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Agriculture Handbook No. 511
Cavity-Nesting Birds

of

North American Forests

Virgil E. Scott

Denver Wildlife Research Center

Keith E. Evans

North Central Forest Experiment Station

David R. Patton

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station

Charles P. Stone

Denver Wildlife Research Center

Illustrated by

Arthur Singer

Agriculture Handbook 511

November 1977

Forest Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing

Office Washington, D.C. 20402

Stock No. 001-000-03726-9
Scott, Virgil E., Keith E. Evans, David R. Patton, and Charles P.

Stone.

1977. Cavity-nesting birds of North American forests. U.S.

Dep. Agrie, Agrie. Handb. 511, 112 p.

Habitat, cavity requirements, and foods are described for 85

species of birds that nest in cavities in dead or decadent trees.

Intensive removal of such trees would disastrously affect breeding habitat for many of these birds that help control destructive

forest insects. Birds are illustrated in color; distributions are

mapped.

PREFACE

This Handbook is ttie result of a cooperative effort between

tlie Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the

Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.

Authors Scott and Stone are v^ildlife research biologists with

the Fish and Wildlife Service's Denver Wildlife Research

Center. Scott is stationed in Fort Collins, Colorado. Authors

Evans and Patton are principal wildlife biologists with the

Forest Service's North Central Forest Experiment Station and

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, respectively. Evans is stationed in Columbia, Missouri, in cooperation

with the University of Missouri, while Patton is stationed in

Tempe, Arizona, in cooperation with Arizona State University.

Special thanks are due Arthur Singer, who graciously

donated the use of his .illustrations from "A guide to field

identification: Birds of North America," by Robbins, Bruun,

and Zim, which are reproduced here with permission of the

Western Publishing Company. The distribution maps are also

reproduced with the permission of Western Publishing Company. © Copyright 1966 by Western Publishing Company, Inc.

We would like to thank Kimberly Hardin, Beverly Roedner,

Mary Gilbert, Steve Blair, and Michael, Leslie, and Mary Stone

for their assistance in collecting literature. A special thanks to

Jill Whelan for her assistance in literature searches, checking

references and scientific names, and assembling this publication. The assistance of Robert Hamre in encouraging and guiding the preparation of this manuscript is acknowledged and

very much appreciated.
Cavity-Nesting Birds of

North American Forests

Many species of cavity-nesting birds have declined because

of habitat reduction. In the eastern United States, where

primeval forests are gone, purple martins depend almost entirely on man-made nesting structures (Allen and Nice 1952).

The hole-nesting population of peregrine falcons disappeared

with the felling of the giant trees upon which they depended

(Hickey and Anderson 1969). The ivory-billed and red-cockaded

woodpeckers are currently on the endangered list, primarily as

a result of habitat destruction (Givens 1971, Bent 1939). The

wood duck was very scarce in many portions of its range, at

least in part, for the same reason and probably owes its

present status to provision of nest boxes and protection from

overhunting.

Some 85 species of North American birds (table 1) excavate

nesting holes, use cavities resulting from decay (natural cavities), or use holes created by other species in dead or deteriorating trees. Such trees, commonly called snags, have often

been considered undesirable by forest and recreation managers

because they are not esthetically pleasing, conflict with other

forest management practices, may harbor forest insect pests,

or may be fire or safety hazards. In the past such dead trees

were often eliminated from the forest during a timber harvest.

As a result, in some areas few nesting sites were left for cavitynesting birds. Current well-intentioned environmental pressures to emphasize harvesting large dead or dying trees, if

realized, would have further adverse effects on such ecologically and esthetically important species as woodpeckers, swallows, wrens, nuthatches, and owls — to name a few.

The majority of cavity-nesting birds are insectivorous. Because they make up a large proportion of the forest-dwelling

bird population, they play an important role in the control of

forest insect pests (Thomas et al. 1975). Woodpeckers are

especially important predators of many species of tree-killing

bark beetles (Massey and Wygant 1973). Bruns (1960) summarized the role of birds in the forests:

Within the community of all animals and plants of the forest,

birds form an important factor. The birds generally are not able

to break down an insect plague, but theirfunction lies in prevent-
in^ insect plagues. It is our duty to preserve birds for esthetic as

well as economic reasons . . . where nesting chances are diminished by forestry work . ... It is our duty to further these biological forces [birds, bats. etc. ] and to conserve or create a rich

and diverse community. By such a prophylactic . . . the forests

will be better protected than by any other means.

Several of the birds that nest in cavities tend to be resident

(non-nnigrating) species (von Haartman 1968) and thus more

amenable to local habitat management practices than migratory species. Nest holes may be limiting for breeding populations of at least some species (von Haartman 1956, Laskey

1940, Troetschler 1976, Kessell 1957). Bird houses have been

readily accepted by many natural cavity nesters, and increases

in breeding density have resulted from providing such structures

(Hamerstrom et al. 1973, Strange et al. 1971, Grenquist 1965),

an indication that management of natural snags should be

rewarding.

Because nesting requirements vary by bird species, forest

type, and geographic location, more research is needed to

determine snag species, quality, and density of existing and

potential cavity trees that are needed to sustain adequate populations of cavity-nesters. In a Montana study, for example,

larch and paper birch snags were most frequently used by

cavity-nesters (McClelland and Frissell 1975). The most frequently used trees were large, broken-topped larches (either

dead or alive), greater than 25 inches diameter at breast height

(dbh), and more than 50 feet tall. No particular snag density

was recommended to managers. In the Pacific Northwest,

Thomas et al. (1976) suggested about seven snags per acre to

maintain 100 percent of the potential maximum breeding populations of cavity-nesters in ponderosa pine forests and six per

acre in lodgepole pine and subalpine fir. In Arizona ponderosa

pine forests, an average of 2.6 snags per acre (mostly ponderosa) were used by cavity-nesting birds (Scott, in press^).

The most frequently used snags were trees dead 6 or more

years, more than 18 inches dbh, and with more than 40 percent

bark cover. The height of the snag was not as important as the

diameter, but snags more than 46 feet tall had more holes than

did shorter ones. Balda (1975) recommended 2.7 snags per acre

to maintain natural bird species diversity and maximum densities in the ponderosa pine forests of Arizona.

* Scott, Virgil E. Characteristics of ponderosa pine snags used by

cavity-nesting birds. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Important silvical characteristics in the development of nesting cavities include (1) tree size, longevity, and distribution;

(2) regeneration by sprouts, and (3) decay in standing trees

(Hansen 1966). Although trees less than 14 to 16 inches dbh at

maturity are too small to yield cavities appropriate for wood

ducks, they may be important for smaller species. Aspen,

balsam fir, bitternut hickory, ironwood, and other trees fall

within this range. Short-lived species such as aspen and balsam fir usually form cavities earlier than longer lived trees.

Since a major avenue of fungal infection is sprouts, sprouting

vigor and the age at which sprouts are produced are important

considerations in managing for cavity-producing hardwood

trees. Cavity formation in oaks of basal origin is a slow

process, but black oak is a good cavity producer as trees

approach maturity because although the heartwood decays

rapidly the sapwood is resistant (Bellrose et ai. 1964). Basswood is a good cavity producer because of its sprouting characteristics. Baumgartner (1939), Gysel (1961), Kilham (1971),

Erskine and McLaren (1972), and others presented information

on tree cavity formation for wildlife species. More information

on the role of decay from branch scars, cutting, and animal

damage is needed for different species of trees so that positive

management for snags may be encouraged.

Removal of snags is also known to reduce populations of

some birds. For example, removal of some live timber and

snags in an Arizona ponderosa pine forest reduced cavitynesting bird populations by 50 percent (Scott^). Violet-green

swallows, pygmy nuthatches, and northern three-toed woodpeckers accounted for much of the decline. A previously high

population of swallows dropped 90 percent, and a low woodpecker population was eliminated. On an adjacent plot, where

live trees were harvested but snags were left standing, cavitynesters increased as they did on a plot where live trees and

snags were undisturbed.

Foresters and recreation managers are now more aware of

the esthetic and economic values of nongame wildlife, including cavity-nesting birds. In summer of 1977 the U.S. Forest

Service established a national snag policy requiring all Regions

and Forests to develop guidelines to "provide habitat needed to

maintain viable, self-sustaining populations of cavity-nesting

and snag-dependent wildlife species." These guidelines are

also to include "retention of selected trees, snags, and other

flora, to meet future habitat requirements" (USDA Forest Serv2

Scott, VirgilE. [In prep.] Bird response to snag removal. U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
ice 1977). Some Forest Service Regions had already established policies for snag management. For example, in 1976 the

Arizona-New Mexico Region (USDA Forest Service 1976) recommended that three good quality snags be retained per acre

within 500 feet of forest openings and water, with two per acre

over the remaining forest. The policy also requires that provisions be made for continued recruitment of future snags;

spike-topped trees with cavities and obvious cull trees should

be left for future cavity nesters. Some foresters are now using

tags to protect the more suitable snags from fuelwood cutters

in high-use areas.

In this book, we have summarized both published data and

personal observations on the cavity-nesting birds of North

America in an attempt to provide land managers with an up-todate, convenient source of information on the specific requirements of these birds. Bird nomenclature follows the American

Ornithologists' Union Checklist of North American Birds (fifth

edition, with supplements). Bird illustrations and distribution

maps are reprinted with permission of Western Publishing Co.

from A Guide to Field Identification of Birds of North America

by Robbins et al. (1966). The small range maps indicate where

birds are likely to be found during different seasons. Summer

or breeding range is identified in red, winter range in blue;

purple indicates areas where the species may be found all year.

Red cross-hatching identifies areas where migrating birds are

likely to be seen only in spring and fall. Length measurements

(L) are for birds in their natural position, while W indicates

wingspan.

Percentages of the diet under "Food" in species accounts

refer to volume, unless otherwise indicated. Since nestlings of

most species require insect protein, "Major Foods" refers

largely to adult diets. Appendices list common names of plants

and animals mentioned in the text, with scientific names when

they could be determined.
Table 1.—Cavity-nesting birds : tree use and major foods.

Snag or

Page K>ds^

No.

TreeU!

A B

se' Major Fo

Common Name C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Black-bellied whistling duck 7 X X X

Wood duck 8 X X X X X X

Common goldeneye 9 X X X X X

Barrow's goldeneye 10 X X X X X

Bufflehead 11 X X X X X

Hooded merganser 12 X X X X X X

Common merganser 13 X X X X X

Turkey vulture 14 X X X

Black vulture 15 X X X

Peregrine falcon ^ 16 X X X

Merlin 17 X X X X X

American kestrel 18 X X X X X

Bam owl 19 X X X

Screech owl 20 X X X X

Whiskered owl 21 X X X

Flammulated owl 22 X X X

Hawk owl 23 X X X

Pygmy owl 24 X X X X

Ferruginous owl 25 X X X

Elf owl 26 X X X

Barred owl 27 X X X

Spotted owl 28 X X X X X

Boreal owl 29 X X X

Saw-whet owl 30 X X X X

Chimney swift 31 X X

Vaux's swift 32 X X X

Coppery- 33 X X X X

tailed trogon

Common flicker 34 X X X X

Pileated woodpecker 35 X X X X

Red-bellied woodpecker 36 X X X X X

Golden-fronted woodpecker 37 X X X

Gila woodpecker 38 X X X

Red-headed woodpecker 39 X X X X X

Acorn woodpecker 40 X X X X X

Lewis' woodpecker 41 X X X X X

Yellow-bellied sapsucker 42 X X X X X

Williamson's sapsucker 43 X X X X

Hairy woodpecker 44 X X X X

Downy woodpecker 45 X X X X

Ladder-backed woodpecker 46 X X X

Nuttall's woodpecker 47 X X X

Arizona woodpecker 48 X X X X X

Red-cockaded woodpecker 49 X X X X

White-headed woodpecker 50 X X X

Black-backed three-toed 51 X X X

woodpecker
Snag or

Page TreeUse^ Major Foods ^

Common Name No. A B C

Northern three-toed 52 X X

woodpecker

Ivory-billed woodpecker ^

Sulphur-bellied flycatcher

Great-crested flycatcher

Wied's crested flycatcher

Ash-throated flycatcher

Olivaceous flycatcher

Western flycatcher

Violet-green swallow

Tree swallow

Purple martin

Black-capped chickadee

Carolina chickadee

Mexican chickadee

Mountain chickadee

Gray-headed chickadee

Boreal chickadee

Chestnut-backed chickadee

Tufted titmouse

Plain titmouse

Bridled titmouse

White-breasted nuthatch

Red-breasted nuthatch

Brown-headed nuthatch

Pygmy nuthatch

Brown creeper

House wren

Brown-throated wren

Winter wren

Bewick's wren

Carolina wren

Eastern bluebird

Western bluebird

Mountain bluebird

Starling

Crested myna

Prothonotary warbler

Lucy's warbler

House sparrow

European tree sparrow

53 X X X

54 X

55 X X

56 X

57 X X

58 X X

59 X

60 X X

61 X

62 X X

63 X

64 X

65 X

66 X

67 X

68 X

69 X

70 X

71 X

72 X

73 X

74 X

75 X

76 X

77 X

78 X

79 X

80 X

81 X

82 X

83 X X

84 X X

85 X X

86 X X X

87 X

88 X

89 X

90 X X X

91 X

X

X X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X X

X

X X

X

XX X

XX X

X X

X X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X X X

XXX

X X

X

XXX

X X

1. Snag or tree use: A: food B: nest C: perch.

2. Major foods: 1: birds 2:rodents 3: reptiles and amphibians 4: insects 5:

seeds and fleshy fruits 6: vegetation 7: other or little known.

3. Threatened or endangered species.
Black-bellied whistling duck

Dendrocygna autumnalis

L 13" W 37"

Habitat: Black-bellied whistling ducks (tree ducks) are found

regularly In southern Texas and erratically elsewhere. Open

woodlands, groves or thicket borders where ebony, mesquite,

retama, huisache, and several species of cacti are dominant in

freshwater habitat are preferred (Oberholser 1974, Meanley and

Meanley 1958). Range extensions have been facilitated by

flooding and impoundments.

Nest: Natural cavities in trees such as live oaks, ebony, willow,

mesquite, and hackberry are preferred, but ground nests and

nest boxes are sometimes used. The nest can be over land or

water, but herbaceous vegetation under "land-bound" nests

may be preferred to brush (Bolen et al. 1964). A perch near the

cavity entrance may also be a factor in nest tree selection.

Open and closed cavities are used. Nest cavities average 8.7

feet above ground or water and 23 inches deep, with 7.0 x 12.5

Inch openings (Bellrose 1976). Nesting boxes should be 11 x 11

x 22 Inches high at the front and tapered to 20 inches in the

rear, with entrances 5 Inches In diameter (Bolen 1967). Nest

boxes should not be erected unless they are predator proof.

