National Park Service 145

Treatment Plan

Introduction

The treatment recommendations and guidelines

that comprise this chapter were prepared to

provide Stones River National Battlefield with an

overall vision for the park’s cultural landscape

that will sustain long-term management and

interpretation. They arise from a synthesis of

work undertaken by the project team to prepare

this Cultural Landscape Report (CLR), and

consideration of the park’s General Management

Plan (GMP). The treatment recommendations

also address the needs and recommendations

identified in various park planning documents,

including the Development Concept Plan and

Environmental Assessment for Improvements to

the Self-guiding Tour Routes (2005), Fire

Management Plan (2003), and the management

issues outlined for the CLR team by park

personnel during the April 2006 meeting.

This treatment chapter is organized into the

following six sections:

1. Management Issues, Goals, and

Objectives provides an outline of the

management issues collected by the CLR

team from various sources, including the

GMP, various environmental assessments

and planning documents, and park

personnel.

2. Recommended Landscape Treatment

Approach outlines the four alternatives

recognized by the Secretary of the Interior

for treating historic landscapes and identifies

the most appropriate approach for the park,

as well as communicates an overarching

philosophy that guides the

recommendations and guidelines that

comprise the treatment plan for the Stones

River National Battlefield landscape. It also

provides the rationale for the selection and

describes why the other alternatives were not

selected.

3. Treatment Concept outlines the

overarching philosophy or approach that

drives the treatment recommendations,

guidelines, and their implementation. The

treatment concept is illustrated on the

Treatment Concept Plan. Refer to Fig. 181.

4. Treatment Considerations by Landscape

Characteristic describes the management

issues associated with each landscape

characteristic and presents an overarching

recommended approach to their

consideration.

5. General Treatment Guidelines identifies the

guidelines that apply to the park as a whole,

regardless of any alternatives-based choices

that are made by the park.

6. Treatment Recommendations by

Character Area identifies the treatment

recommendations that apply to each

character area of the park.

Management Issues,

Goals, and Objectives

The park’s purpose, as stated in the GMP, is “to

preserve and interpret the battlefield of Stones

River, to mark the significant sites, and to

promote understanding and appreciation of the

battle and related events.”115 The park’s vision for

its future is a non-distracting environment where

visitors can:

z contemplate the sacredness of the

battlefield;

z understand and appreciate the Battle of

Stones River and its significance; and

z experience a personal connection with

this past human conflict.116

Taking these broad purpose and vision

statements into consideration, of particular

importance for developing a treatment plan for

Stones River National Battlefield are the

management objectives identified by the park in

115. National Park Service, Stones River National

Battlefield Tennessee: Final General Management

Plan/ Development Concept Plan / Environmental

Impact Statement (Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Government Printing Office, November 1998), 11.

116. Ibid.
TREATMENT PLAN

146 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

developing the GMP. These include the

following:

Interpretation

z Interpret the Battle of Stones River within

the context of the Western Theater and the

Civil War.

z Provide visitors the opportunity to

understand the objectives, strategies, and

tactics of the battle.

z Provide an atmosphere at a series of

vignettes/sites that allows the visitor to

visualize the rural setting at the time of the

battle, understand the battle events, and

contemplate the sacredness of the ground.

Cultural Landscape

z Preserve a core segment of the Stones River

battlefield, representative of major battle

action, in a way that allows visitors to

visualize and imagine the influence of

landscape features on the strategy and

outcome of the battle.

z Preserve, to the greatest extent practicable,

and restore to a general 1860s appearance the

land within the authorized boundary of the

national battlefield.

z Maintain the open space and mark the sites

of Rosecrans’s and Bragg’s headquarters.

z Preserve the 1892 design of the national

cemetery’s landscape and the 1860s design of

the Hazen Brigade Monument, and maintain

a quiet, reflective, and reverent atmosphere.

z Preserve and stabilize remnants of Redoubt

Brannan, Lunettes Palmer and Thomas, and

Curtain Wall No. 2.

z Provide controlled access to earthworks to

interpret the fort (Fortress Rosecrans) and

allow visitors to understand the extent of the

fortifications and their significance.

Adjacent Lands

z Develop preservation/mitigation strategies

with landowners and local governments to

achieve the general appearance of an

agricultural landscape as viewed from

interpretive areas within the national

battlefield.

z Encourage creation of a park-like experience

in corridors linking noncontiguous units.

z Encourage interpretation of the greater

battlefield through cooperation with

landowners and local government agencies.117

The planning issues and concerns associated

with long-term management of the park’s lands

and its resources are documented in the GMP as

follows:

z Plans for resource protection/management,

visitor use, interpretation, and facility

development for much of the land within

recently authorized and expanded park

boundaries do not exist.

z Visitors leave the park and its environs with a

poor understanding of the battle for a

number of reasons:

 The tour route overlooks important

resources, bears little relationship to the

battle sequence, and lacks a coherent

interpretive purpose or theme.

 Informational and interpretive signs in

the park are inadequate, and wayside

exhibits are obsolete, inaccurate,

ineffective, and incomplete.

 The audiovisual program is outdated.

z Although the authorized boundary

encompasses 712 acres, only about 520 acres

are federally owned and publicly accessible,

thus limiting opportunities for NPS on-site

interpretation. Of that figure, only 489 acres,

or twelve percent of the original battlefield,

are federally owned.

z Park lands are not contiguous. From one unit

to the next, major discontinuities in land use

affect the visitor experience.

117. Ibid., 12.
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National Park Service 147

z Much of the landscape outside the park has

changed significantly since the battle, even in

agricultural areas. Patterns of field/forest

have changed. Land use is changing from

rural to urban and commercial. This

diminishes the battlefield’s integrity and

makes it difficult for visitors to understand

the battle.

z The need for more community “green space”

leads to increased demand for the national

battlefield to accommodate activities such as

jogging, picnicking, camping, sunbathing,

group bike touring, weddings, and kite

flying. The sum of these activities is

incompatible with the park purposes of

interpretation and resource protection.

z Non-native species such as bush

honeysuckle, Chinese privet, and kudzu are

detracting from the ability to interpret and

preserve battlefield resources, including

earthworks, inducing change in the cultural

landscape, and may be adversely affecting

cedar glade habitat and threatened or

endangered species such as the Tennessee

coneflower.

z River flooding results in resource alteration

and damage to facilities, such as the stone

wall at the Artillery Monument. The stone

wall and spring box are modern intrusions

constructed during the 1970s, and are

inappropriate components of the cultural

landscape. These modern elements make it

difficult to interpret the battle story at this

location.

z The protection, display, storage,

preservation, and documentation of park

collections are inadequate.

z Access to parking areas at noncontiguous

sites such as the Rosecrans Headquarters

site, the national cemetery, and the Hazen

Brigade Monument is unsafe due to the

volume of feeder road traffic. Heavy traffic

also makes pedestrian crossings on Old

Nashville Highway increasingly unsafe.

z Thompson Lane provides greater access to

battlefield lands for development and will

increase the level of traffic along feeder

roads, particularly Wilkinson Pike and Old

Nashville Highway. State Highway 840 will

promote commercial and industrial

development along U.S. Highway 41/70S. In

addition, increasing urban development

south and west of the park and Interstate

Highway 24 is expected to significantly

increase traffic along Wilkinson Pike. This

potential increase in development and traffic

could have an adverse effect on resources, air

quality, the visitor experience, and safety as

historic corridors continue to lose their

integrity.

z While some land uses surrounding the park

are incompatible with park objectives for

preserving the historic scene and providing a

quality visitor experience, there are lands in

the original battlefield that retain integrity,

and if protected, could enhance

interpretation and the visitor experience. In

addition, new highway construction and

other factors are increasing the pressure for

development of those lands within the

original battlefield that retain integrity. With

respect to land use and development design

guidelines, the park, county, and city do not

have a comprehensive approach to

conserving the battlefield and related

resources in the face of rapid land use

change.

z Increased commercial and residential use on

lands adjacent to the park boundary would

result in noise levels that could adversely

affect the visitor experience within the park.

The solitude that is desirable for visitors at

the Hazen Brigade Monument and the

national cemetery is continuously

interrupted by the sights and sounds of

adjacent land use.

z A telecommunications tower was recently

constructed along Wilkinson Pike and is

visible from Redoubt Brannan and the

southeast corner of the main section of the

park. Another tower, which might also be in

the park’s viewshed, has been proposed

along Old Nashville Highway. There is a

potential for more such structures to be

constructed near the park, resulting in

adverse impacts on park values as additional

modern intrusions on the historic scene.118

118. Ibid., 15–16.
TREATMENT PLAN

148 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

The proposed action alternative of the GMP

focused on preserving a “larger area of the

original battlefield and creating a sense of place

where visitors can better understand and

appreciate the battle and its role in the Civil

War.”119 By emphasizing the available long vistas

across which the battle occurred, the proposed

action would “allow visitors to appreciate the

immense scale of the Battle of Stones River and

to understand the battle in a more holistic way

than is possible at present. This proposed action

would be accomplished through boundary

expansion and land acquisition, restoration to a

general 1860s era landscape, new exhibits, and a

new tour route.”120 The land acquisition strategy

identified five parcels that were of interest to the

park and eight areas that were studied for

appropriate protection strategies. It should be

noted that by 2005 the acquisition of lands south

of Wilkinson Pike was deemed no longer viable

because the city constructed a four-lane divided

road, Medical Center Parkway, through this area.

Because of this and other new development in

this area, some of the lands proposed for

acquisition are now unattainable. As such, the

GMP’s preferred alternative for the self-guided

tour route was not considered a viable option for

the 2005 DCP/EA, which analyzed alternatives

for improvements to the tour route. While there

are a few parcels within the current authorized

park boundary that NPS could acquire, an

expansion of the authorized boundary as

proposed by the GMP would require an act of

Congress.

The GMP also discusses the park’s approach to

cultural resource management. It notes:

On lands outside park boundaries, park

management would encourage neighbors to

maintain a general appearance of an

agricultural landscape, or at a minimum,

open space. Within the park boundaries,

cultural landscape reports would be

produced that would prescribe how the

landscape should be modified to

approximate an 1860s era appearance . . . As

part of this landscape modification, post-war

structures would be removed and safety

hazards would be eliminated . . . In the case

of degraded lands, cultural landscape reports

would prescribe the level of treatment in

terms of landforms, vegetation, and facilities

necessary to have the property approximate

its appearance at the time of the battle.121

As identified in the CLR project scope of work,

During the last thirty years threats to the

historic integrity of the [park’s cultural

landscapes] have increased. Some battlefield

landscapes no longer reflect the 1862

appearance. Previously clear areas are now

overgrown with woods; previously forested

areas have thinned or receded. Additionally,

residential and commercial development has

occurred on the battlefield as Murfreesboro

has expanded. An increase in traffic along the

park’s boundary prompted the construction

of the intrusive Thompson Lane Connector

by the Tennessee Department of

Transportation across a section of the

original battlefield adjacent to the park.

Development has also introduced light and

noise pollution to the park, including the

floodlights of nearby automobile dealerships

and traffic noise from as far away as Interstate

24 to the southwest. Other threats include inhouse transportation and infrastructure

projects and associated development, such as

current planning for the alteration of the

existing tour road.

Completion of a cultural landscape report

(CLR) is needed to support informed

planning for future development and identify

possible mitigation strategies to ensure

protection of the significant resources at

Stones River. Treatment guidelines provided

in the CLR would also allow the park to plan

projects that would improve the condition of

the landscapes to meet their strategic plan

goals.122

The management objectives of the CLR

treatment plan were derived from discussions

with park personnel at the project start-up

meeting in October 2005, in subsequent

discussions about the project in April 2006, and

as a result of the research and analysis conducted

on behalf of this study. The most important

121. Ibid., 25.

122. National Park Service, “Project Agreement / Scope

of Work; Cultural Landscape Report, Stones River

National Battlefield: Core Battlefield, Artillery

Monument, General Bragg’s Headquarters, and

General Rosecrans’s Headquarters” (Atlanta,

Georgia: Southeast Regional Office, June 2005), 2.

119. Ibid., 19.

120. Ibid.
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 149

objectives of the CLR are to provide treatment

recommendations and guidelines concerning:

z Vegetation management

z Changes in land cover to more closely

approximate field and forest patterns at the

time of the battle

z Protection of the cedar glades from visitor

access

z Monitoring and control of invasive alien

species

z Views within the park

z Protection of the park visitor experience and

viewsheds from adjacent development

z Development of preservation/mitigation

strategies with landowners and local

governments to achieve the general

appearance of an agricultural landscape as

viewed from interpretive areas within the

national battlefield

z Enhancement of the interpretive experience

z Encouragement of a park-like experience in

corridors linking noncontiguous units of the

park

z Encouragement of interpretation of the

greater battlefield through cooperation with

landowners and local government agencies

z Enhancement of opportunities for

contemplation and reflection within the

battlefield

z Recommendations for interpreting features

missing from the Civil War era landscape

z Improvement of the effectiveness of the selfguiding interpretive program

z Enhancement of ADA/ADAAG accessibility

of interpretive resources and programs

z Protection strategies for earthworks

z Review of the proposed new tour road

alignment and trails for their potential

impact on the cultural landscape; provision

of recommendations to mitigate any

anticipated impacts

z Review of the proposed concept plan for the

McFadden Farm site

z Use of the newly acquired parcel near the

McFadden Farm site as a natural resource

interpretive trail/bird watching area

z Consideration of vegetative cover type(s) for

interpreted open fields

z Recommendations for improving

interpretation of the Pioneer Brigade

earthworks

z Recommendations for improving the

consistency and compatibility of site

furnishings and objects within the park,

including signage

z Recommendations for improving the

historical accuracy of interpreted fences
TREATMENT PLAN

150 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

Recommended Landscape

Treatment Approach

The Secretary of the Interior currently

recognizes four primary treatment alternatives

for historic properties: preservation,

rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.

These are defined and discussed in the NPS

guidance document, Director’s Order No. 28:

Cultural Resource Management Guideline, as well

as The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the

Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines

for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes, as

follows:

Preservation is the act or process of applying

measures necessary to sustain the existing form,

integrity, and materials of a historic property.

Work, including preliminary measures to protect

and stabilize the property, generally focuses upon

the ongoing maintenance and repair of historic

materials and features rather than extensive

replacement and new construction. New

additions are not within the scope of this

treatment; however, the limited and sensitive

upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and

plumbing systems and other code-required work

to make properties functional is appropriate

within a preservation project.

Rehabilitation is the act or process of making

possible a compatible use for a property through

repair, alterations, and additions while

preserving those portions or features which

convey its historical, cultural, or architectural

values.

Restoration is the act or process of accurately

depicting the form, features, and character of a

property as it appeared at a particular period of

time by removing features from other periods in

its history and reconstructing missing features

from the restoration period. The limited and

sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and

plumbing systems and other code-required work

to make properties functional is appropriate

within a restoration project.

Reconstruction is the act or process of

depicting, by means of new construction, the

form, features, and detailing of a non-surviving

site, landscape, building, structure, or object for

the purpose of replicating its appearance at a

specific period of time and in its historic

location.

Based upon the park’s need to meet current and

projected future interpretive, functional, and

management goals, rehabilitation is

recommended as the appropriate treatment

alternative for the Stones River National

Battlefield landscape. Because rehabilitation is

defined as “the act or process of making possible

a compatible use for a property,” this approach

will allow for protection of the site’s historic

character and resources while carefully

addressing the needs for enhancement of

interpretive opportunities and circulation routes,

ecological maintenance and restoration, and the

improvement of visitor amenities as outlined in

the GMP.

Under the rehabilitation treatment alternative,

stabilization, protection, and preservation of

historic and natural resources are actions that

must occur in order to allow for the limited

accommodation of new uses. As part of the

treatment recommendations, those resources

and systems at Stones River National Battlefield

that are to be the focus of stabilization,

protection, and preservation are noted, as are the

aspects or areas of the battlefield landscape that

are particularly sensitive to change and

disturbance. Sensitive habitats and biotic

resources, as well as sites of known and potential

archeological resources, for example, should be

treated with great care. In general, the CLR

recommends preservation of archeological

resources unless a compelling research question

or informational need justifies disturbance or

excavation or unless mitigation to accommodate

unavoidable change is necessary.

In considering the other treatment alternatives

recognized by the Secretary of the Interior for

the Stones River National Battlefield landscape,

the CLR found them inappropriate for the

following reasons. Preservation is overly

restrictive because it does not allow for the

enhanced interpretation and site access

recommended in the GMP. Restoration and

reconstruction are inappropriate for the Stones

River National Battlefield landscape because

they assume, as a prerequisite, that sufficient

documentation exists to accurately portray a lost

historic condition. At this time, it does not
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 151

appear that documentary sources detailed

enough to support restoration or reconstruction

of the Stones River National Battlefield cultural

landscape exist.

Secretary of the Interior’s

Standards for Rehabilitation

The following section summarizes the standards

for rehabilitation espoused by the Secretary of

the Interior for historic properties. The ten basic

principles that comprise the standards are

intended to help preserve the distinctive

character of a site, while also allowing for

reasonable change to meet new needs. The

standards (36 CFR Part 67) apply to historic

properties of all periods, locations, sizes,

conditions, and uses. These standards create a

baseline of guidance to which intended changes

to the historic landscape must be compared.

These standards are neither technical nor

prescriptive, but promote responsible

preservation practices as follows:

1. A property will be used as it was historically,

or be given a new use that requires minimal

change to its distinctive materials, features,

spaces, and spatial relationships.

2. The historic character of a property will be

retained and preserved. The removal of

distinctive materials or alteration of features,

spaces, and spatial relationships that

characterize a property will be avoided.

3. Each property will be recognized as a

physical record of its time, place, and use.

Changes that create a false sense of historical

development, such as adding conjectural

features or elements from other historic

properties, will not be undertaken.

4. Changes to a property that have acquired

historic significance in their own right will be

retained and preserved.

5. Distinctive materials, features, finishes, and

construction techniques or examples of

craftsmanship that characterize a property

will be preserved.

6. Deteriorated historic features will be

repaired rather than replaced. Where the

severity of deterioration requires

replacement of a distinctive feature, the new

feature will match the old in design, color,

texture, and, where possible, materials.

Replacement of missing features will be

substantiated by documentary and physical

evidence.

7. Chemical or physical treatments, if

appropriate, will be undertaken using the

gentlest means possible. Treatments that

cause damage to historic materials will not

be used.

8. Archeological resources will be protected

and preserved in place. If such resources

must be disturbed, mitigation measures will

be undertaken.

9. New additions, exterior alterations, or

related new construction will not destroy

historic materials, features, and spatial

relationships that characterize the property.

The new work will be differentiated from the

old and will be compatible with the historic

materials, features, size, scale and

proportion, and massing to protect the

integrity of the property and its

environment.

10. New additions and adjacent or related new

construction will be undertaken in such a

manner that, if removed in the future, the

essential form and integrity of the historic

property and its environment would be

unimpaired.
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152 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

Treatment Concept

The treatment plan for Stones River National

Battlefield provides a vision for the site as a

whole, as well as site-specific guidance for

individual resources. This section is intended to

convey the overarching vision or concept for

treatment, within which the more specific

recommendations that follow can be

understood. Refer to Fig. 181, Treatment Concept

Plan.

The park is already successfully managing the

cultural landscape of the battlefield and

balancing cultural and natural resource values.

The park has recognized the need to protect and

enhance the rare cedar glade habitats, to more

closely approximate historic field and forest

patterns, and to provide better interpretation

through signage, waysides, selective screening

and clearing for views, and better connections

between battlefield resources, some of which

occur on noncontiguous parcels. To assist the

park in these goals, the CLR treatment plan

concept is as follows.

The overarching concept for cultural landscape

treatment at Stones River is to balance the

protection and enhancement of the battlefield’s

historic integrity with contemporary park visitor

access and interpretation requirements and

sustainable land management practices. Many of

the specific landscape treatment actions are

intended to help convey the story of the battle

by reinstating historic conditions or establishing

aids to interpret missing battlefield features. The

concept also takes into consideration

contemporary land ownership issues, which

include a park composed of numerous

noncontiguous parcels linked by public road

corridors and edged by developments that are

often inconsistent with the character of the

landscape at the time of the battle. Finally, the

concept also recognizes the value of post-battle

commemoration and seeks to reconcile

commemorative features with features that relate

directly to the battle.

Vegetation and natural resource management,

interpretation, and consideration of the overall

visitor experience are the main focus of the

treatment plan, as they are the highest-priority

needs identified by the park in its GMP. The

recommended approach to vegetation

management will also support a crucial

interpretive goal at the park: enhancement of

visual accessibility. Removal of the existing noncontributing woodland areas, control of invasive

alien plants, and restoration of the historic

character of woodlands important to the events

of the battle will serve to better interpret the

events of the battle in many key locations.

Rehabilitation of existing vegetation

communities focuses on the interpretation of

historic land cover for open fields, including a

combination of native warm-season grass fields

with enhancements to increase biodiversity,

further conversion of fescue fields wherever

possible to support sustainability goals, and

establishment or maintenance of limited crop

field areas for interpretation. The treatment

recommendations and implementation projects

included herein provide the means for enhancing

the viability and health of the cedar glade

communities, and suggest relocating most

interpretive programs and other incompatible

visitor and park uses away from these sensitive

areas as a protective measure. Rehabilitation of

cedar glades includes removal of encroaching

stands of invasive plants such as Chinese privet,

bush honeysuckle, and Eastern red cedar to

prevent the shading out of glade endemics and

limiting visitor access to these areas. Where

visitors come into contact with glade

communities, the treatment plan recommends

the park provide educational materials that

convey the sensitivity and fragility of these

communities, including signs that engender

stewardship. Rehabilitation of woodland

vegetation includes clearing, thinning, and/or

rehabilitating existing woods to more closely

approximate historic conditions. In all cases,

control of invasive alien species will be a high

priority for park management. The treatment

plan also addresses ecologically sensitive

rehabilitation of the Stones River banks and the

newly acquired property located near the

McFadden Farm.

In addition to vegetation and natural resource

management, the treatment recommendations

also address trail and exhibit development. Using

the preferred alternative adopted in the DCP/EA

for Improvements to the Self-guiding Tour Routes

(2005) as a point of departure, the CLR

recommends further enhancements to this tour

TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 155

route and wayside plan that will reinforce the

interpretation of the historic landscape and its

conditions at the time of the battle. Included in

this recommendation is the enhancement of the

connections between the Nashville Pike unit and

Bragg’s Headquarters, Rosecrans’s

Headquarters, Redoubt Brannan, and the

McFadden Farm unit in order to reinforce the

visitor’s understanding of these areas of the park

as part of the larger battlefield.

The CLR also recommends weaving

interpretation of all significant layers of history

that have occurred on the site—including

residential use and post-battle

commemoration—into these experiences. Also

proposed is the enhancement of the program of

contemplative nodes located along the trail

system at the sites of important locations

associated with the battle. These features are

intended as quiet refuges, with comfortable

seating areas provided for visitors. The treatment

recommendations also suggest general guidelines

for establishing, altering, and adjusting the

existing circulation systems at the park.

While the opportunities to interpret sites of

missing structures and farmsteads is limited

(many farmsteads present during the battle lie

outside of park property), seven buildings and

structures that have been identified by Bearss

(1962) lie within the bounds of the park. Because

the battle was fought within an agricultural

landscape inhabited by families whose lives were

forever altered by the event, the treatment plan

provides recommendations for interpretation of

these sites, as well as alternatives for enhancing

the existing interpretation of the toll house site.
TREATMENT PLAN

156 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

water resources need to be managed to prevent

erosion and sedimentation. Fallow fields,

scrubby woodlands, and colonies of invasive

alien species need to be rehabilitated to support

healthy communities of native plants. The

sensitive habitats of endangered plant species,

such as the glade endemics, need to be protected

and enhanced. Also critical is the protection of

the park’s contributing topographic features—

including the knolls associated with the Artillery

Monument and the Hazen Brigade Monument,

the rock outcrop areas, and the level open fields

of the Nashville Pike and McFadden Farm

units—which played key roles in the Battle of

Stones River. In addition to protection of these

key land forms, providing visual accessibility for

visitors is a primary objective of treatment.

