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PESTS AND

DISEASES

OF THE

DATE PAUV1

IN COOPERATION WITH

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CITRUS RESEARCH CENTER

AND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

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(fU^I DEPARTMENT OF

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AGRICULTURE

HANDBOOK

NUMBER 527

SGF'

Er
711527

PESTICIDE WARNING

In the United States, the only pesticides authorized for use on date palms

are inorganic compounds of copper or sulfur and the organic compounds ferbam

and malathion. Other pesticides mentioned in the text for control of pests and

diseases of the date palm are employed in countries other than the United

States.

This paper contains the results of research only. Mention of a pesticide in

this paper does not constitute a recommendation for use by the U.S. Department of Agriculture nor does it imply registration under FIFRA as amended.

POLJ.OW THB UABSU

s. MMitRiat Of «(iimiiiK

On January 24, 1978, four U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) agencies — Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Cooperative State Research Service (GSRS), Extension Service (ES), and the National Agricultural Library

(NAD — were merged to become a new organization, the Science and Education Administration (SEA) of the USDA.

Trade names and the names of commercial companies are

used in this publication solely to provide specific information. Mention of a trade name or manufacturer does not

constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the

U.S. Department of Agriculture nor an endorsement by

the Department over other products not mentioned.

A free copy of this publication is available by writing to:

U.S. Date and Citrus Station

44-455 Clinton Street

Indio, Calif. 92201

or

Office of Governmental and Public Affairs

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Washington, D.C. 20250

C. Issued December 1978

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402

Stock Number 001-O00-03867-5
/

ABSTRACT

Carpenter, J. B., and Elmer, H.S.

Pests and Diseases of the Date Palm. U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Agriculture Handbook No. 527,42 pages.

This handbook is the most comprehensive publication available on pests

and diseases of the date palm. The world literature is reviewed through January 1977. Depending upon the relative importance of a pest or disease, some or

all of the following aspects of each are discussed: Distribution, economic importance, symptoms or injuries, nature and life cycle of causal agent, and control

measures. The text is supplemented with a guide to the names and classification of the insects and mites on date palms, a glossary of terms used in the text,

a list of common and chemical names of pesticides, and an extensive citation of

literature on date culture as well as on pests and diseases of dates. Where

available, citations are given to recent publications on pests and diseases in

each of the principal date-growing countries.

KEYWORDS: Biological control, date bibliography, date breeding, date

culture, date diseases, date fruit, date glossary, date industry, date insects, date mites, date nematodes, date palm, disease resistance, fruit fumigation, pesticides, Phoenix dactylifera, stored fruit pests.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Grateful acknowledgment is made to R. L. Bergman, J. R. Furr, R. W. Nixon, and C. L. Ream, U.S. Date and Citrus Station, Indio, Calif.; to D. L. Lindgren

and L. E. Vincent, University of California, Riverside; and to E. Laville, Institut

de Recherches sur les Fruits et Agrumes, Montpellier, France, for advice and

criticism in the preparation of this handbook. We are indebted to M. S.

Wasbauer, Systematic Entomologist and Curator, and his staff, Laboratory Services/Entomology, Division of Plant Industry, California Department of Food

and Agriculture, Sacramento, for a valuable revision of the mite and insect nomenclature and the order-family assignments in list 1. The revision of the section on systematics and distribution of Phycitine Pyralid moths by J. P.

Donahue, Assistant Curator, Entomology, Natural History Museum, Los

Angeles County, Los Angeles, is sincerely appreciated. Gratitude for generous

help in obtaining literature is expressed to the staff of the Bio-Agricultural

Library, University of California, Riverside, and to the staff of the National

Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Md. We thank

the Meister Publishing Company, Willoughby, Ohio, for generous permission to

abstract pesticide names and chemical formulas from the "1977 Farm Chemicals Handbook."
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction \

Mites 2

Banks grass mite 2

Old World date mite 3

Miscellaneous mites 4

Mites in stored dates 4

Insects 4

Parlatoria date scale 4

Red date scale 5

Green scale 5

Other scale insects 6

Date bug g

Dubas bug g

Apache cicada 6

Date stone beetle 7

Fig beetle 7

Nitidulid beetles 7

Beetles in stored dates g

Palm stem borer 8

Indian palm weevil 9

Fruitstalk borer 9

Rhinoceros beetle 9

Other coleopterous borers 9

Indian meal moth IQ

Raisin moth ^^0

Almond moth n

Other Cadra moths ^-^

Lesser date moth ^^

Greater date moth . \2

Phycitine pyralid moths j2

Desert locust j^3

Hymenoptera 24

Termites ^4

Aphids 24

Other insect pests 24

Page

Fumigation and packinghouse pest control.. 14

Root-knot nematodes 15

Diseases 15

Bayoud 15

Khamedj ig

Fruit rots 19

Graphiola leaf spot 20

Black scorch 2I

Diplodia disease 2I

Omphalia root rot 22

Belaat 22

ßrown leaf spot 22

Bending head 22

Other fungi on date palms 22

Lethal yellowing 22

Faroun 23

Rapid decline 23

Al-Wijam 23

Barhee disorder 23

Blacknose 24

Whitenose 24

Internal browning 24

Crosscuts 24

Dry bone 95

Black scald 25

Literature cited 25

Appendix 35

Glossary 35

Mites and insects discussed in text 37

Common and chemical names of

pesticides 'mentioned in this handbook. 40
PESTS AND DISEASES

OF THE DATE PALM

D

By J. B. CARPENTER and H.S. ELMER^'^

INTRODUCTION

Date palms provide a primary article of food

and commerce in the great desert areas extending

from western North Africa to India, and are a

commercial crop in many other subtropical desert

areas. The principal date-producing countries of

the world are Algeria, the Arab Republic of Egypt,

Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. Dates are

also produced in large quantities in Bahrain,

Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Sudan, the

People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Tunisia,

and the United States. Smaller quantities of dates

are produced in Chad, India, Israel, Mexico, and

Somalia, and a few plantings occur in other countries. Munier (193P discussed the world distribution of date palms. Persons involved in date pest

and disease control should consult Rygg (218) and

Dowson and Aten (72) on handling and processing

the crop.

The first two sections of this handbook consider the insect and mite pests that have been of

concern to date growers during the past 30 years.

Taxonomic assignments, with appropriate

authorities, are given in a list, page 37. Distribution, economic importance, injury, description, life

history, and control are discussed. Excellent

reviews of date palm pests by Lepesme (157) in

^Plant pathologist, Science and Education Administration, Indio, Calif. 92201, and entomology specialist,

Department of Entomology, University of California,

Riverside, 92521.

^Pests and diseases of the date palm, Phoenix dactylifera L., are discussed on a worldwide basis in this

publication, which supersedes a paper with the same title, by Elmer et al., published in 1968. All pertinent

literature available through January 1977 has been

consulted.

^Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature

Cited, p. 25.

1947 and Stickney et al. (227) in 1950 provided a

basis for the original preparation of this publication. Since 1968, Bindra and Varma (17),

Strumpel (229), and Vilardebo (252) have

reviewed some of the literature on date insects.

Hussain (116) published the most comprehensive

recent account of insect pests in Iraq, based in

large part on research done in that country; many

papers in Arabic are cited.

Kehat (134) made a study of temperature in

date palms that is pertinent to entomological investigation of this crop. His summary is quoted as

follows:

"Temperatures in the natural habitat

of date palm pests were compared at

the macro- and microenvironmental

levels. These data are important for

evaluating the pests' survival

capacity and preferred microhabitat

under the temperature extremes prevailing in their natural habitat. The

temperature of the date pinnae's surface varied with the absolute temperature and relative humidity, and

with the age and position of the pinnae. However, the differences between air and pinnae temperature, as

well as between pinnae, never exceeded 4°C. The mature exposed pinnae represented the hottest part of

the tree, the young pinnae were much

cooler, and the area beneath the

trunk fibers was the coolest of the

tree. A macroclimate which is considered nonbeneficial for insect survival may sometimes prove more

favorable than expected, when considered at the microenvironmental

level."
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Karschon (128) found that pinnae exposed to

sun were warmer than the ambient air. Shaded

pinnae were at or near air temperature.

Methods and materials for the control of

various insect and mite species change rapidly.

Currently recommended pesticides are mentioned; dosages and timing should be sought from

local research or agricultural extension agencies.

The common names of insecticides and acaricides

are those approved by the Committee on Insecticide Terminology of the Entomological Society of

America (142); see also Martin (172) and Appendix, page 40. No proprietary names are used for

insecticides. Safe handling of pesticides is required (218).

Fumigation and packinghouse pest control

procedures are described in the third section. The

relatively limited information on nematodes is

reviewed in the fourth section. Substantial

research is needed on nematode problems associated with the date palm.

Diseases caused by fungi, mycoplasmalike

organisms, and unidentified factors are considered in the fifth section. Neither bacterial nor

viral diseases have been definitely associated with

date palms; well-defined nutrient imbalances

have not been identified.

Date palms demand large quantities of water

for growth and fruiting in the hot deserts where

they thrive, yet atmospheric moisture is their

commonest enemy. Most of the important

pathogens of palms are fungi, which, except for

the destructive soil-borne species of Fusarium that

causes bayoud, are dependent upon high humidity

and rain for their development. Thus, the other

fungal diseases of date palms are of only sporadic

importance in favorable date-growing districts,

but are increasingly common and damaging in

date culture as conditions become suboptimal to

marginal because of poorly distributed or excessive rainfall, high humidity, and unfavorable

temperatures.

The economic importance of date diseases is

emphasized, and estimates are reported wherever

available on the losses caused by diseases, but few

statistical data exist. Distribution, causal agent,

symptoms, description of the causal organism, and

control measures for the diseases are given where

available or useful. Dosages of fungicides and timing of application should be sought from local

research or agricultural extension agencies.

Calcat (38), Chabrolin (49), Chohan (50), Fawcett

and Klotz (91, Laville (153), and Viennot-Bourgin

(251) have published useful reviews of date diseases.

MITES

Banks Grass Mite

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Banks grass mite, Oligonychus pratensis

(Banks), commonly called date mite in California,

is a major pest of date palms in the United

States (82). This mite can cause extensive damage

by ruining entire bunches of fruit, particularly

those of the Deglet Noor variety, which consititutes over 85 percent of the California date

plantings. This mite also occurs in North Africa

and Sudan; it may cause serious damage to date

palms in Iraq and Tunisia (99).

INJURY

O. pratensis rasps the leaf surface and causes

affected areas to become grayish white or pale

yellow. Infested green fruit may be scarred so

badly that they turn brown. The skin on infested

fruit becomes hard, and then cracks and shrivels,

reducing the grade of the fruit. A heavy deposit of

fine webbing is spun over much of the feeding

area. This webbing collects dust that makes even

a moderate infestation in tall palms easily observed from the ground.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

The biology of this mite and its host range

were determined by Stickney et al. (227).

Pritchard and Baker (211) listed the host plants,

which include many grasses in the United States.

The body of the adult female is ovate and about

0.29 mm long. The color varies from yellowish

white to pale orange, with more deeply shaded irregular spots along the side of the body. Adult

males are bluntly subtriangular and smaller than

the female, about 0.25 mm long, but of the same

color. The egg is pearly white, spherical, and approximately 0.13 mm in diameter. Immature

mites resemble adult females except that the larvae have only six legs; after molting they become

eight-legged nymphs. The first infestations appear in early June when the fruits are small; peak

populations occur on fruit in July and August.

These mites usually do not remain on ripe fruit,

but maintain themselves during the winter

months on late-ripening or off-season green fruit

and also on the foliage of the palm or on grasses,

particularly Bermuda grass, Cynodon dactylon (L.)

Pers., growing in or near the date gardens.

Although the number of mites decreases and their

activity lessens during the winter months, all
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM

stages of development are present throughout the

year.

The mites are incapable of flight and do not

spin silk strands for the express purpose of floating on the wind as some mites do. Their main

means of dispersal, besides walking, is probably

transportation by wind. Strong, gusty winds are

frequent in the date-growing regions ofthe United

States and probably contribute to the rapid reinfestation that so often occurs in date gardens

following successful initial control measures in

early summer (82).

CONTROL

Sulfur"^ dust is used almost exclusively to

reduce injurious populations of the Banks grass

mite. Mechanical dusters capable of reaching high

bunches are commonly employed to deposit a light

coating of sulfur over the entire surface of each

fruit. Some growers prefer one sulfur dusting applied by aircraft before the date bimches are tied

down, followed by a later application from the

ground when mites appear on the bunches. The

best mite control is obtained by blowing the sulfur

directly upward into the bunches (254).

Poor coverage and subsequent poor control

result either when the equipment is incapable of

blowing the dust to high date bunches or when

dust is applied during excessively windy periods.

Since sulfur dust is irritating to the eyes of persons applying it or working in dusted trees, experiments were conducted to determine whether

sulfur and other acaricides might be applied as

sprays r79>/. Wettable sulfur sprays were less irritating to the eyes than dust and easily applied to

high date bunches. The bunches were thoroughly

drenched with spray applied with a conventional

high-pressure citrus sprayer and a shade-tree gun

operated by personnel on the ground. Spreaders

and stickers, added to dusts and sprays, hold some

promise for more lasting control. Wettable sulfur

sprays were used commercially in a few date gardens during 1962 (81), but dusting remains the

principal method of application. Other acaricides

(254) tested as sprays or dusts were more expensive than sulfur and no more effective; none are

recommended in the United States, as they have

not been registered for use on date palms.

Old World Date Mite

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The Old World date mite, Oligonychus

afrasiaticus (McGr.), has long been known as a

serious pest of date p>alms. It has been reported in

Algeriar230, 253), Chad(19l 252), Iran(99, 100),

lraq(94, 115, 116, 152), Uhyai(173, 174),

Mali (192), Mauritania a94j, Morocco r207j,

Niger r252;, Saudi Arabia rZZJ, Tunisia r204j, and

North Africa (38), where up to 80 percent of the

fruit has been infested.

P. Munier,^ who during the past several years

has published numerous surveys on date culture

in countries bordering Saharan North Africa,

noted the presence of the Old World date mite

wherever dates are grown. In Lihyai( 174), this

mite is a serious pest of date palms in inland oases,

but not in coastal areas; in Iran (99) this mite may

destroy 40 percent or more of the crop in some districts.

INJURY

O. afrasiaticus is similar to Banks grass mite

and may cause the same type and degree of injury.

In North Africa, the Old World date mite is reported to be especially abundant on unthrifty and

neglected palms. Nixon (200) summarized observations on the tolerance of several date varieties

to infestation.

NOMENCLATURE

Oligonychus afrasiaticus, orginally described

in 1939 in the genus Paratetranychus, was referred to as Oligonychus by Pritchard and Baker

(211). Previously, this mite had been confused

with O. pratensis (Banks). Some literature still

refers to the Old World date mite as P. simplex

(Banks), a name listed by McGregor ("777>).

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

The biology of O. afrasiaticus was discussed by

Hussain (115,116) who reported six overlapping

generations of mites during the fruiting season in

middle Iraq. The peak population occurred in July.

In his discussion of the biology and control of this

mite in Iran, Ghairih(lOO) reported 10 to 12

generations per year and the continuous presence

of this pest on palms. This mite is active up to 45°

C (100).

CONTROL

Sulfur dusts or sprays are recommended

wherever the Old World date mite requires control r38, 100, 116, 152, 194). GharibaOO; found Tedion an effective acaricide. He recommended its

use with other pesticides in an integrated

pesticide control program against the dubas bug,

lesser date moth, and the palm stem borer.

"^ See "Common and Chemical Names of Pesticides

Mentioned in This Handbook," p. 40.

5 Institut de Recherches sur les Fruits et Agrumes

(formerly Institut des Fruits et Agrumes Coloniaux),

Paris, France.
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Miscellaneous Mites

Several minor and usually unimportant

species of mites have been reported on date

palms (116). Raoiella indica Hirst is reported as an

important pest on date and other palm leaves in

Egypt, India, and SudamO?). Biological studies of

R. indica and Phyllotetranychus aegyptiacus Say.

have been made by Zaher et a\.(261). Control

measures recommended for the major mite

species may also suppress these minor pests.

Mites in Stored Dates

Many species of mites can be serious pests if

once established in stored dates. Infestations are

rare, however, and can be controlled by fumigation Tu 6, 227).