Food: Black-bellied whistling ducks are predominantly grazers

(Rylander and Bolen 1974), but they can dabble and dive for

aquatic food. Of 92 percent plant materials, sorghum and

Bermudagrass predominated, with smartweeds, millets, water

stargrass, and corn also occurring in one study (Bolen and

Forsyth 1967). In some areas corn and oats are more Important

In the diet.
Wood duck

Aix sponsa

L 131/2" W 28"

Habitat: Wood ducks are associated with bottomland hardwood

forests where trees are large enough to provide nesting cavities

and where water areas provide food and cover requirements

(McGilvrey 1968). Requirements may be met in several important forest types, all of which must be flooded during the early

nesting season: (1) southern flood plain, (2) red maple, (3) central flood plain, (4) temporarily flooded oak-hickory, and (5)

northern bottomland hardwoods.

Nest: Optimum natural cavities are 20 to 50 feet above the

ground with entrance holes of 4 inches in diameter, cavity

depths of 2 feet, and cavity bottoms measuring 10 x 10 inches

(McGilvrey 1968). Management for cavities more than a half

mile from water is not recommended, and dead trees, other

than cypress, do not usually contain usable cavities. Good

densities of suitable wood-duck cavities have been recorded for

many timber types (Bellrose 1976). Nest boxes are readily used

by wood ducks, and their use may increase breeding populations, even if natural cavities are abundant, if predators are

excluded. Measurements and placement of wood duck boxes

have been well described (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1976,

Bellrose 1976, McGilvrey 1968).

Food: Wood ducks consume large quantities of acorns, usually

in flooded bottoms. Other mast and fleshy fruits also are

eaten, as are waste corn and wheat (Bellrose 1976). Smartweed, buttonbush, bulrush, pondweed, cypress, ash, sweet

gum, burweed, and arrow arum seeds are used by breeding

birds. Skunk cabbage, coontail, and duckweed are also food

items. Duckweed is also habitat for invertebrates in the diet

(Grice and Rogers 1965).
Common goldeneye

Bucephala clangula

L 13" W 31'

Habitat: The breeding range of the common goldeneye generally coincides with the boreal coniferous forest in North America

(Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976). In a Minnesota study, 87

percent of breeding goldeneyes were found on large, sandbottomed fish lakes (Johnson 1967), while in New Brunswick,

this species preferred water areas with marshy shores and adjacent stands of old hardwoods (Carter 1958). In Maine, nests are

found in mature hardwoods adjacent to lakes with rocky

shores, hard bottoms, and clear water. Shoal waters less than

10 feet deep with an irregular shoreline provide brood shelter

and protective vegetation necessary for duckling food (Gibbs

1961).

Nest: Common goldeneyes used and were more successful in

open top or "bucket" cavities than in enclosed cavities in New

Brunswick (Prince 1968). Most nests were in silver maples on

wetter sites or American elms on drier sites and aspen in

northern conifer forests. Nest trees averaged 23 inches in

diameter with caviety dimensions of 8 inches in diameter and

18 inches deep; most entrances were 6 to 40 feet above ground

(Prince 1968). Wooden nest boxes measuring 12 x 12 x 24

inches with elliptical entrances 3V2 x AVz inches were used

extensively in Minnesota (Johnson 1967).

Food: Of 395 stomachs examined by Cottam (1939), crustaceans (32 percent), insects (28 percent), and molluscs (10 percent) were primary animal foods (total, 73.9 percent). Crabs,

crayfish, amphipods, caddisfly larvae, water boatmen, naiads

of dragonflies, damselflies, and mayflies were also found.

Pondweed, wild celery, and seeds of pondweed and bulrushes

were important plant materials.
Barrow's goldeneye

Bucephala islándica

9 winter

L 13" W 31'

< 7^

Habitat: Barrow's goldeneyes attain their highest breeding

population levels In western North America on moderately

alkaline lakes of small to medium size in parkland areas. Open

water is a necessity throughout the range, but frequently

goldeneyes favor a dense growth of submerged aquatics such

as sago pondweed and widgeon grass. The abundance of

aquatic invertebrates may be more important than nesting cavities in determining distribution (Johnsgard 1975).

Nest: This species is not an obligate tree nester, and has been

reported to use holes in banks or lava beds, rock crevices,

ground under shrubs and on islands, haylofts, crows' nests,

and the outer walls of peat shelters for sheep in Iceland (Harris

at al. 1954). However, the usual site is in dead stubs or trees

such as aspen, Douglas-fir, and ponderosa pine within 100 feet

of water (Palmer 1976). Deserted piieated woodpecker or common flicker cavities enlarged by natural decay are readily used

(Palmer 1976). Cavity entrances from 3.0 to 3.9 inches in

diameter, cavity depths between 9.8 and 52.9 inches, and

cavity diameters between 6.5 and 9.0 inches have been reported

(Johnsgard 1975). Nest boxes have been used around high

lakes in the Cascade Mountains (Bellrose 1976).

Food: Food of 71 adult Barrow's goldeneyes consisted of 36

percent insects, 19 percent molluscs, 18 percent crustaceans, 4

percent other animals, and 22 percent plants (Cottom 1939).

Naiads of dragonflies and damselflies, caddisfly and midge

larvae, blue mussels, amphipods, isopods, and crayfish were

important animal foods, and pondweeds and wild celery were

primary plant foods.

10
Bufflehead

Bucephala albeola

LIO" W 24"

Habitat: Buffleheads favor small ponds and lakes In open

woodlands (Godfrey 1966). In British Columbia, most nesting

is in the Interior Douglas-fir zone while poplar communities are

usually used in Alberta, and ponderosa pine types are preferred

in California. Scattered breeding records in Oregon, Wyoming,

and Idaho are primarily in subalpine lodgepole pine, and in

Alaska (Ersklne 1971) Engelmann spruce and cottonwood

stands are used for nesting.

Nest: Of 204 nests observed from California to Alaska, 107

were In aspen trees, 44 in Dougias-fir, 14 In balsam poplar and

black cottonwood, 12 In ponderosa pine, 11 In poplar, and 16 in

a few other coniferous and deciduous trees (Palmer 1976).

Buffleheads prefer unaltered flicker holes In aspen. Dead trees

close to (within 220 yards) or In water are preferred, and "bucket" or open top cavities are rarely used (Erksklne 1971). Forestry

practices that leave stubs near water while clearing away most

ground litter and slash that might hinder ducklings from reaching water are to be encouraged. Nest boxes used by captive

buffleheads had entrances 2-7/8 Inches wide with cavities 7

inches In diameter and 16 inches deep (Johnsgard 1975).

Food: Buffleheads consume mostly animal material. Insects

make up 70 percent of summer foods In freshwater habitat.

Midge, mayfly, and caddisfly larvae, and naiads of dragonfiies

and damselflles are also consumed. Water boatmen are the

most widely distributed, Important food. Plant food was found

In many stomachs but much was fiber and was probably taken

while catching aquatic Insects. Pondweed and bulrush seeds

were frequently consumed plant Items. Dragonfly and damselfly larvae are Important In the diet of ducklings in ail areas

(Ersklne 1971).

11
Hooded merganser

Lophodytes cucullatus

Habitat: Although hooded mergansers prefer wooded, clear

water streams, they also use the wooded shorelines of lakes.

Drainage of swamps and river bottoms, removal of snags, and

other human activities have been detrimental to this species as

they have been to wood ducks. Hooded mergansers are more

easily disturbed by man and far more sensitive to a decline in

water quality than are wood ducks. Breeding densities often

seem more related to food abundance and availability than to

nesting cavities (Johnsgard 1975).

Nest: Cavities at any height may be selected in any species of

tree; the size and shape of the cavity are apparently not important (Bent 1923). Natural cavities chosen are similar to those

used by wood ducks but with smaller optimum dimensions.

Frequent use of nest boxes has been reported in (Missouri,

Mississippi, and Oregon (Bellrose 1976). In Oregon, boxes

were placed 30 to 50 feet apart in sets of 8 (Morse et al. 1969).

Some of the most southerly nesting records of this species are

from wood duck nest boxes (Bellrose 1976).

Food: The food habits of hooded mergansers are not well

known, but are apparently more diversified than those of common mergansers. Of 138 stomachs taken from various locations in the United States, rough fishes made up 24.5 percent,

game fish and unidentified fish fragments 19.4 percent, crayfish 22.3 percent, other crustaceans 10.3 percent, and aquatic

and other insects 13.4 percent (Palmer 1976). Acorns are sometimes eaten in large quantities. Frogs, tadpoles, and molluscs

such as snails are also consumed.

12
Common merganser

Mergus merganser

18" W 37

Habitat: Common mergansers prefer cool, clear waters of

northern boreal or western forests, although at times they have

nested as far south as North Carolina and Mexico. Ponds associated with the upper portions of rivers in northern forested

regions are often used (Johnsgard 1975). As with hooded

mergansers, clear water is needed for foraging.

Nest: Although hollow trees are the usual location, ground

nests under thick cover or in rock crevices are not uncommon.

A wide variety of other locations have been reported such as

chimneys, hawk nests, bridge supports, and old buildings. The

species of tree used for nesting and the height of the cavity are

apparently unimportant (Foreman 1976). Nest sites are usually

close to water (Bellrose 1976) and are used repeatedly, probably by the same female (Palmer 1976). Artificial nest boxes

have been accepted, especially in Europe. Preferred dimensions are 9.1 to 11 inches wide, and 33.5 to 39.4 inches high,

with 4.7 X 4.7-inch entrances, 19.7 to 23.6 inches above the

base of the nest box (Johnsgard 1975).

Food: Programs to reduce populations of this fish-eating

merganser have increased trout and salmon production in several areas, at least temporarily. Generally, common mergansers

are opportunistic feeders with salmon taken extensively in

some areas and suckers, chubs, and eels in others. In warmwater areas, food is usually rough and forage fish such as carp,

suckers, gizzard shad, perch, and catfish. In some areas, water

plants, salamanders, insects, or molluscs may be important in

the diet of this species (Palmer 1976).

13
Turkey vulture

Cathartes aura i

W 72"

Habitat: Turkey vultures soar over most of the forest types of

the United States and southern Canada, with the exception of

the pine and spruce-fir stands in the extreme northeastern

United States. In search of food this common carrion eater

makes use of the forest openings created by roads, powerline

rights-of-way, clearcuts, and abandoned fields.

Nest: Preferred nest sites are often at a premium because of

the bird's large size and the shortage of large snags. The smell

of carrion around the nest necessitates a v\/ell-protected site to

lessen predator losses. The nest site is almost always at or

near ground level (Bent 1937). Although nesting sites are commonly located in hollow trees or hollow logs lying on the

ground, these vultures will nest on cliffs, in caves, and in

dense shrubbery (Gingrich 1914, Townsend 1914). These birds

will return to the same nesting site year after year unless the

site has been severely disturbed (Jackson 1903, Kempton 1927).

Food: Turkey vultures are scavengers and carrion-eaters, often

hunting along roads where animals have been struck by automobiles. They feed on snakes, toads, rats, mice, and other

available animal matter. Often a dozen or more vultures will

gather at and feed on a large carcass.

14
Black vulture

Coragyps atratus

-^

L 22" W 54"

Habitat: The black vulture Is found in the southern Great

Plains, southeastern pine forests, oak-hickory forests, and

intermediate oak-pine forests. It is a more southern species

than the turkey vulture.

Nest: Like turkey vultures, black vultures nest under a wide

variety of conditions. They use the nest site as found without

adding nesting materials (Hoxie 1886, Bent 1937). Hollow

stumps or standing trees are favorite nesting sites when they

are available; otherwise, eggs are laid on the ground, often in

dense thickets of palmetto, yucca, or tall sawgrass (Bent

1937). Nests have been reported in abandoned buildings.

Food: this carrion-eater is often found in towns and cities,

feeding on animal wastes, scraps, or garbage. Forests are used

primarily for roosting and nesting sites, whereas feeding is

usually in more open areas and along highways, where animal

carcasses are more plentiful.

15
Peregrine falcon

Falco peregrinus

L 15" W 40"

Habitat: The peregrine falcon is found in tundra regions,

northern boreal forests, lodgepole pine and subalpine fir,

spruce-fir, southern hardwood-conifer, cold desert shrubs, and

prairies — mainly in open country and along streams. It Is also

found around salt and freshwater marshes (Fyfe 1969, Hickey

and Anderson 1969, Nelson 1969). This species Is currently

classified as "Endangered" in the United States.

Nest: Although the peregrine falcon Is currently considered a

cllff-nester, records indicate that It once nested In tree cavities

(Goes 1878, Ridgway 1889, Ganier 1932, Bellrose 1938, Spofford 1942, 1943, 1945, 1947, Peterson 1948). The peregrine still

uses cavities In broken-off trunks In Europe (Hickey 1942), but

the hole-nesting population of America apparently disappeared

with the felling of the great trees on which they depended

(Mickey and Anderson 1969).

Food: The peregrine falcon feeds primarily on birds ranging in

size from mallards to warblers, which are usually stunned or

killed in flight. Mammals and large insects form only an

insignificant portion of the diet (Bent 1938). White and

Roseneau (1970) found remains of fish in the stomachs of peregrines in Alaska, and suggested that fish may be more common in some peregrine diets than the literature indicates.
Merlin

Falco columbarius

L 12" W 23"

Habitat: The merlin is usually found in open stands of boreal

forest, Douglas-fir — sitka spruce, poplar-aspen-birch-willow,

ponderosa pine — Douglas-fir, oak woodlands, and saltwater

marshes (Craighead and Craighead 1940, Lawrence 1949,

Brown and Weston 1961).

Nest: Like the peregrine falcon, most cavity nests for the

merlin were reported before 1910, when it was nesting in

cavities of poplars, cottonwoods, and American linden trees

(Bendire 1892, Houseman 1894, Dippie 1895). The merlin

usually uses tree nests built by other large birds (such as

hawks, crows, and magpies) but sometimes nests on the

ground under bushes or on cliffs and cutbanks.

Food: Brown and Amadon (1968) found that birds made up 80

percent (by weight) of the food for merlins, insects 15 percent,

and mammals 5 percent. Ferguson (1922) examined 298

stomachs and found 4 mammals, 318 birds, and 967 insects.

Birds found in the stomachs included small shorebirds, small

game birds, and songbirds (which are normally captured in

flight). Insect prey consisted of crickets, grasshoppers,

dragonflies, beetles, and caterpillars (Bent 1938), while mammals included pocket gophers, squirrels, mice, and bats

(Fisher 1893).

17
American kestrel

Falco sparverius

L 8y2" W 21

Habitat: The American kestrel is the smallest and most common falcon in North America, occurring in open and semi-open

country throughout the continent. In the Rocky Mountain region, kestrels are most abundant on the plains, but do nest up

to 8,000 feet elevation in the Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and

pinyon-juniper forest types (Scott and Patton 1975, Bailey and

Niedrach 1965). They have been observed on the highest peaks

after the nesting season (Bailey and Niedrach 1965).

Nest: Nest sites vary greatly, but kestrels prefer natural cavities

or old woodpecker holes. The following nest sites are reported

in order of usage: common flicker holes, natural cavities,

cavities in arroyo banks or cliffs, buildings, magpie nests, and

man-made nesting boxes (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Bent

1938, Roest 1957, Forbush and May 1939). Nest boxes, approximately 10 X 10 X 15 inches, should be located 10 to 35 feet

above ground with a 3-inch entrance hole. Natural cavities or

nest boxes should be available along edges of forest openings

(Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Hamerstrom et al. 1973, Pearson

1936).

