred in Marshall’s test stands and in the 

Building 4619 test facility, all formerly used to 

test Saturn stages. In addition, captive firings 

of a 6.4% scale model Shuttle enabled engineers to determine the launch acoustic environment and its effects on both the vehicle and 

the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. 

Concurrently, both the External Tank and 

1 

1 

ABOVE: MSFC test control engineer putting 

Shuttle elements through vibration tests 

RIGHT: Preparation for Mated Vertical 

Ground Vibration Tests 

26 
cale model firings also influenced launch pad 

esign criteria for the new western launch site 

t Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. 

Marshall’s other principal test responsibility 

{as for the Main Engine development. 

ngines were fired repeatedly during their 

evelopment and later for flight qualification. 

‘he highlight of propulsion system testing was 

ie Main Propulsion Test series of cluster firigs, in which three engines were mounted to 

n Orbiter mockup and fired simultaneously 

ihile drawing propellants from an actual Exter- 

,a1 Tank. These tests, which began in 1977, 

erified not only the operational compatibility of 

le main propulsion system elements but also 

bropellant loading procedures and propellant 

2ed systems. In addition, Marshall established 

n in-house laboratory to test and verify the 

vionics and software system of the Main 

Ingines through simulations of all operating 

:onditions. 

ights, major elements of the Shuttle have 

Ieen, and continue to be, tested under 

Aarshall Center supervision. These test programs ensure the safe, reliable performance of 

OR\G\wL PAGE 

PHOTOGRAPH 

From earliest development through actual 

e nation’s Space Transportation System. 

igorous testing has always been a hallmark 

Marshall’s commitment to excellence. 

huttle Operations 

he Center’s responsibilities for Space Shuttle 

ystems extended beyond the development 

hase into the operational era. Marshall peronnel are involved in two ongoing Shuttle 

fforts: launch support and production. (An 

dditional major activity, the development and 

anagement of scientific payloads for Shuttle 

lights, is treated elsewhere in this text.) 

The Huntsville Operations Support Center 

HOSC) in Building 4663 is a hub of activity 

ing enterprise, the Center engages in production planning, readiness reviews, and 

technology improvements on the production 

Another in a long series Of 

successful Space Shuttle 

launches 

-. . 

and assembly lines to reduce costs. Marshall 

is meeting the new challenge of mass producing high-quality hardware and doing it on 

schedule and with decreasing costs. 

After a mission, the Solid Rocket Boosters 

are recovered and refurbished. Postflight 

activities include engineering assessments of 

the wear-and-tear on the hardware and necessary repairs. Marshall engineers have devised 

techniques to diminish impact damage to the 

boosters and to streamline refurbishment operations for fast turn-around between missions. 

during propellant loading, countdown, launch, 

and powered flight toward orbit. This facility 

has evolved considerably from the simpler 

Saturn era operations room and now is capable of secured operations to support Department of Defense missions. From the HOSC, 

Marshall personnel monitor the status of the 

propulsion systems; via a sophisticated communications network, they receive data from 

sensors aboard the Shuttle and from Marshall 

management teams at the launch site. HOSC 

duty entails around-the-clock work to guaran- 

(tee a trouble-free launch on schedule. EvaluaItion of flight data is a crucial activity not only 

‘for launch support but also to assure that 

/follow-on flights can be safely made. 

Marshall is responsible for the continued 

production of External Tanks at the Michoud 

Assembly Facility. To manage its manufacturEngineers on duty in the HOSC during 

Space Shuttle missions 

27 
)Shuttle I m prove ment s )Shuttle Legacies 

Ongoing engine research 

and technology development at Marshall 

Shuttle responsibilities did not end with development of operational Main Engines, External 

Tanks, and Solid Rocket Boosters. Instead, 

Marshall is engaged in ongoing technology 

advancement to improve the Shuttle propulsion systems at reduced costs. In various laboratories around the Center, engineering 

evaluations of Shuttle performance continue 

as Marshall’s experts investigate ways to make 

a proven product less costly. 

The two primary challenges are to increase 

the Shuttle’s payload-carrying capability and to 

improve the Shuttle’s performance. To meet 

the first challenge, Marshall engaged in a 

weight-reduction campaign to trim pounds 

from propulsion elements in order to carry 

heavier payloads into orbit. A lightweight 

External Tank was developed by removing 

some insulation, trimming material from some 

structural elements, and using stronger materials where possible; this tank is already in 

use. The Center also developed lighter weight 

steel motor cases for the Solid Rocket Boosters and an innovative filament-wound case 

that is even lighter and stronger. For improved 

economics and performance, Marshall is also 

managing the development of a Main Engine 

with a longer flight lifetime. 

continues to be refined through Marshall’s 

ongoing flight certification program; many of 

the improvements have been installed and are 

now in use. The continuing advancement of 

Shuttle technology is as important and challenging as the original design and development efforts. 

The design of Shuttle propulsion elements 

Shuttle improvements studied in 

Marshall’s engineering laboratories 

In 1981, Marshall and the nation once again 

watched expectantly as a new launch vehicle 

the Space Shuttle, rose from the pad. This 

successful first flight with the Orbiter Columbia 

introduced the era of the Space Transportation 

System and a continuing series of Shuttle missions. Three other Orbiters - Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis - soon joined the fleet, an( 

Americans felt new pride in the triumphs of the 

space program. 

The Shuttle development effort evolved 

naturally out of the Saturn experience in largt 

launch vehicles and propulsion systems. 

Marshall continued its close working relationship with contractors and maintained its stror 

technical competence in the relevant engine€ 

ing disciplines. The Center also continued its 

successful managerial practices. However, 

certain changes in NASA’s philosophy and 

resources challenged Marshall in new ways. 

During the Shuttle period, Marshall Space 

Flight Center became a leaner, stronger insti. 

tution as it adapted to these changes. 

The principal philosophical change was tt 

necessity of reuse. In a time of declining bud 

gets and increased awareness of limited 

resources, reusability was a high priority. 

Marshall met the technical challenge of deve 

oping durable space hardware that could be 

recycled for many missions. Despite delays 

along the way, the Shuttle development program proceeded successfully. 

The achievement was especially noteworthy because the Center also was tasked 

with the administrative challenge of reassigning facilities and personnel. As Saturn work 

tapered off and Marshall became involved in 

other projects, the Center had to reallocate 

many of its resources. Major reorganization 

occurred as leadership passed from Dr. 

von Braun in 1970 to three successors in four 

years. From 1965, the peak year of Saturn 

activity, to the first year of Shuttle activity in 

1970, Marshall lost almost 20% of its civil service work force as federal budget cuts slashed 

the Center’s funding in half. This trend continued well into the 1970’s until the budget and 

1 

The Space Shuttle markedly expands man’s ability 

to do things in space at 

lower cost, more often, 

and more effectively than 

ever before. 

28 
staffing levels stabilized with staff at approximately 60% of the peak Saturn year. 

Dr. W. R. Lucas, who became Center 

Director in 1974, remarked that Marshall had 

survived its years of crisis with its commitment 

to excellence intact. The Center managed to 

cope with the reductions and still tackle very 

ambitious projects. 

Meanwhile, the Shuttle endeavor influenced the Center’s work in space science and 

manned orbital systems. Development of a 

vehicle capable of routine access to space 

opened many possibilities for using space as a 

laboratory and work place. The Center’s development activity in flight experiments, observatories, and basic research and technology 

accelerated noticeably during this period. 

Marshall also devoted considerable attention 

to manned space activity - servicing spacecraft, assembling large structures, doing 

experiments - made possible by the Shuttle. 

A work place and delivery 

vehicle in orbit 

Twentieth-century 

pilgrimage 

29 
THRUST 

INTO SPACE 

Deployment of NASA’s 

Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite (TDRS) and its 

Inertial Upper Stage from 

the Shuffle payload bay 

OMV simulator in MSFCs 

teleoperation and robotics 

research laboratory 

Concept for an Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle 

to ferry payloads to and from the Shuffle in 

low-Earth orbit ORIGINAL PAGE 

=OR PHOTOGRAPH 

30 

)Advanced 

Transportation Systems 

In 1977, Marshall acquired responsibilities for 

another propulsion element, an upper stage tc 

boost payloads to higher orbits or to send 

spacecraft on interplanetary voyages. While 

the Air Force had primary responsibility for 

development of an Inertial Upper Stage, 

Marshall became NASA’s management and 

coordination center, providing the agency’s 

design and operational requirements to the Ai 

Force and participating in the development of 

two upper stage configurations for NASA missions. Marshall participated in key design 

reviews, interface working groups, and test 

activities for the NASA upper stage 

configurations. 

NASA’s first use of the upper stage to 

launch a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite in 

1983 was only a partial success; the satellite 

did not reach the desired orbit and further 

launches were delayed pending evaluation an 

modification of the boosters. The upper stage 

subsequently performed satisfactorily on a 

mission in 1985. 

commercial ventures for upper stages. For 

Shuttle missions, Marshall monitors the Payload Assist Module developed independently 

by McDonnell Douglas. A larger Transfer Orbi 

Stage under development by the Orbital Sciences Corporation is also being monitored by 

Marshall. These upper stages broaden the 

variety of payloads that can be placed in orbit 

from the Shuttle. 

What kinds of cargo carriers and people 

movers are needed in the Space Station era? 

As commercial activity in space increases witt 

people living and working there, the demand 

for transportation service will multiply. Plannin 

and concept studies are well under way at 

Marshall Space Flight Center to forecast the 

space transportation needs of the future and to 

develop appropriate vehicles. 

In the future, different vehicles will be 

needed for travel between the ground, low 

orbit, high orbit, and beyond. In general, 

Marshall planners foresee three new classes 

of vehicles to satisfy different mission requirements: Orbital Maneuvering Vehicles, Orbital 

Transfer Vehicles, and advanced large-lift vehicles. These new vehicles will augment the 

capabilities of the proven Space Shuttle, which 

will continue to offer routine passenger and 

cargo service between the ground and lowEarth orbit. 

The idea of an Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, a space “tug,” has been considered at the 

Center for several years. In 1977, Marshall 

was authorized to define a Teleoperator 

The Center also became involved in two 
Retrieval System, a remotely controlled propulsive vehicle that could rendezvous with an 

orbiting spacecraft, grapple it, and move it 

elsewhere. Originally conceived for future onorbit servicing missions, the teleoperator was 

considered for use in a possible Skylab rescue 

attempt. Development activity accelerated to 

meet a pressing schedule as Skylab’s orbit 

decayed more rapidly than anticipated. 

progressed through rendezvous and docking 

simulations as Marshall investigated suitable 

hardware fixtures and remote control procedures. Tbe Center also engaged in a number 

of studies to determine the visual and manipulator aids needed for remote operations; television systems, hand controls, and end effectors 

received careful attention. Although the Skylab 

reboostldeboost mission did not occur, the 

planning activity energized teleoperator 

research and technology at the Center. The 

capability for orbital docking simulation was 

expanded to include a unique six degree-offreedom motion system for evaluation of docking mechanisms. 

The Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle now 

under study is an improved version of this 

space tug with a larger service role than originally foreseen. In addition to satellite retrieval 

and delivery tasks, this vehicle might perform 

remote maintenance, assembly, and logistics 

tasks to service free-flying spacecraft and also 

support Space Station activities. 

Marshall Space Flight Center has been a 

pioneer in advanced teleoperation and robotics 

technology research for more than a decade. 

The Center is continuing this research in a 

new evaluation laboratory opened in 1984. 

Work on the Teleoperator Retrieval System 

“We will undoubtedly 

continue to explore nearer 

space. We will keep going 

to the moon, maybe one 

day build a permanent 

camp on the moon, and 

then go on to Mars and 

Venus.” 

Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1967 

This unique facility houses a 4,000 square foot 

precision flat floor and air bearing vehicles; it is 

used as a test bed for remotely controlled vehicles. Simulations in the facility serve to evaluate remote systems concepts and also to train 

operators. The laboratory will play a prominent 

role as an Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle 

simulator. 

Orbital Transfer Vehicles are required to 

deliver some orbital payloads, including people, to higher altitudes beyond the Shuttle’s 

range, which is limited to about 600 miles, and 

to launch interplanetary probes from Earth 

orbit. They also can be used to ferry spacecraft between stationary geosynchronous orbit 

at 22,000 miles and the Space Station in lowEarth orbit for servicing or refurbishment, or 

they can be used to carry work crews to service distant satellites. 

Over the years, Marshall engineers have 

considered various concepts for advanced 

transportation systems to meet these needs 

for greater payload capability. Among the most 

promising were a Spinning Solid Upper Stage 

for deliveries to geosynchronous orbit and a 

Solar Electric Propulsion Stage that generated 

and used its own Dower. The Center is now 

ORlGlNAL PAG~ 

mR p;-j0~c~~,~

investigating several concepts for aeroassisted 

braking that would enable a returning Orbital Concepts Pander Vehicles for orbits’ to ferry Transfer Vehicle to slow its speed without rely- pay,oads, ing on an engine. Although no particular hard- astronauts lowware configuration has yet been selected, the Earth and 

orbits 

~ 

I 

I 

31 
rmusr 

INTO SPACE 

planning studies draw upon Marshall’s resident 

propulsion and vehicle design talents. 

The Center has also given much attention 

to complementary launch vehicles derived 

from the basic Space Shuttle propulsion elements. These may serve as logistical supply 

vehicles to carry needed materials and equipment into orbit. The challenge in this effort is to 

adapt existing designs for missions requiring 

vastly greater payload lift, perhaps a million 

pounds of payload as compared to the 

Shuttle’s 65,000 pound capability. Various 

combinations of modified engines, tanks, and 

boosters are being considered. Although no 

specific concept has been authorized for 

development yet, the thrust of these studies is 

to augment the capabilities of the Shuttle for 

unmanned delivery of payloads and for launch 

of extremely heavy cargo. 

)A Glimpse of the Future 

Very soon, space will be a busy work place. 

Traffic will increase noticeably as people, 

materials, and equipment are routinely transported back and forth between the ground and 

low-Earth orbit. Traffic will also begin to flow to 

and from more distant regions of space - geosynchronous orbit, the moon, the neighboring 

Side-mount Shuttle-Derived Vehicle 

planets. Talk of manned lunar colonies or a 

manned expedition to Mars is no more idle 

today than talk of a Space Station was 15 years 

ago. Now the Space Station is becoming a reality; what about the other dreams? 

Sophisticated as it is, the current Space 

Shuttle is but the first generation model. It 

alone cannot meet all the transportation needs 

of the future. New vehicle models are yet to be 

designed and developed. Like automobiles, 

they will progressively become more efficient, 

more comfortable, more serviceable. 

Consider how rapidly propulsion systems 

and launch vehicles have evolved. It took only 

a decade to develop and prove the transportation system that safely carried people to the 

moon and back. In another decade, a reusable 

space vehicle was in service. What was once 

inconceivable - spaceflight - is now taken for 

granted. 

Although it is now possible to send people 

back and forth, to place satellites in desired 

orbits, to deploy and retrieve payloads, these 

achievements are rudimentary compared to 

what can be done. Despite the advances of 

recent years, technology has not yet 

approached the limits of what is theoretically 

possible. 

Marshall is NASA’s primary Center for propulsion systems development, and many of 

the test facilities here are unmatched. Marshall 

also has unique facilities for the development 

of large structural systems and impressive laboratory resources in the various engineering 

disciplines. The necessary tools are available 

here to meet the challenges of future space 

transportation systems. 

Marshall people can and will make new 

strides in the technologies for advanced propulsion systems and launch vehicles. Whereas 

the first quarter-century results were the 

Saturns and the Shuttle, in the next quarter 

Marshall may produce a fleet of quite different 

vehicles - towering ones for heavy-lift 

launches, agile ones for orbital maneuvering, 

powerful but lightweight ones for orbit transfers, vehicles that run on exotic fuels or novel 

engines, robotic vehicles, perhaps even compact models for manned use. The possibilities 

are exciting and unlimited. 

