PREPARING MAPS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

THE TERM "ILLUSTRATION" is used here in a

broad sense to include all geologic, geophysical,

geochemical, hydrologic, and derivative maps and

cross sections, mine maps, diagrams, pen-and-ink

or wash sketches, columnar sections, correlation

diagrams, charts, graphs, fossil plates, photographs,

projection slides, engineering drawings, and

computer-generated graphics. Most of the following

suggestions apply directly to illustrations intended for

Survey book publications or for Survey maps, charts,

and atlases. Suggestions that may seem arbitrary are

based on long experience and practice. Emphasis is

on author preparation and author interactions with

map or text editors and illustrators (graphics

specialists and cartographic technicians).

Every illustration in a scientific report should either

(1) give the reader a visual impression, (2) clarify

something said in the text, or (3) portray facts that

are discussed in the text. A visual impression made

by a photograph of an outcrop, for example, supports

mental images, and a geologic map provides the facts

on which the words are based. Regardless of the type

of report, no illustration belongs there unless it serves

one of these purposes.

The author, map or text editor, and illustrator

together are responsible for preparing final copy for

the printer. This copy must be neat, well planned,

well prepared, and uncluttered if it is to make published illustrations of professional quality. Experience

shows that well-prepared copy costs no more in time

and money than slipshod work. Commonly the cost is

less, because expensive corrections and revisions are

avoided.

Because of their obvious interdependence, authors,

editors, and illustrators must work together to

achieve their joint objectives. You as author should

seek advice from map editors or illustrators early in

the planning stage of the project; advice on such

things as adequate base-map material and compilation

techniques can save later grief and delay.

Authors who lack access to professional map editors

and illustrators have special problems. For a given

journal, read the journal's publication requirements

and examine recent issues to learn what makes a

good illustration and satisfactory copy. Most journals

accept only finished illustrations ready for the printer.

Few scientists have the technical or artistic skills to

prepare finished illustrations beyond simple line draw184 Preparing maps and other illustrations

ings and photographs. Some of us acquire such skills

by study and practice and by seeking advice from

experts, but most of us must rely on professional

illustrators, especially to prepare copy for colored

maps that require perfectly registered color patterns.

In any event, you are well advised to seek professional help early in the preparation process. New

techniques are developing rapidly for author-prepared

copy and computer-generated graphics.

PLANNING

For planning purposes maps and other illustrations

for Survey reports can be broadly classified as plates

or sheets and figures. A plate, as here arbitrarily

defined, is any illustration larger at publication size

than two facing pages. Thus, at this stage, maps that

stand by themselves in the various series are considered to be plates or sheets. A figure is any illustration that can be printed within the area of two facing

pages or printed as a subordinate illustration on a

map sheet. Photographs of fossils or groups of fossils,

however, are usually labeled as plates in Survey

reports even though they are printed at page size.

These distinctions are helpful to bear in mind when

you fill out your "Author's Check List," Form 9-1517,

shown in figure 23.

When you are planning to submit manuscriptsfor

the Survey's various publication series, or for outside

journals, you should know about limitations as to (1)

image size, (2) number and size of illustrations, (3) the

use of plates, (4) color, and (5) reproduction processes.

Contact a map editor, illustrator, or journal editor, or

study recent examples of the publication. You should

also try to anticipate your needs for photographs,

base maps, and other compilation materials early in

the project. After your fieldwork is completed may

be too late.

COST CONSIDERATIONS

Illustrations should be planned along with the

research project itself or soon thereafter. By using

the preliminary project description and a rough outline

of your ultimate report, you can estimate the kinds

and numbers of illustrations needed. For more detailed

planning, you should then consult with a map editor

and other advisors. This planning should explore-
1. Proposed publication series-options and

constraints

2. Need and justification for multicolor plates and

figures

3. Need for separate plates to be inserted in a

pocket

4. Alternative of publishing some or all plates in a

separate map series

5. Dimensions of figures

6. Base-map requirements (see section on "Base-Map

Needs," below).

If you understand the relative costs of various

printing methods, as a guide toward the most acceptable form for an illustration, you may forestall

publication delays. In general, linecuts (figures that

can be printed directly with the text) cost little if any

more than composing and printing text; halftones of

black-and-white photographs cost only a little more

than text or linecuts, unless they are printed on

special paper or require special screening. Duotone

prints, for example, cost more than single-screen

prints but provide richer tonal values. Color halftones

and multicolor maps cost much more than black and

white (unless the publisher has a multicolor pressthen the increased cost per unit is minimal).

Any plate is more expensive and time consuming

to prepare than a figure; color plates are much more

expensive to print and handle than simple text and

figures. These cost considerations shrink with large

editions such as those of popular magazines, but they

are very real for scientific reports of a few thousand

copies that require precise color registration. The use

of color in Survey publications is overseen by the

Congressional Joint Committee on Printing, which

delegates its authority to the Survey's Office of

Scientific Publications.

In some Survey reports prepared for the general

public, such as reports on national parks or monuments, color photographs of geologic features are

encouraged as being more meaningful to the reader

than black-and white photographs. In some crowded

diagrams, clutter can be reduced by the substitution

of a single color, such as blue or red, for some of the

black lines or patterns. Other illustrations may also

warrant color-photomicrographs of rock thin sections, for example-but any use of color in photographs or other illustrations must be justified in

writing; prior tentative approval by the Office of

Scientific Publications may avoid wasted work.

PLANNING MAPS

A first consideration is scale-the optimum scale

needed to show the details required by the aims of

the project. The scale normally determines what base

map will be required. Another consideration is the

availability of a topographic base and its clarity at the

scale of publication. In the past, planimetric bases

were used when topographic maps were unavailable.

Modern topographic maps are now available for most

of the Nation, and interpretation of modern geologic

maps is based on information supplied by the topographic base. Planimetric bases should be avoided

unless intended for a simplified black-and-white

illustration. How much drainage and culture are

necessary? Certain maps-the Geologic Quadrangle

(GQ) Map, for example-are published only on

standard topographic quadrangles. You should not

be parsimonious about color, because it enhances

readibility, but color will not be approved unless it is

necessary for clarity. Much thought must go into

early planning for complex full-color maps.

BASE-MAP NEEDS

Before a mapping project is started, the project

chief and supervisor determine the mapping and

publication scales. The mapping and publication scales

are selected on the basis of the amount of data required to solve the geologic problem. The publication

scale is generally easily chosen if published topographic base maps are available, but some geologic problems may be resolvable only at larger scales. Regional

relationships, on the other hand, may be depicted best

on mosaicked bases of several topographic maps

reduced perhaps as much as 50 percent or, if available, on one of the 1:100,OOO-scale topographic maps.

Base maps reduced more than 50 percent are generally illegible and unusable. Rarely, for some maps, a

planimetric base may suffice.

Every effort should be made to judge accurately

how much detail is needed to solve the geologic problem efficiently; to plot excessive detail wastes time in

mapping, in then selecting data to retain or delete,

and in final drafting. For some projects, the modern

1:100,OOO-scale topographic base maps provide adequate detail; for others a 1:24,000-scale base is

needed. Supervisors and map editors recommend

that compilation and publication scales be the sa~e..

For accurate registration, your final map compilation

is plotted on scale-stable material. In planning a project,

allow adequate time for preparation of the scale-stable

base. Even more lead time is needed if the base is to

be a mosaic of several topographic sheets, if the scale

is to be different from that of the original base maps,

or if the reproducible source material is stored elsewhere than at your regional headquarters. The map

editor can advise you on the types of stable materials

Base-map needs 185
that are available. Most mappers compile on scalestable greenline copies of the base map.

PLANNING TEXT FIGURES

Text figures should be carefully planned to ensure

the most effective graphic communication possible.

Illustrations serve to demonstrate relations that cannot be described as clearly by written words or to

relate more detail than words can effectively portray.

Discuss plans for illustrations with the publication

staff in advance.

Figures may be published either "bottom title" or

"side title." In bottom-title figures the top of the

figure is toward the top of the page, and the caption

is printed beneath the figure parallel to the text. In

side-title figures the figure and caption are turned

sideways on the page. Small figures can be printed

column width. Use side-title figures only when necessary, because they are awkward for the reader and

they detract from the composition of the report; consider (1) redesigning or reproportioning such drawings

or photographs, (2) using bleeds (extending the photograph to the edge of the page, to the gutter, or both)

for oversized photographs, (3) placing explanations or

captions on facing pages, or (4) using page-and-a-half

or two-page spreads across facing pages. Such layouts

can enhance composition and interest.

IMAGE SIZES

Standard image sizes for figures and plates are

given on the back side of the "Author's Check List"

for illustrations, Form 9-1517 (fig. 23).

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

MAPS

Map data should be compiled directly on a stable

base. Linework should be drafted in black ink or

scribed. The original compilation must not be colored,

because it is not easily reproduced. A paper or plastic

print should be colored as a "mill" copy for

reviewers, map editors, and illustrators.

Scribing is an alternative to inking. For scribing,

the base map is printed on scale-stable scribe-coat

material, which is ordered through a map editor.