Food: Kestrels hunt from high exposed perches overlooking

forest openings, fields, or pastures. Food consists primarily of

insects (often grasshoppers), small mammals, and an occasional bird (Bent 1938).

18
Barn owl

Tyto alba

L 14" W 44

Habitat: The barn owl inhabits most of the forest types in the

United States except the higher elevation types in the Rocl<y

Mountains. They are usually considered uncommon residents

because their silent nocturnal habits render them undetectable

by most casual observers. Barn owls are also birds of the open

country, and adapt readily to areas occupied by man (Marti

1974).

Nest: Before the coming of man, barn owls nested in natural

cavities in trees, cliffs, or arroyo walls, but now they also nest

in barns, church steeples, bird boxes, mine shafts, and dovecotes (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Reed 1897).

Food: Barn owls frequent areas where small mammals are

plentiful; mice, voles, rats, gophers, and ground squirrels are

major food items. Birds other than those such as house sparrows and blackbirds, which have communal roosts, are only

rarely taken (Marti 1974).
Screech owl

otus asió

Habitat: This small owl is found in most forest types below

8,000 feet elevation throughout the United States. Screech owls

prefer widely spaced trees, interspersed with grassy open

spaces, for hunting. Meadow edges and fruit orchards are

favored throughout the eastern United States.

Nest: Like other owls, the male screech owl defends a nesting

and feeding territory. Maples, apples, and sycamores with

natural cavities or pines with woodpecker holes are preferred in

the East (Bent 1938). Along the drainage systems of the plains

areas, natural cavities or common flicker holes in cottonwood

trees are preferred (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Nest boxes in

orchards or residential areas are often used. Hamerstrom

(1972) recommended a nesting box 8x8x8 inches with a 3-

inch entrance hole.

Food: Screech owls are among the most nocturnal owls and

are rarely seen feeding. Major food items are mice and insects.

Fisher (1893) examined 255 stomachs of screech owls and

found birds in 15 percent of them, mice in 36 percent, and

insects in 39 percent. Korschgen and Stuart (1972) found mostly small mammals in 419 screech owl pellets from western

Missouri. The volume of the screech owl pellets was predominantly meadow mice, white-footed mice, and cotton rats.

20
Whiskered owl

otus trichopsis

L6y2" W 16"

Habitat: The small whiskered owl is generally found in the

dense oak or oak-pine forests of southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and into Mexico.

Nest: Nests have been reported in both natural cavities and old

woodpecker holes located in oak, cottonwood, willow, walnut,

sycamore, and juniper trees (Bent 1938). Karalus and Eckert

(1974) syggest that white oak is one of the favorite nest sites,

and that these small owls prefer to nest in cavities in the limbs

of trees rather than in the trunk.

Food: Black crickets, hairy crickets, moths, grasshoppers,

large beetle larvae, and centipedes are the principal elements

of the diet (Jacot 1931). In addition to those mentioned by

Jacot, Karalus and Eckert (1974) list praying mantids, roaches,

cicadas, scorpions, and small mammals as part of the diet.

21
Flammulated owl

Otus flammeolus

(

L6" W 14"

Habitat: The flammulated owl normally Is not found In cutover

forests or in pure stands of conifers but requires some understory or intermixture of oaks in tfie forest (Phillips et al. 1964).

It occurs in ponderosa pine, spruce-fir, lodgepole pine, aspen,

and pinyon-juniper forest types (Grlnnell and Miller 1944,

Karalus and Eckert 1974).

Nest: Nests are usually located In abandoned flicker or other

woodpecker holes, but flammulated owls may take over

occupied nests (Karalus and Eckert 1974). Their nests have

been reported In pine, oak, and aspen snags (Bent 1938).

Food: The flammulated owl is almost entirely insectivorous,

but It occasionally captures small mammals and birds. In the

few stomachs that have been exanninqd, items reported were

various beetles, moths, grasshoppers, crickets, caterpillars,

ants, other Insects, spiders, and scorpions (Bent 1938).

Kenyon (1947) examined the stomach contents of one owl and

found 4 crane files, 1 caddisfly, 7 moths, 11 harvestman

spiders, and 1 long-horned grasshopper; the bird had apparently choked to death on the grasshopper.

22
Hawk owl

Sumia ulula

L 14" W 33"

Habitat: The hawk owl inhabits much of the northern poplar,

spruce, pine, birch, tamarac, and willow forests where such

forests are broken by small prairie burns and bogs (Henderson

1919).

Nest: Hawk owls usually nest in natural cavities or in enlarged

holes of pileated woodpeckers and flickers. Nests have been

reported in birch, spruce, tamarac, poplar snags (Henderson

1919, 1925, Bent 1938), and occasionally on cliffs or in crow's

nests.

Food: This owl hunts extensively during the day and feeds on

small mammals, birds, and insects (Bent 1938). Mendall (1944)

examined 21 hawk owl stomachs; all contained meadow or redbacked mice; two owls had also fed on shrews.

23
Pygmy owl

Glaucidium gnoma

"^ ~ -^"^ L 6" W 15"

Habitat: The pygmy owl is found in most of the western

wooded areas from western Canada into Mexico. It is probably

most abundant in open coniferous or mixed forests and is

reported specifically in ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, and firredwood-cedar forests.

Nest: This owl usually nests in old woodpecker holes ranging

in size from those constructed by hairy woodpeckers up to and

including those of the flickers from 8 to 75 feet above ground

(Bent 1938).

Food: Mice and large insects are probably the most common

prey of the pygmy owl, although other small mammals, birds,

amphibians, and reptiles have been reported (Bent 1938). Brock

(1958) found one vole, a deer mouse, and a Jerusalem cricket

in the stomach of one bird and reported seeing another pygmy

owl take a Nuttall's woodpecker. We observed one pygmy owl

in Arizona carrying a small vole. They have also been observed

taking mice in the mountains west of Denver, and taking birds

in the vicinity of feeders in Boulder, Colorado (Richard Pillmore

pers. comm?).

^Wildlife biologist. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Fort Collins. Colorado.

24
Ferruginous owl

Glaucidium brasilianum

^^

Habitat: This uncommon small owl inhabits the saguaro cactus

in Sonoran deserts and wooded river bottoms near the Mexican

border.

Nest: Nests are in abandoned woodpecker holes in mesquite,

cottonwood, and saguaro cactus. Nest heights range from 10

to 40 feet above ground (Bent 1938, Karalus and Eckert 1974).

Food: The diet of the ferruginous owl consists primarily of

small birds; however, insects, small mammals, invertebrates,

reptiles, and amphibians are occasionally eaten (Karalus and

Eckert 1974).

25
Elf owl

Micrathene whitneyi

£éMm

L 5V4" W 15"

Habitat: The elf owl is restricted to the southwestern United

States where it is found primarily in the saguaro cactus

deserts, bottomland sycamore and cottonwood stands and in

conifer-hardwood forests at high elevations.

Nest: One of the most common nest sites of the elf owl is in

old woodpecker holes in saguaro cactus. It has also been

reported nesting in cavities in sycamore, walnut, mesquite, and

pine trees (Ligon 1967, Bent 1938, Hayes and James 1963).

Cavities are usually located in snags or in dead branches of

living trees.

Food: Elf owls feed almost entirely on insects, particularly

beetles, moths, and cricl<ets. They also feed on centipedes and

scorpions and have been reported to tal<e an occasional reptile

(Ligon 1967).

26
Barred owl

Stríx varia

i

^-

L 17" W 44"

Habitat: Barred owls are common in southern swamps and

moist river bottoms of the Midwest, and less common but

widespread In northern forests. These owls are found in all of

the eastern forest types. Although they use white pine, these

large owls prefer oak woods and mixed hardwood-conifer

stands (Nicholls and Warner 1972). Preferred oak woods contain dead and dying trees for cavities and are free of dense

understory, thus facilitating unobstructed flying and attacking

of prey.

Nest: Natural cavities in hollow trees are preferred by barred

owls. If these are unavailable, deserted crow, raptor, or squirrel

nests are occasionally used (Pearson 1936, Bent 1938). Hollow

trees used usually have hunting perches with good views.

Recommended nest box size Is 13 x 15 x 16 inches deep, with

an entrance hole 8 Inches In diameter (Hamerstrom 1972). Nest

boxes will have a better chance of being used If they are placed

near woods and streams.

Food: jarred owls are nocturnal hunters. More than half of the

food items taken in western Missouri consisted of meadow

mice, cottontail rabbits, and cotton rats (Korschgen and Stuart

1972).

27
Spotted owl

Strix occidentalis

^

L 16" W 42"

Habitat: This uncommon owl occurs in most old-age conifer

associations in the western United States. Forsman (1976)

located 123 pairs in Oregon, and 95 percent occupied undisturbed old-growth conifer forests. Karalus and Eckert (1974)

described the habitat as being dense fir forests, heavily

wooded cliffsides, narrow canyons, and sometimes stream

valleys well stocked with oak, sycamore, willow, cottonwood,

and alder.

Nest: Forsman (1976) found spotted owls nesting in the holes

of living old-growth conifers, particularly Douglas-fir. Nest

trees typically had secondary crowns and broken tops caused

by parasite infection. Cavities were located inside the tops of

hollow trunks 62 to 180 feet above ground. Dunn (1901) reported spotted owls nesting in cavities in live and dead oak and

sycamore trees. Spotted owls also nest in cavities in cliffs, and

occasionally in abandoned nests of other large birds (Bent

1938).

Food: The major food items of the spotted owl are mammals

and birds, with occasional insects and amphibians. Forsman

(1976) found that mammals made up 90 percent of the total

biomass taken; the major prey species were flying squirrels

and wood rats. Marshall (1942) examined 23 pellets and

stomach contents of 5 spotted owls and found 6 bats, 4 mice,

31 crickets, 12 flying squirrels, 1 mole, 1 shrew, 4 songbirds, 2

smaller owls, and 1 amphibian.

28
Boreal owl

Aegolius funereus

L 10" W 24"

Habitat: This northern owl is normally found in the mixed

conifer-hardwood forests of Canada (Peterson 1961). One

juvenile reported in Colorado during August suggests that this

owl may nest in the southern Rocl^y Mountains (Bailey and

Niedrach 1965). Boreal owls are confined to evergreen woods

and dense alder, white pine, and spruce forests.

Nest: Old flicker and piieated woodpecker holes are preferred,

usually at a height of 10 to 25 feet (Fisher 1893, Prebie 1908,

Tufts 1925, Lawrence 1932). Conifer snags seems to be preferred for nest trees, although hardwoods have been used (Bent

1938).

Food: The main portion of the boreal owl's diet consists of

small rodents. Mendall (1944) examined the contents of 20

stomachs in Maine and found 73 percent mice (chiefly meadow

voles) and 20 percent short-tailed shrews. Pigeons and grasshoppers made up the remaining 7 percent. In Ontario, Catling

(1972) found 86.2 percent meadow voles, 5.6 percent deer

mice, 4.2 percent star-nosed moles, 2.7 percent masked

shrews, and 1.4 percent short-tailed shrews. Small birds, bats.

Insects, amphibians, and reptiles are also occasionally eaten

(Karalus and Eckert 1974).

29
Saw-whet owl

Aegolius acadicus

L 7" W 17"

Habitat: Saw-whet owls are small, nocturnal hunters of the

deep north woods. They nest in the Rocky Mountains up to

about 11,000 feet (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). This widely distributed owl nests in most of the forest types throughout the

northern half of the United States, but only rarely do they nest

as far south as central Missouri.

Nest: These small owls prefer to nest in old flicker or other

woodpecker holes (Bent 1938). Nesting habitat may be improving in areas where Dutch Elm disease has infested many elms,

and woodpeckers have drilled nest holes (Hamerstrom 1972).

Saw-whets will use nesting boxes if sawdust or straw is provided. Nest boxes should be 6 x 6 x 9 inches with a 2.5-inch

entrance hole (Hamerstrom 1972).

Food: Saw-whet owls consume mostly small mammals and

insects. Specific food items include mice, shrews, young

squirrels, chipmunks, bats, beetles, grasshoppers, and occasionally small birds (Scott and Patton 1975, Burton 1973,

Hamerstrom 1972, Bent 1938).

30
Chimney swift

Chaetura pelágica

L 5" W 121/2'

Habitat: Chimney swifts are found throughiout thie eastern half

of the United States in wooded and open areas. They have

adopted to man-made structures and are no longer dependent

upon hollow trees for nesting and roosting.

Nest: Originally chimney swifts nested in hollow trees, especially sycamores. They now use chimneys, barn silos, cisterns, and wells (Pearson 1936). Their nests are made of twigs,

which are glued to a vertical surface with saliva to form a "halfsaucer" (Forbush and May 1939).

Food: Chimney swifts feed almost entirely on flying insects

but will sometimes take small caterpillars hanging from tree

branches or leaves (Forbush and May 1939).

31
Vaux's swift

Chaetura vauxi

L 41/2'

Habitat: This small swift is most likely to be found in river

vaiieys among dense Douglas-fir and redwood forests in the

western United States.

Nest: Nests are usually located in tall hollow snags in burned

or logged areas and are made from twigs (Peterson 1961,

Bobbins et al. 1966). Nests have been reported in unused

chimneys and under building eaves (Bent 1940).

Food: Flying insects such as mosquitoes, gnats, flies, and

small beetles captured in flight probably make up the entire

diet (Bent 1940).

32
Coppery-tailed trogon

Trogon elegans

^\^ ^

Habitat: Coppery-tailed trogons can be found along riparian

streams and in pine-oak forests in Arizona, southwestern New

Mexico, and southern Texas.

Nest: Nests are found 12 to 40 feet above the ground in

deserted large woodpecker holes (Bent 1940). Cottonwood and

sycamore snags are usually selected for nests. Of the 34

species in the family Trogonidae, this is the only one that

breeds in the United States (Wetmore 1964).

Food: There is little information on the food of these birds, but

apparently both animal and vegetable matter are included in the

diet. Bent (1940) reported on stomach contents of two birds.

One contained adult and larvae of moths and butterflies; the

other contained 68 percent insects and 32 percent fruits. Insect

food included grasshoppers, praying mantlds, stink bugs, leaf

beetles, and larvae of hawk moth, sawfly, and miscellaneous

other insects. Vegetable food consisted of fruits of cissus and

red pepper and undetermined plant fiber.

33
Common flicker

Colaptes auratus

L IOV2"

Habitat: Flickers are commonly found near large trees in open

woodlands, fields, and meadows throughout North America. In

winter, they occasionally seel< shelter in coniferous woods or

swamps. Previously three species were recognized: the yellowshafted of the East, the red-shafted of the West, and the gilded

of the southwestern desert. These are now considered a single

species.

Nest: Flickers prefer to nest in open country or in lightly

wooded suburban areas where park-like situations are plentiful

(Bent 1939). Conner et al. (1975) reported that flickers usually

nest in edge habitats and, in extensive forested areas, nest

only in or around openings. Flickers excavate nest holes with a

2.75-inch entrance hole diameter in dead trees or dead limbs of

many species of trees including aspen, cottonwood, oak,

willow, sycamore, pine, and juniper. Nests are sometimes as

high as 100 feet but usually between 10 and 30 feet (Scott and

Patton 1975, Lawrence 1967).