Vegetation

Sensitive rehabilitation of vegetation

communities in the park is a necessary

component of historic scene enhancement. The

GMP and CLR both suggest that vegetative

composition and density are not entirely

consistent with the 1860s period of significance.

The implementation guidelines included herein

provide suggestions for enhancing the historical

accuracy of the character of cedar brake

communities within view of interpreted areas by

removing non-native plants and planting cedars

to make the stands denser. They also guide

clearing and thinning operations to return

mixed woodlands to a more open character and

to convert fescue fields to native warm-season

fields; provide specific recommendations for

crop field exhibits; and outline the potential

enhancement of prescribed fire activities.

Several glade areas exist that are irreplaceable

and there are specific treatment

recommendations that support their protection.

Circulation

Circulation features located within the park

include Van Cleve Lane—a battle-era route—

and park roads and trails established and

developed during the twentieth century. A

portion of the tour road alignment survives from

the early park development period and is

therefore a contributing landscape resource.

Adjacent circulation routes also survive from the

period of significance: the Old Nashville

Highway, Asbury Lane, Wilkinson Pike, and the

Treatment Considerations

by Landscape Characteristic

This section summarizes the treatment issues

that pertain to different landscape characteristics

and management concerns within the park. The

opportunities and constraints associated with

each of the landscape characteristics addressed

as a part of this study are described, as well as the

issues that have influenced the development of

the more specific management guidelines and

treatments included later in this chapter.

Spatial Organization

Rehabilitating the spatial organization of the

park to its appearance during the Battle of Stones

River is a key component of the park’s

interpretive vision. Rehabilitation of 1860s field

and fence patterns, woodlands, crop fields and

other agricultural fields, circulation corridors,

and the identification of missing farmstead

clusters will engender for visitors a greater

understanding of the battle and the key

connections between military tactics and the

nineteenth century cultural landscape.

Natural Systems and Features

Stones River National Battlefield contains

important natural systems and features including

limestone outcroppings, caves, sinkholes,

springs, access to Stones River, and most

importantly the cedar glades. Some of these

features, such as the glades and the Stones River

watershed, have recently begun to suffer from

degradation due to visitor access and the degree

of development occurring outside the

boundaries of the park. In some cases, the park’s

natural systems and features need to be

stabilized. In others, adaptive management

principles need to be applied so that the natural

systems can undergo a process of recovery.

Adaptive management recognizes that natural

systems are constantly changing and that to

achieve the highest level of health and stability,

land managers must adapt their practices to these

changes.

The park’s ultimate goal of scene rehabilitation

must be achieved through the continued

application of Best Management Practices

(BMPs) for natural resources. For example,
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 157

Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad line.

Treatment recommendations focus on the

retention, restoration, and maintenance of

contributing historic routes and carefully

considered changes to the existing noncontributing park tour and trail system that

address a better understanding of the battle.

Buildings and Structures

Very few buildings and structures survive within

the park from either the battle or early park

development periods. Contributing structures

include the Pioneer Brigade earthwork,

surviving Fortress Rosecrans earthworks,

Artillery Monument, Hazen Brigade Monument

and associated stone wall, and the pair of stone

entrance gates along the Old Nashville Highway.

Buildings and structures that existed at the time

of the battle, as well as during the years between

the battle and development of the park, are not

currently interpreted to the public except in a

very basic manner. Buildings and structures

associated with the African American

community between the late nineteenth century

and 1928 played an important part in the

evolution of the landscape, even though they

were not associated with the battle. Although

restoration or reconstruction of the community

is not appropriate, the park interpretive plan

could consider other means of conveying this

aspect of the history of the landscape to the

visitor. The treatment plan discusses methods

for interpreting sites of missing features, how to

weave these into the visitor tour route, and their

value to the park’s interpretive program.

Interpretation of missing buildings and

structures needs to be undertaken appropriately

and without the use of conjecture. Interpretive

exhibits should be established based on

evidence identified through documentary and

archeological research.

Views

Views are another key interpretive element of

Stones River National Battlefield, as viewpoints

associated with knolls and elevated landforms

were a critical component of the tactics used by

Civil War-era military commanders. Views to and

from the McFadden Farm site are crucial to

interpreting the battle events and should be

rehabilitated, while sightlines through the farm

fields located in the northern, southern, and

eastern portion of the park should be protected

and maintained. Viewshed rehabilitation should

be an integral part of the park’s scene

rehabilitation efforts.

Screening of Incompatible Views

While the focus of treatment regarding views is

scene rehabilitation to approximate the

landscape’s 1862–1863 appearance, mitigation of

intrusive views is also important. Views from the

park to adjacent properties are potentially not

compatible with the park’s goals of reflection,

contemplation, interpretation, and

commemoration of the Battle of Stones River,

and intrusive views should be mitigated using

tools such as vegetative screen plantings.

Small-scale Features

There are no small-scale features known to

survive from the Civil War period of significance

except for the headstones associated with the

McFadden family cemetery and other

headstones located in the northwestern corner

of the Nashville Pike unit near the railroad tracks

that are associated with the Hazen Brigade

Monument. The headstones associated with the

monument are known to post-date the battle.

The only small-scale features surviving from the

early park development period include the

Rosecrans and Bragg Headquarters monuments,

and possibly some of the stone culvert headwalls

along the tour road. For contributing or

potentially contributing small-scale features, a

conservative approach to their treatment is

recommended, including retaining and

maintaining these resources to protect their

cultural resource values.

The park currently interprets missing small-scale

features, namely field and farm precinct fencing

through reconstruction of historic fencelines

using somewhat historically accurate styles.

More definitive information about the character

and composition of mid-nineteenth century

fences is needed for the park. Reestablishment of

historic fence patterns would enhance

interpretation of the battlefield landscape;

currently, however, it would be difficult to

reconstruct additional missing small-scale

features without introducing conjecture.

Reestablishment of historic fencelines should be

depicted differently from contemporary fencing
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158 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

to reflect park boundaries and other areas

requiring fencing. Marking of missing features,

boundaries, visitor tour routes, and controlled

access points should be effected through a

compatible non-historic vocabulary that marks

locations for interpretation or wayfinding but

does not introduce features that might be

misinterpreted as being historic.

Archeological Resources

The entire park should be considered an

archeological resource, and any proposed or

potential ground disturbance should be

examined by archeologists on a case-by-case

basis. Appropriate compliance should be

conducted prior to implementation of any

landscape treatment recommendations that

require ground disturbance, including trail

establishment or realignment, vegetation

changes, or interpretive exhibit development.

Subsurface archeological investigations should

only be undertaken to address a specific goal or

question about the historic landscape.

Earthworks

The earthen fortifications surviving at Fortress

Rosecrans and within the Nashville Pike unit are,

or will become, an important focus of

interpretation at the park. It is important that

interpretive trails provide opportunities for

understanding the mechanics and engineering of

these fortifications without encouraging or

allowing visitors to access the fragile soil

resources. The slopes of earthen fortifications

should be maintained either in tall grass cover

that enhances visual accessibility, dissuades

physical accessibility, yet limits the potential for

soil erosion; or under forest cover that generates

leaf litter that protects the earthen resources

from soil erosion. Under forest cover, special

attention is needed to protect the earthworks

from visitor access. Trees and invasive species

should always be carefully removed from the

ditch, parapet, and other sloped features of the

earthworks to limit the hazard of windthrows,

and animal burrows need to be repaired and

future burrow use discouraged.

Partnering

It will be critical to address the need for

partnering and cooperative efforts with local

agencies, organizations, and property owners in

achieving the park’s vision and goals. The CLR

recommends fostering relationships with

adjacent landowners, local city and county

governments, and state and federal Departments

of Transportation. Partnering with these entities

will be beneficial in terms of coordinating

easements, fitting park development goals with

municipal comprehensive plans, and influencing

the location and design of future roads. Working

with adjacent landowners to help secure and

stabilize the watershed is one example of an

important partnering effort that should be

explored. Working with the Tennessee

Department of Transportation, City of

Murfreesboro, and Rutherford County to

consider the establishment of roadside elements

that help to connect the noncontiguous units of

the park for visitors is another potential

partnering effort to consider.

New Design and Construction

The CLR includes treatment guidelines and

recommendations that address appropriate

implementation of the proposed new tour road

and trail projects so that they are compatible

with the historic character of the landscape and

easily distinguishable as contemporary additions;

how and where to locate new development; how

to guide development on adjacent lands; and to

what level new additions can be made without

adversely affecting the resources and scene

restoration. Sustainability and means for

promoting infiltration of precipitation and

overland flow of stormwater should be

considered an integral component of all new

construction efforts.
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 159

General Treatment

Guidelines

The general management guidelines and

recommendations that follow pertain to Stones

River National Battlefield as a whole and should

be used when planning for any future landscape

change. They are intended to support all

landscape treatments proposed herein and

should be considered in conjunction with any

project or treatment alternative that is

undertaken at the park. These guidelines relate to

a philosophy of cultural landscape treatment

based on NPS Director’s Order No. 28: Cultural

Resource Management Guideline, and the

Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the

Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines

for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes.

Spatial Organization

z Restore field and forest to the patterns of the

battle period of significance using

ecologically sound techniques and BMPs.

z Avoid conjecture when rehabilitating historic

spatial organization patterns. Rely on

documentary evidence and archeological

survey data rather than circumstantial

evidence.

Natural Systems and Features

z Develop BMPs and approaches to Stones

River watershed remediation on lands that

fall within the park, and recommend

remediation strategies for receptive

neighbors within the watershed.

z Work with neighboring landowners and

local agencies to diminish the amount of

run-off entering the river.

z Rehabilitate native landscapes within the

park to reduce run-off and enhance

infiltration of precipitation into the park’s

groundwater resources.

z Continue, develop, and broaden the current

native warm-season grass field conversion

program.

z Establish filter strips, vegetated swales, and

other BMPs for land maintained under crop

cover to protect against soil erosion.

z Establish or continue an existing program for

the control of the specific invasive species

that threaten the rehabilitation process.

z Establish performance criteria for each

rehabilitation and restoration effort and

develop a monitoring protocol that measures

the extent to which these criteria are being

achieved.

z Monitor the progress of restoration and

rehabilitation activities using the monitoring

protocol established for the park. Adapt the

techniques and approaches to restoration

and management based upon evaluation of

the monitoring efforts.

z Continue to practice integrated pest

management (IPM) in accordance with NPS

policies. Avoid the use of pesticides and

herbicides unless absolutely necessary. If

chemical controls are used, apply the

minimum necessary to achieve the proposed

effect. Allow only qualified applicators to

apply chemicals.

z Avoid altering topography in the park.

Minimal grading for new trails is acceptable

while alterations to the knolls, gently rolling

open fields, and rock outcrops are not

appropriate.

z Protect slopes from erosion by maintaining a

healthy vegetative cover on all slopes.

Vegetation

z Rehabilitate the cedar glade communities by

removing Chinese privet. Remove Eastern

red cedar to prevent shading when it

encroaches on the glade habitat by

colonizing soil pockets.

z Employ BMPs for thinning and clearing

mixed woodlands. Undertake clearing and

thinning operations with the goals of

reducing fuel loads, opening viewsheds, and

returning the woodland to its approximate

composition during the 1860s. Additional

investigation into the composition of local
TREATMENT PLAN

160 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

woodland areas during the 1860s will be

required to achieve this goal. Consider using

nearby good quality woodlands, such as

Flatrock Cedar Glades and Barrens State

Natural Area as references in developing a

restoration plan in support of this

recommendation.

z Mark all vegetation to be thinned or cleared

prior to beginning work. Employ an arborist,

natural resource manager, and/or landscape

architect familiar with the park to mark the

vegetation to be removed or thinned.

z Restore cedar brake communities by

removing invasive alien species and consider

alternatives for reestablishing the density

characteristic of these stands during the

battle period.

z Continue to identify, control, and remove

invasive plants.

z Continue monitoring and recording

populations of invasive plants within the

park and utilize data collected to inform

ongoing maintenance procedures.

z Continue to maintain and enhance the

health and diversity of vegetation in sensitive

or remnant communities, particularly the

cedar glades.

z Continue to periodically document the

condition of the landscape through

photopoint photography.

Circulation

z Ensure that no new trails or roads are

planned or built within or through any of the

ecologically sensitive communities,

particularly the cedar glades. Consider

removing existing trails and roads from these

sensitive communities, or reduce their

impact by lowering the surface to match the

height of the surrounding landscape.

z Avoid altering existing circulation routes or

establishing new circulation routes until after

compliance has been completed.

z Minimize the visual impacts of vehicles and

vehicular access systems. Consider the

potential impact on views when planning to

add or change circulation systems.

z Make vehicular access as unobtrusive as

possible. Consider noise and other impacts

when siting roads, trails, and parking.

z Consider the possibility of providing a

shuttle/bus tour system on peak weekends if

traffic and parking become concerns in the

future. Direct visitors to park at the main

parking area and ride a small,

environmentally friendly bus or van along

the tour loop on guided or unguided tours,

thereby reducing the amount of traffic on the

tour road and throughout the park.

z Encourage pedestrian or bicycle circulation

as an alternative to vehicular access.

z Minimize the visual impacts of pedestrian

access systems.

z Take advantage of existing road traces and

trail systems whenever possible to avoid

disturbance of the historic landscape.

z Design interpretive trail systems to follow the

routes of historic road traces and alignments

whenever practicable. Consider, however,

the potential impacts of new trails following

these routes. Assess the following: the visual

impact of a trail on important viewsheds;

potential impact on sensitive natural and

archeological resources; accessibility issues

such as slope; potential for erosion; and

overall interpretive value. If issues of

concern cannot be mitigated, consider using

a different alignment for the trail that fulfills

related goals.

z Avoid regrading that will damage historic

road traces when establishing new trails

along historic routes. Whenever regrading is

necessary, use fill that is distinguishable from

the existing grade rather than cut, which will

destroy the resource.

z Consider alternative interpretive trail

alignments if documentary and

archeological evidence is insufficient to

determine the precise routes of historic

roads.
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 161

z Ensure that the removal of non-historic park

trails is undertaken with minimal impact on

adjacent features; that visitor maps, signage,

and other indications of trail layout are

updated to reflect the removal; and that

former trail surfaces are seeded or otherwise

appropriately revegetated.

z Route visitor circulation away from sensitive

archeological resources, cultural sites, and

endangered species habitat areas.

z Follow the regulations stipulated in the

Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard

(UFAS) and Americans with Disabilities Act

Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) for trails

and paths when establishing universally

accessible circulation that may be designated

as “improved.” Avoid steep slopes, ensure

that trail widths meet regulations, and take

other precautions to make these trails

accessible to all visitors.

z Provide universally accessible routes to

primary interpretive elements. Strive to

accommodate universal accessibility to all

interpreted features. Provide alternative

interpretive experiences where accessibility

is not possible or reasonable.

Buildings and Structures

z Consider the interpretive value of nonintrusive, non-contributing buildings and

structures.

z Consider the removal of non-contributing

structures that are intrusive to the historic

landscape.

z Remove buildings and structures that postdate the period of significance only if they

have a negative impact on the historic

character and integrity of the park

landscape. Document thoroughly all

buildings and structures before removal.

z Avoid conjectural reconstruction of missing

historic buildings and structures.

Views

z Consider scenic easements on tracts of land

adjoining park boundaries as a method of

viewshed and resource protection and an

alternative to fee-simple land acquisition.

z Minimize the visual impact of pedestrian

and vehicular access systems. Consider using

techniques such as establishing vegetative

screens, evaluating the potential for new

trails to be invisible from key viewpoints, and

minimizing the amount of signage, seating,

and other small-scale features associated

with these access systems in their design.

z Communicate with utility providers

regarding future plans to upgrade telephone

and utility lines within the park. Suggest that

future lines be placed underground and

contained within existing easements and

right-of-ways.

Small-scale Features

z Provide minimal site furnishings to

accommodate visitors, such as benches. Use

site furnishings that are compatible with the

character of the park in connection to the

park’s theme and concept and materials.

Ensure that the style of site furnishings is

uniform throughout the park.

z Keep the number of contemporary smallscale features to the minimum required for

visitor and staff comfort and safety.

z Avoid establishing any new small-scale

features that may be mistaken for historic

resources.

z Convey interpretive information to visitors

primarily through the use of graphically rich

waysides that are durable, contemporary in

form and character, muted in color, and

composed of simple materials.

Partnering

z Consider working with adjacent willing

landowners to place conservation easements

on tracts of land adjoining park boundaries

to protect natural and cultural resources, and
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162 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

as an alternative to fee-simple land

acquisition.

z Partner with landowners and local, state, and

federal agencies to secure and stabilize the

watershed associated with Stones River.

Promote the implementation of BMPs on

private parcels associated with the Stones

River watershed and the establishment of

vegetation communities and other features

that encourage infiltration of precipitation

and overland flow of stormwater.

z Partner with the Tennessee Department of

Transportation, City of Murfreesboro, and

Rutherford County to enhance the physical

connections between noncontiguous park

units through the establishment of new

features along the roadside.

z Coordinate with local city and county

governments to ensure that comprehensive

and municipal development plans take into

account park policies and goals. In addition,

work with the appropriate city and county

agencies to develop a plan for private lands

adjacent to the park that supports the

protection of conservation easements and

management of open space and agricultural

land uses.

z Coordinate with local, state, and federal

departments of transportation to ensure that

new roads, or alterations to existing roads,

will not adversely impact Stones River

National Battlefield.

z Consider using transfers of development

rights as a conservation tool.

z Employ strategies for land conservation and

partnerships found in Saving America’s

Countryside, a handbook for land

development.123

z Apprise neighboring property owners of

prescribed fire schedules.

Land Uses

z Consider both natural and cultural features

in treatment and land-use decisions.

z Avoid land-use activities, permanent or

temporary, which threaten or impair known

or potential archeological resources.

z Monitor and regulate use of the landscape to

minimize immediate and long-term damage

to cultural resources.

z Consider carefully the appropriateness of

any proposed or existing recreational uses.

For existing uses, determine what impact the

recreational uses are having on natural and

cultural resources. A finding of negative

impacts should suggest the need for further

study and the development of mitigation

measures. For any proposed new use,

consider the impact on natural and cultural

resources, as well as traffic and parking.

Avoid introducing recreational uses that

require extensive grading, the introduction

of non-native grasses, intensive maintenance,

an increase in parking, or the addition of

vertical features or lighting.

z Avoid permitting recreational uses that may

endanger visitors, cultural resources, or

sensitive ecosystem areas; that require

extensive facility development; or that

conflict with resource protection goals.

Examples of incompatible activities include

organized field sports, horseback riding or

mountain biking, ATV use, and sport

hunting.

z Limit, monitor, and control access to areas

that are vulnerable to damage from human

access or use.

New Design and Construction

z Design new construction taking into

consideration the BMPs established for the

park. In particular, design new construction

using green building techniques, and

incorporate technologies such as those

described by LEED (Leadership in Energy

and Environmental Design), a voluntary,

consensus-based national standard for

developing sustainable building.

123. Samuel N. Stokes, et al., Saving America’s

Countryside: A Guide to Rural Conservation, 2nd ed.

(Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University

Press, 1997).
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 163

z Undertake sufficient study and recordation

of landscape features that require

modification, repair, or replacement before

work is performed to protect research and

interpretive values.

z Locate any necessary new features

supporting visitor services and

administrative, operations, and maintenance

functions in the existing Visitor Center and

maintenance areas whenever possible. If

these facilities are found to be insufficient for

projected needs, consider a location for

housing new facilities that is outside of the

battlefield landscape.

z Design and situate additions or alterations to

the landscape in such a way that they do

nothing to destroy historic materials,

features, and spatial relationships that

characterize the cultural landscape.

z Introduce new buildings and structures to

facilitate access and interpretation while

minimizing adverse impacts on the historic

character and features of the landscape.

z Ensure that new construction is compatible

with existing historic resources in materials,

size, scale and proportion, and massing.

Differentiate new work from existing

resources.

z Design and situate new additions and

alterations to the landscape in such a way

that, if removed in the future, the essential

form and integrity of the landscape would be

unimpaired.

z Design new construction to have muted,

neutral, earth-tone colors and materials that

serve to make new facilities compatible with

the historic and natural context.

z Ensure that the location, design, and

construction of new facilities and systems are

subordinate to the surviving cultural and

natural landscape. New design and

construction should be as visually

unobtrusive as possible without sacrificing

functionality.

z Avoid siting new buildings and structures in

floodplains or in any of the primary

viewshed areas.

Interpretation

z Consider means for interpreting significant

historic features not associated with the

Civil War Battle of Stones River that do not

alter the character of the landscape within

the park interpretive plan. To interpret

features such as the African American

community that once existed to the west of

Van Cleve Lane, consider methods such as

written interpretive information, site

bulletins, web site interpretation, personal

service interpretation, and audio tour

information rather than physical changes to

the landscape.

z Provide an alternative means for

interpretation, such as additional waysides or

a Visitor Center exhibit, for those features

located in areas that cannot be made

universally accessible.

z Consider carefully any proposals to restore

or reconstruct missing Civil War-era

features. Prior to undertaking restoration or

reconstruction efforts, carefully weigh the

financial costs of both the initial effort and

the subsequent maintenance costs; the

ultimate benefit to be gained for

interpretation; and the accuracy with which

the feature could be reestablished.

z Consider providing sensitively placed

benches to allow for quiet sitting and

reflection of the battlefield landscape at

important interpretive nodes.

Prescribed Fire

Stones River National Battlefield currently uses

prescribed fire as a landcover management tool.

To guide these efforts, a fire management plan

was developed for the park in 2003. The

preferred alternative (Alternative 3) recommends

management activities that will “restore and

maintain native plant communities in the park,

mimic the natural ecological processes, and help

protect park resources and adjacent lands from

the threat of wildfires.”124 This document

prescribes measures to prevent and/or mitigate

124. National Park Service. Stones River National

Battlefield Fire Management Plan, Environmental

Assessment (Atlanta, Georgia: National Park Service,

Southeast Regional Office, 2003).
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164 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

adverse environmental impacts that may occur

from fire management activities. Under the

preferred alternative, the Fire Management Plan

calls for the suppression of all wildland fires,

provides for prescribed fires, and allows for

manual/mechanical treatments. Stones River

National Battlefield contains two fire

management units (FMU). All of the open areas

and fields in the park are contained in FMU

No. 1, which totals approximately 305 acres. The

national cemetery and primary park

development/infrastructure are also located

within FMU No. 1. The remaining 407 acres in

the park, consisting of mixed hardwood, Eastern

red cedar stands, and cedar glades, are contained

in FMU No. 2. Each unit of the park includes

both FMUs according to existing vegetative

cover. Under this plan, all wildland fires in the

park, human-caused fires and naturally-ignited

fires (e.g., lightning), are to be declared wildfires

and suppressed in a manner that minimizes

negative environmental impacts of suppression

activities.

All wildfire suppression activities are to adhere to

Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics (MIST)

guidelines, as outlined in the Fire Management

Plan.

125 These guidelines should be followed

when undertaking any prescribed fire activities.

Manual and mechanical thinning (e.g.,

chainsaws, bush hogs) in the prescribed fire units

are to involve limited, selective thinning of

hardwoods and cedars encroaching upon xeric

limestone prairies, meadows, open fields, and

earthworks, as well as any hazard trees. While a

few large-diameter trees may be cut, thinning

efforts are to focus primarily on small diameter

woody shrubs and trees. Mechanical thinning

efforts are also to include cutting hay and

mowing. Thinning treatments may occur any

time of the year. Initial fire return intervals would

be between two and five years. Those prescribed

fire units on a two-year cycle would need more

frequent prescribed fires to combat exotics and

reduce competition. Once the park reaches fire

management goals and objectives for a particular

prescribed fire unit, it is to implement a

maintenance program for the unit that involves a

prescribed fire return interval of three to five

years.

