V

mEW LIFE for

OLD DWELLINGS

Appraisal ànd Rehabilitation

S

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Agriculture Handbook No. 481
"NEW LIFE for

OLD DWELLINGS

Appraisal and Rehabilitation

by

GERALD E. SHERWOOD

Forest Products Laboratory

Forest Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture

December 1975

Agriculture Handbook No. 481

Library of Congress Catalog Card No, 75-600018
Sherwood, Gerald E.

1975. New life for old dwellings: Appraisal and rehabilitation.

U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie. Handb. No. 481. 101 p.

Older wood-frame houses can often be rehabilitated at a lower cost than new

construction and with desirable material savings. The appraisal section deals with

the suitability of such dwellings for rehabilitation and the rehabilitation portion

suggests how to plan and accomplish such changes.

KEYWORDS: Rehabilitation, wood-frame, structure, design, fastenings, lumber,

plywood, panel products, decay, preservation, foundations, moisture control,

insulating, finishing.

Mention of a chemical in this handbook does not constitute a recommendation; only those chemicals registered by the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency may be recommended, and then only for uses as prescribed in the registration—and in the manner and at the concentration

prescribed. The list of registered chemicals varies from time to time; prospective users, therefore, should get current information on registration

status from Pesticides Regulation Division, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $1.70

Stock No. 001-^00-02988-6

Cat. No. Al.76:481
CONTENTS

Pagt

APPRAISAL

Introduction -^.

Masonry and Concrete

Foundations

Masonry Veneers3

Chimneys and Fireplaces.3

Structural Wood Frame*4

Floor Supports4

Floor Framing4

Wall Framing4

Roof Framing.4

Exterior4

Siding and Trim^. . 4

Windows . 5

Doors5

Porches5

Finishes5

Roof6

Interior , 6

Flooring6

Walls and Ceilings6

Trim, Cabinets, and Doore7

Recognizing Damage by Decay and Inseas7

Decay.7

Insect Problems9

Insulation and Control of Moisture9

Insulation10

Vapor Barriers10

Ventilation10

Mechanical10

Plumbing10

Heating11

Electrical12

General Considerations12

Circulation- . 12

Layout—, 12

AppearanceB

Final Evaluation14

Major Reasons for Rejectionl4

Guideposts for the Final Decisionl4

Cautions . I4

REHABILITATION „__.i6

Introduction16

Developing the Plan ^. 16

General Layout16

Expansion Within the House ^— 19

Additions.21

Remodeling the Kitchen-«22

Addinga Bath23

Appearance-„24

Reconditioning Details26

Basic Structure26

Openings47

Insulation and Moisture Control54

Interior Items59

Specific Features69

Additional Space73

Painting and Finishing79

SUMMARY -84

APPENDIX 85

Terminology 85

Glossary of Housing Terms88

Additional Information9^

Index95
PREFACE

The wood-frame house has been one of the most prevalent forms ofshelter in the United States since the days of

the early settlers. As a result, there are houses of various

ages in outmoded and deteriorating condition in almost

every community across the country. Some are being razed

while others are simply abandoned. In either case they must

be replaced by a new living unit at a high cost and with the

consequent drain on our natural resources. Many of these

homes could be rehabilitated at a lower cost than that of

new construction and with desirable material savings. This

handbook was developed to promote the twofold advantage

of lower cost housing and conservation of our natural

resources.

The principles spelled out here can likewise be used for

more minor renovations of the home.

The appraisal section is a guide for appraising the suitability of wood-frame dwellings for rehabilitation. A systematic approach for inspecting the building and evaluating information from the inspection is presented.

If the building is determined to be worthy, the rehabilitation portion is a guide for planning and accomplishing

the rehabilitation of a building that has been found suitable. Detailed instructions, including numerous illustrations, are presented.

This handbook should be particularly useful to homeowners and prospective buyers of older homes. It should

also be of interest to carpenters, contractors, and lending

institutions, and various groups that seek to maintain and

improve homes within a community.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the preparation of this handbook the author received much encouragement and many helpful suggestions

from other staff members of the Forest Products Laboratory (FPL). I particularly wish to thank my associates in Wood

Engineering Research, especially Billy Bohannan and J. A. Liska, for their assistance and suggestions in regard to the

structural rekat>iiitatíon of buildings. The suggeseîons ftoi» Other FPL scientísts who afe fccognízed authofities

W. E. Esiyn (pathology), G, R. Esenther (termites), and J. M. Black (finishes>—also added greatly to the breadth

and completeness of this work.

I am also pleased to acknowledge the critique and help ofArthur M. McLeod, of Kaeser, McLeod, and Weston,

Architect Engineer Associates, who did much to improve the pmctical utility of the handbook. I should also like to

thank Theodore J. Brevik, professor of agricultural engineering at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, for his

technical assistance.

Gerald E. Sherwood

The Forest Products Laboratory is maintained by the Forest Service, USDÁ, at Madison, Wis., in cooperation with

the University of Wisconsin.
APPRAISAL

INTRODUCTION

The wood frame house has been one of the most prevalent forms of shelter in the United States since the days of

the early settlers in the 17th century. As a result, there are

houses of various ages in almost every community across the

country. Some have been well maintained and remodeled to

keep pace with contemporary living requirements; but a

large percentage of older houses are lacking in modern

conveniences and comforts. Through neglect, many such

houses are in a deteriorating or dilapidated condition.

Unlike most material objects, a well-built house properly maintained does not wear out—at least not over a

period of several hundred years. It may become outdated

and lack certain conveniences and comforts, but it does not

wear out. Tests conducted by the Forest Products Laboratory show that when decay or other abnormal environmental factors are not present, wood does not deteriorate in

strength or stiffness from age alone for periods of 100 years

or more. Limited tests conducted on a few timbers from

Japanese temples 3 to 13 centuries old indicate that shock

resistance is seriously reduced after several centuries, but

effects on the other structural properties are small.

In spite of the permanence of the wood-frame house,

many older houses are being razed, or abandoned and left to

a slower destruction by decay, insects, rodents, and the

elements. Some of these houses have deteriorated to a point

where rehabilitation would be impractical; but many could

be restored to a sound condition and updated in convenience and comfort at a lower cost than that required to

build a new house (fig, 1). In addition to monetary savings,

rehabilitation has other advantages: The owner can stay in

familiar surroundings; some older houses provide more

space than can be achieved in a new house at reasonable

cost; the work can usually be done as finances become

available; and the character of the older house is often

preferred to that of a new one. Finally, one of the most

important aspects of rehabilitation is conservation of our

timber resource.

For many years the Department of Agriculture, specifically through the Forest Service, has been concerned with

wise use of the Nation's timber resource. And because so

large a part of the timber harvest goes into housing, it is

understandable that research on phases of wood house

construction has long been a part of the Forest Products

Laboratory program.

This Appraisal portion of the handbook presents information based on this research as a guide to appraising the

suitability of a house for rehabilitation. It relates only to

the condition of the house itself, not to an area. Once a

house is deemed suitable for rehabilitation, suggestions on

how to proceed are covered in the Rehabilitation portion.

Whether or not a house is worth rehabilitating can be

substantiated only by systematically inspecting the house

and evaluating any necessary repairs in comparison with the

value of the finished product. If the foundation is good and

the floor, wall, and roofframing are structurally sound, the

house probably is worth rehabilitating; but a thorough

inspection is still in order.

Examination of the house is treated here by elements to

provide a systematic approach to evaluation. Although no

publication could possibly cover every condition that might

exist in houses of varying age, style, and geographic location, several general considerations should cover most situations in a wood-frame house. General suggestions are also

given for examining heating, plumbing, and electrical

systems; but in these areas professional help will probably

be desirable. Some contractors will assist in determining

the condition of the house and repairs or replacements

required. Also, code requirements vary and what seemed to

be a minor addition or repair may become a major revamping of the entire structure for code compliance. In most

communities a building official will inspect the house and

indicate code violations.

MASONRY AND CONCRETE

FOUNDATIONS

The most important component of a house from a rehabilitation standpoint is the foundation. It supports the entire

house, and failure can have far-reaching effects. Check the

foundation for general deterioration that may allow moisture or water to enter the basement and may require

expensive repairs. More importantly, check for uneven

settlement (fig. 2). Uneven settlement will distort the

house frame or even pull it apart. This distortion may rack

window and door frames out of square, loosen interior

finish and siding, and create cracks that permit infiltration

of cold air. A single localized failure or minor settling can

be corrected by releveling of beams or floor joists and is not

a sufficient reason to reject the house. Numerous failures

and general uneven settlement, however, would indicate a
M-142 935

Figure 1.—Many types and sizes of houses may be suitable for some degree of rehabilitation. Owners may see a variety of ways to put into

practice the principles listed in this publication.
new foundation is required or, more critically, that the

house is probably unsuitable for rehabilitation.

MASONRY WALLS AND PIERS

Many old houses have stone or brick foundations, and

some may be supported on masonry piers. Check the

masonry foundation for cracks and crumbling mortar, a

common defect that can usually be repaired, depending on

its extent. More extensive deterioration may indicate the

need for major repair or replacement.

Crawl space houses usually have a foundation wall or

piers supporting the floor joists. These supports must be

checked for cracks and settlement the same as the perimeter

foundation.

WOOD PIERS

Occasionally houses will be on pier-type wood post

foundations. These are more common in certain areas ofthe

country. Such foundations give good service if the wood is

properly préservâtively treated. However, in the inspection

they must be checked for decay and insect damage.

CONCRETE WALLS

Most foundation walls of poured concrete have minor

hairline cracks that have little effect on the structure;

however, open cracks indicate a failure that may get progressively worse. Whether a crack is active or dormant can

be determined only by observation over several months.

DAMP BASEMENTS

Damp or leaky basement walls may require a major

repair, especially if the basement space is to be used.

Possible causes of the dampness are clogged drain tile,

clogged or broken downspouts, cracks in walls, lack of

slope of the finished grade away from the house foundation,

or a high water table. Check for dampness by examining

the basement a few hours after a heavy rain.

The most common source of dampness is surface water,

such as from downspouts discharging directly at the foundation wall or from surface drainage flowing directly

against the foundation wall. Therefore the cardinal rule is

to keep water away from the foundation, and this is best

accomplished by proper grading.

A high water table is a more serious problem. There is

little possibility of achieving a dry basement if the water

table is high or periodically high. Heavy foundation waterproofing or footing drains may help but, since the source

cannot be controlled, it is unlikely they will do more than

minimize the problem.

MASONRY VENEERS

Uneven settlement of the foundation will cause cracks in

brick or stone veneer. Cracks can be grouted and joints

M-142 839

Figure 2.—Uneven foundation settlement, A, may result in a house

badly out of square. Evidences may include B, eaveline distortion;

C, sagging roof ridge; or D, loosefitting frames or even binding

windows or doors.

repointed, but large or numerous cracks will be unsightly

even after they are patched. The mortar also may be weak

and crumbling, and joints may be incompletely filled or

poorly finished. If these faults are limited to a small area,

regrouting or repointing is feasible. For improved appearance, the veneer can be sandblasted.

It is important to prevent water from entering the

masonry wall or flowing over the face of the wall in any

quantity. Examine flashing or calking at all projecting

trim, copings, sills, and intersections of roof and walls.

Plan to repair any of these places where flashing or calking

is not provided or where need of repair is apparent.

Porous or soft brick or stone should be coated with a

clear water repellent after care has been taken to see that no

water can get behind the veneer.

CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

The most obvious defect to look for in a chimney is

cracks in the masonry or loose mortar. Such cracks are

usually the result of foundation settlement or the attachment of television antennas or other items that put undue

stress on the chimney. These cracks are a particular hazard

if the flue does not have a fireproof lining.

The chimney should be supported on its own footing. It

should not be supported by the framework of the house.

Look in the attic to see that ceiling and roof framing are no

closer than 2 inches to the chimney. Either of these defects

are fire hazards and should be corrected immediately.

If the house has a fireplace, check to see if it has an

operating damper. Where no damper exists, one should be

added to prevent heat loss up the flue when the fireplace is

not in use. A fireplace that looks like it has been used a lot

probably draws well; however, you can check this by

lighting a few sheets of newspaper on the hearth. A good

fireplace will draw immediately; a usable one will draw

after about a minute.
STRUCTURAL WOOD FRAME

The building frame should be carefully examined to see

if it is distorted from foundation failure or from improper

or inadequate framing. It should also be checked for decay

and insect damage. (These last two items are treated on

page. 7.)

FLOOR SUPPORTS

In a basement house^ interior support is usually provided

by wood or steel girders supported on wood or steel posts.

Wood posts should be supported on pedestals and not be

embedded in the concrete floor, where they may take on

moisture and decay. Examine the base of the wood posts for

decay even ifthey are set above the floor slab. Steel posts are

normally supported on metal plates. Check the wood girders for Sag and also for decay at the exterior wall bearings.

Sag is permanent deflection that can be noted especially

near the middle of a structural member (fig. 3). Some sag is

common in permanently loaded wood beams and is not a

problem unless parts of the house have obviously distorted.

Sag is usually an appearance problem rather than a structural problem. Some deflection is normal and about ^/sinch deflection in a 10-foot span girder is acceptable in

design.

FLOOR FRAMING

The sill plates, or joists and headers where sill plates are

not used, rest on top of the foundation. Thus they are

M-142 840

Figure 3.—Saving horizontal member, A, has resulted in: B,

uneven floor; C, cracked plaster; and D, poorly fitting door.

exposed to moisture and are vulnerable to decay or insect

attack. Examine these members specifically, as well as the

entire floor framing system for decay and insect damage,

particularly if the basement or crawl space is very damp.

Joists, like girders, should be examined for sag. Here too

some sag can be expected and is not a sign of structural

damage. It is usually not a serious problem in floor joists

unless the foundation system has settled unevenly, causing

excessive deflection in parts of the floor system. Look for

local deflection due to inadequate support of a heavy partition load that runs parallel to the joists. Sag might be

considered excessive if it is readily apparent from a visual

appraisal of the levelness of a floor.

A floor may be noted to be excessively springy when

walking across it. This may be remedied by adding extra

joists or girders to increase stiffness.

Another point of particular concern is the framing of the

flcK>r joists around stair openings. Some builders estimate

that 50 percent of the houses built have inadequate framing

around stairs. Check floors around the opening for levelness. Where floors are sagging, the framing will have to be

carefully leveled and reinforced.

WALL FRAMING

The usual stud wall normally has much more than

adequate strength. It may be distorted, however, for reasons covered in preceding sections. Check openings for

squareness by operating doors and windows and observing

fit. Some adjustments are possible but large distortions will

require new framing. Also check for sag in headers over

wide window openings or wide openings between rooms.

Where the sag is visually noticeable, new headers will be

required.

ROOF FRAMING

Examine the roof for sagging of the ridge, the rafters,

and the sheathing. This is easily done by visual observation. If the ridge line is not straight or the roof does not

appear to be in a uniform plane, some repair may be

necessary. The ridge will sag due to improper support,

inadequate ties at the plate level, or even from sagging of

the rafters. Rafters will sag due to inadequate stiffness or

because they were not well seasoned. Sheathing sag may

indicate too wide a spacing between rafters or strip sheathing, or plywood that is too thin or has delaminated.

EXTERIOR

Exterior wood on a house will last many years if it is kept

free of moisture and is given reasonable care.

SIDING AND TRIM

The main .problems with siding and trim stem from

excessive moisture, which can enter from either inside or
M-142 749

Figure 4.—Signs of excessive water damage are evident in the paint

peeling of this window sill and sash and broken calking around the

window.

outside. One of the main contributors to the problem is the

lack of roof overhang, allowing rain to run down the face of

the wall. Moisture may also enter from the inside, because

of the lack of a vapor barrier, and subsequently condense

within the wall.

Look for space between horizontal siding boards by

standing very close and sighting along the wall. Some

cracks can be calked, but a general gapping or looseness

may indicate new siding is required. If the boards are not

badly warped, renailing may solve the problem. Check

siding for decay where two boards are butted end to end, at

corners, and around window and door frames.

Decorative trim is sometimes excessive and presents

unusual decay and maintenance problems, particularly

where water may be trapped.

Good shingle siding appears as a perfect mosaic, whereas

worn shingles have an allover ragged appearance and close

examination will show individual shingles to be broken,

warped, and upturned. New siding will be required if

shingles are badly weathered or worn.

WINDOWS

Windows usually present one of the mote difficult problems of old wood-frame houses (fig. 4). If they are loose

fitting and not weatherstripped, they will be a major source

of uncomfortable drafts and cause high heat loss. Check the

tightness of fit and examine the sash and the sill for decay.

Also check the operation of the window. Casement windows should be checked for warp at top and bottom.

When replacement of windows is planned, check the

window dimensions. Ifthe window is not a standard size or

if a different size is desired, the opening will have to be

reframed or new sash must be made, both of which are

expensive.

In cold climates windows should be double glazed or

have storm windows, both to reduce heat loss and avoid

condensation. Again, if the windows are not a standard

size, storm windows may be expensive.

DOORS

Exterior doors should fit well without sticking. They

should be weather-stripped to avoid air infiltration, but

this is a very simple item to add. Difficulties in latching a

door can usually be attributed to warping. A simple adjustment of the latch keeper will solve the problem in some

instances, but badly warped doors should be replaced.

Storm doors are necessary in cold climates not only for

heat saving and comfort, but also to avoid moisture condensation on or in the door and to protect the door from

severe weather.

If the door frame is out of square due to foundation

settlement or other racking of the house frame, the opening

will probably have to be reframed.

The lower parts of exterior doors and storm doors are

particularly susceptible to decay and should be carefully

checked. Also observe the condition of the threshold,

which may be wom, weathered, or decayed, and require

replacement.

PORCHES

One of the components of a house most vulnerable to

decay and insect attack is the porch. Since it is open to the

weather, windblown rain or snow can easily raise the

moisture content of wood members to conditions for promoting growth of wood-destroying organisms. Steps are

often placed in contact with soil, always a poor practice

with untreated wood.

Check all wood members for decay and insect damage.

Give particular attention to the base of posts or any place

where two members join and water might get into the

joint. Decay often occurs where posts are not raised above

the porch floor to allow air to dry out the base of the post.

It may be worthwhile to replace a few members, but the

porch that is in a generally deteriorated condition should be

completely rebuilt or removed.

FINISHES

Failure of exterior finishes on siding or trim results most

commonly from excessive moisture in the wood. This may

Figure S.—Excessive paint peeling on siding.
result either from direct rain or from moisture vapor condensing in the wails. Finish failures may also be caused by

poor paints, improper application of good paints, poor

surface preparation, or incompatible successive coatings.

Excessive peeling (fig. 5) may require complete removal

ofthe paint. Since this can be very expensive, re-siding may

be considered.

ROOF

If the roof is actually leaking, it should be obvious from

damage inside the house. A look in the attic may also reveal

water stains on the rafters, indicating small leaks that will

eventually cause damage. Damage inside the house is not

always attributable to roofing, but could be caused by

faulty flashing or result from condensation.

ASPHALT SHINGLES

Asphalt shingles are the most common roof covering and

are made in a wide range of weights and thicknesses. The

most obvious deterioration of asphalt shingles is loss of the

surface granules. The shingles may also become quite brittle. More important, however, is the wear that occurs in

the narrow grooves between the tabs or sections of the

shingle, or between two consecutive shingles in a row. This

wear may extend completely through to the roof boards

without being apparent from a casual visual inspection. A

good asphalt shingle should last 18 to 20 years.

WOOD SHINGLES

Wood shingles also find considerable use for covering of

pitched roofs and are most commonly of durable woods

such as cedar in No. 1 or No. 2 grades. A good wood

shingle roof should appear as a perfect mosaic, whereas a

roof with worn shingles has an allover ragged appearance.

Individual shingles on the worn roof are broken, warped,

and upturned. The roof with this worn appearance should

be completely replaced even though there is no evidence of

leaking. Excessive shade may cause fungus growth and

early shingle deterioration. A good wood shingle roof will

last up to 30 years under favorable conditions.

BUILT-UP ROOFING

Built-up roofing on flat- or low-sloped roofs should be

examined by going onto the roof and looking for bare spots

in the surfacing and for separations and breaks in the felt.

Bubbles, blisters, or soft spots also indicate that the roof

needs major repairs. AUigatoring patterns on smooth-surface built-up roofs may not be a failure of the roof. The life

of a built-up roof varies from 15 to 30 years, depending on

number of layers of felt and quality of application.

FLASHING

Flashing should be evident where the roof intersects

walls, chimneys, or vents, and where two roofs intersect to

form a valley. Check for corroded flashing that should be

replaced to prevent future problems. Likewise, check for

corroded gutters and downspouts, which can be restored by

repainting unless severely corroded.

OVERHANG

If the house was built with no roof overhang, the addition of an overhang should be considered in the remodeling

plan. It will greatly reduce maintenance on siding and

window trim, and prolong the life of both.

INTERIOR

Interior surfaces deteriorate due to weaf, distortion ofthe

structure, and the presence of moisture. Sometimes the

problem is further complicated by the use of cheap or

improper materials, improper application of wall coatings

or floor surfaces, or excessive layers of wallpaper.

FLOORING

WOOD FLOORS

In checking wood floors look for buckling or cupping of

boards that can result from high moisture content of the

boards or wetting of the floor. Also notice if the boards are

separated due to shrinkage. This shrinkage is more probable if the flooring boards are wide. If the floor is generally

smooth and without excessive sepamtion between boards,

refinishing may put it in good condition; however, be sure

there is enough thickness left in the flooring to permit

sanding. Most flooring cannot be sanded more than two or

three times; if it is softwood flooring without a subfloor,

even one sanding might weaken the floor too much. Sanding of plywood block floors should also be quite limited. If

flooß have wide cmcks or are too thin to sand, some type of

new flooring will have to be added.

RESILIENT riUE

Floore with resilient tile should be examined for loose

tile, cracks between tile, broken corners, and chipped

edges. Look to see if any ridges or unevenness in the

underlayment are showing through» Replacement of any

tile in a room may necessitate replacing the flooring in the

whole room because tile change color with age and new tile

will not match the old.

WALU AND CEILINGS

INTERIOR COVERING

The interior wall covering in old houses is usually plaster, but may be gypsum board in more recently built

homes. Wood paneling may also be found but is usually

limited to one room or to a single wall or accent area.

Plaster almost always has some hairlines cracks, even

when it is in good condition. Minor cracks and holes can be
patched, but a new wall covering should be applied if large

cracks and holes are numerous, if the surface is generally

uneven and bulging, or if the plaster is loose in spots. The

same general rule applies to ceilings.

If walls have been papered, check the thickness of the

paper. If more than two or three layers of paper are present,

they should be removed before applying new paper, and all

wallpaper should be removed before painting.

of special trim might be custom made but the cost should

be compared with complete replacement. Check with the

building supply dealer to see if the particular trim is still

being made. Also check some of the older cabinet shops to

see if they have shaper knives of this trim design.

The problems with interior doors are much the same as

those for exterior doors except there are no decay or threshold problems.

PAINTED SURFACES

The paint on painted surfaces may have been built up to

excessive thickness. It may be chipped due to mechanical

damage, to incompatibility between successive layers, or to

improper surfece preparation prior to repainting. Old kalsomine sur&ces may require considerable labor to recondition, so a new wall covering should be considered. Paint

failures may be due to application of paint over kalsomine.

TRIM, CABINETS, AND DOORS

Trim should have tight joints and fit closely to walls. If

the ñnish is worn but the surface is smooth, refinishing

may be feasible. If the finish is badly chipped or checked,

removing it will be laborious regardless of whether the new

finish is to be a clear sealer or paint. Trim or cabinetry of

plain design will be less difficult to prepare for refinishing

than that having ornately carved designs.