Food: Sixty percent of common flicker food is animal matter.

Of this, 75 percent is ants, more than taken by any other North

American bird. Some flicker stomachs have contained over

2,000 ants. The rest of the insect material includes beetles,

wasps, caterpillars, grubs, and crickets. The vegetable portion

of the diet includes weed seeds, cultivated grain, and the fruit

of wild shrubs and trees (Bent 1939, Forbush and May 1939).

34
Pileated Woodpecker

Dryocopus pileatus

fy

Habitat: Forests of heavy

timber and secondary

growth consisting of mixed

deciduous and coniferous trees

are the preferred year-round

habitat for pileated woodpeckers. These large woodpeckers have

become less abundant over much

of their former range where extensive agriculture or logging practices have eliminated large tracts

of old growth forests. In the

Ozarks, they are plentiful wherever

extensive forests remain, preferring areas where past cutting

practices (early 1900's) have left scattered large cull trees

throughout.

Nest: Pileated woodpecker nests have been found in beech,

poplar, tulip-popular, birch, oak, hickory, maple, hemlock,

pine, ash, elm, basswood, and aspen trees. Cavity heights

range from 15 to 70 feet, with an entrance hole up to 4 inches

in diameter (Hoyt 1941, 1957). Tall dead trees with smooth surfaces and few limbs are preferred. One tree may be used for

several years, but rarely is a nest hole reused. This behavior

provides cavities for other wildlife, including wood ducks,

owls, and squirrels (Hoyt 1957). Timber stands with sawtimber

of 15 to 18 inches dbh provide adequate habitat if there is a

supply of dead and decaying trees (Conner et al. 1975).

Food: Insects make up more than 70 percent of the food of

pileated woodpeckers. Ants (especially carpenter ants) and

beetles are the major food items. In the fall, dogwood berries,

wild cherries, acorns, and other wild fruit are Included in the

diet (Bent 1939).

35
Red-bellied woodpecker

Melanerpes carolinus

/

m

L8V2"

Habitat: Red-bellied woodpeckers are common throughout

southeastern forest types. This bird has habits similar to those

of the red-headed woodpecker, except that the red-headed

prefers open woodlands, farm yards, and field edges whereas

the red-bellied prefers larger expanses of forest. Bailey and

Niedrach (1965) reported that the red-bellied woodpecker is

extending its range westward up the river valleys of the Great

Plains.

Nest: These woodpeckers most commonly excavate nest holes

in dead limbs of living trees. Excavations were found in a wide

variety of tree species, and ranged from 33 to 72 feet above

ground (Relier 1972). Cavities are usually located in mature

timber stands. Between September and January, males and

females roost in separate holes. Often one of the roost holes

(usually that of the female) becomes the nest site (Kilham

1958).

Food: Although primarily insectivorous, red-bellied woodpeckers consume more vegetable matter than most woodpeckers. Insects that are eaten include ants, adult and larval

beetles, and caterpillars. Vegetation eaten includes grain,

berries, and fruits of holly, dogwood, and poison ivy. Acorns

and berries are stored in crevices in the fall (Kilham 1963, Bent

1939).

36
Golden-fronted woodpecker

Melanerpes aurifrons

L 8V2"

Habitat: The golden-fronted woodpecker's preferred hiabitat is

mesquite and riparian woodlands in Texas and Oklahoma.

Cooke (1888) listed this species as an abundant resident of the

lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas, in 1884.

Nest: Nesting behavior of the golden-fronted is similar to that

of the red-bellied woodpecker (Pearson 1936). Tall trees of

pecan, oak, and mesquite are the major species used for nesting (Bent 1939). Occasionally fence posts, telephone poles,

and bird boxes are used (Reed 1965).

Food: The diet of the golden-fronted woodpecker consists of

both insects and vegetable matter. Grasshoppers make up

more than half of the animal matter and other insects include

beetles and ants (Pearson 1936, Bent 1939). Vegetable matter

consumed consists of corn, acorns, wild fruits, and berries

(Bent 1939).

37
Gila woodpecker

Melanerpes uropygialis

L8V4

j'

\N

Habitat: This woodpecl^er is found on desert mesas in association with creosote bush, mesquite, and saguaro cactus from

central Arizona to edges of adjacent states, it is also common

in river bottoms and in foothill canyons among cottonwoods,

willows, and sycamores.

Nest: The Gila woodpecker excavates holes in saguaro cacti for

nests. Cottonwoods, willows, and mesquites are also used at

higher elevations (Bent 1939, Ligon 1961).

Food: The diet of the Gila woodpecker consists of ants,

beetles, grasshoppers, fruits from saguaro cactus, and mistletoe berries (Bent 1939). This woodpecker has been reported to

remove eggs from the nests of various songbirds.

38
Red-headed woodpecker

Melanerpes erythrocepha/us

L 7V2'

Habitat: Red-headed woodpeckers prefer to nest and roost in

open areas. Farmyards, field edges, and timber stands tfiat

have been treated with herbicides or burned are preferred habitats. Redheads are attracted to areas with many dead snags

and lush herbaceous ground cover, but not to woods with

closed canopies. They are found throughout the East and along

wooded streams of the prairie to eastern Colorado and Wyoming. Competition for nesting space is often intensive where

starlings are abundant (Bailey and NIedrach 1965).

Nest: Red-headed woodpeckers most commonly excavate

holes in the trunks of dead trees. Holes are excavated from 24

to 65 feet above the ground and the 1.8-inch diameter entrance

hole often faces south or west (Relier 1972). These woodpeckers may excavate new holes each year, or use old nest sites.

Food: Red-headed woodpeckers consume about half animal

matter (mostly insects) and half vegetable matter. Occasionally

the eggs or the young of other birds are destroyed. Although a

wide variety of vegetable matter is consumed, acorns from pin

oak comprise a large portion of the winter diet. Nuts are

stored whole or in pieces in cracks and crevices in bark, and in

cavities which are sealed with bits of bark when full. These

birds also store insects (especially grasshoppers) along with

acorns in cavities and crevices (Kilham 1963, Bent 1939).

39
Acorn woodpecker

Melanerpes formicivorus

<

Habitat: The acorn woodpecker is a common resident of mixed

oak-pine woodland and adjacent open grassland from Oregon

along the Pacific Coast to the southwestern United States.

Nest: Acorn woodpeckers are communal nesters, and the

young are fed by the entire group (Wetmore 1964). They usually

excavate holes in ponderosa pine, but live and dead oaks of

various species, sycamore, cottonwood, and willow are also

used for nests. Their old holes are important for secondary

cavity nesters such as small owls, purple martins, violet-green

swallows, nuthatches, house wrens, and kestrels (Bent 1939).

Food: As the name implies, acorn woodpeckers feed mostly on

acorns which are stored in holes drilled in communal trees.

Sap from several species of oaks also is consumed from midwinter to summer (MacRoberts and MacRoberts 1972). About

25 percent of the diet is insects, including grasshoppers, ants,

beetles, and flies (Bent 1939). Almonds, walnuts, and pecans

are eaten when they are available.

40
Lewis' woodpecker

Melanerpes lewis

- <

L9"

Habitat: Open or parklike ponderosa pine forest is probably

the major breeding habitat of the Lewis' woodpecker. These

woodpeckers also nest In burned over stands of Douglas-fir,

mixed conifer, pinyon-juniper, riparian, and oak woodlands

(Bock 1970).

Nest: The Lewis' woodpecker generally excavates its own nest

cavity, but will use natural cavities or holes excavated in previous years. Bock (1970) summarized the following nest data:

height range 5 to 170 feet; 47 nests in dead stubs and 17 in live

trees; 29 nests in conifers, 31 in cottonwood and sycamore, 6

in oaks, 2 in power poles, 1 in juniper, and 1 in catalpa. At

Boca Reservoir, California, 10 of 11 nests were in dead ponderosa pines, and the other was in a hollow section of a living

pine.

Food: Insects, including flies, ladybird beetle larvae, tent caterpillars, ants, and mayflies, were the primary food of Lewis'

woodpeckers during spring and summer (Bock 1970). Fruits

and berries were the most frequently used food in late summer

and fall, while winter food consisted mostly of acorns and

almonds gathered and stored in crevices of dead trees, power

poles, and oak bark. Hadow (1973) reported that, on snowy

days when insects were inactive, Lewis' woodpeckers in southeastern Colorado spent 99 percent of their feeding time feeding from caches of acorns and corn kernels.

41
Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Sphyrapicus varius

Habitat: The yellow-bellied

sapsucker (sometimes

called red-naped) is most

abundant along streams In

mixed hardwood-conifer

forests. It is also found in

ponderosa pine, aspen,

mixed conifer, lodgepole

pine, and in mixed stands

of fir-larch-pine. L 7%

Nest: Yellow-bellied sapsuckers usually nest in cavities in

snags or live trees with rotten heartwood. Aspen seems to be

the preferred species (Howell 1952, Lawrence 1967, Kilham

1971), but nests have also been found in ponderosa pine, birch,

elm, butternut, cottonwood, alder, willow, beech, maple, and

fir (Bent 1939). Kilham (1971) noted that nest trees were often

infected by the Fomes fungus. Nest height varies from 5 to 70

feet above ground. The same nest tree is often used repeatedly,

but a new cavity is excavated each year.

Food: Sap is eaten throughout the year by the yellow-bellied

sapsucker, but the amount taken and tree species used vary

seasonally (Täte 1973, Lawrence 1967). The birds regularly tap

one or two "favorite trees" in their area; Oliver (1970) found that

these tend to be trees which have been wounded (by logging,

porcupines, etc.). About 80 percent of the insect food taken

consists of ants (McAfee 1911). Other insects in their diet

include beetles and wasps, but none of the woodboring larvae.

The fruits of dogwood, black alder, Virginia creeper, and blackberries are included in the small portion of vegetable matter

eaten (Bent 1939).

42
Williamson's sapsucker

Sphyrapicus thyroideus

C

L&Vi'

Habitat: This sapsucker prefers mixed conifer-hardwood forests of the Rocky Mountain region but also Inhabits the subalpine spruce-fir-lodgepole zone, and ponderosa pine, Douglasfir, and aspen forests.

Nest: The choice of tree species for nesting seems to differ

between regions. Bent (1939), Packard (1945), Bailey and Niedrach (1965), Burleigh (1972), and Jackman (1975) reported

Williamson's sapsuckers nesting primarily in conifers. Other

authors (Rasmussen 1941, Hubbard 1965, TatschI 1967, Ligon

1961, Crockett and Hadow 1975) found a preference for aspens.

Of 57 nests in Colorado examined by Crockett and Hadow

(1975), 49 were in aspens, especially aspens infected by the

Fames fungus; where pines were used, there were no suitable

aspen sites nearby. In Arizona, we found 17 nests in aspen

snags, 3 in aspens with dead tops, and 1 nest In a live aspen.

Food: The diet of Williamson's sapsuckers is made up of 87

percent animal and 13 percent vegetable material (Bent 1939).

Most of the animal food taken Is ants, and most of the vegetable material is cambium. Like the yellow-bellied sapsucker,

the Williamson's sapsucker feeds on sap, especially in spring,

and picks out "favorite trees" which It taps regularly (Oliver

1970).

43
Hairy woodpecker

Picoides villosus

Habitat: Hairy woodpeckers are residents of nearly ali types of

forest from centrai Canada soutti.

Nest: Live trees in open woodiands are preferred nesting sites

of hairy woodpecl^ers. This species mal<es a nest entrance that

exactiy fits its head and body size (1.6 to 1.8 inches). Because

this size also seems very convenient for starlings and flying

squirrels, hairy woodpeci<ers are often troubled with Invasions

(Kilham 1968a, Lawrence 1967). Hairy woodpeci<ers will often

excavate the entrance so it Is camouflaged or hidden, such as

on the underside of a iimb. Nest heights vary from 15 to 45 feet

but are commonly approximately 35 feet high. Halrles will often

use the same hole year after year.

Food: Hairy woodpeckers prefer to feed on insects on dead and

diseased trees (Bent 1939). Approximately 80 percent of the

diet Is animal matter; adult and larval beetles, ants, and caterpillars are the most frequently eaten items. The primarily insect

diet is supplemented with fruit, corn, acorns, hazelnuts, and

many other species (Beal 1911, Bent 1939). The males forage in

trees away from the nest for large Insects (usually borers)

located deep in the wood. Females forage close to the nest on

the surface of trees, shrubs, or on the ground for small prey

(Kilham 1968a).

44
Downy woodpecker

Picoides pubescens

L 5^/4

Habitat: Downy woodpeckers inhabit most of the wooded parts

of North America. They are absent or rare in the arid deserts,

and not common in the densely forested regions. Favorite

habitat includes open woodland, hammocks, orchards, roadside hedges, farmyards, and urban areas (Bent 1939). Occasionally, these birds nest at elevations above 9,000 feet in

the central Rockies (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Most populations are considered nonmigratory; however, there is some

movement from north to south and from high elevations to the

plains during winter.

Nest: Downy woodpeckers resemble common flickers in many

of their nesting habits. Both prefer to excavate near the tops of

dead trees in fairly open timber stands. They generally excavate new cavities each year in the same tree, but do not usually

use cavities of other birds or reuse old cavities (Lawrence

1967). In the fall, these birds excavate fresh holes to use as

winter roosts (Kilham 1962). Nest holes are normally 8 to 50

feet above the ground with an entrance hole 1.2 to 1.4 inches in

diameter (Bent 1939).

Food: The diet is about 75 percent animal and 25 percent vegetable material. Animal material consists mostly of economically harmful insects. Kilham (1970) found that beetles, mostly

wood-boring larvae, made up 21.5 percent of the diet. Other

materials included ants (21 percent), caterpillars (16.5 percent),

weevils (3 percent), and fruit (6 percent). Like hairy woodpeckers, downy woodpeckers have been credited with reducing

forest pests (MacLellan 1958, 1959, Olson 1953).

45
Ladder-backed woodpecker

Picoides scalaris

( •

t»

Habitat: Ladder-backed woodpeckers are commonly found in

mesquite and deciduous woodland along streams in desert

regions of the Soutfiwest.

Nest: Ladder-backed woodpecker nests are located in a variety

of trees such as mesquite, screw bean, palo verde, hackberry,

china tree, willow, cottonwood, walnut and oak, usually from 2

to 30 feet above ground. Saguaro cactus, yucca stalks, and

branches are sometimes used for nests, as are telephone poles

and fence posts (Bent 1939, Phillips et al. 1964).

Food: Insects, especially larvae of wood-boring beetles, caterpillars, and ants, are major food items. The ladder-backed

woodpecker also has been reported to eat the ripe fruit of

saguaro cactus (Bent 1939).

46
Nuttall's woodpecker

Picoides nuttallii

L 6%'

Habitat: This western woodpecker is an inhabitant of oak

woodlands, riparian woods, and chapparal west of the Sierras

in California.

Nest: Fronn a literature survey and personal observations. Miller and Bock (1972) summarized the following nest-tree data for

57 nests: 23 percent in oak, 19 percent in willow, 18 percent in

sycamore, 16 percent in cottonwood, and 12 percent in alder.

