U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Draft Supplemental

Environmental Impact Statement

©Jeff Foott. Used with permission.

Prepared by

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office

Ventura, California

August 2005

Translocation of

Southern Sea Otters
You may submit written comments to the addresses listed below. 

By mail: 

Field Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office 

2493 Portola Road, Suite B 

Ventura, California 93003-7726 

By e-mail: 

fw1seaotterseis@fws.gov

 
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Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................................1

BACKGROUND ...........................................................................................................................................................1

PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION ..............................................................................................................................2

ISSUES AND ALTERNATIVES ......................................................................................................................................2

IMPACTS OF THE ALTERNATIVES ...............................................................................................................................3

TRANSLOCATION PROGRAM EVALUATION ................................................................................................................5

THE PROPOSED ACTION—ALTERNATIVE 3C.............................................................................................................5

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND NEED .....................................................................................................................9

1.1 PURPOSE FOR ACTION.........................................................................................................................................9

1.2 NEED FOR ACTION ..............................................................................................................................................9

CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND ..............................................................................................................................11

2.1 HISTORY OF THE TRANSLOCATION PROGRAM...................................................................................................11

2.2 SCOPING AND ISSUES ........................................................................................................................................14

CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION ...................................................17

3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................17

3.2 DESCRIPTION AND COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES.........................................................................................18

3.2.1 Baseline (Status Quo)—The No Action Alternative..................................................................................18

3.2.2 Alternative 1—Resume Implementation of 1987 Translocation Plan ......................................................18

3.2.3 Alternative 2—Implement Modified Translocation Program with Smaller Management Zone...............19

3.2.4 Alternatives 3A-3C—Terminate Translocation Program.........................................................................20

3.2.5 Alternative 3A—Terminate Translocation Program; Remove All Sea Otters Residing within the 

Translocation and Management Zones at the Time the Decision to Terminate is Made ...................................21

3.2.6 Alternative 3B—Terminate Translocation Program; Remove Only Sea Otters Residing within the 

Translocation Zone at the Time the Decision to Terminate is Made .................................................................21

3.2.7 Alternative 3C (Proposed Action)—Terminate Translocation Program; Do Not Remove Sea Otters 

Residing within the Translocation or Management Zones at the Time the Decision to Terminate is Made......22

3.3 ALTERNATIVES IDENTIFIED DURING SCOPING BUT NOT ANALYZED FURTHER IN THIS SUPPLEMENT ..............22

CHAPTER 4. DESCRIPTION OF THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT ..........................................................25

4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................25

4.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................................................................25

4.3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................................................26

4.3.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................26

4.3.1.1 Shallow Water Marine Communities ................................................................................................................. 26

4.3.1.2 Southern Sea Otter Prey Consumption............................................................................................................... 27

4.3.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ..................................................................................................................28

4.3.2.1 Giant Kelp.......................................................................................................................................................... 28

4.3.2.2 Sea Urchins ........................................................................................................................................................ 31

4.3.2.3 California Spiny Lobsters................................................................................................................................... 33

4.3.2.4 Sand Crabs ......................................................................................................................................................... 34

4.3.2.5 Rock and Sheep Crabs ....................................................................................................................................... 34

4.3.2.6 Abalone.............................................................................................................................................................. 36

4.3.2.7 Clams and Mussels............................................................................................................................................. 37

4.3.2.8 Fishes ................................................................................................................................................................. 39

4.3.3 Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species....................................................................................40

4.3.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................... 40

4.3.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................... 41

4.3.3.3 Southern Sea Otters............................................................................................................................................ 43
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4.4.1 Overview: Use Value, Non-Use Value, and Regional Economic Context................................................50

4.4.2 Commercial Fisheries ..............................................................................................................................52

4.4.2.1 Overview............................................................................................................................................................ 52

4.4.2.2 Sea Urchin Fishery............................................................................................................................................. 55

4.4.2.3 Spiny Lobster Fishery ........................................................................................................................................ 56

4.4.2.4 Crab Fishery....................................................................................................................................................... 57

4.4.2.5 Gill and Trammel Net Fishery............................................................................................................................ 58

4.4.2.6 Live-Fish Trap Fishery....................................................................................................................................... 58

4.4.3 Aquaculture..............................................................................................................................................59

4.4.4 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins).............................................................................................59

4.4.5 Kelp Harvest ............................................................................................................................................60

4.4.6. Recreational Fishing and Diving ............................................................................................................61

4.4.7 Abalone Fishery Restoration....................................................................................................................61

4.4.8 Ecotourism ...............................................................................................................................................63

4.4.9 Federal and State Agency Programs........................................................................................................63

4.4.9.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service........................................................................................................................... 63

4.4.9.2 Channel Islands National Park ........................................................................................................................... 63

4.4.9.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary ...................................................................................................... 64

4.4.9.4 California Department of Fish and Game........................................................................................................... 64

4.4.9.5 U.S. Navy........................................................................................................................................................... 65

4.4.9.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service................................................................................................................... 66

4.4.10 Regulatory Environment ........................................................................................................................68

CHAPTER 5. SIGNIFICANCE CRITERIA AND DEFINITIONS OF LEVELS OF IMPACT......................71

CHAPTER 6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES......................................................................................73

6.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................................73

6.1.1 Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects..................................................................................................73

6.1.2 Background ..............................................................................................................................................73

6.1.3 Timeline for Analysis................................................................................................................................74

6.1.4 Predicting Mainland Range Expansion and Colony Growth at San Nicolas Island................................74

6.1.4.1 Sea Otter Range Expansion into Southern California ........................................................................................ 74

6.1.4.2 San Nicolas Island Colony Growth .................................................................................................................... 75