If any trim is damaged or it is necessary to move doors or

windows, all trim in the room may have to be replaced as it

may be difficult to match the existing trim. Small sections

\%

RECOGNIZING DAMAGE BY

DECAY AND INSECTS

DECAY

Look for decay in any part of the house that is subject to

prolonged wetting. Decay thrives in a mild temperature

and in wood with a high moisture content.

One indication of decay in wood is abnormal color and

loss of sheen. The brown color may be deeper than normal

(fig. 6A), and in advanced stages. cubical checking and

collapse occur (fig. 6B). The abnormal color may also be a

lightening which eventually progresses to a bleached appearance (fig. 7). Fine black lines may be present with the

bleached appearance.

Fungal growths appearing as strandlike or cottony masses on the surfiice of wood indicate excessive water and

consequently the presence of decay (fig. 8).

The visual methods of detecting decay do not show the

extent of damage. The two strength properties severely

reduced by decay are hardness and toughness. Prod the

wood with a sharp tool and observe resistance to marring.

To determine loss of hardness compare this resistance with

that of sound wood. Sound wood tends to lift out as one or

two relatively long slivers, and breaks are splintery. To

determine loss of toughness use a pointed tool to jab the

M-124 928

Figure 6.—^A, Discolored wood showing advanced stages of decay;

B, cubical checking and collapse.

M-124 927

Figure 7.—Lightening ofwood with fine black lines showing decay.
1

M-U8 679

Figure 8.—Fungal surface growth in cnwl space area under joist.

(Pen shows comparative size.)

wood and pry out a sliver. If toughness has been greatly

reduced by decay, the wood breaks squarely across the grain

with little splintering and lifts out with little resistance.

Decay may exist in any part of the house, but some areas

are particularly vulnerable. Special attention should be

given to these areas:

FOUNDATIONS AND FLOORS

Decay often starts in framing members near the foundation. It may be detected by papery, fanlike growths that are

initially white with a yellow tinge, and turn brown or black

with age. Look for these growths between subfloor and

finish floor and between joists and subfloor. They may

become exposed by shrinkage of flooring during dry

weather. These growths may also exist under carpets, in

cupboards, or in other protected areas that tend to stay

damp.

SIDING AND EXTERIOR TRIM

Where siding is close to the ground, look for discoloration, checking, or softening. Also check for signs of decay

where siding ends butt against each other or against trim.

ROOF SYSTEM

Observe wood shingles for cubical checking, softening,

and breakage of the exposed ends. Asphalt shingles have

deteriorated if they can be easily pulled apart between the

fingers. Edges of roofs are particularly vulnerable if not

properly flashed. If the roofing is deteriorating, check the

underside of the roofsheathing for evidence of condensation

or decay.

PORCHES

Give particular attention to step treads or deck surfaces

that are checked or concavely worn so they trap water. Also

check joints in railings or posts. Enclosed porches may have

condensation occurring on the underside of the deck and

framing. Check the crawl space for signs of dampness and

examine areas where these signs occur.

WINDOWS AND DOORS

Look for brown or black discoloration near joints or

failure of nearby paint (fig. 9). Both are signs of possible

decay. Also check the inside for water stains on the sash and

M-340 lOF

Figure 9.—Stain and decay may occur at such joints in a window

frame.

F-494 579

Figure 10.—Termite shelter tubes on foundation.
sill resulting from condensation running down the glass.

Where these stains exist, check for softening and molding.

INSECT PROBLEMS

The three major kinds of wood-attacking insects that

cause problems in wood-frame houses are termites, powderpost beetles, and carpenter ants. Methods of recognizing

each of these are discussed under separate headings. Where

there is any indication of one of these insects, probe the

wood with a sharp tool to determine the extent of damage.

TERMITES

There are two main classifications oftermites: (1) Subterranean termites, which have access to the ground or other

water source, and (2) nonsubterranean termites, which do

not require direct access to water.

Examine all areas close to the ground for subterranean

termites. One of the most obvious signs is earthen tubes

(fig. 10) built over the surface of foundation walls to

provide runways from the soil to the wood above. Termites

may also enter through cracks or voids in the foundations or

concrete floors. They do not require runways to the soil

where there is a source of water such as a plumbing leak.

Another sign of the presence of termites is the swarming

of winged adults early in the spring or fall. Termites

resemble ants, but the termites have much longer wings

and do not have the thin waist of an ant (fig. 11). Where

there is an indication of termites, look for galleries that

follow the grain of the wood, usually leaving a shell of

sound wood (fig. 12).

Nonsubterranean termites live in damp or dry wood

without outside moisture or contact with the ground. Look

for these only in Hawaii and in a narrow coastal strip

extending from central California to Virginia. One of the

early signs of these termites is sandlike excretory pellets

that are discarded outside the wood. Nonsubterranean termites can also be identified by the presence of swarming

winged forms. They cut freely across the grain of the wood

rather than following the grain as the subterranean termites

do.

To combat termites, soil poisoning is often recommended, but this is generally done by a professional exterminator.

POWDER-POST BEETLES

Powder-post beetles are most easily recognized by their

borings, which are about the consistency of flour. Many

borings remain inside the wood. The adults leave the wood

through a hole about the diameter of a pencil lead, giving

the wood the appearance of having been hit by birdshot.

Such holes may be just the result of a previous infestation,

so check for fresh, clean sawdust as a sign of current

activity. Activity may also be recognized by the rasping

sound the beetles make while tunneling.

Look for powder-post beetles in humid locations such as

near the ground. Sometimes the homeowner may destroy

them with an approved insecticide, but in severe cases,

fumigation by a professional exterminator is required.

CARPENTER ANTS

The presence of carpenter ants is often discovered by

their chewed wood, which resembles coarse sawdust and is

placed in piles outside the wood. They do not eat the wood,

but only nest in it. Working ants may be as much as half an

inch long. They make a rustling noise in walls, floors, or

woodwork. Look for signs of carpenter ants in softwood in

high humidity locations.

An approved insecticide blown into the galleries will

destroy carpenter ants. Eliminating the high moisture situation will prevent a recurrence.

INSULATION AND CONTROL OF

MOISTURE

Good insulation cuts heating costs and adds to comfort

by making the temperature in the house more uniform.

Humidification increases comfort and saves fuel by reducing the temperature level requited for comfort. While both

ß

M-137 348

Figure U.—Differences between winged termite. A; and winged

ant, B.

F-494 578

Figure 12.—^Termite damage to interior of a pine 2 by 4.
insulation and humidification are desirable, their addition

to older homes without vapor barriers in walls and ceilings

may create moisture condensation problems. Where large

differences exist between indoor and outdoor temperatures,

pressure forces water vapor out through the walls.

In the uninsulated house this vapor usually moves on to

the outside without any problem. Where insulation is

added, the dewpoint often occurs within the insulation, so

water vapor condenses into free water with consequent wet

insulation and siding. In some instances where indoor

relative humidities are low and the outside covering material allows moisture in the walls to escape readily, no

moisture problems may result. However, mechanical humidification, in addition to normal moisture from cooking,

bathing, and respiration, amplifies moisture problems; the

water vapor pressure drive is increased and consequently the

rate of moisture movement into the walls. Vapor barriers in

walls and ceilings reduce the rate of moisture movement

into these areas and thus help to control the moisture

problems otherwise created by adding insulation or humidification.

INSULATION

Look in the attic to determine the amount of ceiling

insulation present. The ceiling represents the greatest

source of heat loss on cool days as well as the greatest source

of heat gain on warm days. At least 3 inches of insulation

should be provided for homes in mild climates and 4 to 6

inches for those in cold climates. To find out ifthe walls are

insulated, some siding and sheathing or interior covering

must be removed, insulation in walls should be included in

any house rehabilitation in cold climates and in warm

climates where summer cooling is essential. Insulation is

also needed under floors of crawl space houses in cold

climates.

VAPOR BARRIERS

Vapor barriers should be provided on the warm side of all

insulation. Most houses built before the mid—1930*s do not

have vapor barriers. If the ceiling insulation is in blanket

form with a covering around it, the covering material may

resist the passage of moisture. However, if the ceiling is

loose fill, look under it for a separate vapor barrier of coated

or laminated paper, aluminum foil, or plastic film. The

same thing is true of insulated walls, where the vapor

barrier should be on the inside of the walls.

Check in crawl spaces for a vapor barrier laid on top of

the soil. If there is none and the crawl space seems quite

damp, a vapor barrier could be added.

There is no convenient way to determine if there are

vapor barriers under floor slabs. If the floor seems damp

most of the time, there probably is no vapor barrier. A

barrier would then have to be added on top ofthe slab, with

a new finish floor applied over it, to have a dry finish floor.

VENTILATION

The two major areas where good ventilation is required

are the ^ttic, or roof joist spaces in the case of a cathedral

ceiling or flatroofed house, and the crawl space. The general adequacy of existing ventilation can be observed just

from the degree of dampness.

Moisture passes into the attic from the house and condenses as the air cools down or where the moist air contacts

the cold roof members. Both inlet and outlet vents must be

located properly for good circulation of air through all the

attic area. These vents not only help keep the attic dry in

winter, but keep hot air moving from the attic during

summer and help to cool the house.

Observe the size and location of crawl space vents. There

should be at least four vents located near building corners

for optimum cross ventilation and minimum dead air

space.

MECHANICAL

Because many of the plumbing, heating, and wiring

systems in a house are concealed, it may be difficult to

determine their adequacy. For the same reason it is difficult

to make major changes without considerable cutting ofwall

surfaces and, in some situations, even structural members.

In a very old house the mechanical systems may have to

be replaced and this will become a major cost item. At the

same time, however, properly installed new systems will be

responsible to a large extent for comfort and convenience in

the house. One bonus can be the dramatic recovery ofspace

and improvement in the appearance of the basement when

an old "octopus" gravity warm air heating system is replaced by a modern forced-air system.

Code provisions relating to mechanical systems should

be carefully checked.

PLUMBING

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Water pressure is important. Check several faucets to see

ifthe flow is adequate. Low pressure can result from various

causes. The service may be too small or it may be reduced

in diameter due to lime, particularly with very old lead

service pipes. A ^/4-inch inside diameter service is considered adequate.

The main distribution pipes should be ^/4-inch inside

diameter but branch lines may be V2-inch inside diameter.

Sizes can be checked easily. Copper pipes V2-inch inside

diameter are ^/g-inch outside diameter, and ^/4-inch inside

diameter pipes are Vs-inch outside diameter. Galvanized

pipes ^/2-inch inside diameter are V8-inch outside diameter

and pipes ^/4-inch inside diameter are l^/g-inch outside

diameter.

The supply pressure may be inadequate. If the house has

its own water system, check the gage on the pressure tank,

which should read a minimum of 20 and preferably 40 to

50 pounds. Anything less will indicate the pump is not

operating properly, or the pressure setting is too low. If the

supply is from a municipal system, the pressure in the

mains may be too low, though this is unlikely.

Check shutoff valves at the service entrance and at various points in the system to determine if they have become

frozen with age or little use.

10
Check for leaks in the water supply system. Rust or

white or greenish crusting of pipe or joints may indicate

leaks.

Water hammer may be a problem. This results from

stopping the water flowing in the pipe by abruptly closing

a faucet. Air chambers placed on the supply lines at the

fixtures usually absorb the shock and prevent water hammer. If there is water hammer, air chambers may be

waterlogged. If there are no air chambers, they may be

added.

The water from any private well should be tested even

though the well has been in continuous use.

PLUMBING DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The drainage system consists of the sewer lateral, the

underfloor drains, the drainage pipes above the floor, and

the vents. Pipes may have become clogged or broken or

they may be of inadequate size. Venting in particular may

be inadequate and far below code requirements.

Flush fixtures to see if drains are sluggish. If so, check

the following:

Old laterals are commonly of vitreous bell tile. These

may have been poorly installed or become broken, allowing

tree roots to enter at the breaks or through the joints. Roots

can be removed mechanically but this operation may have

to be repeated every few years.

The underfloor drains may be of tile or even of steel and

could be broken or rusted out. They may have become

clogged and only need cleaning.

The drainage system above the basement floor or within

the house should be checked for adequacy and leaks.

Vents may be inadequate or may have become, clogged;

in extreme cases they may cause the water in the traps to be

siphoned out, allowing sewer gas to enter the house. Note

any excessive suction when a toilet is flushed.

REQUIRED ADDITIONS

Additional supply and drain lines may be desirable in

modernizing a house. New lines may be required for automatic washers, added baths, adequate sill cocks, or in

reorganizing the layout.

WATER HEATER

With a hot water heating system, water may also be

heated satisfactorily for cooking, bathing, and other personal needs. However, in a hot air furnace, the water

heating coil seldom provides enough hot water. Furthermore, during summer months when the hot air heating is

not needed, a separate system is required to provide hot

water. A gas water heater should have at least a 30-gallon

capacity and preferably more. An electric water heater

should have a capacity of 50 gallons or more.

FIXTURES

Plumbing fixtures that are quite old may be rust stained

and require replacement, or it may be desirable to replace

them just for appearance.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL

Drainage may not be adequate. Run water for a few

minutes to check for clogged drain lines between the house

and the sewer main. If a private sewage system exists,

consider the adequacy of the drain field. If a new drainage

field is needed, some codes require percolation tests ofsoil.

HEATING

Heating system advances and concepts of comfort outdate the heating systems in most old houses. Central

heating with heat piped to all rooms is considered a necessity in all but very small houses.

The only way to satisfactorily check the adequacy of the

heating system is through use. If the system is adequate for

the desired degree of comfort, check the furnace or boiler

for overall general condition.

GRAVITY WARM AIR

Gravity warm air systems are common in older homes.

Some gravity warm air furnaces may heat a house relatively

well, but it is doubtful that the temperature control and

heat distribution will be as good as with a forced-circulation system.

If a warm air system is exceptionally dirty, there may be

bad smudges above the registers. This will indicate some

repair work is required; if the furnace is old, it may need to

be replaced. Rusty ducts may need replacement.

FLOOR FURNACE

Warm air floor furnaces may be adequate for small

houses.

GRAVITY STEAM

One-pipe gravity steam heating systems are common in

older homes. The system is similar in appearance to hot

water. This is an extremely simple system and, if properly

installed, it will provide adequate heat but with no great

speed or control. It can be modernized without basic

changes merely by replacing standing radiators with baseboard heaters.

A one-pipe gravity steam system can be made more

positive in action by converting to a two-pipe system. This

requires adding traps and return lines.

A two-pipe steam system can be modified to a circulating hot water system. Circulating pumps must be added

but this results in greater speed of heat distribution and

excellent control.

RADIANT

Radiant heat from hot water flowing through coils

embedded in concrete floors or plastered ceilings is less

common but may provide excellent heating. Such systems

may become airlocked and require an expert to restore

11
proper operation. Breaks in ceiling coils can be repaired

fairly easily but repairing breaks in floors is extremely

difficult. If floor breaks are extensive, the system will

probably need to be replaced.

ELECTRIC PANEL

The electric heating panels have no moving parts to wear

out and should be in good condition unless a heating

element has burned out.

ELECTRICAL

The service is the first thing to check. So many new

electrical appliances have come into common use in recent

years that old houses may not have adequate wiring to

accommodate them, particularly if air conditioning is installed. The service should be at least 100 amperes for the

average three-bedroom house. If the house is large or if air

conditioning is added, the service should be 200 amps. If

the main distribution panel has room for circuits, additional circuits can be added to supply power where there is

a shortage. Otherwise another distribution panel may be

added.

Examine electrical wiring wherever possible. Some wiring is usually exposed in the attic or basement. Wiring

should also be checked at several wall receptacles or fixtures. If any armored cable or conduit is badly rusted, or if

wiring or cable insulation is deteriorated, damaged, brittle

or crumbly, the house wiring has probably deteriorated

from age or overloading and should be replaced.

At least one electrical outlet on each wall of a room and

two or more on long walls is desirable but may not always

be necessary. Ceiling lights should have a wall switch, and

rooms without a ceiling light should have a wall switch for

at least one outlet.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS^

The value of the house being considered for reconditioning, and the convenience and pleasure of using it over many

years will be affected by the layout and appearance. Some

points to consider are relationship and convenience of areas

to each other, traffic circulation, privacy, and adequacy of

room size. Conceivably some houses will not lend themselves to an ideal arrangement without excessive cost, and

adequate living conditions may be possible with some

sacrifice in arrangement.

CIRCULATION

Observe circulation or traffic patterns.For good circulation the general rule is to keep through-traffic from all

rooms or at least keep traffic at one side of a room rather

than through its center. If circulation is a problem, it can

sometimes be improved simply by moving doors to the

corners of rooms or by placing furniture in a manner to

direct traffic where it will be least objectionable. Traffic

considerations will be discussed further as they relate to

specific areas.

LAYOUT

Ideally5 houses should have rooms arranged in three

areas—the private or bedroom area, the work area consisting of kitchen and utility rooms, and the relaxation area

consisting of dining and living rooms. A family room, a

den, or a recreation room may exist in or between these

general areas. The den should be out of the general circulation areas and, if it is part of the bedroom area, may double

as a guest room. A recreation room in the basement can

serve some of the same functions as a family room. The

relationship of areas will be treated further as each area is

discussed.

WORK AREA

The location of the kitchen in relation to other areas of

the house is one of the most critical. It should have direct

access to the dining area and be accessible to the garage or

driveway for ease in unloading groceries. Being near the

utility room is also convenient as the housewife often has

work in progress in the kitchen and utility room at the

same time. Traffic should not pass through the kitchen

work area, i.e., the range-refrigerator-sink triangle.

The size of the kitchen is important. There was a period

when kitchens were made very small with the idea that this

was convenient, but the many modern appliances that now

commonly go into a kitchen, as well as the inclusion of a

breakfast area, require much more space. If the kitchen is

too small, a major addition or alteration will be necessary.

A coat closet near the kitchen entrance and some facility

for washing up near the work area are desirable. However,

in the small house neither may be feasible.

PRIVATE AREA

The bedroom and bathroom area should be separated as

much as possible, both visually and acoustically from the

living and work areas.

Every bedroom should be accessible to a bathroom without going through another room, and at least one bathroom

should be accessible to work and relaxation areas without

going through a bedroom. One of the basic rules of privacy

is to avoid traffic through one bedroom to another. If this

privacy is not presently provided, some changes in layout

may be desirable.

Check the size of bedrooms. It is desirable to have a floor

area of at least 125 square feet for a double bed and 150

square feet for twin beds. Smaller bedrooms can be very

usable, but consider limitations for furnishing them.

^ This section could not possibly cover all items to be considered in

evaluting a home for rehabilitation. Thus the attention here is focused on

the building itself, with no mention of problems that relate to a particular

site. It is beyond the scope of this handbook to get into such problems—

important as they might be—as the condition and future of the neighborhood, availability of transportation, distance to shopping and schools, or

the vulnerability to such natural disasters as floods.

12
RELAXATION AREA

The relaxation area is usually at the front of an older

house, but rooms at the side or rear may be used, particularly if this provides a view into a landscaped yard. If the

house has a small parlor or a living room and dining room

separated by an arch, consider removing partitions or arches

to give a more spacious feeling. The main entrance is

usually at or near the living area. Check for a coat closet

near this entrance, and a passage into the work area without

passing through the living room or at least not more than a

corner or end of the room.

APPEARANCE

Taste is largely a personal matter so only basic guidelines

will be given. Simplicity and unity are the major considerations. A good "period" style may be worth preserving and a

house possessing the quality commonly referred to as

"charm" may be appraised $2,000 to $3,000 higher than

plainer ones. Style or charm can assume less importance,

however, after you live for awhile with inconvenience,

discomforts, and constant repairs.

Simplicity is one of the first principles. Observe the

main lines of the house. Some variety adds interest, but

numerous roof lines at a variety of slopes present a busy,

confused appearance. Strong horizontal lines are usually

desirable in a conventional residence to give the appearance

of being "tied to the ground." Strong vertical lines tend to

make a house look tall and unstable.

List the number of materials used as siding. There

should never be more than three, and not more than two

would be preferable. Look at the trim and see if it seems to

belong with the house or is just stuck on as ornamentation.

Unity is as important as simplicity. The house should

appear as a unit, not as a cluster of unrelated components.

Windows and trim should be in keeping with the style of

the house. Windows should be of the same type and of a

very limited number of sizes. Shutters should be one-half

the width of the window so that, if closed, they would

cover the window. Porches and garages should blend with

the house rather than appear as attachments.

If the dwellings appears unattractive, consider how paint

and landscaping may affect it. Even an attractive house will

not look good without being properly painted or landscaped.

13
FINAL EVALUATION

After the house has been completely examined and all

repair requirements listed, the information should be carefully evaluated. Some general guides for evaluating the

information are presented here; however, judgment will be

required to draw conclusions from these guides.

MAJOR REASONS FOR REJECTION

Throughout the discussion some major reasons for rejection have been given. These are restated here:

1. The foundation may be completely unrepairable.

Houses are occasionally moved onto a new foundation, but

this is generally not economical unless the house is otherwise in extremely good condition.

2. Ifthe entire frame ofthe house is badly out ofsquare,

or if the framing is generally decayed or termite infested,

the house is probably not worth rehabilitating.

3. If there are numerous replacements, or major repairs

and replacements combined, the suitability for rehabilitation is questionable.

GUIDEPOSTS FOR THE FINAL DECISION

If the foundation and frame are in reasonable condition,

and the repair and replacement items do not appear excessive, base a final decision on the following factors:

COST

If the cost of buying and rehabilitating the house does

not exceed the fair market value of houses in the area, it is a

sound investment. A general rule-of-thumb for a house

presently owned is that the rehabilitation cost should not

exceed two-thirds of the cost of a comparable new house.

The cost can be arrived at in two ways:

A. If the work is to be done on a fixed price contract,

the contractor's bid will give you a definite figure. However, this figure should be increased about 10 percent for

unforeseen extras.

B. If you plan to do most of the work and are concerned

with the economics of the project, first get bids on those

items that will be done by others. Second, figure the cost of

all materials for work you would do. Third, estimate your

labor time and establish costs using a fair hourly rate. If you

are not experienced in building construction, increase your

labor estimate by 50 percent because much time is lost in

doing work a little at a time, and also there is a strong

tendency to underestimate.

LOCATION

A particularly good location would be justification for

spending more; a generally undesirable or deteriorating

location would indicate much less than two-thirds the new

house cost should be spent.

SENTIMENTAL VALUE

If there are sentimental attachments, the value of the

rehabilitated house must be decided by the individual

concerned. However, neither the finance company nor a

prospective buyer will allow anything for sentimental

value.

CAUTIONS

Projects go veiy slowly when worked on by one individual in his spare time. If the house is to be occupied

immediately or at the earliest possible moment, do the

necessary items at once and then plan to work in "projects"

with a breather space between them. Nobody wants to live

in a mess continually and nobody can work continuously

without risking having the project "go sour." Be as realistic

as possible. It will increase the enjoyment of doing the

work and the satisfaction ofthe finished home. And finally,

realize that your ideas may change.

14
c;.,S-»"¥-sè

Figure 13.—^Exterior views of one house—before and after rehabilitation.

15
REHABILITATION

INTRODUCTION

This part of the handbook presents some information on

materials and methods that are applicable in rehabilitating

an older dwelling (fig. 13), Obviously, detailed planning

cannot begin until after careful appraisal is made of the

suitability of the structure for rehabilitation, as discussed in

the Appraisal portion.

Our approach here is to discuss rehabilitation in a way

that will be applicable to a broad range of individual

interests and capabilities. Some people may be able to do

the entire job ofrehabilitation themselves; others may want

to learn only enough so they can understand the general

plan. And many in the "in-between" categoîy may need to

call for assistance in specialized areas.

In assessing the rehabilitation, what must be done, and

how to do it, special assistance may be required from

architects, engineers, contmctors, builders, or skilled

craftsmen. This could be especially true in updating critical

structural items or making major structural changes. Likewise, other specialists may be required in such fields as

electrical, plumbing, or heating. With the proper help,

rehabilitation can be made much easier.