Cavities were excavated In dead limbs and trunks of trees, from

3 to 45 feet above ground.

Food: About 80 percent of the diet of Nuttall's woodpecker is

insects, including 28 percent beetles, 15 percent hemipterans,

14 percent lepidopteran larvae, and 8 percent ants (Beal 1911).

Most of the insects are gleaned from trunk and limb surfaces or

captured on the wing (Short 1971). Wild fruits, poison oak

seeds, and occasional acorns make up the vegetable portion of

the diet. Nuttall's woodpeckers in California have been known

to take almonds, occasionally robbing the caches of Lewis'

woodpeckers (Emien 1937, Bock 1970).

47
Arizona woodpecker

Picoides arizonae

L 7V4'

Habitat: Arizona woodpeckers are found in live oal< and oakpine forests and canyons from 4,000 to 7,500 feet in Arizona

and New IVIexIco.

Nest: The Arizona woodpecker excavates hoies in dead

brancfies of living trees, primarily walnuts, oaks, maples, and

sycamores. One nest was reportedly located in a mescal stalk

(Bent 1939).

Food: Tfiis woodpecker's diet probably consists largely of the

adult and larval stages of insects, with some fruit and acorns,

but few details of food items have been reported {Bent 1939).

48
Red-cockaded woodpecker

Picoides borealis

#

M

r

Habitat: Red-cockaded woodpeckers need open, mature (at

least 60 year old) pine forest with a high fire occurrence (Bent

1939, Jackson 1971, Hopkins and Lynn 1971). Pine species

used during breeding season Include: longleaf (Crosby 1971),

slash (Lowry 1960), loblolly (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949),

and shortleaf (Sutton 1967). Red-cockaded woodpeckers are on

the national "Endangered species" list.

Nest: These woodpeckers prefer living pines infected with red

heart rot for nesting. These trees have a soft, easily excavated

interior with a living exterior, leaving the tree less susceptible

to destruction by fire than a dead tree. Cavities can often be

reused for at least 20 years and for several years by the same

pair (Ligon 1971). The height of cavity is influenced by the

location of red heart infection and the height and density of

undergrowth (Crosby 1971). The majority of cavities face west,

and, when found in leaning trees, are generally on the low side

(Beckett 1971, Baker 1971).

Food: Insects make up the major portion of the diet of redcockaded woodpeckers. Seal (1911) and Seal et al. (1916)

examined 99 stomachs and found 86 percent insects and 14

percent vegetable matter, mostly mast. Beetle larvae (16 percent) and ants made up an important part of the year-round

diet. The corn earworm can be a major food source during

several weeks where conditions are suitable (Ward 1930). Plant

material recorded being eaten includes wax myrtle,, magnolia,

poison ivy, wild grape, pokeberry, blueberry, wild cherry, black

gum, and pecan (Beal 1911, Baker 1971, Ligon 1971).

49
White-headed woodpecker

Picoides albolarvatus

%mmg^^r

Habitat: Open ponderosa pine forest from Wasfiington to central California Is tfie primary habitat of thie whiite-fieaded woodpecl^er, but it also occurs in sugar pine, Jeffrey pine, and red

and wfiite fir forests (Grinnell and Ivlilier 1944).

Nest: Thiis woodpecl^er seems to prefer dead pines, but nests

tiave also been found in live and dead fir, oak, and aspen.

White-fieaded woodpecl<ers usually excavate a new nest cavity

every year and often excavate several fioles before selecting

one to nest in (Bent 1939). Average nest heigtit is 8 feet above

ground.

Food: Wtiite-tieaded woodpecl<ers feed primarily on pine seeds

during the winter and early spring, and on insects during the

summer. Tevis (1953) determined that 60 percent of the annual

diet was pine seeds and 40 percent was insects. Ants made up

half of the Insect food; other Insects taken were woodboring

beetles, spiders, and fly larvae (Beal 1911, Grinnell and Storer

1924, LIgon 1973).

50
Black-backed three-toed

woodpecker

Picoides arcticus

Habitat: The conifer forests of the north are preferred, but this

three-toed woodpecl<er is not abundant even in its favorite

habitat. Forest types include mixed conifer, iodgepole pine,

white fir, subalpine fir, tamarack sv;/amps, boreal sprucebalsam fir, Douglas-fir, and mixed hardwood-conifer.

Nest: This species usually excavates Its cavities in snags or

live trees with dead heartwood, especially In areas that have

been burned or logged (Bent 1939). Nests are usually in

spruce, balsam fir, pines, or Douglas-fir, although maple,

birch, and cedar have been used.

Food: The food of this species Is similar to that of the northern

three-toed woodpecker. Beal (1911) found 75 percent of the

food to be woodboring beetle larvae, mainly long-horned

beetles and metallic woodboring beetles. Weevils and other

beetles, spiders, and ants are eaten along with some wild fruit,

mast, and cambium. Beal estimated that each three-toed woodpecker annually consumed 13,675 woodboring beetle larvae.

51
Northern three-toed woodpecker

Picoides tridactylus

L 7V2'

Habitat: This highly bénéficiai woodpecker is most common in

coniferous forests of the West, but does occur occasionally in

the Northeast.

Nest: The northern three-toed woodpecl<er excavates nest

cavities each year in standing dead trees or in dead limbs of

live trees with rotted heartwood (Jackman and Scott 1975).

Their nest cavities have been reported in pine, aspen, spruce,

and cedar trees (Bent 1939). In Arizona, we found two nests in

ponderosa pine snags.

Food: The northern three-toed woodpecker is probably one of

the most important birds in combating forest insect pests in

the western United States. Massey and Wygant (1973) found

that spruce beetles comprised 65 percent of their diet in Colorado. During the winter when other foods were scarce, the

spruce beetle made up 99 percent of the food taken. West and

Speiers (1959) reported that both species of three-toed woodpeckers in northeastern United States feed on elm bark beetles,

which carry Dutch elm disease. Koplin (1972) estimated that 20

percent of ah endemic and 84 percent of an epidemic spruce

beetle population in Colorado were consumed by three species

of woodpeckers, the most important of which was the northern

three-toed. Other foods include ants, woodboring and iepidopteran larvae, fruits, mast, and cambium (Beal 1911, Massey and

Wygant 1973).

52
Ivory-billed woodpecker

Campephilus principalis

Habitat: Cooke (1888) and Bent

(1939) described the largest of

the North American woodpecl<ers

as rare, shy, and found only in

the heaviest timber In virgin cypress and bottomland forest of

the South. Tanner (1942) described ivory-billed woodpecker

habitat as heavily forested and

usually flooded alluvial land bordering rivers, made up of oaks,

cypress, and green ash. The most

recent sightings (between 5 and

10 pairs) have been made in

bottomland hardwoods that have been cut over but still have

some large, mature trees (Dennis 1967). They are Included on

the national "Endangered species" list.

Nest: Nest cavities of this species have been recorded in almost every species of tree occurring within the Ivory-bill's

habitat (Greenway 1958). The squarish holes (Dennis 1967) are

high, 16 to 65 feet, and in the trunks of living or dead trees

(Greenway 1958, Forbush and May 1939).

Food: Ivory-billed woodpeckers could be of economic importance except for their small numbers (Greenway 1958). The

woodboring larvae making up a third of their diet (Beal 1911)

are injurious to trees (Pearson 1936), and are most abundant In

areas where recently dead and dying trees are numerous because of flooding, fire, insect attacks, or storms. The birds

stay as long as there are abundant larvae (Dennis 1967). They

also eat fruit of magnolia and pecan trees (Beal 1911).

53
Sulphur-bellied flycatcher

Myiodynastes luteiventris

Habitat: The sulphur-bellied flycatcher is a common occupant

of riparian habitat with sycamore trees in deep canyons from

5,000 to 7,500 feet elevation in the Huachuca Mountains of

Arizona.

Nest: Invariably the nest of this species, made from leaf stems

(Peterson 1961), is built in a natural cavity in a large sycamore

at a height between 20 and 50 feet above the ground. The cavity

normally is a knothole where a large branch has broken off

(Bent 1942). At least one member of each pair may return to the

same nest site each year.

Food: Little information has been published on the food habits

of this flycatcher, but insects caught in the air are undoubtedly

the major items. Apparently small fruits and berries also are

eaten (Bent 1942).

54
Great crested flycatcher

Myiarchus crinitus

Habitat: Great crested flycatchers are common in deciduous

and mixed woods east of the Rockies. They were originally a

deep forest bird, but with increases in forest clearing and thinning operations, fewer and fewer cavities are available. They

seem to be adapting well to less densely forested areas, areas

treated with herbicides, and forest-field edge situations (Hespenheide 1971, Bent 1942).

Nest: Great crested flycatchers use natural cavities or excavations made by other species. Nests are found in a variety of

tree species anywhere from 3 to 70 feet above the ground

(mostly below 20 feet). They build a bulky nest, and therefore

prefer deep cavities. Before constructing a nest, they will

generally fill a deep cavity with trash to a level of 12 to 18

inches from the top. They are well known for their habit of

including a snake skin in the nest or dangling it from the cavity

opening (Bent 1942).

Food: Food habit studies have shown that great crested flycatchers eat 94 percent animal and 6 percent vegetable material. Most frequently eaten are butterflies, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, katydids, bees, and sawflies. Vegetable matter is mainly wild fruits. Most food is caught in flight in the

usual flycatcher fashion (Bent 1942).

55
Wied's crested flycatcher

Myiarchus tyrannulus

Habitat: Desert saguaros, deciduous woodlands and riparian

vegetation in ttie Southwest are the preferred habitats of the

Wied's crested flycatcher.

Nest: Nests made from twigs, weeds, and trash are built in

abandoned woodpecker holes in saguaro cacti at a height from

5 to 20 feet above the ground. Sycamores, cottonwoods, and

fence posts are used occasionally (Bent 1942).

Food: The diet of this species is similar to that of other crested

flycatchers, consisting mostly of beetles, flying insects, and

perhaps some berries and fruits (Bent 1942).

56
Ash-throated flycatcher

Myiarchus cinerascens

Habitat: The ash-throated flycatcher occupies dense mesquite

thickets, oal< groves, saguaro cactus, riparian vegetation, and

pinyon-juniper forests. It ranges from Washington to the southv\/estern United States and Texas.

Nest: The ash-throated flycatcher is not particularly specific in

tree selection as long as it has a cavity. Woodpecker holes,

exposed pipes, and nest boxes have been used. Mesquite, ash,

oak, sycamore, juniper, and cottonwood are common nest

trees (Bent 1942).

Food: The diet of this species consists mainly of animal material. Beetles, bees, wasps, bugs, flies, caterpillars, moths,

grasshoppers, spiders, etc., make up about 92 percent of the

diet. Mistletoe, berries, and other fleshy fruits account for the

remainder (Bent 1942).

57
Olivaceous flycatcher

Myiarchus tuberculifer

Habitat: Olivaceous flycatchers are found In dense oak thickets, pinyon-junlper forests, and along canyon streams In Arizona and southwestern New Mexico.

Nest: Nests are located in natural cavities or abandoned woodpecker holes. Oaks are preferred, but nests also have been reported in ash and sycamore trees (Bent 1942).

Food: Limited evidence on food habits of this species indicates

that the major food items are small Insects Including grasshoppers, termites, mayflies, treehoppers, miscellaneous bugs,

moths, bees, wasps, and spiders (Bent 1942).

58
Western flycatcher

Empidonax dijficilis

Habitat: Moist deciduous or coniferous forests and areas near

running water with tall trees are favored by the western flycatcher (Grinnell and Miller 1944).

Nest: Western flycatchers sometimes nest in cavities, but use

a variety of nest sites. Davis et al. (1963) found four nests In

natural cavities in willows and oaks, and six behind flaps of

bark in sycamores and willows. Nests are often reported in

natural rock crevices, on tree limbs and crotches, and on

ledges of buildings (Bent 1942, Davis et al. 1963, Beaver 1967).

Food: Almost all of the food of the western flycatcher is insects captured on the wing. An examination of 23 stomachs

showed 31 percent flies, 25 percent beetles, 23 percent lepidopterans (including pupae and adults of spruce budworms),

and 17 percent hymenopterans (Beaver 1967).

59
Violet-green swallow

Tachycineta thalassina

Habitat: Ponderosa pine affords tfie favorite habitat for

violet-green swallows (Bailey and Niedrach 1965), but they are

also found in aspen-willow and spruce-aspen forests. They

prefer open or broken woods or the edges of dense forests.

Nest: Violet-green swallows nest in holes, cavities, and

crevices in a variety of situations. Where birds are abundant,

the demand for nest sistes is sometimes greater than the supply, and practically any available cavity may be used. These

swallows have been reported to use old nests of cliff swallows

and even burrows of bank swallow (Bent 1942). Winternitz

(1973) reported violet-greens using old woodpecker holes in

live aspen as nesting sites, but in Arizona, we found them

nesting primarily in old woodpecker holes in ponderosa pine

snags. We found one in the dead top of an aspen, 5 in dead

tops of ponderosa pine, and 26 in ponderosa pine snags. Nest

heights ranged from 16 to 80 feet and averaged 43 feet.

Food: Apparently, the diet of this species is exclusively insects

taken on the wing. It includes leafhoppers, leaf bugs, flies,

flying ants, and some wasps, bees, and beetles (Bent 1942).

In Colorado, Baldwin (pers. comm^) found that insects made

up 99 percent of the stomach contents of six violet-green

swallows. Flies were the most abundant insect found. Scolytid

beetles, seed and leaf bugs, miscellaneous insects, and a few

spiders were also found.

Ecology Department, Colorado State University. Fort Collins, Colorado.

60
Tree swallow

Iridoprocne bicolor

Habitat: Tree swallows breed throughout North America from

the northern half of the United States north to the limit of tree

growth. They are migrants throughout the Central and Southern

states and winter primarily in Central America.

Nest: Tree swallows prefer to nest In natural cavities and old

woodpecker holes — usually near water. The lack of natural

cavities, competition for existing cavities, and the availability

of nest boxes, have resulted In a shift In nesting preferences to

nest boxes In the eastern United States (Bent 1942, Low 1933,

Whittle 1926). Bluebird boxes and purple martin houses are

frequently used. Tree swallows are not colonial, but will nest

within 7 feet of each other, if there are adequate meadows,

marsh, or water area available for feeding (Whittle 1926).

Woodpecker holes in aspen, spruce, and pine are the most

common nest sites In the West (Bailey and Niedrach 1965).

Food: This species Is the first of the swallows to arrive in the

north in the spring, and the last to depart In the fall. Because

tree swallows can subsist on seeds and berries, they are not as

dependent upon insects as are other swallows. They are partial

to waxmyrtle and bayberry where these are available. Plant

food proportions in the diet are 1 percent in spring, 21 percent in summer, 29 percent in fall, and 30 percent In winter

(Martin et al. 1951, Forbush and May 1939).