As it looks toward future transportation in 

space, Marshall is exploiting its wealth of 

experience and imagination. Drawing upon the 

technical expertise of its staff in all the engineering disciplines, this Center expects the 

thrust into space to remain one of its primary 

occupations and achievements in the years 

ahead. 

32 
“You and I have been 

privileged to live and participate in a unique period 

in man’s history, a period 

of explosive technological 

advancement that has 

been unequaled in any 

other epoch.” 

Dr. W. R. Lucas 

Concept for new Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicle 

1 In-line Shuftle-Derived Vehicle 

Propulsion and transportation for the future: 

a high prlorify at Marshall 

33 

What is the purpose 

of space flight? From a 

scientific point of view, 

the answer is that we can 

do research in space that is 

impossible on Earth. There 

we have a global view of our 

planet for atmospheric and geounknown still before us is 

Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1958 

CRGIFd/\L PAGE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAP# 

physical observations, an unobstructed view of 

the heavens for astronomical observations, a 

microgravity environment for experiments in 

life sciences and materials science, and direct 

exposure to the radiation and vacuum of 

space. Thus, space is a unique laboratory. 

NASA’s charter explicitly states that “activities 

in space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind.” Space 

science research extends the frontiers of 

knowledge in accordance with that charter. 

Even while they were affiliated with military 

projects, the early rocket pioneers considered 

the potential uses of rockets for scientific 

research in space. It seemed quite practical to 

replace missile warheads with scientific experiments or to develop more powerful vehicles to 

place satellites, laboratories, and people into 

space. Dr. Wernher von Braun remarked that 

the driving ambition of his colleagues had been 

to engineer rockets for scientific research. With 

a singleness of purpose, they were dedicated 

to the evolution of space flight for the exploration of the universe. 

science can be traced to the launch of 

America’s first satellite, Explorer I in 1958, 

aboard the Jupiter C rocket developed in 

Huntsville by von Braun’s group and the Army. 

The scientific return was immediate and startling: discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts 

encircling Earth. Shortly thereafter, the 

The Marshall Center’s involvement in space 

“I am convinced that man’s 

inevitable march toward 

knowledge is now over the 

very earliest hurdles on/y, 

and the vastness of the 

35 
)Small Scientific Payloads 

Huntsville group launched a Pioneer satellite 

on a solar expedition and placed another 

Explorer into orbit. Although some of the 

Explorer and Pioneer satellites were developed 

elsewhere, the rocket group’s appetite for 

space science was whetted by participating in 

the flight experiments. Soon they began to find 

opportunities for scientific experiments and 

payloads on rocket test flights, and they began 

to plan future missions dedicated to science. 

Scientists involved with the launch team eventually became the nucleus of Marshall’s Space 

Science Laboratory. 

Over the first quarter-century of its history, 

space science research has evolved into a significant mission at Marshall Space Flight 

Center. The Center’s staff includes distinguished scientists in the disciplines of astronomy and astrophysics, atmospheric physics, 

solar and magnetospheric physics, and materials science. They have made important contributions to knowledge through work not only 

in the laboratories here but also in the vast natural laboratory of space. Combining their talents with Marshail’s engineering and 

managerial resources, they have developed 

sophisticated space observatories as well as a 

host of smaller flight experiments and payloads. Furthermore, research at the Center is 

extending the frontiers of knowledge in several 

fields of science and technology. 

The Marshall Center’s achievements in 

space science are sometimes overshadowed 

by the size and spectacle of its achievements 

in launch vehicle engineering. Yet, the institution also has a rich scientific heritage. Marshall 

scientists are steadily seeking to solve the 

mysteries of the universe. In the quest for 

knowledge, they are committed to excellence. 

RESEARCH 

FRONTIER 

ON THE NEW 

OR\G.IML PAGE 

-OR pHomRAPH 

The impetus for the large Saturn booster was 

the exploration of space. During its development, Marshall had several opportunities to 

use the Saturn for research payloads. The 

Center also developed some small satellites 

that were launched by other vehicles. 

neering test flights in 1962, the dummy upper 

stages were used for a scientific experiment 

called Project Highwater. Thousands of gallons 

of ballast water from the inert stages were 

released into the upper atmosphere. This effor 

to investigate the effects of water clouds 

marked the first use of a Saturn vehicle for scientific purposes, even though the research 

was clearly secondary to the engineering 

objectives of the flights. 

The first genuine scientific payloads 

launched by Saturn vehicles, and the first satellites for which the Marshall Space Flight 

Center had full responsibility, were the three 

Pegasus micrometeoroid detection satellites 

orbited in 1965. The purpose of the Pegasus 

project was to collect information about the 

abundance of potentially hazardous micrometeoroids at high altitudes, where the manned 

Apollo missions would orbit. Spacecraft 

designers were keenly interested in the information, because the vehicle and crew were in 

jeopardy if tiny particles could puncture a 

spacecraft skin. 

was responsible for the design, production, 

and operation of the satellites and for data 

analysis. Working with the satellite contractor, 

Fairchild, Marshall personnel built up valuable 

experience in the design and operation of scientific payloads, particularly in sensor technology, satellite stabilization, thermal control, and 

data transmission. Micrometeoroid detectors 

and sample protective shields of varying thickness were mounted on the satellite’s wing-like 

solar cell arrays. The sensors successfully 

measured the frequency, size, direction, and 

penetration of scores of micrometeoroid 

impacts. 

Marshall’s first major venture in space science research paid handsomely. Micrometeoroid penetration data collected by the Pegasus 

satellites and telemetered to the ground were 

used by spacecraft engineers to confirm 

Saturn-Apollo and other designs. Pegasus 

results also influenced thermal coating technology and gave insight into the expected lifetime 

of materials exposed to space for long periods. 

Furthermore, the data made a valuable contriAs a bonus on two of the early Saturn engiAs project manager, the Marshall Center 

The Marshall Center’s first satellite, Pegasus 

36 
ORIGINAL PAGE 

EMR PHO‘FOGRAPH 

bution to general knowledge of the nearby 

space environment; facts replaced theory. 

During the period after Pegasus, the focus 

of scientific activity at Marshall was on various 

experiments to fly aboard Skylab, the nation’s 

first orbital laboratory and space station. As 

discussed elsewhere in this text, Marshall’s 

multidisciplinary space science capabilities 

grew noticeably stronger during the Skylab era. 

Meanwhile, two satellites were being developed for quite different missions, one practical 

and the other theoretical. In 1976, Marshall 

launched both the Laser Geodynamics 

Satellite (Lageos) and the Gravitational 

Redshift Probe A (GP-A). 

a mirror in space. The 900-pound, 2-foot diameter satellite precisely reflects laser beams 

from ground stations for extremely accurate 

ranging measurements. The purpose of 

Lageos is to measure movements of Earth’s 

crust; movements of less than an inch can be 

detected by timing the laser beam’s 3700 mile 

round trip. The practical application of this 

ranging system is improved understanding of 

earthquakes, continental drift, and other geophysical phenomena. The satellite was conceived and manufactured at the Marshall 

Center. 

The purpose of the 125-pound Gravitational Probe (GP-A) was more abstract: to test 

the principle of equivalence in Einstein’s 

Lageos, which is still in orbit, is essentially 

Assembly of Lageos 

satellite at MSFC 

“We must look beyond our 

limited horizons to discover the laws of science 

and the sources of energy 

that will govern our future 

on this planet.” 

Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 

1 

Final checkout of GP-A experiment at Marshall 
general theory of relativity. According to theory 

but never demonstrated, a clock will appear to 

run faster in a weaker gravitational field, at a 

greater distance from Earth. Scientists from 

Marshall and the Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory jointly devised an ingenious 

experiment to test the theory. A very stable 

atomic clock was launched through Earth’s 

gravitational field to a peak altitude of 10,000 

km (6200 mi.), and its readings during free 

flight were compared with those of an identical 

reference clock on the ground. The experiment 

lasted about an hour, and results confirmed the 

theory. Marshall had overall management 

responsibility for the construction, integration, 

and systems testing of the satellite. The 

Marshall-designed thermal control system met 

unusually stringent requirements. 

Marshall scientists have developed a great 

variety of small payloads for rocket flights. 

Astronomers, solar scientists, magnetospheric 

and atmospheric physicists rely on these small 

experiments to gather data and test new 

periods of near weightlessness as the rocket 

passes through its apex. (Microgravity materials processing research is discussed in detail 

elsewhere in this text). 

Small scientific payloads have an important 

place in Marshall’s history on their own merits 

and as forerunners of more ambitious efforts. 

For example, Pegasus data are still consulted 

today as the standard reference on micrometeoroids. Rocket-borne payloads have served 

as economical test beds for new concepts, and 

they bridged the period between Skylab and 

Shuttle flight opportunities. 

With the advent of the Space Transportation System, scientists are now concentrating 

on experiments to be flown on Shuttle and 

Spacelab missions. These new facilities are 

preferred because experiments can be flown 

frequently for a week at a time, operated by 

crew members, and returned for analysis, 

modification, and reflight. Many of the Center’s 

scientists are thus developing small payloads 

for manned missions in space. 

)Space Observatories instrument concepts. One of the Center’s most 

successful efforts for small payloads has been 

the Space Processing Applications Rocket 

(SPAR) project. Between 1975 and 1983, 

Marshall accomplished 10 suborbital flights 

which altogether carried several dozen small 

materials processing experiments. Intriguing 

results were achieved in the five-minute 

Given its expertise in developing large launch 

vehicles, it is not really surprising that Marshall 

Space Flight Center has also developed large 

scientific systems. Over the years, the Center 

has been responsible for a family of observatory-class payloads, large complements of 

instruments designed to operate together and 

make related scientific observations. Just as 

an observatory on the ground contains various 

instruments for the common use of many scientists pursuing their own research, so the big 

systems developed at Marshall function as 

observatories. 

The lineage to date includes the Apollo 

Telescope Mount on Skylab (1973), the three 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories (1977- 

79), the Hubble Space Telescope (scheduled 

for launch in 1986), and the planned Advanced 

X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (1991). Each of 

these observatories is a unique scientific 

resource, offering scientists around the world 

the most advanced technology available in its 

time for new insight into the universe. 

Circular Apollo Telescope 

Mount, a sophisticated solar 

observatory 

Apollo 

Telescope 

Mount - 

first manned 

observatory 

in space. 

ORlGiNAL PAGE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH 

Materials processing experiments 

for a SPAR flight 

38 
)sy ab Apollo Te escope Mount 

Marshall's first endeavor in observatory-class 

payloads was the Apollo Telescope Mount 

developed for use with the Skylab orbital workshop. A complement of six solar telescopes 

and two related cameras, the observatory compared favorably in size and pointing capability 

to some of the best observatories on the 

ground. Yet, the observatory in space revealed 

the sun as it could never be seen from the 

ground underneath the obscuring atmosphere. 

The Apollo Telescope Mount was an unprecedented tool for solar research, and the 

Marshall Center played a major role in its 

development and operation. 

ATM thermal testing 

in MSFC wacuum chamber Skyiab scientist-astronaut at the ATM control console 

39 
ON THE NEW 

FR 0 NTIER 

New views of a familiar sun in visible light, 

X- rays, hydrogen-alpha, and ultraviolet light 

Although its mission occurred in 1973, the 

observatory concept originated in 1965, when 

NASA began to consider a program to succeed the Saturn-Apollo missions. Called the 

Apollo Applications Program, the effort was 

directed to the use of Saturn-era technology 

for new purposes. At the crux of the program 

were concepts for converting a spent Saturn 

stage into an orbital workshop or precursor 

space station. The Apollo Telescope Mount 

evolved from a fairly simple initial concept into 

an advanced observatory attached to such an 

orbital workshop. 

In 1966, Marshall Space Flight Center was 

assigned responsibility for developing the solar 

observatory. While six of the eight instruments 

were developed at other research institutions, 

Marshall coordinated the design, integration, 

and assembly into a single payload. In addition, the Center developed two scientific instruments and designed, produced, and tested the 

mount for the entire cluster. Marshall also was 

responsible for the attached laboratory module, called the Multiple Docking Adapter, which 

housed the control and display console for the 

observatory and a complement of Earth 

resources experiments. The Apollo Telescope 

Mount project drew upon all the scientific, engineering, and managerial talents of the Center. 

The purposes of the Apollo Telescope 

Mount were to observe, monitor, and record 

solar features over a wavelength range from 

visible light through ultraviolet and X-ray emissions. Each of the instruments was the most 

advanced of its type; used together, they could 

examine different layers of the solar atmosphere or simultaneously scrutinize the same 

solar feature across the spectrum. 

lenges to provide an Observatory mount that 

would enable the instruments to take full 

advantage of being in space. Besides providing a large optical bench and a protective canister to support and enclose the instruments, 

Marshall was responsible for the power, thermal, pointing, and deployment systems. The 

control and display and data systems also 

were developed under the Center's auspices. 

Marshall had overall systems integration 

responsibility, including alignment and calibration for the entire observatory. 

to various industrial partners. Bendix, for 

example, produced an attitude control gyro for 

extremely precise pointing accuracy and stability. Martin Marietta was assigned the payload 

integration function and assembly of the conMarshall engineers met a number of chal- 

~ ' 

1 

By 1968, Marshall had awarded contracts 

Changing coronal hole visible in X-ray images 

40 
trol console. The thermal systems unit and 

outer canister were assembled in-house in the 

Center’s Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory. By mid-1970 the Apollo Telescope Mount 

design received final approval, and a year later 

the flight unit underwent engineering tests in 

Huntsville and Houston. 

In the meantime, a full-scale mockup of the 

observatory was installed underwater in 

Marshall’s Neutral Buoyancy Simulator in 1969. 

Because the primary data collection was photographic, the crew had to change film cartridges periodically, a task done outside 

Skylab. Thus, extravehicular activity (EVA) 

reviews and crew training exercises were conducted in a simulated zero-gravity environment 

at Marshall to evaluate the crew aids and procedures for changing film and otherwise servicing the observatory. 

The nine-month operation of the Skylab 

solar observatory was a stunning success. A 

harvest of more than 150,000 photographic 

exposures was collected, and observations 

revealed many unsuspected solar features and 

events. In particular, the Skylab data gave scientists an appreciation for the importance and 

complexity of the sun’s magnetic fields. With its 

precise pointing accuracy and stability and its 

array of sensitive detectors across a wide 

wavelength range, the observatory revealed 

the sun as it had never been seen before. 

Solar scientists at Marshall and elsewhere 

gained a wealth of new information that far 

exceeded their expectations. 

belonged not only to the instrumentation, 

which had been developed and assembled 

under Marshall Center management, but also 

to the crew, who were well-trained in solar 

physics and operation of the telescopes. They 

knew what to look for and how to use the telescopes in concert to gain the most revealing 

information. They stayed on the alert for signs 

of interesting solar activity and responded to 

many opportunities beyond the scheduled 

observations. Furthermore, their ingenuity in 

troubleshooting and repairing instruments 

Credit for the success of the observatory 

and monitoring the scientific observations from 

the operations control center in Houston. The 

Skylab solar observing program was carefully 

planned before the mission but was updated 

daily in response to observations and predictions from a worldwide solar watch. Investigative teams, including Marshall scientists, met 

daily to assess data and coordinate upcoming 

observations. During the mission, their communication with the crew was a contributing 

factor to the highly successful use of the 

observatory. 

was Marshall’s first experience in developing 

and managing a major scientific payload for a 

manned mission. In this effort, the Center built 

new capabilities in scientific instrumentation, 

crew systems, and crew training. The Skylab 

experience became the foundation for increasingly ambitious ventures in observatory development and the use of space for scientific 

research. 

The Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount project 

Telescopes in space have 

opened our eyes to a new 

universe, invisible from 

the ground. 

greatly enhanced the scientific yield of the mission. Marshall had participated in training the Solar flare viewed in ultraviolet light 

astronauts and justifiably felt pride in the crew’s 

fine performance. 

Marshall scientists and engineers also were 

involved in mission support during the ninemonth period of Skylab orbital activity. Responsibilities included monitoring the Apollo 

Telescope Mount experiments and subsystems 

from the Huntsville Operations Support Center 

ORlGlMAL PAGE 

=OR PHOTOGMPI4 

41 
ORIGINAL PAGE 

OR PHOWPW 

)Hi h Energy As 9 ronomy Observatories RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER 

__ ____ 

The family of Hlgh Energy Astronomy Observatories 

42 

As the Apollo Telescope Mount project reached 

its culmination, a new observatory project was 

taking shape at Marshall - a series of three 

large, unmanned observatories for X-ray, 

gamma ray, and cosmic ray investigations. The 

Center served as project manager for the 

development of the High Energy Astronomy 

Observatories (HEAO), working with TRW, the 

prime contractor for the spacecraft. The scientific instruments aboard the observatories were 

designed by scientists at universities and other 

research centers, with technical inputs from 

Marshall. 

The HEAO program spanned the decade of 

the seventies from early planning in 1970, 

through the year of peak activity in 1976, to the 

launches in 1977,1978, and 1979. With these 

observatories, the new field of high energy 

astrophysics came of age. Thousands of 

celestial X-ray and gamma ray sources were 

discovered as astronomers had their first long, 

clear look at the universe in this fairly unfamiliar part of the spectrum. For the first time, they 

had sharply focused X-ray images of distant 

galaxies, supernova remnants, pulsars, quasars, and other intriguing objects. The quick 

pace of discovery, revealing highly energetic 

objects and events, changed astronomers’ 

understanding of the universe almost 

overnight. 

As usual, the Center’s laboratories were 

heavily engaged in the technical and scientific 

Checkout of HEA0.2 

Andromeda Galaxy in visible light 

Hldden pulsar In 

Crab Nebula, 

revealed In HEAO 

X-ray Image 

HEAO Image showing X-ray sources within Andromeda 
)Hubble Space Telescope 

Currently, the Marshall Center is managing one 

of the most exciting scientific payloads in its 

history - the Hubble Space Telescope, named 

in honor of the twentieth-century American 

astronomer Edwin P. Hubble. Heralded as perhaps the most important scientific instrument 

ever flown, the Space Telescope is expected to 

revolutionize modern astronomy and to serve 

as the world’s premier astronomical research 

facility for the rest of the century. It is an imposing instrument; 43 feet long, 14 feet in diameter, with a 2.4-meter (94-inch) primary mirror 

and five large detectors, the telescope weighs 

12 tons. The Space Telescope will enable 

astronomers to see 7 times farther into space 

and observe objects that appear 50 times fainter than they can see from the best groundbased observatories. 

Hubble Space Telescope, premier space 

observatory for the next generation 

aspects of the new observatories. A highlight 

of Marshall’s involvement was the testing and 

calibration of the HEAOQ telescope, the first 

imaging X-ray telescope and the largest X-ray 

telescope ever built. To qualify this remarkably 

precise instrument and others in the future, 

Marshall erected a unique X-ray calibration 

and test facility, larger and more sophisticated 

than any in the world. Completed in 1976, the 

facility contained a 1000 foot long by 3 foot 

diameter vacuum tube (for the X-ray path) connecting an X-ray generator and an instrument 

test chamber. 

The HEAO missions were unqualified successes. All spacecraft exceeded their expected 

lifetimes and the resultant data collection was 

enormous. In their day they were the largest 

automated scientific payloads with the lowest 

cost per pound ever placed in orbit. In the 

course of the program, there were technical 

difficulties with the advanced gyro and mirror 

technology needed to meet the rigorous pointing and sensitivity requirements. In addition, 

the Center encountered new management 

challenges, for the HEAO program fell within 

NASA’s period of retrenchment. With constrained budgets and reductions in work force, 

the HEAO program was descoped more than 

once. Marshall and its partners had to rethink 

and restructure the missions within new constraints. Nevertheless, the observatories were 

immensely successful, and Marshall’s reputation for developing and managing scientific 

payloads grew. 

Inspecting the huge primary mlrror before 

installation in the telescope 

Neutral buoyancy mockup 

for crew training 

Y 

43 
RESEARCH mIGIr\aAL PAGE 

ON THE NEW mR PHOTOGRAPH 

FR 0 N TIE R 

Exploring the universe with powerful new telescopes 

Following various science and engineerin 

concept studies in the late 1960’s, Marshall 

Space Flight Center was assigned Space 

Telescope project management responsibiliti 

in 1972. For the next five years, the Center 

conducted various studies both in-house anc 

under contract to define the science and eng 

neering requirements. By 1977, the basic 

observatory design was settled and contract( 

were selected for two of the major elements. 

Perkin-Elmer for the Optical Telescope 

Assembly and Lockheed Missiles and Space 

Company for the Support Systems Module a 

systems integration. NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center was assigned responsibility for 

development of the scientific instruments. In 

exchange for a percentage of viewing time, t 

European Space Agency agreed to provide t 

solar array power system and one of the scic 

tific instruments. The Center already has dor 

much of the definition and systems engineer 

ing work in-house; Marshall is now busy mar 

aging the hardware deliveries and assembly 

preparation for launch. 

The Space Telescope represents a new 

observatory concept, one designed to be 

launched by the Space Shuttle and serviced 

space by astronauts. This new feature introduced new challenges for the project manag 

ment team. 

More than any other previous scientific pi 

load, the Space Telescope has tasked 

Marshall’s crew systems experts to develop 1 

tools, workstations, and procedures for orbit: 

servicing. For several years in laboratory anc 

neutral buoyancy tests, they have evaluated 

extravehicular activity techniques for normal 

and contingency servicing tasks, such as 

replacing components, removing scientific 

instruments, and handling solar arrays. 

The Space Telescope project also has 

tapped the Center’s resources for structural, 

electronics, and thermal control engineering. 

Support teams in the laboratories have worked 

on alignment, thermal balance, contamination 

control, and pointing. In-house design, test, 

and analysis were especially important in 

development of the instrument latches and the 

telescope’s fine guidance sensors. 

Both major elements developed under 

Marshall’s management - the Optical 

Telescope Assembly and the Support Systems 

Module - presented challenging technical 

problems. There was no precedent in space 

hardware for the primary mirror, which had to 

be large and lightweight with an ultra-precise 

reflecting surface. Similarly, there was no comI 

44 
parable pointing and attitude control system; to 

detect and make images of very faint objects, 

long duration exposures are necessary, which 

means that the telescope must maintain accurate, stable pointing for hours. Both the mirror 

and the pointing and control system were 

quantum leaps in the capability of space 

astronomy hardware. 

The Marshall Center plays a major role in 

ground tests and orbital checkout of Space 

Telescope. Marshall personnel are preparing 

test plans and monitoring test activities before 

launch to verify that the telescope responds to 

commands and puts out data properly. Tests 

on the launch pad will be monitored from the 

Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC). 

The Marshall HOSC team will actively support 

tests of the telescope and science instruments 

during Space Telescope’s first six months in 

orbit. The Hubble Space Telescope is the 

nation’s biggest single investment in space science. Its development costs and progress have 