DEVELOPING THE PLAN

After the house has been examined and determined to be

suitable for rehabilitation, plans should be made to improve the layout, provide more space, add modern conveniences, and improve appearance. Perhaps the house requires

no changes and only needs restoration to its original condition, but this would be an exceptional situation. Usually

changes in living patterns, conveniences, and concepts of

comforts have made some remodeling desirable. Special

effort and imagination should be applied toward achieving

a proper layout. This increases the value of the house and

gives a continuous benefit in convenience and liveability.

Before making any changes, check with the local building department, and obtain a building permit if required.

GENERAL LAYOUT

In the layout of a house it is desirable to provide separate

zones for various family functions and to provide good

traffic circulation through and between areas. In the moderate-cost rehabilitation project this may not be practical.

Even where cost is not a major limitation, there will have to

be compromises in the layout. The considerations presented

here are goals to aim for where practical; inability to fully

satisfy them should not prevent restoring the home to a

sound, comfortable condition,

ZONED LIVING

The layout of the house should be zoned to provide three

major family functional areas for relaxation, working, and

privacy. The relaxation zone will include recreation, entertaining, and dining. In the small house these may all be

performed in one room, but the larger house may have

living room, dining room, family room or den, study, and

recreation room. The latter is frequently in the basement.

The working zone includes the kitchen, laundry or utility

room, and may include an office or shop. The privacy zone

consists of bedrooms and baths; it may include the den

which can double as a guest bedroom. In some layouts a

master bedroom and bath may be located away from the

rest of the bedrooms so the privacy zone is actually in two

parts.

Zones within the house should be located for good

relationship to outdoor areas. If outdoor living in the

KITCHEN

DININ@

3 C

LIVINQ

KITCHEN

n m m

OININO

LIVING

ORIGINAL LAYOUT IMPROVED LAYOUT

M-142 148

Figure 14.—Relocation of doors to direct traffic to one side of

rooms.

16
CEILING JOISTS

/ ^NON-BEARING WRTITIONS-^ ^v

-r-—f 1 \-—A Z

M-142 151

Figure 15.—^Load-bearing and nonload-bearing partitions. (A

second-floor load may place a load on any partition. )

backyard is desirable, perhaps the living room should be at

the back of the house. The working zone should have good

access to the garage, the dining room, and outdoor work

areas. The main entrance to the house should have good

access to the driveway or usual guest parking area, which

may be on either the front or side of the house. In considering where to locate rooms and entrances, conventional

arrangement of the past should not be binding, but convenience in the particular situation should govern.

TRAFFIC CIRCULATION

One of the most important items in layout is traffic

circulation. Ideally there should be no traffic through any

room. This is usually difficult to accomplish in the living

and work areas. A more feasible plan is to keep traffic from

cutting through the middle ofthe room. Many older houses

have doors centered in the wall of a room; this not only

directs traffic through the middle of the room, but also cuts

the wall space in half, making furniture arrangement difficult. Study the plan and observe where a door might be

moved from the middle of a wall space to the corner of the

f—1

W

[

[

c

1=

UNO LIVIN0-0ININ6

LIVINO

ORIGINAL LAYOUT IMPROVED LAYOUT

M-142 147

Figure 16.—Removal of partition for better space utilization.

room; however, movement of doors is costly and should be

limited in the moderate rehabilitation job. Also consider

where doors might be eliminated to prevent traffic through

a room. Figure 14 shows examples of improved layout

through relocation of doors.

CHANGING PARTITIONS

Often rooms are not the desired sizes, and it may be

necessary to move some partitions. This is not difficult if

the partition is nonload-bearing and plumbing, electrical,

or heating services are not concealed in the partition. It is

possible to move even load-bearing partitions by adding a

beam to support the ceiling where the partition is removed.

To determine whether a partition is load bearing or not,

check the span direction of ceiling joists. If joists are

parallel to the partition, the partition is usually nonloadbearing (fig. 15); however, it may be supporting a second

floor load so this should be checked. In most constructions

where the second floor joists are perpendicular to the

partition, they do require support so the partition is loadbearing (fig. 15). An exception would occur when trusses

HALL

ORIGINAL LAYOUT

a c

LIVING

IMPROVED LAYOUT

M-142 189

Figure 17.—^Removal of partition for more spacious feeling.

17
¿í

^

1 k

^p

í^ ^

#

SPACED WINDOWS

#-

^ ^

GROUPED WINDOWS

M-142 146

Figure 18.—Improved window placement through grouping.

Span the width of the building, making all partitions

nonioad-bearing.

Although removal of a non-bearing partition will not

require a structural modification, the wall, ceiling, and

floor will require repairs where the partition intersected

them.

If rooms are small, it may be desirable to remove partitions to g\st a more open spacious feeling. A partition

between living and dining rooms can be removed to make

both seem larger and perhaps make part of the space serve a

dual purpose (fig. 16). In some instances unneeded bedrooms adjacent to the living area can be used to increase

living room or other living space by removing a partition.

In some rehabilitation, removing a partition between a

hallway and a room in the living area gives a more spacious

it^Ymg even though traffic continues through the hallway

iH' 17).

WINDOW PLACEMENT

Windows influence general arrangement and so should

also be considered in the layout. Moving windows is costly,

involving changes in studs, headers, interior and exterior

finish, and trim. The number of windows relocated should

be very limited in the moderate-cost rehabilitation job but,

where changes are practical, properly placed windows can

enhance the livability of a house. Where possible, avoid

small windows scattered over a wall, as they cut up the wall

space and make it unusable. Attempt to group windows

into one or two large areas and thus leave more wall space

undisturbed (fig. 18). Where there is a choice of outside

walls for window placement, south walls rank first in cold

climates. Winter sun shines into the room through a south

window and heats the house, but in the summer the sun is

at a higher angle so that even a small roof overhang shades

the window. In extremely warm climates, north windows

may be preferable to south windows to avoid heat gain even

in the winter. West windows should be avoided as much as

possible because the late afternoon sun is so low that there

is no way of shading the window.

Windows provide three major functions: They admit

daylight and sunlight, allow ventilation of the house, and

provide a view. Points to consider in planning for each of

these three functions are discussed below.

Some general practices to insure adequate light are:

1. Provide glass areas in excess of 10 percent of the floor area of each

room,

2. Place principal window areas toward the south except in warm

climates.

3. Group window openings in the wall to eliminate undesirable contrasts in brightness.

4. Screen only those parts of the window that open for ventilation.

5. Mount draperies, curtains, shades, and other window hangings

above the head of the window and to the side of the window frame to

free the entire glass area.

To insure good ventilation, some practices to follow are:

1. Provide ventilation in excess of 5 percent ofthe floor area of a room.

2. Locate the ventilation openings to take full advantage of prevailing

breezes.

3. Locate windows to effect the best movement of air across the room

and within the level where occupants sit or stand. (Ventilation

openings should be in the lower part of the wail unless the window

swings inward in a manner to direct air downward.)

To provide a good view:

1. Minimize obstructions in the line of sight for sitting or standing,

depending on the use of the room,

2, Determine sill heights on the basis of room use and furniture

arrangement.

CLOSETS

An item sometimes overlooked in planning the layout is

closets. Most older houses have few if any closets. Plan for a

coat closet near both the front and rear entrances. There

should be a cleaning closet in the work area, and a linen

closet in the bedroom area. Each bedroom also requires a

closet. If bedrooms are large, it will be a simple matter to

build a closet across one end of the room. The small house

will present more difficulty. Look for waste space, such as

the end of a hallway or at a wall offset. If the front door

opens directly into the living room, a coat closet can

sometimes be built beside or in front of the door to form an

entry (fig. 19). In the story-and-a-half house, closets can

often be built into the attic space where the headroom is too

limited for occupancy.

Closets used for hanging clothes should ideally be at least

24 inches deep but shallower closets are also practical.

Other closets can vary m depth depending on their use, but

a depth greater than 24 inches is usually impractical. The

exception is the walk-in storage closet, which is very useful

18
EXPANSION WITHIN THE HOUSE

-MAIN ENTRANCE

(

Q

CLOSET BESIDE ENTRANCE

-MAIN ENTRANCE

D=

n

CL.

<

£

CLOSET IN FRONT OF ENTRANCE

M-142 191

Figure 19.—Entry formed by coat closet.

and should be considered if space is available. Where

existing closets are narrow and deep, rollout hanging rods

can make them very usable. To make the best use of closet

space, plan for a full-front opening.

In many remodeling situations, plywood wardrobes may

be more practical than conventional closets that require

studs, drywail, casing, and doors. Very simple plywood

wardrobes are illustrated iji the section on closets under

"Reconditioning Details." More elaborate closets can be

built by dividing the wardrobe into a variety of spaces for

various types of storage and installing appropriate doors or

drawers.

PORCHES

Porches on older houses are often very narrow, have

sloping floors, and cannot easily be enlarged. They do not

lend themselves well to the type of outdoor living, such as

dining and entertaining, usually desired today. Consider

this in determining whether or not to retain an existing

porch and in planning a new porch that will be useful.

Regardless of the size of a house, there always seems to

be a need for more space. Seldom is there enough storage

space. Work space for a shop or other hobby area is nearly

always in demand. More recreational and other informal

living space are usually desired. Family rooms are seldom

found in older homes. Furthermore, in some houses rooms

may be small or additional bedrooms may be needed. Many

older houses have only one bathroom and sometimes none,

so bathroom additions are often required. Often there are

possibilities for expansion by using existing unfinished

space such as the attic, basement, or garage. If expansion

into these areas is not practical, an addition can be built.

ATTIC

The house with a relatively steep roof slope may have

some very usable attic space going to waste. It can be made

accessible for storage space by the addition of a fold-down

stairs. If this space is usable for living area and has an

available stairway, it may be finished to form additional

bedrooms, a den, a study, a hobby room, or an apartment

for the relative who lives in the house but is not a member

of the immediate family.

Where the attic is at third floor level, local codes should

be checked. Some codes do not permit use of the third floor

for living areas; others require a fire escape.

The headroom requirements for attic rooms are a minimum ceiling height of 7 feet 6 inches over at least one-half

the room, and a minimum ceiling height of 5 feet at the

outer edges of the room (fig. 20). The space with a lower

ceiling height could be used for bunks or other built-in

furniture or as storage space.

If there is sufficient headroom only in a narrow strip at

the center of the attic, consider building a large shed

dormer to increase the usable space (fig. 21). Dormers may

be required for windows even though they are not needed

for increasing space.

It is important that insulation, vapor barriers, and ventilation be considered when finishing attic space, because

this space can be particularly hot in the summer. Insulate

and install vapor barriers completely around walls and

ceiling of the finished space and ventilate attic space above

AT LEAST ONE HALF

REQUIRED ROOM WIDTH

.LOWER CEILING

WHERE HEADROOM

IS NOT REQUIRED

M-142 150

Figure 20.—Headroom requirements for attic rooms.

19
-SHED DORMER

-ORIGINAL ROOF

M-142 143 Figure 22.-

M-H2 136

-Large basement window areaway w^ith sloped sides.

Figure 21.—Shed dormer for additional attic space.

and on each side of the finished space. Provide good cross

ventilation through the finished space.

An item sometimes overlooked in expanding into the

attic area is a stairway. The usual straight-run stairway

requires a space 3 feet wide and at least 11 feet long plus a

landing at both top and bottom. There must also be a

minimum overhead clearance of 6 feet 8 inches at any point

on the stairs. If space is quite limited, spiral stairs may be

the solution. Some spiral stairs can be installed in a space as

small as 4 feet in diameter; however, code limitations

should be checked. While these are quite serviceable, they

are a little more áifñcuh to ascend or descend, and so may

not be suitable for the elderly. Spiral stairs will not accommodate furniture, so there must be some other access for

moving furniture into the upstairs space.

BASEMENT

An unfinished basement may be one of the easiest places

for expansion, although certain conditions must be met if

the basement is to be used for habitable rooms, A habitable

room is defined as a space used for living, sleeping, eating,

or cooking. Rooms not included and, therefore, not bound

by the requirements of habitable rooms include bathrooms.

toilet compartments, closets, halls, storage rooms, laundry

and utility rooms, and basement recreation rooms. The

average finish grade elevation at exterior walls of habitable

rooms should not be more than 48 inches above the finish

floor. Average ceiling height for habitable rooms should be

not less than 7 feet 6 inches. Local codes should be checked

for exact limitations. Other basement rooms should have a

minimum ceiling height of 6 feet 9 inches.

Dampness in the basement can be partially overcome by

installing vapor barriers on the floor and walls if they were

not installed at the time of construction. In an extremely

damp basement, plan to use a dehumidifier for summer

comfort.

One of the main disadvantages of basement rooms is the

lack of natural light and view. If the house is on a sloping

lot or graded in a manner to permit large basement windows above grade, the basement is much more usable than

in the house where the basement has only a few inches of

the top of the wall above grade. However, even the completely sunken basement can have natural light if large

areaways are built for windows, and the walls of the

areaways are sloped so that sunlight can easily reach the

windows (fig. 22). At least one window large enough to

serve as a fire exit is recommended and often required by

..,>-#• .«. -^ '

M-142 155

Figure 23.—Sunken garden fomiing large basement window areaway.

20
Figure 24.—Areaway type of basement entrance.

code. It may be convenient to extend the areaway to form a

small sunken garden (fig. 23), but adequate drainage must

be included.

The usefulness of the basement may also be increased by

adding a direct outside entrance.' This adds to fire safety by

giving an alternate exit and is particularly desirable if the

basement is to be used as a shop or for storing lawn and

garden equipment. If an outside stairway is provided, try to

place it under cover of a garage, breezeway, or porch to

protect it from ice, snow, and rain. Otherwise, use an

areaway-type entrance with a door over it (fig. 24).

GARAGE

Another place for expansion is the garage built as an

integral part of the house. If the garage is well built, the

only work is in finishing, which is much less costly than

adding onto the house. The main consideration is whether

the additional finished space is needed more than a garage.

The garage is often adjacent to the kitchen, so that it is an

ideal location for a large family room. It could also be used

for additional bedrooms and possibly another bathroom.

Walls and ceiling of the garage can be finished in any

conventional material. The floor will probably require a

vapor barrier, insulation, and a new subfloor. It may be

convenient to use the existing garage door opening to

install large windows or a series of windows; otherwise the

door opening can be completely closed and windows added

at other points. Methods of adding the floor and applying

other finish are presented under "Reconditioning Details.**

ADDITIONS

After considering all the possibilities of expanding into

the attic, basement, or garage, if space requirements are

not met, the only alternative left is to construct an addition. The house on a small lot may have minimum setback

limitations that will present problems. Local zoning and lot

restrictions should be checked. The distance from the front

of the house to the street is usually kept the same for all

houses on a particular street, so expanding to the front may

not be permitted. Often the house also has the minimum

setback on the sides, preventing expansion on either side.

Thus, the only alternative is to add on behind the house.

The house in the country usually can be expanded in any

direction without restriction.

Use the addition for most critically needed space. If the

need is for more bedrooms, but a much larger living room

is also desirable, maybe the present living room can be used

as a bedroom and a large living room can be added. If the

main requirement is a large modern kitchen, add on a

new kitchen and use the old kitchen as a utility room,

bathroom, or some other type of living or workspace. The

important thing for good appearance is that the addition be

in keeping with the style of the house. Rooflines, siding,

and windows should all match the original structure as

closely as possible to giwe the house continuity, rather than

giving the appearance that something has just been stuck

on.

One of the most difficult problems is in connecting the

addition to the original house. In some constructions it

may be well to use the satellite concept, in which the

addition is built as a separate building and connected to the

original house by a narrow section which could serve as an

entry or mudroom, and include closets or possibly a bathFAMILY ROOM

HALF

BATH r

REAR ENTRANCE

COATS II

__LJ ,

EXISTINO HOUSE

L J

Figure 25.—Addition using the satellite concept.

21
EAT

3 C

J-|@»ftH—\^

EAT

\

I

ncF.

3 C

SINK

.KE. láñfiL

B

EAT

3 C

B

Jt EAT

II II

Figure 26.—Kitchen arrangements: A, U-type; B, L-type; C, corridor; D, sidewall.

M-142 199

room (fig. 25). One disadvantage of this concept is the

resulting large exterior wall area with proportionate heat

loss and maintenance cost for exterior surfaces.

REMODELING THE KITCHEN

New appliances and present concepts of convenience

have revolutionized the kitchen in recent years. More space

is required for the numerous appliances now considered

necessary.

In spite of changing requirements, some principles of

kitchen planning have applied for several years. The basic

movements in food preparation are from the refrigerator to

the sink, and then to the range. The four generally recognized arrangements for kitchens are: the "U" and "L"

types, corridor, and sidewall (fig. 26). The arrangement

selected depends on the amount of space, the shape of the

space, and the location of doors. If the kitchen is going

to be a new addition, select the layout preferred, and plan

the addition in accordance with the layout. The work

triangle is smallest in the "U" and corridor layouts. The

sidewall arrangement is preferred where space is quite

limited, and the '*L" arrangement is used in a relatively

square kitchen that must have a dining table in it.

If kitchen cabinet space is adequate and well arranged,

updating the cabinets may be the only desirable change.

New doors and drawer fronts can be added to the old

cabinet framing. Even refinishing or painting the old cabinets and adding new hardware can sometimes do much to

improve an old kitchen. If a kitchen has adequate cabinets,

the single improvement that will most update it is new

counter tops. Tops should be fabricated and installed by a

good custom counter shop. Plastic laminate over particleboard backing is commonly used.

22
DD

p

RAM6E

EATING CCX^TER

FAMILY ROOM

ft

Figure 27.-

M-142 153

-Island counter dividing kitchen and family room.

Doorways should be located to avoid traffic through the

work triangle. Generally doorways in corners should be

avoided, and door swings should avoid conflict with the use

of appliances, cabinets, or other doors. Ifswinging the door

out would put it in the path of travel in a hall or other

activity area, consider using a sliding or folding door.

Sliding doors and installation are expensive, but may be

worth the expense in certain situations.

Windows should be adequate to make the kitchen a light

cheerful place, because the homemaker spends much of her

time there. The current trend toward indoor-outdoor living

1— —1

1

BEDROOM

X

r\

1 1 t-,,.,

ORIGINAL LAYOUT

has fostered the "patio kitchen," with large windows over a

counter which extends to the outside to provide an outdoor

eating counter. This is particularly useful in the warmer

climates, but also convenient for summer use in any climate.

The placement of the sink in relation to windows is a

matter of personal preference. Many women like to look out

the window while they are at the sink, but installing the

sink along an interior plumbing partition is usually less

costly than on an outside wall.

If the kitchen is quite large, it may be convenient to use

part as a family room. The combined kitchen-family room

concept can also be met by removing a partition to expand

the kitchen or by adding on a large room. One method of

arranging workspace conveniently in such a room is by

using an island counter (fig. 27), which can also serve as an

eating counter for informal dining.

Much research in kitchen planning has been done by the

U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research

Service and by State universities. Contact the local Agriculture Extension Service for bulletins on kitchen planning

from these sources. Many companies building kitchen cabinets will also assist in planning.

ADDING A BATH

Improved bathroom facilities should be one of the main

considerations in the planning stages of remodeling. There

should be plans to add a bath where there is none, and a

half bath or second bath should be considered for many

houses with only one bath.

3E 3:

BEDROOM

BATH AND CLOSET ADDED

Figure 28.—Portion of a large bedfxx>m used to add a bath.

23

M-142 2ÜÜ
c

c

PLUMBING IN TWO WALLS COMMON PLUMBING WALL

M-142 149

Figure 29.—Minimum size bitthroom (5 ft by 7 ft).

Finding a convenient location to add a bath in an

existing house is often quite difficult. Adding a room onto

the house is seldom a good solution because it is usually

desirable to have access to the bath from a bedroom hallway . A half bath near the main entrance or in the work area

is desirable. One consideration in locating a bath economically is to keep all piping runs as short as possible. Also, all

fixtures on one plumbing wall can use a common vent.

One prevalent mistake in adding a bath in an older house

has been to place it in any unused space without regard to

convenience of location. Consequently, many bathrooms

have been placed in what was formerly a pantry, a large

closet, or under a stairway. This usually means the only

access to the bathroom is through the kitchen or a bedroom, or that the bathroom is totally removed from the

bedroom area. If this mistake has been made in a house, it

is important to add another bath in a good location.

In a house with large bedrooms, a portion of one bedroom can be taken for a bath (fig. 28). Such a bedroom

should be at least 16 feet in one dimension so that it will

still be no less than 10 feet in least dimension after the bath

is built. If the bedrooms are small and all are needed, there

may be no choice except to build an addition. It may be

advantageous to make a small bedroom into a bath (or two

baths) and add on another bedroom. A possibility in the

one-and-one-half-story house is to add a bath in the area

under the shed dormer (fig. 21). When this is done,

( 1

/\r~^^

1A

o

o

L J

.A

0

0

Do

U-J u ?8'K 10-6"

M-142 158

F^-rdL,

o c

1 - .

o

o z-xoD

BATH WITH CLOSET BATH WITH DOUBLE PULLMAN

M-142 157

Figure 30.—-Moderate size bathroom (8 ft by 8 ft).

remember that the wall containing the plumbing must

have a wall below it on the first floor through which piping

can run. This applies to two-story houses also.

The minimum size for a bathroom is 5 feet by 7 feet (fig.

29), and larger sizes are certainly desirable. Increasing the

size slightly would make the bath less cramped and could

provide space for a storage closet for towels, cleaning

equipment, or supplies (fig. 30). If the plan is for only one

bath, consider making it in compartments for use by more

than one person at a time (fig. 31). Two baths can be most

economically built with fixtures back to back (fig. 32), but

do not sacrifice convenience of location to accomplish this.

Bathrooms built on both floors of a two-story house are

most economically built with second floor bath directly

over the first floor bath.

Bathroom fixtures vary in size, so fixture dimensions

from the building supply dealer are required to make

detailed plans. Minimum dimensions between and around

fixtures are shown in figure 33.

APPEARANCE

Many older houses possess desirable qualities of appearance that should be retained. Many new house designs copy

styles of the past in an attempt to capture the dignity of the

two-story Colonial, the quaintness of the Victorian house,

the charm of the old English cottage, the look of solid

comfort of the Midwestern farmhouse, or the rustic inforon Do

3

J (J

Figure 31.—Compartmented bathroom.

M-142 144

Figure 32.—^Two bathrooms with economical back-to-back

arrangement.

24
mality of the ranch house. If a house possesses any of these

or other desirable qualities, it may be well to avoid any

change of appearance. To retain the character of the house,

all additions, new windows and doors and covering materials, must be in keeping with the existing character.

When changes in appearance are planned, two key elements that should be foremost are unity and simplicity. To

achieve unity, make rooflines continuous where possible,

make all windows the same type and use only one or two

siding materials. Avoid trim that appears stuck onto the

house without serving any purpose, and remove such trim

where it does exist. The result is not only simplicity, but

also a reduction in maintenance costs. An exception to this

treatment of trim is the good period style in which added

maintenance may be justified in preserving the character of

the home. In two-story houses windows are generally lined

up and placed over each other on a first and second floor.

Relocation of a window on either floor could destroy the

unity and simplicity of the house.

One of the most common causes of poor appearance is a

lack of roof overhang (fig. 34). There should be a roof

overhang of at least 1 foot and preferably 2 feet all around

the house to protect the siding and windows as well as to

give a good appearance. If this overhang is lacking, consider adding an overhang during the remodeling. It should

pay for itself in reduced maintenance in addition to improving the appearance of the house.

For the house that is exceptionally plain, one of the best

places to add interest is at the main entrance. This is the

natural focal point for the house and an attractive door, a

raised planter, or interesting steps can do much to enhance

overall appearance. One caution is to keep the entrance in

scale and in character with the house, and to avoid an overly

grand appearance.

The house that looks too tall can often be improved by

adding strong horizontal lines as porch or carport roofs.