125. Ibid., 2–8.
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National Park Service 165

Treatment Recommendations

by Character Area

Within the overall framework of rehabilitation, a

resource-driven approach to landscape

management is provided for each unit or

character area of the park below; specific

treatment recommendations are then provided

to support site specific or resource specific

management. In many cases alternatives for

treatment are provided that offer a range of

options for the park and can be considered in

conjunction with available levels of funding and

maintenance capabilities.

Some of the recommendations conveyed below

make reference to the Implementation

Guidelines chapter. The implementation projects

provide specific guidance regarding the actions

required to implement the treatment plan.

Nashville Pike Unit

The goal of treatment in this area is to replicate

as closely as possible the spatial organization and

character of the battlefield as it appeared in 1862,

primarily through the rehabilitation of

vegetation, interpretation of missing features,

and enhancement of the legibility of resources

surviving from the Civil War era. Within this

character area, visitors will have an opportunity

to become oriented to the park and its

interpretive program, determine a course for

experiencing the unit’s resources, follow that

course, and be provided with information

sufficient to make an informed decision about

how to approach the park’s other units and

resources and to place these within an overall

interpretive and spatial context. This character

area will provide opportunities for all visitors to

gain a comprehensive understanding of the battle

and its role within the events of the Western

Theater and will offer opportunities for

resource-based interpretation at various tour

stops. The unit will also provide opportunities

for contemplation, commemoration, and access

to educational and interpretive features, with the

Battle of Stones River as a primary focus.

Specific treatment recommendations are as

follows:

Spatial Organization

z Remove existing non-contributing forest

stands south of the existing tour road and

west of the Visitor Center as possible, taking

into consideration natural resource values

such as the high quality of the stand located

southwest of the Michigan marker fields and

tour loop. One of the non-contributing

stands west of the Visitor Center may harbor

a rare woodland vine. If this vine is

determined to be present, mitigation could

include planting in other locations.

z Reestablish areas of missing forest cover

along the western boundary of the unit. This

will enhance the interpretation of the

Pioneer Brigade earthwork by recreating its

historic viewshed, and also help screen

incompatible views of adjacent

development.

z Further reestablish historic fence lines to

delineate historic patterns of spatial

organization, particularly along the southern

ends of Van Cleve Lane and the nearby farm

fields recommended for reestablishment.

z Consider creative ways of depicting the

spatial qualities of missing farmsteads and

commercial buildings. For example, mark

missing house or outbuilding locations on

the ground, create three-dimensional frame

(ghost) structures, or mow former farmyard

areas in a distinctive fashion. Farmsteads

and commercial buildings to be depicted in

this manner might include the cabins in the

southern portion of the unit, the toll house/

gate, the Hunt House, and the log house

located along the Old Nashville Highway.

The sites of the Cowan and Blanton Houses

lie outside of the current park boundaries

but could be interpreted from within the

park. An improved interpretive wayside is

already planned for the toll house site, and

the park has developed an initial wayside

exhibit proposal that considers the most

significant battlefield features for

interpretation. Before undertaking any new
TREATMENT PLAN

166 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

interpretive measures that depict missing

spatial qualities, ensure that sufficient

documentation is available to accurately

depict their character and location. Conduct

archeological surveys before undertaking

ground-disturbing activities for installation

of interpretive features depicting historic

patterns of spatial organization of elements

such as foundation remains, road traces, and

fence lines.

Natural Systems and Features

z Consider immediate stabilization actions for

the cedar glades to prevent further decline.

Immediate stabilization would entail removal

of all Chinese privet and any other identified

invasives and thinning of Eastern red cedar

populations where they have encroached

upon the glades.

z Develop a long-term treatment plan for the

park’s cedar glades. Of critical concern is

removing non-native species and

encroaching trees and shrubs to enhance the

ecological health of cedar glade

communities. Consider carefully the

potential for using fire as a vegetation

management tool in the surrounding

communities, including cedar woodlands,

mixed hardwood forest, and xeric limestone

prairie.

z Protect the native plant populations of the

glades, which are susceptible to damage from

foot and/or equipment traffic.

z Educate visitors and hikers about the

sensitive nature of the glade communities

and the damage that foot traffic can cause.

z Limit pedestrian access to the glades.

Consider re-routing the Boundary Trail

around the glades but allow visitors to view

into at least one glade from the edge to afford

interpretive opportunities.

z Avoid using mowers, tractors, and other

heavy equipment in and around glades.

z Develop and implement a protocol for

periodic monitoring of the condition of the

glades. Include the existing protocol for

biological and photographic monitoring.

Vegetation

z Remove invasive plant species from cedar

brakes and rehabilitate the margins of these

communities along interpretive routes to

approximate the landscape conditions

during the battle. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance. In particular, increase the

density of Eastern red cedars within the core

of the unit in areas where they will be most

highly viewed by visitors (along the tour road

and particularly near the proposed Tour Stop

No. 3). Where this objective conflicts with

glade restoration, focus cedar infill only

along forest edges where interpretive tour

stops occur.

z Control growth of invasive species such as

Chines privet. (Refer to the Implementation

Guidelines chapter for further guidance.)

z Continue the native warm-season grass

conversion process already begun, and

ensure that newly reestablished fields are

also planted with native warm-season

grasses. This program could include the

activities and techniques described below:

 Refer to the latest literature for guidance

regarding appropriate methods for

enhancing diversity in native plantings.

 Continue prescribed fire activities and

attempt to burn annually or as frequently

as fuel loads and/or park resources

permit, following the park’s Fire

Management Plan.

 Remove, mechanically or by hand,

shrubs that cannot be controlled by fire.

Shrubs will become less of an issue with

more frequent prescribed fire use.

Coordinate herbicide applications as

necessary to augment mechanical

removal.

 Continue efforts to control the growth of

invasive species, particularly Johnson

grass (Sorghum halpense) and sericea

lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata).

z Consider establishing new crop exhibit areas

in association with the interpretation of the
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 167

missing cabins and fencing in the southern

portion of the unit.

Circulation

z Rehabilitate the eastern portion of the

existing tour road that will be integrated into

the new tour route by reestablishing natural

hydrological processes that are currently

impeded by the road corridor. Utilize

pervious or porous pavement wherever

possible, design the road grades to conform

to the site’s inherent hydrology, and

establish filter strips and vegetated swales to

promote infiltration of stormwater at the

margins of the road corridor.

z Consider alternatives for the surfacing of

Van Cleve Lane to accommodate the new

tour road route that are as visually and

environmentally sensitive as possible.

Consider a range of paving materials that are

more compatible with the historic scene

than traditional asphalt. Avoid paving Van

Cleve Lane in a manner that is consistent

with the character of the surrounding public

road corridors, particularly blue-hued

asphalt. Consider selecting paving materials

or finishes that are warm-hued and muted in

color. Alternatives include stabilized soil,

which entails adding a binding agent to soil;

porous pavements, such as crushed stone,

which minimize run-off by allowing water to

percolate into the ground; unit pavers,

which can serve as a pervious pavement

when set in sand; resin-based pavement that

utilizes non-petroleum-based resin to bind

any color of aggregate into a hard-surface

pavement; or exposed-aggregate finished

concrete. Establish the narrowest width

necessary for the road corridor to

accommodate visitor access and safety

needs to limit its visual intrusion on the

historic scene. Avoid curb and gutter and

ditching to manage stormwater associated

with the road corridor. Wherever possible,

direct stormwater to flow across broad,

shallowly-sloped field and meadow areas to

encourage infiltration into the ground.

z Consider removing the existing surface

material from the unused portions of Van

Cleve Lane and restoring the historic

roadbed. Continue to maintain the margins

of the trace for three feet to either side by

cutting vegetation to the height of a

brushhog blade. Avoid managing the trace

with a manicured appearance. Repair

drainage and erosion problems and uneven

surfacing to ensure their suitability for

pedestrian use.

z Consider restoring the segment of Van Cleve

Lane located to the north of the Old

Nashville Highway and within the park

boundaries. Conduct archeological

investigations to determine the historic

alignment of the road corridor. Evaluate the

stone-lined ditches to either side of the road

to determine their date of origin. Follow the

recommendations included herein for

restoring the historic roadbed of Van Cleve

Lane to the south in order to similarly

restore this portion of the road corridor.

Retain and maintain the ditches as part of

the restoration of the road if they are found

to contribute to its historic significance.

z Consider removing unnecessary asphalt

from the edges of the existing tour road

when the new route is established, and

convert the western segment into an eightfoot wide paved pedestrian trail. Reduce the

height of the current roadbed that is to be

converted to a trail to that of the

surrounding landscape. Refer to the “Tour

Road Plan” for more specific guidance on

this issue.

z Consider various options for accessing the

Pioneer Brigade Earthworks, including

converting Nickens Lane or one of the other

existing access drives in the area to a

pedestrian trail as part of a loop trail that

connects to a trail leading to the Visitor

Center. Refer to the Implementation

Guidelines chapter for further guidance.

Refer to the “Tour Road Plan” for more

specific guidance on this issue.

z Ensure that any new trail segments

recommended in the 2005 DCP/EA have as

minimal an impact on the landscape as

possible. The trails should be accessible only

to pedestrians and persons with disabilities.

The trail system should include a series of

universally accessible interpreted segments
TREATMENT PLAN

168 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

tied to parking areas and to the less formal

back-country trail beyond.

z Engage an archeologist to conduct on-site

investigations to determine any potential

impact on cultural resources prior to

construction of new trails.

z Consider minor adjustments to the DCP/EA

preferred alternative tour route (Alternative

C) to better utilize the features and

characteristics of the cultural landscape for

interpretation. Recommendations are as

follows:

 After reestablishing the density of the

cedar forest and reestablishing the

historic field patterns on the south end

of the unit, utilize Tour Stop No. 3 to

interpret the dense cedar brake

vegetation encountered by the troops in

this location, the cabins and corn fields

that comprised the agricultural

landscape that became the battlefield,

and the limestone outcropping and

terrain influences.

 Consider adding another wayside along

Van Cleve Lane to interpret the African

American community established here

after the Civil War.

Buildings and Structures

z Consider as part of the park interpretive

plan various means for interpreting the

buildings and structures that were present at

the time of the battle but are no longer

extant: the toll house/gate, cabins in

southern portion of the park’s Nashville

Pike unit, log house along the pike, Hunt

House, Blockhouse, Cowan House, Blanton

House, and the peach orchard through

various means, including foundation

outlines, wayside exhibits, ghost structures,

holograms, historic photographs, or

illustrations depicting an artist’s rendering

of the character of these former structures.

Some of these buildings and structures were

located outside of the current park

boundaries; interpretation could occur from

adjacent locations on park property. Avoid

reconstructing these features unless specific

information about their appearance at the

time of the battle is acquired through

documentary or archeological research.

Views

z Install 50- to 100-foot-wide vegetative

buffers comprised of a layered, informal but

relatively dense, planting of native evergreen

and deciduous trees and shrubs to screen

incompatible views of modern development

from the Tour Route and tour stops. In

particular, screen specific incompatible

views along the south park boundary at

Wilkinson Pike, along either side of the Old

Nashville Highway west of Thompson Lane,

and along the northwest property line.

Maintain open site lines where

interpretation is desirable and views are

compatible with the historic scene, such as

the view south to the Wilkinson Pike. Refer

to the Implementation Guidelines chapter

for further guidance.

z Reestablish the important viewshed looking

north/northwest from the future Tour Stop

No. 2 (Slaughter Pen/Sill’s Death—

Confederate Views) to provide interpretation

of sight lines integral to the battle events of

December 1862–January 1863.

z Protect open views available from within the

Nashville Pike unit towards and along the

Old Nashville Highway. Undertake periodic

maintenance to prevent vegetation from

obscuring views.

Small-scale Features

z Reestablish, once historic field patterns are

reintroduced, worm rail fences that were

present in 1863 along both sides of Van Cleve

Lane and within the south end of the unit

just to the west of Van Cleve Lane. Ensure,

before establishing these fences, that

sufficient documentation is available to

replicate their appearance and locations in

1863 and sufficient funding is available for

their upkeep and maintenance. Where

insufficient documentation exists to

accurately depict the missing fence lines,

consider the following alternatives: mark

fencelines with simple bollards or posts;

mark fencelines with a planting that

establishes a contrasting texture or color to
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 169

surrounding vegetation; or mark fencelines

with a linear system of simple, low, masonry

features or stone.

z Replace worm rail fencing currently being

used to delineate park boundaries and/or as

traffic control devices where historic fencing

is known not to exist as these features are

misleading to the visitor. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance.

z Establish new waysides in the least intrusive

manner possible to fulfill proposed new

interpretive goals.

z Consider placing additional cannon, or

metal silhouettes similar to those used at

Cowpens National Battlefield, at sites where

artillery is known to have been utilized

during the battle and primary trails or roads

provide access to the location.

z Develop a consistent design palate for site

furnishings within the park to unify the

character of the park landscape. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for more

information.

z Protect and interpret the Pioneer Brigade

earthworks by removing large trees (twelve

inches or more in diameter measured at

breast height) from the parapets and ditches

of earthworks. Retain large trees located

around its immediate perimeter to provide

ample leaf litter for protection from soil

erosion. Refer to the Earthworks

Management Guidelines for the Fortress

Rosecrans unit at the end of this chapter and

the Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance.

Interpretation

z Consider interpreting missing land uses,

such as agriculture, throughout the park, as

delineated in the park’s interpretive plan.

z Interpret a new exhibit of the cabin site and

the fencing that encompassed the dwelling

precinct, as delineated in the park’s

interpretive plan.

z Create an interpretive exhibit that conveys

the history of the former toll house, as

delineated in the park’s interpretive plan.

z Interpret the African American community

that was established after the Civil War and

which was subsequently removed as part of

the establishment of the park.

Visitor Center and Environs

This part of the park is the primary interface

between the NPS and the visitor. In addition to

visitor services, this character area houses park

administration and maintenance functions. A

host of activities and functions occur within this

part of the park that require a unique graphic

identity to help direct visitors, accommodate

their needs, and facilitate park administration

and maintenance. The recommended treatment

for this area is to ensure that it remains a welldesigned facility that accommodates all current

and anticipated needs, using a palette of

materials that is simple, contemporary, a

product of its own time, and reflective of local

and regional character. Development within this

area should conform to NPS standards, yet

convey a unique graphic identity that can be

utilized in the design of all contemporary

additions to the park.

Developed during the Mission 66 era, when

locating the primary visitor contact facility to

include a view of the most important park

resources was a highly desirable condition, the

visitor center has the potential to interfere with

the legibility and interpretation of the battlefield.

Diminishing its visual impact on the tour road

and key interpretive tour stops is a desired

condition. Another goal for this area is to limit

the environmental impact of this developed area

on nearby natural resources. To this end, the

consideration of sustainability and the

promotion of green principles in the design and

maintenance of the complex are recommended.

Spatial Organization

z Allow for views of the surrounding

battlefield but diminish the impact of the

Visitor Center on views from the Old

Nashville Highway and tour road through

screening and other means.
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170 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

Natural Systems and Features

z Control stormwater run-off from existing

and future parking areas. Consider utilizing

vegetated swales, planted filter strips, rain

gardens, and other environmentally friendly

means for reducing run-off and pollution

and promoting stormwater infiltration on

site rather than using a closed system of

pipes that direct water to drainage corridors.

z Explore the option of using permeable

materials for paving parking areas and all

pedestrian circulation routes to minimize

run-off and enhance infiltration of

stormwater.

z Minimize soil disturbance and grading when

introducing new site developments such as

parking, paths, and trails.

z Mitigate the impact of grading for new

facilities by conducting archeological

investigations prior to construction.

Vegetation

z Replace existing plantings associated with

the Visitor Center that depend on irrigation,

fertilizer, or pesticides.

z Diminish the area around the Visitor Center

maintained in cool season turf grass. Replace

with warm season grass fields.

z Maintain lawn areas with less frequent,

higher mowings to allow for better

infiltration.

z Plant only native species in this zone. Avoid

fescue turf and replace if possible. Consider

suitable non-invasive species as alternatives

to fescue to minimize the introduction of

invasive plants and reduce mowing costs.

z Assess the condition of trees within this zone

in consultation with a certified arborist.

Determine whether they pose any threat or

hazard to individuals or the buildings.

Remove hazardous plants and those that may

threaten the stability of buildings.

Circulation

z Retain the park’s primary visitor parking area

in association with the Visitor Center.

z Minimize the impermeable paved surface

area of any parking and access routes.

Whenever possible, utilize materials such as

gravel, stabilized stone dust, stabilized turf,

and permeable paving that reduce

stormwater by allowing modest infiltration.

z Investigate the use of stabilized gravel for

vehicular access surfaces.

z Mitigate the potential increase in stormwater

run-off associated with parking area

expansion using filter strips, grass swales, or

other means that limit the use of closed

systems that concentrate flow and increase

direct flow into stream corridors. Encourage

infiltration of stormwater wherever possible.

Views

z Add new features in such a way as to be as

unobtrusive as possible. Consider views

from the battlefield core area in their design

and siting.

z Consider carefully the extent of the screen

planting between the Visitor Center/parking

area and the beginning of the tour road to

determine how well it is screening views.

Reduce the area of this screen planting if it is

found to be unnecessarily large.

Small-scale Features

z Use site furnishings that are compatible with

the character of the park in design and

materials. Ensure that the style of site

furnishing is uniform throughout the park to

avoid a disjointed appearance. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance.

z Keep signage minimal and unified in style.

Most of the signage in this zone will relate to

the park’s identity or be directional and

regulatory in nature. Any interpretive

waysides should follow the same guidelines

as set forth in the Nashville Pike unit section.

TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 173

McFadden Farm Unit Character

Area

The goal of treatment in this area is to replicate

as closely as possible the spatial organization and

character of the battlefield as it appeared in 1862,

while at the same time balancing the needs for

natural resource protection. Because much of

this unit lies within the Stones River floodplain, it

is neither feasible nor recommended that historic

land cover conditions be completely

reestablished in this unit, even though this area

was entirely maintained as cleared agricultural

land during the battle. Clearing the existing tree

cover would remove important riparian

vegetation that protects the soils from erosion,

acts as a buffer to protect water quality, and

provides important wildlife habitat. As two small

depressional wetlands also exist within this area,

the opportunity exists to further enhance their

ecological value by improving the quality of

vegetation around them and reinforcing their

connection to the larger hydrologic system.

In areas where non-contributing vegetation

serves less of an ecological function, it is

recommended that it be removed, and open field

conditions be reestablished to more accurately

reflect conditions at the time of the battle. This

includes wooded areas located around the dump

sites on lands recently acquired by the park, as

well as the remnant hedgerows at the southern

end of this unit.

The treatment concept for this unit also seeks to

better interpret missing features from the battle

period. These include the McFadden farmstead,

as well as the historic road corridor, now a paved

trail, leading north from Van Cleve Lane to an

unnamed ford across Stones River. The specific

treatment recommendations outlined below

build upon the preferred alternative outlined in

the DCP/EA, as well as subsequent updates to

the concept plans for parking and circulation.

Spatial Organization

z Remove the existing (non-contributing)

hedgerows south and east of Van Cleve

Lane, as well as stands of non-contributing

vegetation surrounding the dump site, once

this feature has been remediated. Reestablish

these areas in native grasses and forbs to

interpret historic agricultural fields at the

time of the battle. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance.

Natural Features and Systems

z Retain a 100-foot minimum buffer of the

existing forest cover edging the river as a

riparian buffer. Remove invasive species.

Where view corridors are desirable for

interpretation, limb up existing trees, and/or

remove smaller trees and shrubs to establish

limited, specific viewing opportunities.

z Maintain a 50-foot minimum buffer along

the perimeter of the depressional wetlands

and ensure connectivity of these areas with

the riparian buffer and riverine wetlands

along the river. Rehabilitate the vegetation

within this zone by removing and managing

invasive exotic species and planting native

wetland plants. This recommendation has

already been approved for PMIS funding in

2008.

Vegetation

z Continue to work to control invasive plant

species within the unit. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance.

z Remove non-contributing woodland that

does not serve as riparian buffer or another

role in the protection of natural resources.

z Maintain a riparian buffer that includes

trees and shrubs in association with the

pond located within the McFadden Farm

unit.

z Continue the native warm-season grass

conversion process already begun, and

ensure that newly reestablished fields are

also planted with native warm-season

grasses. This program could include the

activities and techniques described below:

 Seed regularly with wildflowers and

other forbs. It is recommended that the

program include regular enhancement

seedings (even if relatively small in

quantity) rather than an occasional mass

enhancement seeding.
TREATMENT PLAN

174 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

 Continue prescribed fire activities and

attempt to burn annually or as frequently

as fuel loads and/or park resources

permit, following the park’s Fire

Management Plan.

 Remove, mechanically or by hand,

shrubs that cannot be controlled by fire.

Shrubs will become less of an issue with

more frequent prescribed fire use.

Coordinate herbicide applications as

necessary to augment mechanical

removal.

 Continue efforts to control the growth of

invasive species, particularly Johnson

grass (Sorghum halpense) and sericea

lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata).

z Consider establishing new crop exhibit areas

in association with the interpretation of the

missing McFadden Farmstead and fencing

within the unit.

z Diminish the area maintained in cool season

turf grass. Replace with native species as

possible.

z Maintain turf areas with less frequent, higher

mowings to allow for better infiltration.

z Plant only native species in this zone. Avoid

fescue turf and replace if possible. Consider

suitable non-invasive species as alternatives

to fescue to minimize the introduction of

invasive plants and reduce mowing costs.

z Assess the condition of trees within this

visitor use area in consultation with a

certified arborist. Determine whether they

pose any threat or hazard to individuals or

the monument. Remove trees determined to

pose a hazard or threat.

Circulation

z After the new tour road is constructed,

remove the asphalt surface from Van Cleve

Lane within the park boundary and

rehabilitate the corridor to reflect the

character found along the historic road trace

leading to the river.

z Remediate the existing dump site. Conduct

archeological investigations to determine the

location of and reestablish the historic

unimproved road trace north of the bend in

Van Cleve Lane. Reestablish the route as a

pedestrian trail connection to the greenway.

Consider interpreting the ford historically

located in this vicinity.

z Minimize the impact on the landscape of any

new trail segments recommended in the

2005 DCP/EA. The trails should be

accessible only to pedestrians and persons

with disabilities. Refer to the Implementation

Guidelines chapter for further guidance.

z Establish native grasses and forbs on the site

of the existing parking area north of the

Artillery Monument after the proposed new

parking area is established. Refer to the

Implementation Guidelines chapter for

further guidance.

Buildings and Structures

z Preserve, protect, and maintain the Artillery

Monument, which survives from the

commemorative period of significance.

z Implement a treatment plan to address the

deteriorated coating and concrete on the

monument. Short term repairs may include

cleaning and localized repair and recoating

of the monument shaft, and removal and

replacement of severely cracked concrete at

the monument base. Long term repairs, to be

determined by a close-up inspection, may

include removal of the existing coating from

the monument shaft; repair of cracks; repair

of spalls using formed patches; and

installation of a new coating system.

z Interpret the missing buildings, structures,

and the agricultural/domestic landscape

associated with the McFadden farmstead

through enhanced wayside exhibits or

waysides depicting an artist’s rendering of

the character of these former structures. As

this site has been heavily modified by the

construction of the Artillery Monument, no

three-dimensional representation or

reconstruction of these missing features is

recommended.

TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 177

Views

z Continue to remove invasive species to

afford more opportunities for visitors to

view the river. Maintain the integrity of the

existing woody riparian buffer. As noted

above, consider establishing specific view

areas by thinning understory vegetation,

limbing up trees, and, as a last resort,

selectively removing trees to open up views

of the river. Refer to the Implementation

Guidelines chapter for further guidance.

z Screen the proposed parking area, to be

established south of Van Cleve Lane, from

important views available from north. Refer

to the Implementation Guidelines chapter

for further guidance.

z Screen the existing industrial buildings

located to the south of the unit boundary as

this will become the primary entrance zone.

Refer to the Implementation Guidelines

chapter for further guidance.

Small-scale Features

z Continue to preserve and maintain, as a

courtesy and as possible, the features

associated with the McFadden family

cemetery, including the headstones and the

tree, which are not owned by the park.

Repair any condition-related problems

associated with the headstones.

z Develop a consistent design palate for site

furnishings within the park to unify the

character of the park landscape. Refer to the

implementation recommendations for more

information.

z Place additional cannon, or metal

silhouettes, within this character area to

represent important artillery positions

during the Battle of Stones River.

Archeological Features

z Continue to preserve and protect, as a

courtesy and as possible, the archeological

resources associated with the McFadden

family cemetery, which is not owned by the

park.

z Engage an archeologist to conduct on-site

investigations to determine any potential

impact on cultural resources prior to

construction of new trails.
TREATMENT PLAN

178 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

General Rosecrans’s Headquarters

Site

The goal of treatment in this small parcel is to

retain and maintain features established to mark

and commemorate the location of Union

General Rosecrans’s Headquarters during the

Battle of Stones River. Another goal of treatment

is to diminish the visual impact of the various

non-contributing features and land uses on

adjacent parcels and to provide opportunities for

contemplation, commemoration, and access to

educational and interpretive features, with the

Battle of Stones River as a primary focus.

Treatment recommendations suggest that the

park consider enhancing interpretation within

this area.

z Preserve and maintain the pyramidal

cannonball monument that marks the site of

Union General Rosecrans’s Headquarters

during the Battle of Stones River.

z Preserve and maintain the concrete walk to

and around the monument.

z Preserve and maintain the open character of

the parcel established through mown grass

ground cover.

z Consider replacing existing fescue turf grass

with buffalo grass and/or blue grama or

other non-invasive turf grass. Avoid frequent

mowing and an overly manicured

appearance.

z Consider working with the adjacent land

owner to remove existing weedy vegetative

growth along the chain-link fence that marks

the property boundary and replace it with an

evergreen screen planting to hide the quarry

tailings beyond.

z Consider replacing existing chain link

fencing with a simple board privacy fence,

approximately four feet in height, that is

edged on the adjacent property with a

planting of Eastern red cedars or other

native tree species that will support

screening of the quarry.

z Consider removing the hedge planting along

the parking area associated with the

monument.

z Consider integrating the parcel into the park

tour route and enhancing interpretation as

part of the interpretive plan.

z Consider alternatives for marking the road

corridor connecting the Nashville Pike unit

and the Rosecrans Headquarters parcel. See

section on “Connections between

Noncontiguous Park Units and Parcels” in

this chapter for more information.

General Bragg’s Headquarters Site

The goal of treatment in this area is to retain and

maintain features established within this small

parcel to mark and commemorate the location of

Confederate General Bragg’s Headquarters

during the Battle of Stones River. Another goal of

treatment is to diminish the visual impact of the

various non-contributing features and land uses

on adjacent parcels and to provide opportunities

for contemplation, commemoration, and access

to educational and interpretive features, with the

Battle of Stones River as a primary focus.

Treatment recommendations suggest that the

park consider enhancing interpretation within

this area.

z Preserve and maintain the pyramidal

cannonball monument that marks the site of

Confederate General Bragg’s Headquarters

during the Battle of Stones River.

z Preserve and maintain the open character of

the parcel established through mown grass

ground cover.

z Consider replacing existing fescue turf grass

with buffalo grass and/or blue grama, or

other non-invasive turf grass. Avoid frequent

mowing and an overly manicured

appearance.

z Consider working with the adjacent land

owners to maintain the surrounding open

character of nearby parcels that approximate

the open agricultural character of the

landscape during the Battle of Stones River.

z Maintain, for screening purposes, the rows

of trees that edge the parcel. Replace trees

that have died or are in decline with a mix of

native species including Eastern red cedar.


TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 181

z Replace the wooden worm fencing that

encloses the parcel with a contemporary

fence type that will not be confused with

historic fencing.

z Consider working with the City of

Murfreesboro to enhance screening of the

new dog park to maintain the quality and

character of views within the General Bragg’s

Headquarters unit.

z Coordinate with the Friends of the

Greenway in their efforts to restore native

plant species in this area.

z Work with the City of Murfreesboro to

ensure that proposed changes to the parking

area and Stones River Greenway Trailhead

are compatible with the historic character of

the site and its resources.

z Consider integrating the parcel into the park

tour route. Consider alternatives for marking

the road corridor connecting the Nashville

Pike unit, Hazen Brigade Monument, and

the Bragg Headquarters parcel. See section

on “Connections between Noncontiguous

Park Units and Parcels” in this chapter for

more information.

Hazen Brigade Monument

The goal of treatment in this area is to retain and

maintain the commemorative features of the 1863

monument and the contemplative character of its

setting. Enhancement of features associated with

the battle, such as views of the rail line and the

Round Forest, and mitigation of views of noncontributing features on adjacent properties are

the focus of treatment in this area.

z Preserve and maintain the stone monument,

surrounding stone wall, and gravestones that

comprise the existing Hazen Brigade

Monument.

z Enhance the woodland area adjacent to the

monument to more closely approximate the

configuration and composition of the

Round Forest present at the time of the

battle.

z Monitor the condition of the masonry on the

Hazen Brigade Monument and the stone

headstones. Perform materials studies

(petrographic examination) to evaluate

potential conservation treatments to address

ongoing preferential weathering and

associated spalling of the limestone

monument and markers and erosion of the

marble markers.

z Undertake preservation measures to ensure

that the headstones located within this unit

are protected from further deterioration.

z Continue to provide interpretive information

at the monument for visitors.

z Retain at least a partial and directed view of

the rail line from the monument, a view that

was afforded during the battle period.

z Retain or establish at least a directed view

from the monument toward the open fields

of the Nashville Pike unit as an interpretive

link to historic views of the battlefield

landscape.

z Screen views of the adjacent factory from the

monument. Utilize evergreen tree plantings

to establish the screen. Consider planting the

trees in such a way as to suggest the missing

Round Forest that is known to have existed

in this general location during the Battle of

Stones River. Consider working with

adjacent property owners to establish the

screen planting, a portion of which may need

to be located off park property to be

effective.

z Retain and maintain the otherwise open

character of the parcel established through

mown grass ground cover, with limbed up

ornamental and shade trees extending over a

portion of the site.

z Screen views of the Thompson Lane

overpass from the monument. Install an

evergreen screen planting on the northern

side of Old Nashville Highway along the

eastern edge of the site. Consider working

with adjacent property owners to establish

the screen planting, a portion of which may

need to be located off park property to be

effective.

TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 183

z Ensure that the parcel is integrated in the

overall park tour route and pedestrian trail

system for the park.

z Work with the Tennessee Department of

Transportation to establish traffic calming

measures in the vicinity of the Hazen

Brigade Monument parking area to enhance

its safety for visitors.

z Consider establishing a contemplative node

within this unit to allow for reflection. Refer

to the Implementation Guidelines chapter

for further guidance.

Fortress Rosecrans

Earthworks Management Issues

Protection and preservation of the remnant

earthen fortification resources at Fortress

Rosecrans is an important component of the

park’s stewardship of Stones River National

Battlefield resources. If the earthworks are lost

through erosion and destruction due to access by

visitors and park staff, the site’s ability to convey

its significant Civil War story will be severely

compromised. Working against preservation

efforts are natural forces, such as erosion and

windthrow of trees, as well as cultural activities,

such as damage to earthworks from trampling.

The most effective earthworks management

scheme will mitigate both types of events

through resource maintenance and monitoring

and visitor education and control.

Because any ecological system is, by nature,

dynamic and complex, vegetation management is

typically one of the most critical and difficult

aspects of managing earthworks. Vegetation

management strategies must be considered in

conjunction with the management of cultural

resources, such as the earthworks, as well as

visitor access, safety, and interpretation.

Vegetation management strategies can vary

widely in their associated needs. Prior to

implementing any vegetation management

strategies, maintenance cost estimates must also

be developed and taken into consideration.

Vegetation management strategies must also take

aesthetics into consideration. Plants have the

potential to detract from or enhance

interpretation and to affect the visitor’s

impression of the property. Vegetation

maintenance and management can be

undertaken in such a way as to enhance or screen

views and to elicit a sense of mystery, awe,

surprise, or beauty. These qualities may be

created or established through simple

maintenance practices, such as the removal of

dead trees near well-visited areas of the park,

selective thinning of vegetation for directed

views, and choice of ground cover for the

earthworks.

The best method for protecting and preserving

these fragile resources is the perpetuation or

establishment of vegetative cover that has the

ability to retain soil. The two vegetative

communities that best serve to protect earthen

fortifications are grass or grass/forb cover and

relatively mature forest. These two communities

function very differently in the way they protect

soil resources, and they also require different

management strategies to perpetuate them. Both

community types are represented and

maintained in association with the earthworks at

Fortress Rosecrans.

Another management issue associated with the

protection of earthworks is the problem of

burrowing animals, such as groundhogs. These

animals burrow into the side slopes and tops of

the earthworks, creating mounds of compacted

earth and tunnels. Site managers must address

control of animal burrowing using an integrated

pest management approach.

The park has already undertaken most of the

steps necessary for appropriate management

and maintenance of the earthworks associated

with Fortress Rosecrans suggested herein. Due

to the success of these management practices,

the treatment recommendations included below

are to be considered when conditions change,

problems arise, or in making minor possible

adjustments to existing conditions. They also

apply to the future management and

maintenance of the Pioneer Brigade Earthworks.

Archeological Resources Management

Issues

Surviving Civil War earthworks are an

archeological resource. Soil erosion caused by

exposure of the fortifications to stormwater or

visitor access is of great concern due to its

potential for destroying archeological resources
TREATMENT PLAN

184 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

in a short amount of time. Soil erosion can be

mitigated by maintaining a protective vegetative

cover as discussed above, by preventing visitors

from interacting with the earthworks, and by

periodically monitoring the earthworks for signs

of erosion to promote early mitigation of

problems. Monitoring requires that a baseline of

resource information be available to compare

conditions over time. Establishment of the

baseline information may include photography

from consistent viewpoints, and measurement

of the existing soil profiles and their crosssections.

The key to archeological site preservation is

avoidance of subsurface disturbance. Thus, the

best soil management strategy for archeological

site preservation is that which involves the least

disturbance. Maintaining grass is an excellent

strategy for preserving subsurface archeological

resources. Mown or unmown field grasses

protect resources from erosion or other surface

disturbance. Land maintained in forest is likely

to preserve archeological integrity, except where

a lack of plant cover allows for soil erosion. In

addition, growing tree roots do have the

potential to penetrate and disturb features.

When trees are uprooted, significant

disturbance is caused within and around the

root ball. In addition, removal of trees by means

that uproot trees and plants or scrape the

ground are destructive practices, and grinding

stumps causes significant disturbance for several

feet around the stump.

General Recommendations for

Fortress Rosecrans Resources

Natural Resources

z Evaluate, through review by a qualified

archeologist, the threat posed by areas of

standing water associated with the

fortification remnants that are not

considered wetlands, but are present yearround. Standing water has the potential to

kill the vegetation intended to protect the

earthworks, exposing soil to erosion. Wet

soil is also more easily dislodged and

disturbed by pedestrian and vehicular

traffic. Water that undergoes freezing and

thawing cycles can also disturb the historic

soil profile of earthworks. Consider a range

of alternatives for mitigating any problems

identified through evaluation of this

condition, including pumping, installing

drain tile, or utilizing a dry well or cistern

system

Vegetation

z Utilize vegetative filter strips and other runoff filtering methods in order to slow, collect,

and filter water that drains from parking

areas. Filter strips should be sited on the

downslope edges of parking areas, or where

the highest volume and quickest velocity of

run-off occurs.

Buildings and Structures

z Interpret missing features associated with

Fortress Rosecrans.

Site Access

z Consider including alternative interpretive

materials at the entrances for physicallyimpaired persons who are unable to

experience the entire site. Alternative

materials may include pamphlets, a wayside

describing the site’s history and features,

and/or a site model.

z Consider offering materials for the visuallyimpaired. Include Braille on the waysides,

offer audio-tapes, and/or install a

“touchable” model of the fortifications.

Circulation

z Consider edging trails with a simple,

unobtrusive treatment that will reinforce the

need for visitors to stay on the trail.

Examples include log edging, low bollards,

and rocks.

z Consider installing a simple handrail or

barrier/fence where the trail comes within

close proximity of a fragile or sensitive

resource. Generally, visitors are more

inclined to try and access the earthworks

when the trail comes within twenty-five feet

of the resource.
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 185

Views and Vistas

z Screen incompatible views using native

vegetation.

z Utilize screening methods that blend with

the surrounding character of the site, such as

native vegetation, and that do not become a

secondary visual intrusion.

z Retain the partially-screened views of the

golf course. Although the golf course is not

historic, it does permit long views from the

lunettes and Curtain Wall No. 2 that can be

interpreted. Retain these views by

periodically thinning vegetation when it

threatens to obscure the view of the golf

course. Utilize vegetation removal

techniques described earlier in this chapter.

Small-scale Features

z Install the least intrusive site furnishings—

benches, trash receptacles, directional and

regulatory signage, and bollards—possible

when accommodating anticipated visitor

needs.

z Ensure that any new site furnishings are

compatible with the natural and historic

character of the site, but cannot be confused

with historic features. Select furnishings that

are simple in design and either dark or

earth-toned in color. Avoid features that are

brightly colored, overly ornate, or contain

reflective or shiny surfaces.

Land Use

z Monitor local zoning boards and planning

committees for nearby adjacent development

that may adversely impact the character and

cultural resources of the site. Consider

participating in the early stages of any

development plans.

Archeological Resources

z Protect, stabilize, and maintain all known

and potential archeological resources.

z Evaluate archeological sites to determine

visitor safety and resource protection

concerns.

z Incorporate archeology into long-term plans

for protection, maintenance, and

interpretation of the site.

z Avoid re-grading or filling any historically

significant earthen form.

z Avoid establishing trails in areas associated

with known sensitive archeological

resources.

z Monitor water resource margins for erosion

and associated emerging archeological

resources.

z Undertake remote sensing studies using

ground-penetrating radar to aid in the

location of additional archeological

resources.

z Develop a protocol for measuring erosion

associated with the earthworks. Monitor the

earthworks periodically for signs of soil

erosion and damage from humans, animals,

and tree fall. Adjust the monitoring schedule

as needed to ensure protection of the

archeological resources.

z Consider measures to enhance the security

of archeological resources, including the

placement of signage and establishing a

community watch group.

z Discourage relic hunting within the park.

Post signage indicating that disturbing the

ground and removing artifacts is illegal.

z Prevent trees from growing on or near

artillery platforms. Periodically monitor the

artillery platforms for vegetative growth, and

remove saplings and young vegetation by

hand or chemically before their root systems

have had a chance to take hold in the

platform soil.

z Use vegetative litter, including leaf litter and

native hay and straw from fields that have

been inspected by natural resources staff, to

cover bare spots on earthworks not

maintained under grass cover. Ensure that

additional ground is not uncovered when

re-distributing the leaf litter. Periodically

check the thickness of the leaf litter and redress bare spots as needed.
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186 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

z Prevent the buildup of large fuel loads (i.e.,

brush), which can generate excessive heat

when conducting prescribed fire use, as this

can damage archeological resources and

imperil firefighters.

z Undertake additional historical research in

order to answer remaining questions

regarding the earthworks.

z Prepare a ground disturbance policy to be

implemented by park personnel and all

others who will be physically interacting with

the site. Ensure that the ground disturbance

policy includes guidelines regarding what

constitutes ground disturbing activities;

when the site’s managers and an archeologist

should be consulted; what course of action

to take if potential artifacts are uncovered

during ground disturbing activities; and any

other pertinent information that site

managers and cultural resource staff deem

necessary for staff maintaining the

earthworks to understand.

z Protect archeological sites from disturbance,

except for investigations necessary to

address important research questions and to

consider proposed new additions such as

trails and interpretive exhibits, and

vegetation management treatments. Avoid

ground disturbance associated with

archeological excavation unless conducted

in support of collecting essential

information.

z Document all known and potential

archeological resources prior to undertaking

any ground-disturbing activities.

z Engage a qualified archeologist to monitor

any ground-disturbing activities.

z Avoid clearing large areas of deadfall and

leaves in order to conduct a detailed surface

survey. Although this endeavor may promote

research efforts, it may also damage sensitive

cultural resources, and will leave large

portions of the site susceptible to soil

erosion, growth of invasive and exotic plant

species, and trampling by humans and

wildlife. If clearing in this manner is

necessary, limit it to what can be excavated

and researched in one day and replace

stockpiled leaf litter when work is

completed. Alternatives to clearing leaf litter

include remote sensing, shovel testing, and

metal detection.

Recommendations for Earthworks under

Grass Cover

Native grass or grass and forb cover is one of the

best methods for protecting earthworks from soil

erosion. Initially, it can be a great challenge to

quickly establish a functioning, erosioncontrolling grass and forb cover on a site that has

been cleared of trees. One of the more difficult

aspects of establishing and maintaining grass and

forb cover on earthworks includes the protection

of earthen slopes before the grasses have had a

chance to germinate and form a dense root mass.

Also, site managers will need to regularly

suppress woody growth, which has the ability to

displace or replace the grass cover if not kept in

check. To avoid disturbing the soil on the

earthworks, woody growth will likely need to be

controlled through prescribed burns, hand

removal (cutting/trimming) or the application of

an herbicide appropriate for the target species

and selected control method. A maintenance

plan will establish the appropriate number of

mowings/burns annually.

Other problems associated with grass cover

include the fact that grass can act as an

inadvertent invitation for visitors to climb,

recline, or play on the fortification. To curtail

visitor use of sensitive portions of the

earthworks, it is recommended that the grass and

forb cover be allowed to grow to a height that

will deter access. Finally, signs should be placed

in strategic locations to inform visitors of the

fragility of the resource and ask them to refrain

from climbing or walking on the earthworks.

When signs are found to be insufficient in

controlling visitor access, consideration can be

given to establishing a simple barrier system in

locations where visitors are most frequently

leaving the trail to access the resources.

The plant species mix used on the earthworks

should include a diversity of plants that are

native to the ecoregion and are hardy within the

USDA zone. Diversity ensures that the vegetative

community will be resilient to climatic
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 187

fluctuations, such as periods of heat or drought,

or to infestations of a disease or insect.

The grass cover vegetative community that

currently exists and as recommended as part of

this CLR includes areas with two distinct

characters. The first is a tall grass cover on all

areas of the earthworks. The second is a more

closely mown turf cover in areas accessible to

the visitor, such as in association with benches

and alongside trail margins. It is desirable to

maintain a relatively uniform look for the tall

grass cover areas to enhance legibility of the

earthen forms. Use of finely textured grasses

enhances legibility of the fortification more than

coarsely textured species.

For earthworks under grass cover the following

recommendations are intended to address any

problems and situations that may arise:

z Monitor earthworks to identify invasive alien

plant species and woody growth in the grass

cover.

z Remove any invasive alien plant species from

the earthworks prior to seeding operations,

taking care not to disturb the soil. Cut

woody stems by hand so that the remaining

portion is flush with the surrounding grade.

z Eradicate, at a minimum, woody growth and

identified invasive alien plant species

annually using direct application of an

herbicide appropriate for the target species

and selected control method.

z Maintain native grasses whenever possible

through prescribed fire.

z Develop guidelines for how personnel access

the earthworks to ensure that any mowing

activities do not inadvertently lead to soil

erosion.

z Ensure that interpretive trails avoid

traversing the earthwork parapet and ditch

system.

z Encourage visitors to remain on the trail

through informational and regulatory signs

and brochures. Signs and printed brochures

should engender a sense of stewardship for

the fragile earthworks that will dissuade

visitors from climbing on the earthen

structures. Proceed to more restrictive

measures, such as barriers, when signage is

not sufficient in keeping visitors from

accessing the earthworks.

z Establish a one- to three-foot-wide zone of

closely mown turf to either side of the trail

and in association with wayside exhibits, but

allow the grass beyond the mown strip to

grow taller to encourage visitors to remain

on designated trail routes.

z Avoid activities that may alter the existing

landform of the fortification either by earthdisturbing operations or through erosion. All

landforms associated with the fortification

should be identified and protected.

z Avoid founding additional waysides and

wooden bridging or boardwalk systems

within the earthen structure of the

fortification parapet and ditch system.

Founding structures within the earthen

fortification sends a contradictory message

when advising visitors to avoid accessing the

resources.

z Retain and maintain existing grades, except

where drainage or soil erosion problems may

be identified. Avoid removing soil within the

vicinity of the fortification due to the

potential presence of archeological

resources. Use fill to effect positive drainage

as necessary, and possible. If soil is added to

improve drainage or in association with the

establishment of trails and other visitororiented features, the color and/or texture of

the added material should be distinguishable

from the existing material to identify fill as a

non-historic grade.

z Protect the fortification resources from the

destructive actions of animals. Determine

the species associated with evidence of

burrowing within the parapet and ditch.

Establish a cyclical monitoring program to

discourage future use of the fortification as a

burrowing site. Document burrows. Repair

burrow sites and document repair. Utilize

appropriate IPM approaches in dissuading

animals from burrowing in the earthworks.
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188 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

z Consider interpreting missing fortification

features, such as chevaux-de-fraise, abatis,

rifle pits, blockhouses, powder magazines,

artillery platforms, headlogs, and pickets.

z Consider interpreting the integral

relationship between natural resources and

the military engineering of earthworks. Also

consider interpreting the relationship

between existing site conditions and the

design and configuration of the earthworks,

and the possible connection between their

survival and the site’s lack of suitability for

agriculture.

z Consider using models that are accessible

for the visually impaired at each site to

provide three-dimensional depictions of the

earthworks as they originally existed.

z Undertake soil testing to determine the

fertility and composition of the existing soil

in areas where enhancement or replacement

of grass cover is necessary.

z Overseed, in areas where erosion is

occurring, with perennial native grasses and

forbs, and amend the soil as necessary based

on soil testing to ensure that the seed is given

the best possible chance to survive. Consider

the use of a biodegradable protective fabric

or erosion control blanket, hydroseed fiber

mulch, and the inclusion of fast-sowing

annual grasses in the seed mix to ensure

speedy and effective establishment of new

grass cover.

z Consider planting trees in proximity to the

earthworks to provide shade for visitors. Site

trees far enough away from earthworks

maintained in grass cover that they do not

shade out the grass cover or become future

hazards to the earthworks from toppling,

falling limbs, or uprooting.

Recommendations for Earthworks under

Mixed Cover

z See recommendations above for earthworks

under grass cover, and see recommendations

below for earthworks under forest cover.

z Remove all trees from the parapets and

ditches of earthworks maintained under

mixed cover. Trees located in proximity to,

but not on, these features should remain, as

shade is a desirable element in this area of

the park.

Recommendations for Earthworks under

Forest Cover

Maintaining earthworks under forest cover is

another recommended means for protecting

these fragile resources. This option has several

associated vegetation management issues. The

health of the forest must be maintained to ensure

a thick mat of leaf litter, which ultimately offers

the best protection for the earthworks and other

archeological resources. Healthy forests contain

a mix of native vegetation species at varying ages,

which ensures cyclical regeneration of trees that

are capable of replenishing the forest floor.