Linework is then engraved with a scribing tool. Once

the technique is mastered, scribing is rapid, neat, and

accurate, and if linework meets publication standards,

a major step in map preparation is saved. For review

copy the scribed linework is combined photographically with a screened or green base ordered by a map

186 Planning text figures

editor. For review purposes and as a guide for illustrators, a paper or plastic copy of the combined inked

or scribed original map is then colored as a check

copy. You as author cannot adequately check your

own work without carefully coloring it out. Do not

color the original.

Programs for microcomputers are readily available

to assist earth scientists and illustrators in compiling

and drafting of maps and illustrations. Lines, symbols, and codes for patterns and colors can be

digitized in their proper positions on plots; screen

graphics are used to assist digitizing and editing but

are not primary tools in design. Electronic plotters,

responding to the digital files, can plot the map

or illustration at the scale or size selected. Such

computer-assisted drafting saves an author much time

in making corrections and copies for editing; ultimately, publication is accelerated by using the data files.

Programs vary in their capabilities and complexities

of use. Consult with a map editor or cartographic

expert for advice on which program and equipment

are best suited to needs of your map or illustration.

(See also p. 224.)

Contacts, Faults, and Fold Axes

Contacts, faults, and fold axes are normally drawn

or scribed as solid lines. Dashed or dotted contact

lines and faults are also generally shown on maps.

Standards that define the use of solid, dashed, and

dotted lines are available from a map editor. A line

guide for the illustrator is required, such as a colored

pencil line on a black-and-white print, showing exactly

what line segments are to be dashed and what are to

be dotted. If most contacts on a geologic map are approximate (most are), all should be shown as solid

lines and the explanation should state "ContactApproximately located" or "Approximate contact."

Individual contact relations can also be explained in

the descriptions of the formations.

Faults may be drafted as solid, dashed, or dotted

lines, based on established standards, and mappers

must exercise discriminating care in using the correct

line to depict actual field conditions. A solid line

designates a known fault accurately located within the

scale limitations of the map. A dashed line may designate a known fault approximately located or an inferred fault. Queries can be added to express doubt

beyond what is implied by mere inference. A dotted

line is used only for a concealed fault; for example,

if a surficial deposit such as alluvium or talus laps

against bedrock along a fault line but is not involved

in the faulting, the line should be dotted; a solid or

dashed line would imply that the alluvium or talus

had been faulted. Similarly, if a fault is shown by a
dotted line through any unit, the fault must pass

beneath the unit.

Lithologic Patterns

Authors who plan to use lithologic patterns on an

illustration should consult the map editor and illustrator. Lithologic patterns rarely are overprinted on

full-color geologic maps. They appear more commonly

on cross sections. If so, authors should supply exact

copy on a registered, scale-stable overlay. Because

such patterns follow structure and must be drafted by

hand, author copy is used if possible. Lithologic patterns generally should be avoided because they are

time consuming to draft, they clutter the map, and

they obscure the base. Lithologic patterns are commonly used in columnar sections, however, and are

available for that purpose in ready-made, adhesivebacked form. Computer programs are available, also,

that will plot lithologic patterns in log form.

Map Explanations

Authors should scan recently published maps for

guidance in preparing map explanations. Check with

your map editor. The explanation must include all information needed to understand the illustration, which

in turn must stand alone without reference to the text

or to another illustration.

Two types of explanations are used with geologic

maps published by the Survey-short and expanded.

The two types differ only in the amount of stratigraphic and lithologic detail. Both types usually consist of a "Correlation of Map Units," a "Description

[or a "List] of Map Units," and a list of line and point

symbols used on the map. In either event, the "Description of Map Units" must include the names of

the rock-stratigraphic units and their assigned

systems.

The short "Description of Map Units" includes the

names of the mapped groups, formations, or members

but either no lithologic description or a brief description limited to the major lithology. Short explanations

commonly depend on an accompanying book, pamphlet, or graphic columnar section for lithologic

details.

Where space is available, an expanded "Description

of Map Units" giving stratigraphic detail is desirable.

Detail may include information such as lithologic content, color, grain size, bedding characteristics, porosity, permeability, fracture characteristics, mineral or

fossil content, remanent magnetization, and thickness.

Correlation with other units, nature of contacts,

radiometric or other age determinations, and sources

of specific information (citations) may be provided.

The length and detail are limited only by the size of

the map and the number of map units. If the explanation will not fit, a second map sheet or a pamphlet

may be added.

Explanations having many map units cause special

problems in form and layout. Look to recently published maps for guidance, such as State maps and

1:250,OOO-scale maps, and consult with map editors

and representatives of your Geologic Names Unit.

Suggestions for the treatment of stratigraphic

symbols and the arrangement and format of map-unit

boxes in map explanations are given in the section on

stratigraphic descriptions (p. 49).

Stratigraphic details in the explanation should be

limited to data from within the map area, although

brief correlations with rock units in adjacent areas

may be appropriate. References may be included.

Descriptions should use telegraphic style; nonessential

articles ("a," "an," "the") may be deleted; complete

sentences are unnecessary. To separate ideas, periods

or semicolons may be better than conjunctions. Let

brevity and good judgment decide. The description

may be paragraphed. Periods are omitted at the end

of each entry or paragraph.

The order of describing lithology may differ from

map to map, but it should be consistent within a

given "Description of Map Units." If entries are fairly short and no lithology predominates, normal word

order reads more smoothly than inverted order

("Sandy green shale and silty gray sandstone"), but

if an entry is long and has a string of modifiers, inverted sentence structure is easier to follow:

Curtis Formation (Jurassic)-Interbedded sandstone, shale,

and limestone. Sandstone, light-gray, fine- to coarsegrained, poorly sorted, and thickly bedded. Shale, palegreen, • • •. Limestone, • • •.

Features that characterize a unit, such as color,

permeability, or gradations in grain size, also modify

the lithologic term; other information follows (magnetization, fossil or mineral content, age, and so on).

The order in which these subsidiary features are

listed may depend on their significance in the mind of

the author, but usage should be consistent throughout

the description.

Map Symbols

All symbols on the map must be explained. Symbols

other than stratigraphic map symbols (such as planar

and linear features) are usually explained below the

column of map-unit boxes, but if space dictates, they

can be grouped elsewhere on the map sheet. Conventional symbols for outcrops, contacts, faults, folds,

linear features, bedding attitudes, foliation, cleavage,

joints, isopleths, ore and rock alterations, mine develMap symbols 187
Fona~lll1

IMo,dl ll17l

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us GIOl.OGCAI. 5UlIW(Y

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01' ..... 'MUSGS public.t....

AUTHOfrS CHECK UST

SERIES: P.P.O W.SP .O BUlLO CIRC.lJ T.W.! 0 Sl'fC.0 GOO (J M GPO MAO OMD oeD HAD JIl(J CO AD '

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Front

Figure 23.-"Author's Check List," front and back (Form 9-1517, revised March 1987). The original sheet

(8Y2 x 11 inches on yellow paper) must be completed for each illustration to be published in a Survey report.

188 Planning illustrations
. ,

THE FOlLOWING IS GENERAl INFORMAnoN MADE AVAILABLE TO AUTHORS

TO HELP EXP£Drn REPORTS DURING CARTOGRAPHIC PREPARAnON

MAXIMUM I'\MUCATION UUl11'lATION IIZU .. INCHES II'lCAlI FOIl lOOK IlEPOIITll

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......- olze for the USGS printing pIan1 Ia . , Y,". 5T. PIMM .-ng U- din*>-

...m... _ OSP fof prlntlng by aprI_.......-.

,l, ~\ ,,' ~j : :1 PROFESSIONAl. PUEIl ClIlCULAR, BULLETIN, WATER·SUPPlY PAPER. AND 1WI I aott-. title Bonom _ 7 '1t" • I y,° I.,-; 511 '1t ~'S2 SiOt title Sida titlto

r'~ ~1 'I' "' '38'h widtIl bottom title Column Vlridth bottom title ., 3Y," . 1.","12' • 511 3'10" • ' '''' ' 120. S21 :' "'

STAHOAAD RLM ANO IMAGE SIZES AND "

. RECOMMENDED PUBLICATION SCAlES AUDlS PUNCH FOIl PlATES .' . .- FOR PlATES - . Film olze 1fnlge1ile •• ,. 2" 3 • , :20.000 IPue n o Ricol ' :'25,000 ' :25.000

a.58" *T.W 15 31 .- a ' :2.,000 ' :250,000 1:3' ,eao

:M".... 3T.a • 31 ., • ' :62,500 ' :500,000 ' :50,000

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, 2.".30" 22".28" 3' '7 'C1 21 '.

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PHOTOGRAPHS

1. Submit glossy print It publicat ion scal e or ind H:ite

by crop li nes to br ing to publication sale.

2. 300-line screen to be used for 'ossil plltes Ind

w here fine detai l i, essen tial.

3. 00 not write on the front or back of photographl ; avoid us in g paper cli ps. especialty on

the im age area . Scale shoul d be drawn outside of image area.

4. Use registered overll y to ahow line and symbol

placement. Never drew on photog raphic prints.

SPEQAI. INSTRUCTIONS:

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5. 00 not mount with glue. tape. or permanent at.

tach ing materials.

6. 00 not place any kind of tape over im age area .

7. R-oiet.r a ll overlaya by corner ticb or other

marts; indicate top If not obvious.