61
Purple martin

Progne subis

Habitat: The natural nesting population of purple nriartins prefer

open woodlands or cutover forests where suitable snags remain. Purple martins have been reported In oal<, sycamore,

ponderosa pine, Monterey pine, spruce, and fir forests of

California (Grinnell and Miller 1944). In the Southwest, the

purple martin breeds in the ponderosa pine belt and In the

saguaro cactus desert.

Nest: The western purple martin has not adapted to nesting In

boxes as well as the eastern form (Bunch 1964), and much of

the western population depends upon holes made by woodpeckers, usually In tall pines In relatively open timber stands

(Bent 1942). Martins also nest in old woodpecker holes In

saguaro cactus. We have recorded 21 nests near Clbecue, Arizona, all In ponderosa pine snags. Nests ranged from 25 to 35

feet above ground. Nest compartments In martin houses

should be 6 X 6 X 6 Inches with an entrance hole 2V2 Inches In

diameter 1 Inch above the floor. The boxes should be 15 to 20

feet above ground.

Food: The purple martin feeds on the wing, and nearly all the

diet is insects, although some spiders are taken (Beal 1918).

Johnston (1967) examined the stomach contents of 34 martins

collected In April, May, June, and August in Kansas. Beetles,

true bugs, flies, bees, and wasps were the Important food

Items. Although the purple martin has been credited for feeding on large numbers of mosquitoes (Bent 1942), it was not

documented by the two food habit studies mentioned.

62
Black-capped chickadee

Parus atricapillus

L 4V2"

Habitat: Black-capped chickadees nest throughout southern

Canada and the northern half of the United States. In Missouri,

the black-capped chickadee generally nests north of the Missouri River and the Carolina chickadee nests south of the River.

The breeding range extends farther south at higher elevations

of the Rocky and Appalachian Mountain ranges than in nonmountainous areas. In Colorado, black-caps are most abundant

in the ponderosa pine and aspen forests (Bailey and Niedrach

1965).

Nest: Chickadees nest in cavities but roost anywhere convenient, generally not in cavities (Odum 1942). The most suitable nesting sites are stubs with partially decayed cores and

firm shells. They usually excavate their own cavities, but will

use natural cavities or nest boxes. Black-caps will occasionally

nest in a cavity they used the previous year after making some

alterations. Preferred nesting sites throughout the eastern

forests are tree species that occur in the early serai stages but

that are short lived and persist in the intermediate stages as

decaying stubs (Odum 1941, Brewer 1961).

Food: The diet of the black-capped chickadee is comprised of

70 percent animal and 30 percent vegetable matter. Mast, chiefly from coniferous trees, and fruits of bayberry, blackberry,

blueberry, and poison ivy make up the bulk of the vegetable

matter. Animal material eaten (mostly Insects) includes caterpillars, eggs, moths, spiders, and beetles. Winter diet is primarily larvae, eggs, katydids, and spiders (Bent 1946, Martin

et al. 1951).

63
Carolina chickadee

Parus carolinensis

0(

Habitat: The Carolina chickadee, which inhabits the southeastern forests, is a slightly smaller version of the black-capped

chickadee, in Missouri, the Carolina chickadee nests south of

the Missouri River throughout the Ozarks.

Nest: The nesting habits of the black-capped and Carolina

chickadees are quite similar. They occasionally nest in natural

cavities or deserted holes of woodpeckers, but commonly excavate their own nest cavity in decaying wood of dead trunks or

limbs of deciduous trees (Bent 1946). Black-capped and Carolina chickadees line their nesting cavities with fine grasses and

feathers.

Food: Food habits of the Carolina chickadee are also very

similar to those of the black-capped chickadee. Food consists

of insects and a variety of fleshy fruits and seeds (Bent 1946).

64
Mexican chickadee

Parus sclateri

Habitat: This species inhabits pine and spruce forests from

7,000 to 10,000 feet elevation just inside the United States in

the Chiricahua Mountains of Arizona and the Animas Mountains of New Mexico (Phillips et al. 1964).

Nest: Mexican chicl<adees excavate nest holes in dead trees or

branches. One nest was found in a willow stub about 5 feet

above the ground (Bent 1946).

Food: No information on diet was found in the literature.

65
Mountain chickadee

Parus gambeli

1:

^»^

jL 4V4'

Habitat: This common little chickadee can be found in most

coniferous forests of the West from 6,000 to 11,000 feet (Bent

1946).

Nest: Mountain chickadees usually nest in natural cavities or

abandoned woodpecker holes, and probably do not excavate

their own cavities if suitable ones are available (Bent 1946).

Winternitz (1973) reported five nests in live aspen and one in a

dead aspen, 6 to 15 feet above ground. In Arizona, we have

found five nests In live aspen, three in aspen snags, two in

ponderosa pine snags, and one in a white fir snag.

Food: Insects probably make up a large portion of the diet

(Bent 1946). Telford and Herman (1963) collected 10 birds in

the Inyo National Forest, where there was an infestation of

lodgepole needle miners and found 639 needle miner caterpillars In chickadee stomachs. Baldwin (pers. comm.) examined

the contents of 17 stomachs from the Wet Mountains, Colorado, and found that 75 percent of the summer diet was insects. Large numbers of spruce aphids were found, as well as

flies, beetles, hymenopterans, and other Insects. Vegetable

material Included seeds, spruce buds, and fruits. In southwestern Montana, during summer, mountain chickadees fed

on lepidopteran larvae, especially cone worms and spruce budworms (DeWeese et al? [in prep.]), and insects made up about

98 percent of the diet.

Zoology Department, Colorado State University. Fort Collins.

* DeWeese, Lawrence R.. Charles J. Henny, Randy L. Floyd. Kathie

A. Bobal. and Albert W. Shultz. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Impact

of Trichlorfon (Dylox) and Carbaryl (Sevin-4-oit) on breeding birds in

southwestern Montana forests.

66
Gray-headed chickadee

Parus cinctus

L 43/4"

Habitat: Broken forests or edges of aspen, willow, and spruce

are the preferred habitat of the gray-headed chickadee. The

range is linriited to western Canada and Aiaska.

Nest: Old woodpecker holes or natural cavities are selected as

nest sites. Bent (1946) reported one nest about 6 feet above

ground in a spruce snag.

Food: No information could be found in the literature on the

food habits of the gray-headed chickadee, but the diet is probably similar to that of other chickadees.

67
Boreal chickadee

Parus hudsonicus

L 4V4'

Habitat: The boreal chickadee is fairly common in northern

forests of spruce, fir, aspen, and birch (McLaren 1975).

Nest: Natural cavities, old woodpecker holes, or cavities excavated by the chickadees themselves are used for nesting (Bent

1946). McLaren (1975) found 22 nest holes, all in trees or snags

vi/ith soft heartwood, and believed that softness of the core

rather than a preference for a certain tree species is the determining factor in nest site selection.

Food: In summer the boreal chickadee consumes caterpillars,

moths, beetles, other insects, and insect eggs; birch cones,

seeds, and cedar berries are eaten in the fall and v\/inter (Bent

1946).

68
Chestnut-backed chickadee

Parus rufescens

Habitat: Coniferous forests of tfie hiumid coastal belt from

Alaska to central California are the favorite fiabltat, but this

bird is also found in adjacent deciduous woodlands and along

streams (Peterson 1961, Grinnell and Miller 1944).

Nest: Nests of this species are in abandoned woodpecker holes

or in cavities excavated by the bird itself. Nests have been

found in pine, oak, and Douglas-fir snags (Bent 1946).

Food: The diet is made up of about 65 percent animal and 35

percent vegetable matter. Of the animal material, 25 percent is

hemipterans, 18 percent caterpillars, 13 percent wasps, 7 percent spiders, and 2 percent beetles. Seeds and fruit make up

the vegetable material (Beal 1907).

69
Tufted titmouse

Parus bicolor

Habitat: The tufted titmouse is the largest North American

titmouse and is common throughout the eastern deciduous

woodlands. These active and vocal birds are generally found in

groups of 2 to 6 in thick timber stands, often near water (Gillespie 1930). The black-crested titmouse, found in southern

Texas and northeastern Mexico, is now considered conspecific

with the tufted titmouse (33rd supplement, A.O.U. Checklist).

Nest: Nests of the tufted titmouse are very difficult to locate

and are not often reported in the literature. Published accounts

indicate that these birds nest in abandoned woodpecker holes

or natural cavities usually less than 20 feet above the ground.

While titmice are quite conspicuous in late fall and winter, they

tend to disappear in late spring to nest and molt (Gillespie

1930, Laskey 1957).

Food: The diets of tufted titmice change seasonally. In spring

and summer they eat primarily animal matter (89 percent and

82 percent respectively) and spend most of their feeding time

in the tree tops. Caterpillars often make up over 50 percent of

the animal matter. Common winter foods consist of beechnuts,

acorns, dogwood berries, Virginia creeper berries, alder seeds,

honeysuckle, seeds of tulip-tree pods. In winter, they spend

a larger percentage of their feeding time on or near the ground

(Gillespie 1930, Martin et al. 1951).

70
Plain titmouse

Parus inornatus

Habitat: Oak and pinyon-juniper woodlands from 5,000 to 7,000

feet elevation fronn Oregon south and west to Texas and New

Mexico are the favored habitat of the plain titmouse.

Nest: Plain titmice usually nest in natural cavities or old woodpecker holes. Most reported nests have been in oaks, 2 to 23

feet above ground (Bent 1946). Nest boxes are used when available (Wetmore 1964).

Food: Beal (Bent 1946) examined the contents of 76 stomachs

and found 43 percent animal material (true bugs 12 percent,

caterpillars 11 percent, beetles 7 percent, ants and wasps 6

percent, daddy longlegs and grasshoppers 5 percent, spiders 1

percent, and 1 percent unreported) and 57 percent vegetable

matter (cherries and pulp of larger fruit and leaf galls 32 percent, seeds of poison oak and weeds 25 percent).

71
Bridled titmouse

Parus wollweberi

L 4V2

Habitat: Bridled titmice prefer chaparral and pinyon-juniper in

the Southwest at elevations from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. This titmouse also uses areas along streams where cottonwoods are

present (Phillips et al. 1964).

Nest: Almost all nest locations have been recorded in natural

cavities of dead and living oak trees from 4 to 28 feet above the

ground (Bent 1946).

Food: No published information was found, but the diet is

probably similar to that of other members of this genus. All live

in similar habitats and spend much of their time foraging in

crevices in the bark, on the trunks, and on branches, presumably hunting for adults, larvae, and eggs of insects (Bent 1946).

72
White-breasted nuthatch

Sitta carolinensis

L 5"

<

IT'

Habitat: White-breasted nuthatches are non-migratory in most

forest types in the United States. They show a preference tor

deciduous woodlands. In the Rocky Mountains, they occur

most commonly below 9,500 feet elevation (Bailey and Nledrach 1965).

Nest: White-breasted nuthatches nest almost exclusively in

natural cavities within living trees of mature forests. When

natural cavities are unavailable, they may use an abandoned

woodpecl<er hole (Kilham 1968b). In the West, nests have been

found in dead aspens and dead portions (lightning strikes) of

live ponderosa pines (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Scott and Patton 1975). Nests are lined with hair and feathers and are often

used for more than 1 year.

Food: A myriad of insects, including larvae of the gypsy moth

and the forest tent caterpillar, beetles, spiders, caterpillars,

and ants comprise the main diet of white-breasted nuthatches

throughout the spring and summer. In the winter, nearly all

food eaten is mast composed of beechnuts, acorns, hickory

nuts, maize and sunflower seeds (Bent 1948). Among the

insect foods are several other forest pests including nut

weevils, locust seed weevils, and roundheaded woodborers

(Scott and Patton 1975). Nuthatches may also be attracted to

feeders with suet and sunflower seeds.

73
Red-breasted nuthatch

Sitta canadensis

Habitat: Red-breasted nuthatches nest throughout the high

elevations of the Rocl<y Mountains and in the Canadian boreal

forests. They are erratic winter migrants to the eastern forest

types, in Colorado, their preferred habitat is the coniferousaspen type from the Canadian Life Zone to timberline.

Nest: Red-breasted nuthatches wiii excavate their own cavity if

a natural cavity or woodpecker hole is not available or to their

liking (de Kiriline 1952). Nests are usuaily 6 to 40 feet above

the ground in rotten stubs or branches of dead trees. Nests

have been reported in birch, popiar, cottonwood, oak, and

pine. Nests usually are not ilned, in contrast to those of whitebreasted nuthatches.

Food: Little Is known of the food taken by red-breasted nuthatches. They feed on seeds of pine, spruce, and other coniferous trees. The animai food is known to include beeties, hymenoptera, spiders, and ribbed pine borers. They sometimes

feed on flying Insects (Bent 1948). Birds will visit feeders offering suet during the winter.

74
Brown-headed nuthatch

Sitta pusilla

L 3V2'

Cr<

Habitat: Clearings and areas that have been burned (more old

stumps available for nesting) in southern pine woods are preferred by brown-headed nuthatches. They can also be found in

mixed pine and hardwood forests of extreme southeastern

United States (Bent 1948).

Nest: Brown-headed nuthatches excavate or partially excavate

nest cavities 4.5 to 8 inches deep in dead trees and stumps

(often fire blackened) or posts and poles. Bent (1948) gave little

evidence that the brown-headed nuthatch will use old woodpecl^er holes, but they may enlarge and use natural cavities.

The nests are located 3 to 46 feet from the ground (only rarely

above 13 feet). Because nest entrances are more like a crack in

a tree than rounded like a woodpecker hole, nests are difficult

to find (Pearson 1936).

Food: Brown-headed nuthatches are mainly insectivorous, and

are considered a useful protector of trees. They search for

insects and their eggs in crevices of the bark on the trunks,

branches, twigs, and needles of pines. They also eat pine

seeds (Bent 1948).

75
Pygmy nuthatch

Sitta pygmaea

L 3V2

<

«í:

/>

Habitat: Pygmy nuthatches are common in ponderosa pine

forests throughout the West. They are also found in Jeffrey

pine, Bishop pine, and Monterey pine associations in Caiifornia (Grinnell and Milier 1944), and in pinyon-juniper woodlands in Arizona (Phillips et al. 1964).

Nest: Nearly all reported nests of the pygmy nuthatch have

been from 8 to 60 feet above ground in cavities excavated by

the bird itself in dead or live pine trees (Bent 1948). We found

27 nests in ponderosa pine snags and two in dead aspens in

the White Mountains of Arizona.

Food: About 80 percent of the diet is animal material, mostly

wasps and spittle insects, including some ants, beetles, and

caterpillars; the balance is nearly all conifer seeds (Bent 1948).

76
Brown creeper

Certhia familiaris

Habitat: This inconspicuous small bird is fairly common in the

coniferous forests of the Transition and Canadian Life Zones.

in Colorado, it breeds from 7,000 feet to timberllne (Bailey and

Neldrach 1965). Creepers winter throughout the forests of the

southern states.

Nest: Sometimes creepers nest in natural cavities and old

woodpecker holes, but generally they make their nests between

the loose bark and the trunk of a large dead tree (Bent 1948).

We found three nests behind the loosened bark of dead ponderosa pines and one in a white fir snag in the White Mountains of Arizona.