attracted considerable public attention, and the 

telescope’s fortunes and schedules have been 

linked to the Shuttle’s. Marshall has kept the 

project on course despite a troublesome share 

of technical and budgetary difficulties. Space 

Telescope is scheduled for a Shuttle delivery in 

1986. As launch of the observatory nears, 

astronomers around the world eagerly await an 

extraordinary view of the universe. 

~~~~~ ~ 

)Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility 

The newest member of Marshall’s family of 

space observatories is the planned Advanced 

X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), which 

builds on experience gained in both the High 

Energy Astronomy Observatories and the 

Hubble Space Telescope projects. Like the former, it is an observatory for X-ray investigations but with appreciably improved 

capabilities; like the latter, it is designed to be 

launched from the Shuttle and serviced in 

orbit. In the nation’s strategy for astronomical 

research, the AXAF is intended to be a companion to the Space Telescope and other 

advanced observatories for a coordinated, 

broad spectrum study of the universe. 

In 1978, Marshall and the Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory completed a joint 

conceptual design study for this new telescope. Since then, both partners have worked 

with an astrophysics advisory group to define 

scientific requirements and a desirable set of 

focal plane instruments. Project definition activity is now in progress. 

“There is good reason 

to believe that the Space 

Telescope. . will be the 

most i m po rta n t scient if i c 

i n s t r u men t ever f I ow n . ’ ’ 

James M. Beggs 

NASA Administrator, 1982 

AXAF, planned 

X-ray observatory 

Seeking to understand 

black holes 

and other enigmas 
In size and shape, the proposed X-ray 

observatory bears a family resemblance to 

Space Telescope. Inside, however, the two are 

entirely different: the X-ray mirror is a set of 

nested cylinders. The AXAF telescope is an 

enlarged, improved model of the HEAO-2 grazing incidence mirror system, with much greater 

accuracy. Marshall laboratories (jointly with 

Perkin-Elmer and Itek) are engaged in a 

Technology Mirror Assembly program to test 

RESEARCH 

ON THE NEW 

F R 0 N TIE R 

’ 

I _. - I 

the AXAf high-resolution mirror concept using 

Although the AXAF has not yet received 

mQR @mMlAt pwmm WW the X-ray calibration facility. 

funding for development, it has been designated the highest priority astrophysics observatory by the National Academy of Sciences. An 

X-ray telescope gives access to violent, highenergy phenomena associated with the evolution of the universe. The Advanced X-Ray 

Astrophysics Facility is the next step in NASA’s 

trend toward long-lived observatories for investigations across the spectrum. 

I 

Advanced Solar Observatory, proposed new 

eye on the sun Space science leads us 

from mystery to discovery )New Solar Observatories 

and understanding of the 

universe. 

Two new solar observatories are being plannec 

at the Center for eventual installation on the 

Space Station. Flight experiments in solar 

observation and imaging may be expanded 

and combined to form a Pinhole Occulter 

Facility and an Advanced Solar Observatory. 

Both observatories offer long-term, highly 

accurate operations of complementary instruments for a coordinated study of the sun 

across the electromagnetic spectrum. A 

Solar-Terrestrial Observatory also is being 

planned to help understand the complex interactions between the sun and Earth, particular11 

their effects on long-term trends in weather 

and climate. These- proposed new observatories represent an evolution of both Skylab and 

Shuttle/Spacelab science. In the future, they 

may serve solar science as Space Telescope 

and AXAF serve astronomy and astrophysics. 

3 lnvesti ations and 

:perimen 9 s 

)S acelat 

Orher Ex 

Over the years, Marshall Center scientists and 

engineers have spawned a multitude of science and technology experiments for flights on 

aircraft, balloons, rockets, or spacecraft. At an) 

one time, about 50 such projects are under 

way at the Center, and a chronology of these 

1 

Launch of balloon-borne astronomical 

telescope from Redstone Airfield 

46 
achievements would easily fill another volume. 

Rather than a comprehensive history of all 

flight experiments, a summary of recent highlights suggests the variety of research programs and flight opportunities that attract and 

occupy many of Marshall’s experts in the science disciplines. 

These flight experiments arise from many 

laboratory disciplines within the Center, with 

the heaviest concentration in the Space 

Science Laboratory. As more and more experiments are developed for flight aboard the 

Shuttle and Spacelab, Marshall’s own scientists are “customers” for the Center’s mission 

management service. Marshall people also 

serve as co-investigators for many experiments on spacecraft developed or managed 

elsewhere. 

In astrophysics, scientists here are still 

immersed in HEAO data analysis and in science planning for the AXAF. Additionally, the 

Center has mission management responsibilities for three Shuttle flights of the Astro ultraviolet observatory and is developing a special 

wide field camera as part of that payload. 

Marshall also provided flight hardware and test 

services for the Spacelab 2 Infrared Telescope 

(1985). Planning is under way for two new facilities - a Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) and 

Preparatlon of the Spacelab 2 

Infrared Telescope 

Cloud physics research 

aboard NASA’s KC- 135 

microgravity research aircraft 
RESEARCH 

ON THE NEW 

FR 0 N TIE R 

Preparing the Geophysical 

Fluid Flour Cell (GFFC) 

experiment for Spacelab 3 

flight 

a Coherent System of Modular Imaging Collectors (COSMIC). The Center also supports 

ongoing balloon flights of gamma ray and 

cosmic ray detectors. One such small payload 

has evolved into a major instrument on the 

Gamma Ray Observatory; Marshall is designing, building, and testing the Burst and 

Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) inhouse. Eight BATSE modules for the spacecraft are being produced by the Marshall principal investigator and engineering team. 

The general thrust of atmospheric science 

flight experiments has been to understand natural processes, such as circulation and lightning, in Earth’s atmosphere. Data from sensors 

at high altitudes are needed to refine conceptual models of the behavior of Earth’s environment. Ultimately, experiments may lead to 

improved prediction and other practical applications. Two experiments with Marshall coinvestigators recently flew on the Shuttle, a 

Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell on Spacelab 3 

(1985) and an Optical Survey of Lightning on 

several earlier Shuttle missions. 

For a number of years, Marshall scientists 

have been investigating the sun and its influence on Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere. Solar-terrestrial physicists are using 

space as a vast natural laboratory for observations and active experiments that stimulate the 

environment to provoke responses similar to 

natural processes. Recent highlights include 

stunning data from Marshall instruments on 

Dynamics Explorer (1 981) and other spacecraft 

and from missions with Marshall investigators, 

such as the Solar Maximum Mission (1980) 

and Spacelab 1 (1983). The Center has been 

involved in several Shuttle-borne space 

plasma experiments that have flown and will 

fly again; these include an electron beam 

accelerator (SEPAC), a plasma diagnostics 

satellite (PDP), and an atmospheric imaging 

instrument (AEPI). A variety of sounding 

rocket investigations also have been completed. Besides developing instruments, for 

many of these projects, the Center’s scientists 

are heavily involved in data analysis and publication of results. Major scientific contributions 

include new insights into solar flares and magnetic fields and new evidence of the ionosphere as a major plasma source for the 

magnetosphere. 

A new project now under development is a 

tethered satellite to be towed by the Shuttle 

through otherwise inaccessible regions of the 

upper atmosphere. Marshall has project management responsibility for this international 

endeavor with the Italian space agency and 

“Banana cell” pattern of fluid motion observed in GFFC experiment in space 

ORIGINAL PAGE 

WLOR PHOTOGRAPH Monitoring Earth’s space plasma 

environment from the Space Shuttle 

48 
ORIGINAL PAGE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH 

also has principal investigators for two scientific instruments. The Center will develop the 

tether, a thin cable that canbe reeled out to a 

length of 60 miles. In addition to planning the 

science program for tethered experiments, 

Marshall is responsible for a broader tether 

applications in space program. This effort 

involves studies of tethered science platforms 

and tethered transportation related to the 

Space Station. 

demonstrating new structural concepts. For 

example, a very large, lightweight solar array 

developed at Marshall was structurally and 

dvnamically evaluated during a 1984 Shuttle 

mission (OAST-1). The Solar Array Flight 

Experiment demonstrated advanced technology for using the sun’s energy in space and for 

remote sensing and dynamic analysis of large 

space structures. Planned technology experiments include demonstrations of large-scale 

structural assembly and deployable antennas. 

Although the majority of the Center’s technology research occurs in laboratories on the 

ground, a growing number of Marshall scientists and engineers are investigators for flight 

experiments. 

Technology flight experiments generally are 

“History tells us that it 

pays in unexpected ways 

to attempt to satisfy our 

curiosity about the 

u n i ve rse . ’ ’ 

Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 

Features of Earth’s nearby 

space environment revealed 

in data from MSFC 

instrument on Dynamics 

Explorer satellite 

Tethered satellite for exploring hard-to- reach 

regions of the upper atmosphere 

Advanced technology solar 

array tested in space 
)Materials Processing in Space 

Marshall Space Flight Center has a long tradition of microgravity research in materials processing. Exploratory investigations began 

during the Apollo era and were expanded in 

the Skylab research agenda. Early results confirmed that certain processes could be performed in space and that the resultant 

materials were often superior to those produced on the ground. Materials processing in 

space looked promising as a technique for 

basic research and as a project for commercial 

development. Today, materials processing is 

one of the major activities proposed for the 

Space Station and could well represent a significant expansion in the commercial use of 

space. This would be a major new phase in the 

nation's space program. The Marshall Center 

has been assigned a leading role in the Materials Processing in Space program. 

From modest beginnings, Marshall scientists learned valuable lessons in equipment 

design and processing techniques. Since no 

one knew just how the processing of materials 

would be affected by the low gravity of orbit, 

there was a great deal of trial and error and 

modifying early experiments for reflight. 

Marshall was involved in the development of 

microgravity furnaces, levitation devices for 

containerless processing, and electrophoretic 

(fluid separation) devices for biological processing from the outset, with first flight of such 

devices on the Apollo 14 mission. 

Marshall also plunged into the effort to 

build up a data base of ground-based research 

- ~~ ~ ~ 

- 

Using sound waves to suspend a drop in mid-air - ORIGIMAL PAGE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH 

Materials processing - 

basic research and commercial development of 

new products. 

Removal of solidified metal 

sample after free-fall in 

MSFC'S 100-fOOt drop tube 

ABOVE: Perfecting techniques for casting 

alloys of materials that do not mix naturally 

RIGHT: Hundreds of material samples, some 

provided by Marshall, exposed to the space 

environment 

I 50 
ORIGINAL PAG€ 

COLOR PHOmRAPH 

to guide and compare with space experiments. 

During the 1970’s many experiments were conducted in the Center’s laboratories, a drop 

tower and tube on a rocket test stand, and 

NASA’s KC-135 aircraft. In the few seconds of 

near weightlessness that could be achieved, 

scientists gained valuable insights into the processes of crystal growth, solidification, and 

containerless confinement of materials. For 

eight years, Marshall managed a series of 

Space Processing Applications Rocket (SPAR) 

flights that provided about five minutes of 

microgravity for materials processing 

experiments. 

Now the Shuttle and Spacelab are being 

used to study the effects of gravity on materials processing. Marshall has recently developed, managed, and flown a reusable 

Materials Experiment Assembly for investigations in the growth of high-performance crystals for semiconductors, the formation of 

unique alloys and glasses, and the preparation 

of very pure materials by containerless processing and ultra-high vacuum processing 

techniques. In a joint endeavor arrangement 

pioneered and managed by the Marshall 

Center, NASA and private enterprise are working as partners to do research in fluid separation. Orbital tests of the Shuttle-borne 

Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System 

developed by McDonnell Douglas for the separation of biological materials such as blood 

cells and enzymes, indicate that processing in 

space is more efficient than processing on the 

ground. Another research project already has 

demonstrated commercial value; the Monodisperse Latex Reactor, developed by scientists 

from Lehigh University and the Center, has 

been successfully operated on the Shuttle. Its 

products, extremely uniform latex spheres, are 

now available for the commercial market as 

laboratory calibration standards. Besides 

developing experiments, Marshall scientists 

perform extensive postflight laboratory evaluations of the various materials processed in 

space. 

The microgravity research that began on 

Apollo, Skylab, and rocket flights, has evolved 

into a Marshall Center specialty with great 

potential not only for improved knowledge but 

also for commercial development in space. 

NASA has formally established a Materials 

Processing in Space program to encourage 

the academic and industrial research communities to make use of the space environment. 

The near-term goals are establishment of 

national and international microgravity science 

RESEARCH 

ON THE NEW 

and facilities. FRONTIER 

laboratories in space. Marshall is already 

involved in cooperative projects with industrial 

partners for microgravity flight experiments 

The longer-term goal is a permanent facility for commercial uses of space to solve 

important scientific and technical problems. In 

the microgravity environment, scientists can 

study basic properties of materials to better 

understand and control processes on Earth. 

These microgravity services are comparable to 

biomedical laboratory services on the ground. 

Space may prove to be an economically favorable production site; the market success of the 

first materials manufactured in space, the 

monodisperse spheres, is now being tested. 

A vigorous Materials Processing in Space 

program is being pursued. The Marshall 

Center is playing an important role as NASA 

and the world prepare for the commercial uses 

of space. 

Irregular latex spheres produced on the ground Uniform latex spheres produced in space 

A large and nearly flawless mercury-iodide 

crystal produced in space for potential uses 

on Earth 

51 I 
Pushing technology beyond present limits 

Studying the sun from the 

Marshall Center‘s observatory 

)Research and Technology 

A very important portion of the Marshall 

Center’s work unfortunately attracts little public 

notice because it does not directly culminate in 

launches and flights. This is the work of scientists and engineers engaged in research and 

technology in the Center’s diverse laboratories 

These people address fundamental prohlems 

to advance the state of the art and the state of 

knowledge in their disciplines. Some of the 

most interesting history of the Center lies in 

their unrelenting efforts to understand nature. 

less visible to the public than hardware products, within the scientific and technical community the Center’s cells of excellence are well 

known. Marshall’s achievements in research 

and technology have been recognized as substantial contributions to knowledge and to 

progress within the space program. Furthermore, industry has made practical applications 

of many of these advances. Although the 

Center’s accomplishments in research and 

technology merit a comprehensive historical 

survey, a review of some recent efforts may 

suggest the vigor and variety of Marshall’s 

assault on the unknown. 

In atmospheric science, researchers are 

involved in theoretical modeling to understand 

the environment. They attempt to extract from 

physical laws and observational data the 

explanations for natural processes, such as 

atmospheric turbulence, wind shear, circulatior 

patterns, cloud formation, and severe storms. 

This work is relevant to understanding Earth’s 

environment and other planetary atmospheres 

as well. 

In astrophysics, researchers analyze and 

interpret data to understand celestial phenomena. Their work involves theoretical modeling 

as they try to answer basic questions about 

the universe: for example, what are black 

holes? By what process do quasars become 

the most powerful known sources of energy? 

Astrophysics research also involves the perfection of detectors to extend the range of 

observation to greater distances and sensitivities. Significant laboratory effort is devoted to 

the search for improved telescope materials 

and observational techniques. 

Solar and magnetospheric physicists 

develop models of the sun, magnetosphere, 

and upper atmosphere to understand better 

the composition, density, temperature, and 

other features of these complex environments. 

Enigmatic solar flares are being investigated 

with data from the Center‘s vector magnetograph facility, the only one of its kind in the 

Although this aspect of Marshall’s activity is 

1 

ORIGINAL PAGE 

52 COLOR PH0’TW;RAPH 

RESEARCH 

ON THE NEW 

FR 0 N TIE R 

world, along with corollary data from other 

ground observatories and spacecraft. Interest 

in spacecraft charging and electrodynamic 

interactions between space plasma and other 

moving bodies has stimulated laboratory analyses. Furthermore, Marshall has developed a 

much-needed computer-linked data network to 

facilitate the sharing of space science information by scientists around the country. 

Basic technology studies at the Center 

span virtually all the disciplines of engineering 

and materials science. Past breakthroughs in 

cryogenics, electronics, materials, and other 

technologies are mentioned throughout this 

text. Technology advances have always been (-~RIGI.NAL ?I .r\WDAW 

PA= - 

“Man’s destiny lies in the 

exploration of space. It is 

the leading edge of our 

technology and from it 

already there have been 

many down-to-earth 

benefits in addition to the 

long range potential that 

awaits us in those distant 

places.” 

Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1967 

the enabling agents that turn goals and 

requirements into reality. 

Many current laboratory projects are 

directly related to the ongoing effort to improve 

the already reliable Space Shuttle, while others are longer-term studies to enable technology for future spacecraft. Diverse studies in 

propulsion technology, for example, include 

investigations of ignition and combustion processes, turbopump bearings and seals, nozzle 

materials, cryogenics, characteristics of propellants and materials, and powder metallurgy 

techniques. As a result, the design and operation of some Space Shuttle Main Engine components have been optimized, and uprated 

engines are now in service. Novel solar arrays 

and power system components are being studied for possible use on the Space Station. The 

Center has made strides in welding technology 

and robots that are of significant benefit to 

industry. Marshall scientists are engaged in 

many investigations of polymers, composites, 