8. NOTE: Origin.1 negltives 01 I n pho ,ogrlphl published in USGS reports are sent to the Photo U .

brery, Denver, Color.do. by the Brlnch 01 Tech -

nica l RePOns.

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Reverse

Planning illustrations 189
opment, and oil, gas, and water wells are shown in

"Cartographic and Digital Standards for Earth

Science Publications-Principles, Symbols, Colors,

Patterns, Codes, and Formats" (Reynolds and others,

in press).

One way to organize an explanation of symbols is to

list them in this order: patterns (other than those for

map-unit symbols), line symbols (contacts, faults, folds,

isograds, structure contours), planar symbols (strike

and dip of bedding or other features), linear symbols

(bearing and plunge of lineations or other features),

and point symbols (such as quarries, mines, and sample

localities), but the order may be altered for emphasis.

If linework is dashed, dotted, or both, be sure it is

explained. If planar and linear features are shown in

inclined, vertical, or horizontal positions, be sure each

case is shown separately. The point here is to do

everything possible to keep the reader from having

to guess what the symbols are showing. Special map

symbols may be devised as needed, with the concurrence of the editor or illustrator. Such a unique symbol must be identified in the explanation.

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Figure 24 (above). Special-purpose index map showing location of the r?adless ~nd wilderness are~s in the

Apalachicola National Forest, Liberty, Leon, Franklin, and Wakulla Counties, Florida. Map shows latitude and

longtitude, rake scale, towns, roads, and county lines.

Figure 25 (opposite page). Location map accompanies map above.

Shows location of the Apalachicola National Forest, scale, and

north arrow.

190 Index mans
Figure 26 (above). Special-purpose index map showing

geologic setting of the Illinois River sulfide occurrence.

SC, Snow Camp Mountain; CB, Collier Butte; SM, Saddle Mountain; and Gl, Game lake. Shows use of two

maps to locate study area, latitude and longitude, north

arrow, and generalized geology.

'/

/'

/ - / ' I <

Jurassiccumulus pyroxenites

that hostsulfides

Jurassicperidotite associated

with sulfide-bearing cumulates

g Jurassicophiolite of

Pearsol Peak I: '-'I Jurassiclt] to Paleozoic(?)

" metagabbro andChetco River

Complex of Hotz(1971)

........... Thrustfault-Saw teethon upperplate

----- Contact

- ....- Steeply dipping fault

42"30'

o,

Mine Maps

Detailed geologic mine maps (not plans or plan

maps) are expensive to prepare. Regardless of form

of publication, a geologic mine map should have a

complete explanation and all the other requisites of a

geologic map: north arrow, scale, location in terms of

latitude and longitude ticks or of section, township,

and range, or some other geographic coordinate system. Notes leadered to points of pertinent observaI:"",1 TertiaryUmpqua Formation

D Cretaceous andJurassic

MyrtleGroup

Cretaceous andJurassic

Dothan Formation

JurassicColebrook Schist

Jurassicvolcanicrocks

E2d Josephine Ophiolite of

_ Harper (1980)

cr- KeyWest

N

Apalachicola

National Forest

t

o 50 100 KILOMETERS L-L-...J

Index Maps

Most book reports, journal articles, and plate-size

maps include an index map to locate the area of the

report geographically. A second index map may be

needed to locate geographic and structural features

mentioned in the text. Index maps range widely in

complexity. A complex one should show latitude and

longitude or townships and ranges, a rake scale, and

perhaps a north arrow. It may show minimal drainage, cultural features such as major towns, county

lines, roads, and minimal topography. A township grid

alone is rarely adequate, because readers relate better

geographically to towns, streams, and roads, although

for some reports-those on oil fields, for exampletownships and ranges are more useful to the map

user than latitude and longitude. If the map includes

all or parts of several counties or States, their names

should be on the index map. The report area should

be identified by pattern, color, or outline.

Most plate-size maps include a small outline map of

the State or States enclosing the map area, showing

the area in color, pattern, or black silhouette. Additional index maps may be used to show such things as

sources of information, sample localities, credits for

areas of mapping, published maps of adjacent areas,

and regional structural trends. If the map is in color,

the index map may be printed in some or all of the

same colors, as needed. Examples of index maps

shown in figures 24-28 illustrate their range of

diversity.

If a figure shows latitude and longitude coordinates

on an outline of an area, but no other geographic or

cultural data, the figure is simply termed an index,

rather than an index map.

Index maps 191
tions may take the place of a lengthy explanation;

such notes should be in telegraphic style but without

abbreviations except for units of measure.

If a series of maps of various levels of a mine is

to be published, all the maps should be at the same

scale. If some of the maps are too large to be printed

on a single page or facing pages, they all can perhaps

be grouped in a logical and easily understandable

fashion on an oversize plate. Color may be used to

depict ore, other mineralized areas, or geologic features if such things cannot be shown clearly by blackand-white patterns.

Mine levels are sometimes designated in either of

two ways: (1) A numeric designation such as "100

level" is appropriate if a designation is merely a

numbering system for mine levels not separated by

precise intervals or elevations below a datum; (2)

"100-foot level" is appropriate if a company designation also is a surveyed or precise elevation. If a mining company itself uses both systems, either is

acceptable, but only one should be used in a given

report. If needed to be shown, names for levels or

other workings, such as "main haulage level," should

be used as applied by the mine operator.

CROSS SECTIONS

Cross sections should depict scientifically or economically important relationships where structural

data are sufficient to allow for reasonable subsurface

extrapolations. No more sections should be submitted

for publication than are needed to show the inferred

relationships. Cross sections shoUld show significant

facts and inferences that are better visualized

graphically than verbally.

Structural data show best and with least distortion

in sections drawn perpendicular to prevailing structural trends. Oblique sections distort dips and thicknesses. Sections need extend only far enough to show

relevant structural details; they need not extend

across the entire map. They should be oriented to

read from either west to east or south to north and

should be at the same scale as the map. If several

sections are drawn to illustrate through-going

structural features common to all, however, all

sections should be oriented alike to maintain structural continuity, regardless of the viewer's

orientation.

lila'

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Index maps
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T. 23 N.

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EXPLANATION

Unpaved road

Crestline of Rock Springs uplift

Figure 28. Index map of the Sand Dunes Wilderness Study Area, Sweetwater County, Wyo. Shows latitude and

longitude, townships and ranges, roads and highways, and other features of interest.

Index maps 193
Exaggerated Sections

Exaggerated vertical scales are sometimes used to

show geomorphic, lithologic, stratigraphic, or structural details. They are useful in depicting thin surficial deposits. The exaggeration should be no more

than needed to show the detail, and all sections having the same exaggeration should be grouped, where

possible, on the same plate. The thickness of thin

units can be exaggerated for the purpose of illustration, or thin units may be lumped in a cross section if

they cannot be shown at scale. In general, however,

avoid exaggeration.

Exaggerated vertical scale causes apparent structural distortions if dips exceed a few degrees, and illogical or impossible apparent structural relationships

may result. Exaggerated scales, therefore, should be

limited to sections through flat-lying rocks, and a note

should be added (below the lower left margin) to call

attention to the distortion. A true-scale profile published above an exaggerated section may be helpful.

Patterns and Lines

Lithologic patterns should be used sparingly on

cross sections, because they must be individually

drafted or scribed to follow structure, and because

they are expensive and often difficult for the illustrator to prepare. All contacts in the cross section,

though inherently interpretive, are shown as solid

lines. Queries can be inserted in contact lines to express doubt. Faults may be shown as solid, dashed,

and queried lines, but not dotted. If a fault or contact

is projected above ground profile to show structure, it

is dashed. If color is needed to clarify restored (projected above ground) parts of a cross section, that

color should be omitted from a narrow band immediately above the ground profile.

FENCE DIAGRAMS

Fence diagrams show stratigraphic interrelation and

structure by means of intersecting crossing sections

drafted in true geographic projection. Properly constructed, they can present geologic interpretations

very clearly, but care is needed to avoid projection

errors in apparent dip, thickness, and slope. The

height and orientation of the sections, moreover,

affect the chosen direction of view and the optimal

distance apart of the sections. Fence diagrams are

difficult to prepare correctly, are expensive to draft

for publication, and have few advantages over wellplanned conventional sections.

PAGE-SIZE MAPS

For many reports, page-size maps contain scientific

and geographic information needed by the reader to

194 Cross sections

understand the text. In preparing page-size maps,

your first focus should be on (1) initial decisions about

size, scale, and time requirements; (2) materials; and

(3) overview of the components of the map.

Page-size maps often are troublesome for you as

author to prepare, for critics and editors to review,

and for the graphic artist to draft. Consideration

must be given to the final "look" of the map, especially if you wish timely drafting and publication.

Careful planning can forestall vexing bottlenecks in

preparing the artwork by enabling the graphic artist

to use most or all of your author-prepared copy, or at

least to correctly interpret your copy. Many sources

of help exist for authors who don't know how to get

started or even where to ask about time, standards,

and quality. Consult with map editors and graphics

specialists for advice on materials, design, and

format.