Food: Few details are known, but the diet is mainly insects,

including weevils, leafhoppers, flat bugs, jumping plant lice,

scale insects, eggs of katydids, ants and other small hymenoptera, sawflies, moths, caterpillars, cocoons of leaf skeletonizers, pupae of the codling moth, spiders, and pseudoscorpions (Bent 1948). The small amount of vegetable material

eaten Is chiefly mast.

77
House wren

Troglodytes aedon

(

Ipf L 41/4'

Habitat: House wrens are common nesters in shrubbery and

brush throughout the northern two-thirds of the United States,

but they winter in the southern states. They range from the

plains to timberline throughout the Rocl<y Mountains. They are

commonly found along the edges of woods, swamps, fields,

and in orchards.

Nest: House wrens are aggressive In their nesting habits and

will drive other birds from cavities. Nests have been found in a

variety of sites Including 2-Inch pipes used to brace fence

posts, nesting boxes, natural cavities, and downy woodpecl<er

holes (Sutton 1930). Nests are usually less than 10 feet above

the ground. Diameter of the entrance hole in nesting boxes

should be 1 Inch.

Food: House wrens are capable of eating large quantities of

Insects and arthropods, which constitute 98 percent of their

diet. Animal Items Include beetles, caterpillars, bugs, grasshoppers, and ants (Bent 1948).

78
Brown-throated wren

Troglodytes brunneicollis

Habitat: Brown-throated wrens inhabit oak forests, mostly in

desert ranges, but can be found up to elevations of 8,000 feet

in southern Arizona.

Nest: This wren uses natural cavities or old woodpecker holes

in tree trunks or limbs. Like the house wren, it will sometimes

occupy recesses about buildings and nest boxes (Rough 1957).

Food: We could not find published information on food habits

but the diet is probably insects similar to that of other wrens.

79
Winter wren

Troglodytes troglodytes

L 3V4'

Habitat: Winter wrens inhabit coniferous forests of spruce, fir,

and pine, and underbrusfi in woodlands in eastern and western

United States and Canada.

Nest: Winter wren nests, made from twigs and leaves, are built

near the ground in exposed roots or fallen logs or in rocks and

crevices (Bent 1948, Wetmore 1964).

Food: Details on food items were not found In the literature,

but the diet Is probably adult and larval stages of insects (Bent

1948).

80
Bewick's wren

Thryomanes bewickii

Habitat: Bewick's wrens are common and widespread in the

West, but uncommon and locai in the Appalachians and

Ozari<s. They are usuaily found in farmyards, brushiands,

fencerows, and suburban areas. Bewicl^'s wrens are fairly common in the pinyon-juniper forest type, and in mesquite-wiiiowcottonwood associations along southwestern streams.

Nest: Nests of the Bewick's wren can be found in a multitude

of places. Most nests are cup-shaped and can be either open or

closed above. They are usually located in cavities close to the

ground (Miller 1941). Nest sites include natural cavities, woodpecker holes, knotholes in fallen trees, fence posts, tin cans,

bird boxes, and deserted automobiles (Bent 1948).

Food: Bewick's wrens, like other wrens, eat large numbers of

insects that are Injurious to vegetation. Ninety-seven percent

of the diet is Insects, including primarily hemlptera and coleóptera. In the South they are credited with eating boll weevils

(Bent 1948).

81
Carolina wren

Thryothorus ludovicianus

Habitat: Carolina wrens are common in forest types with ttiick

underbrush throughout the eastern United States. The number

in northern populations fluctuates widely depending on the

harshness of winter conditions.

Nest: Carolina wrens are quite universal in their choice of nesting sites. These wrens prefer nesting sites that are fairly well

enclosed, but they are not totally dependent upon cavities.

They are well adapted to habitat conditions provided by man,

but also nest in the woods where they prefer tangles and

brushy undergrowth. Nests have been found in natural cavities,

mailboxes, newspaper cylinders, old hornet nests, and bird

houses (Laskey 1948, Nice and Thomas 1948).

Food: Animal food, mostly insects, makes up 93 percent of the

Carolina wren's diet. Of this, beetles, caterpillars, and moths

comprise the largest portion. The 7 percent vegetable material

is mostly seeds taken in the winter. Since the Carolina wren

feeds mostly on or near the ground, deep snow is detrimental

to survival. They will visit feeding stations if placed near brush

piles (Bent 1948).

82
Eastern bluebird

Sialia sialis

L 5V2'

Habitat: Under natural conditions, eastern bluebirds prefer to

use cavities in savannah-like habitats east of the Great Plains

(Rustad 1972). They are an edge species and therefore do not

live in dense woods or in closely built residential sections of

tov\/n (Thomas 1946). Like purple martins, bluebirds have taken

advantage of nest boxes provided in areas around farms, near

open fields, and in orchards.

Nest: Eastern bluebird nesting sites (snags) are often eliminated because of their unsightliness or interference with cultivation. When available, eastern bluebirds nest in old woodpecker holes, hollows of decayed trees, and crevices of rocks

(Pearson 1936). They will readily take to hollows in wooden

fence posts or correctly sized and placed nest boxes (5x5x8

inches high with a 1.5-inch hole located 6 inches from the bottom). Boxes should be placed 5 to 10 feet above the ground at

the edge of a forest opening or field.

Food: Eastern bluebirds consume 70 percent animal matter and

30 percent vegetable matter. Vegetable intake increases to

more than 50 percent in December and January, but is completely lacking in May. Animal matter includes grasshoppers,

crickets and katydids, various coleóptera, moths and caterpiilars, some hymenoptera and hemiptera, as well as various

other invertebrates and small vertebrates. Vegetable matter is

mostly wild fruits (Bent 1949).

83
Western bluebird

Sialia mexicana

Habitat: The western bluebird is most abundant in open ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Zone, but may also be

found in oak woodlands, pinyon-juniper, mixed conifer, and

subalpine forests.

Nest: Nests are usually in old woodpecker holes, but this bird

also uses natural cavities. Nests have been reported in oak,

sycamore, and pine trees. In Monterey County, California,

nests were found from 5 to 40 feet above ground in pine

stumps or trees (Bent 1949). This bluebird, like the eastern,

also readily nests near humans in bird houses. Nest boxes

should be 5 X 5 X 8 inches with a 1.5-inch entrance hole located 6 inches from the floor. Boxes should be placed 5 to 10

feet above ground near forest openings or meadows.

Food: Beat (Bent 1949) examined the contents of 217 stomachs

and found 72 percent animal material (grasshoppers 21 percent, caterpillars 20 percent, useful beetles 9 percent, other

beetles 16 percent, ants 5 percent, other hymenoptera 1 percent) and 28 percent vegetable material, mostly wild fruits,

including elderberries, mistletoe berries, blackberries or raspberries, prunes, cherries, and a few weed seeds.

84
Mountain bluebird

Sialia cumicoides

Habitat: The mountain bluebird nests in nearly all timber types

of the Rocky Mountain region, and is reported from 800 to

11,000 feet elevation in Idaho (Burleigh 1972). However, this

species usually ranges from 7,000 to 11,000 feet In open

forests or near forest edges.

Nest: The mountain bluebird usually nests in natural cavities or

In old woodpecker holes but will also use man-made structures. Nests have been reported in fir and pinyon snags and

aspen trees (Burleigh 1972, Bent 1949). We recorded six nests

in the White Mountains of Arizona ranging from 12 to 35 feet

above ground In ponderosa pine snags. Five of these were in

abandoned woodpecker holes and one was In a natural cavity.

Nest boxes should be similar to those for other bluebirds.

Food: This Is probably the most insectivorous of the bluebirds.

Studies Indicate that nearly 92 percent of the diet Is animal

material, including miscellaneous beetles, weevils, ants, bees,

wasps, cicadas, stinkbugs, negro bugs, assassin bugs, jassids, flies, caterpillars, grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets

(Bent 1949). Vegetable items Include currants, grapes, elderberries, sumac seeds, mistletoe berries, hackberry seeds, Virginia creeper seeds, and cedar berries.

85
Starling

Stumus vulgaris

Habitat: Starlings breed in various liabitats tliat provide adequate nestling food (Troetschler 1976) but are perhaps most

numerous in suburban and rural habitat where suitable nesting

sites abound. Kalmbach (1928) noted that starlings prefer

thickly settled agricultural areas and stated that "They are

partial to human association . . ." During establishment in the

United States, starlings first settled in lowland areas and are

still abundant there (Small 1974, Royall 1966, Bent 1950). In a

southeast Ontario test, starlings preferred old field habitat over

five other habitats when sufficient nest sites were available

(Gibo et al. 1976).

Nest: Cavities in trees, telephone poles, or fence posts, in

drainpipes, mail boxes, or buildings, and in haystacks and

cliffs have been used for nesting, as have burrows and open

nests of other species (Kessel 1957, Bent 1950). Natural nest

sites seem to be preferred over nest boxes (Planck 1967). Competition between starlings and native species for nesting cavities usually favors the starling, but most native species seem

to breed in some habitats where starlings are not numerous.

Food: Analysis of contents of 2,750 starling stomachs taken in

the northeastern states showed 57 percent animal materials

such as insects, millipeds, spiders, molluscs, and a few

crustaceans. Insects such as weevils, ground beetles, and

plant-feeding scarabaeids such as May beetles were especially

important. Of the 43 percent vegetable material, wild fruit was

most important, but cultivated cherries, vegetable material,

grain, and seeds of various sorts were also used (Kalmbach

1928). In other areas, grapes, blueberries, figs, and other fruit,

truck crops, sprouting crops, and prepared livestock feed are

eaten.

86
Crested myna

Acridotheres cristatellus

Habitat: The crested myna is native to the plains and lowlands

of cultivated southern China, and was Introduced In Vancouver,

B.C., Canada in the 1890's. Although the myna has been reported in the states of Washington and Oregon, most of the

population is In Greater Vancouver and Vancouver Island.

Mynas are apparently dwellers of urban and nearby open field

areas (Mackay and Hughes 1963).

Nest: In urban areas, mynas nest In almost any enclosed area,

including bird boxes intended for other birds. In wooded areas,

holes made by flickers and other woodpeckers seem to be preferred (Bent 1950).

Food: Scheffer and Cottam (1935) examined the contents of

117 adult myna stomachs and found 39 percent animal and 61

percent vegetable matter. Animal matter included files, moths

and caterpillars, wasps, bees, ants, bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, spiders, and earthworms. Vegetable matter Included wild

varieties of elderberries, cherries, blueberries, crowberrles,

snowberrles, salmonberries, loganberries, and servlceberrles.

Fruits of cultivated cherries, strawberries, raspberries, and

blackberries were also eaten, with some damage done to

apples, pears, cabbages, and lettuce.

87
Prothonotary warbler

Protonotaria citrea

Habitat: The prothonotary warbler is found south of Canada in

the eastern deciduous forests of the United States. Other

names for this warbler (golden swamp warbler and willow

warbler) describe its preference for swamps and periodically

flooded areas. The prothonotary often lives near running water

with streamside willows (Pearson 1936).

Nest: Nests are almost always in stumps and snags either

standing in or near water (Simpson 1969) and often leaning

over the water (Pearson 1936). Downy woodpecker and chickadee holes ranging from 2 to 12 feet and averaging 5 feet above

the ground are used most often (Pearson 1936). However, the

warbler reportedly has a wide tolerance for the type of nesting

cavities used. Prothonotaries occasionally even nest in bird

boxes and near buildings (Forbush and May 1939).

Food: Prothonotary warblers are primarily insectivorous. They

eat ants, spiders, beetles, mayflies, and their larvae. They also

will eat the larvae of water insects. This warbler feeds on

trunks and branches of trees, shrubs, and fallen logs. They

will also perch on rank grasses and water plants and eat small

molluscs (Bent 1953).

88
Lucy's warbler

Vermivora luciae

L 4y4'

j'-

% X

Habitat: This warbler inhabits mesquite woodlands and riparian

vegetation with willows and cottonwoods from Nevada to the

southwestern United States.

Nest: Nests of Lucy's warblers are usually located in tree

cavities or under loose bark in willows, cottonwoods and mesquite. Ironwood, palo verde, and catclaw have also been used

for nest trees (Robbins et al. 1966, Bent 1953, Peterson 1961).

Food: Insects are the major food items in the diet of Lucy's

warbler (Bent 1953).

89
House sparrow

Passer domesticus

w L 51/4'

Habitat: House sparrows are well known associates of man,

thriving in towns and urban situations. They are also birds of

the suburban-rural landscape (Summers-Smith 1963). Optimum habitat requirements are perhaps best met around buildings where waste grain from poultry and livestock feeding can

be found. The species is scarce or absent from densely

forested and desert regions uninhabited by man (Kalmbach

1940).

Nest: House sparrows nest in eaves, crevices, and holes in

buildings; in vines and creepers on walls; in the branches of

trees; in nest boxes and natural cavities in trees; and in other

assorted locations, perhaps in that order of importance. Open

tree nests may be built more often In warmer latitudes, but

females seem to prefer hole nests (Cink 1976). Nesting cavities

of cliff and bank swallows and house finches may be usurped.

Nests are usually at least 6 to 8 feet from the ground, may be

as high as 50 feet, and groups or colonies are not uncommon.

Nests are domed whether in cavities or the open. House sparrows all too readily accept bird houses erected for purple martins, bluebirds, and other species.

Food: Kalmbach's (1940) study of the contents of 4,848

stomachs of suburban-rural birds indicated that adult and

juvenile (non-nestling) house sparrows take 3.4 percent animal

material throughout the year, particularly dung beetles. May

beetles, and other Scarabaeidae. Grain from poultry yards,

etc., made up the largest percentage of vegetable material (31.5

to 84.2 percent), followed by seeds of grasses and weeds (17

percent), and oats other than that in feed (14.4 percent). Ragweed, crabgrass, smartweed, and pigweed were important

plants in the grass and weed category.

90
European tree sparrow

Passer montanus

Habitat: The European tree sparrow was introduced in St.

Louis, IVIissouri, in 1870. Coincident with the increase in house

sparrows, European tree sparrows ieft the thickly settled parts

of St. Louis and established populations throughout the city

outskirts, suburban areas, farmyards, and woodiots. The

species now occupies approximately 8,500 square miles in

extreme east-central Missouri and west-central Illinois. They

appear to be slowly expanding their range northward in western

Illinois (Barlow 1973).

Nest: European tree sparrows nest In natural cavities, crevices,

and woodpecker holes. They appear to be a weak competitor

for available nesting sites. Part of the reason for the extension

of tree sparrow range north may be related to large numbers of

dead and dying American elms (victims of Dutch elm disease)

which have provided an increasing source of nesting sites (Barlow 1973).

Food: Tree sparrows feed primarily on the ground on weed

seeds, maize, insects, and spiders.

91
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1952. A study of the breeding biology of the purple martin

(Progne subis). Am. Midi. Nat. 47(3):606-665.

Bailey, Alfred M., and R. J. Niedrach.

1965. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist., Denver,

Colo. Vol. 1-2, 895 p.

Baker, W. Wilson.

1971. Observations on the food habits of the red-cockaded

woodpecker. P. 100-107. In The ecology and management

of the red-cockaded woodpecker: symposium proceedings,

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Balda, Rüssel P.

