United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest

Research

Station

General Technical

Report

PNW-GTR-365

National Proceedings:

Forest and Conservation

Nursery Associations

1995

This file was created by scanning the printed publication. 

Text errors identified by the software have been corrected; 

however, some errors may remain. 
Technical Coordinators:

THOMAS D. LANDIS is the Western Nursery Specialist, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region,

Cooperative Programs, P.O. Box 3623, Portland, OR 97208-3623.

BERT CREGG, USDA Forest Service, National Agroforestry Center, University of Nebraska, East Campus,

Lincoln, NE 68583-0822.

Layout and Editing:

ALETA C. BARTHELL, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Cooperative Programs, P.O. Box 3623,

Portland, OR 97208-3623.

Papers were provided for printing by the authors, who are therefore responsible for the content and accuracy.

Opinions expressed may not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The use of trade, firm or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader.

Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of approval by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any

product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

Funding for this publication was provided as a technology transfer service by State and Private Forestry, USDA Forest

Service.

Cover photo: "Pettis Frames", see article on page 61.
National Proceedings:

Forest and Conservation

Nursery Associations

1995

Thomas D. Landis and Bert Cregg,

Technical Coordinators

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Portland, OR 97208

General Technical Report PNW-GTR-365

December 1995

This publication was published as a cooperative effort by the

Pacific Northwest Research Station and the

Pacific Northwest Region.

i
Abstract-Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. 1995. National proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery

Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 155 p.

This proceedings is a compilation of 23 papers that were presented at the regional meetings of the forest and

conservation nursery associations in the United States in 1995. The Western Forest and Conservation Nursery

Association meeting was held in Kearney, NE, on August 7-11, 1995, and the Northeastern Forest Nursery

Association Conference was held in Mitchell, IN, on August 14-17, 1995. The subject matter ranges from

seed collection and processing, through nursery cultural practices, to harvesting storage and outplanting.

Keywords: Bareroot seedlings, container seedlings, nursery practices, reforestation.

Note: As part of the planning for this symposium, we decided to process and deliver these proceedings to the

potential user as quickly as possible. Thus, the manuscripts did not receive conventional Forest Service

editorial processing, and consequently, you may find some typographical errors. We feel quick publication of

the proceedings is an essential part of the symposium concept and far outweighs these relatively minor

distractions.

iii
Acknowledgments

The professional success of this meeting was due in no small part to the willingness of many people to come and

share their knowledge and experience. Many of the members of the nursery associations are government

employees and as such are financially reimbursed for their time and expenses. This is not the case for private

nurseries and consultants, however, and so we would like to acknowledge their unselfish contributions.

The following companies contributed both technically and financially to the success of these meetings, and we

would like to acknowledge their support:

Nebraska Meeting:

Ed Cordell

Plant Health Care

48 Cedar Mountain Rd.

Asheville, NC 28803

Tel #: 708/298-6379

Fax #: 708/298-4060

Tom Tinsman

Nexus Corporation

1093 Leroy Drive

Northglenn, CO 80233

Tel #: 303/457-4000

Fax #: 303/457-1545

Indiana Meeting:

Paul Bennett

Baertschi of America

PO Box 1099

Gatlinburg, TN 37738

Tel #: 615/436-2008

Richard Derlor

Derco Inc.

PO Box 6

Plainfield, Wl 54966

Tel #: 715/335-4448

Jim Heater

Silver Mountain Equipment

4672 Drift Creek Rd., SE

Sublimity, OR 97385

Tel #: 503/769-7127

James Somero

Somero Enterprises

167 Davis Village Rd.

New Ipswich, NH 03071

Tel #: 603/878-4364

Fax #: 603/878-4366

Iver G. & Shirley Lundeby

Lundeby Mfg.

RR # 1, Box 136

Tolna, ND 58380

Tel #: 701/262-4721

James Somero

Somero Enterprises, Inc.

167 Davis Village Rd.

New Ipswich, NH 03071

Tel #: 603/878-4364

Fax #: 603/878-4366

B&T Sales and Service

Hwy. 135S

Brownstown, IN 47220

Tel #: 812/358-4932

Chris Furman

Hendrix and Dail

2150 Commercial Drive

Frankfort, KY 40601

Tel #: 502/223-3232

William Isaacs

BASF

Box 13528

RTP, NC 27709

Tel #: 919/361-5372

iv
Table of Contents

Nebraska Meeting (August 7-11, 1995)

Trends of Tree Planting*

Gary Hergenrader

Overview of Sporotrichosis Disease 1

Arvind A. Padhye

Current Developments in the Prevention and Treatment of Repetitive Motion Injuries of the Upper

Extremity 8

D. Mowry

Back Injuries: Protocol for Bracing*

Dave Sanchez

Update on Status of Methyl Bromide Soil Fumigation*

Clarence Lemons

Basamid® Granular Soil Fumigant: Pre-Plant Soil Fumigation Update 13

W. Pennington

Basamid Incorporation Trial with Rotary Tillers and Spading Machine*

Jenny Juzwik

Alternatives to Chemical Fumigation Technology Development Project: Preliminary Results 15

Diane M. Hildebrand, Jeffrey K. Stone, Robert L. James, Susan J. Frankel, Jill D. Pokorny,

Joseph G. O'Brien, and Michelle M. Cram

New Technologies for Reforestation Training in the Great Plains*

Jerry Bratton

Basic Marketing Concepts for Forest and Conservation Nurseries 23

B.J. Hill

Adventures in Marketing: California Department of Forestry

and Fire Protection's Nursery Program 27

Laurie Lippitt

Creating and Keeping Niche Markets in the Private Sector*

Janice Schaefer

Benefits and Techniques for Evaluating Outplanting Success 36

Bob Neumann and Tom Landis

The Basic Biology of Juniperus Seed Production 44

Gary Johnson

Propagation of Juniperus: Challenges to Propagation and Opportunities for Improvement 47

Scott A. Lee, Bert M. Cregg, and Clark Fleege

Rocky Mountain Juniper Production at the Colorado State Forest Service 52

Randy D. Moench

Pregermination Treatment of Eastern Redcedar Seed 54

William L. Loucks

Growing Conservation Seedlings by the Square Foot: Making it Pay 56

David L. Wenny

History of Bessey Nursery 60

Clark Fleege

Nursery and Reforestation Programs at the Missoula Technology and Development Center 64

Dick Karsky and Ben Lowman

*lndicates that a paper was presented at the meeting, but was not received for this publication. The

author can be contacted using the attendance list in the back of the book.

v
Table of Contents

Nebraska Meeting (Continued)

Machine Vision Development and Use in Seedling Quality Monitoring Inspection 75

David B. Davis and John R. Scholtes

Super Slicer for Mulching Bareroot Seedbeds*

Blaine Martin

Herbicide Program at the PFRA Shelterbelt Centre 80

Bill Schroeder and L.K. Alspach

Fertilization Practices and Application Procedures at Weyerhaeuser 84

Mark E. Triebwasser and Steve L. Altsuler

Nursery Waste Water: The Problem and Possible Remedies 89

R. Kasten Dumroese, David L. Wenny and Deborah S. Page-Dumroese

Late-Season Nitrogen Fertilization: Application in Southern Nurseries 98

Kris M. Irwin

Lessons Learned from the USDA Forest Service Reforestation Improvement Program 102

Dick Tinus

Propagation of Populus from Seed*

Greg Morganson

Indiana Meeting (August 14-17, 1995)

Regional Issues and Trends*

Ron Overton

An Overview of Forest Diversity in the Interior Low Plateaus Physiographic Province 109

Edward W. Chester

Quality or Quantity: Stock Choices for Establishing Planted Northern Red Oak 116

James J. Zaczek, Kim C. Steiner, and Todd W. Bowersox

Oak Regeneration — Why Big Is Better 117

Paul P. Kormanik, Shi-Jean S. Sung, Taryn L. Kormanik and Stanley J. Zarnock

The Target Seedling Concept: Implementing a Program 124

Dr. Robin Rose and Diane L. Haase

Field Performance as it Relates to Herbicides and Seedling Quality*

Jack Seifert

Grading Stock with Machine Vision*

Glenn Kranzler

Update on Methyl Bromide Working Group*

Peter Sparber

Update on Alternatives to Methyl Bromide*

Jill Pokorny

Biological Control of Fusarium Diseases of Conifer Seedlings 131

Cynthia A. Buschena, Cynthia M. Ocamb, and Joseph O'Brien

Minutes from the 1995 Western Forest & Conservation Nursery Association Business Meeting 137

Minutes from the 1995 Northeastern Forest Association Business Meeting 141

Nebraska Meeting Attendance 143

Indiana Meeting Attendance 150

*Indicates that a paper was presented at the meeting, but was not received for this publication.

The author can be contacted using the attendance list in the back of the book.

vi
Western Forest & Conservation

Nursery Association Meeting

Kearney, Nebraska

August 7-11, 1995
Sporotrichosis—An Occupational Mycosis1

Arvind A. Padhye2

Sporotrichosis is a chronic infection usually

limited to cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues. It

involves all layers of skin and the subcutaneous

lymphatic. The disease is caused by a dimorphic

fungus Sporothrix schenckii. The fungus, present

in nature in a variety of plants and soil, invades

through a skin injury. Many times, the injury to the

skin is so minor that it goes unrecognized and

neglected. The fungus produces an indolent lesion

which appears as a small erythematous nodule

which may remain localized or spread centrally

though the local lymphatics, establishing a chain of

granulomatous, ulcerating nodules. Sporotrichosis

generally affects the exposed parts of the body,

namely, the hands, arms and legs. Pulmonary

Sporotrichosis presumably results from inhalation

of the fungal spores and occurs only rarely in

humans with a variety of underlying conditions

such as sarcoidosis, malignant neoplasms, diebetes

mellitus, and chronic alcoholism. The infection

may disseminate beyond lungs to become a generalized infection involving bones, joints, and the

central nervous system (Goodman, 1983; Kaplan

et. al., 1982; Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1982;

Rippon, 1988; Scott et. al, 1987). Extracutaneous

Sporotrichosis shows a marked male predominance

(6:1) in widely scattered geographic areas. Even

though the cutaneous disease affects men and

women of all ages, majority of cases observed are

among males between 25-40 years of age.

The disease occurs in those who are exposed to

material contaminated with S. schenckii. Occupations that predispose persons to infection include

gardening, farming, masonry, floral work, outdoor

labor, nursery workers, horticulturists, forestry

workers, tree planters, orchid growers, and people

involved in activities and exposure to contaminated soil, and vegetation such as sphagnum moss,

salt marsh hay, prairie hay, or roses (Adam et. al.,

1982; Brown et. al., 1947; D'Alessio et. al. 1965;

Goodman, 1983; McDonough et. al., 1970; Padhye

and Ajello, 1990; Skilling, 1983). There are more

than 11 cases of laboratory acquired Sporotrichosis

(Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1992). Sporothrix

schenckii enters the body generally through traumatic implantation or rarely from inhalation

spores. In nature, S. schenckii has been isolated

from dried edible mushrooms, Auricularia

polytricha and Letimus edodes imported from

Asia, and from insects that are in direct contact

with the fungus. The most common form of trauma

to the skin involves punctures from thorns, splinters, cuts from sedge barbs, or handling of reeds,

sphagnum moss, or grasses. Other types of trauma

reported include: bites from rodents, parrots, cats,

dogs, and horses; pecks from hens and other birds

and insect stings. In Uruguay, close to half of the

recognized human Sporotrichosis cases are associated with the hunting of armadillos. Infection

follows scratches from armadillos and injuries

1Padhye, A.A. 1995. Sporotrichosis—An Occupational Mycosis. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 1-7.

2Emerging Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases, National Center for Infectious

Disease Control and Prevention, Bldg. 5, B-37, G-11; Bacterial Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30333; Tel.: 404/639-3749;

Fax: 404/639-3546.

1
from the tools used to dislodge the animals from

their nests and burrows. Nine-banded armadillos,

(Dasypus nevemcinctus) often used as laboratory

animals in leprosy studies, were found to be infected

with systemic sporotrichosis (Kaplan et. al., 1982).

Several reports have described large scale

epidemic outbreaks of sporotrichosis. In 1927,

Pijper and Pullinger (Pijper and Pullinger, 1927)

reported a sporotrichosis outbreak involving 14

gold mine workers in Witwatersrand, a town near

Johannesburg, South Africa. Between 1941 and

1944 in the mines of the same area, nearly 3000

workers were infected with S. schenckii (Brown et.

al., 1947; Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1992). The

source of the remarkable epidemic in South African gold mines was traced to contaminated mine

timbers over grown with S. schenckii. High humidity and high temperatures inside the mines provided ideal conditions for S. schenckii to grow on

those timbers. Outbreaks of cutaneous

sporotrichosis have occurred in Mississippi,

Florida, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Pennsylvania,

New York, Vermont, and other eastern and

midwestern states of the United States (Adam et.

al., 1982; D'Alessio et. al, 1965; Dixon et. al,

1991; El-Gholl, 1986; Goodman, 1983; Grotte and

Younger, 1981; McDonough, 1970; Skilling,

1983). In 1988, the largest North American epidemic of sporotrichosis occurred in 15 states

involving 84 cases, with the majority of cases

having associated with handling pine seedlings

packed in sphagnum moss (Dixon et. al, 1991).

The sphagnum moss used for packing the seedlings

by a nursery in Pennsylvania proved to be the

source of S. schenckii.

The latest outbreak of lymphocutaneous

sporotrichosis was at the Disney World in Florida

during March to May 1994, where 9 of the 65

workers at Nursery A involved in production of

sphagnum moss topiaries developed

lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis (Hajjeh, 1995).

Fungal cultures of some sphagnum moss samples

used in topiaries at Nursery A since January 1,

1994, and collected at different stages of topiary

production grew S. schenckii.

NATURAL HABITAT OF S. SCHENCKII

Sporothrix schenckii has been isolated from

soil, humus, fertilizer, the stems of beech trees,

vegetable debris, moist wood, and refrigerated

meat. I has also been isolated from many types of

plants, such as: horsetails, rose bushes, cacti, salt

meadow hay, residual packing straw, carnations,

wood splinters, and most commonly sphagnum

moss (Adam et. al., 1982; D'Alessio et. al, 1965;

Grotte and Younger, 1981; Padhye and Ajello,

1990; Skilling, 1983). The fungus is worldwide in

distribution, occurring in all temperate and tropical

climates. Its wide distribution is illustrated by its

isolation from soil and plant material from all parts

of the world.

CLINICAL FORMS OF SPOROTRICHOSIS

Cutaneous Lymphatic (Lymphocutaneous)

Sporotrichosis:

Infection is usually acquired by traumatic

implantation with injury to the skin caused by the

prick of a thorn, splinter or similar object that is

contaminated with S. schenckii. Following such a

penetrating wound, a papule may develop at the

Figure 1. An early ulcerating lesion on a finger caused

by Sporothrix schenckii

2
site within two to three weeks. The papule slowly

enlarges and ulcerates (Figure 1). Without treatment, secondary lesions develop along the lymphatic channels, draining the initial site of infection. The lesions form nodules, which ulcerate and

drain (Figure 2). Without treatment, lesions persist

for years.

Figure 2. An ulcerating, chronic lesion on a wrist caused

by schenckii

Cutaneous Nonlymphatic Sporotrichosis:

In some cases, the lesion remains localized and

does not involve the lymphatic system. Such a

solitary lesion usually becomes chronic. These

"plaques" and "fixed" type of lesions, as they are

often referred to, can persist for years, the longest

being known to persist for 26 years (Villaca-Neto

et. al., 1988). Although the lesion may temporarily

wane, it regresses eventually, and spontaneous

resolution is not common. These chronic, single

lesions commonly occur on face, neck, trunk, arm

or hand and can vary in appearance. They are

usually erythematous papules or plaques that tend

to become ulcerated or verrucous (Figure 3). In

some cases, skin lesions may result from hematogenous dissemination. There are several lesions

scattered over the body, not on the same extremity,

or even at the site of trauma.

Extracutaneous Sporotrichosis:

This includes the following types:

1) Pulmonary, with the associated symptoms of

cough, low-grade fever, loss of weight and

sputum production. In some cases, hemoptysis

occurs, and can be massive, even fatal. The

infection results in cavitation in the lungs. The

disease is more commonly seen in males

(6:1 male to female ratio) than in females. The

natural course of the lung lesion is gradual

progression to death, although spotaneous

remission of noncavitory pneumonia has been

reported.

2) Osteoarticular. which involves the bones,

joints, and bursa. The majority of patients in this

category present with the indolent onset of

stiffness and pain in a large joint. Radiologic

evidence of osteomyelitis develops slowly with

diffuse osteolysis. Almost all cases of arthritis

involve knee, elbow, ankle or wrist. Although

fever may be present early in the illness, most

patients are afebrile. Fluid accumulation in the

olecranon or prepatellar bursa may occur as may

Baker's cysts. In untreated patients, additional

joints become involved and skin over the joint

becomes erythematous and may eventually

develop a draining sinus.

3) Ocular. which is caused by trauma to the eye by

material contaminated with S. schenckii or occurs

as a result of dissemination of the disease;

Figure 3. A solitary, granulomatous, fixed type lesion on

nose caused by S. schenckii

3
4 ) Central nervous system sporotricbosis: a rare

disease with symptoms of headaches, back pain

and mental confusion, and

5) Multifocal form: patients may present with

multiple skin lesions resulting from hematogenous spread, with or without lung or bone

lesions. Although patients who are apparently

immunologically intact may develop

hematogenously disseminated, fatal infection

only rarely, however, in immunosuppressed

patients, the probability of hematogenous dissemination to the skin and bones increases.

Patients with acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (AIDS), or other severely depressed

states of immunosuppression are at greater risk

of dissemination of infection.

Diagnosis:

A positive diagnosis of sporotrichosis is made by:

1) Direct examination: Although yeast form cells

may be seen occasionally in a Gram-stained

smear, a wet mount of pus, or a biopsy specimen, direct examination is often not helpful

because of the paucity of fungal cells. By examining multiple slides of biopsy tissue stained

with PAS or GMS, one can demonstrate the

presence of S. schenckii yeast cells. These

fungal yeast cells may be spherical and surrounded by a PAS-positive capsule, or have

uncharacteristic elongated "cigar-shaped" cells

Figure 4. Cigar-shaped yeast-like cells of S. schenckii in

spleen tissue, Gomori methanamine silver +

hematoxylin and eosin X160.

(Figure 4). The fluorescin-labeled S. schenckii

antiglobulins brightly stain yeast cells of 5.

schenckii, even when they are few in number

and provide a rapid and reliable diagnostic test

to diagnose sporotrichosis (Kaplan, 1982;

Kaufman, 1976).

2) Isolation of S. schenckii from clinical

material: The causal agent s. schenckii is a

causal fungus, that is, it grows as a mycelial

fungus at room temperature and in nature. It

grows on mycologic media producing moist,

glabrous, white colonies, which soon become

gray to black and develop radial striations

Figure 5. Two-week-old dark dematiaceous colony of S.

schenckii on Sabouraud dextrose agar at 25°C

(Figure 5). Microscopically, hyphae are hyaline,

branched, septate bearing lateral and terminal

conidiophores. The conidiophores produce

ovoid, spherical, pyriform conidia, 2-4x4- 6

microns in size, borne singly on denticles in a

rosette-shaped manner, or in a form of a bouquet. The conidia are also produced directly on

the sides of vegetative hyphae, and are borne on

small denticles (Figure 6). As colony ages, the

dark color of the colony is due to dark-walled

pigment produced by the conidia. In animal and

human tissue, S. schenckii reproduces by budding like a yeast. The yeast form can be produced in vitro by culturing mycelia or conidia

on rich media such as brain heart infusion (BHI)

agar, or Pine's medium, or BCG agar at 37°C.

The yeast form colony appears dull white, with a

4
dry wrinkled surface. The blastospores produced

in vitro are oval, subglobose, or cigar-shaped.

The conversion of the mycelial form to a yeastlike form at 37°C confirms the dimorphic nature

of the fungus and serves as a confirmatory test

for the conclusive identification of S. schenckii.

Serology:

Serological tests for sporotrichosis may be

applied to sera from patients with skin lesions,

subcutaneous nodules, bone lesions,

lymphoadenopathy, or pulmonary disease. Because

of its sensitivity (94%), high specificity, and ability

to provide results in 5 minutes, the LA (latex

agglutination) test is used routinely in the clinical

laboratory. The TA (tube agglutination) test has

comparable sensitivity, but sera being tested for

sporotrichosis may show false-positive reactions

with 1:8 and 1:16 dilutions of sera from patients

with leishmaniasis. Slide latex agglutination titers

of 1:4 or greater are considered presumptive

evidence of sporotrichosis. Sera from patients with

localized, subcutaneous, disseminated subcutaneous, or systemic sporotrichosis may show titers

ranging from 1:4 to 1:128. The test has limited

prognostic value, since antibody levels may show

little change during and after convalescence

(Kaufman, 1976; Scott et. al., 1987).