Initial Decisions

At the outset, a rough draft of the map may be

helpful, at the desired publication size and with all intended geographic detail. This visual aid will help you

choose the scale, base needs, and other elements of

the illustration. The following questions then may be

asked.

1. Is the map based on previously published work or

is it based on new mapping?

A previously published source map probably will

be of a different scale, may be in color, and may

be too detailed or too generalized for the intended

illustration, or the map may be new work never

before published. The distinctions should be kept

in mind before drafting begins.

2. What are the size limitations?

The size of the map is dependent on the maximum image size allowed by the intended publication. Consult a map editor about in-house reports,

or the journal editor outside. Most likely, you will

have a choice between bottom-title, side-title, and

column-title orientations on the page; the choice

may depend on the widest dimension of the map.

Some layouts can be spread over two pages, or a

map can be on one page and its explanation on a

facing page. Look at prior publications for examples. See the reverse side of Form 9-1517

("Author's Check List") for specific dimensions.

Authors may try to save publication time and cost

by avoiding oversized (larger than page-size) illustrations, but be sure that what you are attempting

is feasible.
3. What is the ideal scale?

You need to know the scale (and implications)

of the available base maps. The Survey has many

standard base-map products at scales of 1:24,000,

1:100,000, 1:250,000, and 1:500,000 and some

smaller scales for maps of larger parts of the

United States. Some maps are available at

1:50,000. Scale choice depends on the problem

to be solved or character of the data to be presented. For best results, compile at or close to

publication scale.

4. What are the time constraints?

Time may be short on the cutting edge of science, where the results of your research are in

immediate demand, but try to allow adequate time

to prepare your illustrations. Be familiar with the

production cycle so that time is available to properly draft your map. To judge production time,

talk to a map editor or graphics specialist or to

the editor of the outside journal and work out a

production schedule that meets all deadlines.

Materials

A map editor or graphics specialist can help you

decide what is needed for compilation. All the items

described in this section, except basic drafting tools

and supplies, are available through the Branches of

Technical Reports (BTRs). Instructions on preparing

artwork are outside the scope of this section, but

a few words about basic materials should be

remembered.

Base maps. Once you have decided on the size and

scale of the illustration, ask a map editor about basemap materials. Map editors keep them on hand, or

they can order appropriate base negatives or mosaics.

The map editor will order a sheet of scale-stable

frosted plastic with the base map printed in nonphotographic green (a "greenline"). An order for base

materials can take several weeks to fill, so allow for

the extra time. The greenline will have registration

holes punched near its margins; these holes are

needed to register any overlays to the greenline.

If no suitable base map exists, you may have to

prepare one yourself, perhaps by finding an available

map at the next closest scale and transferring the

desired features onto a clean sheet of scale-stable

material. Include the geographic coordinates. Towns,

drainages, roads, and physiographic depictions are

helpful but are optional. An enlarging-reducing

photocopier or projector will make this job easier.

Overlays. In preparing a figure, you can use overlays to separate information plotted on the original

artwork. For example, consider figure 29, which

shows the location of Wilderness Lands in the State

of Arizona in relation to the geology and shows the

State outline, geographic coordinates, counties, and

major population centers. One overlay would have the

Wilderness Lands, shown here in gray. Another overlay would show the lithologic units and still another

would show drill holes, outcrops, and lines of geologic

cross sections. Compiling all these layers of information on one sheet of material would present difficulties for both reviewers and the drafter who must

interpret your copy. Take care to avoid duplicating

information. Overlays should always be compiled on

scale-stable material (the same material as a greenline) registered to the greenline or skeletal base map.

Decide in advance what information can be grouped

together.

Pens and inks. For the cleanest linework, use a

technical pen filled with carbon-base black ink specially developed for inking on plastic and less than a year

old. Avoid india ink, pencil, ballpoint pen, fountain

pen, or felt-tip pen-these will yield less satisfactory

results and may not photograph well. Scribing is a

good alternative to pen and ink.

Lettering, symbols, and patterns. Lettering and

symbols can be hand drafted with pen and ink or can

be applied with adhesive-backed drafting products.

Choose the latter method if your illustration is to be

camera ready. Scan a variety of USGS publications to

decide what styles and sizes of type to use and what

symbols are standard for the map features you will

show.

Choice of patterns is somewhat subjective; what

looks best to you may violate the sensibilities of a

graphic specialist. A map editor or graphics specialist

can help you decide which patterns are best and

which to use, if any. Remember that patterns are

substitutes for color on a page-size map and must be

selected just as carefully. Avoid patterns that may

cause unwanted moire effects or that inhibit legibility.

Try to choose tints of gray or small, densely spaced

pattern elements rather than stripes or large, widely

spaced elements.

Components of Page-Size Geologic Maps

Geographic coordinates and neatline. Unless the

map scale is very large, geographic coordinates should

be plotted. Once these are plotted, a neatline (or

boundary) of the map area can be added. The coordinate ticks should be projected to the neatline and

their values placed beside them, outside the neatline,

to the left and top of the map. Coordinate intersection crosshairs can be plotted inside the map area if

desired, but drawing the entire grid inside the map

area detracts from the legibility. Other applicable

Components of page-size geologic maps 195
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196 Page-size geologic maps
EXPlANATION

WS?::j ;:::f;! Metamorphic and igneous rocks-Proterozoic

• Metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocksMesozoic and Tertiary

Volcanic rocks-Quaternary, Tertiary, and Mesozoic

D Wilderness Lands

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coordinate system ticks can be added around the neatline, such as UTM coordinates, State grid values, and

public land surveys (township and range).

Scale. Every map must have a scale. If the scale

is a standard Survey scale, and no enlargement or

reduction is planned in the printing, use the standard

bar scale. If an odd scale will result from enlargement

or reduction, use a rake scale. If your report uses

both English and metric units, the map should have

both English and metric scales.

Base-map credit note. Always acknowledge the

source for the base map, the publication (and photorevision) date, and the original scale if it differs from

your illustration. Wording such as "Base from U.S.

Geological Survey, 1:250,000, 1966" is a common way

to phrase a credit note, but check with a map editor

if you are unsure. The credit note should identify the

projection of the base map. Knowledge of the basemap projection is essential for map users who incorporate the map data in a digital information base.

Mapping credit note. Always acknowledge the

mappers. If the mapping was done by you, the

author, the credit note should state when the mapping was done. If the mapping was modified from

someone else's work, the note should read "modified

from * * *" If the mapping exactly duplicates

another person's work, a proper reference citation

should be given in the credit note (be sure to get

copyright permission from private sources). Field

assistance should be acknowledged here also.

Index or location map. If space on the page

permits, an appropriate index or location map should

accompany the page-size map.

Explanation. The explanation of a page-size map

should include a list of map units (giving the map-unit

symbols, names, and ages) and an explanation of map

symbols. If space allows, a brief description of the

units may spare the readers from having to hunt

through the text to find the basics of each. Every

illustration in a report should stand on its own. Each

symbol in the explanation, whether a line, point, or

pattern, should be explained.

Flexibility. Keep in mind that these guidelines

are flexible. The space requirements of a particular

illustration often dictate the amount of flexibility.

Figures 30, 31, and 32 are examples of page-size

geologic maps that show a good balance between

the scale and detail and a thoughtful selection of

patterns.

STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS, LITHOLOGIC

COLUMNAR SECTIONS, AND WEll LOGS

Authors preparing stratigraphic sections, columnar

sections, and well logs should be mindful of publication scale. Copy should be drafted at publication

scale or only slightly larger (not more than 20 percent) so that original, carefully done linework

can be used without redrafting; then the illustrator

needs only to add type for column headings,

explanations, and titles. lllustrators may have

difficulty redrafting poorly done, fine detail. Authors

should check the technical standards and consult

with a map editor or illustrator on line weights

and special symbols. Lithologic symbols used in a

graphic column must be explained separately unless

the description of each unit is printed clearly beside

the column. The vertical scale as published should

equal some even unit of an engineer's or metric

scale. Published widths of columns should be not

less than 1 em nor more than 2. (See also p. 55

and 58, fig. 14.)

Special logs, such as electric , radioactivity, resistivity, and many others, are normally prepared by the

author personally or under the author's immediate

supervision, with the expectation that they will be

photographed and used for final publication copy.

Only the author can judge what degree of generalization is acceptable.

Color printing is unnecessary for most graphic logs

and sections. Carefully selected black-and-white

patterns and distinctive contrasting line weights will

adequately portray most data.

Stratigraphic sections, lithologic columnar sections, and well logs 197
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Black-and-White Prints

The mill copy of the photograph should be printed

at about publication scale and at about the correct

tonal value for printing. Review prints should be close

to publication size so that the reviewers and editors

can verify that the photographs show what they

intend to show. Prints from copiers may be unacceptable for review. You should retain all negatives with

your other original illustrations until they are

requested by the publication staff.

Figure 30. Geologic map showing outcrop areas of Livingston Formation in the Madison and Gallatin Ranges, locations of paleontological collections (A-G), and sample sites of igneous rocks (1-8).

requires sharp focus and good contrast. Well-chosen

and adequately captioned photographs are among the

best and least expensive illustrations to prepare and

print. If you submit more photographs than necessary, in the mistaken belief that a certain proportion

will be arbitrarily rejected by the editors, you will

waste everyone's time.