Painting the first and second story different colors can also

produce a lower appearance. Color can also affect the apparPROÜECTION

CAN BE REDUCED TO 12'

IF PROJECTION IS LESS

THAN 12"

l' 3" IF LONG SIDE fV^^^f'^^

OF TUB IS ADJACENT ' '

TO W.C.

,1*9" TO TUB OR WALL

PARTITION OR WALL

Figure 33.—^Recommended dimensions for fixtute spacing.

25

M-142 160
B

Figure 34.-

M-142 188

-Improved appearance by adding roof overhang: A,

without overhang; B, with overhang.

ent size of the house. A light color makes a house appear

large whereas a dark color will make it appear much

smaller.

Interior appearance should also be considered before

finish materials are selected. The most convenient materials

to apply do not always produce the desired character.

Ceiling tile that is attractive in a recreation room may not

be suitable in a living room. Paneling comes in various

types and qualities which also result in major differences in

the dignity and charm of a room. Keep the desired effect in

mind as plans are made.

RECONDITIONING DETAILS

With the information from a thorough examination of

the house and a complete plan for changes to be made, the

actual rehabilitation can begin. In locations where termites

are a particular problem (fig. 35), and are prevalent in and

around the house, soil poisoning may be advisable before

the work begins. Local information on termites may be

available from the County Extension Office.

The order in which components of the house are reconditioned will vary w^ith each situation; how^ever, the first step

in rehabilitation should be to level the house and floor

system, A level base to work from is essential to a good

rehabilitation job. Roof repairs and changes in windows

and exterior doors should be made before interior work

begins. Ail changes in plumbing, electrical wiring, and

heating should also be completed before interior finish

work is started.

Certain general information will be useful in reconditioning wood-frame construction:

(1) Moisture content of framing material should not

exceed 19 percent, and a maximum of 15 percent would be

better in most areas of the United States.

(2) Recommended moisture content for interior finish

woodwork varies from 6 to 11 percent depending on the

area of the United States. A map showing recommended

average moisture contents is shown in figure 36.

(3) Plywood should be exterior type anywhere it will be

exposed to moisture during construction or in use.

(4) Recommended nailing for assembly of framing and

application of covering materials is listed in table 1. Sizes of

common nails are shown in figure 37.

(5) Actual lumber sizes have changed and new lumber

may not be fully compatible with that of old framing. Some

older homes may have been constructed using full thickness

lumber, so allowance must be made for size differences.

BASIC STRUCTURE

FOUNDATION

Because a relatively good foundation is a prime requisite

ofa house worth rehabilitating, no major repairs or replacement will be discussed.

Soil Poisoning Around Foundation

Subterranean termites are the only wood-destroying insects that may require measures beyond those provided by

sound construction practices. Generally, the most widely

recommended form ofsupplementary treatment against the

termites is soil poisoning. The treatment also is an effective

remedial measure.

Studies made by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

show that certain chemicals added to soil under buildings

or around foundations will prevent or control termite infestation for many years.^ Generally such treatments will be

applied by a professional exterminator.

Slab construction.—The treatment ofsoil under slabon-ground construction is difficult. One method of treatment consists of drilling holes about a foot apart through

the concrete slab, adjacent to all cracks and expansion

joints, and injecting a chemical into the soil beneath the

slab. Another method is to drill through the perimeter

foundation walls from the outside and force the chemical

just beneath the slab along the inside of the foundation and

along all cracks and expansion joints.

Crawl-space houses.—To treat buildings having

crawl spaces, dig trenches adjacent to and around all piers

and pipes and along the sides of foundation walls (fig. 38).

Around solid concrete foundations the trenches should be 6

to 8 inches deep and wide. Chemical is poured into the

trench and, as the excavated soil is put back into the

trench, it also is treated. The soil is tamped, and the trench

^ Speeific chemicals to be used for control should be those registered by

the Environmental Protection Agency, and then only for uses as prescribed

in the registration, and in the manner and concentration prescribed.

Because the list of registered chemicals varies from time to time, prospective users should gtt current information from the Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

26
M-134 686

Figure 35.—The northern limit of damage in the United States by subterranean termites, line A; by dry-wood or nonsubterranean termites,

line B.

II PERCENT X

AVERAGE

MOISTURE CONTENT ^'"-^

Figure 36.—Recommended average moisture content for interior finish woodwork in different parts of the United States.

27

M-134 757
Table \.—Recommended schedule for nailing the framing and sheathing of a well-constructed wood-frame house

Nails

Joining Nailing method

Number Size Placement

End nail 3 I6d —

Toenail 2 lOd

orSd

-—

Toenaii — lOd 16 in. on center

Toenail each end 2 8d —

— 3 I6d At each joist

— 2 8d To each joist

— 3 8d To each joist

— — 8d 6 in, on center

— — 8d 8 in. on center

Blind nail (casing) and face nail 2 I6d —

End nail 2 I6d At each stud

End nail 2 I6d —

Toenail 4 8d _=

Face nail — led 16 in. on center

Face nail. stagger — lOd 16 in. on center

Face nail — I6d 16 in. on center

Face nail — I6d 16 in. on center

Face nail 2 I6d —

— — 12d 12 in. on center

Toenail 3 8d __

Face nail 4 I6d _„

Toenaii 2 8d —

Face nail 5 lOd _

Toenail 3 lOd —

End nail 3 lOd —

Toenail 4 8d —

Edge nail 1 lOd —

Face nail 2 12d —

Face nail 3 8d —

— 2 8d —

Face nail 2 lOd Each side

Face nail — I6d 12 in. on center

Face nail — 20d 32 in. on center, each side

Face nail 2 8d At each stud

Face nail 3 8d At each stud

Header to joist

Joist to sill or girder

Header and stringer joist to sill

Bridging to joist

Ledger strip to beam, 2 in. thick

Subfloor, boards:

I by 6 in. and smaller

1 by 8 in.

Subfloor, plywood:

At edges

At intermediate joists

Subfloor (2 by 6 in., T&G) to joist or girder

Soleplate to stud, horizontal assembly

Top plate to stud

Stud to soleplate

Soleplate to joist or blocking

Doubled studs

End stud of intersecting wall to exterior wall stud

Upper top plate to lower top plate

Upper top plate, laps and intersections

Continuous header, two pieces, each edge

Ceiling joist to top wall plates

Ceiling joist laps at partition

Rafter to top plate

Rafter to ceiling joist

Rafter to valley or hip rafter

Ridge board to rafter

Rafter to rafter through ridge board

Collar beam to rafter:

2-in. member

I-in. member

1-in. diagonal let-in brace to each stud and plate (four nails at

top)

Built-up comer studs:

Studs to blocking

Intersecting stud to corner studs

Built-up girders and beams, three or more members

Wall sheathing:

1 by 8 in. or less, horizontal

1 by 6 in. or greater, diagonal

Wall sheathing, vertically applied plywood:

Vs in. and less thick

*/2 in. and over thick

Wall sheathing, vertically applied fiberboard:

^¡2 in. thick

25/32 in. thick

Roof sheathing, board, 4-, 6-, 8-in. width

Roof sheathing, plywo(xl:

^/s in. and less thick

^¡2 in. and over thick

Face nail

Face nail

Face nail

Face nail

Face nail

Face nail

Face nail

6d I 6-in. edge and 12-in. interme8d Î díate

{^) \ 3-in. edge and 6-in. tnterme-

(2) î díate

8d At each rafter

6d \ 6-in. edge and 12-in. interme8d ) díate

* lV2-in. roofing nail.

^ 1^/4-in. ioofing nail.

28
GAGE I2J4 12Ji m \\Vz 10/4 10/4 9 8 &

lO

/AfC//fS

00

01

O)

4cl

5d

6d

8d

lOd

j2d f

16 d

5 4 3

WWW

20 d

?

30d

40 d

t

1

50d

eod

Figure 37.—Common sizes of wire nails.

filled to a level above the surrounding soil to provide good

drainage away from the foundation.

In brick, hollow-block, or concrete foundations that

have cracked, dig the trench to, but not below, the footing.

Then as the trench is refilled, treat the soil. Treat voids in

hollow-block foundations by applying the chemical to the

voids at or near the footing.

M-142 192

Figure 38.—Application of chemical to crawl-space construction

soil treatment: A, along outside wall; and B, inside foundation wall.

mirrrm^T-ñiinrmrTrm^Tñ

-REINFORCED CONCRETE

CAP

-GRAVEL

FILL

M-142 193

Figure 39.—Application of chemical to the soil in and around a full

basement: A, soil treatment along outside of the foundation; B, pipe

and rod hole from bottom of trench to the top ofthe footing to aid

distribution of the chemical; G, drill holes for the treatment of fill or

soil beneath a concrete floor in basement; D, position of concrete

slab.

29
Basement houses.—Application of soil poisoning for

this type of construction is much the same as for slab-onground and crawl-space construction (fig. 39). Treat the

basement floor in the same way as a slab-on-ground house.

Precautions,—Chemicals for termite control are poisonous to people and animals. Be sure to use them properly

and safely. Here are some basic safety rules:

Carefully read all labels and follow directions.

Store insecticides in labeled containers out of reach of

children and animals.

Dispose of empty containers.

Wash contaminated parts of body with warm, soapy

water immediately after exposure.

Cracks in Concrete Foundation

Minor hairline cracks frequently occur in concrete walls

during its curing process and usually require no repair.

Open cracks should be repaired, but the type of repair

depends on whether the crack is active or dormant and

whether waterproofing is necessary. One of the simplest

methods of determining if the crack is active is to place a

mark at each end of the crack and observe at future dates

whether the crack extends beyond the marks.

If the crack is dormant, it can be repaired by routing and

sealing. Routing is accomplished by following along the

crack with a concrete saw or chipping with hand tools to

enlarge the crack near the concrete surface. The crack is

first routed ^U inch or more in width and about the same

depth; then the routed joint is rinsed clean and allowed to

dry. A joint sealer such as an epoxy-cement compound

should then be applied in accordance with manufacturer's

instructions.

Working cracks require an elastic sealant. These should

also be applied in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Sealants vary greatly in elasticity, so a good-quality

sealant that will remain pliable should be used. The minimum depth of routing for these sealants is ^IA to 1 inch,

and the width is about the same. The elastic material can

then deform with movement of the crack. Strip sealants

which can be applied to the surface are also available, but

these protrude from the surface and may be objectionable.

Crumbling Mortar

Where masonry foundations or piers have crumbling

mortar joints, these should be repaired. First chip out all

loose mortar and brush thoroughly to remove all dust and

loose particles. Before applying new mortar, dampen the

clean surface so that it will not absorb water from the

mixture. Mortar can be purchased premixed. It should have

about the consistency of putty and should be applied like a

calking material. For a good bond, force themortar into

the crack to contact all depressions. Then smooth the

surface with a trowel. Provide some protection from sun

and wind for a few days to keep the mortar from drying out

too fast.

CONCRETE PEDESTAL

FOOTING

M-134 670

Figure 40.—Basement post on pedestal above the floor.

Uneven Settlement

Uneven settlement in a concrete foundation due to poor

footings or no footings at all usually damages the foundation to the point that precludes repair. In a pier foundation

the individual pier or piers could be replaced or, if the pier

has stopped settling, blocking could be added on top ofthe

pier to level the house. In either situation, the girder or

joists being supported must be jacked and held in a level

position while the repairs aré being made.

Basement Posts

Any type of basement post may have settled due to

inadequate footings, or wood posts may have deteriorated

due to decay or insect damage. To correct either problem, a

well-supported jack must be used to raise the floor girder

off the post in question. This releveling^ must be done

slowly and carefully to avoid cracking the plaster in the

house walls. Steel jack posts are convenient replacements

for the post removed. If a wood post is used, a pedestal

should be built to raise the base of the post slightly above

the floor surface (fig, 40). This allows the end of the post to

dry out if it becomes wet.

-NEW MEMBER SAME SIZE AS ÜOIST.

NAIL TO EXISTING MEMBER WITH t6d NAILS

T

^

4

-DECAY IN EXISTING JOIST

M-142 159

Figure 41.—Répair of joist with decay in end contacting the

foundation.

30
-FLOOR JOISTS

NOTE: FOOTING MAY BE

NEAR GROUND SURFACE IN

MILD CLIMATES,

20"x2Ö' CONCRETE

FOOTING BELOW

FROSTLINE

M-142 163

Figure 42.—Jack post supporting a sagging girder in a crawi-space

house.

FLOOR SYSTEM

Replacement of Framing Members

If examination of the floor framing revealed decay or

insect damage in a limited number of framing members,

the members affected will have to be replaced or the

affected sections repaired. Large-scale damage would probably have resulted in classifying the house as not worth

rehabilitation. Damaged members should be replaced with

preservative treated wood if exposure conditions are severe.

To accomplish this, the framing supported by the damaged

member must be temporarily supported by jacks in a crawlspace house or jacks with blocking in a basement house. A

heavy crossarm on top of the jack will support a width of

house of 4 to 6 feet. Where additional support is necessary,

more jacks are required. Raise the jacks carefully and

LI I I I I I I li g i g » J

EXISTIN« POSTM-142 162

Figure 43.—-Jack post used to level a sagging girder in a basement

house.

slowly, and only enough to take the weight off the member

to be removed. Excessive jacking will pull the building

frame out ofsquare. After the new or repaired member is in

place, gradually take the weight off the jack and remove it.

Sometimes decay may exist in only a small part of a

member. An example might be the end of a floor joist

supported on a concrete foundation wall; it could contain

decay only where the wood contacts the concrete. After

applying a brushed-on preservative to the affected area, jack

the existing joist into place and nail a short length of new

material to the side of the joist (ñg. 41).

Leveling the Floor

After the foundation repairs have been properly made,

the support points for the floor should be level; however,

the floor may still sag. Where the floor joists have sagged

excessively, permanent set may have occurred and little can

be done except by replacement of the floor joists. A slight

sag can be overcome by nailing a new joist alongside

alternate joists in the affected area. If the new joists are

slightly bowed, place them crown up. Each joist must be

jacked at both ends to force the ends to the same elevation

as the existing joist. The same treatment can be used to

stiffen springy floors.

Girders that sag excessively should be replaced. Excessive set cannot be removed. Jack posts can be used to level

slightly sagged girders or to install intermediate girders,

but unless the space is little used or jack posts can be

incorporated into a wall, they are generally in the way.

Methods for installing jack posts are shown in figures 42

and 43.

When jack posts are used to stiffen a springy floor or to

carry light loads, they can be set directly on the concrete

floor slab. Where they are used to support heavy loads, a

steel plate may be necessary to distribute the load over a

larger area of the floor slab. The jack post should not be

used for heavy jacking. Where heavy jacking is involved,

use a regular jack to carefully lift the load, and then put the

jack post in place.

Elimination of Squeaks

Squeaks in flooring frequently are caused by relative

movement of the tongue of one flooring strip in the groove

of the adjacent strip. One of the simplest remedies is to

apply a limited amount of mineral oil to the joints.

Sagging floor joists often pull away from the subfloor

and result in excessive deflection of the floor. If this is the

cause ofsqueaks, squeeze construction mastic into the open

joints. An alternate remedy is to drive small wedges into

the spaces between joists and subfloor (fig. 44). Drive them

only far enough for a snug fit. This method of repair should

be limited to a small area.

Undersized floor joists that deflect excessively are also a

major cause of squeaks. The addition of girders (described

previously) to shorten the joist span is the best solution to

that problem.

31
FINISH FLOOR

-FLOOR

^>5^'22^''?Z^^^ FLOOR JOISTS

SOLID BLOCKING

JOISTS

M-142 161

Figure 44.—Wedges driven between joists and subfloor to stop

squeaks.

Strip flooring installed parallel to the joists may also

deflect excessively. Solid blocking nailed between joists and

fitted snugly against the subfloor (fig. 45) will prevent this

deflection if installed at relatively close spacing.

One of the most common causes of squeaking is inadequate nailing. To correct this, drive a nail through the face

of the flooring board near the tongue edge into the

subfloor—^preferably also into a joist. Set the nail and fill

the hole. A less objectionable method from the standpoint

of appearance is to work from under the floor using screws

driven through the subfloor into the finish floor. This

method will also bring warped flooring into a flat position.

New Floor Covering

Floor covering is available in a variety of materials. These

include wood in various forms; asphalt, vinyl, vinyl asbestos, rubber, and cork tile; ceramics; linoleum; sheet vinyl;

carpeting; and liquid seamless flooring. The material selected depends on existing conditions, the planned use of

the floor, and the homeowner's budget.

Before any floor is laid, a suitable base must be prepared.

Unless existing wood flooring is exceptionally smooth, it

should receive a light sanding to remove irregularities

before any covering is put over it. If a. thin underlayment or

M-142 142

Figure 45.—Solid blocking between floor joists where finish floor is

laid parallel to joists.

no underlayment is being used, wide joints between floor

boards should be filled to avoid showthrough on the less

rigid types of finish floor. An underlayment of plywood or

wood-base panel material installed over the old floor is

required when linoleum or resilient tile is used for the new

finish floor.

Where underlayment is required, it should be in 4- by

4—foot or larger sheets of untempered hardboard, plywood,

or particleboard ^/á or ^/s inches thick. Some floor coverings are not guaranteed over all types of underlayments, so

check the manufacturers' recommendations before choosing

an underlayment. Underlayment grade of plywood has a

sanded, C-plugged or Better face ply and a C-ply or Better

immediately under the face. It is available in interior types,

exterior types, and interior types with exterior glue. The

interior type is generally adequate but one of the other two

types should be used where there is possible exposure to

moisture. Underlayment should be laid with ^/32—inch

edge and end spacing to allow for expansion. Nail the

underlayment to the subfloor using the type of nail and

spacing recommended by the underlayment manufacturer.

Installation over existing flooring,—Wood flooring,

sheet vinyl with resilient backing, seamless flooring, and

carpeting can all be installed directly over the old flooring

after major voids have been filled and it has been sanded

Table 2.—Grade and description ofstrip flooring ofseveral species and grain orientation

Species

Grain

orientation

Size First Second

grade

Third

grade

Thickness Face width

grade

In. In.

SOFTWOODS

Douglas-fir and hemlock

Southern pine

Edge grain

Flat grain

Edge grain

Flat grain

25/32

25/32

5/16-

1 5/16

2 3/8-5 3/16

2 3/8-5 3/16

1 3/4-5 7/16

HARDWOODS

B and Better

C and Better

B and Better

C

D

C and Better

D

D (and No. 2)

Oak

Beech, birch, maple, and

can^

Edge grain

Flat grain

pe25/32

3/8

1/2

25/32

3/8

1/2

1 1/2-3 1/4

1 1/2, 2 I

1 1/2, 2 f

1 1/2-3 1/4)

1 1/2, 2 l

1 1/2, 2 1

Clear

Clear

First grade

Select

Select

Second grade

No. 1 Common

* Special grades are available in which uniformity of color is a requirement.

32
M-134 758

Figure 46.—Strip flooring, A, side and end matched; B, side

matched; C, square edged,

relatively smooth. These coverings can also be installed

over old resilient tile which is still firmly cemented.

Wood flooring may be hardwood or softwood. Grades

and descriptions are listed in table 2. Types are illustrated

in figure 46.

Hardwood flooring is available in strip or block and is

usually tongued and grooved and end matched, but it may

be square-edged in thinner patterns. The most widely used

pattern of hardwood strip flooring is ^^/32 by 2^/4 inches

with hollow back. Strips are random lengths varying from

2 to 16 feet long. The face is slightly wider than the

bottom so that tight joints result.

Softwood flooring is also available in strip or block. Strip

flooring has tongued-and-grooved edges, and some types

are also end matched. Softwood flooring costs less than

most hardwood species, but is less wear-resistant and shows

surface abrasions more readily. However, it can be used in

light traffic areas.

Bundles of flooring should be broken and kept in a

heated space until the moisture content common to interior

finish in the locale is achieved (fig. 36).

Strip flooring is normally laid crosswise 'to the floor

joists; however, when laid over old strip flooring, it should

be laid crosswise to the existing flooring. Nail sizes and

types vary with the thickness ofthe flooring. For ^^/32—inch

flooring use eightpenny flooring nails; use sixpenny flooring nails for ^/2—inch flooring; and use fourpenny casing

nails for ^/g-inch flooring. Other nails, such as the ringshank and screw-shank types, can be used, but it is well to

check the flooring manufacturer s recommendations on size

and diameter for specific uses. Flooring brads with blunted

points which prevent splitting of the tongue are also available.

Begin installing matched flooring by placing the first

strip ^¡2 to ^/s inch away from the wall to allow for

expansion when the moisture content increases. Nail

straight down through the board near the grooved edge

(fig. 47). The nail should be close enough to the wall to be

covered by the base or shoe molding and should be driven

into a joist when the flooring is laid crosswise to the joists.

The tongue should also be nailed, and consecutive flooring

boards should be nailed through the tongue only. Nails are

driven into the tongue at an angle of 45° to 50° and are not

driven quite flush, to prevent damaging the edge by the

hammer head (fig. 48). The nail is then set with the end of

a large nail set or by laying the nail set flatwise against the

flooring. Contractors use nailing devices designed especially for nailing flooring. These drive and set the nail in

one operation.

Select lengths of flooring boards so that butts will be

well separated in adjacent courses. Drive each board tightly

against the one previously installed. Crooked boards should

PLASTER OR DRY WALL

BASE

SHOE

BLIND NAIL (TONGUE)

FLOORING STRIP

SOLE PLATE FACE NAIL

SPACE Vz" TO Vs" FROM WALL

Figure 47.—^Installation of first strip of flooring.

33
FLOORING

(MAILSET

NA/L LOCATION

M-134 755

Figure 48.—^Nailing of flooring; A, angle of nailing; B, setting the

nail without damage to the flooring.

be forced into alinement or cut off and used at the ends of a

course or in closets.

The last course of flooring should be left ^/a to ^/s inch

from the wall, just as the first course was. Face-nail it near

the edge where the base or shoe will cover the nail.

Square-edged strip flooring must be installed over a

substantial subfloor and can only be face-nailed. The installation procedures relative to spacing at walls, spacing of

joints, and general attachment are the same al those for

matched flooring.

Most wood or wood-base tile is applied with an adhesive

to a smooth base such as underlayment or a finished

concrete floor with a properly installed vapor barrier. Wood

tile may be made up of a number of narrow slats held

together by a membrane, cleats, or tape to form a square, or

it may be plywood with tongued-and-grooved edges (fig.

49). To install wood tile, an adhesive is spread on the

concrete slab or underlayment with a notched trowel, and

the tile laid in it. Follow the manufacturer s recommendation for adhesive and method of application.

Wood block flooring may have tongues on two edges and

grooves in the other two edges and is usually nailed

through the tongue into a wood subfloor. It may be applied

on concrete with the use of an adhesive. Shrinkage and

swelling effects of wood block flooring are minimized by

changing the grain direction of alternate blocks.

Particleboard tile is installed in much the same manner

as wood tile, except it should not be used over concrete.

Manufacturer's instructions for installation are usually

quite complete. This tile is usually 9 by 9 by ^/g inches in

size, with tongued-and-grooved edges. The back is often

marked with small saw kerfs to stabilize the tile and

provide a better key for the adhesive.

Sheet vinyl with resilient backing smooths out minor

surface imperfections. Most vinyl will lay flat, so no adhesive is required. Double-faced tape is used at joints and

around the edge to keep the covering from moving. Most

sheet vinyls are available in widths of 6, 9, 12, and 15 feet,

so that complete rooms can be covered with a minimum of

splicing. This permits a fast, easy installation. The material

is merely cut to room size, using scissors, and is then taped

down.

Seamless flooring consisting of resin chips combined

with a urethane binder can be applied over any stable base,

including old floor tile. This is applied as a liquid in several

coats with drying between coats. Complete application may

take from ^¡2 to 2 days depending on the brand used.