Figure 6. Lateral conidiophore bearing ovoid conidia in

a rosette manner and single conidia produced

laterally on vegetative hyphae X 160.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES AND CONTROL

a) Workers handling sphagnum moss or those

likely to be traumatized by objects such as

thorns, splinters or sticks should wear gloves

and long-sleeved shirts to protect their hands

and arms. Heavy clothing or an apron should

also be worn while working to prevent trauma to

the body, as well as thick shoes to protect feet.

b) After handling potentially contaminated material, individuals should thoroughly wash their

arms and other exposed parts of the bodies with

soap and water to reduce chances of infection.

c) If any injury by a thorn or splinter, etc. is noticed, a disinfectant such as tincture of iodine

should be applied immediately (El-Gholl et. al.,

1986).

d) Supplies of sphagnum moss should be stored

indoors under dry conditions. Sphagnum moss

with a high moisture content stored in a warm

environment supports the proliferation of S.

schenckii. When disturbed, the airborne conidia

of S. schenckii may be inhaled by workers and

induce pulmonary infection (El-Gholl et. al,

1986; Goodman, 1983).

e) In areas likely to contain dust or aerosols from

the handling of sphagnum moss, proper exhaust

fans with biologic filters should be installed. In

such areas, a protective mask should be used to

avoid inhalation of the infectious conidia of S.

schenckii.

f) All storage and packing areas should be decon- taminated monthly with a disinfectant.

g) Stored sphagnum moss should be regularly

cultured for the presence of S. schenckii (ElGholl et. al., 1986).

5
Unfortunately there are no established methods

for decontaminating sphagnum moss infected with

S. schenckii. Chemical decontamination with

formaldehyde or methyl bromide has been suggested, but has never been used on a regualr basis

(Padhye and Ajello, 1990). Burning of infested

moss is an effective control method.

Treatment of Sporotrichosis:

Cutaneous lesions respond well to treatment

with orally administered potassium iodide. A

variety of side effects and the slow response to

treatment require perseverence. The bitter taste of

KI and the development of nausea, rumbling

stomach, excessive salivation, and anorexia are

better tolerated if the dose is begun small and

gradually increased. A common initial dose is 10

drops of saturated KI solution given three times

daily. The bitter taste is lessened if the patient

drinks water or juice immediately after taking the

medicine. The dose is increased once a week by

about five drops per dose up to 25 to 40 drops

three times daily for children under 10 years, and

up to 40 to 50 drops three times daily for adults.

This dose is continued till all lesions become flat

and soft, a period of 6 to 12 weeks being usual.

Immersing lesions in hot water for 20 to 30 minutes three times daily also helps. Heating pads or

pocket warmers have been used with some success. Occasionally cutaneous sporotrichosis

responds well to ketoconazole 10 mg/kg once

daily, but success has been noted only in a small

number of cases. Oral itraconazole 100 to 200 mg,

given daily for several months has been successful

in a small number of patients (Kwon-Chung and

Bennett, 1992).

For pulmonary sporotrichosis involving only

one lobe without any contraindication to surgery

and no lesions anywhere else, the best treatment is

by surgery. Although use of amphotericin B in

doses totaling over 2 grams for adults has cured

some patients with pulmonary sporotrichosis,

therapeutic failures are common. The combination

of flucytosine with intravenous amphotericin B

may be useful in refractory cases. Local injections

of amphotericin B into the knee, olecranon bursa,

or Baker's cyst may also be useful in refractory

cases. Ketoconazole (400 to 800 mg daily) or

itraconazole (400 mg daily) has improved up to

half the cases of osteoarticular sporotrichosis, but

the treatment may extend months or years to be

effective. These drugs are less effective in cavitory

pulmonary sporotrichosis (Kwon-Chung and

Bennett, 1992).

LITERATURE CITED

Adam, J. E., Dion, W. M., and Reily, S. 1982.

Sporotrichosis due to contact with contaminated sphagnum moss. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 126:1071-1073.

Brown, R., Weintroub, D., and Simpson, M. W. 1947.

Timber as a source of sporotrichosis infection. In:

Proceedings of the Transvaal Mine Medical Officers'

Association, Johanesburg, pp.5-38.

D'Alessio, D. J., Leavans, L. J., Strumpf, G. B., and Smith,

C. D. 1965. An outbreak of sporotrichosis in Vermont

associated with sphagnum moss as the source of infection. New England J. Med. 272:1054-1058.

Dixon, D. M., Salkin, I. F., Duncan, R. A., Hurd, N. J.,

Haines, J. H., Kemna, M. E., and Bruce Coles, F. 1991.

Isolation and characterization of Sporothrix schenckii

from clinical and environmental sources associated with

the largest U. S. epidemic of sporotrichosis. J. Clin.

Microbiol. 29:11061113.

El-Gholl, N. E., Ajello, L., and Esser, R. P. 1986.

Sporotrichosis. Florida Dept. Agric. & Consumer Ser.,

Plant Pathol. Circular No. 286.

Goodman, N.L. 1983. Sporotrichosis. In: Occupational

Mycoses (A. F. DiSalvo ed.), pp. 65-78, Lea and Febiger,

Philadelphia.

Grotte, M., and Younger, B. 1981. Sporotrichosis associated

with sphagnum moss exposure. Arch Pathol. Lab. Med.

105:50-51.

6
Hajjeh, R., McDonnell, S., Reef, S., Hankins, M., Toth, B.,

Padhye, A., Kaufman, L., Hutwagner, L., Hopkins, R.,

and McNeil, M. 1995. An outbreak of lymphocutaneous

sporotrichosis among nursery workers associated with

topiary productions. Abstract F-129, p. 109, In: Abstracts

of the 95th annual meeting of the American Society for

Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

Kaplan, W., Broderson, J. R., and Pacific, J. N. 1982.

Spontaneous systemic sporotrichosis in nine-banded

armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus). Sabouraudia

20:289-294.

Kaufman, L. 1976. Serodiagnosis of fungal diseases. In:

Manual of Clinical Immunology, pp. 363-381, American

Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

Kwon-Chung, K. J., and Bennett, J. E. 1992. Medical

Mycology, pp. 707-729, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.

McDonough, E. S., Lewis, A. L., and Meister, M. 1970.

Sporothrix (Sporotrichum) schenckii in a nursery barn

with sphagnum. Publ. Hlth. Rep. 85: 579-586.

Padhye, A. A., and Ajello, L. 1990. Sporotrichosis — an

occupational hazard for nursery workers, tree planters

and orchid growers. Am. Orchid Soc. Bull. 59: 613-616.

Pijper, A., and Pullinger, B. D. 1927. An outbreak of

sporotrichosis among south African native miners.

Lancet ii: 914-915.

Rippon, J. W. 1988. Medical Mycology. The Pathogenic

Fungi and the Pathogenic Actinomycetes. 3rd ed., W. B.

Saunders Company, Philadelphia.

Scott, E. N., Raufman, L., Brown, A. C., and Muchmore, H.

G. 1987. Serologic studies in the diagnosis and management of meningitis due to Sporothrix schenckii. New

England J. Med. 3-7: 935-940.

Skilling, D. D. 1983. Sporotrichosis — a disease hazard for

and tree planters. Tree Planters' Notes nursery personnel

34:8-9.

Villaca-Neto, C. M., Rossetti, R. B., Fischman, O., and

Paschoal, L. H. C. 1988. Localized cutaneous verrucous

sporotrichosis of 26 years duration. Mycoses 31:353-355.

7
Current Developments in the Prevention and Treatment of

Repetitive Motion Injuries of the Upper Extremity1

D. Mowry2

ABSTRACT: Cumulative trauma is a condition associated with the musculoskeletal system and is due to

repetitive use of that body part. There are often other aggravating factors, such as: cold environments, vibration

or awkward positioning of the work site. Some cumulative disorders of the upper extremity include: carpal tunnel

syndrome, DeQuervain's disease, and lateral epicondylitis. Special testing may be involved in carpal tunnel

syndrome, such as Tinel's or Phalen's test and an EMG. All have similar treatment methods of using nonsteroidal

medications, heat, and injections. To further treat these conditions, jobs need to be modified to decrease the risk

factors, and education of the worker needs to be completed.

Repetitive motion injuries, also known as

cumulative trauma disorders, are widespread in

many occupational fields. Cumulative trauma is

associated with the musculoskeletal system (for

example cardiac arrhythmias is not accumulative

trauma disorder). The parts of the musculoskeletal

system includes bones, muscles, nerves, tendons

and ligaments. When the musculoskeletal system

is over-used, or involved in repetitive motion, then

trauma can result. And this trauma is known as

cumulative because it occurs over a period of

time. Of particular interest are the cumulative

trauma disorders of the upper extremity. These

trauma disorders include: carpal tunnel syndrome,

Dequervain's disease and lateral epicondylitis.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss each of

these three disorders, the anatomy involved, risk

factors, treatment and prevention of the disorder.

Let's first look at carpal tunnel syndrome.

Carpal tunnel syndrome describes a condition that

is associated with compression of the median Figure 1.

nerve at the wrist (See Figure 1 ). In the wrist

1

 Mowry, D. 1995. Current Development in the Prevention and Treatment of Repetitive Motion Injuries of the Upper Extremity

In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech.

Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 8-12.

2Great Plains Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Center, 17 W. 31st St., Kearney, NE 68847; Tel.: 308/865-7407.

8
there are several structures. There are carpal bones

which form almost a cup shape. In that cup are

many tendons, known as flexor tendons. There are

also some nerves. Most of these structures are held

in the cup by a thick band known as flexor retinaculum. If you look at the palm of your hand and

place your thumb and little finger together, then a

tendon jumps out at the wrist. This tendon is

known as the palmaris longus. This tendon is not

held in place by the flexor retinaculum, but it is

important because the median nerve lies under this

tendon, so it helps us know the position of that

nerve. The median nerve is held in place by the

flexor retinaculum, and if compression by other

components of the carpal tunnel or the retinaculum

occurs, then numbness or weakness of the hand

can result; this can lead to carpal tunnel syndrome.

There are many etiologies for carpal tunnel syndrome. And many of these are not necessarily

related to work injuries. Persons with wrist fractures are at risk for edema and swelling of the wrist

which can then lead to entrapment of the median

nerve and cause carpal tunnel syndrome. Rheumatoid arthritis, gout, and other inflammatory disorders can also cause carpal tunnel syndrome. Pregnancy is a great risk factor. Some studies have

shown that greater than twenty-five percent of

women in the their last three months of pregnancy

are at risk because of overall swelling and this

would include the carpal tunnel itself. Additional

list of medical illnesses that can be associated with

carpal tunnel syndrome include diabetes, infection,

local tumors, and even possible hereditary conditions. Not only are medical issues associated but

again work related injuries. There are a great

variety of types of workers who have been thought

to be at increased risks for carpal tunnel syndrome:

the typist or computer operator, because of repetitive motion, the sign language interpreter, because

of, again, repetitive motion and often not taking

enough breaks during her job to rest the wrists and

hands. Other jobs include the jackhammer worker

because the vibration can cause local trauma and

edema, the meat cutter who uses electrical knives

because of vibration, and the cashier who operates

the cash register. This has lead some people to

believe, because of such a diversity of types of

employment has been associated with carpal

tunnel syndrome, that hereditary or medical conditions are more the source of the problem. Nevertheless, there have also been many studies to

indicate the syndrome is indeed associated with

work injuries. And because of that thought, let's

look at some of the jobs that nursery workers do

and see why they could be at risk.

The tree nursery workers often are repetitively

using their wrists and hands, flexing their hands to

put the seedlings into holders, sorting the trees,

and bundling the trees. The repetitive flexing is a

great risk factor. In addition, these workers are

often in a cold environment. The cold causes

slowing of the nerves, and also causes any edema

or inflammatory agents that have become involved

in the wrist to stay in the wrist longer, causing

increased pressure, and further compromise to the

carpal tunnel itself. Finally, some of the workers

are also involved in having the wrist in a rather

awkward position that is usually not anatomically

normal, and this will then cause inflammation to

the wrist. Again, with the cold and repetitive

trauma, the inflammation will stay and it will be a

prolonged problem. When workers develop carpal

tunnel syndrome there are several symptoms that

they develop. Generally, there is a numbness in the

median nerve distribution which involves the first

three digits of the hand (thumb, second and third

finger). Sometimes the worker describes it as

radiating in the hand and it is often difficult to

know whether it is really the first three fingers or

throughout the hand. If you have ever experienced

a foot, leg or arm falling asleep, you can recall

how difficult it is to describe the exact region that

has fallen asleep. This is the same problem that

occurs when patients are asked to describe where

exactly the numbness is located. Sometimes this

numbness is more often present at night. This is

because the person keeps the wrist in a flexed

position while they sleep, further compromising

the tunnel, and causing compression on the nerve,

9
and therefore causing symptoms. There can also be

night pain associated with the hand, wrist, elbow and

shoulder. If carpal tunnel syndrome is severe enough,

patients can experience weakness of the hand,

particularly the thumb muscles (i.e., abductor pollicis

brevis). This is because these muscles are typically

innervated by the median nerve.

Some simple tests that can be completed to

determine if carpal runnel syndrome is present,

such as tapping on the wrist, known as Tinel's test.

If tapping at the wrist causes radiation of numbness into the first three digits, then this would be a

positive Tinel's test and could be indicative of

carpal tunnel syndrome. Another test that can be

completed, the Phalen's test, is to flex the wrist so

that the dorsum of the hands are in contact. Again,

there should be numbness radiating into the first

three digits.

Additional testing that can be completed to

determine if carpal tunnel is present, is to look for

weakness, as well as sensory loss. Your physician

would probably complete these tests. Additional

testing that can be completed is that of electromyography better known as EMG. The purpose of this

test is to look specifically at the function of the

median nerve, and to determine if there is slowing

across the carpal tunnel itself, which again suggests carpal runnel syndrome. This test usually has

two parts. The first part is simply stimulating the

nerve or giving it an electrical shock to see how

quickly the nerve will respond. The next part may

involve inserting a small pin or small needle into

different muscles, the abductor pollicis brevis for

example, to determine if there is any evidence of

nerve damage. This test may be completed by the

physician prior to treatment. Often this test is

completed if surgery is a consideration for treatment.

Let's look at some of the treatment options, and

let's consider first the conservative treatment

options. These include a cock-up wrist splint, rest

or use of the opposite hand for activities, steroid

injections, nonsteroidals, ultrasound and exercises.

The cock-up wrist splint is generally one of the

first line treatments done for carpal treatment.

They do prevent dorsiflexion of the wrist and help

to stretch the carpal tunnel, thereby ideally decompressing the median nerve. The splints can be

worn at work and are designed so that not to

inhibit digit use. The splints are often worn at

night as well, to again keep the wrist in the correct

position and to stretch the carpal tunnel. Some

patient's prefer only to wear these at night and not

during the work period. Nonsteroidal medications

such as Ibuprofen, Lodine, Naprosyn, Relafm can

Figure 2. Exercises for Preventing Cumulative

Trauma Disorders

10
be used. The purpose of the nonsteroidal medications used is to help decrease any inflammatory

response which may also help decrease symptoms.

Other treatments that have been used include exercises, (See Figure 2), which usually involve stretching of the carpal tunnel, and again, are thought to

decrease compression of the median nerve. Some

physicians have prescribed ultrasound. Another

conservative treatment that has been included is

the of injection of local steroid into the carpal

tunnel.

An additional treatment that can be completed

is to look at the workplace to help decrease some

of the causing factors. For example, many workers in the nursery tree field often use gloves to help

protect their hands, but do these gloves indeed

decrease the cold? There are many other medical

conditions, particularly those associated with

vascular instability, in which workers also need to

wear gloves to help protect them from the cold.

This is well known among the patients and by the

medical field. But often patients who are at risk for

carpal tunnel syndrome do not think to wear

gloves to help avoid this condition. Additional

preventative measures that could help at work

would be to rotate the job sites so that patients are

not always doing the same type of repetitive job

with their wrist. They also should take frequent

rest breaks. In addition, they need to begin using

the non-dominant arm to help rest the dominant

side, and again decrease risk. Other issues that

could be looked at in the work sites would be

automating jobs that are highly repetitive, but may

be easily operated by machinery. Finally, if the

patient does fail at any conservative treatment,

then surgery would be a consideration. Usually

before surgery is completed, the patient has completed a good trial of conservative treatment. They

may also have completed an EMG. If the EMG is

ordered, and there are quite distinctive and severe

signs of carpal tunnel syndrome, then conservative

treatment may not be indicated.

One other condition that I would like to mention

briefly is that of lateral epicondylitis, also known

as "tennis elbow". Extensor tendons insert onto

the lateral epicondyle, and again, with a repetitive

use of the wrist, can cause irritation. The treatment

is very similar to that of carpal tunnel syndrome,

including local steroid injections, nonsteroidals,

and ultrasound. There is also a splint that can be

used for this condition, known as a tennis elbow

band (See Figure 3). This band is worn a few

inches distal to the insertion of the tendons. The

purpose of this band is to cause compression of the

extensor muscle belly itself, thereby relieving the

insertion of the tendon. When the person then

contracts the extensors of the forearm, most of the

contraction is at the site where the band is thereby

not causing further irritation, or further repetitive

trauma to the tendon itself, so that decreased

inflammation can occur. Over time, the symptoms

of tennis elbow should resolve. Occasionally,

patients do have to have surgery for resection of

some of the soft tissue, and possibly even the bone

around the lateral epicondyle, to allow further

movement of the tendon. This again is highly

uncommon.

One other condition, known as DeQuervain's

tendonitis is simply a condition of three tendons

involved in the movement of the thumb, and cause

tendonitis usually at the anatomical snuffbox, which

is on the dorsum (back of the hand) at the base of the

Figure 3. Cockup splint with tennis elbow cuff.

11
thumbs. Again, the reason for this is often trauma or

even repetitive use. The treatment for this, once

again, is similar to that of carpal tunnel syndrome.

This involves nonsteroidal medications, injections of

local steroids and ultrasound. A wrist splint, very

similar to the cockup splint can also be used.

In summary then, there are at least three conditions of repetitive trauma of the upper extremity.

These are often treated in a very similar fashion

and also have similar risk factors. The carpal

tunnel syndrome involves mostly compression of

the median nerve resulting in pain and numbness.

In lateral epicondylitis, there is irritation and

inflammation of the extensor tendon, and in

DeQuervain's disease, there is irritation of three

radial innervated tendons of the thumb. Rest,

nonsteroidal medications, ultrasound, local injections of steroid, and bracing are typical conservative treatments that could be tried.

Carpal tunnel syndrome can also be further

diagnosed by specific maneuvers, such as the

Tinel's and Phalan's test, as well as an EMG.

Surgical treatment could also be considered for

carpal tunnel. Again, for prevention of each of

these conditions, repetitive use needs to be limited,

the other non-dominant hand should be used when

possible, multiple rest breaks taken, and alternate

job positions. In addition, carpal tunnel syndrome

is also thought to be related with vibration as well

as cold, and these should be minimized. For

further information concerning these conditions, I

recommend that you discuss this with your

physician.

12
Basamid®

 Granular Soil Fumigant:1

Pre-Plant Soil Fumigation Update

W. Penningtoif

Abstract—A seven-day program using irrigation to completely activate BASAMID®, seal the soil surface and

maintain toxicant contract within the soil profile has been developed by BASF. This BASAMID® program is

designed to provide nursery managers with a system to improve their success rate with BASAMID® as a preplant

soil fumigant.

INTRODUCTION

BASAMID® (active ingredient: Dazomet) has

been used as a soil fumigant for more than twenty

years. It has been deemed by many to be a poor

alternative when compared to existing soil fumigants used by forest tree nursery managers. However, BASAMID®

's ability to adequately control

soil pathogens, weed and grass seeds, and nematodes has been proven by many users. Their secret:

adequate moisture. Before using BASAMID,® be

aware that the three most critical factors for a

successful fumigation program are:

1. Soil preparation (fine tilth)

2. Soil temperature (medium to warm)

3. Soil moisture (water)

BASF developed a layman's approach to solving the critical issues associated with poor results

often reported by those who inadvertently miss the

soil moisture portion of the program. This system

will allow the nursery manager to completely

activate the BASAMID® granules and maximize

the toxicant's contact in the soil profile.

SEVEN DAYS TO A SUCCESSFUL

FUMIGATION PROGRAM

This guideline is intended for use in

sandy loam soils:

Day One

• After incorporating BASAMID®, measure soil

temperature at 4 inches and record.

• Roll the soil surface.

• Irrigate with a minimum of 1 inch (or more)

of water over a 4-hour time period

(1 1/2" to 1 3/4" over 6 hours).

Day Two

• Irrigate with a minimum of 3/4 " (0.75") of water

in two applications; one (0.375") in the morning,

one (0.375") in the afternoon.

• Keep the soil surface wet, but not waterlogged.

Day Three

• Irrigate with a minimum of 1/2" (0.50") of water

in two applications; one (0.25") in the morning,

one (0.25") in the afternoon. (This assures that

1Pennington, W. 1995. Basamid® Granular Soil Fumigant: Pre-Plant Soil Fumigation Update. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech.

coords. National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 13-14.