PHOTOGRAPHS

Photographs submitted as figures should be essential to the clarity of the text. Effective photography

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Computer graphics offer a rapidly growing field of

illustration. Techniques are constantly being updated,

so you may wish to ask the advice of an expert in

planning and preparing computer-generated maps and

other graphics at an early stage of the project. Some

computer plots may require extensive touchup or redrafting. The most successful package presently used

by USGS authors is the GSMAP/GSDRAW package

developed by Selner and others (1986). Computer

graphics suitable for lecture slides can be photographed directly from the video screen or can be

produced from a program designed for that purpose.

198 Computer graphics
If you wish to publish a photograph but do not have

a negative, a high-quality copy negative should be

made, especially if only one print of the picture is

available. If you wish to publish a black-and-white

photograph from a color slide or color print, a blackand-white negative and a print at publication size

should be prepared for review and publication. Color

originals, however, seldom make black-and-white

prints of quality equal to black-and-white originals.

Color Prints

The mill copy for a photograph to be printed in

color should be a color print of about publication size

and of the desired color balance. The printer will use

the mill copy as a guide to cropping and color reproduction. The original-preferably a first-generation

color transparency, a high-quality original print, or

color negative, in that order-furnished to the printer

should be marked "To be returned to USGS Photographic Library." Note that a color negative requires

the printer to make a suitable print from which the

color separations are made. These extra steps do not

ensure quality printing.

Special Requirements

If a long, narrow picture is intended for a book

report, such as a panoramic view made from three or

Overturned

.B Fossil locality

..3 Igneous-rock locality

four photographs, it is better printed as a bottom-title

figure across two pages and as a center spread than

as a side-title figure. An oversize photograph might

fit best on a page as a bleed. If as much as 4 millimeters can be cropped from each side without loss

to the picture, the printer can easily bleed the photograph to the edges of the page. A bled photograph on

a single page of a professional paper can be as much

as 60 percent larger in total area than the conventionalsize, page-width photograph of the same image. Bled

photographs have high pictorial impact, but if overused they lose much of their effect.

Mounting photographs for the printer should

generally be left to a graphics expert. Instructions

follow for preparing photographs for review:

1. Submit photographic prints at publication scale.

Use crop lines on translucent overlays to bring to

publication scale or to delete extraneous parts of

the image; composition is almost always improved

by cropping, but do not trim along crop lines; submit a print of the complete negative.

2. Request 300-line screen only for fossil plates or

other prints that require fine detail. Stereopairs,

for example, require fine screening because the

viewing stereoscope enlarges and emphasizes the

dot pattern of the halftone print. Consult with a

graphics specialist. Photomicrographs are usually

printed in a fine (200-line) screen to preserve fine

detail. In any event, justify the need for fine

screening.

3. Do not write or draw on photographic prints,

front or back, and do not use paper clips. A scale,

if any, should be drawn in rough draft outside the

image area or on an overlay; the illustrator can

decide its final placement with your concurrence.

4. Use a registered overlay to show line and symbol

placement. To register overlays, use corner ticks;

indicate top.

5. Do not mount with staples, tape, or adhesive

material.

6. Do not place tape of any kind over the image

area.

Captions for Photographs

To be meaningful, captions must adequately

describe what is shown. "View of Heart Mountain,"

for example, is insufficient. The location, the direction

in which the photograph was taken, a reference to the

Instructions to the photographer concerning cropping, dodging to bring out detail, or other custom

treatment for photographs may be placed on the mill

copy, on a translucent overlay of the mill copy, or on

the back of the "Author's Check List" (Form 9-1517).

Unconsolidated sedimentary rocks (Quaternary)

Volcanic rocks, undivided (Tertiary)

Dacit ic intrusive rocks (Upper Cretaceous)

Sphinx Conglomerate (Upper Cretaceous)

Uvingston Formation, upper member (Upper Cretaceous)

Uvingston Formation, middle member (Upper Cretaceous)

Livingston Formation, lower member (Upper Cretaceous)

Uvingston Formation, undivided (Upper Cretaceous)

In Gallatin Range, Cretaceous rocks older than Uvingston

Formation; in Madison Range, Cretaceous rocks older than

Virgelle Sandstone, and unmapped areas of Cretaceous

Dacitic intrusive rocks (Upper Cretaceous)

(?)EvertsFormation and Virgelle Sandstone, undivided

(Upper Cretaceous)

Sedimentary rocks, undivided (Mesozoic and Paleozoic)

Metamorphic rocks, undivided (Archean)

EXPlANATION

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Captions for photographs 199
KILOMETERS

EXPlANATION

Weber Sandstone (Pennsylvanian)

Morgan and Round Valley

Formations (Pennsylvanian)

Mississippian and Cambrian rocks

Uinta Mountain Group (Proterozoic

Triassic and Permian rocks

JuraSl rocks

:>aleogenerocks

Quaternary deposits

Browns Park Formation ITertia

Bishop Conglomerate ITertiary]

Cretaceous rocks

- Contact

Fault-Dotted where concealed; bar and

tball on downthrown side

-- Syncline

Figure 31. Geologic map of Vermillion Creek area affected by the beheading of Irish Canyon. Heavy dashes mark

wind gap at head of Irish Canyon.

200 Page-size geologic maps
48"30' 113"30'

I . 15' 113'00'

EXPlANAnON

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Proterozoic Z diorite sills

Proterozoic Y rocks

Rocks of Belt Supergroup

undifferentiated

Gamet Range Formation

McNamara Formation

Cretaceous rocks

Mississippian rocks

Devonian rocks

Cambrian rocks

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ms Mount Shields Formation

Ysh Shepard Formation

Ysn Snowslip Formation

E:3:!E: Helena Formation

......'q..k Yes Empire and Spokane Formations \~

)«' y Spokane Formation J

Yg Greyson Formation

Contact

Thrust fault-Saw teeth on upper

plate

Normal fault-Bar and ball on down- thrown side

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GLACIER NATIONAL PARK

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Figure 32. Part of a geologic map of the Lewis and Eldorado thrust plates from the southern part of Glacier National

Park (shown) to Steamboat Mountain (not shown).

Page-size geologic maps 201
s~e of the photograph, if not obvious, and an explanation of any symbols shown on the overlay are

essential parts of the caption. The date of photography may be included if relevant. Credit the source

if it is not you. '

Irrelevancies

Manm~de structures such as head frames, drill rigs,

or machinery are not normally acceptable as illustrations unless they relate specifically to the subject matter of the report. A photograph of a discovery well

for example, has little. relevance. '

Photographs on Oversize Plates and Maps

Black-and-white and color photographs occasionally

are published on oversize plates and on map-series

reports. These must be justified, because the quality

of reproduction on map sheets may not preserve fine

detail. If several photographs are to appear on the

same sheet, they will reproduce best if they all have

about the same tonal intensity and contrast; if not,

some may be washed out, others may be crisp and

clear, and still others may be too dark.

Drawings from Photographs

Geologic relationships may not be obvious on photographs, and printed overlays showing those relationships may obscure what geology is shown. A sketch

prepared from a photograph can often better portray

the information. A simple line drawing beneath the

photograph, or instead of the photograph, can show

the significant features better than words. Submit the

original photograph and a rough sketch on a translucent overlay to guide the illustrator. High-contrast

photographs can be shot as unscreened linecuts in

place of line drawings for special effect, but this

technique does not ordinarily lend itself to geologic

subjects.

Fossil Plates

Authors who prepare tentative layouts for proposed

fossil plates should check recent publications for style

and should work closely with the illustrator in their

preparation. Some authors may prefer to do the

plates themselves; if so, an illustrator can give technical advice for preparing, arranging, and mounting

the parts.

202 Photographs

Aerial Photographs

If aerial photographs or prints from remote sensors

such as Landsat multispectral images are to be used

as illustrations, their source, identification number,

and date should be a part of the caption. Single aerial

photographs present no special problems. Aerial

photographs that are to appear as stereopairs do

present problems and must be precisely mounted for

stereoviewing. Many readers, moreover, cannot see

stereoscopically without special equipment. Stereopairs should be submitted at publication size, and you

as author should work closely with your illustrator in

mounting them.

For aerial photographs, the general rule of orienting north toward the top of the page may be waived.

Aerial photographs filmed in the Northern Hemisphere have a natural light source in the southern

quadrant, whereas the source of light at ground level

commonly is from above-that is, from apparent

north. Relief features, therefore, may appear inverted

on aerial photographs; ridges appear as valleys and

craters appear as domes. This troublesome illusion

may be averted by orienting the photograph so that

south is toward the top or side of the page. A north

arrow and scale should always be added.

Shaded-Relief Maps from Photographs

Inexpensive shaded-relief maps for use as index

maps can be made by photographing the back of

plastic raised-relief maps with a light source in the

lower right quadrant (southeast). When the negative

is printed, the light source appears to be in the upper

left (Stacy, 1962, p. D165). The front of the plastic

map should be photographed with flat overhead light

at the same scale and at the same time to provide a

guide for the illustrator to add geographic or geologic

overlays to the final illustration.