6.1.5 Biological and Socioeconomic Impact Topics .........................................................................................77

6.2 BASELINE (STATUS QUO)—THE NO ACTION ALTERNATIVE ............................................................................78

6.2.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................78

6.2.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ..................................................................................................................78

6.2.2.1 Overview............................................................................................................................................................ 78

6.2.2.2 Sea Otters and the Nearshore Marine Ecosystem............................................................................................... 79

6.2.3 Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species....................................................................................83

6.2.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................... 84

6.2.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................... 86

6.2.3.3 Southern Sea Otter ............................................................................................................................................. 88

6.2.4 Commercial Fisheries ..............................................................................................................................89

6.2.4.1 Baseline Assumptions for Impacts to Fisheries.................................................................................................. 90

6.2.4.2 Sea Urchin Fishery............................................................................................................................................. 91

6.2.4.3 Spiny Lobster Fishery ........................................................................................................................................ 95

6.2.4.4 Crab Fishery....................................................................................................................................................... 99

6.2.5 Aquaculture............................................................................................................................................102

6.2.6 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins)...........................................................................................103

6.2.7 Kelp Harvest ..........................................................................................................................................104

6.2.8 Recreational Fishing and Diving ...........................................................................................................104

6.2.8.1 Lobster Diving ................................................................................................................................................. 105

6.2.8.2 Finfish Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 107

6.2.9 Abalone Fishery Restoration..................................................................................................................107

6.2.10 Ecotourism ...........................................................................................................................................110

6.2.11 Federal and State Agency Programs....................................................................................................111

6.2.11.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................................................... 111

6.2.11.2 Channel Islands National Park ....................................................................................................................... 112
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6.2.11.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary .................................................................................................. 112

6.2.11.4 California Department of Fish and Game....................................................................................................... 113

6.2.11.5 U.S. Navy....................................................................................................................................................... 116

6.2.11.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service............................................................................................................... 116

6.2.12 Regulatory Environment ......................................................................................................................116

6.3 ALTERNATIVE 1—RESUME IMPLEMENTATION OF 1987 TRANSLOCATION PLAN ............................................119

6.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................119

6.3.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ................................................................................................................119

6.3.3 Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species..................................................................................119

6.3.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................. 120

6.3.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................. 120

6.3.3.3 Southern Sea Otter ........................................................................................................................................... 120

6.3.4 Commercial Fisheries ............................................................................................................................121

6.3.4.1 Sea Urchin Fishery........................................................................................................................................... 121

6.3.4.2 Spiny Lobster Fishery ...................................................................................................................................... 126

6.3.4.3 Crab Fishery..................................................................................................................................................... 129

6.3.5 Aquaculture............................................................................................................................................133

6.3.6 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins)...........................................................................................134

6.3.7 Kelp Harvest ..........................................................................................................................................134

6.3.8 Recreational Fishing and Diving ...........................................................................................................134

6.3.8.1 Lobster Diving ................................................................................................................................................. 134

6.3.8.2 Finfish Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 135

6.3.9 Abalone Fishery Restoration..................................................................................................................135

6.3.10 Ecotourism ...........................................................................................................................................137

6.3.11 Federal and State Agency Programs....................................................................................................137

6.3.11.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................................................... 137

6.3.11.2 Channel Islands National Park ....................................................................................................................... 139

6.3.11.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary .................................................................................................. 140

6.3.11.4 California Department of Fish and Game....................................................................................................... 140

6.3.11.5 U.S. Navy....................................................................................................................................................... 141

6.3.11.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service............................................................................................................... 141

6.3.12 Regulatory Environment ......................................................................................................................141

6.4 ALTERNATIVE 2—IMPLEMENT MODIFIED TRANSLOCATION PROGRAM WITH SMALLER MANAGEMENT ZONE

..............................................................................................................................................................................142

6.4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................142

6.4.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ................................................................................................................142

6.4.3 Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species..................................................................................143

6.4.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................. 143

6.4.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................. 143

6.4.3.3 Southern Sea Otter ........................................................................................................................................... 144

6.4.4 Commercial Fisheries ............................................................................................................................145

6.4.4.1 Sea Urchin Fishery........................................................................................................................................... 145

6.4.4.2 Spiny Lobster Fishery ...................................................................................................................................... 145

6.4.4.3 Crab Fishery..................................................................................................................................................... 146

6.4.5 Aquaculture............................................................................................................................................146

6.4.6 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins)...........................................................................................147

6.4.7 Kelp Harvest ..........................................................................................................................................147

6.4.8 Recreational Fishing and Diving ...........................................................................................................148

6.4.8.1 Lobster Diving ................................................................................................................................................. 148

6.4.8.2 Finfish Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 148

6.4.9 Abalone Fishery Restoration..................................................................................................................149

6.4.10 Ecotourism ...........................................................................................................................................150

6.4.11 Federal and State Agency Programs....................................................................................................150

6.4.11.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................................................... 150

6.4.11.2 Channel Islands National Park ....................................................................................................................... 153

6.4.11.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary .................................................................................................. 153

6.4.11.4 California Department of Fish and Game....................................................................................................... 154

6.4.11.5 U.S. Navy....................................................................................................................................................... 155

6.4.11.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service............................................................................................................... 155
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6.4.12 Regulatory Environment ......................................................................................................................155

6.5 ALTERNATIVE 3A—TERMINATE TRANSLOCATION PROGRAM; REMOVE ALL SEA OTTERS RESIDING WITHIN 

THE TRANSLOCATION AND MANAGEMENT ZONES AT THE TIME THE DECISION TO TERMINATE IS MADE .............157

6.5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................157

6.5.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ................................................................................................................157