Manufacturer's instructions for application are quite complete. This floor covering is easily renewed by additional

coatings, and damaged spots are easily patched by adding

more chips and binder.

Carpeting also lends itself well to rehabilitation. It can

be installed over almost any flooring that is level, relatively

smooth, and free from major surface imperfections. Carpeting is now available for all rooms in the house, including

the kitchen. A very close weave is used for kitchen carpeting so that spills stay on the surface and are easily wiped

up. The cost of carpeting may be two or three times that of

a finished wood floor, and the life of the carpeting before

replacement would be much less than that of a wood floor.

However, carpeting requires less maintenance and has the

advantages ofsound-absorption and resistance to impact.

Installation over underlayment»—Linoleum and resilient tile both require a smooth underlayment or a smooth

concrete slab to which they are bonded with an adhesive.

Linoleum should not be laid on concrete slabs on the

ground or basement floors, but many of the resilient tiles

can be used.

Figure 49.-—Two types of wood block flooring.

34
-i—NEW SIDING

ADDITIONAL TRIM OVER

EXISTING TRIM

M-142 165

Figure 50.—Top view of window casing extended by adding trim

over existing trim.

Linoleum is available in a variety of thicknesses and

grades and is usually in 6^oot-wide rolls. It is laid in

accordance with manufacturer's directions, and usually

rolled to insure adhesion to the floor.

One of the lower cost resilient coverings is asphalt tile.

Some types are damaged by grease and oil, and so should

not be used in kitchens. This tile is about Vs inch thick and

either 9 or 12 by 12 inches in size. Adhesive for this tile is

spread using a notched trowel, with both size of notches

and adhesive recommended by the manufacturer.

Other types of tile, such as vinyl, vinyl-asbestos, rubber,

and cork, are also usually available in 9— by 9— or 12— by

12-inch size but are sometimes larger. It is important that

A.

BLOCKING

FURRING STRIP

I i

IT—NEW SIDING

ADDITIONAL TRIM

^' M-142 164

Figure 51.—Change in drip cap with new siding: A, existing drip

cap and trim; B, drip cap blocked out to extend beyond new siding

and added trim.

all these tile be laid so the joints do not coincide with the

joints of the underlayment. The manufacturer's directions

usually include instructions on laying baselines near the

center of the room and parallel to its length and width. The

baselines are then used as a starting point in laying the tile.

Siding

The solution for wood siding problems often involves

corrective measures in other components of the house.

Failure of paint is frequently not the fault of the siding but

can be attributed to moisture moving out through the wall

or to water washing down the face of the wall. Corrective

measures are discussed under sections on ''Vapor Barriers"

and "Roof System." After adopting these corrective measures, siding may need only refínishing as discussed in the

section on "Painting and Finishing." Some of the "permanent" sidings that require no painting may cause serious

difficulty in time by trapping moisture in the wall, thus

creating a decay hazard. It is desirable, therefore, to have a

siding that will let water vapor escape from inside the wall.

If new horizontal wood or nonwood siding is used, it will

probably be best to remove old siding. Vertical board and

panel-type siding may be successfully applied over old

siding.

The main difficulty in applying new siding over existing

siding is in adjusting the window and door trim to compensate for the added wall thickness. The window sills on

most houses extend far enough beyond the siding so that

new siding should not affect them; however, the casing

may be nearly flush with the siding and require some type

of extension. One method of extending the casing is by

adding an additional trim member over the existing casing

(fig, 50). When this is done, a wider drip cap may also be

required. The drip cap could be replaced, or it could be

reused with blocking behind it to hold it out from the wall

a distance equal to the new siding thickness (fig. 51).

A/ V

ó;^-p-NEW SIDING

Figufe 52.

ADDITIONAL TRIM AT EDGEOF EXISTING CASING

Mvl42 167

—Top view of window casing extended for new siding by

adding trim at the edge of existing casing.

35
Another method of extending the casing would be to add a

trim member to the edge of the existing casing, perpendicular to the casing (fig. 52). A wider drip cap will also be

required. Exterior door trim can be extended by the same

technique used for the window trim.

Any of the conventional siding materials can be used for

rehabilitation, but some may be better suited to this application than others. Panel-type siding is probably one of the

simplest to install and one of the most versatile. It can be

applied over most surfaces, and will help to smooth out

unevenness in the existing walls.

If existing siding on gable ends is flush with the siding

below the gable, some adjustment will be required in

appplying panel siding in order to have a new siding at the

gable extend over siding below. This is accomplished by

using furring strips on the gable (fig. 54). Furring must be

the same thickness as the new siding applied below. Nail a

furring strip over siding or sheathing to each stud and

apply the siding over the furring strips in the same manner

as applying it directly to studs.

Plywood siding can be purchased with factory-applied

coatings which are relatively maintenance-free. While iniPanel Siding

Panel-type siding is available in plywood, hardboard,

and particleboard, as well as numerous nonwood materials.

The most popular of these are probably plywood and hardboard. Always specify exterior type for both, and the

hardboard must be tempered. The grade of plywood depends on the quality of finished surface desired.

Plywood panel siding is available in a variety of textures

and patterns. Sheets are 4 feet wide and are often available

in lengths of 8, 9, and 10 feet. Rough-textured plywood is

particularly suited to finishing with water-repellent preservative stains. Smooth-surfaced plywood can be stained,

but it will not absorb as much stain as rough-textured

plywood, and, therefore, the finish will not be as long

lasting. Paper-overlaid plywood is particularly good for a

paint finish. The paper overlay not only provides a very

smooth surface, but also minimizes expansion and contraction due to moisture changes. Most textures can be purchased with vertical grooves. The most popular spacings of

grooves are 2, 4, and 8 inches. Battens are often used with

plain panels. They are nailed over each joint between panels

and can be nailed over each stud to produce a board-andbatten effect.

In new construction, plywood applied directly over

framing should be at least ^Is inch thick for 16-inch stud

spacing and ^/a inch thick for 24-inch stud spacing.

Grooved plywood is normally Vs inch thick with ^/s— by

^/4-inch-deep grooves.

For installation over existing siding or sheathing, thinner plywood can be used; however, most of the available

sidings will be in thicknesses listed above. Nail the plywood around the perimeter and at each intermediate stud,

using galvanized or other rust-resistant nails spaced 7 to 8

inches apart. Use longer nails than used for applying siding

directly to studs.

Some plywood siding has shiplap joints. These should be

treated with a water-repellent preservative and the siding

nailed at each side (fig. 53A) of the joint. Sqimre-edge butt

joints between plywood panels should be calked with a

sealant (fig. 53B) with the plywood nailed at each side of

the joint. Where battens are used over the joint and at

intermediate studs, nail them with eightpenny galvanized

nails spaced 12 inches apart. Longer nails may be required

where thick existing siding or sheathing must be penetrated. Nominal 1— by 2—inch battens are commonly used.

AP JOINT (TREAT

WITH WATER REPELLENT)

B

Figure 53=—Joint of plywood panel siding: A, shiplap joint; B,

square-edge joint.

36
-FURRING STRIPS SAME

THICKNESS AS PLYWOOD

SIDING

PLYWOOD SIDING

APPLIED DIRECTLY

OVER EXISTING

SIDING

-EXISTING SIDING

M-142 166

Figure 54.—Application of plywood siding at gable end.

tial cost of these products is higher than uncoated plywood,

savings in maintenance may compensate for this. Such

coated siding is usually applied with special nails or other

connectors in accordance with fabricator's instructions.

Hardboard siding is also available in panels 4 feet wide

and up to 16 feet long. It is usually V4 inch thick, but may

be thicker when grooved. Hardboard is usually factoryprimed, and finished coats of paint are applied after installation. It is applied in the same manner as plywood.

Corners are finished by butting the panel siding against

corner boards as shown for horizontal sidings (figs. 55 and

CORNER

BOARD

— SIDING

M-134 776

Figure 55,—Comer board for application of horizontal siding at

interior comer.

56). Use a l^/s- by l^/s-inch corner board at interior

corners and l^/g-inch by IV2- and 2^/2-inch boards at

outside corners. Apply calking wherever siding butts

against corner boards, window or door casings, and trim

boards at gable ends.

Horizontal Wood Siding

Bevel siding has been one of the most popular sidings for

many years. It is available in 4— to 12~inch widths. The

sawn face is exposed where a rough texture is desired and a

stain finish is planned. The smooth face can be exposed for

either paint or stain. Siding boards should have a minimum

of 1 inch horizontal lap. In application, the exposed face

should be adjusted so that the butt edges coincide with the

bottom of the sill and the top of the drip cap of window

frames (fig. 57).

Horizontal siding must be applied over a smooth surface.

If the old siding is left on, it should either be covered with

panel sheathing or have furring strips nailed over each stud.

Nail siding at each stud with a galvanized siding nail or

other corrosion-resistant nail. Use sixpenny nails for siding

less than ^¡2 inch thick and eightpenny nails for thicker

siding. Locate the nail to clear the top edge of the siding

course below. Butt joints should be made over a stud.

Interior corners are finished by butting the siding against a

corner board iVs inches square or larger depending on

thickness of siding (fig. 55). Exterior corners can be mitered, butted against corner boards l^/s inches or thicker

and IV2 and 2^/2 inches wide (fig. 56), or covered with

metal corners.

Strips of plywood or hardboard can be applied horizontally. In this application, the strips are lapped just as bevel

siding but a starting strip is required at the base and a

shingle wedge is required at each vertical joint (fig. 58).

The starting strip should be the same thickness as the

siding. Nail the siding at each vertical joint in the same

manner as bevel siding. Some fabricators supply special

1^ JOINT

M-134 776

Figure 56.—Comer boards for application of horizontal siding at

exterior comer.

37
FLASHING >

NO SHEATHING

PAPER REQUIRED

FOR PLYWOOD

OR FIBERBOARD

SHEATHING

USE SHEATHING

PAPER OVER

LUMBER

SHEATHING

SIDING TO CLEAR

DRIP CAP

BUILDING PAPER

AROUND AND

UNDER FRAME

SIDING FLUSH

WITH BOTTOM

OF SILL

BUTT JOINTS

MADE OVER STUD

8" MINIMUM CLEARANCE

^STARTING STRIP

Figure 57.—Application of bevel siding to coincide with window sill and drip cap.

clips for applying the siding. When these are used, follow

the fabricator's instructions.

Vertical Wood Siding

Vertical siding is available in a variety of patterns.

Probably the most popular is matched (tongued-andgrooved) boards. Vertical siding can be nailed to 1-inch

sheathing boards or to ^/s- and ^/4-inch plywood. Furring

strips must be used over thinner plywood because the

plywood itself will not have sufficient nail-holding capacity. When the existing sheathing is thinner than Vs inch,

apply 1— by 4-inch nailers horizontally, spaced 16 to 24

inches apart vertically. Then nail the vertical siding to the

nailers. Blind-nail through the tongue at each nailer with

galvanized sevenpenny finish nails. When boards are nominal 6 inches or wider, also face-nail at midwidth with an

eightpenny galvanized nail (fig. 59). Vertical siding can be

applied over existing siding by nailing through the siding

into the sheathing.

Another popular vertical siding is comprised of various

combinations of boards and battens. It also must be nailed

to a thick sheathing or to horizontal nailers. The fírst board

or batten should be nailed with one galvanized eightpenny

nail at center or, for wide boards, two nails spaced 1 inch

each side of center. Close spacing is important to prevent

splitting if the boards shrink. The top board or batten is

then nailed with twelvepenny nails, being careful to miss

the underboard and nail only through the space between

adjacent boards (fig. 60). Use only corrosion-resistant nails.

Galvanized nails are not recommended for some materials,

so be sure to follow siding manufacturer's instructions.

38
SHINGLE WEDGE UNDERVERTICAL JOINTS

FURRING STRIPS

EXISTING SIDING

NEW VERTICAL SIDING

NEW PLYWOOD SIDING

-STARTING STRIP (SAME THICKNESS

AS SIDING)

EXISTING SIDING

BLIND-NAIL THROUGH TONGUE

(ALSO FACE-NAIL BOARDS

WHICH ARE 6" OR WIDER)

Figure 58.—Application of plywood as lap siding. Figure 59.—Application of vertical siding.

Wood Shingle and Shake Siding

Some architectural styles may be well suited to the use of

shakes or shingles for siding. They give a rustic appearance

and can be left unfinished, if desired, to weather naturally.

They may be applied in single or double courses over wood

or plywood sheathing. Where shingles are applied over

existing siding which is uneven or over a nonwood sheathing, use 1— by 3— or 1— by 4—inch wood nailing strips

applied horizontally as a base for the shingles. Spacing of

the nailing strips will depend on the length and exposure of

the shingles. Apply the shingles with about Vs- to V4-

inch space between adjacent shingles to allow for expansion

during rainy weather.

The single-course method consists of simply laying one

course over the other similar to lap siding application.

Second-grade shingles can be used because only one-half or

less of the butt portion is exposed (fig. 61).

The double-course method of laying shingles consists of

applying an undercourse and nailing a top course directly

over it with a V4— to ^/2—inch projection of the butt over

the lower course shingle (fig. 62). With this system, less

lap is used between courses. The undercourse shingles can

be lower quality, such as third grade or the undercourse

grade. The top course should be first grade because of the

shingle length exposed.

BOARD AND BATTEN

BATTEN AND BOARD

SPACE !6" VERTICALLY

WHEN WOOD

SHEATHING IS USED

BOARD AND BOARD

M-B4 621

Figure 60.—Application of vertical wood siding.

39
Recommended exposure distances for shingles and

shakes are given in table 3.

Regardless of the method of applying the shingles, all

joints must be broken so that the vertical butt joints of the

upper shingles are at least 1V2 inches from the undershingle joint.

Use rust-resistant nails for all shingle applications. Shingles up to 8 inches wide should be nailed with two nails.

Wider shingles should be secured with three nails. Threepenny or fourpenny zinc-coated ''shingle" nails are commonly used in single-coursing. Zinc-coated nails with

small flat heads are commonly used for double-coursing

where nails are exposed. Use fivepenny for the top course

and threepenny or fourpenny for the undercourse. When

plywood sheathing less than ^U inch thick is used, threaded

nails are required to obtain sufficient holding power. Nails

Table 3.—Exposure distances for wood shingles and shakes on

sidewalk

Length

Maximum exposure

Material Single

Double coursing

coursing No. 1

grade

No. 2

grade

In. In. In. In.

Shingles 16 l^li 12 10

18 8V2 14 11

24 IIV2 16 14

Shakes (handsplit and resawn) 18 8V2 14

24 IIV2 20 —

32 15^ — —

USE BUILDING F^PER

OVER BOARD SHEATHING

NAIL ABOVE

BUTT OF

NEXT COURSE

CLOSED JOINT

SPACED JOINT

MAXIMUM FOR

16" SHINGLE

DOUBLE STARTING COURSE

USE 2 NAILS FOR SHINGLES

UP TO 8" WIDE AND 3 NAILS

FOR WIDER SHINGLES

USE THREADED NAILS FOR

PLYWOOD SHEATHING

Figure 61.—Single-course application of shingle siding.

40
BUILDING PAPER

NO. I SHINGLE

SUBFLOOR

'NO. 3 OR

UNDERCOURSE

SHINGLE

SHEATHING

2 NAILS FOR SHINGLES

UP TO 8" WIDE

3 NAILS FOR SHINGLES

OVER 8" WIDE

USE THREADED NAILS

FOR PLYWOOD SHEATHING

Figure 62.—Double-course application of shingle siding.

M-134 609

should be ^U inch from the edge. They should be 1 inch

above the horizontal butt line of the next higher course in

the single-course application and 2 inches above the bottom

of the shingle or shake in the double-course application.

Masonry Veneef

Where brick or stone veneer is used as siding, mortar

may become loose and crumble, or uneven settlement may

cause cracks. In either case, new mortar should be applied

both to keep out moisture and to improve appearance.

Repair is accomplished in much the same manner as for

masonry foundations, except that more attention to appearance is required. After removing all loose mortar and

brushing the joint to remove dust and loose particles,

dampen the surface. Then apply mortar and tamp it well

into the joint for a good bond. Pointing of joints should

conform to existing joints. Particular care should be exercised in keeping mortar off the face of the brick or stone

unless the veneer is to be painted.

Many older houses used soft bricks and porous stone

trim. After repair of the cracks and mortar joints, the entire

surface may require treatment with transparent waterproofing. Painted, stained, or dirty brick and stone can be

restored to its original appearance by sandblasting. It can

then be repainted or waterproofed. Caution should be used

in sandblasting soft stone and brick.

ROOF SYSTEM

The first steps in repairing a roof system are to level

sagging ridge poles and straighten sagging rafters. Then

the new roof covering can be applied to a smooth, flat

surface.

Framing

The sagging ridgepole can sometimes be leveled by

jacking it at points between supports and installing props

to hold it in a level position. When this is done, the jack

41
LOAD-BEARING

WALL

M-142 168

Figure 63.—Prop to hold sagging ridgepole in level position.

must be located where the load can be traced down through

the structure so the ultimate bearing is directly on the

foundation. Where there is no conveniently located bearing

partition, install a beam under the ridge and transfer load

to bearing points. After the ridgepole is jacked to a level

position, cut a 2 by 4 just long enough to fit between the

ceiling joist and ridgepole or beam and nail it at both ends

(fig. 63). For a short ridgepole, one prop may be sufficient.

Additional props should be added as needed. In some

repairs the addition of collar beams may be sufficient

without requiring props. Where rafters are sagging, nail a

new rafter to the side of the old one after forcing the new

rafter ends into their proper position. Permanent set in the

old rafters cannot be removed.

Sheathing

Sheathing may have sagged between rafters, resulting in

a wavy roof surface. Where this condition exists, new

sheathing is required. Often the sheathing can be nailed

right over the old roofing. This saves the labor of removing

old roofing and a big cleanup job. Wood shingles which

show any indication of decay should be completely removed

before new sheathing is applied. Where wood shingles are

excessively cupped or otherwise warped, they should also be

removed. Wood shingle and slate roofs of older houses were

often installed on furring strips rather than on solid sheathing.

Sheathing nailed over existing sheathing or over sheathing and roofing must be secured with longer nails than

would normally be used. Nails should penetrate the framing IV4 to 1V2 inches. Nail edges of plywood sheathing at

6-inch spacing and to intermediate framing members at

12-inch spacing. Apply the plywood with the length

perpendicular to the rafters. For built-up roofs, if the

plywood does not have tongued-and-grooved edges, use

clips at unsupported edges. Clips are commercially available and should be installed in accordance with fabricator s

instructions. For 16-inch rafter spacing, ^/s—inch plywood

is the minimum thickness to be used and V2-inch-thick

plywood is preferable.

Adding Roof Overhang

The addition of a roof overhang, where there is none,

will soon pay for itself in reduced maintenance on siding

and exterior trim. Without the overhang, water washes

down the face of the wall, creating moisture problems in

the siding and trim and, consequently, more frequent

painting is required. Additional roof overhang also does

much to improve the appearance of the house.

Where new sheathing is being added, the sheathing can

be extended beyond the edge of the existing roof to provide

some overhang. This is a minimum solution and the extension should not be more than 12 inches where V2-inch

plywood sheathing is used. Any greater extension would

require some type of framing. Framing can usually be

extended at the eave by adding to each rafter. First, remove

the frieze board, or, in the case of a closed cornice, remove

the facia. Nail a 2 by 4 to the side of each rafter, letting it

extend beyond the wall the amount of the desired overhang. The 2 by 4 should extend inside the wall a distance

equal to the overhang (fig. 64A). Framing for an overhang

at the gable ends can be accomplished by adding a box

frame. Extensions of the ridge beam and eave facia are

required to support this boxed framing. An alternate extension is possible with plank placed flat, cut into gable

framing, and extending back to the first rafter (fig. 64B).

V -REMOVE FRIEZE BOARD AND

CUT SLOTS FOR EXTENSIONS

-RAFTER EXTENSION

IL4K4 \—9 s(4

-FIRST RAFTER

B

2 x4 FLATWISE

M-142 173

Figure 64.—Extension of roof overhang: A, rafter extension at

eaves; B, extension at gable end.

42
TRAPPED WATER

ICE DAM

Sîi^i WATER ENTRY

NSUFFÍCIENT ÍNSÜLATION

FLASHING

(ROLL ROOFING)

RAFTER

SUFFICIENT

INSULATION

GUTTER

SOFFIT VENTILATION

Figure 65.—^Flashing and ventilation to prevent damage from ice dams.

M-134 787

Roof Coverings

A wide variety of roof coverings is available, and most

can be used in rehabilitation in the same manner as for new

construction. Sometimes there are local code requirements

for fire safety. First cost usually influences the choice. In

most houses the roof is a major design element and the

covering material must fit the house design. Heavy materials such as tile or slate should not be used unless they

replace the same material or unless the roof framing is

strengthened to support the additional load. The most

popular covering materials for pitched roofs are wood,

asphalt, and asbestos shingles. These can be applied directly over old shingles or over sheathing as previously

described; however, if two layers of shingles exist from

previous reroofing, it may be well to remove the old roofing

before proceeding. Roll roofing is sometimes used for

particularly low-cost applications or over porches with relatively low-pitched roofs. The most common covering for

flat or low-pitched roofs is built-up roof with a gravel

topping.

An underlay of 15— or 30^x)und asphalt-saturated felt

should be used in moderate and lower slope roofs covered

43
VV EDGE DISTANCE

SPACE '/i" - 'A'

ROLL ROOFfNG FOR

ICE-DAM PROTECTION

PROJECT SHINGLES

FOR DRIP

2 NAILS

PER SHINGLE

WOOD SHINGLES

"V^EXPOSURE

FACIA BOARD

FIRST SHINGLE COURSE

(DOUBLE)

Figure 66.—Application of wood-shingle roofing over boards.

with asphalt, asbestos, or slate shingles, or tile roofing. It

is not commonly used under wood shingles or shakes. A

45-^und or heavier smooth-surface roll roofing should be

used as a flashing along the eave line in areas where

moderate to severe snowfalls occur. The flashing should

extend to a point 36 inches inside the warm wall. If two

strips are required, use mastic to seal the joint. Also use

mastic to seal end joints. This flashing gives protection

from ice dams (fig, 65). Ice dams are formed when melting

snow runs down the roof and freezes at the colder cornice

area. The ice gradually forms a dam that backs up water

under the shingles. The wide flashing at the eave will

minimize the chances of this water entering the ceiling or

the wall. Good attic ventilation and sufficient ceiling insulation are also important in eliminating ice dams. This will

be described in the section entitled "Ventilation." Roll

roofing 36 inches wide is also required at all valleys.

Where shingle application is over old wood or asphalt

shingles, industry recommendations include certain preparations. First remove about 6-inch-wide strips of old shingles along the eaves and gables, and apply nominal 1—inch

boards at these locations. Thinner boards may be necessary

where application is over old asphalt shingles. Remove the

old covering from ridges or hips and replace the bevel

siding with butt edges up. Place a strip of lumber over each

valley to separate old metal flashing from new. Double the

first shingle course.

Wood shingles,—^Wood shingles used for house roofs

should be No. I grade which are all heartwood, all edge

grain, and tapered. Principal species used commercially are

western redcedar and redwood, which have heartwood with

high decay resistance and low shrinkage. Widths of shingles vary, and the narrower shingles are most often found in

the lower grades. Recommended exposures for common

shingle sizes are shown in table 4.

General rules to follow in applying wood shingles are

(fig- 66):

1. Extend shingles IV2 to 2 inches beyond the eave line

and about ^(4 inch beyond the rake (gable) edge.

2. Nail each shingle with two rust-resistant nails spaced

about ^U inch from the edge and 1^/2 inches above the butt

line of the next course. Use threepenny nails for 16- and

18—inch shingles and fourpenny nails for 24-inch shingles.