FRONTISPIECES

A Survey book publication may rarely contain a

frontispiece to illustrate the general subject of a

report and set the general tone. It may be a panorama of the area or a sketch. If you have an outstanding picture of a more specific nature, it too may

be suitable. Color may be approved, but it requires

specific justification.

COVER ART AND OTHER SPECIAL ARTWORK

Many but not most Survey book publications feature

cover art, particularly reports aimed at the general
0.1 0.5

~INTERMEDIATE DIAMETER, IN FEET

Unit of measure is spelled out in all Survey publications. For example:

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND

However, if you are submitting an article to a journal

that insists on using accepted abbreviations (for example, ft3/S, mglL), use these on axis labels and throughout your text consistently.

.Figures 34-54 show some types of graphs and

diagrams that commonly appear in Survey reports.

Figure 33. Elements of a graph .

Grid ticks should appear on all four sides of graph,

inside the graph boundaries.

2. Tick values should be labeled across bottom and left

side of graph , unless graph is multiscale.

3 Scale increments should be uniform (except on log

and probability scales) and , ideally, should extend

from one labeled increment to the next. Labeled increments should cover the full range of the data.

4. When, because of space limitations, it is impractical

to extend the graph to the next labeled tick of the

scale increment being used, the scale can be

switched to accommodate the data; the switch in

scale must be labeled at the corners of the graphs.

5. Ticks for log scales should be labeled at each cycle

(for example, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and so forth). Intermediate ticks must be added for clarity and may be

labeled if necessary.

6. X and Y axis labels should be in uppercase, including what the axis represents and the unit of

measure.

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public or at a nontechnical readership. Simple, tastefully drawn linework that relates clearly to the subject matter of the report is especially fitting; the

range of possibilities is wide. If you are a talented

artist, your own work may be used, but the cover

more likely will be designed and executed by a professional artist after you have made the necessary

arrangements through your publication people.

Similarly, unobtrusive artwork may be used for

special effect in the body of the report. Such artwork

is used most commonly in popularly oriented reports

to help project an appropriate mood or to serve as

attractive space fillers at the ends of paragraphs or

chapters.

GRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS

Graph scales commonly used in Survey publications

include arithmetic, logarithmic, semilogarithmic, and

probability scales, shown by a grid of lines across the

diagram or merely by ticks along the vertical and

horizontal axes. If extension of the grid across the

graph is important to the reader, the graph or diagram should be outlined and ticked on all four sides.

The grid should be extended to include all data shown

on the graph.

Scales are generally labeled only along the left and

bottom axes. Scale numbers normally should increase

from bottom to top and from left to right. Captions

for axes are all in capital letters; they should be complete and should include the unit of measure, as "XX,

IN PERCENT." All symbols used on a graph must

appear in an explanation or figure caption or be

labeled on the graph.

Graphs and diagrams enhance reader comprehension by using points, lines, shadings, patterns, colors,

numbers, and symbols to summarize and analyze data

that otherwise might be buried in lengthy narratives

or tabulations. Variety is limited only by your

imagination and ingenuity.

Preparing Graphs and Diagrams for Review

Time spent in preparing neat, legible review (mill)

copy will be made up in the review and production

processes. Nonphotographic blue grid lines on base

material will make for better review copy than other

colors such as orange, which tend to overpower the

data in xerographic prints. Bear in mind that you

should retain your original copy until it is requested

by your publication staff.

Required elements of a graph that are most commonly overlooked are identified on figure 33.

Graphs and diagrams 203
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w

fDEPTH

0.736 r-r-r-.--.---.--.---.----.

0.732

0.128

:g 0.724

~VJ. 0.720

u; 0.716

0.712

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Flb87 1St88

PERCENT

Figure 34. Curve or

line graph.

Figure 35. An

isochron plot.

Figure 36. Horizontal

bar graph.

Emphasizes trend or rate of relatively continuous

data by connecting plotted data points. Differing

line symbols distinguishing various properties may

become cluttered if more than three line symbols

are to be compared, and multiple graphs may then

be necessary, or color or screening might be needed

to enhance readability. This curve is commonly used

to show variation trends of two or more properties,

as in isochron plots and equilibrium diagrams.

Plotted on a line graph. Example shows Rb/Sr ratios

and positions of samples on plotted line.

Emphasizes volume of data and best shows percentages. When used to compare different items simultaneously, it has only one numerical scale, because

no time scale is needed. Bars representing plotted

data should be arranged in order of magnitude.

fZ

w

o

II:

W

a.

- ,...---

-

f--

I--

---

ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY

TIME

Figure 37. Column or

vertical bar graph.

Figure 38. Surface or

band graph.

Emphasizes fluctuating magnitudes of data for one

item at different times. Bars may be subdivided by

patterns, tones, or colors to represent component

parts of the total by the heights of those parts of

the columns.

Emphasizes amount of data. Various values placed in

layers one above another form a cumulative total.

The graph is especially effective for showing components but should not be used if sharply fluctuating data distort other components.

204 Graphs and diagrams
TIME

Figure 39. Symbol graph. Emphasizes general trends of data. Symbols unconnected by lines represent data. Possible applications

could be (1) symbols plotted as data points, where a

trend line is not possible or desired, or (2) a series

of vertical bars, each bar showing the maximum

and minimum values of some data such as monthly

mean water levels for a period of time.

z

o

IZ

W

o

Z

o

o

SAMPLE

Figure 40. Collins

diagram.

Used in water analysis to show total solute concentration and the proportions assigned to each principal

ionic species. Each analysis is represented by a vertical bar graph whose total height is proportional to

the total concentration of anions or cations. The bar

is divided into a left half representing cations and a

right half representing anions. Each half is then

divided by horizontal lines to show concentrations of

the major ions, which are identified by distinctive

patterns, tones, or colors. The lengths of the cation

and anion halves should be equal.

MILLIEQUIVALENTS

PER LITER

/' \ / t',

K \ "

i\VKV

Figure 41. Kite diagram. Concentrations of cations and anions, or other properties, are represented on rectangular coordinates.

The length of each coordinate line from center corresponds to the concentration of constituents, in

milliequivalents per liter. Once the ends of the four

coordinate lines are connected, thereby forming a

distinctive shape, the patterns for different water

types can be easily and quickly compared visually.

Figure 42. Nomograph. Depicts one or a group of analyses. Lines on the

interior scales of the nomograph represent concentrations of ions in milligrams per liter. Scales for

milliequivalents per liter at the left and right sides

of the nomograph have the advantage of showing

the relationship to scales for milligrams per liter.

Waters of similar composition plot as near-parallel

lines.

Graphs and diagrams 205
Indicates the essential chemical character of a water

sample, or group of samples, by the location of plotted points within a square diagram. Concentrations

of the ions for each water sample are in milliequivalents per liter; points are plotted in percentages of

total anions. Thus, the sum of cations (Ca-i Mg)«

(Na+K) equals 100 percent and the sum of anions

equals 100 percent.

Figure 43. Piper diagram. In water analyses, indicates the essential chemical

character by single-point plottings of cations and

anions on trilinear coordinates. The proportions of

cations and anions are plotted in each of the lower

triangles; then the points are extended into the central diamond-shaped field. The intersection of the

projections represents the composition of water DO with respect to the combination of ions shown.

CATIONS ANIONS

Ca+Mg Figure 44. Modified

0 100 Piper diagram. 0 100

M

M 0

0 z

o + + OV M

0 en o + ::J: C3

100 0

100 0

Na + K

Na+ K

CI

Figure 45. Radiatingvectors diagram.

Uses a system of plotting analyses by radiating vectors. The length of each of the six vectors from the

center represents the concentration of principal

ionic species, in milliequivalents per liter. A scale of

units must be included with each diagram. A summation of the lengths of the arrows for cations

should equal the lengths for the anions.

MILLIEQUIVALENTS

PER LITER

K

Na

Mg

Ca

HC03

504

CI

N03

<,

I

--

II ............ \

\ /

--- <,

./

./ ,/'

Figure 46. Semilog

concentration graph

(Ropes diagram).

Each of a set of parallel horizontal log-scale axes

corresponds to a selected constituent or variable.

On each axis are plotted the distribution, minimum,

mean, and maximum values for the variables

selected. Straight lines drawn to connect the low

values and the high values of all variables give a

characteristic shape to the "distribution" of the

selected group of data.

0.01 0.1 10 100

206 Graphs and diagrams
\-'-> Na+K~ CI

Ca HC03

Mg 804

Fe CO

10 · 5 0 5 10 3

MILLIEQUIVALENTS

PER LITER

Figure 47. Stiff diagram. Forms a distinctive pattern that can be used to show

water composition differences or similarities. Four

horizontal lines extending on each side of a vertical

line form a grid on which cations are plotted to the

left and anions plotted to the right. The plotted

points are connected by lines to form a closed

pattern that characterizes the analyzed water. The

width of the pattern is an approximate indication of

total ionic content.

44

Figure 48. Circular (pie)

diagram.

Emphasizes subdivisions of a whole. This diagram is

commonly used to show percentages, but it can also

be drawn with a scale for the radii. Values are

easily perceived, but graphs are easier to interpret

quantitatively than pie diagrams because the eye

can judge linear distances easier than radial ones.

Important subdivisions can be screened or patterned

in black and white or set off in color.

Si Figure 49. Triangular

1\ diagram.