Maintaining a healthy woodland can also involve

thinning to maintain light levels and planting

saplings to perpetuate cover. Hazard trees—

those trees that are dead or dying and may fall or

drop limbs on visitors or archeological

resources—must be removed as identified. Trees

that are over twelve inches diameter at breast

height (dbh) and located near or on

archeological resources should also be removed

to reduce the threat of windthrow disturbance.

Trees with shallow roots that are located near or

on archeological resources should also be

removed. Despite these areas of management

concern, maintaining the site under forest cover

is a successful method for preserving earthworks.

z Retain as much of the existing, healthy

vegetation associated with the forest cover as

possible.

z Remove trees greater than twelve inches dbh

from the parapets and ditches of earthworks.

Trees located in proximity to, but not on

these features should remain.

z Avoid removing all vegetation from the

archeological resources. Retaining some

trees will, in fact, promote preservation of

the resource due to the ability of tree roots to

hold soil in place.

z Avoid removing so many trees that a thick

cover of leaf litter cannot be maintained atop

the earthworks. Retain smaller trees if
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 189

removal of all trees on the earthworks will

severely diminish the supply of leaf litter.

z Avoid removing trees and replacing them

with grass cover. Interpret this management

approach and its intended objective of

protecting the earthworks.

z Remove hazard trees that pose a threat to

visitors and archeological resources.

z Ensure the health of the forest by

undertaking periodic maintenance and

engaging a qualified arborist to periodically

inventory and assess the health of the forest.

The inventory and assessment should

include the genus and species of all

vegetation; the general condition of the

vegetation; specific analyses of plants that are

in poor condition or that need treatment or

removal; and a maintenance plan that

outlines seasonal and annual steps for

promoting a healthy, regenerative forest.

Removing Vegetation

Although much of the forest cover should be

retained on site, some trees and other vegetation

may require removal. Removal efforts should

include hazard trees, which are dead or dying

and pose a toppling or limb-drop threat to

cultural resources and visitors, and healthy trees

that are growing on or near archeological

resources. The following recommendations

address which types of vegetation should be

removed and offers appropriate methods for

their removal.

z Remove trees that are greater than twelve

inches dbh and are located on or near

archeological resources.

z Remove trees that are growing in specific

locations on earthworks, such as on the side

slopes of the parapet and ditch systems.

Trees can be removed in phases if necessary.

z Remove trees that will impact resources

should they fall.

z Consider also removing nearby trees that

have wide crowns that catch the wind,

shallow roots (particularly those trees

located in wet soils), or a combination of

these factors that may cause a particular tree

to uproot. Engage the expertise of an

arborist and/or natural resource specialist to

aid in the decision to remove a healthy tree

that meets these conditions.

z Remove all trees considered hazardous to

visitors and/or cultural resources. These

include trees that are dead, diseased, or

dying, and may fall or drop large limbs.

Earthworks Management

Guidelines

Vegetation Removal Techniques

z Utilize the most sensitive means possible to

remove trees and other large vegetation.

z Utilize tree removal methods that minimize

potential impacts on surrounding cultural

and natural resources.

 Undertake as much of the removal effort

by hand—using hand tools or chainsaws,

as possible, and avoid introducing

wheeled, motorized vehicles, such as

loaders or trucks, on site unless

absolutely necessary. Equipment used

within the site should have rubber

wheels. Heavy equipment can disturb

and damage archeological resources.

 Cut trees as close as possible to the

ground plane—without damaging

sensitive cultural resources—and allow

the stumps to decay naturally, rather

than grinding or otherwise removing

them.

 Utilize chemical removal methods only

when necessary, deferring to mechanical

means as much as possible. Treat stumps

of species that are known to readily

resprout with a systemic herbicide.

 Employ “soft-logging” techniques, such

as removing tree branches that may

impale the ground when the tree is

felled.

 Remove trees by sectioning them and

lowering sections to the ground using

ropes or cables. Place sections to the
TREATMENT PLAN

190 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

outer edge of the earthworks to facilitate

removal on the ground.

z Consider chemical means of removal for

smaller trees and shrubs. Utilize herbicide

that is appropriate for the target species and

selected control method. Chemical means of

removal may involve a longer period of time,

yet will likely require less ground

disturbance.

z Ensure that any vegetation management

operations, including pruning, planting, and

tree removal, that may result in ground

disturbance are supervised by a qualified

archeologist.

Grass Cover Establishment Techniques

z Seed new grass areas and areas of soil

erosion that need stabilization at the proper

time of the year and with a seed mixture that

is based on an understanding of existing soil

and light conditions, hydrology, and native

plant communities. Follow the guidance

offered in The University of Tennessee

Extension’s Publication 1736 “A

Landowner’s Guide to Native Warm-Season

Grasses in the Mid-South,” when developing

the specifications for establishing new field

areas and restoring cover to eroded areas.

Seed mixtures may include warm and cool

season grasses and non-invasive nurse-crop

annual species. If possible, seed sources for

native grass species should be collected

locally. Newly seeded areas require regular,

deep watering of between one-half and one

inch per week. While fertilizer may not be

necessary over time, it may be necessary in

conjunction with initial fertility.

Composition of fertilizers should be based

on soil testing analysis and the needs of the

species chosen for planting. Initial

applications of lime may also be necessary in

conjunction with the establishment of new

grass cover on the site.

z Inspect annually grass stands on earthworks

to identify all undesirable woody species.

Remove by cutting the stem(s) level to the

ground, at a height not to exceed two inches,

and treat the cut stems immediately with a

systemic herbicide to prevent resprouting. If

the stem is not large enough to treat with

herbicide, then retain plants and foliar treat

with herbicide.

z Repair eroded areas by adding new soil.

Lightly scarify base soil patches and re-seed

as soon as the next planting season occurs.

Cover newly seeded areas with straw mulch

to a loose measurement of one-half inch. On

steeply-sloped areas, the use of a

biodegradable erosion control blanket or

fabric soil protector may be necessary to

retain the soil. Avoid products that contain

plastic of any kind.

z Develop prescribed burning schedules as

part of a maintenance plan for the site. Base

the frequency of burning on the vegetative

composition of the tall grass cover

established on the earthworks (these will

likely have different requirements than the

mown grass areas), and the need to protect

the earthen fortifications from visitor access.

z If mowing using string trimmers or similar

equipment in areas in which visitor access is

not desirable, perform on an annual basis

after warm season grass species have gone to

seed and several hard frosts have occurred.

Mow to a height of no less than twelve

inches.

Installing New Vegetation

The installation of new vegetation may be

necessary to screen incompatible views, replace

vegetation that must be removed for safety

reasons, or ensure that the forest remains fullystocked and capable of producing a thick mat of

leaf litter. New vegetation should consist of

native plant species that are found within the

region and preferably species already in

evidence. Installation of new vegetation is

considered a ground-disturbing activity and

should be undertaken within the proposed

ground disturbance policy recommendations

cited above. The following recommendations

address appropriate plant species selection and

installation methods.

z Install only native plants if additional

vegetation is required. Utilize the existing,

on-site palette of native plants, including

those associated with the nearby Lytle Creek
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 191

and Stones River corridors, in order to

maintain a consistent forest stand.

z Install new plantings only when necessary to

maintain a fully-stocked forest or to screen

incompatible views.

z Utilize simple designs for screen plantings

that serve to enhance the existing, natural

feel and appearance of the site. Avoid formal,

ornamental designs such as linear rows of

vegetation or geometric patterns.

z Utilize only native vegetation when new

plantings are necessary. Attempt to use plant

species that are already present on site,

including those associated with the nearby

Lytle Creek and Stones River corridors,

before utilizing native species that are typical

to the region. When dense screening is

necessary, utilize closely planted vegetation,

that includes evergreens as possible, and is

native to the region, taking into

consideration the fact that Eastern red cedar

is the only species of evergreen native to the

Central Basin of middle Tennessee.

z Enlist the aid of an archeologist when new

plantings are installed to supervise grounddisturbing activities, such as digging holes,

transporting heavy root balls over the site,

and stockpiling soil or large quantities of

vegetation to be planted.

z Ensure that watering new plants does not

cause harm to archeological resources. Avoid

allowing excess water to puddle in or flood

nearby cultural resources. Avoid dragging

hoses or irrigation equipment over cultural

resources. Avoid stockpiling irrigation

equipment on site, or if this is necessary,

atop resources.

Invasive and Exotic Plant Prevention and

Monitoring

Due to the threat posed by invasive alien plant

species to healthy native plant populations,

policies must be put in place that will support

monitoring for, control of, and removal of

undesirable plant species. Any type of

development and ground disturbance increases a

site’s susceptibility to the germination and

growth of invasive and exotic plants. The Stones

River National Battlefield landscape should be

monitored for undesirable vegetation that will

periodically arise naturally, but is highly likely to

follow any construction activities. Monitoring

plans may include appropriate methods for

control and removal of invasive and exotic

vegetation that will not harm the significant

cultural resources. Monitoring guidelines are as

follows.

z Complete the draft vegetation management

plan for the park.

z Include in the plan lists and photographs of

common invasive and exotic plants of the

region; any undesirable plants that currently

exist on site; contact information for

personnel who can conclusively identify

undesirable vegetation prior to its removal; a

schedule for when periodic monitoring

should occur throughout the year; and

appropriate removal methods.

z Prevent the growth of invasive and exotic

plant species during and after any grounddisturbing activities. Monitor for emerging

invasive plants during construction of trails,

parking, and other development, as well as

after construction is complete.

z Remove invasive and exotic plant material as

soon as it is noticed on site. Utilize the most

sensitive means of removal possible,

beginning with hand-pulling or limited use

of biodegradable chemicals.

z Consider the use of controlling methods,

rather than removal, if eliminating

undesirable vegetation will negatively impact

sensitive cultural resources. For example, if

the removal of a large amount of invasive

vegetation will cause slopes of any

fortification resources to become unstable,

consider regular pruning and thinning of the

vegetation to prevent its spread, rather than

wholesale removal at one time.

z Understand that clearing and thinning

activities allow additional light and nutrients

into the site, promoting growth of both

native and invasive plant species. Additional

monitoring activities may be needed to

prevent the growth of unwanted understory

plants and invasive species. Brush cutting
TREATMENT PLAN

192 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

may be necessary to control the density of

understory growth as it affects the visual

accessibility of the resources. Understory

growth, however, may be considered as one

of the tools for discouraging visitors from

walking over sensitive areas.

z Limit the amount of exposed earth to that

necessary for construction purposes and

limit the amount of time exposed earth will

remain uncovered during construction of

parking areas, trails, and any other grounddisturbing development. Consider covering

earth that will be exposed for longer

amounts of time with a weed barrier fabric

or other similar product that will prevent

vegetative growth.

z Consider washing vehicle tires, tools, and

other equipment prior to beginning

construction to minimize tracking dirt onsite that may contain invasive and exotic

plant seeds from other sites. Only use hay

and straw for projects within the park that

has been inspected and approved by the

park’s natural resource specialist.

Management Guidelines for

Archeological Resources

z Avoid grinding stumps in areas that may

include subsurface resources. Cut trees to be

removed flush with the ground.

z Repair eroded and damaged areas as quickly

as possible to prevent additional damage. To

repair the damage caused by an uprooted

tree, first cut the tree into sections for

removal. Cut the stump at the base to

dislodge it from the root crown, taking care

to avoid standing in the former stump

location as the stump can spring back once

the tree is cut away. Remove as much of the

soil from the root ball as possible and replace

it within the hole left by the removal of the

root system. Smooth the surface of the soil

and cover with organic matter.

z Utilize simple barriers and means of path

demarcation to discourage public interaction

with archeological resources.

z Resolve drainage issues in the most sensitive

manner possible to avoid loss of or damage

to both known and unknown archeological

resources. Consider coordinating any

ground-disturbing activities with

archeological studies.

z Stabilize sites of known archeological

resources affected by erosion by establishing

and maintaining grass cover. Install erosioncontrol measures such as textiles and grass

using methods that do not further disturb

subsurface resources. Avoid the use of

material that is visually incompatible with the

character of the area, such as riprap or other

large stone.

z Undertake any viewshed thinning or clearing

activities in a manner that does not result in

harm to the archeological resources.

Connections between

Noncontiguous Park Units and

Parcels

Stones River National Battlefield comprises six

noncontiguous parcels. At initial contact, the

park visitor should be provided with information

that indicates the preferred tour route, explains

the relationship between the parcels, suggests the

length of time it will take to experience each site

and the park in its entirety, and wayfinding

information. Visual clues should be established

along the roadways that provide connections

between the noncontiguous units. The

information that guides the visitor through the

park and its history and resources should also

provide context about how this site fits into a

broader system of interpreted Civil War sites in

the Nashville/Franklin/Murfreesboro vicinity.

For those publicly accessible sites with a clear

and established association with Civil War

events, it would be possible, and desirable, to

identify the relationships between the sites and

utilize this information to augment the existing

interpretive plan conveying the stories to visitors.

The identified relationships between sites and

resources could support additional theme

development, suggesting key relationships and

ultimately recommendations for regional tours

that explore the themes. For example, tours

might explore sites that relate to:

z different aspects of a single battle

z chronological events or battles
TREATMENT PLAN

National Park Service 193

z geographic proximity of related resources

z examples of military engineering

(encampments and earthworks)

z Confederate sites

z Union sites

Links might also provide information about

physical proximity, establishing the parameters

for manageable walking, biking, or driving tours.

Sites in close enough proximity to Stones River

might include those in downtown Murfreesboro

or along the Stones River Greenway Trail.

Specific recommendations relating to these

issues:

z Consider developing an overall interpretive

plan for visitors that includes all of the park’s

noncontiguous parcels and takes into

consideration sites related by geography and/

or historic event. Update existing

interpretive themes, and identify the sites

and resources that best convey the themes.

Develop an interpretive tour or tours for

visitors to follow to learn about the themes

and related resources.

z Consider linking the Stones River parcels

physically and aesthetically within the

framework of a tour route.

z Consider installing regional context maps at

each site that pinpoint the locations of other

Civil War sites within the park and Civil War

sites within the vicinity. An alternative to

installing signage is to provide pamphlets

that offer similar information; pamphlets

could also be taken away by visitors and used

for directional purposes while driving.

z Utilize a consistent palette of materials and

features to develop identity, access, and

interpretation features for the sites included

on the tour.

z Work with the Tennessee Department of

Transportation, City of Murfreesboro,

Rutherford County, and adjacent

landowners to install visual markers along

both sides of Old Nashville Highway that will

aesthetically and physically connect the

park’s noncontiguous parcels, including the

Nashville Pike unit, the Hazen Brigade

Monument, the two headquarters sites, and

Fortress Rosecrans. Similar features should

also guide the visitor to the McFadden Farm

unit. Consider the following alternatives for

marking the routes:

 Alternative One: Historically appropriate

fences to suggest the extent of the

historic battlefield.

 Alternative Two: Contemporary yet

compatible and sensitively designed

bollards to create a visually cohesive

roadway aesthetic.

 Alternative Three: Signature vegetation,

such as a low hedge, to help create a

more unified roadway character.
TREATMENT PLAN

194 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield
National Park Service 195

Implementation Guidelines

Introduction

This chapter describes the means for

implementing many of the recommendations

included in the Treatment Plan chapter. These

implementation guidelines have been organized

into a series of seventeen projects, each

presenting a goal or vision for treatment and

laying out a process for achieving it. The projects

are intended to support the park’s ability to

secure funding, and are presented in accordance

with the requirements of National Park Service’s

(NPS) Project Management Information System

(PMIS) forms that are utilized to request

funding. Responding to the guidance offered in

the park’s General Management Plan (GMP) and

other planning documents, these projects also

address life safety considerations and visitor

accessibility and interpretation needs. All

projects are subject to review under Federal

Section 106 and National Environmental

Protection Act (NEPA) compliance. Most of the

projects listed below depend on the completion

of one or more park- or area-wide studies or

plans, some of which are currently underway.

The breakdown of tasks for each project does

not include project management, compliancerelated reviews, and other management elements

typically undertaken by NPS personnel as part of

the planning, design, and construction phases of

a project.

Each project is presented individually with a

summary description; considerations or

justifications; identification of the project’s

location; and specific implementation actions,

including additional research and physical

investigations.

Projects

1. Remove invasive plants from cedar glade

communities.

2. Rehabilitate cedar brake and dense cedar

woodland communities in areas of

interpretive value.

3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields and meadows.

4. Establish filter strips in association with crop

exhibits, roads, parking areas, and trails.

5. Remove non-contributing woodland

vegetation.

6. Manage mixed woodlands to promote a

combination of natural and cultural resource

values.

7. Update invasive plant species control plans.

8. Establish screen plantings in specific

locations to manage views.

9. Protect the Pioneer Brigade Earthworks and

manage woodland environs to preserve

associated resources.

10. Mark and interpret the locations of historic

buildings and structures missing from the

battlefield landscape.

11. Restore fencelines missing from the

battlefield landscape.

12. Consider alternatives for establishing and

maintaining non-historic fencelines,

controlled visitor access points, and linear

connections between park units.

13. Rehabilitate portions of historic Van Cleve

Lane.

14. Convert a portion of the tour road to a

pedestrian trail that connects with the

proposed new tour route.

15. Establish design guidelines for contemporary

park features, such as site furnishings.

16. Enhance connections between

noncontiguous park units and parcels.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

196 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

1. Remove invasive plants from

cedar glade communities

Description

Cedare glade communities are a relatively rare

habitat within the state of Tennessee; many have

been lost to development and other cultural

activities. Stones River National Battlefield

includes extensive areas of remnant cedare

glades. Cedar glades support rare and potentially

threatened plant species. In addition to having a

high natural resource value, many of the glades

were areas of engagement during the battle, and

so contribute to the historic character of the

battlefield landscape. The cedar glades within the

park are potentially threatened by the

encroachment of invasive and non-native plant

species. They are also very fragile and could

easily be damaged by cultural activities.

Protection strategies and restoration efforts that

ensure the perpetuation of this important natural

and cultural resource are recommended.

Location

Most of the park’s cedar glade communities are

located within the central portion of the

Nashville Pike unit.

Considerations/Justification

Once mostly open plant communities occupying

thin soil atop limestone outcroppings, the park’s

cedar glades are now threatened by the

proliferation of Chinese privet (Ligustrum

sinense) and bush honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii

and L. fragrantissima), and the encroachment of

Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). The

invasion of these habitats by bush honeysuckle

and Chinese privet has likely led to an accretion

of soil, allowing for the establishment of Eastern

red cedar. The shade produced by the cedars

reduces the light levels to which glade species are

adapted. These species can neither adapt nor

compete with these environmental changes and

are being lost. These invasive species have the

potential to wreak havoc on these highly

sensitive communities. Other non-native species

currently invading the glade communities

include sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) and

Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica).

Managing cedar glades by protecting them from

the spread of Chinese privet and bush

honeysuckle and clearing encroaching tree and

shrub growth, particularly Eastern red cedar, are

two important treatment activities to be

undertaken in these areas.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Develop a long-term management plan for

the park’s cedar glades. Of critical concern is

removing appropriate species and numbers

of trees and shrubs to support

reestablishment of the glades’ ecological

health. Ensure that the plan addresses

protection of the rare plant, moss, and lichen

populations that are susceptible to damage

from foot and/or equipment traffic.

Related Implementation Projects

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

Project Implementation Process

1. Conduct site visits and field surveys with

natural resource specialists to evaluate the

current state of vegetation in and adjacent to

glade communities.

2. Identify invasive species, such as Chinese

privet, bush honeysuckle, and Eastern red

cedar, to be removed.

3. Mark the native woody species to be

removed. Remove and treat all invasive

plants.

4. Remove Eastern red cedars mechanically

every three years. Allow mechanical clearing

of cedars and other woody material only

under conditions of very dry or frozen soils

to ensure there is no rutting, pitting, or other

damage to the soil. Allow only hand cutting

with chain saws, brush clearing saws,

handsaws, and loppers in sensitive areas.

Avoid using mowers, tractors, and other

heavy equipment in and around glades.

5. Follow the integrated pest management

(IPM) guidance relating to removal of

Chinese privet and bush honeysuckle, taking

care to follow the considerations indicated

above.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 197

6. Monitor progress of restoration to determine

long-term management needs, and monitor

glades for damage.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

198 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

2. Rehabilitate cedar brake and

dense cedar woodland

communities in areas of

interpretive value

Description

Cedar brakes are a primary feature of the

battlefield landscape for interpreting the events

and tactics of the Battle of Stones River.

Occupying a large portion of the center of the

Nashville Pike unit, these areas have been

dominated by cedar forest since prior to the Civil

War and continue to be characterized by cedar

woodlands today. As such, they are an important

park interpretive tool. However, the composition

of these communities has been altered by the

introduction of an invasive shrub—Chinese

privet (Ligustrum sinense)—which has gained a

tremendous foothold within the park, but was

not present during the Civil War. Also of concern

is the invasive bush honeysuckle (Lonicera

maackii and L. fragrantissima). Many of the

cedar woodlands have a dense understory of

Chinese privet. Control or removal of Chinese

privet, as well as other invasives such as bush

honeysuckle, is a current goal of the park’s

vegetation management program.

As an alternative to full replanting of the cedar

brakes, those segments of the cedar brakes that

are visible from primary interpretive routes, such

as the tour road and interpretive trails, could be

rehabilitated. This would require removal of

Chinese privet and bush honeysuckle and

additional planting of cedar along the margins of

existing brakes where there is sufficient sunlight

to support growth. The depth of the enhanced

brake communities that will be required for

interpretive purposes should be determined in

the field, based on visibility from trails or tour

routes.

Location

The majority of the cedar brakes and dense cedar

woodlands are located within the central portion

of the Nashville Pike unit. Segments of current

and proposed tour routes edge these

communities, as do existing and proposed

pedestrian trails. The project is located at all

points where the park’s tour roads and trails edge

contributing areas of cedar brake community.

Considerations/Justification

Unfortunately, Eastern red cedar (Juniperus

virginiana) is a shade-intolerant species,

meaning that cedar can not necessarily be

planted to replace the Chinese privet and bush

honeysuckle if insufficient sunlight is available in

the planting area. There are no shade-tolerant

evergreen species native to the region, and

therefore no suitable tree for underplanting

within the existing woodlands. Over time, unless

managed, the cedar brakes can be expected to

yield to hardwoods, as shade tolerant species

such as oaks grow up and replace the shorterlived cedars. Given the lack of an evergreen

replacement, and the fact that complete

rehabilitation of the cedar brakes is not a viable

alternative unless entire stands are cut over and

replaced at once, the park will need to take an

active role in managing these features for

interpretation of the battlefield landscape.

Establishment of even-aged stands of trees that

will be difficult to sustain over time should be

avoided by planting additional saplings every few

years. Assessment and protection of cultural

features should precede planting. Proper plant

installation methods should be followed,

including mulching and watering, to ensure

survival of newly planted vegetation. Erosion

control methods should be considered as part of

the re-vegetation plan.

Over time, rehabilitation of the cedar brakes can

best be accomplished through replanting a

section at a time.

Park personnel should delineate areas to be

reforested, and work with a botanist/ecologist to

develop the re-vegetation plan. Park

maintenance staff could also be trained to

undertake the monitoring process, invasive plant

removal, and planting of new trees.

Additional Studies Recommended

This project should be developed as part of the

park’s vegetation management plan.

Related Implementation Projects

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 199

Project Implementation Process

1. Delineate in the field, with input from a

historical landscape architect, archeologist,

and botanist/ecologist, the extent of each

area to be rehabilitated.

2. Remove invasive plant species from existing

cedar brake communities.