INSECTS

Parlatoria Date Scale

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The parlatoria date scale, Parlatoria

blanchardi (Targ.), probably indigenouis to Iraq

(38), is widely distributed throughout most of the

date-growing regions of the world (53, 99, 252) except the United States. It is easily spread to new

plantings on palm offshoots. If allowed to go

unchecked, parlatoria date scale may become the

most serious date pest in many areas. Losses of 70

to 80 percent of the fruit by direct attack of this

scale insect have been reported by Smirnoff (224),

who published a comprehensive review of this

pest, including his own extensive investigations.

Useful reviews have been published by Vilardeho (252) and Hxissain (116). Other reports include those from Algeria (230, 253), Argentina

(87), Egypt (44, 220), India ^2^ Iran (105), Israel

(52, 141), Libya (173, 174), Mauritania (234, 237),

Morocco (207), Pakistan (224), Saudi Arabia (77,

175), Sudan (222), Timisia (204), and other countries.

INJURY

Under favorable conditions, parlatoria date

scale can spread over the siu-faces of the foliage

and fruit of the date palm, covering them with live

and dead insects. The scale feeds on the white succulent tissues at the base of the leafstalk, one of

the most protected and inaccessible places on the

palm. As the population increases, the insects

move from these areas on to the pinnae. Heavy infestations on the pinnae cause them to wither and

die. In commercial plantings, date palms are

seldom killed by parlatoria date scale, but feeding

by these insects definitely affects the vigor of the

palms and decreases yields. Infestations on fruit

reduce its commercial value and may render it imfit for human consumption.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

Descriptions and life histories of the various

stages of the parlatoria date scale have been

published (116, 225, 227, 252). The adults average

about 0.7 mm long; the female is broadly ovate

and somewhat flattened in all stages. The male,

after five nymphal stages, emerges as an adult

with well-developed wings; adult females remain

stationary for life and, after mating, produce

nimierous eggs. After the eggs hatch, the nymphs

crawl out from under the female and move about,

feeding at various locations until the third molting. These n3anphs are pink to red; female adults

are gray. The egg period varies with temperature,

ranging from 2 to 11 days. An almost continuous

overlapping of egg, nymph, and adult stages occurs throughout the year, so that the generations

are not clearly defined. Kehat (130) reported

three generations and sometimes a partial fourth

in Israel, with population increases in spring and

autumn. Egg mortality may exceed 50 percent (116). In Mauritania (237>), the maximum occurrence of parlatoria is in the temperate periods

(21 ° to 32 °C) from April to May, and a second peak

occurs in December. Infestations abate between

these periods and are lowest in August, at temperatures of 39° to 40° and above, and again in

February during cold weather.

CONTROL

Each date-growing area has specific problems

of control, but a concentrated effort will generally

reduce population levels so that injury is negligible. Martin (173, 174) foimd that both diazinon

and parathion gave satisfactory control in Libya.

In Sudan, Siddig (222) found that these chemicals

and malathion, in various formulations, were

effective. Diazinon and malathion would be

preferred because parathion is too toxic for use by

unskilled labor in most areas. In Israel, Kehat and

Swirski ri39j tested several materials for the control of this scale and found dimethoate the most

effective. However, they also showed that insecticides applied to the date palm or to adjacent

crops interfered with biological control of

parlatoria date scale. Siddig (222) obtained substantial control by removal of 7 to 10 of the oldest

lower leaves of infested palms and recommended

this procedure for small plantings.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM

This pest was introduced into the United

States in 1890 with the first successful importation of date palm offshoots from Algeria and

Egypt. Efforts were made to eliminate the scale at

that time, but it proved to be very difficult to

eradicate with the techniques then available. An

elaborate system of inspection, quarantine, and

control by stripping the leaves and burning, was

initiated around 1914. The last parlatoria date

scale was observed in 1934. Apparently, this scale

has been successfully eradicated from the United

States/24;.

Smirnoñ (225) investigated this scale insect intensively, especially its biological control; his list

of predators includes: Sarcoptidae (Acariña), 1;

Coccinellidae, 26; Nitidulidae, 5; Chrysopidae, 1;

Mycetaeidae, 1; and Anthocoridae, 1. In a typical

situation, a 6 to 8 year-old palm might be host to

30 to 50 million live parlatoria date scales, a predator population of 8,000 Nitidulidae, and 3,000 to

4,000 Coccinellidae (Scymnus sp.and Pharoscymnus spp.). Another 100 million dead scales might

be present in the form of crusts on leaves and

other parts of the palms.

Predators are strongly influenced by climatic

conditions and populations vary widely in component species and total numbers. In a single large

oasis, the distribution of parasites will be

governed by a wide range of microclimates. Substantial diminution of parlatoria date scale populations has followed some parasite introductions.

Biological control is especially valuable for those

areas where consistent chemical control is impractical. In newly infested areas, the scale may

build up rapidly and become very damaging, but

when predators are introduced under favorable

conditions the scale populations are reduced to

tolerable levels.

Recent investigations on biological control of

parlatoria date scale include work on Pharoscymnus numidicus Pic. and other predators (131, 132),

Cyhocephalus nigriceps (J. Sahlberg) (22), Aphites

mytilaspides (Le Baron) (149), Chilocorus

bipustulatus L., C. bipustulatus var. iranensis Iperti el al., Pharoscymnus anchorago Fairmaire, and

other predators (116, 119, 120, 121, 122, 133, 150,

233, 236). In 1975, a series of papers from

Mauritania (234, 235, 237, 238) reported extensive investigations on parlatoria scale and its predator, C. bipustulatus var. iranensis; a valuable

bibliography is provided by Tourneur and Hugues

(234).

Red Date Scale

The red date scale, Phoenicococcus marlatti

(Ckll), is probably found wherever the date palm is

grown. Although at one time it was considered an

injurious insect in the United States, Stickney et

3.1.(227) concluded that it was seldom damaging.

They felt that this insect might contribute to

general unthriftiness of some palms that had

unusually heavy infestations by causing drying of

fruit on the palm and premature senescence of

some older leaves. This scale insect is regarded as

unimportant in the Old World and elsewhere (87,

99, 204).

The red date scale normally stays out of the

light and is found massed on the white tissue at

the bases of the leaves and fruitstalks, where the

scales are protected by fiber and leaf bases.

Stickney et al. (227) provided a comprehensive account of the biology of this insect. Hussain (116)

gave information on infestation by this scale in

Iraq. Under conditions of very heavy infestations,

the underlying tissues were damaged to a depth of

a few millimeters. The most effective control

measure was to subject infested offshoots

detached for transplanting to a temperature of

50°C for 65 hours in an insulated room. Chemical

control in the field, although sometimes recommended (116), is hazardous to insect predators of

other date pests. A few general predators are

found in the United States (227), and in North

Africa Pharoscymnus anchorago is an active predator.

Green Scale

The green scale, Asterolecanium phoenicis

(Ramachandra Rao), occurs on date palms in

Egypt (88), Iran, Iraq, and Israel (99, 140): and

Saudi Arabia a98;. Gharib a0^^ employs the

name Palmaspis phoenicis (Ramachandra Rao) for

this insect. It may cause severe injury by feeding

on all parts of the leaves and on the fruit. Infested

parts of the pinnae turn yellow and die. Heavily

infested fruits are scarred and reduced in value. In

southern Iran, 70 percent of the palms are infested (106). In Iraq, green scale on palms is

especially severe where the relative humidity is

high (116).

The biology of this scale insect has been

studied by Kehat and Amitai (135), Hussain

(116), and Gharib (106). Three generations occur

annually, with a protracted autumn-winter

generation and short generations in early summer

and autumn. Nymphs are present continuously,

but are most abundant in autumn and early summer, at which times control measures may be applied.

Green scale may be controlled by spra3dng

with malathion, azinphosmethyl, diazinon, or

other materials (106, 140) combined with oil for

control of nymphs in spring and in late autumn. In

case of severe infestations, a summer spray may

be applied to kill first-instar scales before the

crawlers settle on the fruit.
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Other Scale Insects

In India, coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor

Sign., is an abundant scale pest in winter (36).

This scale may form an extensive yellowsh crust

on pinnae and lead to premature death of leaves.

Occasionally, fruit are attacked. Diazinon may be

used to control this scale insect. Infestations by

several other species ofscale insects have been reported (10, 99, 116, 157, 174, 198, 204, 230).

Date Bug

The date bug, Asarcopus palmarum Horv.,

was first noticed in date plantings in the United

States in 1922 (227) and has been reported from

Egypt r99À These bugs sometimes infest weak,

young palms, but generally do not affect healthy

young or mature palms. Date bugs usually feed on

the white tissues of leaf bases, on the unexpanded

parts of terminal leaves, and on the bases of the

fruitstalks.

The injury consists of superficial, irregular

brown areas of damaged tissues. At times, date

bugs become numerous enough on small, weak

palms to cause the terminal leaves to droop, but

control of this pest is not usually necessary in the

United States. Date bugs are active throughout

the year, though less so in the winter. Populations

on date palms consist primarily of nymphal

stages. The bugs excrete honeydew, which attracts ants.

Dubas Bug

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The dubas bug, Ommatissus binotatus var.

lybicus Berg., also called the Old World date bug or

date palm leafhopper, is a serious pest of the date

palm. It occurs in Iran (71), Iraq (69, 94, 113, 116,

152), Libya (252), Egypt, Oman, North Africa,

Spain, and southeast U.S.S.R. TP^A Hussain (116)

gives the most recent comprehensive discussion of

this insect.

If unchecked, the dubas bug periodically

develops large populations that ruin the date crop.

No quantitative estimates of damage are available, but Dowson (69) reported extensive damage

among the 7 million palms (approximately 28,000

ha) in the Basra area of Iraq in 1934 and very

severe damage in an area of about 800 ha. In 1935,

the loss was estimated at U.S. $400,000. In 1957,

more than 2 million trees were treated for dubas

bug control in Iraq (99).

INJURY

The first infestations occur about May, when

nymphs begin to feed on the pinnae. Honeydew is

excreted by these insects. Heavy accimiulations of

honeydew on pinnae and fruits cause them to

become discolored, dry, and shriveled. Heavy infestations of dubas bugs, in which thousands feed

on each young leaf, are readily observed because

of the black drops and crusts formed as dust and

fungi collect in the honeydew. Repeated heavy infestations cause weakening and death of some

palms (69, 113, 116).

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

The adult female is 5 to 6 mm long and

yellowish green. Two black spots are found at the

base of the fronds and two on the pronotimi.

Often, two or more spots are on the vertex and one

on each side of the seventh and eighth abdominal

segments. Adult males are 3 to 3.5 mm long and

lack the four spots on the abdominal segments.

The eggs are bright green changing to yellow; they

are laid on all green parts of the palm except the

fruit, with most deposited on the upper surface of

the pinnae. Developmental stages include five

nymphal instars. Two generations occur each year

in IraqTii3, 116): (1) the overwintering generation, beginning in November, which is initiated

with Qgg laying on leaves; the eggs hatch in April,

and (2) the summer generation that arises from

eggs laid on leaves in early summer by first

generation adults.

CONTROL

Sprays or dusts should be applied when egg

hatching reaches 75 percent (116). Among insecticides used for control of the dubas bug in Iran

and Iraq, malathion was effective in ground

sprays when applied early and thoroughly (71,

116).

Aerial application with ultra low volume

(ULV) spray gave good control in both countries

(161). EHchlorvos has been used successfully in

ULV aerial sprays (1, 78, 152).

The eggs ofthe dubas bug are parasitized by a

small chalcidoid wasp. Larvae of the lace wing,

Chrysopa cama (Steph.), and adults of Coccinella

septempunctata L., C. undecimpunctata L., and

Chilocorus bipustulatus prey upon the nymphs and

adults (113). Ants are reported to be useful in

keeping the insect confined to a small part of the

palm (116).

Apache Cicada

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The adult Apache cicada, Diceroprocta apache

(Davis), may be found in large numbers during

summer months in the desert regions ofthe southwestern United States. They infest dates

sporadically, and sometimes cause severe damage
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM

in individual palm plantings. During 1961, a considerable loss in date tonnage in California was attributed directly to oviposition by the female

cicada (80). Comparable losses recurred in 1962

and 1963 and, in most instances, resulted from

heavy migrations of cicadas from adjacent plantings of asparagus, the roots of which are a preferred host of immature stages of this cicada.

INJURY

The primary damage to date palms is the loss

of crop caused by female cicadas laying their eggs

in the date strands. The injury is easily recognized

as a typical wedge-shaped oviposition puncture;

each series of punctures is made upward from the

basal date to the insertion of the strand into the

fruitstalk. On severely damaged strands, the

dates shrivel, dry, and fall. Secondary damage to

palms may result from immature cicadas feeding

on the roots.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

The adult of both sexes is stout, broad across

the anterior end, and from 3.5 to 4.1 cm long. The

general color is brown, light to dark brown on the

dorsal side and lighter brown on the remainder of

the body, with a prominent light-brown band

across the back at the base of the transparent

wings, which have brown veins. The nymphs are

brown and thickset and have strongly developed

front legs fitted for burrowing in the ground. This

cicada is believed to require 2 years to develop in

the ground, where it feeds on the roots of many

different plants.

CONTROL

No insecticidal control is feasible on dates

because of the flight habits of the female. Paper

covers, which in California are normally placed

over ripening date bunches to protect them from

rain, birds, and certain insects, were used earlier

than normal during 1962 for protection against

the Apache cicada (80). Complete protection from

ovipositing was obtained in all cases where covers

where used early enough. Uncovered control

bunches had from 25 to 80 percent loss of dates. It

would be possible, however, for females to oviposit

so early in the season that paper covers installed

at such an early date might cause more damage

than the cicada. Checking may occur on dates that

are covered while still green; this results from increased humidity and sunburn due to intense heat

under the paper covers.

Date Stone Beetle

The date stone beetle, Coccotrypes dactyliperda (F.), occurs in Algeria (230), Egypt (37), India

(12), Israel (138), the coastal areas of Libya (174),

and Mexico and the United States (227). Damage

is usually negligible, although substantial losses

have been reported: 12 percent in the Aglawy

variety (37), 45 percent in Bikrai (174), and more

than 25 percent in Hadrawi [Khadr8iv/y?](138).

The beetle is small, 2.4 by 1.06 mm, and dark

brown. Larvae are 4 to 5 mm long. The adult

female penetrates imripe fruit and lays its eggs on

the seed. The larvae penetrate the seed and

further generations may develop within the fruit.

Buxton (37) reported finding single seeds with a

total of 40 eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults. In

Israel (138), spraying with malathion (25 percent

wettable powder) during July gave good control.

In the United States, only fallen fruit are attacked, and the pest is unimportant.

Fig Beetle

The fig beetle, Cotinis mutabilis Gary and

Percheron (= C. texana Casey) is foimd on dates in

the United States. A few instances of serious

damage to dates have been recorded during years

of above-normal humidity. Fermenting fruit are

preferred by these beetles but, like the nitidulid

beetles, they will puncture and enter uninjured

dates. Nichol (196) gave a detailed account of the

fig beetle.

Nitidulid Beetles

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Four species of nitidulid beetles are of economic importance on dates in the Coachella Valley of

California (160). They are the corn sap beetle,

Carpophilus dimidiatus (F.); the driedfruit beetle,

C. hemipterus (L.), also called fig beetle or twospotted beetle; the pineapple beetle, Urophorus

humeralis (F.); and the yellowish nitidulid, Haptoncus luteolus (Erich.). Dates on untreated palms

in commercial growing districts may be completely ruined by these beetles. Although several

species of nitidulid beetles are worldwide pests on

dates, there are few estimates of damage from Old

World date-growing areas, where C. hemipterus is

the usual species (2, 44, 116, 118, 138, 173, 174,

230). In 1971, Hussein et al. (118) reported 89 percent infestation in untreated fruit at Aswan,

Egypt. This beetle seems to prefer certain

varieties (174)\ in 1959, 30 percent of the fruit of

the Bikrai variety was damaged by C. hemipterus

in Tripoli, Tunis. H. luteolus was found on date

palm in India in 1969 (14).