/

r +50

Fe / V \ K

Shows a percentage composition in terms of relative

amounts of three components.

N Figure 50. Schmidt

equal-area projection.

Shows azimuths measured clockwise from north and

about a point directly beneath the observer (if grid

is deleted, center point is shown by a "+" and

north is ticked).

Graphs and diagrams 207
Combination graphs. Two or more of the preceding graph forms can be combined to compare

additional components, as shown by figures 51-54.

r

Figure 51. A vertical

bar and straight

horizontal line

combination.

Figure 52. A combination of vertical bars and

a curved line.

Figure 53. A curved

line and straight

horizontal line.

Figure 54. An inset

Useful for measuring performance against a goal or

standard, such as annual precipitation by bars and

average annual precipitation by a horizontal line.

Useful for showing variables such as water use and

population, or precipitation and water levels in

wells.

Can be combined to compare monthly or annual

precipitation with an average or cumulative departure from average.

Smaller graph superimposed on a larger one magnifies part of the data lost in the range of the larger

graph. The informative value of this presentation

lies in a different or more comprehensive view of

the data.

208 Graphs and diagrams
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

Circuit diagrams, working drawings for laboratory

apparatus, patent drawings (which are usually exploded drawings of a working model), and so on may

be required in some scientific reports. Before attempting such a drawing, you should consult a professional

engineering draftsman or a knowledgeable illustrator.

SLIDES AND VIEWGRAPHS

Although color transparencies and viewgraphs are

not ordinarily used as illustrations, they are important

visual aids for oral presentation, and many organizations have prepared manuals for their preparation.

Among the best are those by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (1970) and Allen (1977).

PREPARATION OF AUTHOR COpy

Author's original copy for every illustration should

be neat, clear, and accurate. Few authors are able to

prepare finished copy ready for printing, so most

illustrations are redrafted. Author-prepared copy is

used, however, in the MF series (p. 3) and in many

Bulletins and Circulars. Stratigraphic sections generally are printed directly from author copy also. Final

preparation follows Director's approval for publication, but you should consult your map editor or illustrator early enough to ensure that your copy (mill

copy) is adequate for technical reviewers, editors, and

illustrators. Illustrations are generally prepared in

final form at publication scale.

Your original copy should be in black ink, or it

should be scribed. Colored inks or photographically

reproducible pencil should be used only with the concurrence of your map editor. Make lines no heavier

than necessary; an author's overly heavy lines leave

the exact placement of final fine lines up to the illustrator, who should not have to make such judgments.

If your lines are too light, however, they may not be

picked up on scribe coats or proof prints. Legible

hand-lettering is preferred for your author's copy;

the illustrator will place final lettering.

Stick-on ("zip") patterns are used on some maps

and cross sections. Choice of patterns is usually left

to the map editor and illustrator, though you may

suggest styles and preferences. Review and mill

copies of illustrations should include both uncolored

and hand-colored copy prints of the original drawings,

whether they are to be printed in color or in black

and white. Distinctive and contrasting colors work

best. Never color the originals. A note may be attached to the "Author's Check List" for plates,

figures, and photographs (fig. 23) to suggest which

units should be emphasized, what colors are preferred, and what published maps should be matched

in final reproduction.

Illustrations must be complete when they leave your

hands. Show all lines, symbols, numerals, letters,

words, and limits of areas to be patterned or colored,

and explain all symbols on the illustration. Each illustration should be able to stand alone without reference to the text or to any other illustration for

explanations of its symbols. Illustrators will put your

material into publishable form, but they cannot be

expected to supply missing lines or interpret illprepared work.

TITLES AND CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Titles and captions of illustrations should be both

informative and concise. For a separately published

illustration such as a map, the title should be short,

but it also should express content and location. Explanatory material belongs on the illustration itself,

not in the title. Captions for text figures are set in

type by the typesetter; they may be longer than those

for plates and may include explanatory material, but

they should not take the place of text.

For each illustration a figure number and complete

caption are typed double spaced on a separate page at

the end of the manuscript; a duplicate caption is attached to the mill copy of the illustration. To guide the

editor and the typesetter, the phrase "I'IGUBE x.--

NIlAB HEBE" is inserted in the text at the end of

the paragraph that contains the chief reference to the

figure. Leave a blank line above and below. (See also

p. 254.) The figure or plate number is also placed on

the mill copy of the illustration to identify the illustration if title and mill copy should become separated.

The following factors control the content and form

of titles:

1. Kind of illustration. In book reports the kind of illustration (map, photograph, diagram) is indicated

in the list of illustrations in the contents of the

report but is generally omitted in the figure caption itself. In separately published illustrations,

the kind of illustration must appear in the title:

"Geologic Map of the * * "." Although a map

may contain secondary illustrative items such as

cross sections, columnar sections, or diagrams, the

map title ordinarily does not mention them. Essential subordinate or specialized data, however,

can be mentioned by such additions as "* * * and

structure," ,,* * * and cross sections," "* * *

showing sample localities."

Preparation of author copy 209
5. Reference locations. The illustration itself should

not be confused either in caption or in text with

the physical actualities it represents. Thus:

3. Qualifications. If special conditions affect the character of a map, qualifying adjectives may be used,

such as "preliminary," "sketch," "generalized,"

"reconnaissance," "surficial," or "bedrock."

2. Geographic location. Titles of separately published

maps must include quadrangle name, if applicable,

county or region, and State(s). Complete geographic location (county, State) is not needed in

titles of figures bound within a publication unless

the figures portray only part of or more than the

entire area studied.

4. Multisheet maps and separately printed texts. If a

map is to be printed as more than one sheet (for

example, if it includes special data to be printed

separately-not simply an oversize map that requires more than one sheet to go through the

press) or if it includes a pamphlet text, a common

title that applies to all parts must appear on each

part. The individual parts should be identified also

by subtitles.

Draft copies of most illustrations are likely to contain small discrepancies and omissions, regardless of

your careful preparations. The following checklist

should help obviate most problems. It should also be

helpful to you as a reviewer, as well as an author.

Authors, technical reviewers, and map editors

should carefully check each illustration for possible

errors of omission or commission. The checklist applies particularly to geologic maps and cross sections,

but many of the items apply to other illustrations as

well. All items do not apply to all illustrations.

1. Geographic names. The generic noun (as mountain, mount, river, canyon, creek) may be abbreviated on the map if clutter is reduced by using the

abbreviation.

2. Geologic names. Nouns such as sandstone, conglomerate, and group may be abbreviated to fit

into available space. See page 55.

3. No period is used in the body of an illustration

after an abbreviated word.

4. Well names. Words such as "Company," "Corporation," and "Brothers" may be abbreviated.

1. Completeness

--All units are labeled on the map and cross

sections and are noted in the explanation.

- All geologic symbols on the map appear in

the explanation.

--All geologic units in the explanation are

shown on the map. Subsurface units that

appear only in cross sections need not appear in the explanation if the names of the

units can be spelled out on the sections

themselves.

FINAL CHECK OF MAPS AND

OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS BEFORE REVIEW

7. Map-unit and other symbols. These must be

described in an explanation or in the caption.

Symbols should not be used in the text, except in

parentheses to clarify a unit name; for example,

"Tertiary intrusive rocks (Ti)."

USE OF ABBREVIATIONS

All words should be spelled out in the body of a

map or figure, with the following exceptions:

Abbreviations are discussed at greater length in the

section on abbreviations, signs, and symbols beginning

on page 104.

Correct

The area shown in the left

side of figure 2 is within 56

kilometers * * *.

A trace of the fault is exposed 8 kilometers north of

the area shown in figure 5.

Incorrect

The west side of figure 2 is

within 56 kilometers of the

easternmost sedimentary

rocks of the western Nevada

Mesozoic province * * *.

A trace of the fault is exposed 8 kilometers north of

figure 5.

6. Verbal scale, ratio scale, and magnification. These

should not be given in a caption, because the scale

may be changed in or after cartographic preparation. (Draw a rake scale on the figure or on a

translucent overlay and register it to the photograph or photomicrograph for drafting by an illustrator.) Fossil plates are exceptions; the scale of

each specimen is given in the caption, which commonly is on the page facing the plate. If a photograph contains no easily recognized object, such as

a hammer or a person, the size of some other

recognizable object should be noted in the caption.

On oblique aerial photographs such an object

might be a segment of a road, the face of a cliff,

or even the distance across the front of the

picture.

210 Final check of maps and other illustrations before review
--Positions of cross sections are shown by

ruled lines on map.

- All formal geographic names within the map

area that are referred to in the text are

shown on the map. Newly approved geographic names may be added to the base

map only if the date of the domestic names

decision is supplied. Unapproved or informal names are not shown on the map.

2. Correctness

--Plotting is accurate. Linework is compatible

with topographic or planimetric base.

--Geographic and geologic names are spelled

correctly in the text and agree with spellings on the map and explanation.

--Locations, directions, and dimensions agree

between text, maps, and cross sections.

--Geologic names and ages on the map explanation agree with the text.

--Dips as projected in cross sections agree

with those on the map.

--All features on the map are legible at the

publication scale.

3. Scale

- Shown graphically in International System

(SI) units; some maps may require both SI

and inch-pound units (see p. 122 for policy).