ablatives, ceramics and coatings, lubricants 

and thin films. For many of these investigations, Center personnel also develop novel test 

equipment and test facilities, mathematical 

models, computer codes, and data bases. 

As the Center moves into the Space 

Station era, it is investigating large space 

structures technology and operations. This 

multi-disciplinary effort involves evaluation of 

structural elements and materials, thermal 

control, dynamics, robotics and teleoperation, 

and crew systems for large platforms and 

antennas to be erected in space. The large 

space structures technology development program is intended to ensure that resources are 

available to meet future mission needs. 

The Marshall Center has maintained a special technology utilization program to share the 

benefits of space technology with industry and 

public services. To date, several technology 

transfers in materials, electronics, pumps and 

valves have resulted in new products in the 

marketplace. Unusual spinoffs from Marshall 

technology include biomedical devices, energy 

conservation techniques, and fire fighting 

equipment. For several years, the Center 

played a leading role in national solar heating 

and cooling programs to develop and demonstrate solar energy systems and to stimulate 

their use. Marshall also investigated the adaptation of space technology for mineral extraction techniques in coal mining. Marshall 

actively pursues a variety of technology utilization projects that apply space technology to 

meet new commercial needs. 

Down-to-Earth application of space technology for mining industry 

54 
ORIGINAL PAW 

GOLOR PHOWRAPH 

ABOVE: Spacesuit 

technology to benefit 

firefighters 

LEFT: Practical spinoff from NASA's pump 

technology 

wormg wltn studrents to aeverop experiments for spacetrignt 

1 PI ".e% *-xwn ..- 

The complex environment 

of our planet 

Learning how to 

harness solar energy 

)Le acies in Space Science 

an 8 Technology 

The litany of benefits from space science and 

technology is familiar: miniaturized electronics, 

solid state circuitry, insulation materials such 

as spray-foam and mylar foil, new plastics, 

new welding techniques, worldwide communication networks, freeze-dried foods, and many 

other products that have been marketed with 

success. These spin-offs have markedly 

changed the way people live, but they are by 

no means the only legacies. The intellectual 

benefit of space research is the primary legacy; people now know much more about materials, processes, Earth, and the stars. The 

space program has opened them all to 

scrutiny. 

Two themes run through the Marshall 

Center's history in space science and technology: using space for research and developing 

improved means of doing that research. From 

rather modest early experiments to sophisticated observatories and instruments on the 

Space Shuttle, Marshall has earned impressive credentials. 

Among the most exciting scientific achievements of this Center was the Skylab Apollo 

Telescope Mount, which completely altered our 

understanding of the sun. Previously thought 

to be rather steady and calm except for periodic bursts of sunspot activity, the sun was 

revealed to be violently changeable over the 

course of hours or minutes. Scientists saw 

intriguing new phenomena, such as coronal 

holes, and witnessed scores of explosive 

flares. The program was a technical, scientific, 

and managerial success that demonstrated 

the value of a concerted assault on a particular 

scientific problem. The nine-month collection 

of Skylab solar data provided grist for analysis 

for almost a decade until a new solar observatory was placed in orbit. 

55 
RESEARCH 

ON THE NEW 

FRONTIER 

The dynamic sun 

Similarly, the three HEAO missions provided a radically new view of the high-energy 

universe, punctuated by exploding stars and 

galaxies and permeated with radiation of mysterious origin. The HEAO surveys increased 

the catalogs of known high-energy sources 

many-fold and, like Skylab, provided enough 

data for years of analysis. The successor 

observatory, if approved for flight, is still several years from launch. 

Another Marshall Center legacy is materials processing in space. Research here has 

demonstrated the advantages of microgravity 

for certain processes in crystal growth and 

alloy formation. Largely as a result of this 

work, space processing of materials appears 

to be a very promising, and commercially viable, new field. Microgravity research on or near 

the Space Station will focus on understanding 

and improving industrial processes on Earth, 

as well as processing products in space for 

use on the ground. 

The Center’s technology efforts enable the 

successful science and engineering programs. 

When programs require special thermal coatings or cryogenic fuels or ample power supplies or large but lightweight structures or high 

data rate telemetry or defect-free welds or zero 

heat leakage, the laboratories meet the challenge. Much of this technology passes on to 

industry for other applications. 

efforts is the recent progress in productivity 

enhancement. As part of an economic drive 

throughout the agency and the federal government, Marshall has established a Productivity 

Enhancement Center to identify cost-saving 

improvements in programs. To date, significant 

savings have been realized by implementing 

such improvements. 

In many of these research efforts, Marshall 

has developed partnerships with universities 

and private industry. These partners have contributed significantly to the Center’s advances 

in science and technology. For the larger science projects, the Center has used task teams 

to organize early planning and development 

activities. The resultant contracting and management techniques have brought to fruition a 

great variety of research projects. 

have always been one of Marshall Space 

Flight Center’s greatest assets. During the 

1970’s, the Center’s growing involvement in 

space science research spawned a host of 

specialized facilities within the existing labs. 

The breadth and depth of expertise here now 

may be unsurpassed by any other single 

research institution. As a result of this resident 

technical competence, Marshall has evolved 

into a highly-respected multidisciplinary 

research center. 

A special benefit of the Center’s technology 

The science and engineering laboratories 

GI i m pse of the Future 

Now that people have crossed the border into 

space, there is no turning back. We have only 

begun to observe and explore the universe, 

and human curiosity demands more. Inexorably science and technology will move into 

space, because it is a uniquely favorable environment for research. 

Space is an excellent vantage point for 

both astronomical and terrestrial observations, 

and the effects of gravity are negligible there. 

Thus, space offers opportunities to answer 

questions and do experiments that are impossible on Earth. The temptation is irresistible. 

In the few years since space has become 

accessible, there has been a veritable explosion of knowledge. Whole new disciplines, 

such as X-ray astrophysics and solar-terrestrial physics, were born, and with each new 

I lhe mysteries Of the universe 

The commercial 

56 
ORIGN4t PAGE 

r - rn 

istrument or spacecraft the pace of discovery 

uickens. Who can guess what discoveries are 

et to be made? 

One can predict that in the next 25 years, 

ie growth of knowledge will be even more 

lhenomenal. If there were only one major new 

Aescope, for example, the advance would be 

ignificant, but entire families of space telecopes are planned. What does it really mean 

3 look 7 times farther at much dimmer objects 

han now possible? What will we see? 

As observations are perfected along the 

,pectrum from radio emissions to infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, 

vhat will we find? Something stranger than 

black holes and quasars? The edge of the 

iniverse? Signs of intelligent life somewhere 

!Ise? By placing sensitive telescopes and 

)bservers above the hazy atmosphere that 

)bscures our view outward, we take the risk of 

jiscovering far more than we have expected. 

Jnimagined discoveries resulted from our first 

entative steps in space; that trend should coninue, becoming even more dramatic, as we 

stablish a permanent presence in space. 

We are just beginning to look back upon 

:arth with the precise scientific tools and techiiques that reveal the distant universe in detail. 

Jiewed from space, Earth’s atmosphere is 

hin, complex, dynamic, influenced by radiation 

:?om remote quarters. What surprises may 

;hake our comfortable familiarity with the ter- 

*estrial environment, which we have barely 

Jegun to understand? 

The advantage of microgravity is equally 

tantalizing. In space it is possible to examine 

iundamental biological and physical processes 

under conditions that cannot be achieved on 

Earth. In space, living organisms can be studied apart from the influence of gravity to understand just how it is that life functions, and 

sometimes malfunctions, on Earth. Likewise, 

inanimate processes can be observed without 

the interference of gravity to understand the 

properties and behavior of matter or to test 

physical laws. 

Three decades ago, no one knew whether 

or not a human being could survive in space. 

No one knew how fluids, whether blood or propellants, behaved in weightlessness. No one 

knew about quasars and exotic celestial 

objects, or,about the Van Allen radiation belts 

and the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Although many questions have been 

answered, even more have been raised. 

Today’s space scientists at Marshall are challenged to find answers. They have the oppor- 

“With the great tasks before 

us, there is a continuing 

need for scientists and 

engineers dedicated to 

giving man the means for 

reaching the stars.” 

Dr. W. R. Lucas 

tunity to pursue their research in space, either 

by controlling sophisticated instruments from 

the ground or by actually working in an orbital 

laboratory. The rewards of orbital research 

undoubtedly will increase with advances in 

data and communications technology, making 

today’s flood of information look like a mere 

trickle. 

Science and technology move in parallel, 

one asking questions and the other providing 

ways to answer them. Today’s questions are 

beginning to be answered with the aid of new 

instruments and spacecraft. Tomorrow’s questions will emerge as the remarkable new 

space observatories and laboratories become 

operational, The “book of knowledge” will not 

close any time soon. The challenge now is to 

continue the quest for knowledge with all available, and all imaginable, resources. 

Space - laboratory and 

observatory site for 

the future 

57 


~~ ~ 

1 Lunar Rovi n g Ve h i cl e 

A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

precursor to a permanent presence. About 

1970, however, NASA decided to postpone 

construction of a permanent space station until 

a suitable space transportation system was in 

service. 

In the interim, the Shuttle could serve as a 

short-term space station by carrying a scientific 

research facility, Spacelab, on missions of a 

week or more. Like Skylab, Spacelab is a valuable preparation for a permanent space station; experience in hardware development and 

human engineering for these work environments in space is directly applicable to a 

larger-scale effort. When President Ronald 

Reagan approved Space Station development 

in 1984, NASA responded quickly and 

confidently. 

The Space Station is the next logical step 

in the exploration and utilization of space. 

Marshall Space Flight Center has responsibility 

for definition and preliminary design of several 

major elements of the prospective Space 

Station and is also supporting development of 

some elements managed through other NASA 

centers. As it addresses these new challenges, 

Marshall will draw from its bank of past experience in manned systems. For the foreseeable 

future, the Center’s primary mission is to 

develop a permanent work place in space. The 

Space Station requires a magnitude of effort 

and commitment to excellence comparable to 

that of the Saturn and Shuttle endeavors. 

-1MAL FA= 

pH’mD phpq 

Marshall moved from launch systems into 

manned systems via a Lunar Roving Vehicle 

designed to transport astronauts and materia 

on the moon. As time drew near for the 

manned lunar landings, NASA decided to prc 

vide a vehicle that would extend the astronauts’ range of exploration and their ability tc 

carry equipment and lunar samples. By 1969 

Marshall was responsible for the design, devl 

opment, and testing of the new article. Boein 

was selected for contract award, and work 

began in 1970 with flight expected the followi 

year. 

What a contrast the lunar rover was to tht 

towering Saturn vehicles! It was a fragile look 

ing, open-space vehicle about 10 feet long w 

large mesh wheels, antenna appendages, to 

caddies, and cameras. Powered by two 36 v( 

batteries, it had four 114 hp drive motors, one 

each wheel. The peculiar vehicle was collapsible for compact storage until needed, when 

could be unfolded by hand. 

Marshall engineers tackled this new proje 

with relish; inventing a “car” for drivers on thc 

moon was as appealing to a grown-up imagination as to a child’s. Personnel from the 

Center’s laboratories contributed substantiall 

to the design and testing of the navigation ar 

deployment systems. In fact, the backup mal 

ual deployment system developed by Marsh; 

proved more reliable than the automated sys 

tem and became the primary method of 

deployment. 

The rover was designed to travel in forwa 

or reverse, negotiate obstacles about a foot 

high, cross crevasses about two feet wide, ai 

climb or descend moderate slopes; its speec 

limit was about 14 km (9 miles) per hour. To 

assist in development of the navigation system, the Center created a lunar surface simulator, complete with rocks and craters, where 

operators could test drive the vehicle. The simulator also was used during the mission as an 

aid in responding to difficulties. 

Marshall-designed vehicle in use on the moon 

60 

Lunar rover (on support stand) at MSFC 
A lunar rover was used on each of the last 

three Apollo missions in 1971 and 1972 to permit the crew to travel several miles from the 

landing craft. Outbound, they carried a load of 

experiments to be set up on the moon; on the 

return trip, they carried more than 200 pounds 

of lunar rock and soil samples. The vehicle 

performed safely and reliably on each excursion and enhanced the astronauts’ work efficiency. It handled as well and steered as 

easily on the moon as on Earth. 

In addition to the technical achievements, 

the lunar rover was a managerial success with 

an unusually short development cycle. More 

than any prior work, this project gave Marshall 

insight into human engineering considerations 

for space hardware on manned missions. 

Although the vehicle was not as complex as a 

habitable laboratory, it was in effect a small 

work place with some similar crew requirements. Thus, the rover project provided valuable crew systems and mission support 

experience for later projects. During the lunar 

rover work, the Center also used realistic new 

simulation techniques for testing equipment 

and procedures. Simulation would soon be 

used extensively for design evaluation, hardware checkout, crew training, and mission support activities in other manned projects. 

)S kyla b 

The idea that ultimately became Skylab first 

surfaced in 1962 as a proposal to convert a 

spent Saturn upper stage into an orbital workshop. Soon, planners in Huntsville were evaluating the feasibility of rendezvous with a castoff stage, which would then be purged, pressurized, and outfitted with scientific equipment. In 1965, NASA established the Apollo 

Applications Program to extend the use of 

Apollo and Saturn hardware; a few months 

later, the agency authorized a design study for 

a spent stage orbital workshop and named 

Marshall Space Flight Center as leader of the 

project. 

For the next three years, Marshall wrestled 

with configuration and planning. Several 

launch schedules were announced for an 

ambitious program of multiple workshop facilities. In 1968, Marshall proposed an alternative 

to the original “wet” workshop concept of refurbishing a spent stage in orbit; instead, a fully 

equipped “dry” workshop could be launched 

as a complete unit, ready for occupancy. In 

1969, NASA approved this concept and contracts were revised accordingly. The following 

year, the Apollo Applications Program and 

Early concept of Skylab 

workshop with observatory 

on a long cable 

Vqf w 

“Instruments continue to 

be indispensable in the 

exploration of space. But 

man has proven himself 

irreplaceable. ” 

Dr. Wernher von Braun 

Skylab orbital workshop and attached observatory 
A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

Saturn workshops were officially renamed 

Skylab. 

The eight-year Skylab project was 

Marshall’s most comprehensive mission 

involvement to date. The Center was responsible for early definition studies, provision of the 

launch vehicles, development of the various 

manned modules, development and assembly 

of the scientific payload, systems engineering 

and integration, development of crew procedures, and provision of real-time mission support. People all around the Center participated 

in Skylab planning, hardware activities, simulations, and support efforts during the mission. 

Skylab was the largest spacecraft and the 

longest-manned mission in the space program. 

The Center’s existing skills were well exercised 

in the Skylab era, and new capabilities grew in 

response to the unusual technical and managerial challenges of developing the nation’s 

first space station. 

Floor plan of Skylab 

workshop and living 

quarters 

63 

)A Work Place in Space 

The basic elements of Skylab were defined 

fairly early, and some of the units were ready 

for testing when the configuration decision wi 

made in 1969. Skylab was conceived as a clu 

ter of five modules: an Orbital Workshop, 

Instrument Unit, Airlock Module, Multiple Doc 

ing Adapter, and Apollo Telescope Mount. Thi 

cluster was launched by a two-stage Saturn \ 

with the workshop itself as a modified third 

stage. Marshall was responsible for the devel 

opment and integration of all these hardware 

elements and for providing the launch vehicle 

a Saturn V for Skylab and Saturn IBs for threc 

Apollo spacecraft and crews. These vehicles 

were brought out of inventory and refurbishec 

for the Skylab missions. 

Marshall worked closely with McDonnell 

Douglas, the prime contractor for the workshc 

unit, to convert a Saturn IVB stage into a hab 

able module containing crew living quarters 

and support systems as well as some experiment area. The huge forward tank formerly 

used for liquid hydrogen was partitioned, 

equipped with utilities, and furnished to make 

an area about the size of a five-room house 

where three-member crews could live comfor 

ably for one to three months. 

Many new devices were developed for thr 

comfort and well being of the crew in their 

orbital home. Marshall engineers tackled the 

problems of zero-gravity showers and toilets, 

sleeping bags, exercise equipment, and 

kitchen facilities. They were also involved in 

developing and selecting materials used in 

crew quarters and as protective thermal coatings; such features as outgassing, contamina 

tion, toxicity, and flammability were carefully 

evaluated in view of long-term human 

occupancy. 

launch vehicles, provided certain guidance, 

control, and sequencing commands. After 

launch, it was used for deployment of the solar 

arrays mounted on the workshop and for a 

telemetry link between Skylab and the ground. 

The Multiple Docking Adapter was a docking facility for the Apollo Command and Service Module, which ferried crews and supplies 

to Skylab. It also served as a passageway to 

the workshop and as a laboratory that contained most of the experiment equipment and 

the control and display console for the Apollo 

Telescope Mount. Marshall designed and built 

the structure for this unit in-house. 

The Apollo Telescope Mount was an 

observatory housing eight scientific instruments for detailed study of the sun. The 

The Instrument Unit, like that on the Saturn 1 
observatory 

adapter 

Meal time in the 

and 

was 

operated by the 

Skylab galley 

mounted to the docking 