INJURY

Nitidulid beetles damage ripening and curing

dates on the palms, on the ground, and in storage
8 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

by entering the fruits, usually at the calyx end,

and feeding on the pulp. In addition to the primary

damage caused by feeding, the unsightly and unpalatable frass that accumulates, and the presence of larvae, the fruit are also subject to extensive damage by yeasts, other fungi, and bacteria

introduced by the beetles. Extensive spoilage may

follow a heavy infestation, especially under humid

conditions.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

Carpophilus dimidiatus is oblong, 2 to 3.5 mm

long, slightly shiny, and varies from black with a

reddish tinge to brownish yellow, with the elytra

always paler. C. hemipterus is oblong, 2 to 4 mm

long, with blackish buff spots on the elytra. It has

been reported from the United States and the Old

World. This species is very similar to C. dimidiatus

in appearance. Urophorus humeralis is oval to

rather broadly oblong, with a length of 3.3 to 4 mm

and a width of 1.6 to 1.9 mm. The upper surface of

this beetle is very shiny and polished and brown to

black, usually with a small pale spot within the

humérus of each elytron. This is the largest of the

four species described here, and is generally distributed throughout the world. Haptoncus luteolus

is oval to oblong, 2 to 2.5 mm long, moderately

shiny, and uniformly brownish yellow. This

species is the smallest of the four. Several other

species of nitidulid beetles not listed here are occasionally found feeding on dates in storage.

These nitidulid beetle species develop best at

daily mean temperatures averaging about 32° C,

which coincide with daily mean temperatures

found in the Coachella Valley of California from

June to September. High humidity at this time appears to be very important for the development of

large populations of beetles. The first new source

of food in the date orchards is provided during

June when many green fruit drop (138^ 160).

Fallen dates are infested by the first beetles of the

season and develop the populations that later infest dates on the palms. Over a period of several

months, a single female may produce 500 to 1,000

eggs. The larvae pupate in the soil and ovtîrwinter

in this manner, although adults can be found in

almost any month feeding on fallen dates or on

other decaying vegetable matter such as fruit and

truck crop refuse. Lindgren and Vincent (160) discussed marked variations in the composition of

beetle populations in the Coachella Valley. During

the 1920s and 1930s, C. hemipterus y^diS the dominant species in fruit picked from bunches, but by

1947, C dimidiatus had assumed that role. During

the 5-year period 1947-51, inclusive, C. dimidiatus

made up 90 percent of the population in 4 years

and 75 percent in 1949 only, when C. hemipterus

increased from about 5 to 22 percent; the following year, C. hemipterus declined to less than 1 percent. The other species, Î7. humeralis and H.

luteolus, averaged less than 2 percent annually in

fruit picked from bunches during the same 5-year

period.

CONTROL

Several investigators have determined the initial and residual toxicity of insecticides to

nitidulid beetles (118, 160, 256). Residues are

reduced to less than one part per million by adequate washing. Malathion was selected for intensive testing as it was effective and less toxic to

warm-blooded animals than parathion and

dieldrin, the other effective insecticides. In 1952,

when beetle infestations were unusually high,

malathion dust reduced the number of live beetles

in the fruit bunches from over 9,000 to 60. No live

beetles were found in treated bunches for 2 weeks

following application of malathion dust, and the

bunches tended to remain relatively free from live

beetles for up to 8 weeks. Since 1953, malathion

dust has been recommended for beetle control

although other materials have been tested (79, 85,

256). In Egypt, malathion, carbaryl, and heptachlor have been used to control nitidulids (118).

Spraying with malathion emulsion was effective

and left no residue in Israeli trials (138); it was

preferred to 25 percent wettable powder. With the

advent in the United States of mechanically harvested dates, early control of these beetles with

malathion has become imperative because intact

bunches of ripe fruit are left on palms for 1 to 3

months (84). An improved pesticide duster

developed by Brown et al. (28) is used in California. Nitidulid beetles in stored dates may be controlled by fumigation (38).

Beetles In Stored Dates

In the United States, the rusty grain beetle,

Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Steph.), the saw-toothed

grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.), and

the merchant grain beetle, O. mercator (Fauv.),

feed on dates in storage and cause fruit spoilage in

much the same manner as the nitidulids.

Oryzaephilus spp. occur in all date-growing areas

of the Old World and are commonly reported as

minor pests. They are typical packinghouse and

storage insects and are seldom fovmd in newly

picked dates. Fumigation and sanitation in the

packinghouse keep these three pests under control. Hussain (116) discussed several species of

beetles that infest stored dates.

Palm Stem Borer

The palm stem borer, Pseudophilus testaceus

Gah., infests the leaves and trunks of date palms

in Egypt (99), Iran (101), Iraq (116), and Saudi

Arabia (77, 175). Infestations of 79 percent of
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 9

palm trunks have occurred in Iraq (114, 116),

especially in the relatively humid southern part of

the country. This borer causes severe damage in

the El-Hofuf district of Saudi Arabia (77), Gharib

(101) studied the biology of this insect in Iran. A

mass of dark-brown gum marks the entrance

holes of larvae. During emergence, the adult beetle eats its way out of the trunk, making an oblique tunnel 1 to 14 cm long in the stem. This insect

has one generation per year. The adults appear

from May to August, depending on the location,

and lay their eggs in the crown of the palm. The

eggs incubate for about 15 days, and newly

hatched larvae burrow into leaf bases. About 3

months later, they migrate and bore into the stem

to overwinter in a pupal cell. Palms in dense

humid locations are especially subject to attack by

this borer (101).

The presence or absence of this borer and the

number of emergence holes are major factors in

determining the sale price of date orchards in

parts of Iraq. Control of the borer is directed at

adults before egg laying begins in June and July.

In Iraq, the crown of the tree is dusted with aldrin,

endrin, or DDT (116).

Indian Palm Weevil

The Indian palm weevil or red weevil,

Rynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier., is a pest of date

palms in the northern arid regions of India and

Pakistan (36, 99, 182). It is of questionable occurrence in Iraq (116). Gentry (99) also mentioned R.

phoenicis F. as a pest of date palm. Butani (36)

gives the most recent account of this weevil in India. Damage is difficult to detect, and when discovered it is usually irreparable. The beetles

oviposit in the young leaf bases of the palm, in

other succulent tissues, and in cuts made by the

rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L.

The larvae and beetles may feed in the crown

of the palm or attack young palms at the places

where offshoots have been removed. When the

crown is attacked, the larvae burrow down to the

bud. As the insects mature and reproduce, both

immature and adult insects feed on and destroy

the crown ofthe palm. Larvae and adults bore into

trunks and make extensive galleries filled with

plant fiber and frass. Severely damaged palms collapse. The beetles have a long flying range and

may start new infestations over a wide area. The

females lay around 200 eggs; the interval from egg

to adult is 50 to 90 days. Adults are 35 mm long by

12 mm wide, reddish brown, cylindrical and have a

long proboscis. The insects live 2 to 3 months. In

India, chemical control consists of treating leaf

bases and the crown area with benzene hexachloride or chlordane. Other wounds should be

treated with tar or an insecticide.

Fruitstalk Borer

The fruitstalk borer, Oryctes elegans Prell,

sometimes occurs as a serious pest in Iran (71,

104), Iraq (114, 116), and Saudi Arabia (99, 175).

This borer has one generation annually. Adults

emerge mostly in April and May just after fruit set

and may live imtil October. Egg laying begins in

May, and eggs are laid on both living and dead

tissues of the palm; the borers pass the winter as

larvae that pupate and emerge in early spring.

Larvae are usually present inside the stem of

dying or recently killed palms. Adult borers mine

the surface of leaf rachises and of fruitstalks. A

few to all ofthe fruitstalk strands may be affected,

resulting in poorly developed fruit and heavy

cullage. Leaves and fruitstalks may break as a

result of severe mining. In Iraq, not more than 2

percent of the fruitstalks are severely damaged; 5

to 20 percent of the crop may be lost as a result of

damage by this borer (104). Losses are especially

high in young, low trees. Gharib (104), Hurpin and

Fresneau (112), and Hurpin (111) have studied

the biology of O. elegans. In Iran (104), a bait containing lindane is recommended for use in the

crown of the trees; sanitation is also recommended, including pruning and burning of dead

leaves and palms. A few natural enemies were

listed by Hussain (116).

Rhinoceros Beetle

The rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L.,

is reported to be a pest of date palms in India (36).

This large, reddish-brown horned beetle emerges

in May and is most active during the monsoon

season, when it eats into young leaves, unopened

spathes, and the soft tissues of the growing point.

In addition to primary damage, secondary rots

may develop. Young trees are especially subject to

attack. The rhinoceros beetle does not fly far from

its breeding gounds in dead and rotting vegetable

and animal waste. Sanitation to destroy the breeding grounds and a variety of organic insecticides

may be used to combat this pest. Insect and

animal predators of the larvae are numerous.

Other Coleopterous Borers

Several species of the genus Oryctes attack

date palms, although only two of the species are of

sufficient importance to warrant separate treatment. De Mire (63) presented an account of the

taxonomic relations, association with date palms,

and distribution of seven species: O. boas F., O.

elegans, O. monoceros Olivier., O. nasicornis prolixus Woll., O. rhinoceros, O. sahariensis De Mire, and
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

O. sinaicus Walk. (= O. agamemnon, Burm.). O. sp.

has been reported from People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (44).

Apate monachus F. is a pest of date palms in

Algeria (240), Libya (174), Tunisia (204), and

North Africa (38), The larvae bore into the rachis

of date leaves and may make one or more galleries

up to 12 cm long and 6 to 8 mm wide, with occasional side galleries. The attacked leaves are subject to damage by wind and often break partially

or completely. Although it is a minor pest,

Pagliano (204) urged that broken leaves be

pruned back to the trimk and that the affected

leaves be burned immediately to destroy the insects. Calcat (38) reported that this insect also

bores into trimks of weakened palms. He recommended control with paradichlorobenzene or carbon disulfide introduced into the galleries as

fumigants.

Adults of the frond borer, Phonopate frontalis

Fahr., may mine the rachises of date palm leaves

(114). This borer occurs in Libya (174) under the

name of P. frontalis uncinata Karsch. P. frontalis

has been reported from Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia,

and tropical Africa (99, 116). In Cahfornia (227)

the giant palm borer, Dinapate wrighti Horn,

whose usual hosts are Washingtonia spp., occasionally may tunnel into the crown of date palms.

During 1977, a small infestation of this beetle occurred in Coachella Valley in Halawy and Deglet

Noor palms. The palm rhinoceros beetle, Stratigus

julianas (Burm.), may attack young date palms in

Texas and Arizona. Gentry (99) and Hussain

(116) noted the distribution and economic importance of several coleopterous borers of date palm

in the Old World.

Indian Meal Moth

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella

(Hbn.), is a long-established pest on date palms in

the United States. Although worldwide in distribution, it has been mentioned only as a pest of

stored dates in Algeria (230), Israel (67), and

Libya (174). The larvae of this moth are commonly associated with those of the raisin moth,

and damage of up to 8 percent of Medjool dates

has been reported in the United States (159).

INJURY

The larvae of this species feed on ripe dates in

the bunches, in the packinghouse, and on the

ground. They enter through any break in the surface or calyx end of the fruit or bore into intact

fruit. They seem to prefer the drier, more mature

dates in the bunches and even attack the hard

date seeds. As the larvae feed, they spin a web in

which masses of frass are retained, and a web is

also formed over the entrance hole. This damage

renders fruit unsalable.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

The short-lived adult moth is about 1 cm long.

The outer half of the forewing is reddish brown

with dark markings, and the inner part is gray

with a copper-colored band separating the two

areas. The life cycle varies from 36 days in summer to 5 months in winter. Eggs are deposited on

the skin of the dates and average 170 per female

moth. The eggs hatch in 4 to 20 days; the larval

period is 3 to 4 weeks and that of the pupa is 2 to 3

weeks (116).

The dull-white larvae reach a length of about

13 mm. When mature, they leave the fruit to

pupate among dates in bunches, palm trunks, or

picking boxes. The pupae are light to dark brown

and about 9 mm long.

CONTROL

The Indian meal moth was formerly a

packinghouse control problem, and fumigation of

all newly harvested dates was mandatory. During

the past few years, an effort has been made to

reduce populations in the bunches on the palm.

Malathion dust applied about 3 weeks prior to

the first fruit pick is recommended for combined

control of this moth, the raisin moth, and nitidulid

beetles (256).

Raisin Moth

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The raisin moth, Cadra ftgulilella (Greg.), infests fruit in the bunch and harvested fruit in the

United States; in the Old World it is chiefly a pest

of stored dates (2, 55, 67). This moth is a serious

pest of ripening fruit in Israel (137) where Kehat

et al. (136) considered the raisin moth as one of

the most important pests. This insect may damage

Deglet Noor fruit while on the tree; up to 49 percent damage was found in Deglet Noor fruit and

63 percent damage, in Zahidi fruit (136). Larvae of

this moth and of the Indian meal moth have

caused up to 8 percent loss of Medjool dates in the

United States (159).

INJURY

Larvae of the raisin moth feed in ripening dates

and, if the fruit is not fumigated, develop into

adults. In addition to rendering the fruit unsightly

and unpalatable, the larvae open the way for secondary organisms to invade and cause spoilage.

This species and the Indian meal moth account for

a large percentage of the so-called hidden culls,

which cause a reduction in fruit grade in the

packinghouse.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 11

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

Donohoe et aL (68) and Kehat and Greenberg

(137) studied the biology of the raisin moth. The

adult is about 1 cm long and gray, with a few

obscure dark bands and spots on the forewings. It

lives about 2 weeks in warm weather; during this

time, the females lay an average of 350 eggs with

a maximum of 690 being recorded (68). In Israel

(137), at 30° C, the moth requires 54 to 65 days for

full development. Females lay about 160 eggs,

especially on the second and third nights after

emergence. Eggs are laid on the surface of the

dates and hatch in about 4 days. The larvae

closely resemble those of the Indian meal moth,

but instead of being uniformly white the body is

streaked with six rows of lavender-colored dots.

Larvae feed for about 1 month on dates in the

early khalal stage; full-grown larvae are about 16

mm long. The pupae are brown and enclosed in a

silken cocoon, which is spun in hiding places on

the palm, in the topsoil, in storage buildings under

boards and boxes, or in convenient cracks. Adult

moths are most active in the early evening and remain in shaded protected areas during the day.

CONTROL

Malathion dust is used in a combined treatment for control of raisin moth, Indian meal moth,

and nitidulid beetles (256j. This treatment has

kept the percentage of infested fruit low. In

Egypt (2)y carbaryl and malathion, and in

Israel Ti37>), malathion and diazinon, are used

effectively as preharvest sprays or dusts. In

storage, fumigation with methyl bromide gas kills

all stages of the raisin moth. Ethylene oxide is an

effective fumigant in date packages. The use of an

80 to 99 percent vacuum, or heating to 60°C for 4

hours, gave 100 percent kill of Cadra spp. Kehat et

al. (136) preferred exclusion of the raisin moth and

other insects by wire-mesh bag covers. Insect control is good, and biological control of scale insects

and other pests is not upset by application of

chemicals. The cost of the bags is rather high, but

they last for 8 to 10 seasons, which makes the annual cost reasonable.

Almond Moth

The almond, or fig moth. Cadra cautella

(Walk.), is the most serious pest of harvested

dates in Iraq; infestation may exceed 90 percent in

untreated, stored, windfallen fruit (116), ElBaker fZTJ reported this moth in Saudi Arabia.

HussainTii^J, Teotia and Pandey r23ij, and Hammad et al. (107) have studied the biology of this insect. The fig moth seldom attacks dates on the

tree except those of late-ripening varieties. This

moth and other Cadra spp. may be chemically controlled by the methods used for the raisin moth.

Prompt fumigation of harvested fruit and strict

sanitary procedures in packing houses and

storage facilities control this pest (116). Studies of

Habrobracon hebetor Say. as a potential predator

showed that this insect is not an effective biological control agent for the fig moth(116).

Other Cadra Moths

In addition to the raisin moth and fig moth,

other species of Cadra whose larvae damage dates

during and after harvest include C.

calidellaiGuen.),C. dowsoniellaiRich. and

Thomp.), Ephestia(= Cadra) elutella (Hbn.), and

Anagasta (= Cadra) kuehniella Zéil.(31, 37, 116,

260). C. calidella is the most important of these

and damages stored dates in many countries, including Egypt, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, and Saudi

Arabia (175). The life cycle of C. calidella was

studied by Prevett (209). Pereau-Leroy (207) reported that, in southern Morocco, fumigation was

not used, and losses from these insects were sometimes ruinous in the field and in storage.

Lesser Date Moth

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The lesser date moth, Batrachedra arnydraula

(Meyr.), causes serious damage in some oases of

the Fezzan in Libya (174), but in coastal areas the

damage is slight. This moth is a serious pest in the

southern and central plains of Iran (102), in Iraq

(72, 94, 116, 152), and in the Sinai Peninsula,

where Michael (179) estimated damage at 75 percent of the crop. At Midiana, Iraq, the quarter

million palms may lose practically all oftheir fruit

within 2 months after pollination. No difference in

degree of infestation by the lesser date moth has

been noted among some 40 date varieties near

Basra (116). This insect is reported also from

Egypt, India, People's Democratic Republic of

Yemen, and Saudi Arabia (77, 99, 175).