--Ratio scale (such as 1:24,000) is not shown

on illustrations that may be enlarged or

reduced for printing.

4. Topographic contour interval and datum

- Shown beneath scale.

5. Caption

--Title is succinct but definitive. For a series

map or a plate, the term "map," "cross

section," or other suitably descriptive term

is included. "Geology of the Blank Quadrangle" is not acceptable, but "Geologic

Map of the Blank Quadrangle" is.

6. Authorship

--Shown beneath the title ofa series map;

shown in the geologic credit note in a book

publication, text figure, or plate. Affiliation

is shown for non-Survey coauthors.

7. Geologic credit

--Authors, compilers, and contributors are

named; dates of mapping are given. A

source index may be substituted. If a

published geologic map is used as a base,

its author(s) must be credited and a full

citation listed. Place at bottom right.

8. Base credit

--Source, date, and map projection at bottom

left.

9. Cooperative note

--Sponsor or cooperating organizations are

shown at the top center of the map sheet

(on series maps) and on map plates of

areas in foreign countries. If the cooperating organization expresses no preference,

the wording to be used is "Prepared in

cooperation with * * "."

10. Marginal data

- True and magnetic north and numerical

declination are shown (will be added by

illustrator if a standard base map is used).

Magnetic north and declination are unnecessary on page-size maps, and they are

omitted from maps that show aeromagnetic

contours, because of possible confusion as

to whether the declination is that of the

date of the base, the date of the data collection, or the date of publication of the

map. On page-size maps the true north

arrow is unnecessary if latitude and longitude ticks and values are shown and north

is to the top of the map.

-Latitude, longitude, townships, ranges, and

geographic reference points or grids are

shown by labeled tick marks.

-Vertical scale and exaggeration, if any, appear on sections.

11. "Author's Check List" for plates, figures, and

photographs (Form 9-1517)

--List is complete. Doublecheck notes for illustrators regarding colors and important

map units.

TECHNICAL REVIEW OF AUTHOR COpy

When your report and its illustrations are ready to

go forward, the next step is their technical (peer)

review. Routing procedures vary somewhat from one

organizational unit of the Survey to another, and the

actual mechanics of review vary with every report

and each reviewer, but certain steps and actions are

common to all. Guidelines are given in the section on

reviewing maps and cross sections, and you as author

may profit from a careful scan of the suggestions

offered therein (p. 230).

The original drawing or compilation should not be

submitted for review. Rather, a legible mill copy

Technical review of author copy 211
produced by an office copier will be reviewed and

approved for publication; the editors and illustrators

will rely on this copy for guidance in ordering and

placing type for the final version. The illustrator,

however, will trace the original-not the mill copyfor placement and position of all linework and symbols. Any discrepancies in linework between the

original and the mill copy, therefore, will delay preparation until those matters are resolved. You must

make all corrections on both the original and the mill

copy or note on the mill copy that the original is to be

followed. Blurred, reduced, or otherwise illegible

prints of illustrations may cause your reviewers to

react negatively to the entire report. The time and

expense of preparing final copy of illustrations for

publication are affected by the quality of the

mill copy.

AUTHOR RESPONSE TO

TECHNICAL REVIEW

The sole purpose of review is to ferret out weaknesses and upgrade the quality of the report. You as

author must respond to all questions and comments

on the mill copy and make changes as necessary. As

with edited text, every query by technical reviewers

or map editors should be answered adequately, either

by appropriate changes in the illustrations or by replying in writing and striking the query mark. If the reviewed copy is heavily marked, you should supply a new

mill copy and transmit it to the next person or office

listed on the routing sheet, with the already reviewed

copy, the reviewer's comments, and your replies. The

new mill copy need not be colored out again if few

changes have been made, but any changes involving

color must be indicated on the colored copy, which

must accompany the new mill copy.

TRANSMITTAL FOR ApPROVAL AND

PREPARATION

Mill copies of illustrations must be transmitted with

manuscript text but in a separate package at the back

of the text; they should not be inserted in text. You

should gather together in one place all original

material for the report. Hold original line drawings

and photographic negatives until they are requested

by publication staff for use in final preparation. This

step normally follows Director's approval.

A list of illustrations must also be included, even

though it may remain unpublished. The list should

show, for each illustration, the type (map, diagram,

photograph, or other), a unique short title (caption)

212 Author response to technical review

that is easily related to the illustration, and the manuscript page number of the principal reference to the

illustration. The list should be typed in the same

order as the principal references in the text, which

need not necessarily be their first mention. The

original list goes in the manuscript after the table of

contents; a copy goes with the illustrations package.

Descriptive captions for each illustration are typed on

separate pages (one caption per page) assembled at the

end of the manuscript, after the list of references. A

duplicate caption is attached to the mill copy of each

illustration in the illustrations package, along with a

completed "Author's Check List" (Form 9-1517) for

plates, figures, and photographs. All this seems complicated, but it in fact is very simple and important;

Form 9-1517 contains instructions for the illustrator.

(Do not cut the caption out or paste it to the mill

copy.) Mill copies of figures and captions are then

placed at the end of the text (not interleaved) for forwarding to technical reviewers. To alert the editor

and the typesetter, each illustration should have a

locating reference in the manuscript at the end of the

paragraph containing the principal reference, such as:

"FIGURE X.--NEAR HERE"

If you revise and retype a caption after review, attach the new version to the edited caption and return

both with the mill copy.

Except for photographic plates of fossils and for

illustrations larger than double-page size, you should

designate all illustrations as figures, numbered consecutively as the manuscript is prepared. Once a

number is assigned in a long, complex report, you

would be wise not to change it except to correct an

obvious error, such as a duplication. Numbering

changes during the evolution of the manuscript are

apt to cause errors. Don't renumber figures just

because you change their order of appearance in the

text; that order may be changed again before you

finish the manuscript, or a figure may be added or

deleted. The best time to renumber figures is just

before the manuscript is transmitted for Director's

approval. Special instructions as to placement of

figures in the text should be noted on the caption

sheet in the text, as "Text Editor: Please print on

page facing figure X" or "To be printed on same

page as figure X."

Figure numbers should appear on the illustrations

themselves, not on attached slips. If copy for the illustration consists of more than one piece, such as a

base map and an overlay sheet for geologic contacts

or as three sections in three pieces, that fact should

be shown on each piece, as "Figure 15, part 2 of 3
parts." Preferably, the base should be the first

numbered, to show the order of layering.

REVIEW OF MAP PREPARATION PLANS

AFTER DIRECTOR'S ApPROVAL

If y~ur report contains colored plates or figures,

you will receive a memorandum containing color and

pattern choices and color chips for units on the map.

Review the color choices carefully and discuss any

qu~stions or objections with your illustrator or map

editor. Color changes are very expensive after map

preparation begins and should be avoided.

REVIEW OF CHECK PRINTS AFTER

PREPARATION FOR PUBLICATION

Routing procedures for prepared illustrations vary

from office to office, but before your report goes to

the printer, you will receive the original illustrations

mill copies, and check prints of the art. This material

usually accompanies the edited text if the illustrations

are part of a book report. Check prints, often called

proofs, for your review are washcoat color prints or

black-and-white copies of figures and photographs.

(Technically, proofs are prints from the printing press

and are rarely seen by the author.) Inasmuch as the

check prints ordinarily provide your last chance to

make corrections, you must check them carefully for

placement of lines and type, symbols, explanation,

spelling, color or patterns, and titles. Any changes or

corrections should be clearly marked on the print:

Draw a line from the item to be corrected to the

margin, and note the correction in the margin so the

illustrator will unmistakably understand it. Any corrections or queries placed on the check prints by the

illustrator or editor should also be marked by you to

show agreement, disagreement, or clarification. A

small check mark or "OK" will indicate agreement.

At check-print stage, significant changes not on the

approved mill copy must be justified. The mill copy

and originals cannot be updated or otherwise altered

at this time without editor approval. Some changes

may be refused. The editor will accept essential and

desirable changes that can be made quickly, easily,

and inexpensively.

DATE AND INITIAL

You must date and initial each check print in the

box indicated so that all persons concerned will know

you have seen it. If the final-drafted illustration is

unacceptable, however, and anew, corrected check

p~nt is desired, you should so state on the unaccepted

pnnt. You must return all check prints originals and

mill copies. "

After approved changes are made in text and

illustrations, the manuscript and illustrations are

ready for the printer.

DISPOSITION OF ORIGINAL

ILLUSTRATIONS, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND

REPRODUCIBLES AFTER PUBLICATION

After a book or map has been published, the original illustrations and mill copy, except photographs,

are returned to you as author. Printer's negatives for

books and MF maps are stored by the Branches of

Technical Reports in Reston, Va., Denver, Colo., and

Menlo Park, Calif. Printer's negatives for other map

series are sent to the Washington National Records

Center in Suitland, Md. Drafted material for all maps

is returned to you as author after publication, but

drafted material for books is returned only if

requested.

All photographs used in Survey publications, both

prints and negatives, are sent to the Survey's Photographic Library in Denver soon after a report is

printed. (See following section.) They are not returned

to the author.

Disposition of original illustrations, photographs, and reproducibles after publication 213