crew from a work- 

- 

station there. Marshall built some parts of the 

mount in-house and worked closely with several contractors to develop a very precise attitude control and pointing system that served 

the telescope and the entire Skylab cluster. 

The Center provided a simulation facility for 

tests of the attitude pointing control system 

hardware and software and for real-time mission support. Marshall also supervised systems integration of the observatory and its 

instruments. 

Finally, the Airlock Module served as the 

link between the docking adapter and the 

workshop. This module housed the control systems for Skylab’s utilities - environmental and 

thermal control, power distribution, communications and data handling. It also provided the 

hatch, airlock, and equipment for extravehicular activity, when crew members went outside 

to change film in the telescope or do other 

maintenance and repair work. McDonnell 

Douglas fabricated the module with close 

Marshall involvement in design, development, 

and test activities. 

To support the hardware development 

effort, Marshall created two full-scale Skylab 

mockups for detailed engineering analyses 

and simulations. A one-g “shirtsleeve” mockup 

resided in Building 4619 and an underwater 

mockup was installed in the Center’s new 

Neutral Buoyancy Simulator, a 40-foot deep 

water tank, completed in 1968, where the 

effects of microgravity (weightlessness), could 

ORIGINAL PAG€ 

=OR PHOTOGRAPH 

Working outside to change film in 

observatory instruments 

“With Skylab we are not 

concerned primarily with 

flying a spacecraft. We are 

concerned with the important aims of living and 

working in Earth orbit and 

conducting the experiments that will eventually 

lead to many beneficial 

results.” 

Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 

‘I . 

b.“ 7 - “W 

5 

A shower in space 

63 
A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

be simulated. For several years, these two 

mockups became the focus for manned systems test activities, and they were visited 

repeatedly by astronauts. In 1969, the Center 

began neutral buoyancy simulations of Skylab 

extravehicular activity; these practice sessions 

tested tools and procedures for maintenance 

and repair tasks associated with the Apollo 

Telescope Mount. In 1970, the Center hosted a 

week-long crew station review by astronaut 

teams using both mockups. 

Practicing film change-out underwater at MSFC 

e 

By the time of launch in May of 1973, 

Marshall people knew Skylab inside and out, 

and they were well prepared to support the 

nine-month mission. Personnel moved into thc 

Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC: 

for real-time flight support, and mission task 

centers, called “war rooms,” were set up in 

Marshall’s laboratories to assist the HOSC 

team in resolving any problems that might 

occur in flight. During the three manned 

periods, these support groups were fully 

staffed for around-the-clock operations; in the 

unmanned intervals, a skeleton staff maintained watch. This mission support activity wa 

much more extensive than the launch support 

normally provided by the Center and the stanc 

by support during excursions of the Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. To everyone’s surprise, 

Marshall’s resources for mission support were 

severely tested immediately after launch. 

)Quick Response to a Problem 

Within an hour of launch on May 14,1973, 

there were ominous signs of trouble aboard 

Skylab. Although the spacecraft had been 

delivered easily to its intended orbit, the micro 

meteoroid shieldhun shade and solar arrays 

failed to deploy as planned. As a result, the 

Skylab workshop was rapidly heating to intole 

able temperatures (almost 200” F) and operat 

ing on a fraction of the necessary power. 

These conditions threatened disaster to the 

workshop and jeopardized the manned missic 

scheduled for launch the next day. 

Marshall personnel immediately regroupec 

into a crisis management organization to stab 

lize the thermal condition of Skylab and to 

develop repairs. The manned mission was 

postponed and for the next 11 days Marshall, 

its contractors, and NASA personnel at other 

centers concentrated on saving Skylab. All the 

resources of the Center were available to the 

ten laboratory task groups already in existence 

and to the various ad hoc groups formed in 

response to the crisis. Technical and managerial personnel shifted to 12-hour duty cycles, 

Developing a solution to Skylab’s thermal shield problem 

64 
and some people worked for days at a time. 

The mission support teams faced three 

major problems and a host of smaller ones 

caused by the failures. The most urgent matter 

requiring immediate attention was the overheating problem. Attitude control and thermal 

experts had to find a rapid solution to reorient 

Skylab and establish a better thermal balance. 

They were hampered, of course, by the need 

to keep the functional solar arrays of the Apollo 

Telescope Mount pointed at the sun. In the first 

hours of the crisis, they experimented with various maneuvers to shade the workshop but 

maintain the limited power supply. Before long, 

they were able to implement a satisfactory 

solution that preserved Skylab until the rescue 

crew arrived on May 25. 

The next major problem was to determine 

the extent of damage on Skylab and devise 

corrective repair operations. Virtually every element of the Marshall Center, with hearty support from the other NASA centers, became 

involved in an intense effort to fix Skylab. Data 

analysis suggested that the micrometeoroid 

shield and one solar array had been ripped off 

during launch and that the second solar array 

was tangled up in debris and only partially 

deployed. Since the exact condition of these 

elements was unknown, engineers had to rely 

on calculations and simulations to estimate the 

nature of the problem and the best solution. 

Over the next several days, Marshall considered a variety of repair options, discarding 

some and pursuing others under tremendous 

time pressure. Eventually, three methods were 

developed, tested, rehearsed, and approved. 

Marshall was intensely involved in all three - a 

parasol sunshade, a twin-pole sunshade, and 

a set of metal cutting tools for freeing the 

jammed solar array - but had the lead role in 

developing the tools and the twin-pole sunshade, a large protective sail. 

Designing the hardware and crew procedures, demonstrating the method, and fabricating the equipment occupied hundreds of 

people for more than a week. Everything about 

the effort was a challenge under duress. Not 

only must it bethe most practical solution to 

the thermal problem but also it must survive 

structural and dynamic stresses, stand up to 

intense solar radiation, meet stringent crew 

safety requirements, be compact and lightweight, and be available as soon as possible. 

What would normally be months of effort was 

condensed into a few days. 

Devising tools and procedures to release 

the jammed solar array also provoked a flurry 

Testing the twin-pole 

sunshade at the Skylab 

mockup in Building 461 9 

“In my opinion, the finest 

accomplishment of Skylab 

was the demonstration of 

the uniqueness of man in 

space in solving problems 

and overcoming obstacles 

in the face of extreme 

adve rs it y. ’ ’ 

Dr. Rocco Petrone 

I 

Refining the repair procedures underwater in 

Marshall’s Neutral Buoyancy Simulator 
A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

of activity. Again the engineers who could not 

“see” the problem had to solve it by the safest, 

most practical methods. Standard off-the-shelf 

shears and saws were modified and tested for 

anticipated use. 

The third major problem was degradation 

of the interior environment of the workshop, 

an unknown factor of great concern for crew 

safety. The prolonged, extraordinary heating 

of the module might have caused interior insulation and adhesives to deteriorate and 

release toxic gases. Marshall’s materials scientists undertook a thorough evaluation of this 

potential problem and worked with other systems engineers to define purge procedures for 

the habitable module. Even as they were testing the materials for outgassing, this group 

was also embroiled in testing various candidate sunshade materials. 

During the Skylab crisis, Marshall’s many 

human and physical resources were admirably demonstrated. The Neutral Buoyancy Simulator was a special asset that proved its 

worth as a test environment again and again. 

Trial runs underwater revealed a number of 

difficulties and led to speedy recognition of 

more effective solutions. Experts around the 

Center - in the laboratories, machine shops, 

and management offices - and from 

Marshall’s contractors united in a multidiscipli- 

()R\G\NAL PA=‘ 

ColoR p~~mRAF” 

c 

i 

Marshall’s Skylab solar shield installed in space 

66 

nary team response to the emergency. Morale 

remained high despite the taxing work 

schedule . 

The Skylab crew and their repair kits were 

launched just 11 days after the incident. After 

docking with Skylab, the crew successfully 

deployed the parasol sunshade through an 

airlock the next day and, as the temperature 

dropped, began to activate the new space station. The interior environment proved safe and 

contamination-free, though still a rather warm 

work place. On the ground, Marshall’s teams 

continued to perfect techniques for the major 

repairs. In a daring though well-rehearsed 

maneuver, the solar array was freed on June 7 

by the crew working outside Skylab with a 

technique developed at Marshall. After that 

the Skylab mission settled into a fairly nominal 

routine, much as planned. 

The parasol sunshade proved effective for 

the first manned period on Skylab but had to 

be replaced by the Marshall sail during the 

second occupancy because interior temperature was increasing again. During the interval 

between missions, Marshall engineers and 

NASA astronauts practiced and improved the 

repair technique during frequent neutral buoyancy simulations. More than any other program, the successful Skylab recovery 

operations clearly demonstrated the value of 

manned space flight. 

)Skylab Legacies 

Skylab was the first American space program 

wholly dedicated to scientific research. Conceived as a laboratory for simultaneous 

research in several disciplines, Skylab contributed to solar physics, astronomy, biomedical 

science, materials science, Earth observations, and basic technology. Marshall played 

an important part in this unprecedented scientific venture, both before the mission by managing the development and integration of the 

experiments and later by supporting their 

operations in flight. 

Skylab operated in orbit from May 1973 

through February 1974. It was occupied for 

three periods for a total of 171 days. During 

that time, the advantages of doing research in 

space with a very capable scientific crew were 

convincingly demonstrated. Skylab results 

included significant discoveries in all the 

experiment disciplines and far more data than 

anticipated. Solar observations revealed 

unsuspected features and events, dramatically altering our understanding of the sun’s 

structure and activity. Skylab offered the first 

opportunity for a sustained investigation of the ~ 
human body in space; a plethora of biomedical experiments and measurements provided 

new insight into physiological adaptation to 

weightlessness. The first set of materials proORlGl NAL PAGE 

ca~oy P~?c)T~~R,I,PH 

cessing experiments in space produced intriguing results on crystal growth, solidification 

of alloys, and fluid behavior in microgravity. 

The Earth resources observations produced 

detailed new information from the unique vantage point of space by a variety of remote sensing techniques, and astronomical 

observations also were successful. Skylab 

opened the era of comprehensive scientific 

research in space. 

Skylab also proved the operational concepts for long-term habitation in space and 

particularly demonstrated how capably and 

productively people could work in this new 

environment. It also demonstrated the value of 

a human presence for maintenance and repair 

to extend the useful life of systems in space. 

The orbital servicing and repair activities gave 

new insight into both design and operational 

considerations for future missions. 

For Marshall and for NASA at large, 

Skylab represented a transition from short 

manned flights to long-term manned orbital 

operations and from single-purpose spacecraft to multipurpose space stations. The 

Marshall Center developed strong new capabilities for science payloads and mission support operations. After Skylab was vacated, it 

remained in orbital stowage for several years 

in anticipation of future visits. Instead of 

returning to Skylab, however, NASA pursued 

its direct descendant - Spacelab - a Shuttleborne research facility. Marshall was destined 

to play an even greater role in this new 

program. 

In the interim between the two manned 

laboratory projects, Marshall was preoccupied 

with various scientific projects and with adjusting to manpower and budget cuts. The unusual Apollo-Soyuz Test Project bridged the 

period between Skylab and Spacelab. 

Maintenance and repair 

tasks outside the workshop 

I -- 

Microgravity research inside 

the orbital laboratory 

Skylab Earth resources 

observations (infrared 

image of the lower 

Mishippi River) 

Clystal growth and materials processing 

research on Skylab missions 
A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

)Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

The period between the last Skylab mission 

(1973/74) and the first Shuttle flight (1981) was 

a quiet one for manned spaceflight. Only one 

manned mission was launched - the ApolloSoyuz Test Project in 1975. This mission 

marked both the last use of a Saturn launch 

vehicle and the first cooperative, international 

manned flight. The purpose of the mission 

was to demonstrate rendezvous and docking 

for joint ventures in space. This capability 

might eventually be used for international rescue missions and for mutually beneficial science and engineering activities. Marshall 

Space Flight Center participated in preparing 

for this historic mission. 

Overtures toward a joint Arnerican-Soviet 

mission were made in 1968, followed by talks 

between representatives of both space agencies over the next few years. Marshall personnel served on the American delegation that 

met with Soviet personnel in the United States 

and in Moscow. In 1970, two Soviet cosmonauts visited the Center on a tour of NASA 

facilities. At a 1972 summit meeting, President 

Richard Nixon and Premier Alexei Kosygin 

signed a five-year cooperative agreement and 

set a target mission date in mid-1975. 

Concept of the mndezvous of American and 

Soviet spacecraft 

The major challenge of the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project was to make two quite different 

space systems compatible enough to link up 

in orbit. This required design of a common 

docking adapter to join the two spacecraft and 

enable crew members to move from one module to the other for their “handshake in 

space.” Coordination of rendezvous guidance 

systems and flight techniques also was 

necessary. 

Although there had been early consideration of a Skylab-Soyuz mission, which would 

have meant heavy Marshall Center involvement, the final decision was to dock with an 

Apollo spacecraft. Thus, Marshall’s primary 

role was to provide the launch vehicle. A 

Saturn IB that had spent more than five years 

in storage was refurbished and performed 

flawlessly. The Center also provided several of 

the scientific experiments and a Multipurpose 

Electric Furnace similar to one flown on 

Skylab for processing material samples. 

the new docking capability, but there were no 

subsequent missions. NASA’s next international venture was with colleagues in Western 

Europe rather than the Soviet Union. 

The test project successfully demonstrated 

Apollo-Soyuz: historic 

handshake in space 

First international meeting 

in space 

68 
ispacelab 

In 1969, Europe was invited by the United 

States to participate in the post-Apollo space 

program. The European Space Research 

Organization, which later became the European Space Agency (ESA), agreed in 1973 to 

develop a manned laboratory as Europe’s 

contribution to the new Space Transportation 

System. What became Spacelab was conceived originally at Marshall as a “sortie can,” 

a modular laboratory system to be periodically 

installed in the Space Shuttle for week-long 

science missions. A handful of selected NASA 

engineers from the Marshall Center interacted 

with the Europeans to initiate the Sortie Can 

program, later named Spacelab. The work of 

this small group established an important link 

for international space programs. The resultant Spacelab program was a cooperative venture between ESA and NASA; the European 

Space Agency designed and manufactured 

Spacelab with NASA’s support in design and 

design requirements, and NASA now operates 

it on Shuttle missions. 

between the 1973 decision and the first 

Spacelab flight in 1983, Marshall Space Flight 

Center assumed program management 

responsibilities for monitoring and supporting 

the ESA activity; developing related flight 

equipment, software, and ground support 

facilities; and directing the first missions. For 

the better part of a decade, the Center’s 

resources were enlisted in the related 

Spacelab and Shuttle projects. While hardware development was in progress, NASA 

and ESA engaged in a parallel activity of 

developing the first Spacelab payload; experiments and crew members for the initial mission were provided by both agencies. 

Between 1972 and 1977, the two partners conducted a joint airborne program, a trial run 

called ASSESS, to work out their mission 

management and operational concepts. Furthermore, Marshall began planning ahead to 

subsequent missions. 

the Spacelab program broke new ground in 

international cooperation for manned spaceflight. The Marshall Center successfully managed this largest-ever program of shared 

responsibilities. Although the development 

effort and first missions are now history, 

Spacelab continues to be a major commitment at Marshall as Spacelab is used again 

and again for research in space. 

In the busy period of development 

Technically, scientifically, and managerially, 

Pallet-mounted lnstrument Pointing System, first used on Spacelab 2 mission 

Spacelab components: 

tunnel, enclosed laboratory 

module, and exposed 

platform (pallet) 

Concept verification testing of Spacelab 

materials science experiments in MSFC’s 

General Purpose Laboratory 

69 
)Developing Spacelab 

Although ESA bore primary responsibility for 

designing and manufacturing Spacelab, 

Marshall’s role as the lead NASA center 

required broad participation in all technical 

and managerial activities. The international 

scope of the program was unprecedented; 50 

manufacturing firms in 10 European countries 

contributed to Spacelab, and several different 

space organizations affiliated with ESA across 

Europe were involved in the program. The 

challenge of cohesively managing such a 

widespread effort was formidable. 

NASA and Marshall worked closely with 

ESA at all levels, and several key members of 

Marshall’s staff worked on-site in Europe to 

participate in integration and test activities 

there. In the course of this ambitious effort, 

new management techniques were devised to 

control schedules, resources, and costs. The 

international character of the Spacelab program introduced unusual administrative, fiscal, 

and technical factors; for example, relatively 

straightforward matters, such as tracking 

costs or documenting engineering changes, 

were complicated by national differences in 

currency and accounting practices, language 

and reporting style. 

In addition to its program management 

responsibilities, Marshall was tasked with 

developing related hardware. As usual, this 

effort utilized the Center’s proficiency in many 

engineering disciplines. Just as many Saturn 

facilities and personnel were reassigned to the 

Shuttle project, many Skylab resources were 

applied to the Spacelab effort. Marshall people drew upon the Skylab heritage and also 

developed new solutions for a laboratory compatible with the Space Shuttle. In developing 

an optical window for scientific observations, 