6.5.3 Effects on Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species.................................................................158

6.5.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................. 158

6.5.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................. 159

6.5.3.3 Southern Sea Otter ........................................................................................................................................... 159

6.5.4 Commercial Fisheries ............................................................................................................................160

6.5.4.1 Sea Urchin Fishery........................................................................................................................................... 161

6.5.4.2 Spiny Lobster Fishery ...................................................................................................................................... 163

6.5.4.3 Crab Fishery..................................................................................................................................................... 164

6.5.5 Aquaculture............................................................................................................................................166

6.5.6 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins)...........................................................................................167

6.5.7 Kelp Harvest ..........................................................................................................................................168

6.5.8 Recreational Fishing and Diving ...........................................................................................................169

6.5.8.1 Lobster Diving ................................................................................................................................................. 169

6.5.8.2 Finfish Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 170

6.5.9 Abalone Fishery Restoration..................................................................................................................171

6.5.10 Ecotourism ...........................................................................................................................................172

6.5.11 Federal and State Agency Programs....................................................................................................173

6.5.11.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................................................... 173

6.5.11.2 Channel Islands National Park ....................................................................................................................... 175

6.5.11.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary .................................................................................................. 176

6.5.11.4 California Department of Fish and Game....................................................................................................... 177

6.5.11.5 U.S. Navy....................................................................................................................................................... 177

6.5.11.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service............................................................................................................... 178

6.5.12 Regulatory Environment ......................................................................................................................178

6.6 ALTERNATIVE 3B—TERMINATE TRANSLOCATION PROGRAM; REMOVE ONLY SEA OTTERS RESIDING WITHIN 

THE TRANSLOCATION ZONE AT THE TIME THE DECISION TO TERMINATE IS MADE ...............................................181

6.6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................181

6.6.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ................................................................................................................181

6.6.3 Effects on Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species.................................................................182

6.6.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................. 182

6.6.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................. 182

6.6.3.3 Southern Sea Otter ........................................................................................................................................... 183

6.6.4 Commercial Fisheries ............................................................................................................................184

6.6.4.1 Sea Urchin Fishery........................................................................................................................................... 184

6.6.4.2 Spiny Lobster Fishery ...................................................................................................................................... 186

6.6.4.3 Crab Fishery..................................................................................................................................................... 188

6.6.5 Aquaculture............................................................................................................................................189

6.6.6 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins)...........................................................................................190

6.6.7 Kelp Harvest ..........................................................................................................................................191

6.6.8 Recreational Fishing and Diving ...........................................................................................................191

6.6.8.1 Lobster Diving ................................................................................................................................................. 192

6.6.8.2 Finfish Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 193

6.6.9 Abalone Fishery Restoration..................................................................................................................194

6.6.10 Ecotourism ...........................................................................................................................................194

6.6.11 Federal and State Agency Programs....................................................................................................195

6.6.11.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................................................... 195

6.6.11.2 Channel Islands National Park ....................................................................................................................... 197

6.6.11.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary .................................................................................................. 197

6.6.11.4 California Department of Fish and Game....................................................................................................... 197

6.6.11.5 U.S. Navy....................................................................................................................................................... 197

6.6.11.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service............................................................................................................... 198

6.6.12 Regulatory Environment ......................................................................................................................198
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6.7 ALTERNATIVE 3C (PROPOSED ACTION)—TERMINATE TRANSLOCATION PROGRAM; DO NOT REMOVE SEA 

OTTERS RESIDING WITHIN THE TRANSLOCATION OR MANAGEMENT ZONES AT THE TIME THE DECISION TO 

TERMINATE IS MADE.............................................................................................................................................201

6.7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................201

6.7.2 Nearshore Marine Ecosystem ................................................................................................................201

6.7.3 Effects on Candidate, Threatened, and Endangered Species.................................................................201

6.7.3.1 White Abalone ................................................................................................................................................. 201

6.7.3.2 Black Abalone.................................................................................................................................................. 202

6.7.3.3 Southern Sea Otter ........................................................................................................................................... 203

6.7.4 Commercial Fisheries ............................................................................................................................203

6.7.4.1 Sea Urchin Fishery........................................................................................................................................... 203

6.7.4.2 Spiny Lobster Fishery ...................................................................................................................................... 204

6.7.4.3 Crab Fishery..................................................................................................................................................... 204

6.7.5 Aquaculture............................................................................................................................................205

6.7.6 Seafood Processing Industry (Sea Urchins)...........................................................................................205

6.7.7 Kelp Harvest ..........................................................................................................................................206

6.7.8 Recreational Fishing and Diving ...........................................................................................................206

6.7.8.1 Lobster Diving ................................................................................................................................................. 206

6.7.8.2 Finfish Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 207

6.7.9 Abalone Fishery Restoration..................................................................................................................207

6.7.10 Ecotourism ...........................................................................................................................................208

6.7.11 Federal and State Agency Programs....................................................................................................208

6.7.11.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service....................................................................................................................... 208

6.7.11.2 Channel Islands National Park ....................................................................................................................... 209

6.7.11.3 Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary .................................................................................................. 209

6.7.11.4 California Department of Fish and Game....................................................................................................... 210

6.7.11.5 U.S. Navy....................................................................................................................................................... 210

6.7.11.6 U.S. Minerals Management Service............................................................................................................... 210

6.7.12 Regulatory Environment ......................................................................................................................211

6.8 SUMMARY AND COMPARISON OF POTENTIAL IMPACTS...................................................................................213

6.8.1 Alternative 1...........................................................................................................................................213

6.8.1.1 Biological Effects............................................................................................................................................. 213