2BASF Corporation, PO Box 13528, Triangle Park, NC 27709-3528; Tel.: 1-800-878-8060.

13
Day Six

• Irrigate with a minimal amount of water to keep

the surface sealed and free of cracks.

Day Seven

• Irrigate with a minimal amount of water to keep

the surface sealed and free of cracks.

No additional water is needed after day seven.

To release any remaining gases, break the

soil crust and aerate before planting. Please

refer to product label for complete directions.

CONCLUSION

In order for fumigants to be successful, soil

moisture is needed to activate the soil borne pests.

It is best to have the pests active before fumigation

takes place. In any planned fumigation program

consider the pest being controlled, then plan your

fumigation activities. Understand the pest and its

habits and adjust cultural practices to economically

control soil borne pests and organisms. Fumigation

timing will usually determine the success rate of

pests controlled. BASAMID®'s effectiveness as a

preplant soil fumigant, when used according label

directions and following the seven steps above, is

a proven alternative to the gas or liquid fumigants

currently used by nursery managers.

all BASAMID® granules are activated and

moved downward throughout the soil profile.

This liquid phase will contact the soil particles

throughout the incorporated profile.)

Day Four

• Irrigate with a minimum of 1/4" (0.25") of water

in two applications; one in the morning, one in

the afternoon.

Day Five

• Irrigate with a minimum of 1/8" (0.125) of water

to ensure that the surface area has not dried out

and no cracks appear in the treated area. (This

assures that no gases escape as they move up the

soil profile.)

14
Alternatives to Chemical FumigationTechnology

Development Project: Preliminary Results1

Diane M. Hildebrand2, Jeffrey K. Stone3, Robert L. James4, Susan J. Frankel5, Jill D. Pokorny6,

Joseph G. O'Brien6, and Michelle M. Cram7

Abstract—Preliminary results indicate that each nursery requires different soil management regimes to

help reduce the need for chemical fumigation. Several treatments contributed to production of seedlings

with densities and morphology similar to or better than with chemical fumigation. Beneficial cultural

practices included 1) Incorporation of slowly decomposing organic soil amendments, for example, aged

sawdust with additional nitrogen provided to seedlings; 2) Bare fallowing, with and without periodic tilling,

and with weed control; 3) Sowing of conifer seed early and shallow, and covering seed with a non-soil

mulch such as aged sawdust or hydromulch.

The project, "Alternatives to Chemical Fumigation", was funded by the USDA Forest Service, Forest

Pest Mangement, Technology Development Program, beginning in spring 1993. The overall objective is

to enhance the implementation of integrated pest management at forest tree nurseries, especially by

developing cropping and soil treatment regimes for production of high quality seedlings without chemical

fumigation. Thirteen Federal, State, and industrial nurseries from across the United States are

cooperating in the project.

CHEMICAL FUMIGATION

Many forest tree nurseries use chemical biocides for soil fumigation treatment prior to sowing.

Methyl bromide (67 percent) with chloropicrin (33

percent) is one of the most commonly used fumigants, and generally considered the best for achieving a uniform, vigorous crop of quality seedlings

and controlling soil-borne diseases and insects,

weeds, and nematodes. Dazomet (Basamid Granular) is also used, and its granular form is considered more safe to handle than gaseous methyl

bromide mixtures.

Because methyl bromide has a high potential to

deplete stratospheric ozone, production and importation in the United States will be prohibited after

January 1, 2001 (World Meteorological Organiza-

'Hildebrand, D.M.; Stone, U.K.; James, R.L.; Frankel, S.J.; Pokorny, J.D.; O'Brien5, J.G. and Cram, M.M. 1995. Alternatives to

Chemical FumigationTechnology Development Project: Preliminary Results. IN: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National

Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 15-22.

2

 Plant Pathologist, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR; Tel.: 503/326-6697; Fax: 503/326-7166.

3

 Assistant Professor, Oregon State Universtiy, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Corvallis, OR.

4

 Plant Pathologist, USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Coeur d'Alene, ID.

5Plant Pathologist, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region, San Francisco, CA.

6

 Plant Pathologists, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, St. Paul, MN.

7

 Plant Pathologist, USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, Asheville, NC.

15
tion 1995; EPA 1995). Since 1994, methyl bromide production in the United States has been

restricted to 1991 levels. Reliance on any chemical

biocide to maintain production is inherently risky

over the long term. Such chemicals are likely to

become restricted in use, due to human or environmental health hazards.

In addition to the health hazards of chemical

biocides, fumigation drastically disrupts the biology of the soil system, destroying beneficial and

detrimental organisms alike. The first microorganisms to recolonize the soil, through blowing dust or

on equipment, may be pathogenic ones. Populations of beneficial microorganisms, especially

those that limit the growth of pathogens, develop

slowly while the pathogen populations are allowed

freedom to increase rapidly. Fumigation tends to

result in the need for continued fumigation.

Although fumigation may conveniently take

care of a number of concerns simultaneously, there

are other ways to achieve similar results by dealing

with specific concerns at each nursery. Many

nurseries cite control of soil-borne diseases and

weeds as the main reasons for soil fumigation. A

wide variety of herbicides are available for effective weed control. In the technology development

project, "Alternatives to Chemical Fumigation" we

are concentrating on management of soil-borne

tree seedling diseases.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES

The overall objective of the project is to enhance implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) of soil-borne diseases at forest tree

nurseries. The three facets of the project include:

1. Develop and evaluate cropping and soil treatment regimes for production of high quality

seedlings without chemical fumigation;

2. Develop and evaluate combinations of

biocontrol agents and application methods for

suppression of soil-borne diseases of seedlings;

3. Develop accurate sampling and disease-forecasting techniques for soil-borne Fusarium.

COOPERATING NURSERIES

This paper presents some of the preliminary

results from the first facet of the project—the

seedbed treatments at cooperating nurseries.

Cooperators include thirteen Federal, State, and

Industrial nurseries as follows:

In the Northeast Area, USDA Forest Service

(USFS) J. W. Tourney Nursery in Watersmeet,

Michigan; and Wisconsin State Griffith Nursery

in Wisconsin Rapids.

In the Southern Region, Florida State Andrews

Nursery in Chiefland; International Paper

Company Supertree Nursery in Blenheim,

South Carolina; and USFS W. W. Ashe Nursery

in Brooklyn, Mississippi.

In the Northern Region, USFS Coeur d'Alene

Nursery in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho.

In the Intermountain Region, USFS Lucky Peak

Nursery near Boise, Idaho.

In the Pacific Southwest Region, California

State Magalia Nursery in Magalia; USFS

Humboldt Nursery near Eureka, California; and

USFS Placerville Nursery near Placerville,

California.

In the Pacific Northwest Region, USFS Bend

Pine Nursery in Bend, Oregon; USFS J.

Herbert Stone Nursery in Central Point, Oregon; and USFS Wind River Nursery near

Carson, Washington.

16
SOIL-BORNE DISEASE

The disease cycle revolves around interactions

between the host, pathogen, and environmental

conditions. Host susceptibility can depend on host

physiology, anatomy, and the growing environment. Infection depends on the susceptibility of the

host, the population level of pathogen (inoculum)

present, and the vigor and virulence of the pathogen. Even after the pathogen infects host tissue, the

expression of disease may be delayed if environmental conditions favor the host over the pathogen.

Environmental conditions affect susceptibility of

the host to infection, disease expression, and vigor

of the pathogen.

Disease can be avoided in two ways: by preventing infection, or by preventing disease expression, that is, by manipulating the seedling environment to favor the host and suppress the pathogen.

Delay in the expression of disease symptoms

occurs, for example, with Fusarium root rot.

Infection takes place quite early, soon after seed

germination. For seedlings that do not succumb

early to damping-off, the root rot disease is expressed later, usually by mid summer, when

temperatures and moisture stress begin to favor the

pathogen over the host.

The best control for disease is to prevent infection; this can be done by reducing pathogen populations, or by providing physical or temporal

barriers to infection. Chemical fumigation reduces

pathogen populations by killing the organisms.

Without a chemical biocide, pathogen populations

can be reduced by removing the available food

base and encouraging competitive saprophytes.

"Green manures" from cover crops incorporated

into soil tend to stimulate increases in populations

of pathogenic soil fungi (Stone and Hansen, 1994).

Many pathogenic fungi can function as

saprophytes, and their populations increase due to

the greatly increased food base.

TREATMENTS FOR PREVENTING INFECTION

Strategy 1: Reduce Pathogen Populations

Treatments that reduce pathogen populations

include bare fallowing, with or without tilling, and

incorporation of slowly decomposing organic soil

amendments. A season of bare fallow depletes the

food base for pathogens, and periodic tilling

continually brings pathogen propagules to the soil

surface where they are exposed to dessication and

lethal temperatures. Weeds provide a food base for

pathogens and shade the soil surface, and thus

diminish the beneficial effects of bare fallowing.

Slowly decomposing organic soil amendments,

such as aged sawdust or compost, favor the growth

of competitive soil saprophytes to the detriment of

soil pathogens. Amendments with high carbon to

nitrogen ratios are difficult for pathogens to utilize

as a food base. Other soil saprophytes are able to

thrive and can out-compete pathogens. The low

nitrogen levels will eventually stunt tree seedlings,

and they require additional nitrogen. Delay in

nitrogen application until well after seedling

germination may further limit the growth of soil

pathogens.

Strategy 2: Barriers to Infection

Treatments that provide barriers to infection

include early sowing, and shallow sowing with

mulching. The barriers act to separate the germinating seedling—the most susceptible host condition—from the pathogens in the soil. Early sowing

provides a temporal barrier by allowing conifer

seed to germinate, and the radicle to become

suberized, before the time when soil temperatures

reach optimum for pathogens.

Covering the seed with mulch, rather than soil,

provides a spacial barrier that partially separates

the germinating seedling from the pathogen in the

soil. A slowly decomposing mulch, like sawdust,

may also provide a biological barrier, where

competitive saprophytes displace pathogens.

17
PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Western Nurseries

Summary tables for western nurseries provide

data from the first growing season for conifer bare

root stock grown under various treatments. Presow soil treatments included cover cropping,

fallowing, fumigation, and incorporation of soil

amendments. Mulch treatments covered seed after

sowing. Seedling density and morphology data are

means of measurements, taken in October 1994,

from five replicates per treatment. Significant

differences (P>0.05) between treatments were

determined by analysis of variance; and are indicated by different letters following data. Where

significant differences occur in seedling density,

seedling morphology data may not be useful,

because low densities often result in large seedlings. Seedling height was measured in the beds,

while root volume and shoot length were measured

in the laboratory. The Key provides explanations

and definitions for recurring abbreviations used in

the summary tables.

Key to Terms Used in Summary Tables

Treatment Explanation

MBC Fumigation with 67 percent methyl bromide

and 33 percent chloropicrin at 350 Ib/ac.

Dazomet Fumigation with Basamid Granular at 350 Ib/ac.

BFT Bare fallowing with periodic tilling.

BF Bare fallowing without tilling.

S+N Soil amended by incorporation of aged

sawdust and some form of nitrate fertilizer.

Data Explanation

Density Seedlings per square foot.

Mortality Percent of seedlings with diseased-caused

mortality.

Fusarium Propagules of Fusarium spp. per gram of soil,

assayed at time of sowing.

Weeds Weed plants per square foot, counted within

a few weeks after sowing.

18

Bend Pine Nursery, 1-0 Ponderosa Pine

Treatment

Pea cover crop, MBC

BFT, S+N

BF, S+N

Peas, no fumigation

Density

21. 4 a

22. 3 a

22.4 a

7.3 b

Mortality

0.06 a

0.11 a

0.09 a

0.39 b

Fusarium

170 a

618a

948 a

3711 b

At Bend Pine Nursery, the conventional pea

cover crop without fumigation resulted in significantly greater disease-caused mortality, and lower

seedling density. The bare fallowing treatments

included sawdust plus nitrogen incorporated at the

beginning of the bare fallowing. Bare fallowing

treatments, with or without periodic tilling, were

comparable to methyl bromide fumigation, resulting in similar seedling densities and low mortality.

At J. Herbert Stone Nursery, all treatments

included bare fallow with tilling at three week

intervals, except one without tilling. Sawdust plus

nitrogen was incorporated as a soil amendment at

the beginning of the bare fallow. In the "S delayed

N" treatment, extra nitrogen was provided only

after seedling germination.

Douglas-fir density after dazomet fumigation was

not different from that after the bare fallow with

tilling treatments. Weed density was high in the plots

without tilling, with effects similar to a cover crop—

Fusarium populations increased and seedling density

decreased. Sawdust soil amendment with delayed

application of N may tend to suppress both weed and

pathogen development.

J. Herbert Stone Nursery, 1-0 Douglas-fir

Treatment

BFT, S+N, dazomet

BFT, S+N

BF, S+N

BFT, No S

BFT, S, delayed N

Density

19. Sab

16.9 ab

14. 9 a

19.1 ab

23.8 b

Mortality

0.099 ns

0.131 ns

0.157ns

0.117ns

0.098 ns

Fusarium

135 a

21 94 a

3469 b

1106a

808 a

Weeds

3.3 a

10.9 a

89. 5 b

4. 9 a

1.3 a
J. Herbert Stone Nursery, 1-0 Ponderosa Pine

Treatment

BFT, S+N, dazomet

BFT, S+N

BF, S+N

BFT, No S

BFT, S, delayed N

Density

19.9 a

21 .4 a

16.7 a

20.9 a

23.2 a

Caliper. mm

4.8 b

4.6 a

3.7 a

4.7 b

4.3 a

Shoot

length, cm

12.0 b

11. 8 a

8.4 a

12.0 b

10.1 a

For ponderosa pine, all treatments resulted in

similar densities. Seedling morphology was similar

between the no sawdust amendment treatment and

the dazomet treatment.

Coeur d'Alene Nursery, 1-0 Douglas-fir

Treatment

BFT, Dazomet

BFT, Bark

BFT

BFT, Pine Mulch

BFT, Sludge

Density

30.0 a

27. 3 a

27.0 a

30.9 a

26.4 a

Root

volume, cc

0.6 b

0.3 a

0.3 a

0.6 b

0.5 b

Shoot

lenath. cm

4.5 b

3.5 a

4.5 b

5.6 c

5.8 c

At Coeur d' Alene Nursery, all treatments

included bare fallow with tilling. Soil amendments

incorporated before bare fallowing included

composted bark chips (Bark) and sewage sludge

(Sludge). The "Pine Mulch" treatment was a layer

of old pine needles covering the seed. Douglas-fir

density was similar after all treatments. As measured by root volume and shoot length, seedlings

were smallest after the composted bark chips

amendment and the bare fallow with tilling alone.

Shoot length was greatest after the pine mulch and

sludge amendment treatments.

Lucky Peak Nursery, 1-0 Ponderosa Pine

Treatment

BFT

BF

BF, Compost

BF, S+N

BF, MBC

Density

23.3 a

15.3 a

15. 7 a

20.1 a

19. 3 a

Root

Volume, cc

3.1 b

3.0 b

2.0 a

2.3 a

2.2 a

Shoot

Length, cm

11.0 b

10.7 b

8.1 a

11.1 b

8.1 a

At Lucky Peak Nursery, all treatments included

bare fallowing without tilling except for one with

tilling. Soil amendments included composted

mushroom medium (Compost) and commercial

sawdust with nitrogen. No significant differences

in ponderosa pine seedling density were found

after the first growing season.

Ponderosa pine seedling shoot length was

significantly greater in the bare fallow with and

without tilling, and with sawdust amendment, than

in the compost and fumigation treatments. Root

volume was significantly greater in the bare fallow

with and without tilling, than in the soil amendments and fumigation treatments.

Lucky Peak Nursery, 1-0 Lodgepole Pine

Treatment

BFT

BF

BF, Compost

BF, S+N

BF, MBC

Density

17.0 a

20.4 b

13.9 a

16.5 a

20.1 b

Mortality

0.18 ab

0.16 ab

0.30 b

0.21 ab

0.11 a

Root

Volume, cc

2.1 a

2.0 ab

1.3 b

1.5 b

2.2 a

Shoot

Length, cm

6.8 b

6.7 b

4.6 a

6.4 b

8.1 C

For lodgepole pine at Lucky Peak Nursery, bare

fallow alone resulted in similar seedling density to

bare fallow followed by MBC. Root volume was

greater without soil amendments, while shoot

length was greater with MBC.

19
Placerville Nursery, 1-0 Shasta Red Fir

Treatment

BFT, ST, Soil, Late

BFT, ST, Hydro, Early

BFT, S, Hydro, Early

BFT, S, S, Early

BFT, Pine, Hydro, Early

BFT, Hydro, Hydro, Early

BFT, Bare, Hydro, Early

Density

18. 5 a

29.9 b

26.7 b

27.8 b

26.4 b

25.9 b

24.1 b

Mortality

0.41 a

0.07 b

0.13 b

0.16 b

0.10 b

0.11 b

0.12 b

At Placerville Nursery, all treatments began

with bare fallow with tilling, then an overwinter

soil covering of rice straw (ST), sawdust (S), pine

needles (Pine), hydromulch (Hydro), or nothing

(Bare). Shasta red fir seed was sown in March

(Early) or mid April (Late), and covered with soil,

hydromulch, or sawdust. The conventional late

sowing with soil covering the seed resulted in

significantly lower seedling density, and greater

mortality caused by disease. Seedling root volume,

caliper, and height were not significantly different.

Humboldt Nursery, 1-0 Shasta Red Fir

Treatment Density

BF 19.3 a

BFT, Compost 19.6 a

BFT, Hydromulch 21. 6 a

BFT, MBC 20.1 a

BFT, Dazomet 20.1 a

Root

Volume, cc

0.47 ns

0.58 ns

0.44 ns

0.45 ns

0.43 ns

Shoot

Length, cm

3.71 ns

4.73 ns

4.25 ns

3.87 ns

4.20 ns

At Humboldt Nursery, all treatments began with

bare fallow with tilling, except for one without

tilling. Mulches after sowing include composted

redwood chips (Compost) or hydromulch. Shasta

red fir seedling density and morphology (root

volume, shoot length) were not significantly

different after all treatments.

Southern Nurseries

At Andrews Nursery, Chiefland, Florida, measurements were taken at the time of lifting 1 -0

slash pine from four replications per treatment in

January 1994. This information was reported in

more detail at the Southern/Northeastern Forest

Nurserymen's Conference, Williamsburg, VA,

July 1994, by M. E. Kannwischer-Mitchell, E. L.

Barnard, D. J. Mitchell, and S. W. Fraedrich.

Soil amendments included pinebark or

composted woody yard waste (Compost), applied

as a layer, 2.5 cm (1x) or 5.0 cm (2x) thick, then

incorporated into the soil. No treatments was

applied in the check plots. Slash pine height and

density were significantly different between the

MBC and check, and intermediate in the soil

amendment treatments. There were no differences

in caliper.

Andrews Nursery, 1-0 Slash Pine

Treatment

Check

Pinebark 1x

Pinebark 2x

Compost 1x

Compost 2x

MBC

Density

16a

18 ab

18 ab

18 ab

18 ab

20 b

Caliper. mm

4.6 a

4.5 a

4.4 a

4.7 a

4.6 a

4.9 a

Height, cm

19. 5 a

21. 8 ab

22.5 ab

23.6 ab

21.1 ab

25.2 b

20
Northeastern Nurseries

At Tourney Nursery, Michigan, the standard

practice for red pine is an oak seedling crop or

winter rye cover crop, followed by an oat cover

crop, then MBC fumigation and sowing. Treatments compared MBC with dazomet and no

fumigation (Check).

Tourney Nursery, 1-0 and 2-0 Red Pine

Treatment

Check

Dazomet

MBC

1-0 Density

26.9

25.5

26.9

2-0 Density

26.5

24.6

25.5

2-0 Caliper. mm

2.7

2.5

3.2

Between the 1 -0 and 2-0 years, there was little

loss in seedling density. Seedling density was not

significantly different between the unfumigated

check, dazomet, and MBC. Height was more

uniform in the MBC and check treatments than in

the dazomet treatment.

After 2 growing seasons, seedling caliper was

significantly greater in the MBC treatment, and

met shipping specifications (3.0 mm). In the check

and dazomet treatments caliper did not meet

specifications. At the same time, none of the

treatments resulted in sufficient height to meet

specifications, and the seedlings were carried to 3-

0. This is a fairly common occurrence in cold,

upper Michigan soils. In some years red pine

seedlings reach shipping specifications in the

second year.

At Griffith State Nursery in Wisconsin, bare

fallowing for four months resulted in lower seedling densities than fumigation with MBC or

dazomet.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

Preliminary results with the conifer species

tested indicate that at many nurseries, modification

of cultural practices can greatly reduce the need for

chemical fumigation. At some nurseries current

practices are sufficient and fumigation is not

needed. Additional measurements—including

numbers of shippable seedlings, results of repeated

treatments, and testing of biocontrol agents— will

be reported in future publications.