INJURY

The lesser date moth is a pest on immature

dates in the bunch and in storage. Several investigators (102, 116, 179, 180) have studied this

insect, which may attack and damage large numbers of young fruits from April to July. In Iran,

losses may vary from 20 to 70 percent of the crop

(102). The larva spins a web around the fruit to be

attacked and attaches some of the fruit to the

strands or to other fruit before perforation. The

larva then perforates the fruit near the calyx, or

less frequently elsewhere, and feeds on the pulp

and immature seed. A larva seldom eats more

than a third of the fruit before it seeks another

and may damage three or four fruit during its
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

lifetime. About 4 weeks are required for the attacked fruit to darken, dry, and fall. In severe infestations, most of the fruit falls; the bunches

cease growing, and then dry (179). The larvae,

which attack fruitjust before ripening, leave frass

and other debris, so that affected fruit must be

culled.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

The adult moth has a wingspread of 11 to 14

mm and is brownish marked by a gray

longitudinal central stripe on the narrow forewings. The eggs are small, about 0.7 mm in

diameter, and yellow with a pearly sheen. The larvae, when full grown at about 2 weeks, are 8 to 12

mm long. They pupate in 7 to 17 days and develop

directly into adult moths. During the simimer, two

or three generations occur in Iraq, Iran, and the

Sinai Peninsula. Martin (174) believes that even

more generations may occur in Libya. The first

spring generation is the most dangerous (180)\ in

Iran, it appears in April (102). The second generation appears in late May, and the third generation

appears in July. The larvae of the last generation

overwinter in the cocoon and then attack young

fruit before they pupate and start the first spring

generation of adults. In Libya, Martin (174) foimd

that only the last generation larvae developed normally when reared in captivity.

CONTROL

To control this moth, Michael (179) recommended the use of one application, 10 days after

fruit set, with thionazin or fenthion, with high

volume application. This should be supplemented

with good sanitation to remove populations of

overwintering larvae in fruitstalks, dry fruit, and

fiber. In Iraq, Hussain (116) recommended DDT

malathion, trichlorfon, or diazinon applied about 1

week after fruit set and again 15 to 35 days after

the first application. Gharib (102) listed several

effective insecticides.

A few predators are listed in the

literature a02, 116, 179). In Baluchistan, the

lesser date moth is excluded from developing fruit

by a date fiber covering that is removed 45 to 50

days after pollination ("iO^j.

Greater Date Moth

The greater date moth, Arenipses sabella

(Hmpsn.), occurs in Algeria, Egypt, India, Iran,

Iraq, Israel, and Libya (13, 99, 103, 116, 137),

where it is a pest of ripening dates and of stored

fruit. Hussain (116) has published the most recent

account of this insect. In Iraq, 50 percent of the

spathes and fruit bunches on 70 percent of the

palms in some localities may be attacked (114). In

Israel (137), A. sabella attacks Deglet Noor, Sayer,

and Zahidi palms more severely than Khadrawy,

Halawy, and Barhee. Damage to palms is more

severe in the southern part of Israel than in the

northern part. The intensity of infestation fluctuates widely from year to year. In Iran, damage

amounts to 5 to 15 percent of the crop (103).

Wiltshire (259) and Hussain (114) reported

that the first damage is seen in March when

young larvae are found eating the tips of

unopened spathes. When the spathes open, the

larvae enter and may strip the flowers and young

fruits from whole strands. Their depredations are

marked by a coarse silken tunnel, which becomes

littered with frass and plant fragments, and which

may be 35 cm long when the larva is full grown.

Larvae may bore into the base of fruit stalks and

mine a gallery 5 to 8 cm long in which bacteria

and fungi cause secondary damage. Severely attacked bunches wither and the fruits shrivel, but

do not fall. Larvae bore into young leaf midribs

and also feed on tender leaflets and immature

dates. Adult moths are most commonly seen in

April, but are foimd from March to October.

The biology of A. sabella has been investigated by Hussain (116), Kehat and Greenberg

(137), and Gharib a03>). The egg is 0.2 to 0.3 mm

long, somewhat round and white, and requires 4 to

5 days to develop. Larvae and pupae develop in 30

to 40 days; the full-grown larva, 20 to 23 mm long,

has a dark head and reddish-brown body. Adults

live for one to a few weeks. Two generations a year

are produced; the first hatches in March and April

from overwintered larvae atthe base ofleaves and

in the fiber. This generation, including all stages,

lasts about 12 to 14 weeks. Larvae of the second

generation, which hatches in July to September,

spin cocoons in which they overwinter for several

months. In the vicinity of Baghdad, more than 30

hibernating larvae may be found in a single palm

crown. In the spring, the pupal stage lasts about 2

weeks.

Hussain (116) recommended the same control

measures for this moth as for the lesser date

moth; timing to kill the first brood of moths is important. In Egypt, Hussein et al. (118) recommended malathion and heptachlor for control of

this moth on ripening fruit. A. sabella has several

natural enemies, including pseudoscorpions and

hymenoptera (116).

Phycitine Pyralid Moths

SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION

Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) is widespread

in the Mediterranean areas of Europe, Africa, and

Asia, where it is a pest on a variety of fruit and

nuts. Through introduction in dried fruit, the pest

also occurs in central Europe, England, and in the
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 13

New World in Florida, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and

Argentina (55, 108). Prior to Heinrich's inclusion

of this species in his new genus Ectomyelois (108),

this moth was placed in the genus Myelois Hübner,

where it still stands in much of the economic

literature. Five additional names have long been

recognized as synonyms of E. ceratoniae:

ceratoniella Fischer von Roeslerstamm, pryerella

Vaughan, zellerela Sorhagen, phoenicis Durrant,

and oporedestella Dyar; the last name is based on

specimens from Florida. Wertheimer's (258)

reference to Myelois decolor Zeller fnow Ectomyelois decolor) is presumably a misidentification, since this moth apparently occurs only in the

New World, in the West Indies, and in northern

South America a08j. According to Whalley (259),

some European authors have erroneously placed

ceratoniae in the genus Spectrobates Meyrick,

which was erected for a moth from Java.

E. ceratoniae is widely distributed in Algeria

where losses of 10 to 30 percent or more may occur

(158, 253). Calcat (38) reported that losses in

North Africa from infestations by lepidopterous

larvae, primarily those of M decolor (= E.

ceratoniae), amounted to 5 to 10 percent of harvested dates and might exceed 12 percent. Losses

in the same range were reported by

Wertheimer f258>), but with some more severe infestations. Recently, Toutain (240>) reported 80

percent or more infestation by Ectomyelois sp. in

some lots of dates in Moroccan markets.

INJURY

The larvae attack maturing fruits, especially

the drier ones, and cause damage by feeding and

by accumulation of frass. Moreover, the larvae

work at the base of the fruit and sever the pedicel,

causing the fruit to drop. If fruit is not fumigated

promptly and stored properly, serious losses may

occur.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY

Wertheimer r258>), Lepigrea58;, and Vilardeho (253) have published studies on the Ectomyelois moths on date palms. Adult moths have

a wingspread of 22 to 24 mm and are creamy

white to gray, brownish, or even dark brown. Eggs

hatch in 3 to 7 days, and the larval stage may last

from 1 to 8 months. Little is known of the pupal

stage. The adult lives only 3 to 5 days, during

which time the female may lay 60 to 120 eggs;

three or four generations are produced annually,

in the approximate sequence of April — May,

Jime — Jiily, August — November, and November

— March. Although the insects overwinter as larvae in various places, according to Lepigre (158)

the moths that breed during spring and summer

in dates left in the crown of the palms during the

previous harvest are a primary source of reinfestation of maturing dates. Calcat (38) noted that

only the last two generations of moths develop on

dates in the bunch.

CONTROL

In recent years, control of Ectomyelois spp. by

preharvest treatments has reduced the loss of

fruit damaged prior to fumigation. Calcat (38) reported that benzene hexachloride applied at the

beginning of the ripening period reduced infestations to about 1 percent. This treatment should be

supplemented by fumigation with methyl bromide

and careful storage ofthe fruit. Ectomyelois larvae

are aggressively cannibalistic and destroy great

numbers of their own kind.

Phanerotoma flavitestacea Fisch, is considered

by Biliotti and DaumaUift^ as a potentially useful

predator of E. ceratoniae. Other microhymenopterous predators of larvae are unimportant.

Desert Locust

The desert locust, Schistocerca americana gregaria (Forsk.), occurs throughout the Old World

date-growing areas (37, 38, 52, 207, 213, 250). A

recent book on the desertlocust (11) gives a valuable account of this major insect pest. Many papers

pertaining to taxonomy, physiology, behavior, prédations, dynamics of the desert locust, and the international organizational structure designed for

study and control of this insect may be found in

Hemming and Taylor (109). Recent FAO reports

(95, 96, 97, 98) provide further information on this

pest. Dirsch (66) revised the genus Schistocerca;

he designated this insect as S. americana gregaria

(Forsk.) and discusáed the ecology and geographical distribution of this important insect.

INJURY

Heavy migrations into palm plantings are

sporadic, but may be devastating. The locusts eat

leaves and fruit and may destroy an entire crop;

they eat their own weight in food daily, and

swarms are measured in terms of square

kilometers. Thus, a swarm of 50 km^ represents

about 3,500 metric tons of locvists and a comparable daily loss of crop and other vegetation as a

result of their feeding. During a 2-week period in

1954, locust swarms totaled about 2,590 km^ in

the Sous Valley of Morocco and caused extensive

damage to orchard and other crops. The damage

was estimated at US$ 3 million (212). During the

winter of 1958-59, an invasion of this locust in

Israel lasted 14 days (52). Palms were completely

defoliated and did not renew growth until the

following April. Heavy defoliation of palms is undoubtedly reflected in reduced crops for several

years, because renewal of an acceptable crown of

leaves requires at least 3 years under optimal

growing conditions.
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

CONTROL

Chemical control is effective if applied properly and timed to kill the locusts before they attack the palms. The coordinated use of baits and

dusts in breeding and swarming areas and the use

of aerial spraying on both ground and flying

swarms of locusts have been successful. Since

1959, aerial spraying has come into widespread

use. Examples of kills obtained by spraying locusts

from aircraft, in terms of locusts killed per gallon

of spray, were: 20 percent dieldrin, 2 million; 30

percent dieldrin, 3 million; 11 percent lindane, 1

million (73)\ 85 percent diazinon, 3 million (212).

The numerous factors that affect the success of

spraying, baiting, and dusting are summarized in

various reports (15, 64, 73, 74, 75, 76, 226).

Hymenoptera

Many different species of bees, hornets, and

wasps feed on all kinds of fresh fruit and quite

often members of this group cause some damage

to dates, particularly soft-fruited varieties (116,

203). This has occasionally led growers to use

various types of cloth covers over the ripening

fruit to protect it against these pests as well as

against rain and birds (21). Hussain (116) discussed several species of wasps. The Oriental

wasp, Vespa orientalis L., may damage up to 35

percent of the fruit in home gardens. The

damaged dates are readily infested by larvae of

the fig moth. Cadra cautella.

Termites

In Mauritania, Lefevre (156) reported that

termites of the genera Bellicositermes, Coptotermes, Ibostoma and Psammotermes damaged

date palms. Control of termites on individual

palms was considered more practical than trying

to eliminate the subterranean galleries in which

most of these species breed. Benzene hexachloride

(25 percent active material) in water applied

around the base of each palm provided protection

from termite attack for several months.

Another termite, Microcerotermes diversus

Silv., is a pest of date palms in Iraq (114). This termite attacks roots, trunks, and leaves. It makes

galleries in the trunks of weak palms and may

cause them to collapse. Newly planted offshoots

may be killed by termites. Dieldrin applied around

the base of palms in winter and spring provided

effective control (116). Odontotermes sudanensis

Sjost. may heavily infest date palms in Sudan (99,

202). O. obesus Rambur is reported to attack date

palms in India (36).

Aphids

Date aphids, not identiñed in text (94), were

reported to have become widespread in Iraq during the past 45 years and caused substantial

reduction in quality and loss in yield of dates.

Malathion spray is recommended for control.

I)ichlorvos(DDVP) is a potentially suitable insecticide for aerial spraying of this insect. Hussain's

(116) recent publication makes no mention of

aphids in Iraq.

Other Insect Pests

Other insect pests on date palms are mentioned by several authors (63, 99, 116, 157, 203,

219.)

FUMIGATION AND PACKINGHOUSE PEST CONTROL

Fimiigation of all newly picked dates as they

are brought into the packinghouse arrests insect

infestations that occur within the fruit (83, 160,

218, 227, 257). Fumigation also helps prevent

reinfestation within the packinghouse before the

fruit reaches the consumer. Techniques for

fumigating dates and the types of chambers and

equipment employed in packinghouses in California are described in the papers cited. Methyl bromide is now used almost exclusively in the United

States, although carbon disulfide, hydrogen

cyanide gas, and a mixture of ethylene oxide and

carbon dioxide had been applied previously.

Armitage and Steinweden (9) in the United

States, Junaid and Nasir (126) in Pakistan, and

Hussain (116) in Iraq have reported on the use of

methyl bromide as a date fumigant. Bro\sm and

Heuser (32) found that methyl bromide penetrated boxes of compressed dates more effectively

at reduced pressure than at atmospheric pressure.

Methyl bromide is a particularly satisfactory

fumigant for date insects because of its high toxicity to all stages of insect life. Its apparently low

chemical reactivity with date tissue and low Sorption lessen residual odors and flavor changes in

the fruit. Methyl bromide is highly toxic to man

and should be used with safety precautions.

California date packers at the present time use 1

kg of methyl bromide per 62.3 m^ of storage space

at temperatures between 16° and 32° C for 4

hours. Recommendations call for a 24-hour exposure time, but apparently 4 hours is sufñcient to

kill all pests and to meet packinghouse requirements in the United States (83).
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 15

In Iraq, recent recommendations of fumigation of dates with methyl bromide (116) call for 1

kg/41.6 m^ of enclosed space for 24 hours, which

gives a complete kill of fig moth larvae and larvae

and adults of the saw-toothed grain beetle and

other insects. A circulating fan should be used in

the chamber. Temperature should not be below

15° C. Outdoor fumigation of dates in field boxes

covered with polyethylene tarpaulins at the rate

of 1 kg/62.3 m3 was reported in 1966 (94, 116). A

similar method of fumigation is used in California.

Outdoor fumigation has been investigated in

Israel (39). Recent experiments with hydrogen

phosphide and ethyl formate by Vincent and

Lindgren (225) and with aluminum phosphide by

Nelson et al. (195) suggest that fimiigants other

than methyl bromide and ethylene oxide may be

useful in controlling pests in stored dates (160).

Safety precautions essential in handling

fumigants are listed in Dowson and Aten (72) and

in Hussain (116). Spraying of packinghouses

before the date-packing season with malathion

has been recommended.

ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES

Root-knot nematodes were found in the

Coachella Valley of California on date palms in

1925 (248) and are now known to be widely distributed there in commercial date plantings.

Buhrer et al. (34) first reported the occurrence of

root-knot nematodes on this host. Jensen (125) reported M. incognita (Kofoid and White, 1919) Chitwood, 1949, on roots of date palms in western nureries. Authors after 1950 identifiedthe nematodes

as Meloidogyne spp. Carpenter (40) reported that

root-knot nematodes, principally M. javanica

(Treub, 1885) Chitwood, 1949, can severely

damage or kill date palm seedlings. Young seedlings of 50 date varieties were susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes; more than 90 percent of the seedlings were killed prior to

emergence when seeds were sown in heavily infested soil. Secondary damage by fungi to roots of

infested field-grown palms seems to be an important factor in the deterioration and death of roots.

Minz (185) reported the occurrence of M arenaria

(Neal, 1889) Chitwood, 1949, M hapla (Chitwood,

1949), M incognita var. acrita (Chitwood, 1949),

and M javanica on date palms in Israel.

In Algeria, Lamberti et al. (148) reported frequent occurrence of Pratylenchus penetrans

(Cobb) Filipiev and Schuurmans Steckhoven on

date palm roots in the crescent of oases from Beni

Ounifto Biskra; Meloidogyne sp. was reported only

from Sidi Yaia.