for example, they pulled Skylab hardware 

from inventory and adapted it. On the other 

hand, development of a pressurized transfer 

tunnel for the passage of crew and equipment 

between the Orbiter cabin and the laboratory 

module was a wholly new effort. Marshall also 

was responsible for developing experiment 

software, a vertical access kit for entering the 

module on the launch pad, and various avionics and environmental control subsystems 

components. Furthermore, a special Software 

Development Facility was established to 

develop and verify programs for the Spacelab 

experiment computer. 

One of the most challenging problems in 

Spacelab design was the Command and Data 

Management Subsystem, the centralized control and data collection authority. This threeSpacelab payload integration for several missions at the Cape 

1 

Spacelab 1 module and pallet ready to be installed in the Shuttle 

70 
computer system is the “bridge” between 

Orbiter resources and individual experiments. 

The system also monitors its own health and 

that of its users, reporting them to the Orbiter 

and to the payload and mission controllers on 

the ground. Because the computer system 

serves two purposes - overall Spacelab subsystem management and experiment operations - imaginative systems and software 

engineering efforts were necessary. The 

resultant system is flexible enough to handle 

diverse experiment requirements within the 

context of available resources and constraints 

such as power, attitude, and crew time. During 

the first mission, this system responded to 

16,000 commands and a multitude of timeline 

changes yet kept Spacelab and experiment 

operations running smoothly. 

Data transmission also was an engineering challenge that was met with state-of-theart hardware design. The High Data Rate 

Multiplexer and High Data Rate Recorder 

have the most interfaces and most complex 

operations in the command and data management subsystem. Both can handle data in a 

range of rates to accommodate widely varying 

types of instruments in different scientific disciplines. The multiplexer accepts data from A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE experiments, Spacelab systems, and the 

recorder for transmission to the ground at digital rates up to 50 million bits per second. 

While running at full speed, the one-inch magnetic tape of the recorder moves at 20 feet per 

second. During the Spacelab 1 mission, this 

system was extraordinarily successful; 

tmcnwt PAR- approximately six trillion bits of science data 

were downlinked. 

SDacelab reoresents a broad cross-section Pi-’ZTCX‘RJ PYI 

of engineering achievements. Virtually every 

discipline at Marshall contributed to the design 

and development of Spacelab. The actual 

Spacelab systems required the talents of 

structural, mechanical, dynamic, electrical, 

hydraulic, metallurgical, chemical, software, 

and systems engineers. The ground support 

facilities involved civil, structural, and mechanical engineers, with test and checkout equipment developed by electrical engineers and 

software professionals. Development of 

sophisticated scientific instruments required 

the expertise of electrical, optical, and software specialists. Spacelab demanded the 

coordinated effort of all these Marshall Center 

resources. 

Spacelab module and tunnel, first used on Spacelab 1 mission 

At work in a new laboratory during the 

Spacelab 1 mission 

\ 

71 
A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

)Managing Missions 

Marshall has a continuing role in the Spacelab 

program apart from development of the orbital 

research facility. Through the Spacelab 

Payload Project Office, the Center plans and 

directs a variety of missions. Having managed 

the first three multidisciplinary missions that 

demonstrated alternate Spacelab configurations, the Center now looks forward to managing several series of flights in particular 

research fields, such as astronomy, Earth 

observations, space plasma physics, and 

materials science. The Center provides the 

mission manager, mission scientist, integration engineers, and operations personnel for 

these missions. 

The business of Spacelab mission management draws upon many of Marshall’s skills 

Management conference during Spacelab 2 mission 

in systems engineering and integration at all 

payload levels from individual instruments to 

the mated Shuttle-Spacelab. Center personnel plan the layout, perform systems analyses, 

design and develop integration hardware, 

oversee assembly and checkout, plan the 

flight timeline, conduct simulations and training exercises, and provide real-time support 

during the mission. These activities involve 

specialists in many different areas, including 

aeronautical, electronics, software, and 

human factors engineering. Mission management personnel coordinate all these disparate 

activities to ensure that the payload meets the 

scientific goals and uses Shuttle-Spacelab 

resources most effectively. 

To carry out these complex responsibilities, the Center developed some novel methods and facilities. One of the most successful 

is the Payload Crew Training Complex (PCTC) 

in Building 4612, which houses a computerized Spacelab simulator that can be customized for different missions. This facility is a 

prime training site for Spacelab mission specialists from the astronaut corps and payload 

specialists from the scientific community. The 

PCTC is a realistic “classroom” for practicing 

simultaneous in-flight experiment operations, 

problem solving, and maintenance procedures. Another achievement was Marshall’s 

effort in outfitting the Operations and Checkout Building at Kennedy Space Center, the 

integration site for Spacelab payloads. Marshall developed the requirements for the integration facility and its automated test and 

checkout equipment. 

Besides overall mission management, 

Marshall scientists and engineers are devising 

experiments for flight opportunities on 

Spacelab. Apparatus and procedures are 

being developed here for investigations in all 

the Center’s science disciplines - astrophysics, atmospheric science, solar-terrestrial 

physics, materials science, and technology. 

The current level of effort is significant and is 

expected to remain so in the future. 

)Spacelab Legacies 

The Spacelab 1 mission, which began on 

November 28,1983, was a grand success. 

With few anomalies, Spacelab performed just 

as planned and the concept of a system of 

laboratory modules and pallets for research in 

space was verified. All the Spacelab subsystems were well exercised by the payload of 

over 70 investigations in 5 different disciplines. 

The mission management scheme also was 

verified; the mission progressed so smoothly 

and efficiently that an extra day on orbit was 

Payload Crew Training Complex, where Spacelab crews prepare for missions 

72 
authorized for additional scientific research. 

The value of onboard payload specialists was 

confirmed as scientists on the ground communicated frequently and directly with the crew, 

working together as a team on many experiment operations. 

nificant findings from the first Spacelab mission. Materials processing experiments 

produced much larger crystals with fewer 

defects than those produced on Earth. Investigations in life sciences challenged reigning 

theories about subtle physiological reflexes 

that cannot be tested in normal gravity. 

Exploratory investigations were carried out to 

evaluate the potential of Spacelab for astronomical observations and plasma physics 

research, with very promising results. Other 

investigations yielded important discoveries 

about the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. 

Trials of new Earth observation techniques 

were conducted and showed promise for 

improved mapping and resource monitoring 

from space. Spacelab clearly will serve as an 

important facility for space science research. 

Almost every investigator has reported sigMonitoring crystal growth experiments on 

Spacelab 3 mission 

Managing a Spacelab 

mission from the Payload 

Operations Control Center 

Members of the payload 

operations team on duty 

during Spacelab missions 

ABOVE: Pioneering reseamh in fluid 

dynamics during Spacelab 3 mission 

LEFT: Payload operations conference during 

the Spacelab 3 mission 

73 
74 

A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

The immediate legacy of Spacelab 1 is 

Spacelab 2 and 3 and a succession of dedicated discipline missions, such as Astro and 

the Earth Observation Mission, all managed 

by the Marshall Center. The next accomplishment on the horizon is the opening of a Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) at 

Marshall for consolidated local operations during Spacelab missions. In the past, Marshall 

personnel have participated in real-time mission activities from two locations, a POCC in 

Houston and the Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC). The new POCC in 

Huntsville will supplement the one at the 

Johnson Space Center for missions managed 

by Marshall. 

By virtue of its Skylab experience, Marshall Space Flight Center had a head start on 

Spacelab. Yet, Spacelab introduced the new 

challenges of detailed international cooperation and compatibility with the Space Shuttle. 

This effort was complicated by the fact that 

Spacelab development occurred in parallel 

with Orbiter, payload, communications satellite, and ground support development. 

Changes in any one element had an impact 

on the others. Spacelab management personnel and their engineering teams met the 

exceptional challenge of keeping Spacelab 

development synchronized with the other 

efforts and responding to changes as they 

arose. Marshall again proved its ability to 

manage development of a large, complex 

manned system. The Center also expanded 

its role to include extensive crew training 

responsibilities, using the time-honored techniques of simulation and step-by-step 

preparation. 

Beyond the series of Spacelab missions, 

another legacy is evolving. When the President announced the Space Station initiative, 

he referred specifically to the engineering and 

scientific achievement of the Spacelab 1 mission just a month earlier. The largest manned 

system ever attempted is the Space Station; 

architectural concepts for the new facility 

include Spacelab-type modules and pallets. 

The Space Station does not displace the 

Shuttle and Spacelab; rather, it extends their 

capabilities. The three programs are complementary, and Marshall expects them to be 

parts of an integral system continually incorporating new ideas and technology advances. 

The Spacelab work done at Marshall yesterday and today is directly applicable to 

tomorrow’s major project, the Space Station. 

The Center has sound credentials for developing and managing large manned systems for 

space science and applications. Both the 

hardware and the functions of the proposed 

Space Station owe a debt to Spacelab which 

Marshall is uniquely prepared to redeem. As 

in the past, the Center is encouraging its resident experts to meet the challenges of the 

future. 

)Space Station 

The Marshall Center’s three major lines of 

commitment converge at the Space Station. 

This ambitious project represents a synthesis 

of the Center’s principal interests in vehicles, 

science payloads, and manned space systems. As it moves into the Space Station era, 

Marshall Space Flight Center expects to use 

its various legacies for bold new ventures. 

tual groundwork, NASA organized a fullfledged Space Station definition effort. 

Responsibilities for various Station elements 

In 1984, after years of preliminary concep- 
ORIGtMAL PAGE 

COLOR PHOFOGRAPH 

The “Power Tower,” NASA’s reference configuration for Space Station planning 

were delegated to different centers, and Marshall received a major portion of the work: definition and preliminary design of pressurized 

common modules for use as laboratories, living areas, and logistic transport; environmental control, life support systems, and 

propulsive systems; a module equipped as a 

laboratory and others as logistics modules; 

and accommodations for auxiliary Orbital 

Maneuvering Vehicles and Orbital Transfer 

Vehicles. 

The Space Station reference configuration 

selected as a beginning point for design studies is called a “Power Tower.” It consists of a 

tower of beams, solar panels, antennas, coorbiting platforms, and enclosed modules; 

altogether the Space Station is about 400 feet 

in length, somewhat longer than a football 

field. Most of the technology for the Station’s 

initial structure and systems is presently available. However, the Space Station presents a 

host of new engineering challenges as Marshall, once again, seeks to do something that 

has never been attempted. 

Because the Space Station is intended to 

be permanent, it must be designed for maintenance, repair, and refurbishment. All maintenance and reconfiguration will occur in space 

and will be accomplished by astronauts or 

automated devices under the extraordinary 

working conditions of weightlessness, vacuum, and 90-minute cycles of daylight and 

darkness. The design requirements for longterm maintainability demand advances in 

long-life materials, automated “expert systems” for inspection and repair and remote 

operations, sophisticated contamination control measures, crew mobility systems and 

“Tonight, I am directing 

NASA to develop a permanently manned space 

station and to do it within 

a decade.” 

President Ronald Reagan 

January 25,1984 

\ 

A space station envisioned years ago 

by Dr. von Braun 

75 
mINAL PAGE 

daofp ""qTWQAPF 

Assembling large space 

structures underwater at 

MSFC 

Evali rrating techniques 

for construction 

projects in space 

Concept for a space 

operations center with 

elements similar to those 

evaluated at Marshall 

tools, and new orbital repair techniques. 

Although some spacecraft are now being 

designed for repair or refurbishment in orbit, 

there is no precedent for orbital servicing on 

the scale of a Space Station. Astronauts have 

never yet welded in space, for example, nor 

have they had to seal punctures on a spacecraft damaged by micrometeoroids. Space 

Station designers must plan for a variety of 

contingencies that were not factors in smaller, 

short-lived. or returnable spacecr&R. 

The Space Station also must be designed 

for expansion as new technologies become 

available and as needs change. The initial 

configuration is a nucleus for an enlarged 

future Space Station having more elements. Ir 

addition to major structural changes, the 

"History will remember you 

as the pioneers, the bold 

ones who stepped out into 

this new frontier and made 

possible these great new 

dreams and new benefits 

that mankind is only just 

beginning to realize. " 

Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 

Marshall's underwater model of the 

Manned Maneuvering Unit, which 

extends range of astronauts working 

in space 

76 
Space Station will change payloads as science and technology evolve; an entire observatory or laboratory may be replaced, or 

individual instruments may be exchanged for 

newer models. Evolutionary growth means frequent integration and deintegration of mission 

equipment. These activities are normally performed under stringent environmental and 

quality control conditions on the ground; 

designing and planning for these operations in 

space is another challenge. 

Apart from these formidable design problems, the actual construction of the Space 

Station is a major challenge in systems engineering and logistics. Delivering all the parts 

into orbit and assembling them properly will be 

quite a feat. The Space Station is a complex 

configuration of large beams, towers, platforms, modules, and solar arrays. Containing 

all the cables, wiring, pipes and ductwork for 

its utilities services, the Space Station 

requires advances in systems that provide 

electrical power, fluid storage and distribution, 

environmental control, and life support. 

Advances in assembly techniques are also 

required to guarantee that all parts connect 

properly and function well. 

Marshall has already addressed many of 

the conceptual and practical problems associated with building large structures in space. 

Since the mid-seventies, several feasibility 

and definition studies have focused on space 

platforms and power systems. Concurrently, 

alternative assembly and deployment techniques have been evaluated in the Neutral 

Buoyancy Simulator and NASA's KC-135 airplane, and demonstrations are planned for 

upcoming Shuttle flights. For some such studies, Marshall has used a prototype beam fabrication machine. 

The Center has also assessed the roles of 

humans and automated systems in space. To 

be economical and efficient, the Station must 

operate without a large contingent of maintenance workers and service personnel. Planners are looking ahead to determine what 

tasks and functions can be handled by automation and robots. 

To meet the challenges of Space Station 

architecture, utilities services, and auxiliary 

vehicles, the Center will rely on its resources 

in many engineering disciplines. New technology is required to improve the efficiency of virtually every subsystem. The Marshall Center 

is already involved in advanced technology for 

environmental control, attitude control, thermal 

control, propulsion, and long-life materials. 

Experts in structures, materials, dynamics, 

fluids, electronics, software, crew systems, 

and other areas of systems engineering are 

prepared and eager to join this new adventure 

in the utilization of space as a work place. 

Related work is also under way to evaluate 

complementary systems that would enhance a 

Space Station; large space structures, orbital 

transfer vehicles, and robotics and teleoperators are typical examples of advanced planning concepts. Thus, Marshall is involved in 

comprehensive planning for a broad base of 

operations in space. 

The eventual extent of the Center's sphere 

of influence on the Space Station depends on 

the evolution of the Space Station itself. Many 

roles or functions are possible. The Center 

has anticipated them and has become sufficiently diverse in its mix of capabilities to 

A PERMANENT 

PRESENCE 

Operator controlling a 

spacecraft rendezvous and 

docking simulation from 

remote control room 

Docking simulation in Marshall's teleoperation 

and robotics research laboratory 

77 
assume any of the Space Station responsibilities with high confidence of success. 

Initially, the Space Station will be used as 

a service center for orbital craft and scientific 

payloads. Marshall already has a major role 

developing the accommodations for orbital 

servicing, and the Center may become 

responsible for outfitting the necessary workshops and hangars. The Center is well qualified to develop both manual and automated 

techniques for orbital maintenance and repair 

services as well as tools and crew systems. 

Some of the pioneering work at Marshall in 

the next few years will be in the development 

of accommodations and techniques for a service station in space. 

The initial Space Station also will serve as 

an observatory platform for astronomy, solar 

science, and Earth observations. Marshall 

may provide new generations of research 

instruments for use there. The Center is well 

versed in the design and operation of space 

telescopes in all sizes and wavelength ranges. 

Besides astronomy instruments, the Center 

also has experience in the tools for Earth 

observations and space plasma physics 

investigations. 

Later, when the Space Station becomes a 

transportation node or launch site for space 

vehicles, Marshall may provide craft not only 

for nearby operations (the space “tugs”) but 

also for lunar and planetary expeditions. Such 

far-ranging missions may be either manned or 

unmanned. As the Space Station becomes a 

large orbital base of operations for a fleet of 

vehicles, Marshall will once again play a major 

role in missions to the moon and beyond. The 

Center undoubtedly will become heavily 

involved in the exploration of space beyond 

low-Earth orbit. 

When the Station becomes a logistics 

base to support large-scale construction projects in space or mining on the moon, Marshall 

ORlGb4,4L PAGE 

aOR PHOWRAPH 

may well provide the necessary technology. 

An intriguing idea now under study is propellant scavenging from discarded fuel tanks and 

surplus reservoirs on board orbital craft. 