Cultural practices that can help reduce the need

for chemical fumigation include:

• Incorporation of slowly decomposing organic

soil amendments, such as aged sawdust with

additional nitrogen provided to seedlings.

• Bare fallowing, with and without periodic tilling,

maintained free of weeds.

• Sowing conifer seed early and shallow, covered

with a non-soil mulch such as aged sawdust or

hydromulch.

Without chemical fumigation, practices that

alleviate one problem may aggravate another, for

example, bare fallowing may increase wind erosion. Other soil coverings that stabilize the soil

surface and wind abatement strategies are available. The solutions to growing quality seedlings

without chemical fumigation will be found in each

situation as the resourceful culturist recognizes the

benefits of freedom from reliance on broad spectrum biocides.

21
REFERENCES

EPA. 1995. Questions and Answers on methyl bromide. US

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and

Radiation, Stratospheric Protection Division, Washington, D.C.; Newsletter, April 1995, 2 pp.

Stone, J. K., and E. M. Hansen. 1994. Green manure effects

on soilborne pathogens. Pages 57-64, IN Landis, T. D.,

technical coordinator, Proceedings: Northeastern and

Intermountain Forest and Conservation Nursery Association Meeting, St. Louis, Missouri, Aug. 2-5, 1993. USDA

Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-243,

March 1994.

World Meteorological Organization. 1995. Scientific

assessment of ozone depletion: 1994, Executive Summary. World Meteorological Organization, Global Ozone

Observing System, Geneva, Switzerland; Global Ozone

Research and Monitoring Project Report No. 37, February 1995, 36pp.

22
Basic Marketing Concepts for Forest and Conservation

Nurseries1

B. J. Hill2

Abstract—Basic marketing concepts can be useful for forest and conservation nurseries especially as they

transition into self-sustaining financial situations. These basic marketing concepts include marketing orientation,

marketing plan development, market research, target marketing, SWOT analysis, marketing mix, promotional

mix, and advertising mix. These concepts are explained and applied to forest and conservation nurseries.

Basic marketing principles can be applied to

nearly any for-profit or not-for-profit enterprise to

increase customer satisfaction and to enhance

business, or organizational, success. Sometimes, a

simple outline of those basic marketing concepts is

all that is needed to remind us to turn needed

attention towards the customer or client. This

paper seeks to provide an outline of basic marketing principles.

More than anything else, marketing is an

attitude and orientation towards your customers. A hundred years ago, industrialized companies produced goods, like Model T's, that were

purchased without a lot of hoopla. A scarcity of

goods in which people bought whatever was

available characterized an industrial orientation. In

the past, nurseries with a fixed customer base may

have been able to produce any type of seedlings

the nursery desired. Fifty years ago, companies

utilized dynamic salesmen to unload products, like

the Edsel, regardless of their value. This approach

characterizes a sales orientation. Today, businesses adjust their product, price, or pattern of

distribution to meet the needs of their customers.

Businesses that characteristically put their customers first follow a marketing orientation.

Adjusting a nursery's product, price, or distribution to better meet customer needs and wants is the

foundation of marketing. Likewise, finding customers whose needs and wants match the products

and services offered by our nurseries is an important part of marketing, but not the only part. For

example, a nursery that offers a new species of

seedling at the request of customers, or sets the

price of seed production based on species after

customer complaints, or decides to deliver over a

broader range of territory is involved in marketing

just as much as the nursery that spends money for

newspaper or magazine advertising.

Traditionally, a marketing mix includes these

four P's of product, price, place (distribution), and

promotion. Those involved in service industries

have realized that the additional P's of people,

packaging, programming, and partnership are also

important to customer satisfaction.

1Hill, B.J. 1995. Basic Marketing Concepts for Forest and Conservation Nurseries. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords.

National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 23-26.

2

Tourism Program University of Nebraska at Kearney West Center, C208 Kearney, NE 68849.

23
Deciding what you want to do to meet a

customer's needs and wants for the coming months

or year is called a marketing plan. The various

stages of a marketing plan are the building blocks

to marketing success. Knowing what to do comes

from information you gather from your customers.

Gathering and considering that information is

market research. Understanding just who your

current customers are and who your potential

customers may be is identifying target markets.

Meeting the needs and wants of different customer

groups is target marketing.

A marketing plan is based on a formal "vision"

of your nursery. The plan also utilizes an analysis

of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats,

called SWOT analysis. Then, broad goals and

strategies of adjustment to the marketing mix, or

eight Ps, are developed. Next, an action plan is

prepared that details how the goals will be met by

describing the who, what, when and how much.

The plan spells out the target market, the marketing activity, who is responsible, the time frame for

the activity, and the money to be spent for each

action. After implementation, an evaluation of

each activity suggests whether the actions ought to

continue, be adjusted, or be discontinued. Marketing planning is a continuous cycle of analyzing,

strategizing, planning, implementing, evaluating,

and analyzing again. Again, the steps of the

marketing plan are:

1. Creating a guiding vision of your nursery.

For some nurseries a guiding vision is mandated by legislative, executive, or bureaucratic action. Still, nursery managers and

employees have entered the field with an

individual commitment to some ideal of

forestry management. To gain support, build

morale, and provide direction, a compelling

statement of mission and ideals should be

prepared. The vision materializes as questions about the reasons, objectives, themes,

strategies, and profits of the nursery are

answered. Then, the vision statement can be

written to crystallize the process in positive

affirmations that will provide direction and

build confidence.

2. Analyzing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

A careful examination of the external environments that a nursery finds itself in, as well as

customer-based market research, leads to a

better understanding of how the nursery can

meet its guiding vision. The environment, or

situation, a nursery finds itself in includes: the

general economy, available technologies,

societal shifts, political and legal changes and

regulations, available resources, and competition. A close look at these environments, and

the nursery's strengths and weaknesses within

these environments can give a good idea of

opportunities and challenges.

Market research adds information about

customers and their levels of satisfaction.

Market research can be as simple as visiting

with customers in the field or on the phone or

as complex as a carefully designed mail

survey. Market research should help to

identify who the target markets are, and how

their needs and wants change.

3. Developing objectives and strategies.

Objectives are clear and measurable statements of business intentions for a specific

period of time. They can be focused on

particular strategies and the effects of those

strategies on growth and profitability.

Major strategies should focus on each of the

components of the marketing mix (the 8 Ps)

that will be utilized to meet objectives and

realize the guiding vision for the nursery. A

description of each component within the

marketing mix that might be utilized as a

marketing strategy are detailed below.

24
Product. For forest and conservation nurseries the common products are seeds and

seedlings. Other services, such as seed

processing, may also be a part of the product

mix. Adjusting the product mix is the first

strategy that should be considered in any

marketing plan.

Price. This includes not only the actual price

for each seedling, seed, or service, but also

the minimum order taken, discounts for bulk

purchases, and unique pricing strategies for

the variety of services or species that might be

made available. Customer perception of

value is an ongoing issue in marketing efforts.

Distribution (Place). The distribution channels used to deliver the products and services

provided by nurseries may also be adjusted to

better meet customer wants and needs. Sales

to wholesalers, retailers, cooperatives, or

directly to customers, freight by air, truck, or

delivery, and use of sales representatives are

all decisions that relate to distribution and are

a part of the marketing mix.

Promotion. The promotional mix can include advertising, personal selling, sales

promotion, merchandising, public relations,

and publicity.

Advertising efforts are common and require

careful consideration. No amount of advertising can alter a poor reputation. Only product

and service changes can completely overcome

a negative image. It is so easy to spend large

amounts of money on advertising that any

advertising expenditures should be approached with special caution. Some possible

advertising media include newspaper, magazine, radio, television, outdoor (billboards),

and direct mail. Cooperative advertising

between nurseries is certainly an option

utilized by other industries and enterprises

with limited marketing budgets. Though

advertising is a tempting place to spend

marketing efforts, other promotion strategies

are likely to yield substantial rewards.

Souvenir T-shirts and mugs with logo or

slogan are examples of merchandising.

Point-of-purchase displays, point-of-purchase

demonstrations, premiums, contests, sweepstakes, games, and coupons are examples of

sales promotions. Though these would not

be commonly used by nurseries, they

shouldn't be dismissed out of hand either.

Personal selling with direct contacts is

certainly appropriate for bulk customers and

partner agencies.

Grand opening events, new conferences,

announcements or feature stories in papers or

magazines, and media interviews can all play

a role in nursery marketing as publicity and

public relations promotions.

People. The employees of any enterprise or

organization are an often overlooked marketing resource. Service industries are especially

dependent on the ability of employees to

serve and satisfy customers. Internal marketing are those efforts that help employees

feel good about their work and the mission of

their institution.

Packaging and Programming. These

marketing strategies involve packaging and

putting together various products and services

in a format that meets customer needs and

developing special events or activities that

appeal to customers. Imagination and unique

perspectives are the most important talents

needed to utilize these strategies.

Partnerships. Forest and conservation

nurseries have long held partnerships with

various National Forests. Those nurseries

may not have looked upon those as important

marketing strategies, but they certainly are.

25
The formation of similar partnerships will

continue to be an important source for increasing nursery clientele.

4. Preparing a detailed action plan.

An action plan describes the scheduling,

resource needs and individual responsibility

for each marketing strategy. The best action

plans provide the greatest specific detail.

5. Implementing your plan.

Certainly the most important part of any

marketing plan is its implementation. Without someone to carry out the marketing

strategies, planning is a process of futility.

6. Evaluating your actions and strategies.

No marketing plan will ever be all it can be

until each marketing strategy is critically

examined for its effectiveness. Periodic

evaluations then lead to changes and adjustments in future strategy implementation.

Marketing can be rigorous and formal or simple

and casual. If an orientation towards customers is

in place, anything a nursery might do to better

meet the wants and needs of customers or to find

those customer's who desire their products and

services is marketing. A marketing plan can be a

sketch of these efforts or a detailed report, but the

most important activity is asking, "What can I do

to adjust my product, price, place, promotion,

people, packaging, programming, or partnerships

to better meet customer wants and needs?"

26
Adventures In Marketing: California Department of Forestry

and Fire Protection's Nursery Program1

Laurie Lippitt2

Abstract — This paper discusses initial marketing efforts for a nursery program that includes a seed processing

and seedling production facility. Ideas are presented on positioning products and services, factors involved in

pricing, some specific marketing activities, and forms/procedures that had to be developed in response to budget

constraints. While efforts to increase revenue were relatively successful, it remains to be seen if efforts were

soon enough and large enough for political viability of the nursery program under increasing budget pressures.

Reorganization; it's the way of the 90's. If it

hasn't already arrived, it's coming soon to an

agency near you. Simply put, it means "Do lots

more, with lots less, now!" Our agency is no

exception. In 1993 we were told that the Nursery

Program would have two fiscal years to become

self- sufficient and half of the first year was already

over. So, with no funds and even less time, but lots of

determination, a marketing effort was started.

SEED OPERATION

Initial efforts focused on the Seed Operation. In

the past, we hadn't been allowed to offer seed

services or charge for them, but the private sector

had wanted our services in this area and there were

no large scale private processors in the state that

we'd be in competition with. Since the majority of

our experience and expertise was with conifers, that

was the starting point. The first decisions were

1) what services to offer and 2) what to charge for

them.

For conifer processing, we felt our strength was

the ability to do comprehensive processing — a

high quality, full-service option. This would also

position us differently than the less comprehensive

options available through private processors in

adjoining states. We'd be giving the customers the

same high quality treatment we were providing for

our own seed lots and wouldn't have to think about

what steps to leave out for a lower level of processing. Our comprehensive processing includes use of

special collection sacks we've developed, assistance with determination of maturity and collection

dates, an initial assessment of the cones at arrival, full

processing, X-ray of the seedlot prior to upgrade and

after the final upgrade plus testing for purity, seed/lb,

moisture content and germination rate.

It was more difficult to decide on prices to

charge. Price would depend on the species, the lot

size, what steps were done and how long they'd

take, who the steps were done by and what hourly

rate applied, and provision for overhead. Even

1

Lippitt, L. 1995. Adventures In Marketing: California Department of Forestry & Fire Protection's Nursery Program. In: Landis,

T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNWGTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 27-35.

2

L.A. Moran Reforestation Center, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, PO Box 1590, Davis, CA 95617;

Tel.: 916/753-2441.

27
within these factors, there were more decisions to

make. For example, under lot size, we felt that

there would be economies of scale between very

small lots, medium sized and large operational lots.

But, these lot sizes needed to be more specifically

defined. Once the lot size ranges were defined, the

small lots were priced on a per lot basis while the

operational lots were priced on a per bushel basis.

Other things to be determined were; what hourly

wage rate to assign to the inmate labor and what

overhead rate to use. Even things we were familiar

with, such as what processing steps would be

involved for a given species required additional

thought. There had never been a need to keep

records on how long any given step took and we

rarely did all the steps in uninterrupted sequence

on any one seedlot. There wasn't time to collect

data, so we simply did our best to make reasonable

estimates with the idea that revisions might need to

be made at a later time. A Processing & Testing

Price Proposal Form was developed to work up the

price estimates (Appendix 1) and the results were

put on a handout describing our services and prices

that could be mailed to prospective customers

(Appendix 2). This process of deciding on a

service or product, how to offer and price it,

followed by development of a handout was repeated for a variety of other services.

Additional services and products we could offer

in the seed arena included:

Upgrade of Previously Processed Seed Lots

We felt that we could improve the purity and

germination rate on lots that had not received a full

upgrade initially, especially for true fir and redwood. We chose to offer two options: 1) maximize

filled seed percentage (leave in every seed that is

filled, even those that appear questionable and 2)

maximize potential vigor and germination by

removing some seeds that appear questionable,

even though they are filled. Prices were set on a

per pound basis, depending on lot size.

Seed Analysis & Testing

To avoid direct competition with officially

certified seed testing laboratories, we decided to

remain uncertified. But this would allow us to offer

services at a lower cost. Services we offer are

purity, seed per pound, X-ray analysis, cut test,

germination test, and determination of an appropriate seed pretreatment to break dormancy. We

decided to focus on X-ray analysis which is not

commonly available and provides several useful

opportunities. We could make the image only and

let the customer save on cost by doing their own

analysis. The X-ray analysis is well suited to a

rapid determination of filled seed percentage where

no other testing or analysis is planned, such as

many restoration projects where direct seedling is

planned. The non-destructive aspect of X-ray

makes it suitable for assessing small amounts of

rare seed such as threatened and endangered

species. A Rush Service is offered for X-ray

analysis and cut tests where customers might want

an immediate response in order to make a collection or seeding decision.

Since testing prices didn't depend on species,

the handout developed for these services could be

used on a wide array of both conifer and nonconifer species.

Seed Storage

Storage could be provided in the State Seed

Bank. This service was not available within the

state and most private seed was being sent out of

state for storage. We decided to offer two storage

options; 1) storage by the box for those with

numerous small lots and 2) storage by the pound

for those with larger quantities. A discount would

be offered for those storing very large quantities.

There would also need to be charges for entry into

the system (receive, weigh, re-package, records),

withdrawals and shipping.

28
Cones

In the past, we'd paid to dispose of cones or

given them away. There was market for them, so

we needed only to determine our process and price.

We settled on charging a set price for a convenient

volume of cones rather than using a bid process.

We wanted to keep our handling and costs to a

minimum, so we required vendors to come and

take the cones away rather than shipping them.

There was such an overwhelming response that we

might consider a bid system in the future to maximize our revenues from this source.

Seed

We'd been able to sell seed before, but on a

very limited basis. The purchaser had to certify

that the seed, by specific source, was not available

from a private vendor and we had to make a

determination that it was excess to our State Seed

Bank needs. Previous sales had been at the average

commercial price. Now, we charge what we estimate our cost to be plus an overhead. Many of our

site-specific seed lots are unavailable commercially. This, coupled with a frequently higher

purity and germination rate make our seed a more

specialized product that should sell for a higher

price. Though we can now sell seed more freely,

we still need to keep an adequate supply in the

State Seed Bank.

Blister Rust-Resistant (BRR) Sugar Pine Seed

Services

We'd been offering these services free of charge

to fellow members in our tree improvement cooperatives. Now, a charge has been instituted. Candidate seedlot processing consists of processing a 2-4

cone lot and doing rush processing to get 150 filled

seed (X-ray determination) in time to meet the

USFS stratification process for the start of their

resistance screening process plus upgrading the

rest of the seed. We also process known BRR

cones under our regular processing schedule. In

our own BRR work, we'd found it necessary to

pre-bag cones on some known resistant trees to

exclude insects and maximize our BRR seed yield.

We now sell these pre-bagging "kits" as well.

Tree Improvement Lots

We'd been doing some processing and testing of

tree improvement lots for several companies under

a cooperative agreement that allowed us to trade

our services for supplies. Now, we can offer those

services routinely. We also did a proposal and

were awarded the processing and testing work for

seed from a seed orchard where we are one of the

members of the tree improvement cooperative. It

works well for everyone- we can choose to gather

extra information that will be valuable, at no cost,

and the cooperators like the idea that we have a

vested interest in having the highest yield and

quality possible because we get a share of the seed.

Training

This is another service we'd been offering free

that we needed to institute a charge for. However,

after more than 10 years of offering cone and seed

training, most of the conifer folks had been trained.

Instead, the target market for seed workshops

appeared to be restorationists. Workshops and

training have been given for Society for Ecological

Restoration and several agencies. Two private

companies have purchased customer training

sessions for their staff. This is an area with potential for future development.

Processing of Hardwood, Shrub and Other

Native Species

With conifer crops so periodic in nature, we

knew they couldn't be relied on to produce a

steady income flow. We'd processed a number of

hardwood and shrub species for use in our nursery

production and felt we could process a wide array

of native species. While many restoration projects

involve direct seeding, there would still be a

market for processing services. Still, there was a

much wider range of species, lot sizes, levels of

debris and differences in structure involved when

compared with conifers. An entirely new pricing

scheme was necessary. The system we chose is

based on 1) level of debris (low, moderate &

excessive), 2) lot size (small, medium, large), and

3) level of processing (basic & comprehensive).

Again, we had to estimate the time that would be

29
involved based on trials with a limited number of

species. We probably will have to revise these

prices as we get more experience. Several seedlots

we've processed were surprisingly time consuming. We have also successfully processed species

we were completely unfamiliar with. However, in

those cases, we like to see the seedlot first before

agreeing to process.

Vegetable, Crop & Flower Seed Processing

In an effort to broaden our customer base

beyond the traditional conifer market, we turned to

a non-traditional market. Our equipment works

equally well for seed of most species and we

needed to keep busy in the off season for conifers

rather than adding additional work at a time when

we already have staffing limitations. The vegetable, crop and flower seed markets seemed an

ideal extension of our current work. When we first

proposed this, it met with resistance since it was

"non-traditional" and non-mandated. But our

compelling need to generate revenue was persuasive. The niche we focused on for this market was

upgrade of previously processed seed and X-ray

services. There is already a lot of commercial

processing capacity for this sector, but they focus

more on quantity and speed. We aren't set up to

handle bulk processing on large volumes but there

was room to offer an improvement in germination

and/or vigor on volumes that we could handle. The

service is offered on a price per pound basis with a

volume discount for a large volume of business

during the course of a year. This effort has been

very successful, but is due almost entirely to the

specialized equipment that Rich Felden, our head of

processing, has designed and to his connections in the

vegetable and flower seed industries.

Processing Consultation

A number of firms wanted to see what equipment we had, get processing recommendations,

obtain advice on equipment and have a sample of

their seed upgraded and X-rayed. We charge by the

hour for consultation services and an advance

appointment is required. Everyone that has paid for

a consultation has ended up bringing us additional

processing and testing business, so this option has

worked well.

Seed Packets and Seed Zone Maps

There have always been frequent requests for

small quantities of coast redwood seed or giant

sequoia seed. We now offer a seed packet with 100

seed plus instructions on seed treatment and

seedling growing. A handout on growing coast and

sierra redwoods outside their native range is also

included. We've made sure the packaging is

attractive, in contrast to the basic packaging used

on our usual seed sales where larger quantities are

involved. We are able to charge a high price for

this relatively labor-intensive but popular product.

The next step is to market these packets to nature

stores, garden catalogs and other suitable outlets.

We also sell the California Tree Seed Zone Maps,

which used to be provided free.

We were surprised with the number of products

and services that we came up with just in the Seed

Operation. Other details we had to address beyond

products, prices and handouts included a way to

specify what was to be done for each project we

accepted. A basic Project Form was a starting point

and now we have a Seed Services Order Form

(Appendix 3). We also needed a way to invoice

and bill for services. For products like seed, we

require advance payment while for services, we

invoice upon completion of the work. We developed an invoice form, a seed order form and a

system to track projects and revenues. It is important to attend to these details since bureaucratic

interest is always high when revenue and receipts

are concerned. We were audited this season and

expect frequent audits in the future. While we feel

fairly comfortable with all the prices and procedures we've instituted so far, it is still amazing the

number of times a customer will request a quote on

a custom service that we haven't determined a

price for yet. We also realize we need a more

detailed look a questions of liability and know we

need to add additional verbage on all our handouts

to cover this area.