DISEASES

Bayoud

INTRODUCTION

Bayoud, or fusariose, is the most important

disease of date palms. It is confined to Morocco

and southwestern Algeria, but is a threat to date

palms everywhere. The causal organism is a

fungus, Fusarium oxysporum Schlect. f. sp. 6

albedinis (Kill, and Maire) Malençon. CipoUa (51)

reported studies of a fusariose on date palms in

Argentina that might be related to bayoud. Hussain (116) noted F. oxysporum Schlect. as a

pathogen on date palm, but bayoud symptoms

were lacking. Pereau-Leroy (205y 206, 207) summarized the history of bayoud and previous investigations, including the extensive and valuable

contributions of Malençon. Teisseire (230)

emphasized means for controlling bayoud. In

^ f. sp. = forma specialis; a physiologic rather

than a morphologic form of a fungus within a

species.

1965, Toutain (239) reviewed the bayoud problem

in Morocco and Algeria; Jamoussi (124) reviewed

bayoud in relation to the threat it might pose for

Tunisian date growers. Several recent accounts

should be consulted for information on all aspects

of the bayoud problem (42, 65, 164, 165).

DISTRIBUTION

Bayoud was first observed in Morocco north

of Zagora in the Drâa Valley sometime before

1890. Since then it has spread continously, and, by

1956, the only date-growing area in Morocco still

free from bayoud was at Marrakech. It spread

more rapidly toward the east than the west (239)

and by 1898 was recognized at Figuig on the edge

of the Algerian Sahara. Thereafter, bayoud appeared in several locations in Algeria south and

west of El Golea; it appeared in date plantings at

Metlili, north of El Golea, sometime between 1949

(239) and 1958 (38). Bulit et al. (35) noted recent

advances of the disease in Algeria and discussed

the potential hazards of further spread. Recent

studies in Algeria have shown that bayoud is
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

definitely at Ghardaia (41, 127) and possibly

somewhat farther east at Zelfana, according to

Brochard and DuBost (25, 26) and others (183).

Louvet and Toutain (165) have recently reviewed

the bayoud problem in Algeria. Mercier and

Louvet (178) found F. oxysporum attacking

Phoenix canariensis Hort, ex Chab. in southern

France. The fungus appeared to be identical to the

bayoud pathogen and attacked date palm seedlings more readily than those of P, canariensis. In

the Department of Liguria, Italy, Corte (56) identified F. oxysporum f. sp. albedinis as the cause of a

serious bayoud-like disease in P. canariensis.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

By 1950, bayoud had killed 10 millón palms in

Morocco (207), including the greater part of the

vigorous and productive palms of the best commercial varieties, such as Medjool and Bou Feggous. The remaining 5 million palms were predominently seedlings and varieties of only local interest. Areas that formerly had 300 to 400 palms

per hectare, and where intercrops were virtually

unknown, such as at Bou Denib and at Haut R'teb,

were reduced to 5 to 10 palms per hectare. The

losses are compoimded by the fact that in many

oases with an intermittent surface water supply

the loss of date palms removes the staple food crop

and medium of exchange for which there are no

adequate substitutes. Even in oases receiving a

regiûar supply ofsurface water, no other food crop

gives yields comparable to those of the date palm

nor the numerous byproducts required for oasis

life. The ravages of bayoud have forced the inhabitants to emigrate from some severely affected

areas. In Morocco, a well-organized oasis

rehabilitation program is underway (42, 242, 243,

244, 245).

Since the fine commercial Deglet Noor date is

susceptible (38, 163, 239), bayoud is a particular

threat to the principal date-growing areas of

Algeria and Tunisia because of intra-Saharan

traffic among desert peoples (124).

SYMPTOMS

Symptoms of bayoud appear first on one or

more of the recently matured leaves. Typically,

some spines or pinnae toward the base of one side

of the leaf become white; then, adjacent pinnae

whiten as the disease progresses upward along

one side of the rachis to the apex. After one side

has been affected, the whitening and djdng of pinnae progress down the opposite side of the leaf imtil it is killed. This may take a few days to several

weeks. As the pinnae die, a brown stain appears

on the dorsal side of the rachis, and the sui'face of

the diseased area becomes depressed. The stain

and depression may extend the length and width

of the rachis, except on the part hidden imder the

fiber, which remains alive and turgid indefinitely.

A transverse cut through the affected parts of the

rachis reveals brownish-red necrotic areas.

Concurrently, adjacent or opposite leaves are

affected in like manner, until, finally, one or two

whorls of leaves are killed. The old leaves wither

naturally as on unaffected palms, but no new

leaves form and the terminal bud dies, leading to

death of the palm. The average time from the appearance of symptoms to death is 6 months to 2

years; however, palms may die in 1 month or

linger for 10 years or more.

Sometimes, the symptoms develop differently.

A brownish lesion may appear on the back of the

rachis and extend upward until the rachis

becomes so narrow that all tissues are affected,

and the whole tip of the leaf whitens and dies. The

other pinnae then die downward to the base.

Other minor variations in the early symptoms

may occur, and diseased pinnae may be tinged

brownish or reddish depending on the variety. Elxperienced observers may detect a general slight

yellowing in some recently matured leaves 1 or 2

months before the appearance of typical

symptoms.

When the trimk of an affected palm is split,

vertical reddish bands of diseased tissue, a few

square centimeters in extent, are found as well as

individual discolored vascular elements. Bulit et

al. (35) traced the fungus in diseased palms from

the roots through the trimk, to the leaf bases, and

to the terminal bud. The causal fungus was isolated from t5^ically discolored tissues in all parts

ofthe palm. Diseased roots are present on affected

palms. E. Laville (correspondence, 1966) indicated

that 4 or 5 diseased roots, among the 800 to 1,000

adventitious roots, on a large palm are sufficient

to insure infection. Bulit el at. (35) amplified the

information on root infection. Malençon (170) and

Pereau-Leroy (207) suggested that death of

bayoud affected palms might result from some

toxic effect of the fimgus rather than from simple

congestion of the vascular tissues. They thought

this might explain why the offshoots of a diseased

palm may persist and develop for up to 10 years

after the death of the parent.

PATHOGEN

The causal organism, F. oxysporum f. sp.

albedinis, occurs as a hyaline mycelium between

and within the cells in infected, cüscolored tissues,

particularly in the base ofthe rachis. Microconidia

usually occur in groups in vessels and other cells,

but they may occur singly.

In culture (35, 207), this fungus produces a

rose to violet stain in the medium. Great nimibers

of spherical to elongated and slightly curved,

mostly unicellular, hyaline microconidia are

formed, measuring 3 to 15 by 3 to 5 /it The falcate

macroconidia are usually four celled and measure

20 to 35 by 3 to 5 /It. The intercalary and terminal
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 17

chlamydospores are spherical and occur singly or

in groups of two or three. Sclerotia are dark blue

to black, 1 to 2 mm in diameter, and occur rarely.

The optimum temperature range for growth

of the fungus is 21° to 27.5° C, but it grows

reasonably well in temperatures as low as 18° or

as high as 32°. Thus, irrigated soils in infested

areas of Morocco maintain favorable temperatures for development ofthe fungus from May

through October. The fungus may sporulate abundantly on date trash on moist ground. Substantial

differences in pathogenicity among strains of the

fungus and among isolates from various parts of

the same palm were reported by Bulit et al. (35).

They studied isolation of the fungus from soil,

where it is found commonly at depths of 30 cm or

more and where it may persist indefinitely.

Bounaga (23) presented an extensive

literature review on Fusarium spp. and a detailed

account of in vitro studies on the physiology of F.

oxysporum f. sp. albedinis. Among the many

aspects of physiology discussed, those dealing with

the interaction of soil and water salinity, the date

palm, and the pathogen are of special interest to

the Algerian bayoud problem. These same interactions and other aspects of bayoud in Algeria were

considered by Louvet and Toutain (165), who reported that spread of bayoud was not affected by

soil salinity.

INFECTION

The fungus is soil-borne and can be spread by

water, wind, diseased offshoots (which carry soil

from diseased areas), or infected date tissues,

especially infected wood or pieces of rachis. Henna

(Lawsonia inermis L.) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa

L.), often grown among date palms, are symptomless carriers of the fungus (35, 94). Infection takes

place mainly through the roots, but Pereau-Leroy

(207) and Malençon (169,170) were unable to find

a satisfactory technique for consistently infecting

palm roots and producing symptoms. Laville (151),

working with seedlings, showed that Fusarium

does attack roots and can enter the plant through

the root system and cause death. Bulit et al. (35)

used artificially infected seedlings in studies of

strains of F. oxysporum f. sp. albedinis. Malençon

(168) demonstrated floral infection by this fungus,

but this mode of infection is rare, and establishment of bayoud in the palm as a result of floral infection was not demonstrated.

The spread of bayoud to isolated oases and

larger date-growing areas was ascribed by Malençon (170) to movement of the fungus in articles

made of palm tissues, such as packsaddles,

baskets, and ropes. Pereau-Leroy (207) found that

the pathogen persisted for at least several weeks

in infected rachis tissues. When such articles are

discarded in a moist place favorable to the fungus,

it may resume growth, become established in the

soil, and infect palms. Bayoud assumes epidemic

proportions only when a combination of the

pathogen, a susceptible variety, and abundant

surface irrigation water exist.

Laville and Lossois (154) and Brochard and

DuBost (27) studied the spread of bayoud at In

Salah, Algeria, and discussed the factors involved.

About 60,000 palms existed there in 1940; bayoud

was first observed in 1943. By 1969, more than

21,000 palms were killed by the disease. The

progress of bayoud in a planting of several hectares of Bou Feggous at Zagora, Morocco, was

studied by Bulit et al. (35) and by Louvet et al.

(163). From a small initial infection in 1956, the

disease spread to 9 percent of the palms in 1958.

By 1964, 60 percent (340 palms) were affected and

most were dead. This planting had been cropped

with alfalfa and henna atthe time ofthe initial infection; these crops require large amounts of irrigation water in summer, which would favor

rapid spread of the fungus on susceptible crops.

Toutain (241) studied the spread of bayoud in an

experimental block in which 83 percent of the

young palms died in less than 2 years. After 5

years, 114 of 125 palms were dead. Increased irrigation and soil cultivation, apparently hastened

spread of the disease.

Diseased palms of susceptible varieties probably never recover, but the advance of infections

may be retarded by drastically reducing irrigation.

This, however, renders the palm unfruitful so that

the crop is lost either through drought or disease.

CONTROL

The use of resistant varieties is the most practical means of controlling bayoud (165). Among

six resistant varieties listed by Pereau-Leroy

(207), only Takerboucht and Bou Ijjou were of acceptable quality although certainly not equal to

Deglet Noor or Medjool. In Morocco (164, 243,

246), extensive data are available on the bayoud

resistance of many date varieties, which include

the resistant Bou Feggous ou Moussa, Bou Stammi

Noire, Iklane, Outoukdim, Sair Layalat, Tadment,

and Takerboucht. Louvet et al. (163) tested four

Tunisian varieties and found all susceptible to

bayoud—^Deglet Noor de Kabili, Deglet Noor de

Tozeur, Ftime, and Okhouet-Ftimi. Breeding

might combine resistance to bayoud with the

desirable fruit and growth characters of some of

the superior commercial varieties. A long-term

program for breeding and selection of superior,

resistant date varieties for local use and export

was begun in Morocco by Pereau-Leroy (206, 207)

and, after a period of inactivity, has been renewed

and greatly augmented (35, 94). An intensive program is underway in Morocco for breeding and

selecting bayoud-resistant male and female date

varieties (45, 243, 246). Nearly 100,000 hybrid

seeds were produced from 1972 to 1974, including

hybrids of bayoud-resistant Moroccan female
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

palms with backcrossed "varietal" male palms

(from pollen produced at Indio, Calif.), hybrids

between Moroccan female and male lines resistant to bayoud, and other classes of hybrids (45,

242, 244, 245).

Successful utilization of small offshoots would

facilitate propagation of desirable resistant

varieties; Bulit et al. (35) have established small

offshoots weighing 2 to 2.5 kg with up to 55 percent survival.

Meanwhile, moderate yields of dates and

some mitigation of bayoud may be obtained by

careful irrigation and the planting of resistant or

semiresistant varieties. Irrigation of infested soil

has a profoimd direct influence on the development of bayoud, and intercrops, especially henna

and alfalfa, may have an indirect influence by

maintaining high levels of inoculum, according to

E. Laville (correspondence, 1966) and BuUt et al.

(35), Palms of susceptible varieties growing in infested soil cannot withstand surface irrigation at

any season, but may be grown successfully on sites

having a permanent water table at a depth of 1 to

2 m.

Semiresistant varieties may be grown successfully if surface irrigation is used primarily for

intercrops and applied between October and May

only. Resistant varieties tolerate surface irrigation and intercrops at all seasons.

As a precautionary measure, date seed should

not be moved from bayoud-infested to noninfested

areas. Recently, Locke and Colhoim (162) have

shown that the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.

elaeidis Tooney, closely related to F. oxysporum f.

sp. albedinisy can be borne by seed of the oil palm.

Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

The need for strict quarantine measures to

prevent or delay the spread of bayoud and other

pests and diseases of the date palm has been

recognized by Crossa-Raynaud (57), Delassus and

Pasquier (62), Maire (166), and others. The first

FAG International Technical Meeting on Date

Production and Processing (93) recommended enforcement of quarantine measures against

bayoud. Algeria (239) enacted quarantine legislation in 1942 and 1949, and strong quarantine

measures have been enforced in the Sahara and

North Africa (38). Mauritania adopted quarantine

measures against bayoud in 1953 (189). The

United States (249) and some other date-growing

countries have quarantine regulations covering

the movement of date palms and date palm products.

Khamedj

INTRODUCTION

Khamedj, or inflorescence rot, is present in

date-growing areas in North Africa from Morocco

to Libya (48, 173, 240). It has also been reported

from Egypt (181), Iraq (7, 117, 152), Israel (214),

Italy (49, 90), Mauritania (189), Saudi Arabia (3),

and Timisia (57). Although inflorescence rots had

been known for a long time, the first technical reports on this disease were published in 1925 by

Cavara (46, 47), followed by those of Chabrolin

(48, 49). Khamedj is a general Old World term for

inflorescence rots (38), but refers primarily to

that caused by the fimgus Mauginiella scaettae

Cav. (38, 214). Michael and Sabet (181) and AlAni et al. (4) have studied the biology and control

of khamedj in the Sinai Peninsula. Inflorescence

rots of minor importance are caused by species of

Ceratocystis (see black scorch) and Fusarium (30).

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Khamedj is a common but usually minor disease problem; however, losses may occasionally be

substantial. M scaettae is destructive principally

in areas with excessive or prolonged winter and

spring rains, on neglected palms in marginal

areas of oases, or in waterlogged soil, salty depressions, or low-l)âng lands. Male palms, which frequently grow in these marginal areas and are

communal property, may be particularly heavily

infected because they receive little attention except as pollen sources andbecause the old inflorescences are not removed regxilarly. Infected inflorescences of both sexes can harbor the fungus.

Inflorescences should be removed annually to

reduce the possibility of infection of new inflorescences in years favorable to the disease. Al-Ani et

al. (4) reported that the fimgus may persist in inoculated trees at least 5 years, and that the

pathogen may spread to adjacent palms.

Infected leaf bases are especially important in

perpetuation of M scaettae because they press

tightly against the emerging, tender spathes,

which may be readily attacked by the fungus

under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature. Michael and Sabet (181) have implicated the unique pollination spears used in Sinai

as carriers of M scaettae spores in contaminated

pollen from infested to healthy inflorescences.

Fortimately, the affected palms, both male and

female, are usually scattered, and the disease does

not seem to spread rapidly.

Chabrolin (48) estimated that the losses

might average 30 to 40 kg of fruit per year on

severely affected palms. Trabut (247) ascertained

that 5 percent of the palms were affected by

khamedj in the southern Constantine area of

Algeria. Chabrolin (49) indicated that up to 10

percent of the palms may be affected in plantings

in heavy, wet soil. The disease is so important in

some Saharan oases (48) that the inhabitants

developed empirical means of control, including

sanitation and crude chemical treatments, prior to

the establishment of modern control measures.

Inflorescence rot is the only date disease of eco-
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 19

nomic importance (7, 152) among the 30 million

palms in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, principally between Baghdad and the Persian Gulf. In

Iraq, important outbreaks are sporadic and occur

only after prolonged cold, humid weather in the

winter. Al-Ani et al. (4) found more than 65 percent of palms affected by khamedj in some districts. Fawcett (90) considered inflorescence rot

the most important disease of date palms in

Tunisia. Losses up to 40 percent of the crop have

occurred in the Sinai Peninsula.