3. Remove woody vegetation other than

Eastern red cedar along paths and

interpretive trails in support of enhancing

the historic character of the cedar brakes and

woodlands. Determine the appropriate

depth for the removal effort into the stand

based on what is visible from interpretive

trails and paths.

4. Plant cedar saplings along the margins of the

existing cedar brake communities and in the

gaps left by the removal of Chinese privet,

bush honeysuckle, and other woody plants,

phasing the planting over three years. Install

saplings relatively densely.

5. Initiate a monitoring program to periodically

evaluate the health of the new plantings and

to look for evidence of colonization by

invasive species.

6. Continue to remove Chinese privet, bush

honeysuckle, and other invasive species as

identified.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

200 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

3. Enhance and expand native

warm-season grass fields and

meadows

Description

Some areas of the park where open crop fields or

pasture existed at the time of the Civil War are

currently maintained under forest cover. Other

areas that were crop fields or pasture during the

war are currently maintained in open vegetative

cover, primarily comprised of cool-season

grasses such as fescue, which are invasive and

detrimental to native plant communities.

Removing woodland from areas of the park that

were in open vegetative cover at the time of the

Battle of Stones River and replacing it with native

warm-season grass fields will perpetuate the

appearance of historic agricultural land uses and

support the park’s interpretive goals. Converting

fescue fields to native warm-season grass fields

will maintain contributing patterns of spatial

organization while enhancing the sustainability

of park land cover management. This project

suggests converting areas known to have been

used for crop fields and pasture at the time of the

Battle of Stones River to native warm-season

grass fields, with limited areas utilized to

interpret historic crop activities.

Location

Non-contributing woodland cover to be

converted to native warm-season grass fields

exists in various locations within the McFadden

Farm unit, and smaller areas within the central

and western portion of the Nashville Pike unit.

Small areas of fescue fields also exist in both of

these areas. The park is already in the process of

converting many of these fescue fields to native

warm-season grasses.

Considerations/Justification

Converting fescue fields to native warm-season

grass fields will allow the perpetuation of

important open conditions, limit the park’s

dependence on agricultural leases, and support

NPS sustainability initiatives. As with many

historical parks, management of agricultural

fields has proven complex. Finding willing

lessees to manage fields given the environmental

restrictions placed on farming operations by the

NPS is challenging for parks. Much cost and

labor is associated with keeping fields cleared.

When budgets are insufficient to maintain open

fields, parks are forced to release them to

succession. Once under forest cover, there are

often environmental and social issues and

concerns related to maintenance practices and

interpretation issues, including aversion to the

use of fire as a management tool, and reluctance

to remove trees.

Native warm-season grass fields are generally

composed of regionally native perennial bunch

grasses that are more ecologically sustainable

than fescue. They can provide high-quality

pasture, hay, and wildlife habitat, while also

serving as components of riparian buffer

plantings. Established using a modicum of soil

amendments, warm-season grasses require few

or no additional applications of herbicides,

fertilizers, or pesticides, and are significantly

more drought tolerant than fescue. Native warmseason grass fields can be cut over for hay

production, perpetuating historic agricultural

land uses; controlled seasonal burning can also

be utilized to reduce mowing. Native warmseason grass fields can be difficult to establish

and maintain in the early stages. However, the

publication A Landowner’s Guide to Native

Warm-Season Grasses in the Mid-South produced

by the University of Tennessee Agricultural

Extension Agency provides an excellent

overview of the methods and issues involved in

establishing native warm-season grasses within

the region, as well as additional contacts and

sources of information.126

Native warm-season grasses are more frequently

being used as a field cover for historic

agricultural sites within the National Park system

and for conservation purposes throughout the

country. Great Smoky Mountains National Park

managers, for example, have begun to reestablish

the historic character of agricultural fields in the

Cades Cove Historic District by converting

fescue to native warm-season grasses. The

resulting research data and experience from this

and other parks could be used to aid in

management and treatment techniques for the

fields at Stones River National Battlefield.

Stones River National Battlefield has already

begun this process and is working hard to

126. http://www.utextension.utk.edu/
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 201

establish and maintain new native warm-season

grass fields. Knowledge gained from this

experience should be applied to the on-going

conversion of additional fields from fescue and

other non-native cool-season grasses and to

establishing new fields where non-contributing

woodland is removed. Each season, only discrete

areas of a manageable size should be selected for

field establishment based upon available labor,

equipment, and other resources.

The park’s interpretive plan should consider the

role that native warm-season grass fields can play

in the interpretation of historic conditions such

as farm fields and dwelling precincts. Mowing

patterns, for example, can be utilized to

differentiate fields and create visual aids to

interpret missing historic conditions. Grass

species with distinctions in texture, height, and/

or color can be planted in limited areas in

support of interpretive needs to delineate former

field patterns, military lines, or other missing

features of the Civil War-era landscape.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Specific implementation recommendations

for this project should be included in the

park’s vegetation management plan.

Development of the implementation plan

should take into consideration available

literature relating to this issue, the

experience of park personnel, other national

parks, and experts in the field. Ecologists

and plant specialists should be involved in

determining the recommended species

compositions, densities, appropriate season

for planting, and maintenance techniques.

z Prior to beginning work, park staff should

identify the appropriate vegetation

community to establish in each proposed

new field. Low, wet areas within some fields

and along stream corridors may include

native wetland plant communities that

should be protected, and disturbance of

these communities should be avoided.

Habitat that may support rare, threatened, or

endangered species should be identified and

protected from conversion.

z The park should apply the appropriate

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

techniques to establishing and maintaining

the desired vegetation stands.

z Seed mixes should be consistent with the

reference xeric limestone prairie

communities within the middle Tennessee

region that the park has identified as target

communities for field plantings. Should

conditions change, the park should continue

to consider options for species and seed

mixes, taking into consideration availability

of seed sources and the results of past efforts

to establish fields at the park.

z A field management plan, including

delineation of mowing regimes, should be

developed to support interpretation of

historic field patterns as part of the park’s

vegetation management plan and interpretive

plan. The seasonal nesting cover and food

requirements of open-field wildlife in the

park, such as birds and small mammals,

should be accommodated when determining

mowing schedules.

Related Implementation Projects

z 4. Establish filter strips in association with

crop exhibits, roads, parking areas, and

trails.

z 5. Remove non-contributing woodland

vegetation.

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

z 10. Mark and interpret the locations of

historic buildings and structures missing

from the battlefield landscape.

Project Implementation Process

1. Conduct a field survey of the area to be

converted after woodland and invasive

species clearing operations are complete and

prior to establishment of native warm-season

grass fields. Stake the limits of the area to be

converted. Engage an archeologist and a

historical landscape architect to identify any

previously undocumented cultural resources

within the affected area.

2. Follow the guidance offered in the vegetation

management plan to prepare the area to be
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

202 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

converted during the season or seasons prior

to planting. Alternatives to be considered

include the application of a systemic

herbicide to areas where incompatible

vegetation currently exists, or overseeding

with native warm-season grass species and

managing for their needs over the needs of

cool-season species.

3. Follow the guidance offered in the vegetation

management plan to prepare the area just

prior to seeding. Where overseeding is not

being used, consider using prescribed fire

prior to planting to remove stubble and

newly emerging seedlings, or applying

additional herbicide six to eight weeks before

planting and discing the field.

4. Seed the fields following the guidance

offered in the vegetation management plan.

5. Manage the stands as recommended in the

vegetation management plan, including the

specific recommendations for mowing

practices during establishment, and

thereafter, and for prescribed fire.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 203

4. Establish filter strips in

association with crop exhibits,

roads, parking areas, and trails

Description

Vegetative filter strips (also called grass filter

strips or grass buffer strips) are used to filter and

clean sediment, organic material, nutrients,

chemicals, and other pollutants from stormwater

runoff water as it leaves a non-point source

(Fig. 187). Planted with densely growing or

clump-forming grasses, filter strips are

particularly crucial at locations edging drainages,

streams, sinkholes, drainage wells, ponds,

wetlands, or lakes to protect surface water. Placed

between pollution sources and water resources,

these planted filter systems can effectively

mitigate soil erosion and polluted runoff.

Establishment of filter strips along roads and

trails, parking areas, and crop exhibit areas is

recommended in support of park sustainability

initiatives and enhance regional water quality.

This project would especially help mitigate runoff

from large areas of paving, such as the main

parking area at the Visitor Center, and from areas

where the soil is more frequently exposed, such

as the crop field exhibits.

Location

Filter strips are recommended for all road, trail,

and parking area margins and the margins of

current and proposed crop field exhibit areas

within the park. This includes areas within the

Nashville Pike unit as well as at the McFadden

Farm unit. For roads and trails, filter strips should

begin beyond a mown strip that allows water to

flow off of the paved surface to avoid areas of

standing water. The depth of the mown strip will

depend on the cross-slope of the paved area as

well as the landform that edges it and whether the

juncture between the two affords a slope

conducive for positive drainage.

Considerations/Justification

Vegetative filter strips are a Best Management

Practice (BMP) for reducing runoff associated

with some agricultural non-point source

contaminants, such as soil nutrients, organic

material, and pesticides bound to soil particles,

and are considered an integral part of a land

conservation system. As water is slowed, larger

soil and organic particles rapidly settle out.

Smaller clay particles need a longer flow distance

to settle out in the filter. Therefore, a wider strip

is needed for removing finer sediments. Filter

strips work best when water flows at a shallow,

uniform depth across the filter. If water becomes

concentrated in small channels, the effectiveness

of the strip is drastically reduced. Filter strips

also work best on shallower slopes. Filters

cannot, however, remove all runoff water

contaminants, and they may require replacement

if sediments build and erosion gullies begin to

form.

Factors impacting filter strip effectiveness:

z Shallow, uniform flow is more effective for

filtering runoff flow than concentrated flow

conditions.

z The first eight to twelve feet of the strip is the

most effective in removing sand- and siltsized particles of sediment. A filter must be

wider to effectively trap clay-sized particles.

FIGURE 187. Section showing the relationship between

park trails and filter strips, as well as other recommended

conditions.127

127. Figure from “Glendale and Malven Hill Units,

Richmond National Battlefield Park Cultural

Landscape Report and Archeological Inventory,”

John Milner Associates, Charlottesville and

Alexandria, Virginia, for the National Park Service,

Richmond National Battlefield Park, October 2004.

woods or

buffer

native warm-season

grass fields

filter path

strip

mown

strip
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

204 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

z The strip is most effective when its width,

location, and vegetation are matched to the

soil, slope, and drainage conditions of a

specific site.

z The strip becomes less effective as the

cropland area drained through the vegetated

area is increased.

z The strip also becomes less effective when

the depth of flowing water moving through it

is greater than the height of the vegetation in

the filter. Vegetation tends to lie over, which

may help protect the filter strip area from

erosion, but dramatically decreases filtering

efficiency.

z The strip becomes less effective as sediment

and nutrients build up in the vegetation.

z The strip is also less effective in trapping

sediment and nutrients if runoff events

occur very frequently with little or no rest or

growth period between events.

z The strip is less effective when not

adequately maintained.

Filter strips will alter the character of the

landscape associated with some of the high

visitor use areas due to the nature of the clumpforming grasses used to trap sediments and

pollutants. Interpretation or education regarding

the importance of these features to the

environment will help mitigate the impact to the

visitor experience.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Design and implementation of filter strips

should be considered as part of the

vegetation management plan being prepared

for the park.

z The park should determine the best species

composition for filter strips based on current

knowledge regarding species viability.

Related Implementation Projects

z 3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields and meadows.

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

Project Implementation Process

1. NPS natural resource specialists should

conduct site visits and field surveys to

determine necessary filter strip widths and

placement. Design filter strips to be at least

ten to twenty-five feet wide, depending on

the slope of the field; steeper slopes require

wider filter strips. Keep drainage areas

relatively small, with no more than thirty

acres of field draining to one acre of filter. In

the case of impervious surfaces or intensive

uses such as parking areas, the ratio should

be smaller.

2. Assess the condition and effectiveness of any

grass filter strips that currently exist at the

park and rehabilitate as necessary using

BMPs for agriculture if the buffer is not

stable, for example, if vegetation is in poor

health, there are numerous invasive plants, or

the existing buffer is too narrow. Remove

invasive plants using the guidelines provided

in this document.

3. Examine current site conditions to

determine species to be seeded, considering

the following elements:

 Soil characteristics

 Slope of land

 Shape and area of the field draining to

the filter strip

 Hydrology

 Type and condition of existing

vegetation

 Land use history

 Location of cultural and archeological

features

4. Remove invasive vegetation and refuse and

protect sensitive natural and cultural

resources in preparation for filter strip

establishment.

5. Plant species native to local riparian zones.

Ecologists and plant specialists should

determine the species compositions, the

densities that will be required, and the
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 205

appropriate season for planting. Avoid use of

fertilizers and pesticides in riparian zones.

6. Monitor post-installation site conditions for

seed germination and growth of invasive

plant species.

7. To maintain filter strips:

 Inspect regularly, especially after heavy

precipitation events.

 Remove accumulated sediment

periodically.

 Repair and reseed bare spots and areas

where erosion channels begin to form.

 Mow vegetation to a six-inch height two

to three times per year, or burn, and

remove woody vegetation and weeds.

 Test soil periodically to assure continued

plant health.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

206 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

5. Remove non-contributing

woodland vegetation

Description

The clearing of non-contributing woodland to

reestablish historic land cover conditions would

enhance interpretation of the 1862–1863

battlefield landscape. Based on historic maps,

sufficient documentation exists to reestablish

fields that were open during the battle but are

now in forest cover. In some cases, noncontributing woodland helps to screen views of

incompatible contemporary development and

should therefore remain. In other cases, noncontributing woodland plays an important role

in maintaining the health of the environment.

Location

The Nashville Pike unit and McFadden Farm

unit both include areas of non-contributing

woodland.

Considerations/Justification

Before any existing woodlands are cleared, two

factors must be considered: the impact of

clearing on the environment and the role that

clearing will play in interpretation. Woodland

cover along Stones River is important as a

riparian buffer that protects water quality. Some

woodland areas serve as habitat for rare or

unusual plant species or communities, a value

that may be considered more important than

battlefield restoration. The park’s interpretive

plan should help to identify the specific sites and

degree of clearing required to enhance the visitor

experience and the park’s ability to tell the story

of the Battle of Stones River. The park should

evaluate priorities for interpretation and

determine what costs and benefits are associated

with clearing. If existing non-contributing

woodland is found to play another important

role in the park landscape, consider whether

battlefield stories can be told elsewhere.

The following criteria should be considered

when weighing the decision to clear woodland:

z The area to be cleared should support the

goals of the park’s interpretive plan.

z The area to be cleared should be located

along one of the primary tour routes, or

within view of interpretive trails or sites.

z Reestablishing a historic field should not

result in open views to areas outside the park

that would have a negative affect on

interpreting the historic scene. Ensure that a

100-foot wide forest buffer is maintained

along the perimeter of the park boundary.

The following guidelines apply to woodland

clearing:

z Clearing should not be undertaken within

wetlands and other sensitive ecological areas.

Delineate park wetlands before field clearing

begins. Consider all federal, state, and local

laws associated with wetlands or other

sensitive ecological areas in the evaluation.

z Clearing should not be undertaken within

the 100-foot riparian forest buffer of Stones

River.

z Avoid clearing existing woodland on slopes

steeper than 15 percent and on soils classified

as highly erodible or stony, although removal

of invasive species should be undertaken in

these areas when possible.

The following economic and environmental

costs should also be considered when weighing

interpretive benefits:

z Will the clearing result in a loss or

fragmentation of wildlife habitat?

z Will the improvement to environmental

health offered by the removal of invasives

like Chinese privet and bush honeysuckle

offset the environmental costs of tree

removal?

z Heavy infestations of Chinese privet and

bush honeysuckle reduce appropriate

habitat for native plants and animals. When

these infestations are removed, soil erosion

may occur. In this case, a healthy stand of

native grasses may be an ecological

improvement in both uplands and wetlands.

z Can the loss of topsoil and reduction in

water quality due to increased runoff during
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 207

clearing be mitigated to an acceptable

degree?

z Can the loss or damage of archeological

resources due to clearing and stump removal

and seedbed preparation be mitigated to an

acceptable degree?

z What is the financial cost of meeting Section

106 compliance in testing, collecting, and

inventorying environmental and

archeological resources?

z What is the financial cost of monitoring by

specialists during clearing?

z What is the financial cost of managing new

fields by mowing and/or controlled burns?

z What is the financial cost of establishing

native grass field cover?

z Can the costs of clearing be offset by the sale

of the timber harvested?

Additional Studies Recommended

z By law, any landscape management activity

that moves, breaks, or disturbs soil requires

some level of Section 106 and/or NEPA

compliance before activities can begin. The

compliance process must be completed

before any ground-disturbing activity can

begin.

z Park personnel should prioritize areas to be

cleared, and work with botanists/ecologists

to perform the environmental impact

assessments. Evaluate all potential cultural

and natural resource impacts before

determining which sites will be cleared.

z Evaluate the forests identified for clearing to

ensure that there are no federal or state

threatened, endangered, or rare species

present, or rare habitats that are likely to

support such species. A comprehensive

survey for rare, threatened, and endangered

species has not been conducted for the park,

although habitats exist to support them. The

park should conduct the necessary surveys

to determine the presence of these species

prior to any type of forest clearing or

thinning project. If endangered or

threatened plant or wildlife species are

identified, recommended actions that may

alter their habitats should be reevaluated.

Also, consider evaluating the potential

impact on rare, threatened, or endangered

plant and animal populations whose habitat

is consistent with environmental conditions

in the park.

z The boundary of the site to be cleared

should be delineated by an interdisciplinary

team, including an ecologist, rare plant

specialist, hydrologist, forester, archeologist,

and historical landscape architect. The team

should collectively delineate the locations

and alignments of all timber haul roads,

loading areas, riparian management zones,

and other related conditions of the tree

removal effort.

z Two options exist for woodland clearing:

clear-cutting and gradual removal of the

overstory vegetation. Clear-cutting is not

recommended for removal of noncontributing woodland within Stones River

National Battlefield. With gradual removal,

issues relating to this method include:

 The process may take five to ten years to

completely remove woodland, and reestablish an open field.

 The method will likely have less impact

on the surrounding woodlands and

environment.

 It will be a less dramatic change for

visitors.

 Continual maintenance and removal

labor will be needed. A management

plan for removal may be required to

adequately address issues involved with

this type of tree removal.

Related Implementation Projects

z 3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields.

z 6. Manage mixed woodlands to promote a

combination of natural and cultural resource

values.

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

208 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

Project Implementation Process

After a field has been identified as suitable for

clearing, the following steps are recommended:

1. Perform archeological surveys and

associated testing of the site by a qualified

archeologist.

2. Conduct archeological and cultural

landscape analyses within areas identified as

potential sites, including but not limited to

road traces, prior to forestry or clearing/

grading operations. Allow forest to remain

where archeological resources exist with

integrity in unplowed contexts.

3. Prior to clearing woody growth, consider

carefully the proper locations for

establishing sight lines that are consistent

with 1862–1863 military events.

4. Prior to clearing, field check clearing

locations with an archeologist, natural

resource specialist, and historical landscape

architect to ensure that natural or cultural

resources will not be adversely affected.

Preserve, protect, and maintain trails,

gravesites, and evidence of former cultural

features in areas undergoing forest clearing.

5. Perform cutting or thinning in the fall and

winter, when fewer visitors are at the park,

dormant trees are less likely to be damaged,

there are no nesting birds or animals in the

vegetation, and sufficient time would be

available to remove ground vegetation before

spring growth.

6. Minimize the use of heavy vehicles, use low

tire-pressure vehicles, and restrict use to

times when soil is firm to reduce

compaction. Employ measures to stabilize

soil and minimize erosion.

7. Incorporate silvicultural methods that

minimize the impacts and threats to cultural

and natural resources and known and

potential archeological resources. Ensure

that forest harvesting is monitored by an

historical landscape architect and

archeologist. An archeologist should be

present during any clearing operation.

8. Manage tree removal operations to protect

environmental resources.

 Tree removal contract management.

Work should be conducted by a tree

removal service with successful

experience working at historically

significant sites. The park should

regularly inspect tree removal operations

to monitor compliance with the terms of

the contract and applicable laws. The

archeologist, soil scientist, and/or other

professionals should participate in these

inspections.

 Site restoration. Ensure that BMPs and

erosion control measures are employed

by the entity undertaking the tree

removal work.

 Landcover. Immediately begin

establishment of native warm-season

grass cover in areas where trees have

been removed. Use information

contained within this report to guide

native grass establishment, and consult

vegetation experts to ensure the success

of new grasses.

9. Cut stumps; do not uproot or grind them.

10. Treat stumps and sprouts with herbicide,

such as glyphosate, to discourage and

control woody regeneration. Chemical

control of woody plant regeneration should

be conducted by a certified herbicide

applicator—either qualified park staff, or a

landscape contractor.

11. Remove felled trees without dragging, which

gouges the ground surface.

12. Establish native grass and forb cover over

newly cleared areas. Minimize disturbance

to the surface when planting new cover.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 209

6. Manage mixed woodlands to

promote a combination of natural

and cultural resource values

Description

Interpretation of the Civil War-era Stones River

battlefield will be enhanced through the

reinstatement of historic patterns of spatial

organization. In addition to currently wooded

areas that are known to have been open during

the Civil War, there are sites on the battlefield

that are currently open that are known to have

been wooded in 1863. Conversion of these fields

to woody cover is recommended in support of

restoring historic spatial patterns. In other areas,

the removal of non-contributing woodland—

woodland that has arisen since 1863 on former

agricultural fields and pasture—is recommended

to support rehabilitation of historic patterns of

spatial organization. Some areas of non-historic

woodland, however, currently have high natural

resource values and should be retained. In

particular, this includes riparian buffers, which

protect water quality by controlling overland

flow of eroded soil and pollutants. Riparian

buffers should be maintained adjacent to streams

and wetlands within the park to ensure

protection of water quality. Where noncontributing woodland remains to support

natural resource values, it may conflict with

interpretive goals. Interpretive goals indicate the

need for establishing and maintaining view

corridors where currently, valuable woodland

should be retained, or in areas where woodland

is recommended to be established. In these areas,

careful manipulation of existing woodland cover

is recommended. View corridors may in many

cases be achievable through site-specific

manipulation of the woodland, including

limbing up of canopy trees, removal of saplings

and shrubs, and clearing of small areas of trees to

establish a vista between a viewpoint and a

specific view.

Three different woodland treatments are

considered below: reestablish historic forest

areas; establish and maintain riparian buffers;

and thin woodland to establish viewsheds for

interpretation.

Reestablish historic forest areas

Considerations/Justification

Determining and replicating the character of a

mid-nineteenth century woodland condition is

complex. Nineteenth century woodland

character was often heavily affected by local

cultural practices. Woodland areas were often

used as woodlots where trees were harvested by

the land owners to supply wood for construction

materials or fuel, and livestock was allowed to

forage. Area woodlands were thus more open,

with less understory vegetation, than is typical

today. Those areas to be managed and

maintained in forest cover in close proximity to

visitor use areas, particularly those adjacent to

former farmsteads, are the best candidates for

management in a cleared understory condition.

Removal of invasive shrubs will open up the

understory considerably and contribute to this

effort.

Allowing the areas proposed for restoration to

undergo secondary succession, while

maintaining them free of invasive plant species, is

a viable alternative for the restoration process.

Regular periodic monitoring, species sampling,

record keeping, and comparison of species

observed against the mature woodland

predictive model provided by a botanist will

support this reforestation process. Removal of

invasive species is critical to the success of this

effort. Planting saplings of local native

vegetation, eventual woodland dominants if

possible, will accelerate the process. Additional

saplings should be planted every few years to

avoid establishment of an even-aged stand of

trees.