30
Revenue from the Seed Operation tripled from

the first year to the second. Entering our third

season, there is an almost non-existent cone crop,

so we're just hoping to keep revenue comparable

to last year. Trying to keep a 10 year supply of

numerous species, seed zone and elevation combinations in the State Seed Bank is a large undertaking that is inherently non- economic in nature. So,

it is not certain that the Seed Operation can (or

should) be fully self- sufficient. Simply continuing

to do this work in addition to all the revenuegenerating work, with the same staffing and the

same or lower budget level, is a big challenge. If

we can do all this while covering most of our costs,

we'll consider ourselves successful. It remains to

be seen if our agency and state government as a

whole will agree.

MARKETING SEEDLINGS

Here is a brief description of some of the considerations and activities we undertook to market

and increase revenues on the plant production side

(bareroot & container) of our Nursery Program.

We started with an assessment of our strengths

and constraints. Our legal mandate still precludes

us from selling seedlings strictly for landscape or

give-away and this limits many markets. In terms

of competition with the private sector, there is

already decent coverage for conifers and our

bareroot nursery is at capacity for the staff level

and land under production. This suggests that

conifers are not where an increase in our market

lies. There are some good private native plant

nurseries, so we needed to look at different species

or seed sources to avoid direct competition with

them. Looking at demand and the limitations of

our hot climate and saline water, we felt that we

could successfully produce seedlings for desert

restoration, mine reclamation, pipeline projects and

other harsh site environments. These areas are not

well-covered by the private sector. We might be

able to produce for coastal sage scrub and dune

environments if demand increases, though there is

reasonable coverage by the private sector for these

areas at current levels. There is considerable

demand for riparian species, but our water quality

precludes us from production of these species and

limits our ability to produce cuttings as well. One

area with good potential for future production is

production of "firesafe" species where native

species with erosion control, wildlife habitat and

firesafe values are needed.

Following a detailed "Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities & Threats" analysis, we had to

address the matter of pricing. For our standard

species, the Board of Forestry (BOF) still sets the

prices, though we are allowed to propose prices.

We proposed a price increase, but didn't want to

make it too drastic. Future increases will be proposed. We also changed the time of year the BOF

sets the prices, so that new prices would be in

effect in time to use them for contracts initiated

that year. For custom species and small lots, the

BOF recognized that conditions may vary and

standard prices would not be appropriate. Instead,

they requested that we propose a method for

determining such prices and they would review

and approve the method.

Again, there wasn't detailed information on

costs and staff time for production of particular

crops. We started with a Plant Production Price

Worksheet using factors such as species, container

type and size, potting mix type, quantity of plants

requested and cultural practices with different

levels of use that might apply to them. This process wasn't easily workable, so we went to a more

simplified method involving container cost, potting

mix cost, square footage charge (to cover cultural

practices), length of growing period, overhead,

small lot charge (if applicable) and shipping.

Again, it is amazing how many different combinations there are, so that even with our method in

place, we are frequently preparing quotes for

requests that we haven't handled previously. We

also will need to add on a charge for plants that

31
stay much longer than originally planned. With

bureaucratic uncertainty increasing on many

projects- plants were sometimes being held months

and even a year or longer than originally intended.

We've now developed a specific charge for this.

An analysis of our customers (mostly small,

private landowners) showed that they varied by

age, education, income, purpose of planting and

location. They would not lend themselves to a

targeted marketing approach. However, they are

very loyal, with most placing orders year after

year. This suggested a strategy directed towards

increasing the overall number of customers, rather

than doing targeted marketing to specific groups.

We just needed to get the word out to likely places.

Once customers heard about us and tried our

services, they might be likely to remain customers.

We also sought to increase the number of agencies

contracting with us for plants.

A few of the marketing efforts tried were:

1) Putting a small, counter top handout rack/

display in all of our California Department of

Forestry offices and in the offices of the Rural

Conservation Districts, Cooperative Extension

Offices and County Farm Advisors Offices. We

asked for permission to have the rack displayed

and asked if they would keep the rack so that we

could change the materials in it. Most agreed to

our request since our display was small and

didn't take up too much of their valuable counter

space. In addition to our regular Price Lists &

Order Forms, we've displayed notices of a

Spring Sale with Discount Coupons, a Firesafe

Promotional and other items. We'd like to do a

nice poster as a supplement for use in these

same locations, but didn't have the funds to

implement.

2) Advertising. We placed a small ad in California

Farmer for our windbreak species. We were

reluctant to advertise too widely for fear of

raising the specter of competition. Lack of funds

also limited advertising.

3) Write articles for newsletters. Advantages were

that this was free and got the information out

without being a direct or hard sell, like an ad.

Many of the projects for which we do seed work

and grow plants are quite interesting and the

articles also were a way to give recognition to

the entities that were doing the work.

4) Attend meetings and conferences. Give talks,

training or workshops, if possible. This gives

people a chance to interact with us and our

organization as a professional with information

to share. Without directly mentioning it, they

become aware of our expertise and services.

Most people want to know who they will be

working with on projects before entrusting their

valuable materials with them, so personal

contact is an important first step. Conferences

also provide an opportunity to hear about upcoming projects and to increase expertise.

Meetings and conferences can be expensive, but

there are sometimes funds available to cover

some costs. Otherwise, it can be looked at as

professional development with the added value

of the marketing aspect. Besides cost, time is a

limiting factor for increasing efforts in this area.

With staffing shortages prevalent everywhere, it

is increasingly difficult to get away.

While our marketing efforts didn't increase our

customer base as much as we'd like, we were still

able to cover most of our nursery costs the first

two seasons. In this third season, increased budget

pressures within the Department will make it

imperative that we generate even more revenue, so

it remains to be seen whether our efforts have been

soon enough and large enough. Many agencies

determined that they want our services and plants;

they just didn't have the funding approved to

proceed with projects that were planned.

We face an uphill battle, both economically and

politically, but are determined to continue trying to

"Do lots more, with lots less, now!"

32
Processing & Testing Stage

Log-in

Assessment

After-ripen

Pre-condition

Dry/Kiln

Extraction

Dewing/Debeard

Screen

Preliminary Cleaning

X-ray Assessment

Final Upgrade

Hand Clean

Final X-ray

Seedlot Weight

Purity

Seed/Pound or # of Seed

Moisture%

Germination

X-ray Analysis

Records

Packaging

Shipping

Work-up of Price & Agreement

Step To

Be Done

# Reps Est. Time Done By Hourly

Rate

Cost This

Step

Total:

Appendix 1.

PROCESSING & TESTING PRICE PROPOSAL FORM

Species:

Lot Size:

Small Lot Regular Lot Bulk Lot

5 bu. 5-50 bu. 50 bu.

Price Proposal Per Lot:

or

Price Proposal Per Bushel:

LL 8/27/93

33
Appendix 2.

CONE & SEED PROCESSING

Conifer Schedule

Comprehensive Processing

The Reforestation Center is able to offer comprehensive cone and seed processing, including:

* Use of CDFs special collection sacks.* (improves aeration & decreases case-hardening)

* Assistance with assessing collectability and determining maturity. A sample can be sent

to the Center via mail or UPS. We can usually call you the day your sample is received

with our assessment of its status. If not mature yet, we provide an estimate of when it will

be ready.

* Each lot of cones is assessed upon arrival A copy of the initial assessment is provided.

* Any after-ripening and/or pre-conditioning that is necessary.

* A copy of the preliminary x-ray, prior to seed upgrade.

* The highest level of seed upgrade possible. Seed upgrade is our specialty.

* An x-ray of the completed, upgraded seed.

* Determination of purity, seed per pound, moisture content and germination rate.

Seed will be a minimum of 98% purity and is usually above 99%. Seed will be dried to

storage moisture content (5-9%). The germination rate will be determined using a single

test with the preferred stratification for that species.

We have experience processing numerous species. Please call to discuss your requirements and

obtain a price quote on any species or special processing options of interest to you.

Species

Ponderosa Pine

Sugar Pine

Douglas- fir

White Fir

Red Fir

Incense Cedar

Coast Redwood

Sierra Redwood

Other Species

Operational Lots

Price Per Bu

10-50 Bu

$8.75

$9.50

$10.00

$17.00

Call for

Price Per Bu

>50 Bu

$8.00

$8.75

$9.25

$15.50

a quote.

Small Lots

Price Per Lot

5 Bu or Less

$74.00

$80.00

$85.00

$105.00

Seed Upgrade

Do you have seed lots with low germination and a purity of less than 98%? These lots would

benefit from further upgrade. We can improve both the purity and filled seed percent of most

lots. Cost for this service will vary with lot size, species, current purity and current filled seed

percent. Please call to discuss your upgrade needs and receive a quote.

* These sacks are valuable to us. In order to insure their return, a charge of $15 per sack will be assessed for any

sacks not returned.

LEWIS A. MORAN REFORESTATION CENTER P.O. Box 1590

Davis, CA 95617

(916) 753-2441

34
Appendix 3.

35
Benefits and Techniques for Evaluating Outplanting Success1

Robert W. Neumann2 and Thomas D. Landis3

Abstract—Although outplanting information is essential to good nursery management, many nurseries do not

have the time or funds to follow the survival and growth of their seedlings after they are outplanted. The benefits

of evaluating outplantings are discussed along with types of sampling plots and an example of a survey form. It

is concluded that, if they don't have one already, all forest and conservation nurseries should develop a system

for monitoring outplanting performance. This should be considered a normal "cost of doing business" and that for

state forest nurseries, federal cost-share funds could be used to insure that this essential information is collected.

INTRODUCTION

What exactly do we mean by "success" in forest

and conservation nurseries — large, healthy

seedlings in the seedbeds or in the greenhouse?

No, the true measure of success cannot be determined at the nursery itself but rather can only be

evaluated after the seedlings are outplanted. The

best-looking seedling at the nursery is worthless if

it does not survive and grow after outplanting

(Landis and others 1995). The goals of a nursery

program should be to promote and maintain customer satisfaction, meet management objectives,

and improve environmental quality. A good source

of reliable information on seedling performance is

essential to achieve these goals.

The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to

discuss the basic concepts related to the systematic

and regular evaluation of outplanting success, and

suggest some ways that nurseries can implement

these procedures.

WHY EVALUATE OUTPLANTINGS?

There can be several reasons for wanting to

conduct evaluations of outplanted seedling success:

1. To determine if the seedlings are surviving and

growing.

2. To gain feedback information to help refine the

nursery cultural practices used to produce the

Target Seedling.

3. To monitor compliance of planting contracts.

4. To satisfy government or company performance

evaluation requirements.

All nurseries should know how well their

seedlings are performing after they are outplanted.

Unfortunately, this phase of the process is often

overlooked because of lack of time or funding.

Within a forestry organization, the responsibility

1

 Neumann, R.W.; Landis, T.D. 1995. Benefits and Techniques for Evaluating Outplanting Success. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B.

tech. coords. National proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 36-43.

2Centro de Forestacion de las Americas (CEFORA), New Mexico State University, Department Q, Las Cruces, NM;

Tel.: 505/646-5485; Fax: 505/646-6041.

3USDA Forest Service, Cooperative Programs, Portland, OR 97208; Tel.: 503/326-6231; Fax: 503/326-5569.

36
for performing outplanting evaluations is sometimes not well defined and so this vital task sometimes "falls between the cracks". Unfortunately,

nursery managers have their hands full just growing the seedlings and often cannot afford the time

to travel around and talk to their customers.

For the purposes of this paper, we were interested in whether state forest nursery managers in

the 17 western states were able to perform

outplanting evaluations and so we sent out a short

survey. The survey had two sections: 1) Satisfaction with seedling quality and nursery services, and

2) Outplanting performance. About one-half of the

respondents reported that they regularly query their

customers regarding satisfaction with the services

and seedlings they provide. Only 40% of the

nurseries, however, indicated that they check

survival in any organized manner, and only two

gather data on seedling growth and this was based

on comments from customers. The establishment

of long-term monitoring plots to monitor seedling

survival and growth is simply not done.

The second objective of an outplanting survey

involves the fine-tuning of the target seedling. As

nursery managers strive to perfect their craft, good

data about field performance is essential. Nurseries

determined their target seedlings (what species and

stock type that they should be growing) when they

first got started, but many never go back to review

their applicability in the current market. Because

outplanting performance is the only true measure

of success, growers must continually review their

concept of the target seedling and change cultural

practices accordingly (Figure 1). Without sound

data regarding seedling survival and growth, it is

difficult to decide how to improve nursery culture

practices. "Sound data" does not include casual

visual surveys of planted seedlings to determine

success because such surveys are far too subjective

and impossible to adequately evaluate and document.

Figure 1. Nurseries must first verify their target seedling

specifications and then continually revise them

by monitoring performance on outplanting

sites (modified from Burdett 1983)

The third reason for surveying seedling survival

and growth is to check-up on how well contractors

are planting the seedlings. Nurseries should be

very interested in this because the performance of

their seedlings critically depends on seedling

planting techniques. In Texas, where they use a

program of monitoring outplanting success to

determine planting contract compliance, the incidence of plantation failure was more than cut in

half (from 40% to about 16%) in the 10 years after

an inspection program using established plots was

initiated (Boggus 1994).

Finally, outplanting surveys are needed for

completing government or company performance

reports. The USDA Forest Service provides cooperative funding and technical support to state forest

37
and conservation nurseries through a program

called Seedlings, Nurseries, and Tree Improvement

(SNTI). A new accomplishment reporting system

called the Performance Measurement Accountability System (PMAS) has just been instituted, and

will significantly change the way that state forestry

organizations report their accomplishments of the

various cooperative programs. For the past several

months, a national team in Washington, DC has

been working on exactly how PMAS is going to

work. Much of the PMAS discussions centered on

"Outputs" vs. "Outcomes". Outputs are tangible

things like "How many seedlings your nursery

grew last year" and "How many acres were

planted". Well, this isn't good enough anymore.

The new trend in the PMAS System is to try and

relate these easy-to-measure outputs to some

broader "benefits" or "impacts". For example, the

PMAS team has proposed that the broad outcome

for SNTI programs should be "To provide quality

seedlings and establishment procedures to ensure a

stand of trees within 3 years". So, instead of just

reporting how many seedlings were produced at a

nursery or how many acres were planted each year,

state foresters will be asked to report on seedling

performance after outplanting.

WHAT KIND OF SAMPLING IS BEST?

As to the best type of sampling design, we

recommend systematic stratified sampling. Systematic samples are located at standard predetermined distances and because of this regular pattern, plots are easy to establish and relocate.

Stratification means that the entire population of

seedlings in the outplanting area is subdivided into

homogeneous units before sampling begins. First,

strata of uniform conditions are identified, and then

sample plots are located systematically within

these areas. These strata could be based on species,

nursery of origin, planting crew, site type, or any

number of other factors that can be identified as a

source of variation in seedling performance. This

system combines the reduced variability among

plots within a stratum with the ease of systematic

sampling (Pearce 1990).

Plot type — Staked, long-term plots are those

in which individual seedlings are marked so that

they can be monitored over time (Figure 2). We

recommend that seedlings be individually staked

because it is often difficult to locate planted seedlings after weeds and brush have grown in the

plantation. Often, unslaked seedlings just seem to

disappear after a few months or years especially

when they are eaten by animals. When measuring

seedling growth, staking is the only way to insure

that the same seedling is being monitored over

time. The USDA Forest Service uses a plantation

evaluation system with staked row plots and

monitors seedling survival and growth at one and

three years after outplanting (Table 1). This

procedure is detailed in the Forest Service Handbook (Section 2409), and copies can be obtained

by contacting any Ranger District or Forest

Supervisor's office.

The actual plots can be one of two basic shapes:

linear or areal.

Linear — This type of plot is established in a

straight line, and is most appropriate for sampling

in long, narrow plantings such as windbreaks or

Figure 2. Staking seedlings is a simple way to insure

that they can be easily found for several years

after weeds and other vegetation has overgrown the plantation.

38
Table 1. Survival of seedlings in staked row plots for National Forests in Colorado and Wyoming during 1978 to 1983.

Stock

Species Type

Engelmann spruce 3+0 Bareroot

Container

Lodgepole 2+0 Bareroot

pine

Container

Year

Sampled

First

Third

First

Third

First

Third

First

Third

Staked

Seedlings

11,150

5,220

11,755

8,208

8,496

5,549

7,100

3,719

No. Of

Live

Seedlings

9,283

2,686

9,532

4,417

6,094

3,681

5,408

1,932

No. Of

Survival

% Range

83

51

81

54

71

66

76

52

45 to 98

7 to 83

20 to 97

9 to 94

50 to 99

12 to 93

19 to 99

1 to 83

Source: Jeffers (1985)

shelterbelts. Linear plots can also be used in large

area plantings where trees are planted in very welldefined rows. A systematic sample using line plots

may dictate that a plot will be established every so

many meters along the line of trees (Figure 3A).

Areal — As their name infers, these plots cover

a discrete area and are generally circular or quadrilateral in shape. Areal plots are best for sampling

large forest plantations. Circular plots are easy to

establish using a known radius from the plot center

(Figure 3B).

HOW MANY PLOTS ARE NECESSARY?

The number of plots to establish is generally a

function of two factors:

1) available resources (time and money)

2) variability of the attributes that will be

measured.

Plantation evaluation is impossible without

sufficient personnel and adequate funding. Based

on our survey of western nurseries, however, lack

of funds was the principal reason that most nurserFigure 3. The best type of sampling plot will depend on

whether the plantation is linear, such as a

shelterbelt (A) or covers a wide area such as a

forest plantation (B).

39
ies did not survey customers or evaluate

outplantings. In the face of additional budget cuts,

some creative use of existing resources will be

required. If state forest nurseries do not have the

staff or funds to monitor their seedlings after

outplanting, then this may be an excellent use for

some of the SNTI funds that are provided to State

Foresters by the federal government. Some other

suggestions:

• Work with others in your organization to see if

outplanting evaluations can be combined with

other field activities to reduce travel expenses.

• Use existing personnel like fire crews when they

are in standby status.

• Require planting contractors to establish and

monitor plots

• Ask customers to help. Most nursery customers

will be happy to assist when they realize that the

survey information will help improve the quality

of their seedlings.

The second factor affecting the proper number

of plots, variability of the attributes measured, is

somewhat more difficult to define. In calculating

the appropriate number of plots, statisticians are

interested in some measure of variability - such as

the standard deviation of seedling heights in the

outplanting. Using this example, if a quick check

on the height of seedlings varies greatly within the

plantation to be sampled, then more plots should

be taken. On the other hand, if the heights appear

to be very uniform, then fewer plots will be sufficient. Much will depend on the type of outplanting.

Shelterbelts in the Great Plains are often machineplanted which reduces planter-to-planter variation

and site conditions are relatively uniform. On the

other hand, there is often a wide amount of variation on mountainous outplanting sites because of

differences in microclimate, soils, and planting

quality. For example, seedling survival after the

third year varied from as low as 9% to as high as

94% on National Forests in the Central Rocky

Mountains (Table 1). To be statistically significant,

there are rather complicated calculations to compute appropriate number of plots using an estimate

of the variability of the attribute and the degree of

statistical accuracy desired (Stein 1992).

Determining the number of plots based on

variability is often a judgement call but, in most

cases, a 1 to 2% sampling intensity will be sufficient. For example, if we were sampling a plantation where the seedlings were planted at a density

of 2,000 per hectare (800/ac), then we would need

to sample about 20 to 40 seedlings per hectare (8

to 16/ac). If we wanted the plots to contain approximately 10 seedlings each, they each would

need to be about 1/200 ha (1/80 ac) in size, with a

radius of about 4 meters (13.1 ft). Using these

parameters, we could then specify a minimum of 2

to 4 plots per hectare (1 to 2/ac) and a maximum of

10 to 20 plots for fairly homogeneous plantations.

WHAT TO MEASURE?

During the years following outplanting, most

plantations are evaluated for only a few factors:

survival, general seedling condition, and shoot and

caliper growth. Before beginning the survey, it is

helpful to construct a data form such as that in the

Appendix to make sure that the evaluation is

applied uniformly and that no information is left

out. This is particularly important when more than

one person is doing the evaluations because there

can be significant differences in procedure unless

everything is strictly defined. Developing standard

codes for seedling condition and cause of mortality

or injury helps to describe common situations. The

sample form provides space for several evaluation

dates of the same plot. A plot map makes it possible to identify the location of individual seedlings

by azimuth and distance from the plot center.

Starting with due North (which is 0°) each seedling

that falls within the plot radius can be numbered

40
consecutively, staked, and the location noted on

the form. Accurate plot mapping is important so

that the seedlings can be relocated from year to

year. If trees are particularly difficult to locate, it

may be necessary to also tag each tree with a

numbered metal tag around the base.

HOW OFTEN TO EVALUATE?