Where shingles are applied over old wood shingles, use

longer nails to penetrate through the old roofing and into

the sheathing. A ring-shank nail (threaded) is recommended where the plywood roof sheathing is less than ^¡2

inch thick.

3. Allow a ^/s- to ^/4-inch space between each shingle

for expansion when wet. Lap vertical joints at least 1^/2

inches by the shingles in the course above. Space the joints

in succeeding courses so that the joint in one course is not

in line with the joint in the second course above it.

4. Shingle away from valleys, selecting and precutting

w^ide valley shingles. The valley should be 4 inches wide at

the top and increase in width at the rate of ^/g inch per foot

from the top. Use valley flashing with a standing seam. Do

not nail through the metal. Valley flashing should be a

44
CHALKLINE

2"-4" LAP,

ROOF SHEATHING

FELT UNDERLAY

ROOFING NAIL

SHEATHING—-

ROOF SHEATHING

RAFTER

SHEATHING

SfDING'

Figure 67.—^Application of asphalt-shingle roofing over plywood:

minimum of 24 inches wide for roof slopes under 4 in 12;

18 inches wide for roofslopes of 4 in 12 to 7 in 12; and 12

inches wide for roof slopes of 7 in 12 and over.

5. Place a metal edging along the gable end of roof to

aid in guiding the water away from the endwalls.

M-142 198

A, with strip shingles; B, metal edging at gable end.

Wood shakes*—Apply wood shakes in much the same

manner as shingles, except longer nails must be used

because the shakes are thicker. Shakes have a greater exposure than shingles because of their length. Exposure distances are 8 inches for 18-inch shakes, 10 inches for 24-

45
Table 4.—Recommended exposure for wood shingles RIDGE LINE

Shingle

length

Shingle thickness

(green)

Maximum exposure

Slope less^

than 4 in 12

Slope 4 in

12 and over

In.

16

18

24

5 butts in 2 in.

5 butts in 2V4 in.

4 butts in 2 in.

In.

3^/4

41/4

53/4

In.

5

5V2

7V2

^ Minimum slope for main roofs—4 in 12. Minimum slope for porch

roofs—3 in 12.

inch shakes, and 13 inches for 32—inch shakes. Butts are

often laid unevenly to create a rustic appearance. An 18—

inch—wide underlay of 30-pound asphalt felt should be

used between each course to prevent wind-driven snow

from entering between the rough faces of the shakes.

Position the underlay above the butt edge of the shakes a

distance equal to double the weather exposure. Where

exposure distance is less than one-third the total length,

underlay is not usually required.

Asphalt shingles.—^The most common type of asphalt

shingle is the square-butt strip shingle, which is 12 by 36

inches, has three tabs, and is usually laid with 5 inches

exposed to the weather. Bundles should be piled flat so that

strips will not curl when the bundles are opened for use. An

underlayment of 15--pound saturated felt is often used.

Table 5 shows the requirements in applying underlayment.

Begin application of the roofing by first applying a

wood-shingle course or a metal edging along the eave line

(fig. 67A). The first course of asphalt shingles is doubled

and extended downward beyond the wood shingles (or

edging) about ^/z inch to prevent the water from backing

up under the shingles. A ^/2-inch projection should also be

used at the rake (fig. 67B). Make several chalklines on the

underlayment parallel to the roofslope to serve as guides in

alining the shingles so that tabs are in a straight line. Use

manufacturer's directions in securing the shingles. Nailing

each 12— by 36-inch strip with six 1-inch galvanized

roofing nails (fig. 67), is good practice in areas of high

winds. Seal-tab or lock shingles should be used in these

areas. When a nail penetrates a crack or knothole, remove

the nail, seal the hole, and replace the nail in sound wood.

Table 5.—Underlayment requirements for asphalt shingles

Underlayment^

Minimum roof slope

Double coverage^

shingles

Triple coverage^

shingles

Not required

Single

Double

Tin 12

H in 12

2 in 12

H in 12

*3 in 12

2 in 12

^ Headlap for single coveri^e of underlayment should be 2 in. and for

double coverage 19 in.

^ Double coverage for a 12- by 36-in. shingle is usually an exposure of

about 5 in. and about 4 in. for triple coverage.

^ May be 3 in 12 for porch roofe.

^ May be 2 in 12 for porch roofs.

ROOFING NAILS,

Figure 68.—Boston ridge using asphalt shingles.

If the nail is not in sound wood, it will gradually work out

and cause a hump in the shingle above it.

Built-up roof—Built-up roof coverings are limited

to flat or low-pitched roofs and are installed by contractors

that specialize in this work. The roof consists of three, four,

or five layers of roofers' felt, with each layer mopped down

with tar or asphalt. The final surface is then coated with

asphalt and usually covered with gravel embedded in asphalt or tar.

Other roof coverings,—Other roof coverings, such as

asbestos, slate, tile, and metal, require specialized applicators, so their application is not described in detail. They are

generally more expensive and are much less widely used

than wood or asphalt shingles and built-up roofs.

Ridge

The Boston ridge is the most common method of treating the roof ridge and is also applicable to hips. Where

asphalt shingles are used, cut the 12— by 36—inch strips

into 12- by 12-inch sections. Bend them slightly and use

in a lap fashion over the ridge with a 5—inch exposure

distance (fig. 68). Locate nails where they will be covered

by the lap of the next section. A small spot of asphalt

cement under each exposed edge will give a positive seal.

Wood-shingle roofs can also be finished with a Boston

ridge. Flashing should first be placed over the ridge. Sixinch—wide shingles are alternately lapped, fitted, and

BLIND NAIL^

WOOD SHINGL.E

(BOSTON RIDGE)

FLASHING

WOOD SHINGLES

Figure 69.—^Boston ridge using wood shingles.

46
METAL RIDGE NAIL

BOARD ROOF SHEATHING

M-134 777

Figure 70.—Metal ridge roll.

blind-nailed (fig. 69). Exposed shingle edges are alternately

lapped.

A metal ridge roll can also be used on asphalt-shingle or

wood-shingle roofs (fig. 70). This ridge of copper, galvanized iron, or aluminum is formed to the roof slope.

OPENINGS

WINDOWS

Windows may need repair, replacement, or relocation.

Until recent years, windows were not generally treated

with a preservative, so moisture may have gotten into some

joints and resulted in decay. Also, older windows may

allow more air infiltration than newer types. It will often be

desirable to replace the windows. This is not difficult where

the same size window can be used; however, where the

window size is no longer produced, replacement of the

window will also mean reframing it.

USE CARPENTER s

LEVEL TO PLUMB

CASING AND

LEVEL SILL

^USE 1/4 ROUND UNDER SILL OVER

CALKING FOR TIGHT JOINT

PANEL SIDING

M-142 195

Figure 71.—Installation of double-hung window frame.

The sequence of window replacement will depend on the

type of siding used. Where new panel siding is being

applied, the window is installed after the siding. Where

horizontal siding is used, the window rnust be installed

before the siding.

Repair of Existing Windows

Where the wood in windows is showing some signs of

deterioration but the window is still in good operating

condition, a water-repellent preservative may arrest further

decay. First, remove existing paint; then brush on the

preservative, let it dry, and repaint the window. Paint

cannot be used over some preservatives, so make sure a

paintable preservative is used.

Double-hung sash may bind against the stops, jambs, or

the parting strip. Before doing any repair, try waxing the

parts in contact. If this doesn't eliminate the problem, try

to determine where the sash is binding. Excessive paint

buildup is a common cause ofsticking and can be corrected

by removing paint from stops and parting strips. Nailed

stops (fig. 71) can be moved away from the sash slightly; if

stops are fastened by screws, it will probably be easier to

remove the stop and plane it lightly on the face contacting

the sash. Loosening the conpact between sash and stop too

much will result in excessive air infiltration at the window.

If the sash is binding against the jamb, remove the sash and

plane the vertical edges slightly.

It may be desirable to add full-width weatherstrip and

spring balance units to provide a good airtight window that

will not bind. These are easily installed, requiring only

removal of parting strip and stops. Install the units in

accordance with manufacturer's instructions and replace the

stops.

Replacement of Existing Windows

If windows require extensive repairs, it will probably be

more economical to replace them. New windows are usually purchased as a complete unit, including sash, frame,

and exterior trim. These are easily installed where a window of the same size and type is removed. Many oluer

houses have tall, narrow windows ofsizes that are no longer

commercially produced, and in some cases it may be desirable to change size or type of window. Most window manufacturers list rough-opening sizes for each of their windows.

Some general rules to follow for rough-opening size are:

A. Double-hung window {single unit)

Rough opening width = glass ^idthplus 6 inches

Rough opening height = total glass height plus 10

inches

B. Casement window {two sash)

Rough opening width = total glass width ^/«j IIV4

inches

Rough opening height = total glass height plus 6^U

inches

After the existing window is removed, take off the

interior wall covering to the rough opening width for the

new window. If a larger window must be centered in the

47
same location as the old one, half the necessary additional

width must be cut from each side; otherwise, the entire

additional width may be cut from one side. For windows

3^/2 feet or less in width, no temporary support of ceiling

and roof should be required. Where windows more than

3V2 feet wide are to be installed, provide some temporary

support for the ceiling and roof before removing existing

framing in bearing walls. Remove framing to the width of

the new window and frame the window as shown in figure

72. The header must be supported at both ends by cripple

studs. Headers are made up of two 2-inch-thick members,

usually spaced with lath or wood strips to produce the same

width as the 2 by 4 stud space. The following sizes might

be used as a guide for headers:

Maximum Span Header size

Ft

3V2

5

6V2

8

In.

Two 2 by 6

Two 2 by 8

Two 2 by 10

Two 2 by 12

For wider openings, independent design may be necessary.

Do not oversize headers on the theory that, if a little is

good, more is better. Cross-grain shrinkage causes distortion, and should be kept to a minimum.

Cut the sheathing, or panel siding used without sheathing, to the size of the rough opening. If bevel siding is

PLATE

used, it must be cut to the size of the window trim so that

it will butt against the window casing (fig. 57). Determine

the place to cut the siding by inserting the preassembled

window frame in the rough opening and marking the

siding around the outside edge of the casing.

Before installing the window frame in the rough opening, precautions must be taken to insure that water and

wind do not come in around the finished window. Where

panel siding is used, place a ribbon of calking sealant

(rubber or similar base) over the siding at the location ofthe

side and head casing {îig. 73). Where horizontal siding is

used over sheathing, loosen the siding around the opening

and slide strips of 15—pound asphalt felt between the

sheathing and siding around the opening (fig. 57).

Place the frame in the rough opening, preferably with

the sash in place to keep it square, and level the sill with a

carpenter's level. Use shims under the sill on the inside if

necessary. Check the side casing and jamb for level and

square; then nail the frame in place with tenpenny galvanized nails. Nail through the casing into the side studs and

header (fig. 71), spacing the nails about 12 inches apart.

When double-hung windows are used, slide the sash up

and down while nailing the frame to be sure that the sash

works freely. For installation over panel siding, place a

ribbon of calking sealer at the junction of the siding and the

sill and install a small molding, such as a quarter-round,

over the calking.

Relocation of Windows

It may be desirable to move a window to a different

location or to eliminate a window and add a new one at

.CONNECTING

WITH

FINISH

FLOOR:

6J-I1"

WITH

SINGLE

FLOOR

6-IOi**

l6dNAIL

HEADER

ROUGH OPEN I HQ^

CENTERLINE OF

WINDOW^

STUD

SPACING

16'ÖR 24"

XTOP

PLATE

-"CRIPPLE" OR

"DOOR BUCK"

STUD

•STUD

-SOLOLE PLATE

xvi-135121

Figure 72.—Framing at window opening and height of window and door headers.

48
another location. The method for installing a window is

described in the preceding section. Where a window is

removed, close the opening as follows: Add 2 by 4 vertical

framing members spaced no more than 16 inches apart.

Keep framing in line with existing studs under the window

or in sequence with wall studs so covering materials can be

nailed to them easily. Toenail new framing to the old

window header and to the sill using three eightpenny or

tenpenny nails at each joint. Install sheathing of the same

thickness as that existing, add insulation, and apply a vapor

barrier on the inside face of the framing. Make sure the

vapor barrier covers the rough framing of the existing

window and overlaps any vapor barrier in the remainder of

the wall. Insulation and vapor barriers are discussed more

fully in separate sections. Apply interior and exterior wall

covering to match the existing coverings on the house.

Storm Windows

In cold climates, storm windows are necessary for comfort, for economy of heating, and to avoid damage from

excessive condensation on the inside face of the window. If

old windows are not standard sizes, storm windows must be

made by building a frame to fit the existing window and

fitting glass to the frame. Storm windows are commercially

available to fit all standard size windows. One of the most

practical types is the self-storing or combination storm and

screen. These have minor adjustments for width and

height, and can be custom fabricated for odd-size windows

at a moderate cost.

DOORS

Doors in houses of all ages frequently cause problems by

sticking and by failure to latch. To remedy the sticking

door, first determine where it is sticking. If the frame is not

critically out of square some minor adjustments may remedy the situation. The top of the door could be planed

without removing the door. If the side of the door is

sticking near the top or bottom, the excess width can also

be planed off without removing the door; however, the

edge will have to be refinished or repainted. If the side of

the door sticks near the latch or over the entire height of the

door, remove the hinges and plane the hinge edge. Then

additional routing is required before the hinges are replaced. Where the door is binding on the hinge edge, the

hinges may be routed too deeply. This can be corrected by

loosening the hinge leaf and adding a filler under it to

bring it out slightly. Ifthe latch does not close, remove the

strike plate and shim it out slightly. Replace the strike

plate by first placing a filler, such as a matchstick, in the

screw hole and reinserting the screw so that the strike plate

is relocated slightly away from the stop.

Exterior Doors

If exterior doors are badly weathered, it may be desirable

to replace them rather than attempt a repair. Doors can be

purchased separately or with frames, including exterior side

and head casing with rabbeted jamb and a sill (fig. 74).

PANEL SIDING

M-135 162

Figure 73.—Calking atx>und window opening before installing

frame.

Exterior doors should be either panel or solid-core flush

type. Several styles are available, most of them featuring

some type of glazing (fig. 75). Hollow-core flush doors

should be limited to interior use, except in warm climates,

because they warp excessively during the heating season

when used as exterior doors. Standard height for exterior

doors is 6 feet 8 inches. Standard thickness is 1^/4 inches.

The main door should be 3 feet wide, and the service or rear

door should be at least 2 feet 6 inches and preferably up to 3

feet wide.

Where rough framing is required either for a new door

location or because old framing is not square, provide

header and cripple studs as shown in figure 72. Rough

opening height should be the height of the door plus 2*/4

inches above the finished floor; width should be the width

of the door plus 2V2 inches. Use doubled 2 by 6's for

headers and fasten them in place with two sixteenpenny

nails through the stud into each member. If the stud space

on each side of the door is not accessible, toenail the header

to studs. Nail cripple (door buck) studs, supporting the

header, on each side of the opening to the full stud with

tweivepenny nails spaced about 16 inches apart and staggered.

After sheathing or panel siding is placed over the framing, leaving only the rough opening, the door frame can be

installed. Apply a ribbon of calking sealer on each side and

above the opening where the casing will fit right over it.

Place the door frame in the opening and secure it by nailing

through the side and head casing. Nail hinge side first. In a

new installation the floor joists and header must be

trimmed to receive the sill before the frame can be installed

(fig. 76). The top of the sill should be the same height as

49
—^\—

.FLASHING

-THRESHOLD AND

WEATHERSTRIP

M-134 683

Figure 74.—Exterior door and frame. Exterior door and combination-door (screen and storm) cmss sections: A, head jamb; B, side jamb; C,

siU.

the finish floor so that the threshold can be installed over to the sill, headers and a short support member are necesthe joint. Shim the sill when necessary so that it will have saty at the edge of the sill. Use a quarter-round molding in

full bearing on the floor framing. When joists are parallel combination with calking under the door sill when a panel

50
*' f z

B

M-135 161

Figure 75.—^Exterior doors: A, panel type, B, flush type.

siding or other single exterior covering is used. Install the

threshold over the junction with the finish floor by nailing

it to the floor and sill with finishing nails.

Exterior doors are usually purchased with an entry lock

set which is easily installed. Any trimming to reduce the

width of the door is done on the hinge edge. Hinges are

routed or mortised into the edge of the door with about

^/i6- or V4-inch back spacing (fig. 77). In-swinging exterior doors require 3^/2— by 3^/2—inch loose-pin hinges.

Nonremovable pins are used on out-swinging doors. Use

three hinges to minimize warping. Bevel edges slightly

PLYWOOD

INSULATION —tri

HEADER''

Figure 76.—-Door installation at sill.

PANEL SIDING

M-135 164

3/16

HINGE

DOOR

EDGE

Figure 77.—Installation of door hinges.

M-135 179

toward the side that will fit against stops. Clearances are

shown in figure 78. Carefully measure the opening width

and plane the edge for the proper side clearances. Next,

square and trim the top of the door for proper îït\ then saw

off the bottom for the proper floor clearance. All edges

should then be sealed to minimize entrance of moisture.

In cold climates, weatherstrip all exterior doors. Check

weatherstripping on old doors, and replace it where there is

indication of wear. Also consider adding storm doors in

cold climates. The storm door will not only save on heat,

r- '/s"

i/s"-

36"-38"

mmmm

^CENTER HINGE

(EXTERIOR DOORS ONLY)

-HINGE

'— '/z" OR MORE

Figure 78. —Door clearances.

M-134 765

51
M-135 176

Figure 79.—Metal casing used with drywall.

but will protect the surface of the exterior door from the

weather and help prevent warping.

Interior Doors

If a new interior door is added or the framing is replaced,

the opening should be rough framed in a manner similar to

that for exterior doors. Rough framing width is 2^12 inches

plus the door width; height is 2 inches plus the door height

above the finished floor. The head jamb and two side jambs

are the same width as the overall wall thickness where wood

casing is used. Where metal casing is used with drywail

(fig. 79), the jamb width is the same as the stud depth.

Jambs are often purchased in precut sets, and can even be

purchased complete with stops and with the door prehung

in the frame. Jambs can also easily be made in a small shop

with a table or radial-arm saw (fig. 80). The prehung door

is by far the simplest to install, and is usually the most

economical because of the labor saving. Even where the

door and jambs are purchased separately, the installation is

simplified by prehanging the door in the frame at the

building site. The door then serves as a jig to set the frame

in place quite easily. Before installing the door, temporarily put in place the narrow wood strips used as stops. Stops

are usually Vie inch thick and may be 1^/2 to 2V4 inches

wide. Install them with a mitered joint at the junction of

the head and side jambs. A 45° bevel cut 1 to 1^/2 inches

HEAD JAMB

NAIL- SIDE JAMB

TO HEAD JAMB

SIDE JAMB

NG STUDS

NAÍL

BEVEL CUT

Figure 81.—Installation of door trim.

above the finish floor will eliminate a dirt pocket and make

cleaning easier (fig. 81). This is called a sanitary stop.

Fit the door to the frame, using the clearances shown in

figure 78. Bevel edges slightly toward side that will fit

against stops. Route or mortise the hinges into the edge of

the door with about a ^/i6- or ^/4-inch back spacing. Make

adjustments, if necessary, to provide sufficient edge distance so that screws have good penetration in the wood. For

interior doors, use two 3- by 3—inch loose-pin hinges. If a

router is not available, mark the hinge outline and depth of

cut, and remove the wood with a wood chisel. The surface

FRAMING STUDS

SIDE JAMBSTOP

NAILS

CASING

STRIKE PLATE

(ROUT)

M-134 768

Figure 80.—Door jamb assembly. Figure 82.—Installation of door strike plate.

52
of the hinge should be flush with the wood surface. After

attaching the hinge to the door with screws, place the door

in the opening, block it for proper clearances, and mark the

location of door hinges on the jamb. Remove the door and

route the jamb the thickness of the hinge half. Install the

hinge halves on the jamb, place the door in the opening,

and insert the pins.

Lock sets are classed as: (a) Entry lock sets (decorative

keyed lock), (b) privacy lock set (ins-ide lock control with a

safety slot for opening from the outside), (c) lock set (Iceyed

lock), and (d) latch set (without lock). The lock set is

usually purchased with the door and may even be installed

with the door. If not installed, directions are provided,

including paper templates which provide for exact location

of holes. After the latch is installed, mark the location of

the latch on the jamb when the door is in a near-closed

position. Mark the outline of the strike plate for this

position and route the jamb so the strike plate will be flush

with the face of the jamb (fig. 82).

The stops which were temporarily nailed in place can

now be permanently installed. Nail the stop on the lock

side first, setting it against the door face when the door is

latched. Nail the stops with finishing nails or brads 1^/2

inches long and spaced in pairs about 16 inches apart. The

stop at the hinge side of the door should allow a clearance of

V32 inch (fig. 83).

PLAN VIEW M-135 180

Figure 83.—Door stop clearances (plan view).

To install a new door frame, place the frame in the

opening and plumb and fasten the hinge side of the frame

first. Use shingle wedges between the side jamb and the

rough door buck to plumb the jamb (fig. 81). Place wedge

sets at hinge and latch locations plus intermediate locations

along the height, and nail the jamb with pairs of eightpenny nails at each wedge area. Continue installation by

fastening the opposite jamb in the same manner. After the

door jambs are installed, cut off the shingle wedges flush

with the wall.

Casing is the trim around the door opening. Shapes are

available in thicknesses from ^/2 to ^U inch and widths

varying from 2^/4 to 3^/2 inches. A number of styles are

available (fig. 84). Metal casing used at the edge of drywall

eliminates the need for wood casing (fig. 79).

Position the casing with about a ^/le—inch edge distance

from the face of the jamb (fig. 81). Nail with sixpenny or

sevenpenny casing or finishing nails, depending on the

thickness of the casing. Casing with one thin edge should

be nailed with 1 ^/2-inch brads along the edge. Space nails

in pairs about 16 inches apart. Casings with molded forms

must have a mitered joint where the head and side casings

join (fig. 85A), but rectangular casings are butt-joined (fig.

85B).

M-142 197

Figure 84.—Styles of door casings: A, colonial; B, ranch; C, plain.

Metal casing can be installed by either of two methods.

In one method, the casing is nailed to the door buck around

the opening; then the dry wall is inserted into the groove

and nailed to the studs in the usual fashion. The other

method consists of first fitting the casing over the edge of

B

DOOR FRAMINQ

STUDS

JAMBDRY WALL

-^NAIL INTO STUD

-METAL CASING

^ M-142 196

Figure 85.—Installation of door trim: A, molded casing; B,

rectangular casing; C, metal casing.

53
MU

M-135 177

Figure 86.—Interior doors: A, flush; B, five-cross-panel; C, colonial

panel type.

the dry wall, positioning the sheet properly, and then

nailing through the dry wall and casing into the stud

behind (fig, 85C). Use the same type of nails and spacing as

for dry wall alone.

Interior doors are either panel or flush type. Flush doors

(fig. 86) are usually hollow core. Moldings are sometimes

included on one or both faces. Such moldings can also be

applied to existing doors where added decoration is desired.

The panel-type doors are available in a variety of pattems.

Two popular patterns are the five-cross-panel and the colonial.

Standard door height is 6 feet 8 inches; however, a

height of 6 feet 6 inches is sometimes used with low

ceilings, such as in the upstairs of a story-and-a-half house

or in a basement. Framing is limited in hollow-core doors

so, if the framing is removed in major cutting to length,

that framing must be replaced. Door widths vary, depending on use and personal taste; however, minimums may be

governed by building regulations. Usual widths are: (a)

Bedroom and other rooms, 2 feet 6 inches; (b) bathroom 2

feet 4 inches; (c) small closet and linen closet, 2 feet.

INSULATION AND MOISTURE CONTROL

INSULATION

The importance of insulation depends upon the climate.