6.8.1.2 Socioeconomic Effects..................................................................................................................................... 213

6.8.2 Alternative 2...........................................................................................................................................214

6.8.2.1 Biological Effects............................................................................................................................................. 214

6.8.2.2 Socioeconomic Effects..................................................................................................................................... 215

6.8.3 Alternatives 3A-3C.................................................................................................................................215

6.8.3.1 Biological Effects............................................................................................................................................. 216

6.8.3.2 Socioeconomic Effects..................................................................................................................................... 216

6.8.4 Alternative 3A ........................................................................................................................................217

6.8.5 Alternative 3B ........................................................................................................................................217

6.8.6 Alternative 3C (Proposed Action) ..........................................................................................................217

6.9 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS REQUIRED BY NEPA..............................................................................................226

A. Possible conflicts between the proposed action and objectives of federal, state, and local land-use plans, 

policies, and controls for the area concerned..................................................................................................226

B. Energy requirements and conservation potential of various alternatives and mitigation measures. .........226

C. Urban quality, historic and cultural resources, and the design of the built environment, including the reuse 

and conservation potential of various alternatives and mitigation measures..................................................226

LIST OF PREPARERS...........................................................................................................................................227

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................229

APPENDICES..........................................................................................................................................................243
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List of Tables

TABLE 0-1. SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS BY ALTERNATIVE (10-YEAR PROJECTION)......4

TABLE 3-1. SUMMARY OF ACTIONS BY ALTERNATIVE .................................................................................................24

TABLE 4-1. CANDIDATE, THREATENED, AND ENDANGERED SPECIES IN THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BIGHT...............40

TABLE 4-2. TYPES OF SOCIOECONOMIC BENEFIT IN THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BIGHT.............................................50

TABLE 4-3. TOTAL PERSONAL INCOME AND PER CAPITA PERSONAL INCOME, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA COASTAL 

COUNTIES............................................................................................................................................................51

TABLE 4-4. AVERAGE ANNUAL LANDINGS, EX-VESSEL VALUE, AND VESSEL PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR SOUTHERN 

CALIFORNIA FISHERIES 1995-1999 .....................................................................................................................54

TABLE 4-5. AVERAGE ANNUAL LANDINGS AND EX-VESSEL VALUE PER BOAT FROM THE PRINCIPAL SOUTHERN 

CALIFORNIA FISHERY, 1995-1999.......................................................................................................................54

TABLE 4-6. REVENUES OF POTENTIALLY AFFECTED SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA FISHERIES AND TOTAL PERSONAL 

INCOME, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA COASTAL COUNTIES (THOUSANDS OF 2004$) .................................................55

TABLE 5-1. DEFINITIONS OF LEVELS OF IMPACT REPRESENTED BY TERMS USED IN THIS DOCUMENT...........................72

TABLE 6-1. PROJECTED NUMBER OF SEA OTTERS AND PERCENT OF CARRYING CAPACITY AT SAN NICOLAS ISLAND...77

TABLE 6-2. COMMERCIAL SEA URCHIN HARVEST: LANDINGS AND EX-VESSEL REVENUE BY AREA..............................92

TABLE 6-3. AVERAGE ANNUAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS, 1994-2003............................................................................94

TABLE 6-4. PROJECTED BASELINE FOR COMMERCIAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS .............................................................95

TABLE 6-5. COMMERCIAL LOBSTER HARVEST: LANDINGS AND EX-VESSEL REVENUE BY AREA. .................................96

TABLE 6-6. AVERAGE ANNUAL LOBSTER LANDINGS, 1994-2003.................................................................................98

TABLE 6-7. PROJECTED BASELINE FOR COMMERCIAL SPINY LOBSTER LANDINGS ........................................................99

TABLE 6-8. COMMERCIAL CRAB HARVEST: LANDINGS AND EX-VESSEL REVENUE ....................................................100

TABLE 6-9. AVERAGE ANNUAL CRAB LANDINGS, 1994-2003. ...................................................................................102

TABLE 6-10. PROJECTED BASELINE FOR COMMERCIAL CRAB LANDINGS...................................................................102

TABLE 6-11. NUMBER OF RECREATIONAL LOBSTER FISHING TRIPS AND CATCH VIA COMMERCIAL PASSENGER FISHING 

VESSELS DISTRIBUTED BY AREA........................................................................................................................106

TABLE 6-12. PROJECTED BASELINE FOR RECREATIONAL LOBSTER FISHING TRIPS.....................................................107

TABLE 6-13. NUMBER OF RECREATIONAL ABALONE FISHING TRIPS AND CATCH VIA COMMERCIAL PASSENGER FISHING 

VESSELS DISTRIBUTED BY AREA........................................................................................................................108

TABLE 6-14. PROJECTED ABALONE RECOVERY TIMES AND KEY RECOVERY AREAS. .................................................109

TABLE 6-15. CHANGE IN ANNUAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS AFTER THE 1997/1998 EL NIÑO EVENT...........................123

TABLE 6-16. AVERAGE ANNUAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS IN COJO ANCHORAGE AREA AND RELATIVE CHANGE 

ATTRIBUTABLE TO EL NIÑO AND SEA OTTER PREDATION..................................................................................124

TABLE 6-17. SEA URCHIN LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 1.........................................................................125

TABLE 6-18. SEA URCHIN LANDINGS BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 1 COMPARED TO THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

BASELINE ..........................................................................................................................................................125

TABLE 6-19. CHANGE IN ANNUAL LOBSTER LANDINGS AFTER THE 1997/1998 EL NIÑO EVENT ................................127

TABLE 6-20. AVERAGE ANNUAL LOBSTER LANDINGS IN COJO ANCHORAGE AND THE CHANGE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE 