Many people think that the first evaluation

should be scheduled one year after outplanting, but

they are mistaken. It is extremely important to

check the seedlings within a couple of months after

they are planted because stock quality problems

show up quickly. Mortality or poor growth due to

substandard planting stock can often be identified

by evaluating the outplanting within the first few

months. Some of the common problems that can be

identified at this time include seedlings that had

unsatisfactory or damaged root systems, those that

did not generate new roots, and those which were

improperly planted. Poor planting technique often

can be identified by the presence of "J" shaped tap

roots when an examination hole is carefully dug

next to the seedling. Other sources of mortality

which are often identified at the two-month evaluation include improper storage, transportation, or

handling. Desiccated seedlings on a site that had

adequate soil moisture might indicate freezing

during storage or excessive root exposure during

on-site transportation and handling. On the other

hand, it is almost impossible to do a postmortem

on seedlings that have been dead for a year. Many

surveys done on the one-year anniversary list the

cause of death as "drought" because the seedlings

appear totally desiccated. This sort of misleading

information is worse than none at all.

Once the two month evaluation has been completed, the customer and nursery manager can

backtrack through the sequence of events prior to

outplanting and determine the true cause of the

poor performance. The other advantage of an early

evaluation is that plans can be made to replant

quickly so that site preparation costs are not lost.

Outplanting performance plots should also be

monitored at intervals of 1, 3 and 5 years. These

long-term evaluations are recommended so that the

effects of seasonal factors as well as site and

genetic quality can be checked. The one-year

measurements are useful for checking seedling

tolerance to drought and frost, for example, as well

as evaluating damage due to animals, insects or

disease. The measurements of survival and growth

at 3 and 5 years give good indications of plant

adaptability and productivity - useful information

when choosing future species and seed sources.

Long-term plant performance also helps to evaluate site quality.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The establishment of long-term plots to monitor

the outplanting performance of seedlings is an

essential part of nursery management. Information

on seedling survival and growth has several benefits to the nursery including a way to fine-tune the

specifications of the target seedling. We believe

that simple monitoring plots can be established

with a minimum of effort and expense, yielding a

maximum of informational benefit to nursery

managers. Nurseries should include the cost of

monitoring outplanting performance in their

normal operating budget. If state forest nurseries

do not have the staff or funds to monitor their

seedlings after outplanting, then this may be an

excellent use for some of the Seedling, Nursery,

and Tree Improvement funds that are provided to

State Foresters by the federal government.

41
LITERATURE CITED

Boggus, T. 1994. Personal communication. Lubbock, TX:

Texas State Forest Service.

Burdett, A.N. 1983. Quality control in the production of

forest planting stock. The Forestry Chronicle 59(3): 132-

138.

Jeffers, R. 1985. San Juan National Forest Reforestation

Workshop. Data on file with T.D. Landis, USDA Forest

Service, Portland, OR.

Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; McDonald, S.E.; Barnett, J.P.

1995. Nursery planning, development, and management.

Vol.1, The Container Tree Nursery Manual. Agric.

Handbk. 674. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service. 188 p.

Pearce, C. 1990. Monitoring regeneration programs. IN:

Lavender, D.P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C.M.; Montgomery,

G.; Vyse, A.; Willis, R.A.; and Winston, D. Regenerating

British Columbia's Forests. Vancouver, BC: University

of British Columbia Press: 98-116.

Stein, W.I. 1992. Regeneration surveys and evaluation. IN:

Hobbs, S.D.; Tesch, S.D.; Owston, P.W.; Stewart, R.E.;

Tappeiner, J.C.; Wells, G.E. Eds. Reforestation practices

in southwestern Oregon and northern California.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Forest Research

Laboratory: 346- 382.

USDA Forest Service. 1992. Reforestation Handbook,

Chapter 20: Reforestation Surveys. (Forest Service

Handbook 2409.26b). Portland, OR: USDA Forest

Service. 14 p.

42
Appendix

43
The Basic Biology of Juniperus Seed Production1

Gary Johnson2

Abstract—Junipers produce dormant seed in response to dispersal by animals and environmental conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Junipers are important species in windbreaks,

wildlife, environmental and landscape plantings

throughout the Great Plains and elsewhere. Dense,

evergreen foliage blocks the wind year round and

provides wildlife habitat. The berry-like cones are

eaten and dispersed by birds and other animals.

Junipers are also drought, heat and cold tolerant.

Seed dormancy hinders nursery seedling production. Often, many of the viable seed do not

germinate. Understanding the basic biology of the

seed production will help to find better ways to

overcome seed dormancy. More work needs to be

done to understand the dormancy mechanisms.

NATURAL LIFE CYCLE OF JUNIPERS

Unlike pines and most other trees, junipers are

either male or female (dioecious). Seed is produced on the female trees only. Pollen from the

male trees lands on a water drop at the micropyle

opening and is drawn into the pollen chamber as

the drop shrinks. The pollen germinates and

fertilizes the egg.

Lack of pollination is not the cause of empty

seed, because seed will not form unless pollen is

present. One possibility for empty seed could be a

lack of compatibility after fertilization. Another

possibility could be lack of fertilization. The

presence of the pollen could be enough to initiate

cone and seed formation.

In most junipers, including eastern redcedar,

Juniperus virginiana L., the berry-like cones are

produced in one growing season. Two growing

seasons, however, are needed for cone production

in Rocky Mountain juniper, Juniperus scopulorum

Sarg. Birds and other animals eat the cones; the

seed pass through the digestive system (chemical

scarification), then sit in a warm, wet pile of

decomposing organic matter in the late summer

and fall. After passing the winter frozen, perhaps

thawing several times, the seed germinates in the

spring, or remains dormant through another yearly

cycle and germinates the second spring. Seed

dormancy is required to prevent early germination.

SEED DORMANCY

Our challenge is to understand the dormancy

mechanisms and to overcome them to produce

seedlings. Junipers have both seed coat and

chemical dormancy. The seed coat is semipermeable and the embryos need a period of time

— called after-ripening — to produce all the

chemicals in the right balance to germinate.

1

 Johnson, G. 1995. The Basic Biology of Juniperus Seed Production. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National

Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 44-46.

2National Tree Seed Laboratory, USDA-Forest Service, Dry Branch, GA; Tel: 314/875-5341.

44
One of several possible models for the chemical

part of juniper dormancy is Kahn's "hormone

interaction model" where various amounts of

gibberellic acid, cytokinins, and an inhibitor

interact to promote or inhibit germination. In

Kahn's model, gibberellic acid promotes germination in some seed, but if an inhibitor is present,

then a cytokinin must be present to neutralize the

inhibitor.

Chemical processes within the seed are dependent on many factors, including temperature and

time. Some temperature regimes, such as cold

stratification, favor the production of chemicals

promoting germination. Time is needed for the

chemicals to increase to the threshold amount

needed for germination, or for the inhibiting

chemicals to be neutralized.

The hormonal balance may be shifted by adding

hormones to the seed by soaking the seed in a

hormone solution, but the semi-permeable seed

coat inhibits the uptake of the hormones. Leaching

the inhibitor from the seed by putting the seed in

running water for several days may also reduce

dormancy in some seed, but again, the semipermeable seed coat may impede the process.

Soaking the seed in lye, as done at several nurseries, may make the seed coat more permeable

(simulating a bird's digestive tract).

FACTORS AFFECTING SEED DORMANCY

1) Freshness and ripeness of the seed:

The time of collection and length and conditions of storage affect the degree of dormancy. Fresh, ripe seed are not as dormant as

unripe seed or seed stored for a long time.

2) Environmental factors during formation of

the cone and seed:

Climate or weather conditions during the

growing and maturation of the cone and seed,

such as drought, can affect dormancy.

3) Variations in genotype:

Eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper

have wide geographic ranges and great genetic variability. Without this genetic variability, the species probably could not grow

over such a wide area. Local populations

have adapted to local conditions.

Genetic variation exists within local populations. A factor increasing this local variability is that both eastern redcedar and Rocky

Mountain juniper hybridize with other junipers and with each other. The variations in

genotype within the local populations and

across the geographic ranges contributes to

the variations in dormancy.

4) Random variation:

Seed produced by the same parents under the

same circumstances of environment, time, and

place exhibit variations in dormancy. This

random variation in the degree of dormancy

ensures that all the seed do not germinate at

the same time. Spreading the germination

over time increases the probability that some

seed will germinate during favorable conditions

for seedling establishment. We should not

expect all seed produced by a tree in a given

season to have the same degree of dormancy.

SINGULARIZATION

Due to flower morphology, approximately two

thirds of eastern redcedar cones produce one seed,

about one third produce two seeds, and about two

percent produce three seeds. Often, seed from the

same cone are bonded tightly together. In laboratory testing, the seed are separated, or singularized,

before the tests are run. If a nursery manager

plants non-singularized seed using seed per pound

and germination or tetrazolium data from singularized seed, the result will not meet expectations.

Depending on the number of double and triple seed

in the lot, the difference could be as much as one

45
third greater in germination, or one third less in

seeds per pound. For example, if one hundred

singularized seeds germinate 80% in the testing

laboratory, and the nursery manager plants one

hundred non-singularized seeds with 33 double

seeds (133 seeds total), then 106 seedlings will

germinate in the nursery. In the same lot, 51,700

seeds per pound of singularized seed would be

equivalent to 38,800 seeds per pound of nonsingularized seed.

Seed testers and nursery managers need to agree

on the basic question: what is a seed? Otherwise,

seed testing results are not reprsentative of the lot

as the nursery manager sees the seed. Unless the

nursery manager knows the percentage of double

seed in the lot and compensates accordingly, the

germination and seeds per pound data could be

misleading.

The National Tree Seed Laboratory reports the

number of double and triple seed present in the

sample. The nursery manager can use this information to adjust seeds per pound and germination

expectations.

Germination adjustments:

(100 + % of doubles) x laboratory germination % =

non singularized germination percentage

Seeds per pound adjustments:

100 / (100 + % of doubles) x laboratory seeds per pound =

non singularized seeds per pound

CONCLUSIONS

1) More work needs to be done to better define the

dormancy mechanisms and to develop methods

for nurserymen to break seed dormancy.

2) Due to variation in dormancy within a lot,

methods developed to break the dormancy of the

more dormant seed can be expected to be

harsher or greater than needed or tolerated by

the less dormant seed. Many less dormant seed

may not survive the dormancy breaking treatment for the more dormant seed.

3) Seed testing laboratories and nursery managers

need to work together and develop seed unit

definitions for Juniperus consistent with use in

the nurseries.

REFERENCES

Fechner, G.H. 1976. Controlled pollination in eastern

redceder and Rocky Mountain juniper. IN: Proceedings

of the Twelfth Lake States Forest Tree Improvement

Conference: Chalk River, ON, Aug 18-22, 1975. St. Paul,

MN: North Central Forest Experiment Station, USDAForest Service, 1976, General Technical Report NC 26.

Hall, M.T. 1952. Variation and hydridization in Juniperus.

Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 39(1):1- 64.

Mathews, A.C. 1939. The morphological and cytological

development of the sporophylls and seed of Juniperus

virginiana. J. Elicha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 55(l):7-62.

Rietveld, W.J. 1989. Variable seed dormancy in Rocky

Mountain juniper. IN: Landis, T.D., tech. coords. Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery Association: Aug 14-18,

1989, Bismarck, ND. Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain

Forest And Range Experiment Station, USDA-Forest

Service, 1989. General technical report RM 184.

Sporne, K.R. 1965. The morphology of gymnosperms.

Hutchinson & Co., LTD. London. 216 p.

Van Haverbeke, D.F., and C.W. Comer. 1985. Effects of

treatment and seed source on germination of eastern

redcedar seed. USDA-Forest Service Research Paper

RM263. 7 p.

Van Haverbeke, D.F., and R.M. King. 1990. Genetic

variation in Great Plains Juniperus. USDA-Forest

Service Research Paper RM 292. 8 p.

Van Haverbeke, D.F., and R.A. Read. 1976. Genetics of

eastern redcedar. Washington, DC: USDA-Forest

Service, 1976. Research Paper WO 32.

Young, J.A., R.A. Evans, J.D. Budy, D.E. Palmquist. 1988.

Stratification of seeds of western and Utah juniper.

Forest Science 34:1059-1066.

46
Propagation of Juniperus: Challenges to Propagation and

Opportunities for Improvement1

Scott A. Lee2, Bert M. Gregg3, and Clark Fleege4

Abstract—Production of Juniperus in forest and conservation nurseries is often limited due to poor or erratic

seed germination. Poor seed germination of Juniperus may be due to several factors, including a high proportion

of dead, unfilled, or immature seed, seed-coat dormancy and embryo dormancy. The germination rate of seed

sown may be increased through seed quality testing and treating seed to overcome dormancy. We discuss

methods to separate seed, and improve seed quality and pre-treatment techniques to overcome dormancy.

INTRODUCTION

Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) and

Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum

Sarg.) are among the most widely planted trees for

conservation forestry in the Great Plains. Because

they are adapted to a wide range of sites, including

dry or rocky soils, both species are planted for

windbreaks, shelterbelts, and living snowfences. In

1990, nearly 2.7 million Juniperus seedlings were

distributed by Great Plains tree nurseries (Moench

1993). However, due to problems associated with

dormancy and seed gemination, especially in

Rocky Mountain juniper, conservation nursery

managers often have difficulty producing a consistent crop of Juniperus seedlings. For example, the

Oklahoma Department of Agriculture reports that

typically only 16% of redcedar seed germinate

during the first year after planting and the seed to

saleable-seedling ratio is only 0.03 (Porterfield,

personal communication). Germination of Rocky

Mountain juniper is also low at the Oklahoma

nursery and other nurseries in the Great Plains. The

low germination rates observed for Juniperus

indicate that current cultural practices are inadequate to overcome dormancy.

Dormancy is the inability of a seed to germinate, even under conditions that are normally

considered favorable for germination. Dormancy

can be caused by the seed coat or the embryo. Seed

coat imposed dormancy is due to the impermeability of the coat to water and gases which prevents

inhibitors from leaving the embryo or the mechanical prevention of radicle extension (Kelly et al.,

1992). Embryo dormancy is due to a lack of

physiological requirements such as hormonal,

temperature or light needed to break dormancy.

Seed of Juniperus have both types of dormancy. A

confounding factor in Rocky Mountain juniper is

1

 Lee, S.; Cregg, C.M.; Fleege, C. 1995. Propagation of Juniperus: Challenges to Propagation and Opportunities for Improvement. In:

Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNWGTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 47-51.

2Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Nebraska, East Campus, Lincoln, NE 68583-0822; Tel: 402/437-5178;

Fax: 402/437-5712.

3USDA Forest Service, National Agroforestry Center, University of Nebraska, East Campus, Lincoln, NE 68583-0822;

Tel: 402/437-5178 ext. 23; Fax: 402/437-5712.

4USDA Forest Service, Bessey Forest Nursery, PO Box 38, Halsey, NE 69142; Tel: 308/533-2257; Fax: 308/533-2213.

47
that the seeds require two years to mature. Therefore, immature seeds can be inadvertently collected with the mature seeds.

Although numerous studies have been conducted on germination of Juniperus in the past 70

years, few have yielded consistent results. In the

following discussion, we consider three ways to

improve germination rates and germination uniformity of Juniperus seed. Seed separation techniques, treatments to overcome seed-coat dormancy and methods to overcome embryo dormancy are the methods we are currently studying,

and believe may be useful to nursery growers.

SEED SEPARATION

Low rates of germination in a number of species

are due to a large proportion of non-viable or nongerminating seed. Non-viable seed may be hollow,

damaged, or immature. In many cases non-viable

seed may be separated from viable seed relatively

easily, resulting in an immediate increase in

germination rates. Simple techniques for separating seed include separation by size or density and

the IDS (Incubation, Dehydration, Separation)

method.

Density and Size

In general, as seeds mature size and density

increase. Therefore, viability and germination are

often correlated with seed size and (or) density.

Khademi et al. (1993) showed that as the density

of Primula acaulis (L.) rose, the percent viability

and soluble protein contents increased. The densities of the seed ranged from 1.10 to 1.18 g/cm3

.

The percent viability and soluble protein contents

rose from 8 to 90% and from 26 mg/g to 38 mg/g,

respectively, as the seed density increased. In

addition to increasing germination percentage,

selecting for increased size and (or) density may

have the additional benefit of improving seedling

vigor. Wang et al. (1994) demonstrated that as

seed mass rose in black spruce (Picea mariana

Mill.) seeds, the seedling survival rate also rose.

At an initial seed mass of 0.55 mg, survival rate

was approximately 42%, while seed with an initial

mass of 1.5 mg had a seedling survival rate of

75%.

A key advantage to separating seed by size or

density is that it is relatively simple and straightforward. Laboratories which specialize in seed

testing or seed quality improvement use specialized equipment such as density tables and air

separators. However, in our current research we

have found that Juniperus seed can be separated

into various size classes using standard soil sieves.

We have also found that Juniperus seed can be

divided into density classes by floating in sucrose

solutions of varying specific gravities. Presently,

we are conducting trials to correlate germination

rates with seed size and density for several seed

lots of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain

juniper from Great Plains nurseries.

IDS

While simple separation by size and (or) density

may improve germination by removing empty or

immature seeds, IDS separation provides a more

physiologically-based indicator to select viable

seed. The IDS technique is based on the principle

that viable seeds, once hydrated, give up moisture

more slowly than unfilled or non-viable seeds. The

procedure involves hydrating the seeds (Incubation), drying the seeds for a specified time (Dehydration) and then placing the seeds in water and

discarding the seeds that float (Separation).

Singh and Vozzo (1994) found that germination

of Pinus roxburghii could be enhanced using the

IDS technique. By immersing the seeds in solution

with a specific gravity of 1.04 for 4 hours, they

found that 72% of the seeds sank while 28% of the

seeds floated. Of the 72% of seeds that sank, 94%

of these seeds germinated. Of the 28% of the seeds

that floated in the solution, only 50% of the seeds

germinated. Furthermore, Simak (1984) found that

for a sample of Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta

Dougl.) seeds that typically germinated to a 67%

48
capacity, almost all the 33% that did not germinate

were found to be dead using the IDS technique.

Increases in germination attributed to the IDS

technique have also been reported for lodgepole

pine (increased from 37% to 75%) (Downie and

Wang 1992), white spruce (increased from 50% to

86%) (Downie and Bergsten 1991), and Scots pine

(increased from 33 to 95%) (Bergsten 1988).

OVERCOMING SEED DORMANCY

Although seed separation techniques will

remove dead and non-viable seeds, the remaining

seeds may still be dormant. As indicated earlier,

dormancy may be due to seed-coat dormancy,

embryo dormancy or, in the case of Juniperus,

both.

Seed Coat Dormancy

In order to overcome seed coat dormancy, the

seed coat must be broken or conditioned to permit

the seed to imbibe water and allow inhibitors to

leach out. Seeds may be scarified by soaking in

acid or bases, or by mechanical means. Masamba

(1994) found that germination of three species of

Acacia seeds known to have seed-coat dormancy

increased to at least 80% by treating the seeds

using a hot wire method. This basically burns the

seed coat to scarify the seeds. The best germination

from the hot wire method came from a duration of

5-10 seconds. Cutting the seed bases (hilum) of

eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper seed

resulted in epicotyl development within 3 to 9 days

(Djavanshir and Fechner, 1976). Sulfuric acid

treatments of 35 minutes for ERC and 120 minutes

for RMJ produced a hole in the hilum which led to

similar types of germination rates. Seeds of West

African Laburnum (Cassia suberiana DC.) germinated best when they were immersed in 98%

sulfuric acid for 45 minutes, plus a one-hour water

soak or nicking, and scarifying the seed coat in a

commercial mill for 4 minutes (Todd-Bockarie et al.

1993). The acid and mechanical scarification resulted

in 93% and 85% germination, respectively, as

compated to 5% for the untreated controls.

In a separate study done by Todd-Bockarie and

Duryea (1992), seeds of velvet tamarind (Dialium

guineense Willd.) were treated with concentrated

sulfuric acid or nicking the seed coat to overcome

seed coat dormancy. Nicking the seed coat surface

with a scalpel produced the highest germination of

96% while a germination rate of 55% was obtained

by soaking seeds in concentrated sulfuric acid for

seven minutes. These two treatments are very

promising as the germination rate for the control

seeds was only 10%. In our current research with

Juniperus seed we are investigating the effectiveness of wearing down the seed coat with a rock

polisher as a simple method to mechanically

scarify seed.

Embryo Dormancy

Embryo dormancy or physiological dormancy in

Juniperus is controlled by a complex series of

hormonal interactions that are poorly understood.

Presently the most reliable method of overcoming

embryo dormancy is by a combination of warm

and cold stratification. Exogenous applications of

chemicals, mainly hormones, may also overcome

embryo dormancy.

Stratification

In a study by Young et al. (1988), different

stratification techniques were performed on seeds

of western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis Hook.)

and Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma [Torr.]