Ceiling insulation is beneficial in most climates, although

not essential in extremely mild climates where there are

neither hot nor cold extremes. Wall insulation is not as

essential as ceiling insulation but is required for comfort in

cold climates and will pay for itself in heat savings. Floor

insulation is also necessary for comfort in the crawl-space

house located in a cold climate.

When planning to insulate, consider all major causes of

heat loss. Heat loss per unit area through windows and

exterior doors is much greater than through most wall

njaterials. Another major heat loss is from air infiltration

around doors and windows. Storm doors and storm windows will reduce air infiltration, and reduce heat transfer

by 50 percent or more through the exposed surface. Weatherstrips around doors and windows may result in another

major heat saving.

Regardless of type and location of insulation, vapor

barriers are required on the warm side of the insulation.

Vapor barriers will be discussed in the next section.

Ceiling Insulation

Most houses have an accessible attic with exposed ceiling

framing so that any type of insulation can easily be applied.

If batt or blanket type is used, get the width that will

conform to joist spacing—usually 16 ot 24 inches. Loosefill type could also be used by simply dumping the insulation between joists and screeding it off to the desired

thickness (fig. 87). In the northern states with severe

winters, at least 6 inches offill or batt insulation should be

used. The same thickness is recommended in the Central

States. In the South, thickness of ceiling insulation could

be reduced for heating requirements, but cooling requirements may dictate 6 inches or more.

Wall Insulation

Wood-frame walls in existing houses are usually covered

both inside and out, so application of batt or blanket

insulation is impractical in such renovating. It is possible,

however, to blow fill-type insulation into each of the stud

spaces. This is done by a contractor equipped for such

work. On houses having wood siding, the top strip just

below the top plates and strips below each window are

removed. Two—inch-diameter holes are cut through the

sheathing into each stud space. The depth of each stud

space is determined by using a plumb bob, and additional

holes are made below obstructions in the spaces. Insulation

is forced under slight pressure through a hose and nozzle

into the stud space until it is completely filled. Special care

should be taken to insulate spaces around doors and windows and at intersections of partition and outside wails.

Stucco, brick, and stone veneer walls can be insulated in

a similar manner. The same method can also be used in

Figure 87.-

M-135 168

-Installation of loose-fill ceiling insulation.

54
attic and roof spaces that are not accessible for application

of other types of insulation.

Solid rnasonry walls, such as brick, stone, and concrete,

can be insulated only by applying insulation to the interior

surface. Remember that in doing this some space is being

lost. One method of installing such insulation is to adhesively bond insulating board directly to the interior surface.

The insulating board can be plastered, left exposed, or

covered with any desired finish material. Thicker insulating board can be used for added effectiveness. Another

method of installing insulation on the inside surface of

masonry walls is through attachment of 2— by 2—inch

furring strips to the walls at 16-inch centers and installation of 1—inch blanket insulation between strips. Thicker

furring strips would permit use of thicker blanket insulation. The techniques used on masonry walls above grade

can also be applied to basement walls.

Floor Insulation

Houses with basements usually do not require insulation

under floors because the heating unit warms the basement.

The crawl-space house should have an insulated floor in

severe climates, and insulated floors will add much to

comfort even in moderate climates. Batt-type insulation is

often used for floors, although blanket insulation can also

.SUBFLOOR

be used. Friction batts fit tightly between joists, and are

secured to the bottom side of the subfloor with an adhesive.

Batts that are not friction type require some support in

addition to the adhesive. This can be provided by wood

strips cut slightly longer than the joist space so that they

spring into place (fig. 88). They should be about ^/le by ^U

inch or similar size and spaced 24 to 36 inches apart, or as

needed. Another method of supporting floor insulation is

by nailing or stapling wire netting between joists. This

method can be used for blanket as well as batt type.

VAPOR BARRIERS

Vapor barriers are essential wherever insulation is used.

They are always placed near the warm surface and must be

continuous over the surface to be effective. Since insulation

reduces heat flow, the cold surface of a wall or roof is colder

if insulation is used than when the wall is not insulated.

This colder surface is likely to be below the dewpoint of the

air inside of the house, so condensation occurs.

The common functions of cooking, bathing, laundry,

and respiration contribute to moisture inside a house.

Additional water vapor may be added by humidifiers operated during the winter. The high vapor pressure inside

causes vapor to move out through every available crack and

VAPOR BARRÍER

JOIST

BATT

INSULATION

"SPRING-IN"

WOOD STRIPS

-WIRE NETTING—STAPLE OR

NAIL IN PLACE

M-135 166

Figure 88.—Installing insulating batts in floor.

55
TOP PLATES

VAPOR BARRIER

Figure 89."

VAPOR BARRIER

BLANKET INSULATION

M-134 702

-Installation of blanket insulation with vapor barriers on

one side.

even through most building materials. This water vapor

condenses in the wall at the point where the temperature is

below the dewpoint of the inside atmosphere. The purpose

of a vapor barrier is to slow down the rate of vapor flowing

into the wall to a rate lower than the outflow to the outside

atmosphere.

Continuous Membrane

The most effective vapor barrier is a continuous membrane which is applied to the inside face of studs and joists

in new construction. In rehabilitation, such a membrane

can be used only where new interior covering materials are

to be applied.

The rate of vapor movement through a material is measured in perms. The lower the perm rating of a material, the

more effective it is as a vapor barrier. Suitable materials for

a membrane are ^lyethylene 2 mils or more in thickness,

asphalt-impregnated and surface-coated kraft papers, and

duplex or laminated paper consisting of two sheets of paper

cemented together with asphalt.

These vapor barriers can be stapled to furring strips

before applying new ceiling or dry wall. Ifthe old ceiling or

wall finish is removed, staple the vapor barrier directly to

the studs or joists. This type of barrier can also be laid on a

subfloor directly under any finish floor or floor covering

material. When installing the membrane, be sure to lap all

joints at least 2 inches and be careful not to puncture it.

Naturally, nail anchomges of finished floor will puncture

the barrier, however, this will not greatly reduce its effectiveness.

Blanket Insulation with Vapor Barrier

Most blanket insulation has a vapor barrier on one side.

Place the insulation with the vapor barrier toward the warm

surface. Tabs on the blanket must be stapled to the inside

face of the stud or joist (fig. 89), and adjacent tabs should

lap each other. Tabs stapled to the side of studs or joists in

the cavity will be ineffective because vapor will move out

between the tabs and framing members. In rehabilitation,

this type of vapor barrier can be used only where the old

interior covering materials are completely removed or

where furring strips are added on the inside. Insulation is

installed between furring strips in the same manner as

between studs.

Vapor-Resistant Coating

Where loose-fill insulation has been used in walls and

ceiling and no new interior covering is planned, a vaporresistant coating should be applied to the inside surface.

One method for applying such a coating is to paint the

interior surface of all outside walls with two coats of

aluminum primer, which are subsequently covered with

decorative paint. This does not offer as much resistance to

vapor movement as a membrane, so it should be used only

where other types cannot be used. If the exterior wall

covering is permeable enough to allow moisture to escape

from the wall, a vapor-resistant coating on the inside

should be adequate.

Soil Cover

Crawl spaces can be ventilated to effectively remove most

moisture, but a soil cover will keep a lot of moisture from

ever entering the crawl space. Any of the continuous membranes just mentioned can be used. Lay the membrane so

that it contacts the outside walls and has a lap of at least 2

inches at all joints (fig. 90). Use bricks or stonçs on top of

the membrane to hold it down and prevent curling. Ventilation requirements are greatly reduced where a soil cover is

used.

VAPOR BARRIER

FLOOR FRAMING

FOUNDATION

VENT

IMSULATION

LAP SEAM

VAPOR BARRIER

M-139 225

Figure 90. —Vapor barrier for crawl space (ground cover).

56
END ELEVATIONS CROSS SECTIONS SIDE ELEVATIONS

RATIO OF TOTAL

MINIMUM NET

VENTíLATOR AREA

TO CEILING AREA

INLET OUTLET

I

j,600

VENTILATION

Ventilation of attics and crawl spaces is essential in all

houses located where the average January temperature is

35° F or lower. Vapor barriers help to control moisture

problems, but there are always places, such as around

utility pipes, where some moisture escapes. In the older

M-134 733

Figure 91.—Attic ventilation with hip roof.

house that does not have proper vapor barriers, ventilation

is especially important.

Attic and Roof

Moisture escaping from the house into the attic tends to

collect in the coldest part of the attic. Relatively impermeable roofing, such as asphalt shingles or a built-up roof,

END ELEVATIONS

«cCROSS SECTIONS

^

/AIRWAY —^ ':^

SIDE ELEVATIONS

/ 1 ^

pp

RATIO OF TOTAL

MINIMUM NET

VENTILATOR AREA

TO CEILING AREA

^ 250

(COMBINED )

>

^ 300

(COMBINED }

J_ .AIRWAY

±^ / /

Figure 92.—Ventilation of ceiling space in flat roof,

57

M-134 735
END ELEVATIONS CROSS SECTfONS SIDE ELEVATIONS

RATIO OF TOTAL

MINIMUM NET

VENTILATOR AREA

TO CEILING AREA

J OUTLET

300

{ COMBINED )

J

T —T

y^^

Figure 93.—Attic ventilation with gable roof.

complicates the problem by preventing the moisture from

escaping to the outside. The only way to get the moisture

out is to ventilate the attic, Attic ventilation also helps

keep a house cool during hot weather.

Where possible, ¡nlet vents should be provided in the

sofFit area and outlet vents should be provided near the

ridge. This results in natural circulation regardless of wind

direction. The warm air in the attic rises to the peak, goes

out the vents, and fresh air enters through the inlet vents to

replace the exhausted air. In some attics only gable vents

can be used. Air movement is then somewhat dependent

upon wind. The open area of the vent must be larger than

where both inlet and outlet vents are provided.

Hip roofs cannot have gable vents near the peak, so some

other type of outlet ventilator must be provided (fig. 91).

This can be either^ ventilator near the ridge, or a special

flue provided in the chimney with openings into the attic

space. Both types require inlet vents in the soffit area. The

hip roof can also be modified to provide a small gable for a

conventional louvered vent.

Flat roofs with no attic require some type of ventilation

above the ceiling insulation. If this space is divided by

joists, each joist space must be ventilated. This is often

accomplished by a continuous vent strip in the soffit. Drill

through all headers that impede passage of air to the

opposite eave. Other methods are illustrated in figure 92.

Cathedral ceilings require the same type of ventilation as

flat roofs. A continuous ridge vent is also desimble because

even witii holes in the ridge rafter, air movement through

the rafter space is very sluggish without a ridge vent.

Houses with intersecting roofs or hip roofs create special

problems.

Methods of ventilating gable roofs and the amount of

ventilation for various types are shown in figure 93. Ratios

shown for all ventilation should be multiplied by the total

ceiling area to find the size of opening required for the

vent. The open area required should be completely unobstructed. Where l6-mesh screen is used to cover the area,

the vent area should be doubled.

Crawl Space

An enclosed crawl space under the house floor receives

moisture from the soil below. This moisture produces both

a decay and termite hazard. To keep the crawl space dry,

vents are required with a total free area of not less than ^/iso

of the ground area. This vent area must be divided into four

or more openings distributed around the foundation. It is

preferable to have one near each corner. If there is a partial

basement, the crawl space can be vented to the basement

instead of outside. Where a soil cover or a vapor barrier is

laid over the entire area of the crawl space, the required

ventilation area is greatly reduced. A total free area of only

^/i500 of the ground area is sufficient. These minimum

areas are free areas and must be enlarged when screens or

other obstructions are included with the vent.

58
Several types of foundation vents can be purchased commercially for easy installation in the appropriate size opening. Screen sizes vary, depending on whether they are

insect-proof or rodent-proof. Manufactured vents usually

have a statement of free arca. Often it may be sufficient to

attach a screen over an opening rather than to purchase a

manufactured vent.

INTERIOR ITEMS

RELOCATING PARTITIONS

One of the most common occurrences in remodeling is

the moving of partitions for a more convenient room layout. It may mean eliminating a partition or adding a

partition in another location.

Removing a Partition

The nonbearing partition is easily removed because none

of the structure depends upon it. If the covering material is

plaster or gypsum board, it cannot be salvaged, so remove

it from the framing in any manner. The framing can

probably be reused if it is removed carefully.

The main problem presented by removing a nonbearing

partition is the unfinished strip left in the ceiling, wall,

and floor. This utifinished strip in the ceiling and wall is

easily finished by plastering to the same thickness as the

existing plaster or by cutting strips of gypsum board to fit

snugly into the unfinished strip and finishing the joints

with joint compound and tape. Flooring can also be

patched by inserting a wood strip ofthe same thickness and

species as the existing floor. If existing flooring runs parallel to the wall, patching is fairly effective; but where the

flooring runs perpendicular to the wall, the patch will

always be obvious unless a new floor covering is added. In

making the patch, cut the flooring to fit as snugly as

possible. Even where the flooring is well fitted and of the

same species, it may not be exactly the same color as the

existing flooring.

Removing a load-bearing partition involves the same

patching of walls, ceiling, and floor as the nonbearing

partition but, in addition, some other means ofsupporting

the ceiling joists must be provided. If attic space above the

partition is available, a supporting beam can be placed

above the ceiling joists in the attic, so that the joists can

hang from the beam. The ends of the beam must be

supported on an exterior wall, a bearing partition, or a post

that will transfer the load to the foundation. Wood hanger

brackets are installed at the intersection of the beam with

each joist. One method is illustrated in figure 94. This type

of support can be installed before the wall is removed, and

eliminates the need for temporary support.

Where an exposed beam is not objectionable, it can be

installed after the partition is removed. A series of jacks

with adequate blocking or some other type of support is

required on each side of the partition while the transition

between the partition and a beam is being made. The

WOOD BRACKET

BEAM (FROM IMTERtOR

CROSS WALL TO

EXTERIOR WALL

Figure 94.-

M-135 146

-Framing for flush ceiling with wood brackets.

bottom of the beam should be at least 6 feet 8 inches above

the floor.

There may be situations where an exposed beam is

undesirable and no attic space is available, as in the ground

floor of a two-story house. A beam can be provided in the

ceiling with joists framing into the sides of it. Temporary

support for the joists is required similar to that used for

installing the exposed beam. The joists must be cut to

make room for the beam. Install joist hangers on the beam

where each joist will frame into it (fig. 95). Put the beam

in place and repair the damaged ceiling.

Size of the beam required will vary greatly, depending

on beam span, span of joists framing into it, and material

used for the beam. Determination of beam size should be

made by an engineer or someone experienced in construction.

Adding a Partition

A partition is added by simply framing it in, much as in

new construction. Framing is usually done with 2 by 4's,

although 2- by 3-inch framing is also considered adequate

for partitions. The first step in framing should be to install

the top plate. If ceiling joists are perpendicular to the

Figure 95.-

M-142 172

-Flush beam with joist hangers.

59
CEILING JOISTSNEW PARTITION FRAMING

M-142 171

Figure 96.—^^Blocking between joists to which the top plate of a new

partition is nailed,

partition, nail the top plate to each joist using sixteenpenny

nails. If ceiling joists are parallel to the partition and the

partition is not directly under a joist, install solid blocking

between joists at no more than a 2—foot spacing (fig. 96)

and nail the top plate to the blocking. To assure a plumb

partition hold a plumb bob along the side of the top plate

at several points and mark these points on the floor. Nail

the sole plate to the floor joists or to solid blocking between

joists in the same manner as the top plate was nailed to the

ceiling joists. The next step is to install studs to fit firmly

between the plates at a spacing of 16 inches. Check the

required stud length at several points. There may be some

variation. Toenail the studs to the plates, using eightpenny

nails. If conditions permit, it may be easier to partially

assemble the wall on the floor and tilt it into place. First,

the top plate is nailed to the studs and the frame tilted into

place, after which studs are toenailed to the bottom plate as

above. Frame in doors where desired in the manner described under the section on doors. The partition is then

ready for wall finish and trim, which are discussed in the

sections which follow.

M-142 170

Figure 97.—Shingle shims behind furring to produce a smooth

vertical surface.

M-142 175

Figure 98.—^Application of horizontal furring to interior waU.

INTERIOR WALL FINISH

Minor cracks in plaster or dry wall can be easily patched

by filling the crack with a plaster-patching mix and sanding after the plaster dries. A fiberglass fabric applied over

the crack helps prevent recurrence. This works well when

the cracks are limited in number, but if plaster is generally

cracked or pulled loose from its backing, a new covering

material should be used.

In houses that require a new wall finish, some type of dry

wall sheet material is usually the most practical. The

application of most dry wall requires no special tools or

skills, and it can be applied in a manner to smooth out

unevenness and to cover imperfections. The most common

forms of dry wall are gypsum board, plywood, hardboard,

fiberboard, and wood paneling. Dry wall is usually applied

to framing or to furring strips over the framing or existing

wall finish. If the existing wall finish is smooth, new wall

finish can sometimes be glued or nailed directly to the

existing wall. In this direct application there is no thickness requirement for the new covering because it is continuously supported. For dry wall applied over framing or

furring, the recommended thicknesses for 16-and 24—inch

spacing of fastening members are listed in the following

tabulation:

60
STUD —

NAILING BLOCK

"SOLE PLATE

^TAPERED

NAILS 6-8" O.e.

Figure 99.—Installing gypsum board on walls: A, horizontal application; B, vertical application.

61
Finish

Gypsum board

Plywood

Hardboard

Fiberboard

Wood paneling

Minimum material thickness (in.)

when framing is spaced

16 in. 24 in.

V4 3/B

V4 ~

Vs V2

The V4-inch plywood or hardboard may be slightly wavy

unless applied over ^/s-inch gypsum board.

In order to prepare a room for a new wail finish, first

locate each stud. They are usually spaced 16 inches apart

and at doors and windows. The easiest way to find them is

to look for nailheads in dry wall or baseboard. These nails

have been driven into studs. Where there is no evidence of

nailheads, tap the wall finish with a hammer. At the stud,

the sound will be solid; whereas, the space between studs

will sound hollow. Commercial stud finders are also available at hardware and building supply stores. These operate

by the use of a magnet that points to nail heads. Mark the'

stud locations in order to attach horizontal furring strips or

to nail on paneling applied without furring strips.

Check walls for flatness by holding a straight 2 by 4

against the surface. Mark locations that are quite uneven.

Also check for true vertical alinement by holding a large

carpenters level on the straight 2 by 4 against the wail. As

furring is applied, use shingles as shims behind the furring

where needed to produce a smooth vertical surface (fig. 97).

STUD

GYPSUM

BOARD

TAPERED EDGE

B

JOINT CEMENT

TAPE

-JOINT CEMENT

FEATHER EDGE

SHARP FOLD

NO TAPE REQUIRED

M-134 769

Figure 100.—Preparing gypsum dry-wall sheets for painting: A, drive nails in "dimple" fashion; B, detail ofjoint treatment; C, comer tape; D,

ceiling molding.

62
Apply standard 1- by 2—inch furring horizontally at loor 24-inch spacing, depending on the cover material to be

used (fig. 98). Nail the furring at each stud. Remove

existing base trim and window and door casings and apply

furring around all openings. Also use vertical furring strips

where vertical joints will occur in the dry wall.

After this preparation, any of the usual dry wall materials can be applied.

Gypsum Board

Gypsum board is one of the lowest cost materials for

interior finish; however, the labor required to finish joints

may offset the low material cost. This sheet material is

composed of a gypsum filler faced with paper. Recessed

edges accommodate tape for joints. Sheets are 4 feet wide

and 8 feet long or longer. They can be applied vertically or

horizontally. Sheets the entire length of a room can be

applied horizontally, leaving only one joint at the midheight of the wall (fig. 99).

For both horizontal and vertical application, nail completely around the perimeter of the sheet and at each

furring strip; for direct application to framing, nail at each

stud. Use fourpenny cooler-type nails for Vs—inch—thick

gypsum board and fivepenny cooler-type nails for ^/2—inchthick gypsum board. Space the nails 6 to 8 inches apart.

Lightly dimple the nail location with the hammerhead,

being careful not to break the surface of the paper. Minimum edge nailing distance is ^/s inch. Screws are sometim£S used instead of nails.

The conventional method ofpreparing gypsum sheets for

painting includes the use of a joint cement and perforated

joint tape. Some gypsum board is supplied with a strip of

joint paper along one edge, which is used in place of the

tape. After the gypsum board has been installed and each

nail driven in a "dimple" fashion (fíg. lOOA), the wails are

ready for treatment. Joint cement ("spackle" compound),

which comes in powder or ready-mixed form, should have a

soft putty consistency so that k can be easily spread with a

trowel or wide putty knife. The gypsum board edges are

usually tapered so that, where two sheets are joined, there

is a recessed strip to receive joint cement and tape. If a sheet

has been cut, the edge will not be tapered. A square edge is

taped in much the same manner as the beveled edge except

the joint cement will raise the surface slightly at the seam,

and edges have to be feathered out further for a smooth

finish. Complete instructions are included with taping

material. The procedure for taping (fig. lOOB) is as follows:

1. Use a wide spackiing knife (5 in.) and spread the cement over the

tapered and other butt edges, starting at the top of the wall.

2. Press the tape into the recess with the knife until the joint cement is

forced through the small perforations.

3. Cover the tape with additional cement to a level surface, feathering

the outer edges—allow to dry.

4. Sand lightly and apply a thin second coat, feathering the edges

again. A third coat may be required after the second coat has dried.

5. After cement is dry, sand smooth.

6, For hiding nail indentations at members between edges, fill with

joint cement. A second coat is usually required. Again sand when

dry.

Interior and exterior corners may be treated with perforated tape. Fold the tape down the center to a right angle

(fig. lOOC). Now (a) apply cement on each side of the

comer, (b) press tape in place with the spackle or putty

knife, and (c) finish with joint cement and sand when dry.

Wallboard corner beads of metal or plastic also can be

added to provide strength. Such metal corners are recommended. They are nailed to outside corners and treated

with joint cement. The junction ofthe wail and ceiling can

also be finished with a wood molding in any desired shape,

which will eliminate the need for joint treatment (fig.

lOOD). Use eightpenny finishing nails spaced 12 to 16

inches apart and nail into the top wallplate.

Treatment around window and door openings depends

on the type of casing used. When a casing head and trim

are used instead of a wood casing, the jambs and the beads

may be installed before or during application of the gypsum

wall finish. These details are covered in the section on

"Doors."

Plywood and Hardboard

Plywood and hardboard are usually in 4- by 8-foot

sheets for vertical application. However, 7-foot-long

panels can sometimes be purchased for use in basements or

other low-ceiling areas. Plywood can be purchased in a

number of species and finishes with wide variation in cost.

Hardboard imprinted with a wood grain pattern is generally less expensive. The better hardboard paneling uses a

photograph of wood to provide the woodgrain effect, which

produces a very realistic pattern. Both plywood and hardboard can be purchased with a hard, plastic finish that is

easily wiped clean. Hardboard is also available with vinyl

coatings in many patterns and colors.

M-142 174

Figure 101.—Stacking panels for conditioning to room environment

prior to use.

63
The plywood or hardboard interior finish material should

be delivered to the site well before application to allow the

panels to assume conditions of moisture and temperature in

the room. Stack the panels, separated by full length furring

strips (fig. 101), to allow air to get to all panel faces and

backs. Panels should remain in the room at least a couple of

days before application.

In applying the panels to the wall, the start depends

partly on whether or not the wall corners are truly vertical.

If the starting corner is straight, the first panel is merely

butted to the comer and subsequent panels located so they

lap on studs. If the panel corner or other surface is not truly

vertical, place the panel edge on a vertical line 50 inches

from the surface, plumb that edge with a carpenter's level,

and use an art compass to scribe the outline of the cut to be

made on the other edge (fig. 102). Cut the panel and move

it against the corner. After the first panel is placed, install

successive panels by butting edges against the previous

panel, being careful to maintain a true vertical line. Any

misalinement is less noticeable, of course, if all walls are

paneled. A similar procedure can be used for fitting panels

against the ceiling.