EL NIÑO EVENT AND SEA OTTER PREDATION ....................................................................................................128

TABLE 6-21. LOBSTER LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 1 .............................................................................129

TABLE 6-22. LOBSTER LANDINGS BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 1 COMPARED TO THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BASELINE

.........................................................................................................................................................................129

TABLE 6-23. CHANGE IN ANNUAL CRAB LANDINGS AFTER THE 1997/1998 EL NIÑO EVENT......................................131

TABLE 6-24. AVERAGE ANNUAL CRAB LANDINGS IN COJO ANCHORAGE AND CHANGE ATTRIBUTABLE TO EL NIÑO 

AND SEA OTTER PREDATION..............................................................................................................................131

TABLE 6-25. CRAB LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 1 ..................................................................................132

TABLE 6-26. CRAB LANDINGS BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 1 COMPARED TO THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BASELINE 133

TABLE 6-27. PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT ALTERNATIVE 1................................................138

TABLE 6-28. IMPLEMENTATION COSTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF THE MANAGEMENT ZONE AND MONITORING AT THE 

TRANSLOCATION ZONE OVER 10 YEARS ............................................................................................................139

TABLE 6-29. PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT ALTERNATIVE 2 ...............................................152

TABLE 6-30. IMPLEMENTATION COSTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF MANAGEMENT ZONE AND TRANSLOCATION ZONE OVER 

10 YEARS ..........................................................................................................................................................153

TABLE 6-31. SEA URCHIN LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3A......................................................................162
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TABLE 6-32. LOBSTER LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3A...........................................................................164

TABLE 6-33. CRAB LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3A................................................................................165

TABLE 6-34. RECREATIONAL DIVE TRIPS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3A................................................................170

TABLE 6-35. PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT ALTERNATIVE 3A ............................................175

TABLE 6-36. IMPLEMENTATION COSTS FOR REMOVAL OF SEA OTTERS FROM SAN NICOLAS ISLAND AND THE 

MANAGEMENT ZONE .........................................................................................................................................175

TABLE 6-37. SEA URCHIN LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3B......................................................................185

TABLE 6-38. LOBSTER LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3B...........................................................................187

TABLE 6-39. CRAB LANDINGS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3B ................................................................................189

TABLE 6-40. RECREATIONAL DIVE TRIPS: BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE 3B................................................................193

TABLE 6-41. PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT ALTERNATIVE 3B.............................................196

TABLE 6-42. IMPLEMENTATION COSTS FOR REMOVAL OF SEA OTTERS FROM SAN NICOLAS ISLAND .........................196

TABLE 6-43. SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS BY ALTERNATIVE .........................................................................218

TABLE 6-44. SUMMARY OF SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS BY ALTERNATIVE ..................................................................220

TABLE 6-45. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PROPOSED ACTION AND THE OBJECTIVES OF FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL 

LAND USE PLANS, POLICIES, AND CONTROLS .....................................................................................................226
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Table of Figures 

FIGURE 3-1. MANAGEMENT ZONE (ALTERNATIVE 1)...................................................................................................19

FIGURE 3-2. MODIFIED MANAGEMENT ZONE (ALTERNATIVE 2). .................................................................................20

FIGURE 4-1. MAIN SURFACE CURRENTS OF THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BIGHT. ........................................................25

FIGURE 4-2. SPECIES CONSUMED BY SEA OTTERS AT SAN NICOLAS ISLAND, 1987-1989.............................................28

FIGURE 4-3. DEVELOPING PNEUMATOCYSTS ON KELP FROND......................................................................................28

FIGURE 4-4. GENERALIZED KELP FOREST COMMUNITY................................................................................................29

FIGURE 4-5. GIANT KELP FOREST.................................................................................................................................30

FIGURE 4-6. RED SEA URCHIN SURROUNDED BY PURPLE SEA URCHINS........................................................................31

FIGURE 4-7. CALIFORNIA SPINY LOBSTER....................................................................................................................33

FIGURE 4-8. SHEEP CRAB.............................................................................................................................................35

FIGURE 4-9. RED ABALONE (PICTURED WITH SEA ANEMONE). .....................................................................................36

FIGURE 4-10. MUSSELS (PICTURED WITH GOOSENECK BARNACLES)............................................................................38

FIGURE 4-11. COMMON KELP FOREST FISHES. .............................................................................................................39

FIGURE 4-12. WHITE ABALONE ...................................................................................................................................41

FIGURE 4-13. BLACK ABALONE. ..................................................................................................................................42

FIGURE 4-14. SOUTHERN SEA OTTERS. ........................................................................................................................43

FIGURE 4-15. SOUTHERN SEA OTTER EATING CRAB. ....................................................................................................44

FIGURE 4-16. SOUTHERN SEA OTTER SURFACING WITH RED SEA URCHIN AND ROCK TOOL..........................................44

FIGURE 4-17. HISTORIC AND CURRENT RANGE OF THE SEA OTTER...............................................................................47

FIGURE 4-18. TOTAL NUMBER OF SOUTHERN SEA OTTERS COUNTED DURING SPRING SURVEYS (1983-2004) PLOTTED 

AS 3-YEAR RUNNING AVERAGES. ........................................................................................................................48

FIGURE 4-19. NUMBER OF SOUTHERN SEA OTTER STRANDINGS, 1983-2004.................................................................49

FIGURE 4-20. RELATIVE NUMBER OF SOUTHERN SEA OTTER STRANDINGS, 1983-2004................................................49

FIGURE 4-21. CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME STATISTICAL BLOCK MAP, WITH NEARSHORE BLOCKS 

HIGHLIGHTED......................................................................................................................................................52