1975. The relationship of secondary cavity nesters to snag

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Barlow, Jon C.

1973. Status of the North American population of the European tree sparrow. P. 10-23. In A symposium on the house

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14.

Baumgartner, Luther L.

1939. Fox squirrel dens. J. Mammal. 20(4):456-465.

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Beal, F. E. L.

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Beal, F. E. L., W. L. McAfee, and E. R. Kalmbach.

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Beal, F. E. L.

1918. Food habits of the swallows, a family of valuable native birds. U.S. Dep. Agrie. Bull. 619. 28 p.

Beaver, Donald L.

1967. Feeding niches of flycatchers in a montane forest in

Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ. 122 p.

Beckett, Ted.

1971. A summary of red-cockaded woodpecker observations

in South Carolina. P. 87-95. In The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: symposium proceedings, Gkefenokee Nati. Wildl. Refuge, Folkston,

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Georgia, May 26-27, 1971. U.S. Dept. Int., Bur. Sport Fish.

Wildl., [Published in cooperation with Tall Timbers Res.

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Bellrose, Frank C, Kenneth L. Johnson and T. Udell Meyers.

1964. Relative value of natural cavities and nesting houses

for wood ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 28(4):661-676.

Bellrose, Frank C.

1976. Ducks, geese and swans of North Annerica. Stackpole

Books, Harrisburg, PA. 543 p.

Bellrose, Frank, Jr.

1938. Duck hawks nesting in western Tennessee. Wilson

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105
Plants Referred to in Text:

Common Name Scientific Name

Agave

Alder

Almond

American linden

Anaqua

Apple

Arrow arum

Ash

Ash, black

Ash, green

Ash, water

Aspen

Baldcypress

Basswood

Bayberry

Beech

Bermuda grass

Birch

Birch, paper

Blackberries

Blueberries

Bulrush

Butternut

Buttonbush

Cabbage

Cactus

Catalpa

Catclaw

•Cedar

Cherries

Cherry, wild

China tree

Cissus

Coontail

Com

Cottonwood

Cottonwood, black

Crabgrass

Creosote bush

Crowberries

Currant

Cypress

Dogwood

Douglas-fir

Duckweed

Ebony

Elderberry

Agave sp.

Alnus sp.

Prunus sp.

Tilia americana L.

Ehretia anacua (Teran & Berl.) I. M. lohnst.

Malus sp.

Peltandra sp.

Fraxinus sp.

Fraxinus nigra Marsh.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.

Fraxinus caroliniana Mill.

Populus sp.

Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.

Tilia sp.

Myrica sp.

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.

Cynodom dactylon (L.) Pers.

Betula sp.

Betula papyrifera Marsh.

Rubus sp.

Vaccinium sp.

Scirpus sp.

Juglans cinérea L.

Cephalanthus occidentalis L.

Brassica sp.

Cactaceae

Catalpa sp.

Acacia sp.

Prunus sp.

Prunus sp.

Koelreuteria sp.

Cissus sp.

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Zea mays L.

Populus sp.

Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray

Digitaria sp.

Larrea tridentata (DC.) Cov.

Empetrum sp.

Ribes sp.

Cornus sp.

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco

Lemna sp.

Diospyros sp.

Sambucus sp.

106
Common Name Scientific Name

Elm

Elm, American

Fig

Fir

Fir, balsam

Fir, red

Fir, subalpine

Fir, white

Grapes, wild

Gum, black

Gum, sour

Hackberry

Hazelnut

Hemlock

Hickory

Hickory, bitternut

Holly

Honeysuckle

Huisache

Ironwood

Juniper

Larch

Larch, western

Lettuce

Loganberries

Magnolia

Maize

Maple

Maple, red

Maple, silver

Mescal

Mesquite

Millet

Mistletoe

Oak

Oak, black

Oak, blackjack

Oak, bur

Oak, cherrybark

Oak, live

Oak, overcup

Oak, pin

Oak, red

Oak, white

Oats

Palmetto

Palo Verde

Pear

Pecan

Ulmus sp.

Ulmus americana L.

Ficus sp.

Abies sp.

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.

Abies magnifica A. Murr.

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl.

Vitis sp.

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Nyssa sp.

Celtis sp.

Corylus sp.

Tsuga sp.

Carya sp.

Carya cordiformis (Wangenh.) K. Koch

Ilex sp.

Lonicera sp.

Acacia famesiana (L.) Willd.

Olneya tesota Gray

Juniperus sp.

Larix sp.

Larix occidentalis Nutt.

Lactuca sp.

Rubus sp.

Magnolia sp.

Zea mays L.

Acer sp.

Acer rubrum L.

Acer saccharinum L.

Agave sp.

Prosopis sp.

Setaria sp.

Phoradendron sp.

Quercus sp.

Quercus velutina Lam.

Q. marilandica Muenchh.

Q. macrocarpa Michx.

Q. falcata var. pagodaefolia Ell.

Q. virginiana Mill.

Q. lyrata Walt.

Q. palustris Muenchh.

Quercus sp.

Q. alba L.

Avena sp.

Sabal sp.

Cercidium sp.

Pyrus sp.

Carya illinoensis (Wang.) K. Koch

107
Common Name Scientific Name

Pepper, red

Pigweed

Pine

Pine, Bishop

Pine, Jeffrey

Pine, loblolly

Pine, lodgepole

Pine, longleaf

Pine, Monterey

Pine, pinyon

Pine, ponderosa

Pine, shortleaf

Pine, slash

Pine, sugar

Pine, white

Poison ivy

Poison oak

Pokeberry

Pondweed

Poplar

Poplar, balsam

Prunes

Ragweed

Raspberries

Red heart fungus

Redwood

Retama

Sago pondweed

Saguaro cactus

Salmonberries

Sawgrass, tall

Screwbean

Serviceberries

Skunk cabbage

Smartweed

Snowberries

Sorghum

Spruce

Spruce, Engelmann

Spruce, Sitka

Strawberries

Sumac

Sunflower

Sweetgum

Sycamore

Tamarac

Tulip-poplar

Tupelo

Capsicum sp.

Chenopodium sp.

Pinus sp.

Pinus muricata D. Don.

P. jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.

P. taeda L.

P. contorta Dougl.

P. palustris Mill.

P. radiata D. Don

P. edulis Engelm.

P. ponderosa Laws.

P. echinata Mill.

P. elliotti Engelm.

P. lamhertiana Dougl.

P. strobus L.

Rhus radicans L.

Rhus diversiloba T. & G.

Phytolacca americana L.

Potamogetón sp.

Populus sp.

Populus balsamifera L.

Prunus sp.

Ambrosia sp.

Rubus sp.

Fomes sp.

Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don.) Endl.

Retama sp.

Potamogetón pectinatus L.

Camegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britt. & Rose

Rubus spectabilis Pursh.

Cladium sp.

Prosopis sp.

Amelanchier sp.

Symplocarpusfoetidus (L.) Nutt.

Polygonum sp.

Symphoricarpos sp.

Sorghum sp.

Picea sp.

Picea engelmannii Parry

Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.

Fragraria sp.

Rhus sp.

Helianthus sp.

Liquidambar styraciflua L.

Platanus sp.

Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch

Liriodendron tulipifera L.

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

108
Common Name Scientific Name

Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia L.

Walnut Juglans sp.

Water stargrass Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) MacM.

Wax-myrtle Myrica cerífera L.

Wheat Triticum sp.

Widegon grass Ruppia marítima L.

Wild celery ValUsneria americana Michx.

Willow Salix sp.

Willow, black Salix nigra Marsh.

Yucca Yucca sp.

109
Invertebrates Referred to in Text:

Common Name Class or Order Family Genus and Species

Amphipods Crustacea

Ants Hymenoptera Formicidae

Aphids Homoptera Aphididae

Assassin bugs Hemiptera Reduviidae

Bark beetles Coleóptera Scolytidae

Bees Hymenoptera Apidae

Beetles Coleóptera

Black crickets Orthoptera Gryllidae

Blue mussel (phylum)

Mollusca

Boll weevil Coleóptera Curculionidae Anthonomus grandis

Boheman

Bugs Hemiptera

Butterflies Lepidoptera

Caddis flies Trichoptera

Carpenter ants Hymenoptera Formicidae Camponotus sp.

Caterpillars Lepidoptera

Centipedes Chilopoda

Chironomids Diptera Chironomidae

Cicadas Homoptera Cicadidae

Clover weevils Coleóptera Curculionidae

Cockroach Orthoptera Blattidae

Codling moth Lepidoptera Olethreutidae Carpocapsa pomonella L.

Cone worms Lepidoptera

Corn earworm Lepidoptera Noctuidae Heliothis zea (Boddie)

Cotton boll weevils Coleóptera Curculionidae

Crabs Crustacea

Crane flies Diptera Tipulidae

Crayfish Crustacea

Crickets Orthoptera Gryllidae

Culicine mosquitoes Diptera Culicidae

Cutworm moths Lepidoptera Noctuidae Agrotis sp.

Daddy long legs Phalangida

Damselflies Odonata

Dragonflies Odonata

Dung beetles Coleóptera Scarabaeidae

Earthworms Oligochaeta

Elm bark beetle Coleóptera Scolytidae Scolytus multistriatus

(Marsham)

Flat bugs Hemiptera Aradidae

Flies Diptera

Flying ants Hymenoptera Formicidae

Gnats Diptera

Grasshoppers Orthoptera Acrididae

Grubs Coleóptera

Gypsy moth Lepidoptera Lymantriidae Porthetria dispar (L.)

Hairy crickets Orthoptera

Harvestmen Phalangida

Hawk moths Lepidoptera Sphingidae

Hemipterans Hemiptera

Hornets Hymenoptera Vespidae

House fly Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica L.

Hymenopterans Hymenoptera

Ichneumon flies Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae

Isopods Crustacea

Jassids Homoptera Cicadellidae

Jerusalem crickets Orthoptera Gryllacrididae

Jumping plant lice Homoptera Psyllidae

110
Common Name Class or Order Family Genus and Species

Katydids Orthoptera Tettigoniidae

Ladybird beetles Coleóptera Coccinellidae

Leaf bugs Hemiptera Miridae

Leafhoppers Homoptera Cicadellidae

Leaf skeletoni/Ts Lepidoptera Lyonetiidae Bucculatrix sp.

Lepidopterans Lepidoptera

Locusts Orthoptera Acrididae

Locust seed weevils Coleóptera Mylabridae Bruchus sp.

Lodgepole needle miners; Lepidoptera Gelechiidae

Long-horned beetles Coleóptera Cerambycidae

Long-horned grasshoppers Orthoptera Tettigoniidae

Long-legged tipulids Diptera Tipulidae

Lyonetiid moths Lepidoptera Lyonetiidae Bucculatrix sp.

May beetles Coleóptera Scarabaeidae

Mayflies Ephemeroptera

Metallic wood boring

beetles Coleóptera Buprestidae

Midges Diptera Chironomidae

Millipedes Diplopoda

Molluscs (phylum)

Mollusca

Mosquitoes Diptera Culicidae

Moths Lepidoptera

Negro bugs Hemiptera Corimelaenidae

Nut weevils Coleóptera Curculionidae Curculio spp.

Praying mantids Orthoptera Mantidae

Pseudoscorpions Pseudoscorpionida

Psyllids Homoptera Psyllidae

Ribbed pine borer Coleóptera Cerambycidae Stenocorus inquisitor

(Oliv.)

Roaches Orthoptera Blattidae

Round-headed woodborers Coleóptera Cerambycidae

Sawflies Hymenoptera Tenthredinidae

Scolytid beetles Coleóptera Scolytidae Scolytus sp.

Scorpions Scorpionida

Seed beetles Coleóptera Bruchidae Bruchus sp.

Seed bugs Hemiptera Lygaeidae

Spiders Areneida

Spittle bugs Homoptera Cercopidae

Spittle insects Homoptera Cercopidae

Spruce aphid Homoptera Chermidae Chermes cooleyi Gill.

Spruce beetles Coleóptera Scolytidae Dendroctonus sp.

Spruce budworm Lepidoptera Tortricidae Choristoneura fumiferana

(Clemens)

Stinkbugs Hemiptera Pentatomidae

Tent caterpillars Lepidoptera Lasiocampidae Malacosoma sp.

Termites Isoptera

Tree hoppers Homoptera Membracidae

True bugs Hemiptera

Wasps Hymenoptera Vespidae

Water boatmen Hemiptera Corixidae

Weevils Coleóptera Curculionidae

Wood ants Hymenoptera Formicidae

Wood boring beetles Coleóptera

Wood boring larvae Coleóptera

111
Vertebrates Referred to in Text:

Common Name Class or Order Family Genus and Species

Amphibians Amphibia

Bats Chiroptera

Carp Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Cyprinus carpió Linnaeus

Catfish Cypriniformes Ictaluridae

Chipmunks Rodentia Sciuridae

Chubs Cypriniformes Cyprinidae

Cotton rat Rodentia Cricetidae Sigmodon hispidus (Say &

Ord)

Cottontail rabbit Lagomorpha Leporidae Sylvilagus Jloridan us

(Allen)

Cow Artiodactyla Bovidae Bos taunis Linnaeus

Deer mouse Rodentia Cricetidae Pcromyscus maniculatus

(Wagner)

Eels Anguilliformes Anguillidae Anguilla sp.

Flying squirrels Rodentia Sciuridae Glaucomys sp.

Frogs Anura

Gizzard shad Clupeiformes Clupeidae Dorosoma cepedianum

(LeSueur)

Gophers Rodentia Geomyidae

Ground squirrels Rodentia Sciuridae

Horse Perissodactyla Equidae Equus caballas Linnaeus

Lizards Squamata

Masked shrew Insectívora Soricidae Sorex cinéreas (Kerr.)

Meadow mouse Rodentia Cricetidae Microtus pennsylvanicus

(Ord)

Meadow vole Rodentia Cricetidae Microtus pennsylvanicus

(Ord)

Mice Rodentia

Moles Insectívora Talpidac

Perch Perciformes Percidae

Pig Artiodactyla Suidae Sus seroja Linnaeus

Pocket gophers Rodentia Geomyidae

Porcupine Rodentia Erethizontidae Erethizon dorsatum

(Linnaeus)

Raccoon Carnívora Procyonidae Procyon lotor (Linnaeus)

Rats Rodentia

Red-backed mouse Rodentia Cricetidae Clethrionomys gapperi

(Vigors)

Red-backed vole Rodentia Cricetidae Clethrionomys gapperi

(Vigors)

Reptiles Reptilia

Rodents Rodentia

Salamanders Urodela

Salmon Clupeiformes Salmonidae

Short-tailed shrew Insectívora Soricidae Blarina hrevicauda (Say)

Shrews Insectívora Soricidae

Snakes Squamata

Squirrels

Star-nosed mole

Rodentia Sciuridae

Insectívora Soricidae Condylura cristata

(Linnaeus)

Suckers Cypriniformes Catostomidae

Toads Anura

Trout Clupeiformes Salmonidae

Voles Rodentia Cricetidae

White-footed mouse Rodentia Cricetidae Peromyscus sp.

Woodrats Rodentia Cricetidae Neotoma sp.

5Îr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1977 O—246-764

112