Location

Portions of the Nashville Pike unit are currently

maintained in grass cover where woodland

existed during the Civil War.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Assessment and protection of cultural

features should precede planting.

z Develop a revegetation plan that takes into

consideration the goals of the interpretive

plan, in reestablishing woodlands on
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

210 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

historically wooded sites along the visitor

interpretive routes. The plan should specify

planting of species that are native to the

region and are suited to the specific soils,

hydrology, aspect, and orientation

conditions of the area to be revegetated.

Consider erosion control methods as part of

the re-vegetation plan. Document the

predicted composition of naturally

occurring woodland given existing cultural

conditions in the plan.

z Prioritize the locations where currently open

fields should be converted to woodland in

support of restoring the 1863 historic scene.

Related Implementation Projects

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

z 8. Establish screen plantings in specific

locations to manage views.

Project Implementation Process

1. Delineate in the field, using a historical

landscape architect, archeologist, and

botanist/ecologist, the extent of each area to

be converted to woodland.

2. Remove invasive plant species from areas to

be converted to woodland.

3. Implement the revegetation plan, either by

allowing woodland to develop through

secondary succession, or by planting

saplings or native trees.

4. Follow proper plant installation methods,

including mulching and watering techniques,

to ensure survival of newly planted

vegetation.

5. Initiate a periodic monitoring program to

evaluate the development of the woodland

and to look for evidence of colonization by

invasive species.

6. Manage vegetation to promote the

establishment of stable, healthy woodland

comprised of species typically found in

similar natural areas. Consider thinning

understory plants as an interpretive aid to

replicate nineteenth-century woodlot

character.

Establish and Maintain Riparian

Buffers

Considerations/Justification

Riparian buffers should be established and

maintained adjacent to streams and wetlands

within the park to ensure water quality

protection. Riparian buffer vegetation can vary

greatly, but there are many species of trees,

shrubs, and native grasses that can be

successfully used along the waterway. Typically,

riparian buffers are composed of a series of

zones or strips between the flood zone and the

edge of the water: a strip of large trees; another

of medium-sized trees and shrubs, and a third

strip of grasses (Fig. 188).

While most of the river along the park boundary

is edged by woodland, the condition of the

community along the river needs to be evaluated

in terms of its value as a riparian buffer. For

example, it may include various invasive plant

species, and there may be gaps in the extent of

the woodland. Adjacent landowners whose

properties front the river should be encouraged

to establish buffers on their property as well.

Methods for delineating wetland buffers and

buffers associated with perennial watercourses

vary from region to region. There is a great deal

of available information and guidance provided

by a number of organizations, including the U.S.

Department of Agriculture Natural Resources

Conservation Service within Tennessee State.

Location

Lands extending for 100 feet to either side of

Stones River are the highest priority area for

buffer maintenance and establishment.

Additional Studies Recommended

z The park should include a riparian buffer

plan as part of the vegetation management

plan. The plan should identify all areas that

potentially require a buffer and delineate the

100-foot dimension of the minimal buffer

boundaries on a map of the park. The

locations should be field verified, and any
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 211

existing deficiencies in the existing riparian

forest should be noted and addressed in the

plan. The plan should identify a list of

desirable native species for inclusion in the

buffer planting. The site specific selection of

species should be tied to cultural conditions.

Ecologists and plant specialists should be

involved in determining the recommended

species compositions, densities, and the

appropriate season for planting. Seed

scarification, dormancy, and the potential for

colonization by invasive species are often

dependent on seasonal issues. Planting

schemes should be based upon a detailed

evaluation of the following elements:

 Soil type(s)

 Slope of buffer zone

 Stability of soil organic layer

 Vegetation type(s) and communities

 Hydrology

 Type and condition of adjacent

waterway

 Land use history

 Location of cultural and archeological

features

z The park should identify the appropriate

character for riparian buffers in areas where

interpretation of key events associated with

the Battle of Stones River is desirable. Trees

will generally provide better erosion control

in riparian zones because of their extensive

netted root system, and the canopy that

reduces the impact of rainfall on soils. Trees

also shade, and therefore help to cool, water

resources. To accommodate site-specific

interpretive objectives, consider thinning the

stand of trees within the riparian buffer

and/or limbing up individual trees to open

views that support interpretive goals, or

establish a visual connection between two

important locations by removing a limited

number trees and tall shrubs, while

maintaining low-growing alternative buffer

vegetation; (see the section that follows.)

z The park should contact adjacent

landowners and owners of parcels along

Stones River to consider establishing similar

woodland features on their land.

Related Implementation Projects

z 3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields.

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

river wetland

vegetation

large to medium

native trees and shrubs

native warm-season grasses

FIGURE 188. Section through a typical riparian buffer.128

128. Ibid.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

212 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

Project Implementation Process

1. Prepare the site for buffer establishment by

removing exotic and invasive vegetation and

protecting sensitive natural or cultural

resources.

2. Follow established procedures for forest

restoration, planting a combination of native

trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants within a

100-foot-wide riparian buffer zone. Fibrousrooted native grasses have the best potential

to hold the soil and prevent erosion.

3. Follow proper plant installation methods,

including mulching and watering techniques,

to ensure survival of vegetation. During plant

installation, follow erosion control methods

to prevent excessive sediment or chemical

runoff into the adjacent water source.

4. Monitor post-installation site conditions for

plant health and possible invasive or exotic

plant species growth on a regular basis.

5. Replace failed vegetation immediately.

Thin Woodland to Establish

Viewsheds for Interpretation

Considerations/Justification

The following woodland thinning techniques are

intended to render the ground plane and

landform of important interpretive viewsheds

more visually accessible in places where

removing non-contributing woodland is not a

viable option given natural resource protection

needs (Figs. 189 through 191). The techniques that

can be used to enhance visual accessibility while

retaining tree cover include thinning, the

selective removal of trees and shrubs, and the

pruning of lower branches.

For sites where a riparian buffer is

recommended, but tree cover interferes with

important views, an alternative buffer type is

recommended, comprised of vegetation that can

be maintained at a lower height, such as native

grasses, sedges, and forbs that maintain a fibrous

root system capable of stabilizing the soil. As

noted above, trees provide the best erosion

control within riparian buffers. However, there

may be instances where thinning the trees within

the riparian buffer and/or limbing up individual

trees will be necessary to open up views in

support of interpretive goals. In some very

limited instances, it may be necessary to remove

tree and large shrub cover in small areas to

accommodate site-specific interpretive

objectives. In these areas, an alternative riparian

buffer is recommended comprised of grasses,

sedges, and forbs that maintain a fibrous root

system capable of stabilizing the soil. This type

should only be utilized when thinning and

limbing is not successful in achieving an

important interpretive objective.

Location

Thinning and clearing of specific sight lines is

recommended for views across Stones River to

the artillery position of the Union Army on

January 2, 1863. Both banks of the river were

maintained in open vegetative cover during the

Civil War period.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Assessment and protection of cultural

features should precede removal of trees.

z The identification of important views and

viewsheds should be determined as part of

the interpretive plan.

Related Implementation Projects

z 3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields.

z 6. Remove non-contributing woodland

vegetation.

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

Project Implementation Process

1. Engage an archeologist, natural resource

specialist, and historical landscape architect

to field-check the areas to be cleared and

ensure that no cultural or natural resources

will be adversely affected prior to removal of

woodland vegetation.

2. Follow BMPs for vegetation removal and

thinning.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 213

3. Perform work in phases to ensure that the

minimum amount of vegetation is removed

to meet interpretive needs:

 Phase One: Begin by removing exotic

and invasive vegetation and trees that are

diseased, unhealthy, present a danger to

visitors, or are a windthrow hazard.

Remove the majority of saplings and

shrubs. Prune and remove branches up

to fifteen feet above the ground. Seed

with appropriate native grass, rush,

sedge, and forb species.

 Phase Two: Evaluate the success of phase

one thinning operations. Further

enhance visibility as needed by

selectively thinning additional trees.

129. Ibid.

130. Ibid.

FIGURE 189. Interpretive view before thinning and clearing.129

FIGURE 190. Interpretive view after thinning and clearing.130

Continue to remove exotic, invasive, and

diseased vegetation.

 Phase Three: Evaluate the success of

phases one and two thinning operations.

If the viewshed remains obscured,

continue to selectively thin trees without

negatively affecting water quality until

the viewshed meets interpretive needs.

As woodland is opened, seed with

relatively shade-tolerant native grasses,

rushes, sedges, and forbs to prevent soil

erosion and establishment of unwanted

opportunistic and invasive species.

Maintain understory grasses by

periodically removing woody

competition as needed. Also thin woody
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

214 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

cover on a periodic basis as needed to

maintain visual access.

 Alternatively, opt to clear trees between a

specific view point and a viewed

landscape feature in a narrow cone of

vision. Interpret the cleared area for

visitors.

4. Maintain alternative buffers through

infrequent mowing or controlled burns, on

average once per year or every two years.

FIGURE 191. An example of a viewshed carefully cleared in

support of interpretation.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 215

7. Update invasive plant species

control plans

Description

Control of invasive plant species is a goal of park

management. The park is currently in the process

of developing an integrated pest management

plan for invasive exotics as part of its vegetation

management plan. This plan provides several

types of information, including a rating system

gauging the threat that individual species pose;

the locations of troublesome stands; a

description of each invasive plant species and its

growing habit; and a history of each invasive

species’ introduction and success of past control

methods. The draft of this study is not yet

complete, but it will clearly be a critical

document for park management. The document

also outlines approaches to vegetation

management for different types of communities,

such as native warm-season grass fields. The

information that follows is intended to

complement the vegetation management plan.

Completion of the plan and its implementation

will support natural and cultural resources goals.

Location

This project applies to the park as a whole.

Considerations/Justification

Numerous invasive plant species are in evidence

within the Stones River National Battlefield

landscape, some of which pose a threat to natural

and cultural resources. Invasive or exotic plant

species have become a troublesome component

of the Stones River National Battlefield

landscape, even in well-maintained areas.

Whether introduced intentionally or accidentally

to the landscape, invasive species cause native

communities to degrade and lose quality. The

consequences of the invasion of such species

ranges from merely annoying to seriously

threatening the park’s natural systems and

cultural resources. Invasive species were not a

part of the 1863 landscape and are incompatible

with the character of historic vegetation.

Treatment of invasive species in national parks is

guided by a number of National Park Service and

other federal policies including: NPS-77 Natural

Resources Management Guidelines, Executive

Order 13112, and NPS Management Policies. NPS

Management Policies states, “Exotic species will

not be allowed to displace native species if

displacement can be prevented.” Also,

All exotic plant and animal species that are

not maintained to meet an identified park

purpose will be managed—up to and

including eradication—if (1) control is

prudent and feasible, and (2) the exotic

species:

z Interferes with natural processes and the

perpetuation of natural features, native

species or natural habitats;

z Disrupts the genetic integrity of native

species;

z Disrupts the accurate presentation of a

cultural landscape;

z Damages cultural resources;

z Significantly hampers the management of

park or adjacent lands;

z Posts a public health hazard;

z Creates a hazard to public safety.131

Bush honeysuckle and Chinese privet likely pose

the most serious threat to park resources. Both

of these species infest many of the park’s road

corridors, field edges, stream corridors, wetland

areas, and woodlands. Other invasive species

with the potential to displace native species

observed during the field investigations for this

report or noted in park vegetation studies

include:

z Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima)

z Mimosa (Albizia julibrissin)

z Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata)

z Musk thistle (Cardus nutans)

z Queen Anne’s lace or wild carrot

(Daucus carota)

z Climbing euonymus (Euonymus fortunei)

131. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park

Service, NPS Management Policies (Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2001), 37.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

216 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

z Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica)

z Muliflora rose (Rosa multiflora)

z White and sweet clover (Melilotus alba,

M. officinalis)

z Sericea lespedeza (Lespeeza cuneata)

z Johnsongrass (Sorghum halapense)

z Tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum)

z Japanese grass (Microstegium vimineum)

z Kudzu (Pueraria lobata or montana)

z Common mullein (Verbascum thapsus)

z Japanese smartweed (Polygonum cespitosum)

z Lady’s thumb (Polygonum persicaria)

z Field hedge-parsely (Torilis arvensis)

z Bachelor’s buttons (Centaurea cyanus)

z Japanese clover (Kummerowia striata)

z Japanese chess (Bromus japonicus)

z English ivy (Hedera helix)

z Ox-eye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare)

z Yellow goat’s beard (Tragopogon dubius)

z Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus)

z Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum

umbellatum)

z Chickory (Chichorium intybus)

z Yam-leaved clematis (Clematis terniflora)

Recommendations for containing, controlling,

and managing the invasive species that pose the

most serious threats to park resources can be

found in the following sources: Nonnative

Invasive Plants of Southern Forests: A Field Guide

for Identification and Control; A Handbook for

Forest Vegetation Management in Recreation and

Historic Parks; and at the National Invasive

Species Information Center internet site.132 John

M. Randall’s Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global

Garden also provides a basic overview of invasive

plant species management.133 Given the

infestation of Chinese privet and bush

honeysuckle at Stones River, and the current and

potential damage these plants pose to natural

and cultural resources, the park should focus

immediate efforts on completing its integrated

pest management plan for invasive exotics” to

include control methods for these two species.

Such a program will involve collaboration

among natural resource specialists such as

biologists and ecologists and experts from state

and federal institutions to compile the most upto-date scientific data for managing invasive

species. The park should also investigate

additional sources of funding and support for

invasive species management at Stones River to

ensure the completion of such efforts.

When invasive species appear to be wellestablished, the most effective action may be to

prevent their spread or lessen their impacts. For

certain invasive species, adequate control

methods are not available or populations are too

widespread for eradication to be feasible.

Consideration of the environmental impacts of

control actions requires that environmentally

sound methods be available and judiciously

deployed, especially in highly vulnerable areas.

Often, further research is needed on the biology

of invasive species and the ecosystem’s

vulnerability to them and on means to detect and

interdict invasive species that threaten to become

established. Natural resource managers and site

stewards are often the ones gathering evidence

while managing highly invasive species. This

hands-on trial and error approach to invasive

species control is often highly valuable and

should be comprehensively recorded and

documented in landscape monitoring reports.

132. James H. Miller, Nonnative Invasive Plants of

Southern Forests: A Field Guide for Identification

and Control, rev. ed. (Asheville, North Carolina: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Southern Research Station, 2003); Amy Cimarolli

Helm and James E. Johnson, A Handbook for Forest

Vegetation Management in Recreation and Historic

Parks (Blacksburg, Virginia: Virginia Cooperative

Extension, 1995); www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov

133. John M. Randall, et al., Invasive Plants: Weeds of

the Global Garden (Brooklyn, New York: Brooklyn

Botanic Garden, 1996).
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 217

If an invasive species is eradicated in an area

where its impacts on the environment were

small, recovery can be rapid. In many cases,

however, disturbances caused by invasive species

have multiple effects throughout an ecosystem

and may be exacerbated by human alterations of

the environment. Invasive plant control measures

must be continued on a regular and periodic

basis; lapses in treatment due to a lack of funding

can compound the problem.

Continue using invasive species control

programs as an opportunity to educate the

general public about the harm that invasive

species cause and the importance of preventing

their introduction.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Consult with natural resource specialists onsite to determine the most effective and

sensitive method available to address each

specific invasive species population. Typical

removal options include chemical

(herbicides), mechanical (cutting, mowing),

and prescribed burning, although biological

controls may also be effective for some

species. Determine which methods are

available and most appropriate to control

each invasive species of concern.

Project Implementation Process

The invasive species control plan is implemented

only after the first three steps are completed. One

of the steps is to reevaluate periodically the goals

and the plan for modification as needed. This is

the essential “adaptive” process required by the

strategy.

1. Evaluate current planning documents and

maintenance records to determine how to

appropriately update and/or modify the

existing invasive plant species control

program.

2. Put in place the following key elements for

developing an early detection and rapid

response system:

 Up-to-date reliable scientific and

management information;

 Rapid and accurate species

identification;

 Standard procedures for rapid risk

assessment;

 Adequate technical assistance such as

quarantine, monitoring, information

sharing, research and development, and

technology transfer; and

 Rapid access to funding for emergency

response efforts, including accelerated

research of invasive species biology,

survey methods, and eradication

options.

3. Allow for an adaptive approach to the

management and control of invasive plant

species.

4. Under the direction of a natural resource

specialist, map the location, density, and type

of invasive species populations prior to

control and removal efforts in order to create

a baseline of information for future

evaluation of efforts.

5. Establish management goals for the various

restoration areas. Determine if any plant

species threaten or have the potential to

threaten management goals.

6. Evaluate species and populations for their

likely impact upon the park’s ecological

health and its natural and cultural resources.

Prioritize the application of control

measures based on species and populations

that pose the greatest threat to natural and

cultural resources.

7. Develop and implement the invasive species

control plan designed to move conditions

toward the management goals.

8. Train personnel to identify invasive and

native species and to use appropriate

methods for removal/treatment. Follow the

park’s vegetation management plan for

species-specific control and eradication

procedures.

 Use ecologically sound removal

techniques that will not cause damage to

resources.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

218 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

 Assess potential impacts of removal

methods on resources to ensure that

treatment benefits outweigh negative

effects.

 Remove invasive plant species in the

vicinity of historic and archeological

resources in such a way as to minimize

ground disturbance and damage to

native vegetation. Removal should be

undertaken only after surrounding

landscape features and resources have

been protected. Hand-treat or remove

by hand invasive plants in sensitive

natural or cultural resource areas.

 If necessary, repair damage to resources

and mitigate any impacts of removal,

such as the potential for soil erosion on

steep slopes.

 Revegetate cleared areas with

appropriate native plant species to

prevent re-infestation and erosion

problems.

9. Monitor and assess the impacts of the

invasive species management actions in

terms of the management goals, and in order

to evaluate the effectiveness of various

measures.

10. Repeat the process by reevaluating

conclusions made in the first three steps and

modify as necessary.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 219

8. Establish screen plantings in

specific locations to manage

views

Description

Residential and commercial development and

accompanying expansion of transportation

infrastructure is occurring rapidly within the

Murfreesboro area. Stones River National

Battlefield is edged in many areas by land that is

already, or expected to be, under development

pressure. As the park continues to enhance the

rural, agricultural character of its historic

landscape to interpret 1863 conditions, views to

development along its boundary undermine

these efforts. Views of light industrial

development, highway overpasses, and

residential subdivisions detract from the

interpretive potential of the park. Mitigation of

these views should be undertaken. One of the

most effective means for mitigating undesirable

views is to establish screen plantings along

portions of the park’s boundaries edged by

development, or that have the potential for

future development. Screen plantings may be

composed of existing woodland supplemented

with additional evergreen trees and shrubs, or

additional depth. In some areas, establishment of

a new woodland screen may be necessary.

Location

Screen plantings are recommended along park

boundaries where there are views of current or

potential incompatible development.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Minimize development impacts adjacent to

and near the park by working with

developers during the planning process,

suggesting increased setbacks and the least

intrusive location and character for new

structures and roads.

z Monitor and participate in regional planning

activities in order to protect adjacent

resources and the larger setting of the park.

z Develop working relationships with adjacent

landowners to yield information that may

determine where additional buffers should

be established to most effectively screen

proposed development.

z Develop a revegetation plan as part of the

park’s vegetation management plan that

identifies the appropriate species for

consideration as part of park screen

plantings.

Related Implementation Projects

z 6. Manage mixed woodland to promote a

combination of natural and cultural resource

values.

Project Implementation Process

1. Delineate the extent of each area where

screen plantings are to be established, using a

historical landscape architect, archeologist,

and botanist/ecologist.

2. Evaluate the extent and condition of existing

woodland to serve as a visual screen or

buffer.

3. Remove all invasives within the area

designated for buffer establishment.

4. Plant native evergreen and deciduous trees

and shrubs with dense character that are

suited to local conditions.
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220 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

9. Protect the Pioneer Brigade

Earthworks, and manage

woodland environs to promote

preservation of the associated

resources

Description

The Pioneer Brigade Earthworks are located in

close proximity to the visitor center, but are

currently not included in the visitor interpretive

experience at Stones River National Battlefield.

Earthworks are one of the few tangible aboveground resources that survive from Civil War

battlefields. The Pioneer Brigade Earthworks

offer a special interpretive opportunity at the

park and should be made accessible to the

public.

Location

The Pioneer Brigade Earthworks are located

west of the Visitor Center within the Nashville

Pike unit.

Considerations/Justification

Due to the fragile nature of earthwork resources,

any visitor access and interpretive improvements

must be carefully considered to avoid

degradation of the Pioneer Brigade Earthworks.

A management plan should be developed that

explores the best methods for protecting the

earthworks while allowing for interpretation.

Given the current woodland vegetative cover, the

best approach to managing the earthworks will

likely be to maintain the woodland community

and a surficial layer of leaf litter to prevent soil

erosion. If the existing trees do not generate

enough leaf litter, additional material may need

to be brought to the site and used to cover the

soil of the earthworks.

Consideration should be paid to the fact that the

woodland surrounding the earthworks is

considered non-contributing to the Civil War

period. As the park considers removing noncontributing woodland, it may be desirable to

maintain a buffer of woodland surrounding the

earthworks to effect the protection described

above. The park’s natural resource specialist

should consider the extent of the buffer required

to protect the earthworks, and this buffer should

be maintained when tree removal is effected in

this area. Within the buffer, however, the

woodland will need to be managed to limit

potential threats to the earthworks and the

visitor. Trees with shallow roots systems and

larger than twelve inches in diameter are

susceptible to wind-throw. In many cases, this

can include the disruption of soil areas when the

root ball is dislodged. Large trees and trees that

present a windthrow hazard should therefore be

removed from the parapet and ditch system of

the earthwork. Hazard trees are those that have

the potential to fall or drop large limbs on

earthen resources or visitors. These should also

be removed. If the remaining woodland cover is

not substantial enough to protect the

earthworks, additional tree saplings should be

planted to support the establishment and

maintenance of a healthy woodland stand.

Trails leading to and around the earthworks

should be carefully designed so that they do not

invite visitors to climb on the earthworks and

should be sited in the least intrusive and

destructive way possible. Signage should

encourage visitor stewardship of the resources; if

signage is not successful in keeping visitors from

climbing on the earthworks, more restrictive

measures, such as installing fencing or bollards

and chains, may be required. New structural

features, such as boardwalks or viewing

platforms, should not be founded in soil that is

part of the parapet or ditch system to avoid

confusing visitors about stewardship of the

resources and to protect them.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Woodland health evaluation.

z Plan for removal of windthrow hazard trees

and shallow rooted trees growing in and on

the earthworks.

z Consideration of interpretation at the site as

part of the park interpretive plan.

z Design of a new visitor trail and interpretive

exhibits.

z Review of plans by archeologist to determine

conflicts with known and potential

resources.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 221

Related Implementation Projects

z 5. Remove non-contributing woodland

vegetation.

z 7. Update invasive plant species control

plans.

Project Implementation Process

1. Remove trees that pose a hazard to the

earthworks or visitors, are invasive exotics,

or are greater than twelve inches in diameter

and are growing on the earthworks. Employ

the tree removal techniques and guidelines

included in the Fortress Rosecrans section of

the Treatment Plan chapter.

2. Evaluate leaf litter cover on the earthworks

to determine if additional material needs to

be added. Add leaf litter to earthworks as

needed, after material has been approved by

the park’s natural resource specialist.

3. Plant additional saplings as needed to ensure

future tree cover. Follow the guidelines in

the Fortress Rosecrans section of the

Treatment Plan chapter.

4. Establish a new visitor access trail leading to

the earthworks and interpretive exhibits,

designed in accordance with the park’s

interpretive plan. Consider a trail surface

that is muted in color, and requires the least

amount of soil disturbance possible, yet is

universally accessible, such as warm browncolored crushed aggregate, crushed

limestone, or a pervious pavement material.