Marshall may develop technology for siphoning operations and fuel depots in space. Planning and eventually managing the assembly of 

large space structures and the integration and 

checkout of their payloads will be major activities at the Marshall Center. 

When the Space Station or nearby platforms develop into manufacturing sites for 

space-processed materials, Marshall’s role in 

the commercial use of space will grow dramatically. Already the Center sponsors extensive 

research in microgravity materials processing 

for both commercial and scientific missions. 

Some participants speculate that materials 

science has the same potential for commercial development in space as that already 

achieved by the communications industry. 

Marshall is prepared to cooperate with private 

industry as a partner in this endeavor. 

A relatively recent consideration in Space 

Station planning is the use of tethers, long 

cables attached to the Station. Already under 

development at Marshall, these tethers can 

serve a variety of purposes: as “leashes” to 

keep co-orbiting spacecraft from drifting too 

far away, as lines to “reel in” freeflying craft 

for servicing, as “elevators“ to transfer supplies between higher and lower craft without 

actual docking, or as power lines in an electrical power generating system. The list of 

potential tether applications is growing, and 

the Center expects to do some exciting work 

with tethers in the near future. 

In short, Space Station activities will influence the growth of the Center for the next 

quarter century. Marshall anticipates a greatly 

expanded role in orbital assembly and servicing activities and in lunar and deep space 

exploration. Having already introduced joint 

endeavor agreements for commercial ventures in space, Marshall expects to develop 

new kinds of business partnerships in the 

Space Station era. Marshall also will be taking 

advantage of the opportunity to do continuous 

scientific research on orbit 24 hours a day, 

365 days a year. The Center has proven capabilities in all the relevant disciplines of science, 

engineering, and management to evolve with 

the Space Station. 

With the Center’s strong legacies to their 

credit, Marshall’s experts today are in an enviable position. They are the ones who will realize the dream of the early rocket pioneers - a 

permanent presence in space. 

Vision of the future: 

concept for the Space Station 

Concept for a commerc 

materials processing facil 

near the Space Stati I 

1 

78 
ORIGINAL PkE 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH 

Concept for a mining base on the moon 

“We can follow our 

dreams to distant stars, 

living and working in space 

for peaceful, economic, 

and scientific gain.” 

President Ronald Reagan 

I 

redit for the successes of Marshall 

Space Flight Center 

during its first quarter 

:entury belongs to 

ie employees. Referices to the multidiscinary capabilities of 

Center are really ref- 

?s to people - to engiientists, managers, 

! specialists, secreimunications techni- 

!ys and personnel 

,elders, and workers 

tions throughout the 

offices. Over the 

? guided the Center 

ed diversification 

am in the early 

j variety of programs 

in, from 1960 to 1970, 

Flight Center into 

le tremendous Saturn 

“Marshall’s people are its 

strongest assets. . . people 

with a sense of the importance of the work they are 

doing and pride in their 

accomplishments.” 

Dr. W. R. Lucas 
Dr. Wernher yon Braun 

Director, 1960-1970 

Dr. Eberhard Rees 

Director, 1970-1973 

Dr. Rocco A. Petrone 

Director, 1973-1974 

endeavor with energy and foresight. Dr. 

von Braun’s challenge, indeed NASA’s challenge, was to form an organization of the best 

talent to invent and prove the technology for 

launch vehicles capable of sending Americans 

to the moon. That no one knew exactly where 

the moon was or precisely how to get there 

was no deterrent. The technological effort of 

the Saturn years is without parallel in our history. Never before nor since have so many 

people in government, industry, and universities been orchestrated to work together on a 

project of such complexity and originality as 

the manned lunar landing. 

As the Saturn launch vehicles became 

reality, Marshall’s leadership envisioned other 

roles for the Center. With foresight and prudence, the Center embarked on a carefully 

planned, deliberate course of diversification 

into the development of scientific payloads, 

manned systems, and other vehicles for further exploration and utilization of space. The 

first Director of the Program Development 

office, established in 1969 to guide Marshall’s 

evolution toward new responsibilities, was Dr. 

W. R. Lucas. During his tenure in this position, 

the Center began a concentrated effort to 

broaden the scope of its missions and conceive new post-Apollo programs for the space 

agency. 

Meanwhile, Dr. Eberhard Rees served as 

Center Director from 1970 to 1973 during a 

period of transition. Under his leadership, the 

Saturn-Apollo program was completed, the 

Skylab program was implemented, and formulation of the Shuttle concept began. During 

the tenure of Dr. Rees, the agency, and the 

Marshall Center in particular, experienced fiscal and manpower reductions that presented 

new managerial challenges. Although many 

valued employees were lost, the Center 

retained its capabilities in all disciplines and 

emerged from this period with renewed 

energy. 

For the next year, Dr. Rocco Petrone 

served as Marshall’s Director and presided 

over the extraordinary Skylab program. In 

three successful missions, including the dramatic rescue operations, Marshall demonstrated convincing expertise in scientific 

payloads and manned systems. The Center 

reapplied experience gained in the development of launch vehicles to this ambitious systems engineering project and succeeded 

admirably. During this period, the Center’s 

organization was restructured to accommodate Marshall’s changing roles and responsibilities. The result has been a streamlined, 

more efficient institution, ambitious and 

undaunted. 

In 1974, Dr. W. R. Lucas began his term as 

Center Director, a position he holds today and 

has held longer than any other Marshall 

Center Director. Marshall bears the stamp of 

his influence. As Dr. Lucas advanced through 

key positions at all levels from the laboratory 

onward, he has insisted on the virtues of competence, discipline, and the commitment to 

excellence. Under his leadership, the Center 

has become diversified and has remained one 

of the foremost technical and managerial elements of NASA. It has been speculated that 

the systems engineering capabilities of the 

Marshall Center could be applied to any largescale technological challenge - a national 

transportation system, for example, or energy 

systems - and Marshall could handle the 

problem just as successfully as it has met its 

space program challenges. This multidisciplinary expertise is rare and valuable. 

With the leadership of these four directors, 

Marshall Space Flight Center has established 

a reputation for technical competence. The 

Center has had major responsibilities for 

many of NASA’s key programs in launch vehicle development, scientific spacecraft, orbital 

laboratories, and pioneering research. While 

“Although we look with 

pride on our achievements 

of the past.. . we recognize 

that we must prove ourselves each year.” 

Dr. W. R. Lucas 

82 

Qlr))GIrdlAL PAGE 

PHOTOGRAPH 

Dr. William R. Lucas 

Director since 1974 
these past achievements are a source of 

pride, their real importance today is that they 

are the foundation for the Center’s future. In 

these accomplishments, Marshall has developed the ability and experience to meet the 

new challenges of the Space Station era. 

Exciting opportunities for achievement 

await the next generation of Marshall leadership and employees. Establishment of a permanent presence in space on a manned 

space station, ventures into deeper space, 

perhaps a return to the moon or manned 

excursions to the planets, development of new 

space vehicles, commercial enterprise in 

space, sophisticated orbital laboratories and 

observatories all demand ingenuity, skills, and 

talent on a scale comparable to that of the 

past. 

Scenes from the Marshall 

Center’s 25th Anniversary 

CRIGIMAt PAGE 

CQLOR PHOmRAPH 
The challenges of the future require experienced managers, engineers, and scientists 

young professionals. The Marshall Center 

today is in an excellent posture to meet the 

future. The current work force is a blend of 

mature employees and new recruits. Many of 

the experienced employees have worked on 

several major projects and have risen to leadership positions, applying their competence 

from one program to the next. This continuity 

of skill and experience is enhanced by the 

infusion of new talent; entry level employees, 

fresh out of educational and training programs, add new knowledge and capabilities to 

Marshall’s inventory. 

Engineers and scientists make up almost 

two-thirds of the Marshall Center work force 

today, with a wide variety of business professionals, clerical personnel, and technicians 

making up the other third. More than twothirds of the employees have college degrees, 

and many have earned graduate degrees. 

The Center has proficiency in all the relevant 

engineering disciplines for complex space 

systems, and its cells of science are advancing the frontiers of space research. The work 

force skills are sufficient and well balanced to 

meet the challenges of the present and foreFOUNDATION 

THE FUTURE and also the abilities of highly motivated 

ORIG~NAL PAGE 

wOR PHOTOGRAPH 

seeable future. Expertise in many fields invigorates this Center and keeps it strong and 

supple. 

The Marshall Center is a highly disciplined 

organization noted for its technical excellence 

and meticulous attention to detail. Its bold 

achievements result from careful planning and 

methodical progress by people who are dedicated to the common goal of excellence. As 

Marshall people meet the challenges of the 

nation’s space program, usually pushing the 

state of the art within tight schedule and funding constraints, they insist on “doing things 

right” and “making it work.” The personnel 

here are confident, creative, and well prepared 

to tackle any problem; if the appropriate materials or methods do not exist, Marshall people 

will develop them. 

The disciplined work ethic here arises in 

part from the Center’s proven management 

philosophy and also from the individual’s 

sense of responsibility. People are aware of 

the historic importance of their work and are 

challenged daily to be perfectionists, to give 

their best effort. This commitment to excellence fosters personal satisfaction and is the 

basis for the Center’s many successes. 

These attitudes and values enrich the 

broader community as well as the Center. 

Marshall’s people are active in civic affairs in 

Huntsville and the surrounding areas, giving 

generously of their time and talents to 

enhance the quality of life here. They bring to 

a multitude of community projects the same 

devotion and energy that characterize their 

NASA work. The annual Combined Federal 

Campaign of charitable fund-raising is but one 

impressive example of employees’ contributions to the community; the roster of contributors and volunteers to virtually every civic 

organization includes Marshall employees. 

portive community, where it enjoys a friendly 

relationship with its neighbors, the United 

States Army on Redstone Arsenal and the 

universities in Huntsville. The mutually beneficial community ties that originated in the 

1950’s are sustained at the institutional and 

individual levels by people whose dedication 

reaches beyond the work place. 

The people of Marshall Space Flight 

Center are its strongest asset, as important to 

the present and future space program as the 

rocketry pioneers were to the past. Like the 

early von Braun rocket team, they are a 

unique national resource. 

The Center is fortunately situated in a sup84 
Nabama Space and Rocket Center ArcMvss photo 

“Our community has been 

and continues to be vitally 

important to the success of 

America’s space program.’’ 

Dr. W. R. Lucas 

Community ties 

CRIGINAL PAX 

UXOR PHOmRAPH 
1960-1985 
Malor MSFC 

reorganizdtion 

Program offices 

establishrd for Skylab 

Shuttle Pqects Office 

President Nixon 

Barge docks and 

Saturn Road built 

Vehicle Components 

Thermal Vacuum 

Hangar (4755) completed 

Malor MSFC reorgani- Or Wernher von Braun 

reassigned to NASA Central Laboratory and ~~~~r~~l~~mic Chamber S II Structural Test (Bldg 4557) System Component Test Stand/ Facility (Bldg 4699) zation. four directorates 

Test Complex 500 completed established Headquarters 

IBldg 45221 and related Neutral Buoyancy Six-Oegree-of-Freedom Or Eberhard Rees 

Office Building lBldg 45501 completed installej 

Machin? Shop and Static Test Tower MSFC established President Kennedy set President Kennedy 14200) completed 

NASA established by President Eisenhower Michoud Operations acqiiired Bldg 4696) completed Facility1 14548) complete Propulsion System Test ~{~~~,~~~7~!~trica~ 

IBldg 45721 completed Or Wernher von Braun goal of manned lunar visited MSFC PrOpUkiOn Test Facility ,'60,p~bs,l~,"t,"~~~~aci,ity Assembly Shop 

landing by end O' decade Slidell Computer Facility IF' Engined Test 'Iand (F 1 Turbopump Test (Bldg 4550) completed Space Simulator Motion System activated became Center Oirector and HEAO (1957) named 1st Oirector 

Solar Magnetograph establishtid National Aeronautics dedicated MSFC ProdUCtlOn facllltY added MSFC Launch Operations Misissi!Jpi 

and Space Act (1958) Construction of Saturn Directorate became tions added (later Facility (Test Complex for J-2 Engines Bldg Facility (Bldg 4347) 

Space Shuttle Task authorized (19581 Florida under MSFC in Florida Test Facility) storage facilities tions Office established 

nauts selected (1959) zation established (Bldg 4540) completed HOSC rstablished in 

completed 

(Bldg 47051 completed in Bldg 4663 

Opera Engine Component Test Stand (3 IvB Test Stand completed 

announcel decision 

to develolt Shuttle 

ProIect Mercury launch facilities in separate NASA Center renamed MiSSiSSIPPl 3001 completed 4514) and cryogenic Saturn/Apollo Applica- completed 

Prop3 Mercury astro- direction Malor MSFC reorgani- ~~~lff:~~:~~mplex comple ed Team established 

two directorates 

Construction began on 

in Huntsville (UAH) 139 000 Memorial Parkway 

Alabama Space & overpass system 

Target Motion Simulator 

activated in Bldg 4663 

Bldg 4563 

IBldg 46191 constructed 

Load Test Annex 

New Chamber of Lowe Industrial Park Huntsville-Madison U S Army Advanced University of Alabama Huntsville population 

Huntsville population CommErce and municipal established County Jetplex opened BMO Agency formed 16 000 11950) 

German rocket group 72 000 Technical College opened moved to Huntsville 

119501 

Huntsville Symphony 

organized (1955) established 

UAH Foundation bUIldInOS COmpleted 0 Madison county New Madison County established Huntsville Arts Council 

organized 

Cummings Research 

Park established 

US Army MICOM 

Huntsville Association 

Of Technical Societtes 

formed 

Grissom White Chaffee 

public schools dedicated 

Rocket Center opened 

Huntsville Museum of Art 

founded 

established Jetplex Industrial Park Industrial Park established Courthouse completed 

Huntsville population J F Drake State 

Research Institute New Huntsville-Madison 

County Public Library 

Opened 

established 

founded 

~___ 

I 

1960 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 PRIOR 

1 
. . 5 Shuttle missions . 10 Shuttle missions 1st Solid Rocket Motor 

1st External Tank tests 

Shuttle Orbiter 

scheduled 

Atlantis introduced 

test fired (in Utah) 

Discovery introduced . Shuttle Orbiter Mated Vertical Ground completed at MSFC 

. Shuttle scale model Vibration Tests 

. 1st assembly of acoustic tests 

complete Space Shuttle External Tank accep 

. Main Propulsion Test lance tests and linal 

series (SSME cluster checkout 

firings) began at NSTL Solid Rocket Motor 

IMississippil developmert firings 

completed qualification 

firings started 

. Lageos and Gravitational . HEAO-1 launched Spacelab 1 mission . Solar Array Flight . Spacelab 2 mission 

13 investigations 

5 disciplines mission mission demonstration in 7 disciplines 

scientist some principal of advanced solar array . Spacelab 3 mlSSlon 

investigators and technology 15 investigations 

co in 5 disciplines investigators from . space ~~l~~~~~~ 

Optical Telescope . Space Telescope 

Assembly completed assembly in progress and delivered 

. Saturn V test stand 1st in series of 10 

used as drop tower for SPAR flights of materials Probe A launched discoveries reported 70 experiments in Experiment/OAST 1 

. HEAO-2 telescope Agreement (MSFC and mirror polishing Apollo Telescope Mount microuravitY materials processing experiments . 2 SPAR flights 

materials processing 

. Space Telescope definition and preliminary 

design activities began 

McDonnell Douglas) for completed . Final Skylab mission materials processing 

184 days) Completed . Spacelab 1 and 2 integrated in space . MSFC studied large 

. Spacelab 3 investigators selected Space platforms 

first meetings held investigators selected 

. MSFC assigned manage 

investigators selected men1 responsibilities for 

OSTA-2 Shuttle mission 

payload M 3terials 

(ASSESS) held Experiment Assembly 

. Space Telescope 

. SPAR flight 

. Spacelab simulation 

. SPAR flighr 

ESA delivered major . Spacelab 3 payload . 1st flight of Spacelab . MSFC assigned Space Spacelab 2 mission 

management assigned possible reuse reboost bay install& in NBS Spacelab components specialists selected ation responsibilities Spacelab 3 mlSSIOn 

. Skylab launched, 3 . Record 84-day Skylab Apollo-Soyuz . Spacelab 3 prolect . Skylab reactivated for Full-scale Orbiter cargo 

. . Tests of Space Spacelab 1 and to MSFC or deboost project 

Spacelab 2 project discontinued within 

the year 

Spacelab 2 payload 

Specialists selected in NBS 

crew training began 

Telescope servicing 

procedures and assembly 

techniques for large 

space structures held 

. Spacelab 1 and 

. . Spacelab Payload Crew . President Reagan Robotic & Teleoperator Spacelab Payload Project . Space Telescope Project . Materials Processing in 

became Center Director Dr William R Lucas Bldg 4705 Office established Stand (Bldg 4572) . Space Shuttle unloading 

established Rocket Booster testing Redstone Arsenal 0 Science & Engineering faCilitieS for Shuttle phased out 

Facility modified for Mississippi Test Facility Test Facility completed Facility (Bldu 4550) 

production of Shuttle became independent modified for Shuttle in Bldg 4708 

External Tanks NASA installation 

Office established Space Projects Office Training Complex approved Space Station 

. Space Station Projects 

Office established 

. Teleoperator and Robot 

ics Evaluation Facility 

opened in Bldg 4619 

Work began on Payload 

facility in Bldg 4663 

. Or Eberhard Rees retired . Or Petrone reassigned System Evaluation Office established 

. Or Rocco A Petrone to NASA Headquarters Facility activated in Special Prolects Saturn IB Static Test established 

0 Spacelab Program Office became Center Director . Conversion Of Saturn 0 Saturn Program Office modified for Solid facility prepared at 

Michoud Assembly from Airfield to test 

areas 

Shuttle launch support 

activated in Bldg 4612 development 

Directorate reorganized testing initiated 0 X-Ray Calibration & . Saturn IC Dynamic Test . Shuttle route modified 

. Solar Heating & Cooling testing . HOSC reactivated for Operations Control Center 

Development (evolved 

from 25kW Power 

Module Project Office) 

. 1st Productivity Enhancement Facilities con 

structed in Bldg 4707 

Test Facility opened (National Space 

Technology Laboratories) 

. lnternational Intermodal 

Facility construction 

. Foreign Trade Zone 

. Huntsville population . Alabama Space . Interstate spur 1-565 

Parkway overpass 142 500 & Rocket Center construction began 

. Port of Entry and Space Camp established began at Jetplex Joe Davis stadium system completed 

U S Customs Office at . 1st Panoply of the opened Huntsville Stars 

Jetplex opened Arts Festival established baseball team 

established 

UAH School of Primary . u s Army BMDSCOM 

a 

Alabama A&M Centennial First phase of Memorial 

Medical Care and BMDATC established von Braun clvlc Center 

established completed E e* 

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 811 82 83 84 1985 I 
25VEARSATTHE