Little). Stratification in aqueous solutions with

near saturation of the solution with oxygen increased germination of western and Utah juniper to

around 50%. Similar treatments using aqueous

solutions of 0.289 mol L-1 gibberellic acid (GA3)

improved germination of western jumper to better

than 80%. Jones (1989) found that East African

pencil cedar (Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb.), subjected to cold stratification (5°C) for 60 days

increased germination to 63% over controls grown

in the greenhouse (53%) and in a growth chamber

(47%). Extended H2SO4 (1 hour) and hot water

treatments resulted in very low germination rates.

Jones also found that significant differences in

49
germination percentages between seeds from

different maternal parents with a final germination

percent ranging from 18 to 60%. The most accepted method for breaking dormancy in eastern

redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper is a warm

moist stratification (6 weeks) followed by a cool

moist stratification (10 weeks) (Van Haverbeke

and Comer 1985, Johnson and Alexander 1974).

Chemical Treatments

Soaking spruce (Picea smithiana [Wall.] Boiss.)

seed in GA3 increased germination by around 19%

(Singh 1989). Applying GA3 (50 mM) and Ethephon (50 mM) increased germination of eastern

redbud (Cercis canadensis var. canadensis L.)

seeds to 28% (±4.8) and 60% (±4.5), respectively,

compared to 2% (±1.7) for the unteated comtrols

(Geneve 1991).

In a study done by Persson (1993), seeds of

ornamental plants of 16 species were infused with

lmM or lmM gibberellic acid or with a concentration of lmM gibberellic acid, 0.5m M kinetin and

lmM Ethrel(2-chloroethanephosphonic acid)

dissolved in acetate. Infusion of these growth

regulators improved germination in 10 of the

experimental species. In all cases, germination

rates were increased. Final germination was higher

in treated than in control studies. The most effective treatment for increasing germination percentage was gibberellic acid at a concentration of

l0mM .

OSMOTIC PRIMING

Osmotic priming using polyethylene glycol

(PEG) has been demonstrated to improve seed

germination and uniformity of germination in a

number of species. Seeds are imbibed in aerated

solutions of PEG to a point right before germination occurs. Then the seeds are hydrated with

water and the germination process is rapidly

initiated. Halgren (1987) found that germination of

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) could be enhanced

from 53% to 79% for unstratified seeds. In a

separate study by Hallgren (1989), it was found

that osmotic priming increased final germination

and rapidity of germination for loblolly and

shortleaf pines (Pinus echinata Mill.), but was

generally detrimental to germination of slash pine

(Pinus elliottii Engelm.) seeds with one exception.

At 15°C germination temperature, Hallgren found

that unprimed slash pine seeds that were not

stratified would not germinate but when primed

they would germinate to 29%.

SUMMARY

Researchers in the Great Plains and elsewhere

have studied the problem of germination in

Juniperus for over 70 years with limited results.

From this research it is clear that poor germination

stems from the seeds being doubly dormant (seed

coat plus embryo dormancy) and may also be due

to a relatively high proportion of immature or

otherwise non-viable seed. Given this situation, it

seems unlikely that a 'magic bullet' will be found

that will dramatically increase germination of

eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.

However, we believe our integrated research

approach combining seed quality testing and a

combination of stratification, scarification, and,

perhaps, chemical treatment may increase rates and

uniformity of germination.

LITERATURE CITED

Bergsten, Urban. 1988. Invigoration and IDS-sedimentation

of Pinus sylvestris seeds from northern Finland. Silva

Fennica 22 (4): 323-327.

Djavanshir, K. and Fechner, G. H. 1976. Epicotyl and

hypocotyl germination of eastern redcedar and Rocky

Mountain juniper. Forest Science 22 (3): 261-266.

50
Downie, B. and Bergsten, U. 1991. Separating germinable

and non-germinable seeds of eastern white pine (Pinus

strobus L.) and white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench]

Voss) by the IDS technique. The Forestry Chronicle, 67

(4): 393-396.

Downie, B. and Wang, B. S. P. 1992. Upgrading germinability and vigour of jack pine, lodgepole pine, and

white spruce by the IDS technique. Can. J. For. Res. 22:

1124-1131.

Geneve, Robert L. 1991. Seed dormancy in eastern redbud

(Cercis canadensis). J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116 (1): 85-

88.

Hallgren, S. W. 1987. Priming treatments to improve pine

seed vigor. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-151. USDA Forest

Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station: 33-35.

Hallgren, S. W. 1989. Effects of osmotic priming using

aerated solutions of polyethylene glycol on germination

of pine seeds. Ann. Sci. For. 46: 31-37.

Johnsen, T. N. and Alexander, R. A. Seeds of woody plants

in the United States. USDA Forest Service Ag. Handbook

No. 450 460-469.

Jones, S. 1989. The influence of stratification, scarification,

hot water and maternal plant on the germination of

Juniperus excelsa seeds from Eritrea. The International

Tree Crops Journal, 5, 221-235.

Kelly, K. M., Van Staden, J., and Bell, W. E. 1992. Seed

coat structure and dormancy. Plant Growth Regulation

11: 201-209.

Khademi, M., Koranski, D. S., and Peterson, J. 1993.

Protein concentration and Vigor of imbibed densityseparated Primula seed. HortScience 28 (7): 710-712.

Masamba, Chris. 1994. Presowing seed treatments on four

African Acacia species: appropriate technology for use in

forestry for rural development. Forest Ecology and

Management 64: 105-109.

Moench, R. 1993. 1992 Tree Distribution in the Great

Plains. In: Proceedings: 1993 Meeting GPAC Forestry

Committee. 34-39 pp.

Persson, B. 1993. Enhancement of seed germination in

ornamental plants by growth regulators infused via

acetone. Seed Sci. & Technol., 21, 281-290.

Simak, M. 1984. A method for removal of filled-dead seeds

from a sample of Pinus contorta. Seed Sci & Technol.,

12, 767-775.

Sing, R.V. and Vosso, J.A. 1994. Application of the incubation, drying and separation method to Pinus roxburghii

seeds. In: Proceedings: 3rd Southern Station Chemical

Sciences Meeting. USDA Forest Service. General

Technical Report 50-101. 7-10 pp.

Singh, Virendra. 1989. Role of stratification and gibberellic acid in spruce seed germination. Indian Journal of

Forestry. 12 (4): 269-275.

Todd-Bockarie, A. H. and Duryea, M. L. 1993. Seed

pretreatment methods to improve germination of the

multipurpose West African forest species Dialium

guineense. Forest Ecology and Management, 57, 257-

273.

Todd-Bockarie, A. H., Duryea, M. L., West, S. H., and

White, T. L. 1993. Pretreatment to overcome seed

dormancy in Cassia sieberiana. Seed Sci. & Technol., 21,

383-398.

Van Haverbeke, D. F. and Comer, C. W. 1985. Effects of

treatment and seed source on germination of eastern

redcedar seed. USDA Forest Service, Research Paper

RM-263,1-7.

Wang, Z, M., Lechowicz, M. J., and Potvin, C. 1994. Early

selection of black spruce seedlings and global change:

which genotypes should we favor? Ecological Application 4 (3): 604-616.

Young, J. A., Evans, R. A., Budy, J. D., and Palmquist, D.

E. 1988. Stratification of seeds of western and Utah

juniper. Forest Science, 34(4): 1059-1066.

51
Rocky Mountain Juniper Production at the Colorado State

Forest Service1

Randy D. Moench2

Abstract–Seed dormancy limits Rocky Mountain juniper production. The Colorado State Forest Service has

found summer sowing and "natural stratification" to be beneficial. Seed stratified in this way follows a "natural" soil

temperature regime over a seven month period. Seventy percent or better germination is achieved using this

method from Great Plains and Northern Colorado seed sources.

INTRODUCTION

Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum

Sarg.) is Colorado's most important evergreen for

conservation plantings. Rarely do Great Plains'

nurseries produce adequate numbers to meet customer demand. Problems with consistent production

of Rocky Mountain jumper include: overcoming seed

dormancy, uniform and predictable germination, and

frost damage to new seedbeds.

Production of juniper at the Colorado State

Forest Service Nursery consists of 2-0 bareroot

production, 2-1 container transplants and greenhouse grown stock. The addition of greenhouse

production is new. The success is due to using

"natural stratification"—following the temperature

range achieved with a summer sow date used for

bareroot stock.

BAREROOT PRODUCTION

2-0 bareroot production method for conifers is

not unique. An unusual factor at Colorado State is

the summer sowing date. We sow bareroot seedbeds the last week of July. Soil temperatures are

around 70°F, and remain quite warm until late

September (Figure 1).

Goal 1.6E herbicide is used for pre-emergent

weed control. We apply mulch to the seedbeds. In

the last few years a "frost fabric" has been used

instead of our traditional straw mulch (Moench,

1994). This fabric raises the soil surface temperatures by 5°F, increasing frost protection for newly

emergent seedlings.

Another unique factor in our bareroot production

is winter irrigation. Colorado's arid and windy

climate frequently requires that we irrigate established crops and new seedbeds in the dead of winter,

without this irrigation, seedlings can suffer from

extreme moisture stress during Chinook wind events.

Seedlings emerge in April. Production follows

common bareroot nursery practice from then on.

CONTAINER PRODUCTION

Traditional container production of Rocky

Mountain juniper at this nursery is transplanting

2-0 seedlings into a tarpaper container for one

1Moench, R. 1995. Rocky Mountain Juniper Production at the Colorado State Forest Service. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech.

coords. National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 52-53.

2Colorado State Forest Service Nursery, Colorado State University, Foothills Campus, Bldg. 1060, Fort Collins, CO 80523;

Tel: 970/491-8429; Fax: 970/491-8645.

52
growing season. Container seedlings are preferred

in the Rocky Mountain region for its improved

survival over bareroot.

Greenhouse production was always limited due

to poor germination. That all changed after Allen

Hackleman of our staff suggested a more "natural"

approach. Seed for greenhouse production is

stratified in a way duplicating our practice of

summer sowing. We bag and bury seed lots in a

newly sown summer juniper seedbed. We then

extract the seed in February for greenhouse sowing. The seed undergoes the same soil temperature

regime as the bareroot (Figure 1).

Of the extracted seed, 70% of the seedcoats are

cracked, and the tip of the radical is evident. Upon

sowing, germination is rapid and uniform.

The growing regime is the same one we use for

all of our conifer production. With the February

cycle, the seedlings are moved outdoors in late

July for finishing. The Rocky Mountain juniper

continues to grow, particularly during the cool

months of September and October.

CONCLUSION

A long "natural stratification" period works best

in overcoming juniper seed dormancy in Colorado.

The warm soil temperatures of summer may be a

critical factor. This procedure has allowed the

nursery to begin efficient and consistent greenhouse production of Rocky Mountain jumper.

Seed testing before any treatment is essential.

We use tetrazolium staining to show viability.

Finally, using frost fabric mulch can reduce the

damaging effects of spring frost. Application and

removal are much more efficient than hay mulches.

LITERATURE CITED

Moench, R.D. 1994. Use of Frost Fabric as a Seedbed

Mulch and Frost Protection Method. IN: Landis, T.D.;

Dumroese, R.K., tech. Coords. Nation Proceedings,

Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen.

Tech. Rep. RM-257. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest

and Range Experiment Station.

Soil Temperatures

Al CSU Main Campus Station

Figure 1. Four inch depth soil temperatures recorded at the Colorado State

University weather station. This data should approximate temperatures

experienced in summer sown seedbeds.

53
Pregermination Treatment of Eastern Redcedar Seed1

William L. Loucks2

INTRODUCTION

Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) is a

major component of windbreaks and wildlife

habitat plantings throughout the Great Plains. This

species is notorious for inconsistent germination with

results varying with the seed source and crop year.

Great Plains nursery managers have found that

seeding redcedar in mid to late summer provides

fairly consistent germination. However, late spring

frosts occasionally kill new germinants resulting in

inconsistent supply of seedlings. It has been

suggested that planting pre-ripened seed after

danger of frost may be a solution to this problem.

The author stumbled onto a procedure to pretreat redcedar which gives consistent results in a

container-grown seedling nursery. His procedure is

described in this paper.

PROCEDURE

Our first attempt to grow redcedar in a greenhouse was with freshly collected seed. After

studying the seed manual (Schopmeyer 1974), a 60

day moist-cool treatment was used with excellent

results. Our education began the next year when

we used the same seed and treatment only to have

nearly zero germination. It was apparent that seed

which had been dried for storage required different

treatment than freshly collected seed.

The author has forgotten who to give credit for

the suggestion that he should try to duplicate the

treatment that bare-root nursery managers were in

effect using by planting in late summer. He will be

forever thankful for the suggestion. He found that a

30-day moist-warm period followed by a 90-day

moist-cool period gives consistent germination.

This treatment has been used successfully on seed

from Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota seed

sources.

We treat the seed in five gallon plastic buckets

with holes in the bottom to ensure drainage. Before

placing the seed in stratification, the seed is soaked

in water for 24 hours. Peat and seed are alternated

in 1.5 inch layers. The seed is placed in fiberglas

net (window screen) bags so that it can be easily

separated from the peat. The peat and seed are kept

moist, but well drained. The warm period is at

room temperature—usually 70 to 80 degrees F,

and the cool period is 33 to 35 degrees F.

Van Haverbeke and Comer's (1985) research

suggests that these results can be improved with a

96 hours soak in citric acid (10,000 ppm), 6 weeks

1

Loucks, W.L. 1995. Pregermination Treatment of Eastern Redcedar Seed. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National

Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifc Northwest Research Station: 54-55.

2

Tree Planting Program Leader, Kansas State and Extension Forestry; 2610 Claflin Rd., Manhattan, KS 66502;

Tel: 913/537-7050; Fax: 913/539-9584

54
in moist-warm (24 degrees C) and 10 weeks moistcool stratification (5 degrees C). There is a need

for continued research to develop a quick, reliable

method to pretreat redcedar seed.

LITERATURE CITED

Schopmeyer, C. S. 1974. Seeds of Woody Plants in the

United States. USDA Forest Service. Agriculture

Handbook No. 450.

Van Haverbeke, D. F. and C. W. Comer. 1985. Effects of

Treatment and Seed Source on Germination of Eastern

Redcedar Seed. USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station. Research Paper

RM-263.

55
Growing Conservation Seedlings by the Square Foot:

Making it Pay1

David L. Wenny2

Abstract — In your nursery, do you really know which species and stock types are making or losing money?

I have developed an exercise to help nursery managers check their species/stock types and determine if the

resulting plants are yielding profit or loss. A computer spreadsheet can quickly provide information on how

changes in cell density (changing container types) affect seedling price and nursery income, and rank the

contribution each species or stock type makes toward financial objectives.

BACKGROUND

The University of Idaho has served as Idaho's

state nursery, providing reforestation and conservation seedlings since 1909. The University of Idaho

nursery has roles in teaching, research and service.

Our nursery facility serves as a classroom/laboratory for forestry students and offers practical work

experience for graduate students interested in

nursery management and regeneration projects.

Research in seedling production technology and in

vegetative propagation by students, research

associates and faculty are essential to our mission

and we work closely with the nursery industry to

pass on the benefits of our research program. We

continuously seek methods to improve production

technology, seedling quality and outplanting

performance. Our service role involves technology

transfer, various outreach and continuing education

activities and, importantly, seedling sales. Sales

must provide funds for operating expenses.

Recently, we placed a greater emphasis on

providing relatively few seedlings to each of many

landowners, a niche not occupied nor sought by

regional private nurseries. This emphasis required

us to change stock types from smaller seedlings

suitable for reforestation to larger seedlings better

able to survive and grow under harsher conditions,

especially in the hands of good-intentioned,

poorly-trained seedling handlers and planters.

Although seedling shipments include handling and

planting instructions, seedlings may not receive the

best care. Many of our conservation seedlings are

shipped to southern Idaho where planting sites are

hot and dry, heat girdling is a concern, site preparation is often poor and shipping and storage

conditions are less than ideal. A larger, tougher

seedling was required better to survive under these

conditions.

INTRODUCTION OF SUPERSTOCK

Plug size of our conservation stock has evolved

and increased over the years from 4 cubic inches to

20-cubic-inch capacity (45/340 (615 A))

copperblocks. We call seedlings grown in this

1Wenny, D.L. 1995. Growing Conservation Seedlings by the Square Foot: Making it Pay. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech.

coords. National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Experiment Station: 56-59.

2

Forest Research Nursery, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-1137. Tel: 208/885-7023; Fax: 208/885-6226;

e-mail: dwenny@uidaho.edu.

56
larger container "SuperStock" to differentiate them

on our order form from smaller stock of the same

species. Introduction was gradual, taking several

years as we slowly built up sales by creating

demand. Our marketing focused on benefits of

bigger seedlings: larger calipers withstand heat

stress, bending, trampling and other mechanical

damage better; larger stock are more visible so

they are less likely to be run over with mowers;

larger stock survive better and grow faster meeting

planting objectives sooner; and chemically root

pruned stock eliminate many root-related planting

problems. We also found that with higher seedling

prices, better pre- and post-planting care was

taken, further increasing survival and growth

potential. Landowners began with small orders for

SuperStock seedlings, found they did survive and

grow better on harsh sites (and on mesic sites) and

as word has spread, demand has increased each

year. This past season we provided 10 conifer and

27 hardwood SuperStock species (Table 1).

The conversion of stock type to larger seedlings

reduced the total number of seedlings produced. With

reduced production it became increasingly important

that each species and stock type be analyzed for its

contribution to financial objectives.

PRICING CONSIDERATIONS

Expenses for owning and operating a nursery

must be matched or exceeded by income from the

seedling production area. If this expense is expressed on a unit area of production, such as per

square foot of bench space, then different container

types and species can be readily compared. I use

total bench area rather than floor area since bench

surface area is the actual production area. A

spreadsheet makes comparison an easy task. First

sum all costs (salary, benefits, labor, travel, operating, capital outlay, taxes, profit etc.) that must be

covered by seedling sales income and divide by

total bench area to determine a "target return". If

production is effectively increased by growing

multiple crops, count that bench area multiple

times. Target return varies among nurseries due to

the nature of expenses and the economics of scale.

I estimate the target return for a 2 million capacity

nursery in the Intermountain Northwest to be about

$ 11 per square foot, and that a 5 million capacity

nursery would have a target return reduced to

about $9. The Research Nursery has a target return

of over $ 17 due to high research and service

expenses, and a small (< 12,000 ft2) production

area.

Table 1. Species grown as SuperStock.

Ponderosa pine

Western white pine

Austrian pine

Scotch pine

Western larch

Western redcedar

Blue spruce

Norway spruce

Engelmann spruce

Rocky Mt. juniper

Sugar maple

Serviceberry

Sagebrush

River birch

Siberian peashrub

Redosier dogwood

Russian-olive

Autumn-olive

Honeylocust

Amur honeysuckle

Wild apple

Western syringa

Hybrid poplar

American plum

Sand cherry

Black cherry

Nanking cherry

Chokecherry

Bur oak

English oak

Black locust

Rugosa rose

Golden willow

Arctic willow

Buffaloberry

White lilac

Purple lilac

57
Once target return is established, set up a

spreadsheet by container type. Enter the number of

trays per table or bench, and calculate actual

density per square foot of bench area, where:

density = (trays per bench x cells per tray) / bench area.

Then divide target return by density to determine

the equivalent seedling price. For example, to

generate $11.00 per square foot of bench space,

Ray Leach pine cell seedlings (PRL 200/66) would

cost $0.11 each (Table 2). A PSB 160/90 seedling

would have to cost $0.16 to generate the same income per square foot and a PSB 45/340 seedling

would cost $0.59. These are the minimum prices to

charge for each container type to pay its "fair share".

The above density per square foot of bench

space assumes all cavities sown will yield seedlings available for sale. Unfortunately, this is not

the case. Nurseries, however, can easily adjust the

density factor and produce an equivalent price by

species, as well as by container type. Adjusted

density is the density of cells per square foot of

bench space times the yield expressed as a percentage. Yield percentage for a species is the number

of seedlings meeting specifications divided by

number of cells sown. Species equivalent prices

may illustrate where improvements need to be

made. For example, Table 3 shows river birch

should cost $5.24 per seedling to pay its way.

Since this is far more than the actual selling price,

we are losing opportunity income by devoting

space to this species. We must either determine

ways to increase the yield factor, raise prices or

suffer the loss.

Table 2. Equivalent seedling price determination (target return = $11 / Bench Ft2).

Container

Type

PRL 200/66

PRL 98/1 64

PSB 160/90

PSB 1 1 2/80

PSB 77/1 70

PSB 45/340

Tray

Dimensions

12"x24"

12"x24"

14"x24"

14"x 24"

14"x24"

14"x24"

Trays / Bench

(6' x 16' Bench)

48

48

40

40

40

40

Density /

Bench Ft2

100.0

49.0

66.7

46.7

32.1

18.8

Equivalent

Seedling Price

$0.11

$0.22

$0.16

$0.24

$0.34

$0.59

Table 3. Species equivalent seedling price (target return = $11 / Bench Ft2).