SYMPTOMS

The disease appears when the spathes begin to

emerge in late winter or early spring. At first,

affected spathes are barely distinguishable from

normal ones. Brownish or rusty areas develop on

the unopened spathe after the fungus has already

invaded the floral tissues. Lesions may be confluent and are most common near the top of the

spathe, which, at the time of infection, is soft and

still hidden in the leaf base. The internal face of

the spathe, under the lesions, is yellow and

translucent and may show brown dots corresponding to points of contact with diseased flowers. The

fungus attacks flowers and strands and may move

on to the stalk of the inflorescence. Spathes,

severely damaged when young, may remain

closed; however, the spathe usually splits and

reveals partial to nearly complete involvement of

the flowers and strands. Typically, certain infected

palms develop symptoms every year, whereas

others in the same planting show symptoms in the

inflorescences only occasionally, even under conditions favorable for disease development.

PATHOGEN

In culture, M scaettae develops a flat, white to

cream-colored mycelial mat that is soon covered

with chains of hyaline conidia, which give it a

powdery appearance (48). The conidial chains

fragment into units of one to several cells 10 to 50

fjL long and 5 to 10 ^t wide. One and two-celled

units predominate. The same type of sporulation

occurs on infected palm tissues. Germination is

much better in tissue extracts or decoctions than

in water.

Germination is best at about 21° C, which is in

the range of daily maxima from 16° to 24° in Sinai

during spathe development (181). Optimum temperature for mycelial growth in vitro is about 20°;

the fungus is sensitive to temperatures above 25°

and growth is arrested at 30° to 35°.

On infected tissues, the fungus forms a distinctive white mycelial web, which later disappears, leaving a whitish bloom of spores on the

surface. Spores are considered to be short-lived

and not of much importance in the persistence of

the fimgus, which presumably survives in old

tissues as mycelium. The fimgus, which is capable

of direct penetration of the spathes, is an aggressive parasite. The role of contaminated pollen

in the spread ofthe disease was ignored, in spite of

R[ayner's?] (214) comments on the lack of study

of this and other aspects of khamedj, until the recent work of Michael and Sabet (181). R[ayner?]

considered M. scaettae unable to spread readily

into uncontaminated areas because the spores are

short-lived and transportation of infected tissues

would be negligible. Nevertheless, in France, Anselme and Baltzakis (8) found this pathogen occurring as a rot of packed date fruit where a piece

of infected strand was present. Fancy packs of

Deglet Noor dates from North Africa often contain a piece of date strand for decoration.

CONTROL

Good sanitation is the first step in the control

of khamedj. All diseased parts of the inflorescence

should be collected and burned immediately after

harvest, and in all palms the old flowerstalks and

spathes should be cut out as completely as possible

and removed from the planting. Fungicides should

be applied immediately after harvest to the old

flowering area of diseased palms, and in early

spring on the new flowering area just before the

spathes emerge. Chabrolin (48) reported good control by spraying with bordeaux mixture or a strong

lime-sulfur solution, or by dusting with a copper

sulphate-lime mixture, essentially powdered bordeaux mixture. Laville (152) recommended sprays

of dichlone and thiram (172). Dust was cheaper

and more easily applied than spray in small plantings.

In Iraq, Al-Ani et al. (5) obtained good control

of khamedj with one spray of Tuzet applied sometime from November to January. In the coastal

oases of Sinai, Cupravit and Du-Ter were the most

effective fungicides (181), when applied three

times — postharvest, December, and JanuaryFebruary. Michael and Sabet (181) emphasized

that sanitation, consisting of removal of old

leaves, leaf bases, and inflorescences, and application of fungicide should be organized on a community basis for really effective control. Al-Ani et

al. (4) reported differences in susceptibility of 15

date varieties. In vitro studies on the effect of

several fungicides on M scaettae were made by

Ismail (123).

According to Teisseire (230), the Ghars

variety is more susceptible than Deglet Noor, and

Tafezouine, Hamraia, and Takermest are resistant. Zahidi and Hillawi are somewhat resistant,

but Khadrawy and Sayer may be severely attacked (4, 152).

Fruit Rots

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Preharvest fruit rots may be caused by one or

more of a large number of fungi (29, 91) and occur
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

wherever dates are grown. The economic importance of fruit rots varies greatly, since their incidence is governed by the occurrence of rain and

high himiidity during the khalal and later stages

of ripening. Darley and Wilbur (61) reviewed fruit

spoilage in California. Although losses of 25 percent or more occurred sporadically in individual

gardens or districts, they estimated the annual

loss from fungus spoilage at about 5 percent when

paper covers, fimgicidal dusts, and spreader rings

were used. The cost of control measures and the

cost of damaged fruit make fruit rots the most important economic disease of dates in California.

Estimates of loss from fruit rots are seldom

reported from the date-growing areas of the Old

World, although such rots occur. Kearney (129)

noted that rains at harvest-time in Tunisia sometimes caused serious losses of fruit. To circumvent

rain damage, dates are often harvested either individually or in bunches while in the late khalal to

the early rutab stages, and the fruit are then

ripened on mats, on racks, and in other ways (38,

70, 72, 182). In Algeria (38), late-maturing

varieties like Deglet Noor may be damaged by rain

and fruit rots in unfavorable years, with losses

reaching 25 to 30 percent. In Israel (52), fruiit rots

occur in late varieties such as Deglet Noor and

Barhee.

PATHOGENS AND DISEASE DEVELOPMENT

Species of Alternaría, Helminthosporium, and

Macrosporium may infect fruit directly, beginning

in the khalal stage. Fawcett and Klotz (91) also

found Citromyces ramosas Bain & Sart. and

Aspergillus niger van Tiegh. causing a calyx-end

rot in the late khalal or early tamar stages. Rieuf

(216) discussed A. niger and A. phoenicis (Cda.)

Thom in relation to date fruit rots. Zambettakis

and Nicot (262) made a recent detailed study of A.

phoenicis. These and numerous other species of

saprophytic fungi, among which yeasts are important, also invade ripening fruits through wounds,

especially during periods of rain and high

humidity when fruits may crack or split and provide easy entry for fungi. The Deglet Noor variety

is especially liable to such injury. The discussion

by Nixon (203) of the factors involved in frmt rots

is of general application in date culture.

CONTROL

Losses from fruit rots may be reduced by

several means (61, 203). In the United States, the

following procedures used alone or in combination,

and mostly on Deglet Noor palms, have been effective in reducing fruit rots. Prior to the khalal

stage, wire rings may be inserted in the bunches

to promote good ventilation and drying of wet

fruit. Even in the absence of rain, dew may form

on low-hanging fruits of yoimg palms. In the late

green or early khalal stage, Deglet Noor bunches

are covered with paper wraps or bags to exclude

rain; some growers cover other varieties. During

the mid- to late-khalal stage, dust may be applied

to the fruit bunches to reduce fungal spoilage and

to control insects (20, 256). The dust, which is

available imder several trade names (203), consists of 5 percent ferbam, 5 percent malathion, 50

percent sulfur, and 40 percent inert carrier. Fruit

rots may be aggravated by cultural conditions that

increase humidity, such as weeds, intercrops, and

standing water. These conditions should be taken

into account in planting and maintaining date

orchards.

Graphiola Leaf Spot

DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Graphiola leaf spot is caused by Graphiola

phoenicis (Moug.) Poit. It is the most widespread

disease of date palms and probably occurs

wherever the palm is cultivated under humid conditions (91, 153), which prevail in many suboptimal to marginal date-growing areas. Dates are,

nevertheless, an important crop in such areas;

however, crop yield may be reduced by premature

death of Graphiola-infected leaves.

Graphiola leafspot is common on palms in the

Punjab (182, 223) where rainfall ranges from 150

to 600 mm during March to August, inclusive.

Fawcett (90) found leaf spot to be the most common disease of dates in Egypt, especially in the

Delta and at Fayoimi. He believed that the commonly severe infections near the coast "must interfere considerably with the growth and production of the palms." In Egypt, old and diseased

leaves are removed as a sanitary measure;

Fawcett (90) implied that excessive pruning could

reduce date 5delds. Leaf spot often occurs in the

humid coastal areas of North Africa and the Near

East (3, 77, 173, 198, 199, 201), but the disease is

of little importance in the principal interior dategrowing areas of North Africa (49). Graphiola

causes serious damage to palms in several of the

southernmost, humid date-growing areas of Mali,

Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal (171), and occurs

in Argentina (87).

PATHOGEN AND DISEASE DEVELOPMENT

G. phoenicis was described by Fischer (92), and

Killian (145) established its taxonomic position as

one of the smut fungi. The fungus develops

subepidermally in small spots on both sides of the

pinnae and on the rachis. Finally, the fruiting

structures emerge as little, black, covered sori,

which are often numerous. In India, sori are absent on 1-year-old leaves, conspicuous on 2-yearold leaves, and their nimibers continue to increase

during the third year. Sori are most abundant on

apical pinnae (223).
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 21

The sori are 1 to 3 mm in diameter and consist of two layers; the outer peridium is hard, dark,

and persistent, but the inner hyaHne peridium is

thin and degenerates after the spores mature.

Spores are produced in fertile areas of the sori and

are interspersed with groups of sterile filaments.

At maturity, the sori open to liberate masses of

yellow spores. Individual spores are spherical to

ellipsoidal, 3 to 6 /x in diameter, and have a thick,

smooth, hyaline wall. After the spores are disseminated, only the rough black craters of the sori

remain. Heavily infected leaves die prematurely.

The histopathological effects of G. phoenicis were

studied by Shiam and Sharma (221).

CONTROL

Leaf pruning (90, 182) is the usual practice

for reducing damage from Graphiola leaf spot.

Spraying with bordeaux mixture has been recommended by Milne (182) and later authors. Nixon

(199) studied the relative susceptibility of date

varieties in Texas and concluded that a few

varieties, especially Kustawy, were tolerant to

Graphiola. Sinha et al. (223) studied the

Grap/iio/a-tolerance of 25 date varieties. The

seven resistant varieties included Barhee, Adbad

Rahman, Gizaz, Iteema, and three Egyptian selections. Tolerant varieties might be useful either

directly or in breeding improved varieties (45).

Black Scorch

Black scorch, which includes medjnoon, or

fool disease (110), is a minor disease of sporadic

occurrence. It is caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa

(Dade) C. Moreau. The fungus is normally present

on date palms only in the imperfect form

(Thielaviopsis). Black scorch has been reported

from Algeria (90), Egypt (31, 90), India (90), Iraq

(152), Saudi Arabia (198), Tunisia (90), and the

United States (146). In Mauritania, Brun and

Laville (33) found this fungus associated with the

bending-head disease described by Munier (190).

No estimates of loss are available.

The investigations of Klotz and Fawcett (146)

and Streets (228) provide the principal information on black scorch. All parts of the palm are

susceptible to infection by C. paradoxa. Symptoms

are usually expressed in four fairly distinct forms:

black scorch on the leaves, inflorescence blight,

heart or trunk rot, and bud rot on palms of all

ages. Infections are all characterized by slight to

extensive death of the tissues. Bud rot and heart

rot, though uncommon, are the most damaging

manifestations of C. paradoxa and may kill the

plant. Some palms recover, probably by development of a lateral bud, and these show a characteristic bend in the region of infection. This is the

medjnoon or fool disease symptom.

In Iraq, this fungus is associated with a

decline and death of palms in the Shatt al Arab

region. Laville (152) believes that infection is associated with sudden changes in the level and

salinity of the water in this region.

The imperfect form of C. paradoxa develops

rapidly on host tissues or in culture. Two types of

spores are produced — hyaline, cylindrical

microconidia, measuring 5 to 15 by 3 to 7 /x, and

dark, egg-shaped macroconidia, measuring 11 to

17 by 7 to 15 /x. Between the two types may be

found all gradations in size and shape and in intensity of brown coloration.

Infected tissues become blackish brown, then

shrivel and form conspicuous lesions with a

scorched, carbonaceous appearance. Dark conidia

may develop abundantly on the lesions. With bud

rot and inflorescence rot, where the tissues invaded are relatively succulent, secondary organisms may develop rapidly and augment the

damage. Black scorch has been observed on 17

date varieties (146). No infections were found on

the Tazizoot variety, and Deglet Noor seemed less

affected than other commercial varieties; Thoory

was the most susceptible. C. paradoxa may be

partly controlled by removing and burning all infected leaves and inflorescences. Dusting of the

area where the inflorescences emerge with

powdered bordeaux mixture in early spring is a

suggested control measure.

Diplodia Disease

Diplodia disease is a minor disorder caused by

Diplodia phoenicum (Sacc.) Fawc. & Klotz (91) in

the United States; a second species, D. natalensis

P. Evans, was reported on date palms in Israel

(184). The disease has also been reported from

Egypt and Morocco (90, 240). No estimates of loss

from Diplodia disease are available. Fawcett (89)

investigated this disease in California, where at

one time it caused considerable damage. The

fungus may infect and even kill young offshoots at

the base of palms; it may infect the outside leaves

and then finally kill the yoimger leaves and terminal bud, or the central leaf cluster may die

before the older leaves. Yellowish-brown streaks,

15 cm to about 1 m in length extend along the leaf

base and rachis. The lesions become brownish; internal infection and necrosis may be extensive in

leaf tissues. The disease was observed on 17

varieties in California.

The most common spores of D. phoenicum in

culture or in dead tissues are hyaline. Mingled

with them are the typical dark, septate spores of

Diplodia, which measure 22 to 24 by 10 to 12 /JL.

The light-colored spores are somewhat larger and

mostly unicellular. Dark, intercalary

chlamydospores are produced abundantly in

cultures. Pycnidia may develop on dead leaf

tissues.
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Fawcett (89) believed that the fungus usually

enters palms through wounds. Faulty irrigation,

causing some roots to die back to the base of the

palm, may be associated with the disease. In Israel

(44), benomyl is used as a spray or slurry to spray

young offshoots or to dip detached offshoots,

respectively. Disinfection of pruning tools is suggested.

Omphalia Root Rot

Omphalia root rot (19, 143, 144) is a minor

disease of date palms in the United States. The

causal fimgi, Omphalia tralucida Bliss and O. pigmentata Bliss, are fairly widely distributed in palm

plantings in the Coachella Valley of California and

have been isolated from the roots of many

varieties and seedlings. Although Omphalia spp.

are pathogenic on palms (19), apparently no constant association exists between the presence of

these fungi and visible decline symptoms. The

fungi have been isolated from both healthy and

declining palms, but not all declining palms — as

indicated by loss of vigor, stimting, and unfruitfulness — jdelded these fungi (143). Poor cultural

practices apparently produced identical decline

symptoms, especially in Deglet Noor, which at one

time was considered especially susceptible to

Omphalia. KenKnight's (143) data showed plantings of Deglet Noor to have a lower percentage of

infected palms than those of any other commercial variety at the time of his survey in 1945-48. In

1965, Sachs (219) found both species of Omphalia

in Mauritania on four palm varieties. He reported

studies on the fungi and their control.

Belàat

Belâat is a minor disease of the date palm in

Algeria caused by Phytophthora sp. It was first described in 1935 by Maire and Malençon (167), and

Maire (166) published a more detailed account.

Monciero (186) and Calcat (38) also have discussed belâat. Toutain (240) implied that the disease occurs in Morocco. No estimates of the losses

caused by belâat have been published.

Belâat usually occurs in neglected plantings.

On affected palms, the entire central cluster of

young leaves may turn white fairly rapidly. Infection occurs near the growing point in the form of a

wet heart rot that kills the bud and the bases of

the youngest leaves. The infection may be arrested a short distance below the bud or continue

downward. Secondary organisms rapidly follow

the initial infection. Some affected palms recover

by producing a lateral bud. Offshoots of diseased

palms usually remain healthy.

Brown Leaf Spot

Rieuf (217) described a brown leafspot of date

palms, incited by Mycosphaerella tassiana (De

Not.) Johns., in the Ziz and Draa valleys of Morocco. Dark lesions are clearly delimited on green

leaves, and on dying leaves the margin of the lesion remains reddish brown as the center becomes

pale and whitish. Lesions also occur on the rachis

and spines. Perithecia appear on the lesions either

singly or alined parallel to the vascular strands.

This minor disease also occurs in Txmisia. A

review of species of Mycosphaerella and Didymella

that occur on Palmaceae is given by Rieuf (217).

Bending Head

Bending head, or "le coeur qui penche," is an

uncommon, but fatal, disease of unknown cause

reported from Tunisia (110), Egypt (31), and

Mauritania (190), where Brun and Laville (33)

found Thielaviopsis (= Ceratocystis paradoxa) and

Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. associated with it.