Employ an archeologist to monitor any

ground disturbance.

5. Screen views to adjacent properties that are

not consistent with the historic setting.

6. Place signs in key locations where the trail

comes into close contact with the earthworks

that point out the fragility of the earthworks

and urge visitors to remain stewards of the

site by not climbing on the earthworks.

Consider more restrictive features, such as

wood bollards or small fence sections, when

signs are not successful in preventing visitors

from accessing the resource.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

222 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

10. Mark and interpret the

locations of buildings and

structures missing from the

battlefield landscape

Description

There are currently no park interpretive exhibits

focusing on the lifeways of the local residents at

the time of the battle. While there were few

buildings or structures extant within the park

landscape in 1862–1863, some residential features

did exist. None survive today, but their presence

and general locations were recorded on Civil

War-era maps. These buildings include the

McFadden farmstead, a log cabin along the Old

Nashville Highway, cabins near the intersection

of Van Cleve Lane and Wilkinson Pike, and the

structure appropriated for use by General

Rosecrans as his headquarters. In addition, a toll

gate and block house were located along the pike

and the rail line, and other dwellings were

located outside of, but near the park boundary.

There were also several buildings and structures

associated with Fortress Rosecrans that no

longer survive.

The sites of these missing features afford an

additional opportunity for interpreting the

historic character of the 1863 landscape. They are

of critical value to depicting the domestic and

agricultural nature of the battle landscape. Some

of these sites are located along the tour route and

could be experienced by many visitors. The

interpretive potential of these sites is presently

not fully realized, as the character of the existing

landscape falls short in terms of representing the

historic character and complexity associated

with the farmsteads, making it difficult for

visitors to appreciate the 1863 landscape that the

soldiers experienced. A more accurate

representation of historic character will greatly

improve interpretation at these sites and the park

as a whole. Representation of missing structures

at the house sites, combined with

reestablishment of cultural vegetation, offers the

most feasible and effective treatment option for

interpretation of historic agricultural character.

Location

There are multiple sites within the Nashville Pike

unit to be considered for this treatment, as well

as the McFadden Farm within the McFadden

Farm unit. Buildings and structures originally

associated with Fortress Rosecrans should also

be considered for this treatment.

Considerations/Justification

Given that very little documentation survives to

support a clear understanding of the physical

composition, character, and size of the

battlefield’s missing buildings and structures,

restoration or reconstruction of these features is

not a viable option when considering the

Secretary of the Interior’s Standards.

Interpretation of these features will need to rely

on creative exhibit design that depicts general

patterns of spatial organization and conveys

what is known and not known about the sites.

Over time, buildings and structures have been

demolished or removed from Stones River

National Battlefield for various reasons. While

reconstructing these elements is one option, it

may be inappropriate where little documentation

of the physical form and appearance of each

feature is available. Other, less challenging

options exist that involve representing the

missing features through alternate means, such as

outlining the footprint or three-dimensional

form of a missing house; providing an artist’s

rendering of the feature; or marking the corners

or foundation of a missing building using

masonry, wood posts, or plant material. This

option not only avoids historical inaccuracy, it is

often less expensive in terms of initial installation

and maintenance.

Park managers must determine which buildings

or structures would be best to interpret. Park

managers and interpretive planners should also

consider the most appropriate representation

method. For instance, the park may want to

reserve more intrusive, upright or physically

imposing representations for features that have

the most interpretive or educational value.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Archival research should occur as part of the

data collection required to support

development of new interpretive exhibits

along with archeological investigations of the

sites of missing mid-nineteenth century
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 223

buildings and structures located within the

park.

z The park interpretive plan should assess

which features should be interpreted by

determining those that have the most

significant educational value.

Related Implementation Projects

z 11. Restore fencelines missing from the

battlefield landscape.

Project Implementation Process

1. Using archeological information, consider

interpreting missing buildings through

various means, including:

 Ghost structures. When the overall

dimensions, roofline, and massing of a

missing building or structure are known,

consider developing a three-dimensional

“ghost structure” on the site.

 Foundation outlines. When the

dimensions and location of the footprint

of a missing building or structure are

known, an outline or other demarcation

such as a low wall or corner markers can

be placed on the ground to aid

interpretation. If footings are necessary,

avoid digging into the ground. Instead,

add a minimal layer of fill over the site to

protect any archeological resources. A

foundation outline can be constructed of

typical local building materials utilized

during the period when the building was

standing, such as stone or brick (Fig.

192). However, the foundation outline

should clearly be a product of its own

time, so that it is not confused as a

historic foundation or ruins.

Foundations outlines may also be

marked with fencing (Fig. 193), or with

mowing patterns (Fig. 194).

 Markers. When locations of missing

structures are known, but overall

dimensions have yet to be determined,

consider installing metal signs or

medallions in the ground. These may be

coordinated with an interpretive wayside

with an artist’s rendering of the

farmstead during the time of the battle to

represent the character of missing

structures and bring the historic scene to

life.

5. Enlist an exhibit designer, in coordination

with park staff, to plan representative

features. Enlist a qualified archeologist to

monitor ground-disturbing activities during

construction. Enlist qualified park staff or a

landscape contractor to install the chosen

representative features, as well as any

wayside signage.

6. Reestablish the historic fencing

configuration within each site.

FIGURE 192. Example of the foundation of a missing

structure marked with brick corners at the Fredericksburg

and Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial National

Military Park.

FIGURE 193. Example of the foundation of a missing

structure marked with fencing at the Fredericksburg and

Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial National

Military Park. Also, an artist’s rendering of the missing

feature is shown on the interpretive sign.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

224 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

FIGURE 194. Property lines and building locations of missing features can be marked through mowing patterns.

7. Alter vegetation management regimes, such

as mowing schedules and planting palettes,

in such a way as to yield a diversity of

appearances. For example, pasture or

uncultivated areas would be cut more

frequently than cultivated crop areas, and

different grass species could be used to

represent different “crops.”

8. Reestablish small areas of crops at one or

more of these sites as appropriate given

specific knowledge of their character and

composition at the time of the battle.

9. Supplement existing interpretive media and

programs with new materials to enhance the

depiction of the life and work of the

inhabitants of the area when the battle

began. Locate new interpretive media in as

unobtrusive a manner as possible to avoid

detracting from the historic scene.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 225

11. Restore fencelines missing

from the battlefield landscape

Description

Fences are strong visual aids when used for

interpretive purposes, depicting historic patterns

of spatial organization and property ownership.

Ed Bearss’s Historic Fence and Ground Cover

map of the Stones River battlefield, which was

based on careful analysis of Official Record

accounts of the battle and review of historic

military engineer maps, suggests the locations of

fences in 1862–1863 to a high level of detail.

Although in many cases it remains difficult to

determine exactly what type of fencing occurred

in each specific location, worm or snake fencing,

board fencing, picket fencing, and paled fencing

appear all to have been in use within the area.

This project suggests restoring historic fencelines

that are missing from the battlefield landscape.

Location

Areas best suited for reestablishing 1863 fence

patterns are those that would have been present

at current and proposed future interpreted

sites—along Van Cleve Lane, the southern park

boundary, the eastern half of the Nashville Pike

unit, and within the McFadden Farm unit parcel.

Considerations/Justification

Reestablishment of fencing in historic locations

without accurately depicting the fence type and

location can be misleading to the public. It will

be important to take every precaution to ensure

that the design of fencelines to be reestablished is

an accurate to the historic period as possible.

Historic photographs, narrative accounts, and

historic maps of the mid-nineteenth century

should be scrutinized as part of the design

process for clues regarding these important

features.

Worm fencing, which utilizes a large amount of

materials and takes up a lot of space, but is easy

to construct, was likely the most prevalent fence

type utilized within the area. Paled fences,

including palisades and picket fences, would

typically have been used around smaller

precincts such as house yards and gardens, or

animal enclosures, as they were more laborintensive to construct but had a minimal

footprint. It is not known whether these fences

were highly finished or not.

Although additional research may help to verify

these, and any other fence types utilized within

the battlefield landscape, it is possible that no

more information will present itself.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Inventory and map current fence locations

and types.

z Using the Michler map and any other

primary source maps, in conjunction with

Ed Bearss’s “Historic Fence and Ground

Cover Map,” determine which historic

fencelines present during the battle are not

currently depicted. Compare these with the

proposed visitor tour route and interpretive

program to identify fences that should be

reestablished in support of enhancing the

historic scene. Determine the locations for

restored fencelines as part of the park

interpretive plan.

Related Implementation Projects

z 10. Mark and interpret the locations of

buildings and structures missing from the

battlefield landscape.

z 13. Rehabilitate portions of historic Van

Cleve Lane.

Project Implementation Process

1. Reestablish historic fence patterns in

recommended areas.

2. Reestablishment of 1863 fence patterns

should conform to the historic fencing type

based on functional location: worm fencing

around larger fields, paled fencing around

house lots, gardens, and livestock enclosures;

material: wood; construction method: as

discussed above; and location: based on the

Michler map.

3. Consider carefully the addition of fencing in

areas where it could increase the difficulty of

managing the agricultural fields.
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226 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

12. Consider alternatives for

establishing and maintaining nonhistoric fencelines, controlled

visitor access points, and linear

connections between park units

Description

Currently, worm fencing is used in areas where

fencing was not present at the time of the Battle

of Stones River. This historic fence type has been

used along park boundaries and to limit

vehicular access to areas that are interpreted but

not open to the public. This presents an

inaccurate historic picture that may interfere

with the enhanced interpretation proposed for

the park. Replacing worm fencing in these areas

with compatible contemporary fence types and

reestablishing worm fencing and other historic

fence types where they occurred in 1863 would

improve visitor understanding of the battlefield.

Location

Most instances of fencing that should be

replaced are located within the Nashville Pike

unit at the entrance to Van Cleve Lane and along

the eastern boundary of the Nashville Pike Unit,

and the McFadden Farm unit. The fencing that

encloses the Bragg’s Headquarters site should

also be replaced.

Considerations/Justification

In addition to replacing worm fencing in nonhistoric locations, the park will need to consider

new fencing at the Rosecrans’s Headquarters site

and along the roadway connections between

noncontiguous parcels.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Inventory and map current fence locations

and types.

z Using the Michler map and any other

primary source maps, in conjunction with

Ed Bearss’s Historic Fence and Ground

Cover Map, determine which existing fences

correspond to historic fence locations and

which are located in areas where fences did

not exist.

Related Implementation Projects

z 8. Establish screen plantings in specific

locations to manage views.

z 10. Mark and interpret the locations of

buildings and structures missing from the

battlefield landscape.

z 13. Rehabilitate portions of historic Van

Cleve Lane.

z 15. Establish design guidelines for

contemporary park features, such as site

furnishings.

z 16. Enhance connections between

noncontiguous park units and parcels.

Project Implementation Process

1. Replace historic fence types used in

contemporary locations with contemporary

but compatible fencing types and materials.

2. Design new fencing as a product of its time

and compatible with the historic resources in

materials, size, scale and proportion, while

maintaining a clear differentiation between

the historic and contemporary fencing.

Contemporary fencing may include

horizontal board privacy fencing at

Rosecrans’s Headquarters; a more open, and

planed board fence with square posts along

the routes of travel between noncontiguous

parcels; and simple planed board fencing

along contemporary park boundaries and for

limiting vehicular access to Van Cleve Lane.

Any fencing employed in association with

the farm fields in the eastern portion of the

McFadden Farm unit should be as

transparent as possible, given the lack of

fencing indicated on historic maps. Wood

post and wire fencing may be the most

appropriate for these fields, if fencing must

be included at all.

3. Consider the visual impact of new fence

design. Contemporary fencing should be

functional but not detract from the historic

setting or views. In some areas, alternatives

to fencing, including boulders, bollards, low

edging materials, posts and chains, and

vegetation might be effective and less

intrusive.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 227

13. Rehabilitate portions of

historic Van Cleve Lane

Description

Van Cleve Lane follows the route of a local

roadway that was present at the time of the Battle

of Stones River. The road corridor that extends

between Old Nashville Highway and Wilkinson

Pike has continued in use as part of the park’s

circulation network since the 1930s. A segment of

the road also extends north of Old Nashville

Highway as a trace. Current park plans include a

reorientation of the tour route to include a

portion of Van Cleve Lane. The portions not

integrated into the auto tour road should be

incorporated into the pedestrian trail system.

Twentieth century improvements to the road

corridor, such as asphalt paving, widening, and

stormwater management features, should be

removed, and a surface material added along the

southern section not incorporated into the auto

tour route that more accurately depicts historic

conditions and supports sustainability objectives.

Where overland flow of stormwater is currently

blocked by the road grade or prism, grading

should be used to reinstate natural drainage

patterns. The trace to the north should be

located, identified using GPS equipment, and

investigated by an archeologist. After a

preservation strategy for the trace has been

effected, the former road corridor could be

cleared of woody vegetation and an appropriate

trail surface applied to integrate this route into

the pedestrian experience at the park. Connect

this road trace to the existing trails associated

with the Hazen Brigade Monument.

Location

This project is located in the eastern half of the

Nashville Pike unit to the north and south of Old

Nashville Highway.

Considerations/Justification

At the time of the Battle of Stones River, local

roads were unpaved and served only horse and

wagon traffic. Road alignments likely followed

the natural topography with few, if any, drainage

improvements. Van Cleve Lane was modified in

the 1930s as part of the development of the park,

and these historic characteristics were altered to

accommodate visitor automobile traffic. The

road was regraded and resurfaced, and ditches

were established to carry stormwater. The

segment to the north of Old Nashville Highway

was abandoned during the twentieth century,

and is generally no longer accessible.

Rehabilitation of portions of Van Cleve Lane

supports the interpretive goals of the park and

provides opportunities to educate visitors about

the conditions of the 1863 circulation network

and its role in the battle.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Conduct archeological investigations and

other research to determine the battle period

road horizontal and vertical alignment and

width.

z Identify potential impacts to archeological

resources within the road corridor and

recommend actions to protect those

resources.

z Engage a historical landscape architect to

design the rehabilitated road corridor.

Related Implementation Projects

z 3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields and meadows.

z 4. Establish filter strips in association with

crop exhibits, roads, parking areas, and

trails.

z 5. Remove non-contributing woodland

vegetation.

z 6. Manage mixed woodlands to promote a

combination of natural and cultural resource

values.

z 8. Establish screen plantings in specific

locations to manage views.

z 10. Mark and interpret the locations of

buildings and structures missing from the

battlefield landscape.

z 14. Convert a portion of the tour road to a

pedestrian trail in concert with proposed

new tour route.
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228 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

z 15. Establish design guidelines for

contemporary park features, such as site

furnishings.

Project Implementation Process

1. Engage a qualified archeologist to perform

archeological clearing of the site.

2. Remove asphalt surfacing from the future

pedestrian portion of Van Cleve Lane to the

south of Old Nashville Highway.

3. Regrade in association with the southern

segment of the road corridor, if approved by

an archeologist, to establish a relatively level

road corridor that is consistent with the

surrounding topography, does not impede

stormwater flow, and is crowned to drain.

Utilize archeological investigations of the

northern trace segment to determine the

historic approach to stormwater

management along the road corridor.

4. Resurface the road corridor with a material

that is compatible with the historic character

of the road corridor, and promotes, as

possible, sustainability objectives.

Alternatives include warm brown colored

crushed aggregate, crushed limestone, or a

pervious pavement material that promotes

infiltration of stormwater. Ensure that the

corridor more closely approximates the

historic width of the road.

5. Establish a trail connection to the Hazen

Brigade Monument trail system as part of the

rehabilitation of the northern trace segment.

6. Install interpretive signage to educate visitors

about the conditions of the 1863 circulation

network and its role in the battle.

7. Re-vegetate the road margins, including the

establishment of filter strips.

8. Maintain the rehabilitated trail for

universally accessible pedestrian access.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 229

14. Convert a portion of the tour

road to a pedestrian trail in

concert with proposed new tour

route

Description

The park is currently developing a new tour

route for the interpretation of the Nashville Pike

unit. Implementation of the new plan will lead to

the abandonment of the western portion of the

existing tour road. This abandoned circulation

route can either be revegetated and obscured, or

integrated into the pedestrian circulation system

at the park. To integrate it into the pedestrian

system, the park should alter the existing paved

surface to more appropriately match the scale of

pedestrian use and make it a less intrusive

element within the historic battlefield landscape.

Refer to the Tour Road Plan for more

information regarding this project.

Location

This project is located in the Nashville Pike unit.

Considerations/Justification

In designing the new pedestrian trail, the park

should consider narrowing the paved area, while

potentially accommodating mixed uses, such as

pedestrian and bicycle traffic, with designated

lanes. The park should also consider regrading

the corridor to establish a relatively level trail

prism that is consistent with the surrounding

grades, does not impede stormwater flow, and is

crowned to drain. The trail surface material

should be universally accessible and

accommodate the programmatic needs of the

visitor. To accommodate universal accessibility

standards, options for the trail surface include

stabilized crushed brownstone or hard-packed

earth, asphalt, or concrete. No matter which

material is selected, the pavement should have a

coloration that trends towards the browns,

rather than the blues, cool grays, or whites.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Conduct necessary research and

archeological investigations to determine if

any resources will be adversely affected by

the conversion project.

z Identify potential impacts to archeological

resources within the road trace corridor and

recommend actions to protect those

resources.

z Engage a historical landscape architect to

design the converted corridor.

Related Implementation Projects

z 2. Rehabilitate cedar brake and dense cedar

wood communities in areas of interpretive

value.

z 3. Enhance and expand native warm-season

grass fields and meadows.

z 4. Establish filter strips in association with

crop exhibits, roads, parking areas, and

trails.

z 5. Remove non-contributing woodland

vegetation.

z 6. Manage mixed woodlands to promote a

combination of natural and cultural resource

values.

z 8. Establish screen plantings in specific

locations to manage views.

Project Implementation Process

1. Engage a qualified archeologist to perform

archeological assessment of the site.

2. Remove asphalt surfacing from the future

pedestrian portion of the tour road.

3. Regrade, if approved by an archeologist, the

road corridor to establish a relatively level

prism that is consistent with the surrounding

topography, does not impede stormwater

flow, and is crowned to drain.

4. Resurface the road corridor with the

material suggested in the design as

appropriate for the new trail system.

5. Install interpretive signage in association

with important battle events in accordance

with the park’s interpretive plan.

6. Revegetate the road margins, including the

establishment of filter strips.
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230 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

7. Maintain the rehabilitated circulation

corridor as a universally accessible, nonvehicular route.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 231

15. Establish design guidelines for

contemporary park features, such

as site furnishings

Description

Implementation of new interpretive and access

improvements within Stones River National

Battlefield will require the National Park Service

to consider the design and character of the

physical features associated with the

improvements. Preparation of a design guide that

establishes a comprehensive standard for

contemporary landscape features and systems

would facilitate the addition of necessary new

features, as well as the replacement of nonhistoric features currently in poor condition. The

guide would illustrate standards for new

landscape features and systems to accommodate

park visitor use, interpretation, and management

and maintenance, such as paths, walks, trails,

road surfaces, parking and pull-off areas,

contemporary fencing, site furnishings such as

benches, and parking area features such as

bollards, wheelstops, and curbing. The guide

would identify products, materials, and

dimensions for non-historic site furnishing, and

include typical details and installation

information. Use of the guide would enhance the

park’s unique identity and also serve to simplify

the palette of materials within the park, which in

turn would diminish the impact of non-historic

features on the historic scene.

Location

This project is for the park as a whole.

Considerations/Justification

The design guidelines for contemporary park

features at Stones River National Battlefield

would need to be compatible with National Park

Service system-wide standards as well as the

rural, vernacular character of the battlefield.

New features should always clearly be a product

of their own time, and as simple, sturdy, and

unobtrusive as possible. The design guidelines

would address appropriateness of scale,

materials, and physical composition to ensure

visual compatibility, consistency, and integration

with the overall character of the battlefield

landscape. Park-wide standards for signage

should also be developed.

Additional Studies Recommended

In anticipation of preparing the design

guidelines, the team should collect all of the

information that is available regarding NPS

standards for contemporary landscape features.

Related Implementation Projects

z 12. Consider alternatives for establishing and

maintaining non-historic fencelines,

controlled visitor access points, and linear

connections between park units.

z 14. Convert a portion of the tour road to a

pedestrian trail in concert with proposed

new tour route.

z 16. Enhance connections between

noncontiguous park units and parcels.

Project Implementation Process

1. Assemble a design team, including a

landscape architect, architect, and park

maintenance staff to develop the park-wide

design guidelines.

2. Consider carefully the character and identity

that is appropriate for necessary non-historic

features associated with Stones River

National Battlefield.

3. Review existing conditions documentation

photographs for current examples of site

furnishings, fencing, road edging materials,

circulation surfacing, signage, and visitor use

and interpretation features. Consider the

viability of using some of these existing

features to serve as a park-wide standard.

4. Review product catalogues for images of

additional appropriate features.

5. Review as a group the individual elements

proposed for inclusion within the design

guideline.

6. Develop details, installation procedures, and

other supporting information for each

standard feature.

7. Consider the palette in its totality to ensure

the individual elements are cohesive and

work well together, and are consistent with
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232 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield

NPS standards, before making final

selections.

8. Complete the comprehensive signage

program currently being prepared by the

Harpers Ferry Center, and follow the

recommendations included therein, as well

as the guidance offered in the NPS Sign

Standards Reference Manual, NPS Uniguide

Sign Program, NPS Uniguide Standards

Manual, and NPS Graphic Identity Program.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

National Park Service 233

16. Enhance connections between

noncontiguous park units and

parcels

Description

The park is currently working on enhancing its

auto tour route and interpretive program. One of

the issues of concern is the lack of integration of

the outlying parcels into the visitor experience.

Visitors frequently overlook the two

headquarters sites as well as the Fortress

Rosecrans parcels, and may find it difficult to

navigate the route to the McFadden Farm unit.

Visitors would have a better chance of

understanding these park resources if physical

connections were provided between the

Nashville Pike unit and the other parcels.

Physical connections could take the form of a

consistent application of linear visual clues, such

as trees, fencing, bollards, or boulders, to direct

visitors from one site to the next.

Location

The roads leading between the six

noncontiguous parcels that comprise the park.

Considerations/Justification

Given that the park does not own the road

margins that link the noncontiguous parcels,

implementation of this recommendation will

require the cooperation of and collaboration

with the Tennessee Department of

Transportation, City of Murfreesboro,

Rutherford County, and/or adjacent landowners.

Safety concerns are associated with parking at

the Hazen Brigade Monument site, as well as the

travel route leading between the Nashville Pike

and McFadden Farm units.

As the park works to establish a prescribed tour

route for visitors that integrates all units and

resources into a cohesive interpretive program,

the following criteria are consistent with the

approach recommended in this CLR:

z The tour route should support the goals of

the park’s interpretive plan.

z The tour route should maximize interpretive

opportunities for both the battle and the

later occupation of Fortress Rosecrans by

the Union army.

z The tour route should provide for a smooth

circulation flow and minimize back-tracking.

z The tour route should, as much as possible,

present events in chronological order.

z The tour route should minimize safety

hazards.

Additional Studies Recommended

z Interpretive plan

z Design Guidelines for Contemporary Park

Features

Related Implementation Projects

z 12. Consider alternatives for establishing and

maintaining non-historic fencelines,

controlled visitor access points, and linear

connections between park units.

Project Implementation Process

z Complete a design plan for features along the

road margins connecting the noncontiguous

parcels of the park in accordance with the

park’s guidelines for contemporary features.

z Work with the Tennessee Department of

Transportation, City of Murfreesboro, and

Rutherford County to implement the plan.

z Work with the Tennessee Department of

Transportation to establish traffic calming

measures at the Hazen Brigade Monument

parking area.
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES

234 Cultural Landscape Report: Stones River National Battlefield