Container

Type

PSB 160/90

PSB 160/90

PSB 45/340

PSB 45/340

PSB 45/340

PSB 45/340

Species

Ponderosa pine

Grand fir

Ponderosa pine

Juniper

Rugosa rose

River birch

Yield %

98%

63%

99%

7 2 %

3 3 %

11 %

Adjusted

Densitv / Ft2

65.4

42.0

18.6

13.5

6.2

2.1

Equivalent

Seedling Price

$0.17

$0.26

$0.59

$0.82

$1.77

$5.24

58
Table 4. Species profit or loss with a target return of $17.63.

Container

Type

PSB 160/90

PSB 160/90

PSB 45/340

PSB 45/340

PSB 45/340

PSB 45/340

Species

Ponderosa pine

Grand fir

Ponderosa pine

Juniper

Rugosa rose

River birch

Equivalent

Seedling Price

$0.27

$0.42

$0.95

$1.31

$2.84

$8.40

Market

Price

$0.28

$0.28

$1.50

$1.50

$1.50

$1.50

Profit or

(Loss)

$0.01

($0.14)

$0.55

$0.19

($1.34)

($6.90)

Last year the target return for the Research

Nursery was $17.63, substantially higher than the

factor illustrated in Table 3. Table 4 shows the

yield adjusted equivalent seedling price for a target

return of $17.63. The spreadsheet has been expanded to include a "Market Price" and the "Profit

or Loss" which is the difference between "Equivalent Price" and "Market Price". Our market price

for conservation seedlings was adjusted in consideration of the extra costs involved in dealing with

small lots and individual landowner customers.

Larger SuperStock seedlings are priced at $1.50

each for all species in order to, on average, cover

increased operating costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Each square foot of bench space must contribute

to nursery income. Once a minimum target is

established, a spreadsheet can enable managers to

compare container types or species by establishing

equivalent seedling prices. No attempt is made to

account for varying costs of seed or labor required

to grow different species. No extra charges are

made to larger seedlings that use more of the

facility, utilities or fixed costs. The spreadsheet

does show how each species is distributed about

the minimum income needed to cover all expenses

(target return). This information is of benefit in

establishing minimum prices by container type

and/or species.

59
History of Bessey Nursery1

Clark Fleege2

Welcome to the Nebraska National Forest. The

notion of having a planted forest on the treeless

Sandhills of central Nebraska was first proposed

by Dr. Charles E. Bessey, a professor of botany at

the University of Nebraska. The idea of planting

trees in Nebraska was not new. On the first Arbor

Day in 1872, over one million seedlings were

planted in Nebraska. Trees had been planted in the

Sandhills through the Timber Culture Act (1873)

with limited success and on a limited scale. In

1890, Dr. Bessey joined forces with Dr. Bernhard

E. Fernow, Chief of the USDA Division of Forestry to grow trees in the Sandhills of Nebraska.

The site they selected was in northeast Nebraska,

near Swan Lake in Holt County.

After considerable opposition from local ranching and farming interests, in the spring of 1891,

several species of conifers were planted. These

included jack pine, red pine, Scotch pine, Austrian

pine, ponderosa pine, douglas-fir and arborvitae.

After ten years those species with the highest rate

of survival were jack pine, Scotch pine, and ponderosa pine.

The success of this tree planting effort lead to

the establishment of three "Forest Reserves" for

tree planting purposes. On April 16, 1902, by

Presidential Proclamation, President Theodore

Roosevelt created the Dismal River, and Niobrara

River Forest Reserves. These Reserves contained

90,000 and and 124,000 acres respectively. In

1906, the North Platte Forest Reserve was established. It contained 347,000 acres. The total area

set aside for tree planting purposes was over onehalf million acres.

Local legend has it that Teddy Roosevelt not

only created the Dismal River Forest Reserve, but

also visited the Forest Headquarters and planted a

Colorado blue spruce seedling on site. Though the

official designation is the "Dismal River Forest

Reserve" (because the southern boundary is the

Dismal River), the Headquarters was located on

the Middle Loup River (the northern boundary),

because it was a more-suitable nursery site.

The Dismal River Forest Reserve is located in

the heart of the Nebraska Sandhills. The Sandhills

region encompasses approximately one-quarter of

the state. The Sandhills are rolling sand hills, with

the principle vegetation being grasses, and the

principle land-use being ranching. The purpose of

the "planted forest" that Bessey and Fernow

envisioned was to provide timber to homesteaders

under the Kinkaid Act, and to provide timber for

the railroad. In time, the forest became a laboratory of challenge and a training school for many

foresters.

On September 6, 1902, the location of the first

seedbed was staked. The bed was 136 feet by 136

feet. It was surrounded by five-foot woven picket

fencing, and roofed with four-foot picket fencing.

1

Fleege, C. 1995. History of Bessey Nursery. In: Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National proceedings, Forest and

Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 60-63.

2Nursery Manager, Bessey Nursery, USDA Forest Service, PO Box 38, Halsey, NE 69142; Tel.: 308-533-2257; Fax: 308-533-2213.

60
The first seed sown on November 13, 1902. The

species was ponderosa pine, with seed collected

from the Pine Ridge region of northwestern Nebraska. The seed collection costs were $1.36 per

pound. The first out-planting of conifer seedlings

produced at the Nursery was 1904. These were

1-0 yellow pine (ponderosa pine), and did not fare

well, as they were too small.

In the early days of the Nursery, each task was

extremely labor-intensive. The implements were

either horse-pulled, or man-operated. Early seedbeds were cultivated with teams of horses, and

then seedbeds were prepared with side-boards,

rulers and levels for exactness. Bird and rodent

predation was discouraged with the use of horizontal overhead snow-fencing known as "Pettis

frames" (Figure 1). Along with hand seeding,

mechanical seeders were used. Planet, Jr. seed

drills, still used by many nurseries today, were

used to sow conifer seed in 1906 (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Horizontal overhead snow-fencing, "Pettis

frames".

Figure 2. Planet, Jr. seed drill.

Following seeding, sand was used as a mulch.

After the application of the mulch, a wheelbarrel of

sulfuric acid was pulled by hand and applied over

the conifer seedbeds to prevent "damping off "

(Figure 3).

Figure 3. Wheelbarrel of sulfuric acid pulled by hand

over seedbeds.

The success of the early plantings was 5 to 10

percent survival; seedling survival attained in 1911

was 85-90 percent. This dramatic increase is due

largely to improved methods in the nursery. The

most important improvement was the use of

transplant seedlings. The first transplanting was

done in May, 1906. A transplant crew consisted of

five men: two men would dig the trench; one man

would place the seedlings in the transplant board;

and then two men would set the transplant boards

in the open trench, fill the trench with soil, and

remove the transplant board from the seedlings.

The average production per day for a crew of five

men was 6000 seedlings.

Along with the practice of transplants, root

pruning was a cultural practice that greatly increased out-planting survival. An L-shaped bar

undercutting the seedlings at approximately eight

inches was pulled by a block-and-tackle. This was

a standard practice as early as 1905 (Figure 4).

It was extremely important to supply water to

the growing seedlings. The earliest irrigation

sources were from windmills located adjacent to

the seedbeds. Later, as more acres were under

61
cultivation, irrigation was pumped from the Middle

Loup River. This water was then used to "flood

irrigate" the nursery seedbeds. In time, flood

irrigation was replaced by overhead sprinklers;

first with the "Skinner system" to our current

system of ground irrigation lines, risers and oscillating watering heads (Figure 5).

Figure 4. Horse-drawn L-bar used to undercut

seedlings.

Figure 5. Skinner irrigation system at Bessey nursery.

A two-horse team hooked to a capstan bar

tightened a cable that pulled the horizontal underground bar that "lifted" or harvested the seedlings.

A crew then field-packed the seedlings immediately behind the bar. When the seedlings were

packed, they resembled a "jelly-roll" (with the

roots all to the center of the roll and seedling tops

all to the outside end). The seedlings were then

stored in a shed until spring planting. An ice-pond

was created on the nursery for the sole purpose of

cutting large blocks of ice out of the pond during

the cold winter months. The harvested blocks

were then stored until use in the spring to maintain

seedling dormancy.

Once the seedlings were harvested, it was time

for out-planting. Five tree planting camps were

established on the Dismal River Forest Reserve

(Figure 6). The field planting camps moved every

two years, and would accommodate fifty men and

thirty horses. The seedlings were transported to

the field planting camps via flat-bed truck, buckboard wagon or pack trains. One pack horse could

carry two one-thousand tree seedling packs.

The standard planting procedure was to plow a

furrow, have the seedlings inserted into the planting trench, and close the furrow. Three men and

six horses were needed to plow the furrow. One

man holds the furrow plow while one man drives

Figure 6. Tree planting camp in sandhills (Compare to

established forest in background of Figure 5).

the team, and the third man operates the trencher.

Two teams of three men and six horses worked

together, plowing open the same furrow. In time,

mechanization replaced the horses. Bulldozers

pulled tree-planting machines that made tree

planting much more efficient. With this mechanization 10,000 to 20,000 trees could be planted per

day. Of the 90,000 acres were available for tree

planting well-over 20,000 acres planted to trees.

Many species were planted (eg. red pine, Afghan

62
pine, Austrian pine), but three species were proven

to be most successful. These were ponderosa pine

(currently 16,000 acres), jack pine (currently 2000

acres), and eastern redcedar (currently 2000 acres).

Seedlings produced at the Bessey Nursery were

used for more purposes than simply foresting the

Dismal River Forest Reserve. Seedlings were

shipped via the railroad for reforestation purposes

on various federal "Forest Reserves" throughout

the Rocky Mountain region (Figure 7). For example, in 1905, one-year red fir seedlings were

shipped to the Pike's Peak Forest Reserve; and in

1906, fifty thousand two-year bull pine were

shipped to Wyncote, Wyoming. During the Prairie

State Forest Program of the mid-thirties, the

Bessey Nursery was one of two nurseries supplying conifer seedlings for windbreak plantings on

the Great Plains.

Figure 7. Trains were used to ship seedlings to

surrounding states.

The Civilian Conservation Corps made many

important contributions to seedling production and

seedling planting during the 1930's. The CCC's

had maintained a camp for over two years. In

1935, a swimming pool was constructed by the

CCC that is still in use today. The swimming pool

is the only pool managed by the Forest Service.

What does the future hold for the Bessey Nursery? The Nursery is the bareroot and container

seedling production facility for the Rocky Mountain Region of the USDA-Forest Service. The

Nursery is also the home of the Regional Tree

Seedbank and Extractory. In addition, the Nursery

produces approximately three million seedlings

annually for the Nebraska Forest Service for

distribution to rural landowners in Nebraska. Due

to its abundant source of good water, highly

desireable production soils, and favorable climate,

the Charles E. Bessey Nursery is poised to remain

in the forefront of seedling production in the Great

Plains and Rocky Mountain region.

What does the future hold for Dismal River

Forest Reserve? Over time the Dismal River

Forest Reserve became the Bessey Ranger District.

Tree planting is no longer the dominant activity on

the District, though seedlings continue to be

planted on a limited scale (eg. to enhance wildlife

habitat). As the District is a natural prairie, trees

will give way to grass where no woody revegation

occurs. The only natural pine regeneration occurs

on north-facing slopes, in depressions, in thinned

tree stands, or in narrow bands between the plantation and the native grass. Eastern redcedar is the

only conifer extending beyond its planted bounds.

It is felt the long-term composition of the handplanted Forest will be dominated by eastern

redcedar. With less than two percent of the land

base in Nebraska in the public domain, recreation

on the District continues to grow. Some of the

recreation activities include hunting, hiking,

horseback riding, wildlife viewing, camping in

developed sites and dispersed areas.

The spririt and vision of Charles E. Bessey

extends far beyond the boundaries of the original

Nebraska Forest Reserves of the early 1900's.

REFERENCES

Bates, C.G., R. G. Pierce. 1913. "Forestation of the Sand

Hills of Nebraska and Kansas." USDA-FS Bull. 121.

Droze, W.H. 1977. "Trees, Prairies and People." Texas

Womans's University, Denton.

Hunt, J.C. 1965. "The Forests That Men Made." American

Forests, November and December.

63
Nursery and Reforestation Programs at the Missoula

Technology and Development Center1

Dick Karsky and Ben Lowman2

Abstract—The Missoula Technology and Development Center (MTDC) evaluates existing technology and

develops new technology to ensure that nursery and reforestation managers have appropriate equipment,

materials, and techniques for accomplishing their tasks. Work underway in 1995 is described and recent

publications, journal articles, and drawings are listed.

INTRODUCTION

The Missoula Technology and Development

Center has provided improved equipment, techniques, and materials for Forest Service nurseries

and reforestation programs for more than 20 years.

The Center has worked to improve efficiency and

safety in these areas, and throughout the Forest

Service. The Center evaluates existing technology

and equipment and develops new technology and

equipment. Projects are funded by the Washington

Office Timber Management Staff. The Center's

program of work in reforestation and nurseries is

selected by the National Forest Regeneration Committee, which is made up of representatives from

various levels of the Forest Service. The following

summaries describe the Center's current projects.

REFORESTATION TECHNICAL SERVICES

(Project Leader — Ben Lowman)

Through this continuing project, Center personnel provide a variety of services to field units.

Surveys are conducted to determine current reforestation field problems. Those problems are translated into projects in the reforestation program.

The Technical Services project allows us to investigate promising new techniques and equipment

that may, after evaluation, become part of the

Forest Service inventory of equipment. In addition,

Technical Services provides a forum for answering

inquiries from field personnel concerning equipment, material, and techniques applicable to

reforestation activities.

Papers presented at professional meetings,

technical reports, and drawings are also funded

through this project.

Recent Accomplishments:

• Adapted a Pacific Northwest Region (6) tree

climbing guide into a Forest Service guide. The

guide will be available in the fall of 1995.

• Modified the Salmon Blade. The drawings were

updated and sent to interested commercial

manufacturers, including Weldco-Beales, for

commercial production.

1Karsky, D.; Lowman, B. 1995. Nursery and Reforestation Programs at the Missoula Technology and Development Center. In:

Landis, T.D.; Cregg, B., tech. coords. National Proceedings, Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-365. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 64-74.

2Project Leader and Program Leader, respectively. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center,

Building One, Fort Missoula, Missoula, MT 59801; Tel: 406-329-3921; Fax: 406-329-3719.

64
• Worked with Doug Basford, Northern Region

(1) to produce his natural regeneration and

timber stand release video. Loan copies are

available from MTDC.

• Completed work on the Loblolly tree seed

collection system and the power platform.

Reports were published to close out these

projects.

• Responded to numerous field inquiries for

information on tree girdlers, feller bunchers, and

excavators.

• Worked with Washington Office Timber Management to revise the wording on timber management posters. These revisions have been

recorded on AUTOCAD for easy transfer to

potential commercial manufacturers.

Center representatives meet with the National

Forest Regeneration Committee each year to

review the status of ongoing projects and new

projects. Project proposals are welcome. They may

be submitted to Ben Lowman at MTDC. Write a

summary of the problem and the desired action.

The information will be used to determine priorities, and to link you with others with similar

problems or to those who may have solutions to

your problem.

POLLEN EQUIPMENT

(Project Leader — Debbie O'Rowke)

Thirty years ago the Forest Service launched an

expanded tree improvement program. A network

of genetically superior tree seed orchards was

created in an effort to produce top-quality seed.

These trees are now in the cone-bearing stage.

Protecting the genetic quality of their seed is of

prime importance.

Stands of timber surrounding Federal orchards

are sources of "inferior" pollen that threatens the

decades of work done by tree breeders to upgrade

seed quality. About 40 percent of the tree seed now

produced by these orchards is the result of fertilization by outside "inferior" pollen. Equipment and

methods to control orchard pollination are essential

to the seed improvement program.

The Center has been working with orchard

personnel and Forest Service Research organizations to develop equipment for mass collection and

mass application of pollen. A vacuum collection

system developed by the Center gives orchard

managers a means of collecting a large supply of

pollen from the crowns of designated trees in a

quick and efficient manner. This pollen is cleaned

and stored for future application to target trees

during their receptive period.

For application, the Center has developed a

modified tractor-mounted air duster that can blow

the collected pollen high into the crown of orchard

trees. Dry pollen application was tried first, but

"blow-by" was very high. Subsequent tests used

pollen in water suspension. Monitoring of the

effectiveness of this method will be completed by

Don Copes, PNW, this year.

This equipment can help protect the quality of

seed and increase orchard productivity by ensuring

that an adequate amount of genetically acceptable

pollen is available. Systems for both West Coast

Douglas-fir, and North Carolina loblolly pine have

been developed. A final report, complete with

drawings and specifications, is being prepared

(Figures 1, 2).

ANIMAL REPELLENTS

(Project Leader — Debbie O'Rowke)

The survival and growth of seedlings planted on

National Forests has improved dramatically in the

past 20 years. Primarily because better quality

seedlings are being produced in Federal nurseries and

because increased care is being used in planting and

handling these seedlings. One major problem remains—animal predation of planted stock.

65
Figure 1. Wet pollen applicator.

Although livestock, rodents, and other animals

take their toll, deer and elk are the primary browsers. By nipping off buds and shoots, elk and deer

restrict the growth of some seedlings and kill

others. Fencing can reduce this damage, but it is

expensive and impractical in most field situations.

Chemical sprays, powders, and systemics have

been tried for years with only limited success.

The Center has teamed with the USDA, Animal

and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)

under a cooperative agreement covering animal

pest control research. In 1993 a steering committee including representatives from the Center,

APHIS, and the Pacific Southwest and Pacific

Northwest Regions (5 and 6) was formed to

outline the project's objectives. The steering

committee decided that APHIS and MTDC should

enter into a contract covering three services:

testing repellents and barriers on penned animals;

publishing a comprehensive catalog of currently

available animal repellents and barriers; and

publishing a Tech Tip reporting the results of a

field evaluation of repellents intended to keep

animals away from certain areas. The tests have

Figure 2. Poly-mix applicator.

been completed. The catalog and Tech Tip will be

published in 1995.

MTDC will also publish a Tech Tip on pocket

gophers and gopher control based on a comprehensive report written by Ron Bonar. Both will be

available in 1995 (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Deer nip off buds and shoots from

unprotected seedlings.

66
NATIVE PLANT SEED COLLECTOR

(Project Leader — Debbie O'Rourke)

As part of the Forest Service's shift into ecosystem management, land managers are paying more

attention to plant diversity. Management plans

focus on all plants on a site, not just the commercial tree species. Shrubs and non commercial trees

will be part of the planning package.

Because of the previous emphasis on commercial tree species, little work has been devoted to

the techniques and equipment necessary for collecting various native plant seeds. This project will

determine the needs in this area and find equipment or methods to meet these needs.

The Center is surveying Forest Service personnel to determine what equipment is needed to

adequately collect plant seed from native shrubs

and non-commercial species. MTDC will also

conduct a market and literature search. Results will

be reported to the Forest Regeneration Committee.

STUMP APPLICATOR FOR FELLER-BUNCHERS

(Project Leader — Dick Karsky)

MTDC has designed and fabricated a tank and

spray system that can be attached to feller-buncher

tree harvesters for applying stump treatments

during thinning operations. This system will be

used to prevent annosum root rot in thinned conifer

stands.

Heterobasidion annosum is the most common

disease of thinned pine plantations in the Southern

Region (8). Thinning opens a stand to colonization

by H. annosum through the freshly cut stump

surfaces. The fungus spreads to adjacent trees

through root grafts. Treating stump surfaces with a

solution of TIM-BORTM, or a solution of a competing fungus, Phlebia gigantia, can control this disease.

However, stump application by hand is labor-intensive. The MTDC system allows the feller-buncher

operator to treat the stump when it is cut.

The system consists of a 40-gallon tank, a

diaphragm pump, a timer, and a full cone nozzle.

The nozzle is mounted behind the saw head where

it can be seen by the operator and still be protected

from debris. A 3-second spray burst fully covers a

stump.

The prototype system was tested at the Savannah River Forest Station in September 1994. The

unit proved to be a practical, easily attached stump

applicator system. It can easily be adapted to

different models of feller-buncher harvesters.

Minor improvements incorporated into the prototype design will be tested at Savannah River in

1995. Results of the test will be reported.

NURSERY SOIL FUMIGATION

(Project Leader — Dick Karsky)

Growth of young trees is affected by the levels

of pathogenic organisms present in the nursery

environment. Certain cultural practices, such as

crop rotation, have been used to reduce these levels

in nursery seedling beds, but chemical application

has been the preferred method. Basimid and

Methyl Bromide were two fumigants used to

sterilize beds in the past.

Methyl Bromide has been found to be environmentally harmful. The Environmental Protection

Agency has proposed banning its use by 2001.

MTDC was asked to find an economically and

environmentally acceptable way of sterilizing

nursery bed soils.

Both microwave and steam sterilization methods will be investigated. A cooperative agreement

or contract will be arranged to determine the

feasibility of microwave technology.

The Center has acquired a portable diesel-fired

steam generator and will configure it for nursery

operations. The Center is working with Bob James,

67 CONTINUED