They suggested that these fungi are essentially

secondary parasites, attacking palms weakened

by drought or poor cultiu-al practices.

The symptom from which the common name

derives (190) takes the form of a grouping of the

terminal leaves into an erect fascicle with a bent

tip. These leaves eventually die and fall. Meanwhile, older leaves die and hang vertically. These

symptoms are commonly associated with a basal

heart rot in the palm. Where bud rot or infection

of the upper stem occurs, the leaves may die and

fall more or less to one side. The symptoms may be

intermediate and are not always diagnostic of the

type of rot involved; after the palm dies, the trunk

bends and may break. To limit spread of the disease, Munier (190) recommended that all portions

of infected palms be burned on site.

Other Fungi on Date Palms

A black leaf spot of date palm in Egypt, incited by Chaetosphaeropsis sp., has been described

from Egypt (187).

Fungi described as occurring on Phoenix spp.

were listed by Rieuf (217). The fungi may be of

some importance locally or under unusual circumstances; the leaf pathogens can probably be

controlled by systemic and/or persistent surface

fungicides. The host plants are: P. dactylifera, P.

canariensis, P. hanceana var. formosa [nomen

nudum], P. natalensis [nomen nudum], P.

reclinata, Jacq., P. sylvestris (L.) Roxb., and P. spp.

Lethal Yellowing

Symptoms of lethal yellowing, a major disease

of the coconut palm. Cocos nucífera L., were first

reported in Florida in trees of Phoenix canariensis

and P. reclinata in 1974 (232) and later in P. dactylifera (176) and P. sylvestris (208). About 15

other species of palms have been reported as hosts
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 23

ofthis devastating disease, which has been known

in coconut palm plantings for nearly a century in

the West Indies, the circum-Caribbean countries,

and West Africa (210). Diseased coconut palms

were found in Florida at Key West in 1955 and at

Miami in 1971. In less than 5 years, 80 percent

(280,000) of the coconut palms in the Miami area

were killed (176),

The symptoms of lethal yellowing, as described for coconut palms, are given (176, 188).

Premature falling of nuts is an early symptom,

followed, in the next set of flowers, by blackening

ofthe tips ofthe inflorescences, so that most ofthe

male flowers may be discolored, even in the

unopened spathe. Spathes may be discolored,

rather than creamy-yellow. In the next stage, the

lower leaves turn yellow and deteriorate. Disease

symptoms progress upwards, through the leaves

of the crown, until the youngest leaves are

affected; light-brown, watery streaks appear in

the leaf tips of the youngest leaves and move

downward. Secondary organisms may invade the

terminal bud area and produce a foul-smelling rot.

Finally, the top of the palm may fall off. In date

palm and some other palm species, the leaves do

not yellow, but become dry and gray-brown; again,

the older leaves are the first to be affected.

The characteristic mycoplasmalike organism

associated with lethal yellowing has been observed by electron microscopy in tissues of the

Phoenix species listed here. The organism is

presumed to be transmitted from tree to tree by an

unknown insect vector as evidenced by rapid field

spread that may approach epidemic proportions.

Nearly 100 percent of the susceptible palms in an

infested area are eventually affected. Coconut

palms are usually killed in 4 months.

In Florida, where the coconut palm is a valuable ornamental tree, preventive treatment of diseased palms with oxytetracycline is recommended

(176). Quarantine measures (54, 176) have been

taken to prevent spread of this disease within

Florida and to other parts of the United States.

Countries in which dates and other palms are

grown should undertake suitable quarantine

measures to prevent spread of lethal yellowing

into their territories. Since the disease is presumably vector-spread, infected ornamental palms

could provide localities from which the disease

may spread to commercial date palms.

Faroun

This is a local name for a rapid and fatal date

palm decline of unknown cause reported from

Mauritania in 1967 by Laville and Sachs (155).

Female and male palms are affected. The first

symptom is a failure of apparently normal palms

to flower for one or two seasons before foHage

symptoms appear. Affected trees become conspicuous when they assume a parasol form produced by the old and middle rank leaves being

held somewhat horizontally. Subsequent new

leaves and their pinnae are reduced and distorted,

until finally the central portion of the crown

becomes a grotesquely stimted rosette. These

symptoms are accompanied by abortion of the axillary buds, which would account for failure of the

palms to flower. Offshoots are affected on some

diseased palms. Internally, palms in advanced

stages of decline have numerous brown gimi

pockets and long dark-colored cracks in the crown

tissues. Similar cracks occur in leaf bases near the

point of attachment to the trunk. No causal agent

has been identified; an insect, Piezodorus

pallescens [no authority in text] has been found

frequently in the crown tissues of affected palms.

Rapid Decline

Rapid decline, or rhizosis, is a minor but fatal

disease of unknown cause, which has been observed on date palms in California for more than

40 years. Darley and Wilbur (60) reviewed previous work on this disease and reported new investigations. The onset of symptoms is rapid.

Typically, vigorous female palms in full production

suddenly shed a large part of the immature fruits

in summer, but if a palm is affected later, the

fruits shrivel on the bunch. A reddish-brown discoloration occurs on pinnae of the oldest leaves,

and, almost simultaneously, the unexpanded

young leaves wilt. Mature leaves die rapidly and

progressively toward the top of the palm.

Offshoots, if any, usually die with the parent

plant, and, thus, the disease tends to be self-limiting. Male palms are also affected. There is no indication of a disease pattern since single affected

palms occur at random. No varietal resistance has

been noted. Serious losses have occurred in only a

few plantings.

Al - Wijam

Al-Wijam is a minor date palm disease of

unknown cause in Saudi Arabia (77, 198).

Affected palms of several varieties are stunted,

become unfruitful, and eventually die. The only

unique symptom is "a faint, narrow, yellow,

longitudinal line" on the midribs of the younger

leaves. The decline occurs whether conditions for

growth and fruiting are favorable or unfavorable.

El-Baker (77) recommended that the areas where

such plants are growing be avoided when selecting

offshoots for propagation.

Barhee Disorder

Barhee disorder is the name given to a bending of the crown of Barhee date palms (58, 59)

that occurs in most ofthe fruiting plantings of this

variety in California and at Basra, Iraq (116). The

Barhee palms in California are all derived from a

single importation from Basra in 1913. Affected
24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

palms are usually over 3 m high and bend to an

angle of from 5° to nearly 90° from the perpendicular; 80 percent of them lean to the south.

About 50 percent of the palms in a 10- to 33-yearold planting have been affected for at least 15

years. The nimiber of fruiting bunches is reduced

in direct relation to severity of bending. Affected

palms may recover and resume upright growth.

Neither the cause nor the control of this disorder

is known. Barhee disorder does not appear to be

related to bending head (33, 70, 190).

Blacknose

Blacknose is a physiological disorder of date

fruits reported from the United States (203) and

Egypt (31). The melanose described by Munier

(190) appears to be the same disorder and is reported to occur in Mauritania and throughout

North Africa. Although no official statistics are

available, in California the annual loss from

blacknose on Deglet Noor dates may approach 5

percent of the crop. About 80 percent of the

acreage in California is planted to this variety. Exceptional losses of 50 percent or more in individual

plantings have been reported (197). In Egypt (31),

Hayani is the most susceptible variety and the one

most widely grown.

Blacknose results from excessive checking of

the epidermis,especially in the form of transverse

cracks at the stylar end of the fruit, and subsequent drying and deterioration of the underljdng

tissues. Aldrich et al. (6) summarized the

literature on blacknose and reported on

physiological investigations of checking in Deglet

Noor dates. Nixon (203) gave a more recent account in 1969. Checking is induced by high

humidity and rainfall at the late green stage just

before the fruit acquires its khalal color.

Therefore, conditions that tend to increase

humidity, such as standing water, excessive soil

moisture, presence of intercrops, and weeds

should be avoided, especially at this stage of fruit

development. Overthinning can also increase the

incidence of checking and subsequent development of blacknose. Careful attention to irrigation,

cultivation, thinning, and ventilation may mitigate the damage.

Whitenose

This is a disorder of Halawy and Zahidi dates

in Iraq (116) that occurs as a whitish, dry ring at

the calyx end of ripening fruit. Prolonged dry

winds in the early rutab stage cause rapid maturation and desiccation of the fruit, which results in

the appearance of this symptom. The incidence of

this physiological disorder is low in humid areas

along the Shatt al Arab, but may amount to 20 to

70 percent in inland desert areas. The affected

fruits have a high sucrose content compared with

that of normal fruits. Use of heat and moisture

(hydration) will correct the condition in harvested

fruit. This disorder may be comparable to that

called "hard-end" of dates by growers in California.

Internal Browning

Internal browning designates a disorder

found in California in young to ripe fruit of several

date palm varieties (43). The cause ofthis disorder

is unknown; no pathogen or other incitant has

been identified. There is no degeneration of ripening fruit involved in this disorder. Discrete brown

lesions are found in the tannin cell layer of fruits

from shortly after pollination until the khalal

stage. As the fruitincreases in size, the original lesions may become diffuse, apparently by intrusion

of normal parenchyma into the tannin cell layer.

New lesions may develop during the growth of the

fruit. External evidence of the lesions is uncommon, although lesions may be visible during the

yellow khalal stage of some varieties. In Deglet

Noor fruit, a small, dark depressed area may appear near the stylar end of ripe fruit. The fruit of

Medjool is especially susceptible to this disorder.

During the rutab stage, the symptoms of internal

browning are obscured by darkening of the fruit.

Because internal browning becomes inconspicuous and does not seem to have any adverse affect on commercial fruit quality, it is a

minor defect of little economic importance (43).

Crosscuts

Crosscuts, which appear as clean breaks in

the tissues of the lower part of fruitstalks on

palms, may vary from a slight notch to complete

breakage of the stalk. Fruits on strands in line

with the break wither and fail to mature properly.

Sayer is especially susceptible to this disorder. In

the United States, up to one fourth ofthe crop may

be lost; in 1934, about 1,000 fruit bimches were

lost in a single planting in California because of

crosscuts. Because of this disorder, Sayer is no

longer propagated in Israel. Khadrawy is also

susceptible to crosscuts, and the disorder is

especially common in this variety in Israel (44).

Loss of fruit in Khadrawy may be substantial as a

result of partial or complete damage to bunches by

crosscuts. Bliss (18) concluded that crosscuts

result from an anatomical defect in the fruitstalk,

involving internal, sterile cavities or fractures

that lead to mechanical breakage during elongation of the stalk. Crosscuts are most commonly

found in varieties having crowded leaf bases and

the incidence of crosscuts increases as the palms
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 25

age. Loss from crosscuts may be avoided by using

nonsusceptible varieties, or by leaving a few extra

fruitstalks per palm in susceptible varieties (18),

Similar crosscuts or V-cuts occur occasionally in

leaves (91).

reddish-brown margins. The lesions vary from one

to several centimeters in the greatest diameter,

but involve only the epidermis and a thin layer of

subjacent tissue.

Dry Bone

Dry bone is a minor disease of the date palm

reported from Egypt and Tunisia (90) and from

the United States (91). Fawcett and Klotz (91)

thought it might be caused by a bacterium. The

principal symptoms on the leafstalks, midribs, and

pinnae are whitish, irregular blotches and streaks

that become sharply delimited and that may have

Black Scald

According to Nixon (203), black scald is a

minor date fruit disease of unknown cause occurring in the United States. Well-defined blackened

areas appear on the tip and sides of the fruit, and

affected tissues have a somewhat bitter taste.

Black scald does not seem to be related to

blacknose.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) ANONYMOUS.

1968. DDVP PROTECTION FOR DATE PALM. Int. Pest

Control 10(5): 10-11.

(2) ABOUEL-GHAR, M. R., and M. S. EL-RAFIE.

1964. CONTROL MEASURES OF DATE PESTS IN

EGYPT. Bull. See. Entomol. Egypte. 48:

291-301.

(3) ABU YAMAN, I. K., and H. A. ABU BLAN.

1971. MAJOR DISEASES OF CULTIVATED CROPS IN

THE CENTRAL PROVINCE OF SAUDI ARABIA. 1.

DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES. Z. Pflanzenkrankh. 78: 607-611.

(4) AL-ANI, H. Y., A. EL-BEHADLI, H. A. MAJEED, and M.

MAJEED.

1971a. REACTION OF DATE PALM CULTIVARS TO INFLORESCENCE ROT AND PERSISTENCY AND

SPREADING OF THE DISEASE. Phytopath.

Medit. 10: 57-62

(5)- - A. H. EL-BEHADLI, H. A. MAJEED, and M. MAJEED.

1971b. THE CONTROL OF DATE-PALM INFLORESCENCE

ROT. Phytopath. Medit. 10: 82-85

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C. MOORE.

1946. CHECKING OF FRUITS OF THE DEGLET NOOR

DATE IN RELATION TO WATER DEFICIT IN THE

PALM. J. Agrie. Res. 72: 211-231.

(7) ALLISON, J. L.

1952. DISEASES OF ECONOMIC PLANTS IN IRAQ.

FAO Plant Protect. Bull. 1: 9-11

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1957. SUR UNE POURRITURE DE DATTES DE CONSERVATION PROVOQUEE PAR MAUGINIELLA

SCAETTAECAV.AnnÉpiphyt. 8:153-164.

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1945. THE FUMIGATION OF CALIFORNIA DATES

WITH METHYL BROMIDE. Bull. Calif. Dep.

Agrie. 34:101-107.

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1967. UNE ESPECE NOUVELLE DE FIORINIA (COCCOIDEA-DIASPIDINI) VIVANT SUR PALMIERDATTIER DANS LES OASIS DE SUD DE L'IRAN.

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1972. THE DESERT LOCUST. 228 pp. Charles

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26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(18) BLISS,D.E.

1937. CROSSCUTS IN THE FRUITSTALKS OF DATE

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1944. OMPHALIA ROOT ROT OF THE DATE PALM.

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(81)

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34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

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APPENDIX

Glossary

The words in the Glossary are defined as they

apply to the subject matter in the handbook. More

detailed and different definitions of the same

words may be found in standard dictionaries and

glossaries of biological terms. Terms consisting of

two or more words are listed under the most significant word.

The discipline to which a word in the text applies is indicated thus: Agr. - agriculture; Biol =

biology; Bot = botany; Chem. = chemistry; Ent ^

entomology; MycoL = mycology. Plural endings

other than "s" are given in parentheses.

Acaricide Chem. A chemical used primarily to

control plant-feeding mites.

Adventitious root Bot. A root that develops

directly from the trunk of the date palm, other

than the primary root, which develops at seed

germination.
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Anterior Biol. In front; placed in front.

Apical Biol At the tip or apex of a part or organ.

Asexual Biol. Any type of reproduction not involving gametes, that is egg or sperm cells or

their counterparts.

Axillary Bot Refers to the point on a stem (axis)

where a leaf arises; a bud is usually formed in

the upper angle of leaf and stem.

Backeross (pi.-es) Bot. In date breeding, the mating of a first, or subsequent, generation male

hybrid palm with the original female parent,

with the object of accumulating in male progeny the genetic characteristics of the female

parent.

Biological control Ent Field control of insects

and mites by the action of predatory and

parasitic insects and mites that destroy the

economic pest.

Calyx (pi. -es) Bot. The cluster of small, thick,

overlapping scale leaves at the base of the

date flower; the cup or disk to which the fruit

is attached.

Chalcidoid Ent. Refers to the family of chalcid

wasps (Chalcidoidea) that includes many

species parasitic on other insects.

Chlamydospore Mycol. A thick-walled, asexual

fungus spore derived from a hyphal cell; a

resting spore.

Coleopterous Ent. Pertaining to beetles, family

Coleóptera.

Conidium (pi. -ia) Bot. An asexual fungus spore

usually produced on a specialized hypha or in

a spore-bearing organ. Conidia are often thinwalled, short-lived, and capable of immediate

germination.

Culture Mycol. Growth and maintenance of fungi

and other micro-organisms, usually in a

sterile environment, see Medium.

Dorsal Ent Pertaining to the back or upper side

of an insect.

Elytron (pi. -ra) Ent Either of the pair of hardened forewings in beetles and certain other

insects which act as protective covers for the

rear wings.

Falcate Biol. Crescent- or sickle-shaped.

Frass Ent The excrement of insects; that of larvae and boring insects is often conspicuous.

Frons (pi. -ntes) Ent. A facial area of an insect

head between the mouthparts and the eyes.