FIGURE 4-22. AVERAGE ANNUAL LANDINGS FOR SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, 1995-1999. ..............................................53

FIGURE 4-23. AVERAGE ANNUAL EX-VESSEL VALUES FOR SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 1995-1999..................................53

FIGURE 4-24. KELP LEASES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BIGHT....................................................................................60

FIGURE 4-25. CHANNEL ISLANDS NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARY............................................................................64

FIGURE 4-26. CHANNEL ISLANDS MARINE PROTECTED AREAS...................................................................................65

FIGURE 4-27. PT. MUGU SEA RANGE...........................................................................................................................66

FIGURE 4-28. OIL LEASES OFF SANTA BARBARA AND VENTURA COUNTIES................................................................67

FIGURE 4-29. OIL LEASES OFF LOS ANGELES AND ORANGE COUNTIES. ......................................................................68

FIGURE 6-1. COASTAL AREA PROJECTED TO BE AFFECTED BY SEA OTTER PREDATION WITHIN 10 YEARS. ...................75

FIGURE 6-2. INCIDENCE OF WITHERING SYNDROME, 1992-2001..................................................................................86

FIGURE 6-3. ABUNDANCE OF BLACK ABALONE, 1992-2001.........................................................................................87

FIGURE 6-4. CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME STATISTICAL BLOCK MAP, WITH NEARSHORE BLOCKS 

HIGHLIGHTED......................................................................................................................................................89

FIGURE 6-5. COMMERCIAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS AND SEA URCHIN DIVING PERMITS FOR THE SOUTHERN 

CALIFORNIA BIGHT, 1986-2003..........................................................................................................................93

FIGURE 6-6. ANNUAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS: POINT CONCEPTION TO SANTA BARBARA, 1986-2003. ......................93

FIGURE 6-7. COMMERCIAL LOBSTER LANDINGS AND NUMBER OF OPERATOR PERMITS FOR SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA,

1986-2003. .........................................................................................................................................................97

FIGURE 6-8. ANNUAL LOBSTER LANDINGS: POINT CONCEPTION TO SANTA BARBARA. ..............................................97

FIGURE 6-9. COMMERCIAL CRAB LANDINGS FOR SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, 1986-2003..............................................101

FIGURE 6-10. ANNUAL CRAB LANDINGS: POINT CONCEPTION TO SANTA BARBARA. ................................................101

FIGURE 6-11. ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF RECREATIONAL LOBSTER FISHING TRIPS VIA COMMERCIAL PASSENGER 

FISHING VESSELS BY AREA IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. .....................................................................................106

FIGURE 6-12. COMMERCIAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS FOR COJO ANCHORAGE AREA (STATISTICAL BLOCKS 655, 656,

AND 657) AND POINT MUGU-POINT DUME (STATISTICAL BLOCKS 680, 681, 682, AND 703).............................122

FIGURE 6-13. COMMERCIAL ANNUAL SEA URCHIN LANDINGS BY AREA, ON A LOGARITHMIC SCALE. ........................123

FIGURE 6-14. COMMERCIAL LOBSTER LANDINGS FOR THE COJO ANCHORAGE AREA (STATISTICAL BLOCKS 655, 656,

AND 657) AND POINT MUGU-POINT DUME (STATISTICAL BLOCKS 680, 681, 682, AND 703).............................126
ix

FIGURE 6-15. ANNUAL LOBSTER LANDINGS BY AREA, ON A LOGARITHMIC SCALE.....................................................127

FIGURE 6-16. COMMERCIAL CRAB LANDINGS FOR COJO ANCHORAGE AREA (STATISTICAL BLOCKS 655, 656, AND 657)

AND POINT MUGU-POINT DUME (STATISTICAL BLOCKS 680, 681, 682, AND 703). ...........................................130

FIGURE 6-17. COMMERCIAL ANNUAL CRAB LANDINGS BY AREA, ON A LOGARITHMIC SCALE....................................130
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DRAFT SEIS 2005 

Executive Summary 1

Executive Summary 

Background 

The southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris 

nereis) was listed as a threatened species in 

1977. Threats to the species included its 

small population size, its greatly reduced 

range, and the potential risk of oil spills [42 

FR 2968]. A recovery plan for the southern 

sea otter was approved in 1982. This plan 

identified the translocation of southern sea 

otters as an effective and reasonable 

recovery action. The purpose of 

translocation was to establish southern sea 

otters in one or more areas within historic 

habitat, thereby minimizing the possibility 

that a single natural or human-caused 

catastrophe, such as an oil spill, could 

adversely affect a significant portion of the 

population. 

In addition to the general authority to 

translocate species contained in the 

Endangered Species Act, Section 10(j) of 

the Act specifically authorizes translocation 

of a listed species to establish experimental 

populations. However, the southern sea 

otter is protected under both the Endangered 

Species Act and the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act, and the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act at that time contained no 

similar translocation provisions. This 

inconsistency was resolved in the case of the 

southern sea otter by the passage of Public 

Law (P.L.) 99-625 (Fish and Wildlife 

Programs: Improvement; Section 1. 

Translocation of California Sea Otters) on 

November 7, 1986 (Appendix A). P.L. 99-

625 specifically authorized the development 

of a translocation plan for southern sea 

otters (to be administered in cooperation 

with the affected state) and incorporated 

provisions intended to minimize conflicts 

between translocated sea otters and shellfish 

fisheries. These provisions included the 

establishment of a translocation zone into 

which sea otters would be moved to 

establish an independent population and a 

management zone surrounding the 

translocation zone from which sea otters 

would be removed. 