Fruitstalk Bot In the date, the heavy stalk supporting the flower and fruit-bearing strands.

Hectare Agr. A metric measure of land equaling

10,000 square meters; 2.47 acres; abbreviated:

ha.

Histopathology Biol Detailed study of the interaction of the host tissue and the pathogen.

Honeydew Ent A sugary secretion of certain insects.

Host Biol. An organism that harbors and provides

nourishment for a parasite.

Hyaline Biol. Colorless, or translucent; in fungi,

hyaline bodies may appear to be white or pale.

Hypha Mycol The threadlike, vegetative filaments forming the vegetative body of a

fungus; see Mycelium.

Inflorescence Bot In date palms, the complex

flowering structure of either male or female

palms.

Instar Ent A developmental phase between molts

in the growth of certain insects.

Intercalary Mycol. A cell, or spore, bounded by

two or more adjacent cells; not apical or basal.

In vitro Biol. In an artificial environment outside

the living organism; literally, in glass.

Isolate Mycol. A pure culture of a fungus or other

micro-organism.

Khalal Bot The first phase in maturation of date

fruit after the full-grown green stage is

reached. Fruit assumes a characteristic color

from pale green through yellow to dark

maroon. The khalal phase ends when the fruit

begins to soften or dehydrate; see Rutab,

Tamar.

Larva (pi. -ae) Ent. In insects with complete

metamorphosis, an immature, worm- or grublike stage between egg and pupa.

Lesion Biol An abnormal change in the structure

of an organ or part due to injury or disease.

Macroclimate Biol. The overall climate of an extensive region or larger geographic unit.

Macroconidium (pi. -ia) Mycol In fungi with two

conidial forms, the larger spore form.

Medium (pi. -ia)Myco/.A solid or liquid nutrient

preparation on which fungi and other microorganisms are grown.

Metamorphosis (pi. -ses) Ent In insects, the

series of stages in development from egg to

adult.

Microenvironment Biol A small, sometimes

isolated, area and its physical and biological

components; a microhabitat.

Microconidium (pi. -ia) Mycol In fungi with two

conidial forms, the smaller spore form;

microconidia may be formed in, and move

within, the vascular tissues of plants.

Microclimate Biol The cHmate of a small,

specific place, especially in relation to a given

object or a group of associated objects.

Microhymenopterous Ent Refers to minute and

often parasitic insects, especially wasps, of the

order Hymenoptera.

Molt Ent A shedding of the outer covering (exoskeleton) of an immature insect as it

progresses from stage to stage.

Mycelium (pi. -ia) Mycol The vegetative part of a

fungus, composed usually of a mass of

branched hyphae; see Hypha.

Mycoplasma Biol An essentially unicellular,

microscopic organism without a true cell wall,

reproducing by fission or budding, requiring

sterols in its nutrition, and less organically

developed than a bacterium.

Nymph Ent An immature stage in insects with

simple metamorphosis.
r PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 37

Offshoot Bot In date palm, a shoot produced by

development of an axillary bud, usually at the

base of the parent tree. The only plant part

adapted to asexual propagation of the date

palm.

Oviposition Ent Deposition of eggs by insects, in

some species through a specialized, piercing

ovipositor at the end of the abdomen.

Parasite Biol An organism that is harbored on,

derives its nourishment from, and damages

another organism.

Parenchyma Bot A living plant tissue composed

of thin-walled, unspecialized cells.

Pathogen Bot In plants, a usually microscopic

organism that incites a diseased condition;

common pathogens include nematodes, fungi,

bacteria, mycoplasmas, and viruses.

Pathogenicity Mycol A measure of the activity

or aggressiveness of a pathogen in a hostpathogen relationship.

Pedicel Bot The short stem that attaches the individual date flower to the strand.

Peridium (pi. -ia) Mycol In many fungi, the outer

wall or walls of a spore-bearing organ.

Perithecium (pi. -ia) Mycol Simple or complex

organs, frequently with a hardened outer wall

and a spherical base, in which the sexual

spores of certain fungi are produced.

Pinna (pi. -ae) Bot A leaflet on a compound palm

leaf.

Pollination Bot In cultivated date palms, the

manual or mechanical application of pollen to

female flowers. In nature, the date palm is

wind-pollinated.

Predator Ent An insect that feeds on another insect; predacious. See Biological Control.

Proboscis (pi. -ses) Ent A sucking organ of insects that is often adapted also for piercing.

Pronotum (pi. -ta) Ent The upper surface on an

insect prothorax; the prothorax is the body

region just behind the head.

Pupa (pi. -ae) Ent An essentially immobile stage

between larva and adult in insects with complete metamorphosis; frequently a resting

stage.

Pycnidium (pi. -ia) Mycol A simple or complex

organ, frequently with a hardened outer wall

and a spherical base, in which asexual spores

are produced.

Rachis (pi. -ses) Bot The main rib or axis that

supports the pinnae (leaflets) of a palm leaf.

Resting spore Mycol A thick-walled spore that

remains dormant until conditions favor

renewed growth.

Rhizosis Mycol A name applied to rapid decline

of the date palm when the pathogen was considered to be a root-(=^rhizo) inhabiting

fungus.

Rutab Bot The second phase in fruit maturation

in which the date begins to soften or dry into

its typical condition.

Saprophyte Mycol A fungus that grows on nonliving matter.

Sclerotium (pi. -ia) Mycol A dense, frequently

hardened, mass of fungus tissue that serves as

a resting organ until conditions favor renewed

growth.

Sorus (pi. -ri) Mycol A spore-bearing organ

which, in Graphiola, has a hard outer wall; see

Peridium.

Spadix (pi. -ices) Bot In palms, the flower-bearing structure; see Spathe.

Spathe Bot The sheath enveloping a date inflorescence (spadix) ; the spathe is closed prior

to flowering.

Spore Mycol In fungi, the common reproductive

body, corresponding to a seed in higher plants;

a spore may be asexual or sexual in origin.

Sporulation Biol The production and release of

mature spores by fungi.

Strain Mycol A line of individuals derived from a

given plant or plant part.

Stylar Bot Refers to the apex of the fruit, on

which the styles are situated.

Tamar Bot The third and final phase in fruit

maturation, in which the date assumes its

characteristic color, form, and texture.

Taxonomy Biol The identification, naming, and

classification of living organisms.

ULV spray Chem. In the United States, an ULV

(ultra low volume) spray is one applied at the

rate of 1 gallon or less of undiluted pesticide

per acre (3.785 liters/ha).

Vascular Bot Pertaining to the food and water

conducting tissues in plants.

Vector Biol An agent capable of transmitting a

pathogen from one organism to another either

mechanically or biologically; in the latter case,

the vector may incubate and harbor the

pathogen for a characteristic period of time.

Vertex (pi. -xes) Ent In insects, the top of the

head between the compound eyes.

Mites and Insects Discussed in Text 1,2,3

Scientific Name Common Name Order-family

Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller) Mediterranean flour Lepidoptera-Pyrahdae

moth

Apate monachus Fabricius Coleoptera-Bostrichidae

See footnotes at end of list.
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Mites and Insects Discussed in Text ^ ^^—Continued

:E ^^J

Scientific Name Common Name

Arenipses sabella (Hampson) greater date moth

Asarcopus palmarum

Horvath

Aspidiotus destructor

Signoret

Asterolecanium phoenicis

(Ramachandra Rao)

Batrachedra arnydraula

(Meyrick)

Bellicositermes spp.

Cadra calidella (Guenee)

C. cautella (Walker)

C dowsoniella

(Richard & Thompson)

C. figulilella (Gregson)

Carpophilus dimidiatus

(Fabricius)

C. hemipterus (Linnaeus)

Cocotrypes dactyliperda

(Fabricius)

Coptotermes spp.

Cotinis mutabilis

Gary & Percheron

Cryptolestes ferrugineus

(Stephens)

Diceroprocta apache (Davis)

Dinapate wrighti Horn

Ectomyelois ceratoniae

(Zeller)

Ephestia elutella (Hübner)

Haptoncus luteolus

(Erichson)

Ibostoma spp.

Microcerotermes diversas

Silvestri

Myelois spp.

Odontotermes sudanensis

Sjöstedt

O. obesas (Rambur)

Oligonychas afrasiaticas

(McGregor)

O. pratensis (Banks)

See footnotes at end of list.

•"datebug

*" coconut scale

green scale

lesser date moth

currant moth

* almond moth

* raisin moth

*corn sap beetle

*driedfruit beetle

date stone beetle

fig beetle

'rusty grain beetle

Apache cicada

giant palm borer

* tobacco moth

yellowish nitidulid

Old World date mite

Order-family

Lepidoptera-Pyralidae

Homoptera-Issidae

Homoptera-Diaspididae

HomopteraAsterolecaniidae

Lepidoptera

Cosmopterygidae

Isoptera-Metatermitidae

Lepidoptera-Pyralidae

Do.

Do.

Do.

Coleóptera-Nitidulidae

Do.

Coleoptera-Scolytidae

IsopteraRhinotermitidae

Coleoptera-Scarabaeidae

Coleoptera-Cucujidae

Homoptera-Cicadidae

Coleóptera-Bostrichidae

Lepidoptera-Pyralidae

Do.

Coleoptera-Nitidulidae

Isoptera-Termitidae

Do.

Lepidoptera-Pyralidae

Isoptera-Termitidae

Do.

Acarina-Tetranychidae

^^Banks grass mite Do.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 39

Mites and Insects Discussed in Text ^^^—Continued

Scientific Name Common Name Order-family

Omatissus binotatus var.

lybicus Bergevin

dubas bug HomopteraTropiduchidae

Oryctes agamemnon

Burmeister

Coleoptera-Scarabaeidae

0. boas (Fabricius) Do.

0. elegans Prell fruitstalk borer Do.

O. monoceros (Olivier) Do.

0. nasicornis prolixus

(WoUaston)

Do.

0. rhinoceros (Linnaeus) Do.

0. sahariensis De Mire Do.

Oryzaephilus mercator

(Fauvel)

*merchant grain

beetle

Coleoptera-Cucujidae

0. surinamensis (Linnaeus) * saw-toothed grain

beetle

Do.

Parlatoria blanchardi

(Targioni-Tozzetti)

* parlatoria date scale Homoptera-Diaspididae

Phoenicococcus marlatti

Cockerell

*red date scale Do.

Phonopate frontalis

Fahraeus

frond borer Coleoptera-Bostrichidae

Phyllotetranychus

aegyptiacus Sayed

Plodia interpunctella

(Hübner)

Psammotermes spp.

Pseudophilus testaceus

Gahan

Raoiella indica Hirst

Rhynchophorus ferrugineus

Olivier

R. phoenicis Fabricius

Schistocerca americana

gregaria (Forskai)

Stratigusjulianas

Burmeister

Urophorus humeralis

(Fabricius)

Vespa Orientalis Fabricius

* Indian meal moth

Indian palm weevil

desert locust

palm rhinoceros

beetle

pineapple beetle

Acarina-Tenuipalpidae

Lepidoptera-Pyralidae

Isoptera-Rhinotermitidae

Coleóptera-Cerambycidae

Acarina-Tenuipalpidae

Coleóptera-Curculionidae

Do.

Orthoptera-Acrididae

Coleoptera-Scarabaeidae

Coleóptera-Nitidulidae

Hymenoptera-Vespidae

^ Common names that have been accepted by the Committee on Common Names of

Insects of the Entomological Society of America (147) are marked with an asterisk (*).

The other common names are those widely used.

^ Revised February 1976 by Marius S. Wasbauer, Systematic Entomologist and Curator, and Staff, Laboratory Services/Entomology, Division of Plant Industry, California

Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento.

^ Predatory and parasitic insects involved in biological control are not included.
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Common and Chemical Names of Pesticides

Mentioned in This Handbook ^

[The superscript ^ ^ indicates a common name officially designated

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture]

Common Name Chemical Name

Aldrin

Aluminum Phosphide

Areginal

Azinphosmethyl

Baytex

Benomyl

Benzene hexachloride

BHC

Bordeaux mixture

Calcium polysulfides

Carbaryl

Carbon disulfide

Chlordane

Copper oxychloride

Copper sulfate"lime

Cupravit

Cygon

DDT""

DDVP

Diazinon

_. - , D

Dichlone

Dichlorvos

_ . - _ . D

Dieldrin

Dimethoate

Dipterex

Du-Ter

Dylox

l,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-l,4,4a,5,8,8a-hexahydro-l,4-eAido-5,8-dimethanonaphthalene.

Aluminum phosphide, See Hydrogen phosphide;

Phostoxin.

See Ethyl formate.

See Guthion.

0,0-dimethyl 0-[3-methyl-4-(methylthio) phenyl]

phosphorothioate. SeeFenthion.

Methyl l-(butylcarbamoyl)-2-

benzimidazolecarbamate.

See BHC.

1, 2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane.

Hydrated lime and copper sulphate.

See Lime sulfur.

1-naphthyl AT-methylcarbamate. SeeSevin.

Same; also named Carbon bisulfide.

l,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-2, 3, 3a,4, 7,

7a-tetrahexahydro-4,7-methanoindane.

Basic cupric chloride. See Cupravit.

See Bordeaux mixture.

See Copper oxychloride.

See Dimethoate.

l,l,l-trichloro-2,2-6is(p-chlorophenyl) ethane.

2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate. See

Dichlorvos.

0,0-diethyl 0- (2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-pyrimidinyl)

phosphorothioate.

See Phygon.

See DDVP.

Hexachloro-epoxy-octahydro-endo, exodimethanonaphthalene.

0,0-dimethyl S- (N-methylcarbamoylmethyl)

phosphorodithioate. See Cygon.

See Dylox; Trichlorfon.

Triphenyltin hydroxide. See Fentin hydroxide.

Dimethyl (2,2,2-trichloro-l-hydroxyethyDphosphonate. See Dipterex; Trichlorfon.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE DATE PALM 41

Common and Chemical Names of Pesticides

Mentioned in This Handbook ^ — Continued

Common Name Chemical Name

Endrin Hexachloroepoxyoctahydr0- endo, endodimethanonaphthalene.

Ethylene oxide 1,2-epoxyethane.

Ethyl formate Same; see Areginal.

Fenthion See Baytex.

Fentin Hydroxide SeeDu-Ter.

Ferbam Ferric dimethyldithiocarbamate.

Guthion 0,0-dimethyl S-[ (4-oxo-1,2,3-benzotriazin-3 (4fí)-

yl) methyl] phosphorodithioate. See Azin

phosmethyl.

Heptachlor l,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-3a.4.7.7a

-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoindene.

Hydrocyanic acid Hydrogen cyanide

Hydrogen cyanide See Hydrocyanic acid.

Hydrogen phosphide See Aluminum phosphide; Phostoxin.

Lime sulfur See Calcium polysulfides.

Lindane Gamma isomer of 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane.

Malathion 0,0-dimethyl S- (1,2-dicarbethoxyethyl)

phosphorodithioate; or 0,0-dimethylphosphorodithioate of diethylmercaptosucci

nate.

Methyl bromide Bromomethane.

Oxj^etracycline 4-(dimethylamino)-l,4,4a,5,5a,6,ll,12aoctahydro-3,5,6,10,12,12a-hexahydroxy-6

methyl1,11 -dioxo-2-naphthacenecarboxamide. See

Terramycin.

Para-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene.

Parathion 0,0-diethyl 0-p-nitrophenyl phosphorothioate.

Phostoxin See Aluminum phosphide.

Sevin SeeCarbaryl.

Sulfur Same.

Tedion [V 18] S-p-chlorophenyl 2,4,5-trichlorophenyl sulfone;

2,4,5,4'-tetrachlorodiphenyl sulfone. See

Tetradifon.

Terramycin See Oxj^etracycline.

Tetradifon See Tedion.

Thionazin SeeZinophos.
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 527, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Common and Chemical Names of Pesticides

Mentioned in This Handbook ^ — Continued

Common Name

Thiram

Trichlorfon

Tuzet

Urbacid

Zinophos

Chemical Name

Bis (dimethylthio-carbamoyl)disiilfide; or

tetramethyl-thiuram disulfide.

See Dipterex, Dylox.

See Urbacid.

Bis(dimethylthio-carbamoylthio)methyl-arsine.

See Tuzet.

0,0-diethyl 0-2-pyrazinyl phosphorothioate. See

Thionazin.

^ The information in this hst was abstracted from: SHEPARD, H. [consulting editor].

1977 FARM CHEMICALS HANDBOOK. Meister PubUshing Co., Willoughby, Ohio. [Paged sectionally.) 1977.

<r U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978 O - 274-399