In May 1987, we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, published a final environmental 

impact statement that analyzed the impacts 

of a program to translocate southern sea 

otters from the central coast of California to 

areas of northern California, southern 

Oregon, or San Nicolas Island off the coast 

of southern California. We identified San 

Nicolas Island as our preferred translocation 

site and subsequently issued a record of 

decision announcing our intent to implement 

a translocation plan, which included moving 

sea otters to San Nicolas Island and 

designating a management zone in 

accordance with P.L. 99-625. 

Between August 1987 and March 1990, we 

released 140 sea otters at San Nicolas Island. 

Many of these animals left the island; some 

returned to central California; some took up 

residence in southern California; and some 

died. Many were never accounted for. In 

2004, 32 independent1

 sea otters were 

counted at San Nicolas Island. Virtually all 

of these sea otters are believed to be 

offspring of the animals that remained at the 

island. 

We discontinued translocating sea otters to 

San Nicolas Island in 1990 but continued to 

remove sea otters from the designated 

management zone until 1993. As specified 

by P.L. 99-625, sea otters were to be 

removed from the management zone using 

non-lethal means and returned to either San 

Nicolas Island or the central California 

 

1

 The term “independent” refers to any sea otter 

beyond the weaning stage (i.e., the category excludes 

dependent pups). 
DRAFT SEIS 2005 

Executive Summary 2

coast. The purpose of the management zone 

was to minimize conflicts between 

translocated sea otters and shellfish 

fisheries. Any sea otter found south of Point 

Conception (in Santa Barbara County) and 

outside of the translocation zone was to be 

removed. Between 1993 and 1997, few sea 

otters were reported in the management 

zone; however, natural range expansion of 

the mainland sea otter population resulted in 

large numbers of sea otters entering the 

management zone in 1998. 

By 1998, many factors related to the status 

of the southern sea otter population had 

changed since initiation of the program, and 

the program did not appear to be meeting the 

recovery objectives outlined for it. In light 

of this new information, we consulted with 

the southern sea otter recovery team and 

sought public comment on the future of the 

program. We subsequently reinitiated 

section 7 consultation under the Endangered 

Species Act (Appendix B) and completed a 

draft evaluation of the translocation 

program. 

On January 22, 2001, we issued a policy 

statement regarding the capture and removal 

of southern sea otters in the designated 

management zone [66 FR 6649]. Based on 

our July 2000 biological opinion, we 

determined that the containment of southern 

sea otters was not consistent with the 

requirement of the Endangered Species Act 

to avoid jeopardy to the species. The notice 

advised the public that we would not capture 

and remove southern sea otters from the 

management zone pending completion of 

our reevaluation of the southern sea otter 

translocation program, which would include 

the preparation of a supplement to our 1987 

environmental impact statement and release 

of a final evaluation of the translocation 

program that contains an analysis of failure 

criteria. 

Purpose and Need for Action 

The purpose of this supplement is to 

evaluate the impacts of the southern sea 

otter translocation plan as described in our 

1987 environmental impact statement, using 

information obtained over the 18 years since 

the plan’s inception, and to evaluate 

alternatives to the current translocation 

program, including termination of the 

program or revisions to it. 

The need for action stems from our apparent 

lack of progress and inability to meet the 

goals of the southern sea otter translocation 

program. Contrary to expectations and to 

the primary recovery objective of the 

program, the translocation of sea otters to 

San Nicolas Island has not resulted in an 

established population sufficient to 

repopulate other areas of the range should a 

catastrophic event affect the mainland 

population. Additionally, maintenance of a 

management zone has proven to be more 

difficult than anticipated and hinders or may 

prevent recovery of the southern sea otter. 

Issues and Alternatives 

Issues and concerns expressed during the 

scoping process generally fell within four 

categories: (1) economic effects on fisheries 

and tourism; (2) effects on the nearshore 

marine ecosystem; (3) effects on the 

southern sea otter population; and (4) effects 

on other agency activities. These categories 

encompass all of the potentially significant 

effects associated with the translocation 

program and are the focus of this 

supplement. With these issues in mind, we 

developed six alternatives for analysis in this 

document. These alternatives are described 

below: 
DRAFT SEIS 2005 

Executive Summary 3

• No Action Alternative: Maintain 

status quo. This alternative serves as 

the baseline for comparison with all 

other alternatives. 

• Alternative 1: Resume 

implementation of 1987 southern sea 

otter translocation plan 

• Alternative 2: Implement modified 

southern sea otter translocation 

program with smaller management 

zone 

• Alternative 3A: Terminate the 

southern sea otter translocation 

program based on a failure 

determination pursuant to 50 CFR 

§17.84(d) and remove all sea otters 

residing within the translocation and 

management zones at the time the 

decision to terminate is made 

• Alternative 3B: Terminate the 

southern sea otter translocation 

program based on a failure 

determination pursuant to 50 CFR 

§17.84(d) and remove only sea otters 

residing within the translocation zone 

at the time the decision to terminate is 

made; 

• Alternative 3C (Proposed Action): 

Terminate the southern sea otter 

translocation program based on a 

failure determination pursuant to 50 

CFR §17.84(d) and do not remove 

sea otters residing within the 

translocation or management zones at 

the time the decision to terminate is 

made. 

Impacts of the Alternatives 

Throughout the analysis in this supplement, 

we compare the impacts of each alternative 

to those of the No Action Alternative (the 

status quo projected outward over time), 

which functions as a baseline. The 

quantitative analysis is limited to a 10-year 

horizon because of the numerous sources of 

uncertainty involved in projecting sea otter 

range expansion and socioeconomic impacts 

beyond that time period. Some impacts are 

too uncertain to quantify reasonably, even 

within the 10-year projection. These 

impacts and all impacts that may occur after 

10 years are described in qualitative terms 

only. 

Chapter 5 of this supplement defines levels 

of significance for impacts that can be 

reasonably defined. A brief summary of the 

biological and socioeconomic impacts 

associated with each alternative is included 

in table 0-1 below. 
DRAFT SEIS 2005 

Executive Summary 4

TABLE 0-1. SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS BY ALTERNATIVE 

(10-YEAR PROJECTION) 

No 

Action 

Alternative 

1 

Alternative 

2 

Alternative 

3A 

Alternative 

3B 

Alternative 

3C 

(Proposed 

Action) 

Nearshore Marine 

Ecosystem Significance criteria not defined 

White Abalone Low (+) No change Very Low (+) No change 

Black Abalone Moderate (+) No change Moderate (+) No change

Candidate, 

Threatened, and 

Endangered 

Species 

Southern Sea 

Otter High (-) No change Moderate (-) Low (-) Low (+) 

Sea Urchin 

Fishery Low (+) No change Low (+) No change 

Spiny Lobster 

Fishery Low (+) No change Very Low (+) No change

Commercial 

Fisheries 

Crab 

Fishery Moderate (+) No change Very Low (+) No change

Aquaculture Significance criteria not defined 

Seafood Processing 

Industry Low (+) No change Low (+) No change

Kelp Harvest Significance criteria not defined 

Lobster 

Diving Very Low (+) No change Very Low (+) No change

Recreational 

Fishing and 

Diving 

Finfish 

Fishing Significance criteria not defined

Abalone Fishery 

Restoration Significance criteria not defined 

Ecotourism Significance criteria not defined 

Federal and State 

Agency Programs Significance criteria not defined 

Note: The level of significance of each impact is described with a term ranging from “very low” to “very high.” These terms are 

defined in Chapter 5. Any effect greater than “very low” is considered to be significant. The symbols (+) and (-) indicate 

whether the effect is beneficial or adverse. 
DRAFT SEIS 2005 

Executive Summary 5

Translocation Program Evaluation 

Ultimately, our future actions depend on our 

final evaluation of the southern sea otter 

translocation program. A draft evaluation of 

the program is included as Appendix C of 

this supplement. 

The primary purpose of the southern sea 

otter translocation program was to bring 

southern sea otters closer to recovery and to 

eventual delisting as a threatened species. 

Our draft evaluation compares the results of 

the translocation program against the goals 

for which it was undertaken and the failure 

criteria established for its assessment. The 

draft evaluation concludes that the 

translocation program has failed to fulfill its 

primary purpose and that our recovery and 

management goals for the species cannot be 

met by continuing the program (Appendix 

C). 

A second purpose of the translocation 

program was to obtain data for assessing 

translocation and containment techniques, 

population dynamics, the ecological 

relationships of sea otters and the nearshore 

community, and the effects on the donor 

population of removal of individual sea 

otters for translocation. Much valuable 

information has been gathered to date, 

primarily related to the efficacy of the 

translocation and containment methods used 

during implementation of the 1987 

translocation plan. The translocation and 

containment results themselves indicate that 

the primary recovery goal of the 

translocation program, the establishment of 

a sea otter population that could serve as a 

source for future translocations, may not be 

achievable. In light of the observed degree 

of dispersal and mortality resulting from the 

translocation to San Nicolas Island, it no 

longer appears reasonable to assume that a 

sea otter population could be reestablished 

simply by moving 25 animals annually over 

a 3-year period. Information gained as a 

result of translocation and containment 

efforts is an important element in our shift in 

recovery strategy from translocation to 

natural range expansion (USFWS 2003). 

The San Nicolas Island sea otter colony is 

small, and its future is uncertain. Even if the 

colony were to become established, the 

resulting population would not likely be 

sufficient to ensure survival of the species 

should the parent population be adversely 

affected by a catastrophic event. Recovery 

of the southern sea otter will ultimately 

depend on the growth and expansion of the 

southern sea otter’s range. While there are 

conflicts between an expanding sea otter 

population and shellfish fisheries that have 

developed in the absence of sea otters, 

managing sea otters has proven to be 

difficult and ineffective, and maintenance of 

a “no-otter” management zone compromises 

the ability of the species to recover. 

The Proposed Action—Alternative 

3C 

Alternative 3C is our proposed action. 

Alternative 3C would recognize that the 

translocation program has failed and would 

allow sea otters to remain in areas where 

they now reside. This alternative would 

ultimately provide the maximum benefit for 

southern sea otter recovery. 

Under Alternative 3C, conflict between 

natural sea otter range expansion and 

shellfish fisheries would likely continue to 

occur. However, in light of the relative 

ineffectiveness of zonal management and 

our inability to meet our primary sea otter 

recovery objectives within the context of the 

translocation program, it would seem 

unreasonable to continue to support the 

translocation program and its associated 

management strategy. In light of the now-
DRAFT SEIS 2005 

Executive Summary 6

well-established capacities of sea otters to 

return rapidly to areas from which they have 

been removed, it is clear that our ability to 

influence sea otter movements by means of 

capture and removal is limited, and 

continuing efforts to remove sea otters nonlethally from areas where they choose to 

reside appears to be futile. 

To mitigate the effects that may occur as a 

result of this alternative, if chosen, we 

would propose to work closely with the 

California Department of Fish and Game 

and affected fishers to develop fishery 

management strategies that would minimize 

effects on individual fishers. If sea otters 

did naturally expand their range into 

southern California, changes in the 

nearshore environment would take place 

over many decades, allowing for a gradual 

transition of fishery and ecotourism 

activities that would likely dampen any 

regional economic impacts that could occur.