Panels can be fastened with nails or adhesive. Adhesive is

sometimes preferable because there are no nailheads to mar

the finish. Most adhesivas include instructions for application, and these instructions should be followed carefully.

Use an adhesive that allows enough open assembly time to

adjust the panel for a good fit. Where panels are nailed, use

small finishing nails (brads). Use l^/2-inch-long nails for

V4-- or ^/g-inch-thick materials and space 8 to 10 inches

apart on edges and at intermediate supports. Most panels

are grooved and nails can be driven in these grooves. Set

nails slightly with a nail set. Many prefinished njaterials are

furnished with small nails having heads that match the

color of the finish; thus no setting is required.

Wood and Fiberboard Paneling

Wood and fíberboard paneling elements ate tonguedand-grooved and are available in various widths. Wood is

usually limited to no more than 8 inches in nominal width.

Fiberboard paneling is often 12 or 16 inches wide. Paneling

should also be stacked in the room to be paneled, as

recommended for plywood and hardboard, to stabilize at

the temperature and moisture conditions of the room.

Paneling is usually applied vertically, but at times is

applied horizontally for special effects.

Vertically applied paneling is nailed to horizontal furring strips or to nailing blocks between studs. Nail with

1^/2- to 2-inch finishing or casing nails. Blind nail

through the tongue, and for 8-inch boards, face nail near

the opposite edge. Where 12-or 16-inch-wide fíberboard

is used, two face nails may be required. Color-matched

nails arc sometimes supplied with the fíberboard. Staples

may also be used in the tongue of fíberboard instead of

nails. Where adhesive is used, the only nailing is the blind

nail in the tongue.

-CORNER

PANEL

M-142 176

Figure 102,—Scribing of cut at panel edge to provide exact fit in a

comer or at ceiling.

CEILINGS

Ceilings can be finished with gypsum board or other

sheet materials in much the same manner as interior walls,

or a variety of ceiling tiles can be used, including the type

for use with suspended metal or wood hangers. The suspended ceiling is particularly useful in rehabilitation of

houses with high ceilings. It covers many imperfections,

and lowers the ceiling to a more practical height. The space

above the new ceiling may be useful for electrical wiring,

plumbing, or heating ducts added during rehabilitation,

and this mechanical equipment remains easily accessible.

Cracks in plaster ceilings can be repaired with plaster

patching in the same manner as walls are patched; however,

where cracks are extensive, a new ceiling is the only cure.

Gypsum Board

Gypsum board can be applied directly to ceiling joists by

first removing existing ceiling material. It may al«) be

applied directly over plaster or to furring strips nailed over

the existing ceiling where plaster is uneven. Use 2- by 2-

inch or 2— by 3-inch furring strips oriented perpendicular

to the joists and spaced 16 inches on centers for ^/g-inch

gypsum board or 24 inches on centers for */2—inch gypsum

board. Nail the furring strips with two tenpenny nails at

each joist. Apply the gypsum boards with end joints staggered and centered on a joist or furring strip. Place the

sheets so there is only light contact at joints. One or two

braces slightly longer than the ceiling height are quite

useful in installing the gypsum sheets (fig. 103). Nail the

gypsum board to all supporting members with nails spaced

7 to 8 inches apart. Use fivepenny cooler-type nails for ^¡2-

inch gypsum board and fourpenny nails for ^/s-inch gypsum board. Nailheads should not penetrate the surface.

Each nailhead location should be slightly dimpled w^ith the

hammerhead, being careful not to break the surface of the

paper. Finish the joints and nailheads in the same manner

described under interior wall finish. Where gypsum board

64
is used, it should be applied to the ceiling before wall finish

is applied.

Ceiling Tile

Ceiling tile is available in a variety of materials and

patterns with a wide range in cost. It can be applied

directly to a smooth backing, but the usual application is to

furring strips. Suspended ceilings will be discussed in the

next section.

If the existing ceiling has a flat surface, tile can be

fastened with adhesive. Use an adhesive recommended by

the tile manufacturer and follow directions carefully. A

small spot of adhesive at each corner and center is usually

sufficient. Edged-matched tile can also be stapled if the

backing is wood.

A more common method of installing ceiling tile is

through fastening them to furring strips. Nominal 1- by

3- or 1- by 4-inch furring strips are used where ceiling

joists are spaced no more than 24 inches apart. Nail strips

with two sevenpenny or eightpenny nails to each joist.

Where trusses or ceiling joists are spaced up to 48 inches

apart, use nominal 2- by 2- or 2- by 3-inch furring nailed

with two tenpenny nails to each joist. The furring should

be a low-density wood, such as the softer pines, if tile is to

be stapled to the furring.

Locate the strips by first measuring the width of the

room (parallel to joists); place the first furring strip at the

center of the room, establish the number of complete

courses, and adjust edge spacing so that edge courses are

equal in width. Plan spacing perpendicular to joists in the

SPACE NAILS

7" TO 8"

same manner, so the end courses will be equal. Start at one

side and continue across the room, waiting until the last

row is being installed to cut the tile for a close fit. Ceiling

tile usually has a tongue on two adjacent edges and grooves

on the other edges. In installing, keep the tongue edges on

the open side so they can be stapled to nailing strips. Use a

small finishing nail or adhesive at the edge of the tile next

to the wall. Use one staple at each furring strip on the

leading edge and two staples along the side (fig. 104). A

small finishing nail or adhesive is again required in the

edge of the tile against the wall where each row is completed.

In applying the tile, be careful not to soil the surface, as

it is usually factory-finished and requires no painting.

Suspended Ceiling

Suspended ceilings consist of a grid of small metal or

wood hangers, supported by hanging them from the ceiling

framing with wire or strap, and drop-in panels sized to fit

the grid system. This type of ceiling can be adjusted to any

desired height. Where the existing ceiling is normal

height, the hangers can be supported only 2 or 3 inches

below the ceiling and still cover any bulging plaster or

other unevenness. Where existing ceilings are high, adjust

the hangers to the desired ceiling height.

Suspended ceilings are purchased as a system, which

assures panels that are compatible with the supporting

grid. Detailed instructions for installation are usually supplied by the manufacturer,

DOUBLE NAILING

AT JOINT

Figure 103.—Installing gypsum board on ceiling.

65

M-135 170
LESS THAN 12

AS REQUIRED;

JOIST

NAILING STRIP.

ST

STU

-NAILING STRIP STA PL. E

M-135 173

Figure 104.—Ceiling tile installation: A, nailing strip location; B, stapling.

INTERIOR tRIM

Interior trim consists of window and door casings and

various moldings. Such trim in existing houses varies considerably, depending on age, style, and quality of the

house. The trim found in many older houses is probably no

longer on the market, so matching it requires expensive

custom fabrication. If the plan is to use existing trim,

remove pieces carefully where windows, doors, or partitions

are changed, so it can be reused where needed.

Where new trim is planned, the type of finish desired is

the basis for selecting the species of wood to be used. For a

paint finish, the material should be smooth, close-grained,

and free from pitch streaks. Some species that meet these

requirements are ponderosa pine, northern white pine,

redwood, mahogany, and spruce. The additional qualities

of hardness and resistance to hard usage are provided by

such species as birch, gum, and yeljow-poplar. For a natural finish, the wood should have a pleasing figure, hardness, and uniform color. These requirements are satisfied

by species such as ash, birch, cherry, maple, oak, and

walnut.

Casing

Casing is the interior edge trim for door and window

openings. New casing patterns vary in width from 2^/4 to

3V2 inches and in thickness from ^k to ^U inch. Some

common patterns are shown in figure 84. Place the casing

with about a ^/le-inch edge distance from door and window jambs. Nail with sixpenny or sevenpenny casing or

finishing nails, depending on thickness of the casing. Space

nails in pairs about 16 inches apart, nailing to both jambs

and framing. Rectangular casings can be butt-joined at

corners (fig. 85B), but molded forms must have a mitered

joint (fig. 85A).

Baseboard

Baseboard, the finish between the finished wall and

floor, is also available in several sizes and forms (fig. 105).

It may be either one or two piece. The two-piece base

consists of a baseboard topped with a small base cap which

conforms to any irregularities in the wall finish. Most

baseboards are finished with a base shoe, except where

66
-BASE GAP

M-134 754

Figure 105.—Baseboard: A, two-piece; B, narrow; C, medium

width.

carpet is installed. The base shoe is nailed into the subfloor,

so it conforms to irregularities in the finished floor.

Install square-edged baseboard with a butt joint at inside

corners and a mitered joint at outside corners. Nail at each

stud with two eightpenny finishing nails. Molded base,

base cap, and base shoe require a coped joint at inside

corners and a mitered joint at outside corners (fig. 106).

Ceiling Moldings

Ceiling moldings are used at the junction of wall and

ceiling. They may be strictly decorative where there is a

finished joint or they may be specifically for the purpose of

hiding a poorly fitted joint. They are particularly useful

with wood paneling or other dry wall that is difficult to fit

exactly, and where plaster patching cannot be used to finish

the joint. Attach the molding with finishing nails driven

into the upper wallplates. Large moldings should also be

nailed to the ceiling joists.

Miscellaneous Decorative Moldings

Many decorative moldings can be used in a variety of

ways. They can be applied to walls or doors to give the

effect of relief paneling or carved doors. They can also be

used to add interest to existing cabinetwork. Check with a

local building supply dealer for available types and ideas on

how to use them.

KITCHEN CABINETS

Kitchen cabinets in older houses are often out of style,

and may be quite inconvenient in arrangement, type of

storage, and workspace provided. New hardware may do

much for the appearance of old cabinets. Moldings can be

added to achieve the desired character. For a natural finished wood, new doors and drawer fronts can be used on the

old cabinet frame. However, it may be best to start over

with new cabinets.

Repair of Existing Cabinets

If existing cabinets are adequate and well arranged,

certain repairs may be in order. One of the usual problems

is latches that no longer operate. These are easily replaced.

Presently, one of the popular types is the magnetic catch.

The magnetic part is attached to a shelf or the side of the

cabinet and a complementary metal plate is attached to the

inside face ofthe door. New door and dmwer pulls to match

any decor are also easily added.

New door and drawer fronts can be added where more

extensive facelifting is desired. All framing can be completely concealed by using flush doors with concealed

hinges (fig. 107). Doors are fitted closely edge to edge to

give a continuous panel effect. Finger slots in the bottom

edge of the door can be used for a simple modern design, or

door pulls can be added for any desired character.

Where cabinets are adequate, the one best way to update

a kitchen is to apply new counter tops. Custom shops will

measure, fabricate, and install them. The most common

type is plastic laminate.

Several sheet and roll materials that can be glued to

clean, smooth backing are available. These include laminated melamine, laminated polyester, vinyl, and linoleum.

They are normally applied to ^/4-inch exterior-type plywood. Linoleum and vinyl are flexible enough to be

shaped to a coved backsplash on the job. Other materials

can only be applied flat, so the backsplash is covered

INSIDE CORNER

BUTT JOINT

OUTSIDE

CORNER

COPE

Figure 106.—Installation of base molding.

67
FRAMING FLUSH DOOR

M-142 177

Figure 107.—Concealed hinge used with flush cabinet door.

sef>arately and a metal strip is used to cover the joint

between the backspiash and the countertop.

Marble is shop-fabricated and requires no backing material. It must be precut to size in the shop because special

tools are required. It is self-edged. There are some objections to marble because of its hardness, and it is expensive,

so it is usually limited to bath counters.

Ceramic tile can be set in a mortar bed or applied with

adhesive. It is the only material that must be applied at the

building site rather than in a shop or factory. It is available

in a variety of sizes. The smaller 1-inch-square tile are

often preassembled on a mesh backing in 1—foot—square

units. It was once very popular and is quite attractive, but

is quite hard for kitchen counters and the joints become a

maintenance problem.

^I2"STD^

<9

TiS

DROP CEILING

> WALL CABINET

^ as»sm_.

12 MIN.^

^ 24" STD. ^

,i,,f3t,tfiinnnnnnnnà ZS3

24 MIN.-OVER RANGE

C^ SINK

12" MtN.

V BASE CABINET

A V-,

New Cabinets

Kitchen cabinets can be custom made or purchased in

units as stock items. Stock cabinets can be purchased in

widths varying in 3—inch increments between 12 and 48

inches. These units are fastened to the wall through cleats

located at the back of each cabinet. Wall-hung cabinets

should be attached with long screws that penetrate into

each wall stud.

The range of standard counter heights and depths is

shown in figure 108. While a range of sizes is shown,

standard counter height is usually 36 inches and counter

width is usually 25 inches.

Good kitchen layout is discussed under "Developing the

Plan."

CLOSETS

Many older homes are lacking in closet space, and often

the closets provided are not well arranged for good usage.

Remodeling may involve altering existing closets or adding

new ones.

Altering Existing Closets

One thing that can do much to improve closets is to

provide fullfront openings to replace small doors. Doors are

available in a great variety of widths, particularly accordian

doors. Remove wall finish and studs to the width required

for a standard accordian-fold or double-hinged door set (fig.

109). Standard double doors may also be suitable. Where

the closet wall is load-bearing, use the header sizes listed

for window openings. The header can be eliminated for a

nonload-bearing wail, and a full ceiling-height accordionfold door can be used. Frame the opening in the same

manner as other door openings, with the rough framed

1/

Figure 108.—Kitchen cabinet proportions.

M-142 178

Figure 109.—Double-hinged door set for full-width opening closet.

68
Figure 110.—^Wardtobe closet.

M-142 194

Opening 2V2 inches wider than the door or set of doors.

Install closet doors in a manner similar to other interior

doors. Special types of doors, such as the double-hinged

doors, are usually supplied with installation instructions.

Closets can sometimes be made more useful by additions

or alterations in shelves and clothes rods. The usual closet

has one rod with a single shelf over it. Where hanging

space is quite limited, install a second clothes rod about

half way between the existing rod and the floor. This type

of space can be used for children's clothing or for short

items of adult clothing. Shelves can also be added in any

manner to fit a particular need. To add either a shelf or a

pole, support them by 1- by 4-inch cleats nailed to the end

walls of the closet. Nail these cleats with three sixpenny

nails at each end of the cleat and at the intermediate stud.

Shelf ends can rest directly on these cleats. Attach clothes

rods to the cleats that support the shelf.

New Closets

New closets can be built in a conventional manner or

wardrobe closets of plywood or pafticleboard can be built at

a lower cost.

Conventional closets are constructed by adding a partition around the closet area, using 2- by 3-inch or 2- by 4-

inch framing and gypsum board or other cover material.

The method of installing partitions is described under

"Adding Partitions." Provide a cased opening for the closet

door.

Wardrobe closets require less space because the wall is a

single material without framing. Build wardrobe closets as

shown in figure 110. Use Vs- or ^/4-inch plywood or

particleboard supported on cleats.

Use a 1- by 4-inch top rail and back cleat. Fasten the

cleat to the wall, and in a corner, fasten the sidewall to a

wall stud. Toenail base shoe moldings to the floor to hold

the bottom ofthe sidewalls in place. Add shelves and closet

poles where desired. Similar units can be built with shelves

for linens or other items. Any size or combination of these

units can be built. Add plywood doors or folding doors as

desired.

SPECIFIC FEATURES

FRAMING FOR UTILITIES

Updating the heating, plumbing, and electrical systems

in an older house usually requires a skilled, licensed cr^tsman, so the details for accomplishing this are not within

the scope of this manual. However, certain construction

practices are required to accommodate the utilities. Because

heating ducts, plumbing stacks and drains, water piping,

and electrical conduit must be run throughout the house it

is usually difficult to avoid cutting into the structure to

accommodate them. Mechanical tmdes should be cautioned

to avoid cutting if possible, and instructed in the manner of

cutting where it is unavoidable. At critical points the

structure can be altered, but only by or at the direction of

someone qualified. Cut members can often be reinforced

and any new walls or other framing can be built to accommodate mechanical items.

Cutting Floor Joists

Floor joists must often be cut to accommodate pipe for

water supply lines or electrical conduit. This may be in the

form of notches at top or bottom of the joist, or as holes

drilled through the joist. Notching ofjoists should be done

only in the end quarter of the span and to not more than

one-sixth of the depth. Ifmore severe alteration is required,

floor framing should be altered. Use headers and tail beams

as shown in figure 111 to eliminate the joist at that point.

Holes can also be drilled through joists if the size of hole

is limited to 2 inches in diameter and the edges of the hole

M-135 165

Figure 111.—Headers for joists to eliminate cutting.

69
2x4 STUD

M~134 606

Figure 112.—Boring holes in joists.

are not less than 2^/2 inches from the top or bottom of the

joist (fig. 112).

Where a joist must be cut and the above conditions

cannot be met, add an additional joist next to the cut joist

or reinforce the cut joist by nailing scabs to each side.

Bathtub Framing

Where a bathtub is to be added, additional framing may

be necessary to support the heavy weight of the tub filled

with water. Where joists are parallel to the length of the

tub, double the joists under the outer edge of the tub. ITie

other edge is usually supported on the wall framing which

also has a double joist under it. Hangers or wood blocks

support the bathtub at the enclosing walls (fig. 113).

Utüity Wails

Walls containing plumbing stack or vents may require

special framing. Four-inch soil stacks will not fít in a

TOF PLATES

Z»^ SCABS

M-154 616

Figure 114.—Framing for vent stack: A, 4-inch soil pipe; B, 3-inch

stack vent.

standard 2- by 4-inch stud wall. Where a thicker wall is

needed, it is usually constructed with 2—by 6—inch top and

bottom plates and 2- by 4-inch studs placed flatwise at the

edge of the plates (fig. 1 l4A). This leaves the center of the

wall open for running bwth supply and drain pipes through

the wall.

USE BLOCKING

FOR DRY-WALL- NAILÍNG

HANGER OR SUPPORT

BLOCK —

.BATHTUB

SUBFLOOR

SPACE TO

CLEAR DRAIN

M-Í34 608

Figure 113.—Framing for bathtub.

70
Three-inch vent stacks do fit into 2- by 4-inch stud

walls; however, the hole for the vent requires cutting away

most of the top plate. Scabs cut from 2 by 4's are then

nailed to the plate on each side of the vent to reinforce the

top plate (fig. 114B).

Chimneys and Fireplaces

Defective chimneys and fireplaces are difficult to repair,

so it may be best to replace a poor chimney. When gas or

oil heaters are used, only small metal vents may be required. Check with local code authorities for type and

allowable length of run. These can sometimes be placed in

the stud space of an interior partition for low-capacity

heaters. Then the defective chimney can be eliminated. If

fuels requiring chimneys are used, fabricated metal chimneys can usually be installed at a much lower cost than the

conventional masonry chimney. Check local code for requirements for prefabricated chimneys.

Well-built chimneys have flue linings which keep the

flue tight even though there are cracks in the masonry.

Where flues are not lined, stainless steel flue lining can be

installed. This lining can be purchased in 2—or 2—V2-^oot

lengths and in cross sections to fit most standard size

chimneys. Sections are connected together and inserted

from the top, with additional sections being added until

the required length is achieved. Note that this type of

lining can only be used with a reasonably straight flue. The

flue lining will assure safe operation, but cracks in mortar

should also be repaired by regrouting.

Fireplaces have several requirements for good draft and

smoke-free operation. If they were not built with proper

proportions, a metal extension across the top of the fireplace opening will sometimes improve draft. This improvement can be tested by holding a board against the fireplace

just above the opening and observing change in draft. Draft

can sometimes be improved by extending the height of flue

or adding a chimney cap for venturi action. Another possible solution where draft is inadequate is to install a fan in

the chimney for forced exhaust.

In cold climates, a damper that can be closed when the

fireplace is not in use is quite important. Where there is no

damper, an asbestos board can be cut to fit the flue opening

at the top of the fireplace and supported on some type of

brackets. It would have to be completely removed when the

fireplace is in use, which is slightly inconvenient; but it

would eliminate heat loss or cold drafts from the flue.

If a new fireplace is desired, professional help is usually

required. However, prefabricated metal fireplaces are available which require no special skills for installation. They

can be placed on the conventional floor without a separate

foundation, and no masonry work is required. Fireplace

liners are also available which only require masonry added

around them. They require a complete foundation and

separate chimney the same as a conventional fireplace, but

they are a convenient guide for assuring proper proportions.

2x4

EACH SIDEr~innr~ir~imr

!

rnmrr

iiuj|ii

urn

-BLOCK

I I TREATED

1 Í POSTS

1 t

M-135 191

Figure 115.—Single porch step supported on a treated post.

PORCHES

If examination of the porch showed all parts to be in a

generally deteriorated condition, complete removal and

replacement is recommended. However, it may be feasible

to replace components, such as steps, floor, posts, or roof,

where other components are in good condition.

Steps

When wood steps are used, the bottom step and carriage

should not be in contact with soil, A concrete step can be

cast on the ground to support the. carriage or it can be

supported on a treated wood post. Apply a water-repellent

preservative to all wood used in the steps.

If only one step is required and treated posts are used for

support, the step can be supported on the same post that

supports the edge of the porch (fig. 115). Use treated posts

of 5- to 7-inch diameter embedded in the soil at least 3

feet. Nail and bolt the crossmember to the post, and block

the inner end to the floor framing with a short 2 by 4.

Where more steps are required, use a 2 by 12 stringer at

each end of the steps with the lower end of each stringer

M-142 179

Figure 116.—Step stringer supported by porch framing and posts.

71
STANDARD

roST ANCHOR

SOLID POST

STEEL PIN

SOLID POST

GALVANIZED WASHER

CONCRETE FLOOR

B

M-142 180

Figure 117.—-Base for post: A, standard post anchor for resistance

to uplift; B, galvanized washer and pin where resistance to uplift is

not critical.

bolted to a treated post (fig. 116). The upper end can be

attached to the porch fmming. Concrete or masonry piers

can be used in place of treated posts. The important thing

is that the stringer be kept from contact with the soil.

Floor

If floor framing is decayed, it should be completely

replaced, and all replacement members should be treated

with a water-repellent preservative. Framing members

should be at least 18 inches above the ground, and good

ventilation should be provided under the porch. Framing

should be installed to give the finished floor an outward

slope of at least ^/s inch per foot.

Porch flooring is 1— by 4—inch lumber, dressed and

matched. It is blind-nailed at each joist in the same manner

as regular flooring. Apply a good stain or deck paint as soon

as possible after installation.

Posts

Where a post rests directly on the porch floor, the base of

the post may be decayed. The best solution may be to

replace the post. When this is done, provide some way to

support the post slightly above the porch floor. Standard

post anchors can be purchased for this purpose (fig, 117Á).

Another way to accomplish this is by using a small ^/g— or

^/2-inch-diameter pin and large galvanized washer. Drill a

hole for the pin iñ the end of the post and a matching hole

in the floor (fig. 117B). Apply a mastic calk to the area and

position With the pin inserted and the washer between the

post and the floor. This will allow moisture to evaporate

from the end of the post and prevent decay. This pinned

method should be used only on small porches that will not

have a major wind uplift load.

If the existing porch posts are ornamental, it may be

desirable to cut off the decayed portion near the base and

save the good portion. Perhaps a base slightly larger than

the post can be added to replace the decayed portion (fig.

118). Some method of ventilating the base of the post

should be provided to avoid further decay. One solution is

to use a pin and large washer, as described above for a new

post.

Roof

A fX)rch roof can be repaired in much the same manner as

repairing the house roof. The difference may be that porch

roofs frequently have a very low slope and are often covered

with roll roofing. Simply apply an underlayment of asphalt-saturated felt ahd follow with mineral surfaced halflap roll roofing applied in accordance with manufacturer s

instructions. Use a ribbon of asphalt roof cement or lap seal

material under the lapped edge, and avoid using any exposed nails. Extend the roofing beyond the facia enough to

form a natural drip edge.

If wood or asphalt shingles are used on the porch roof,

apply them as described in the section on "Roofs."

EXISTING POST

DECAYED PORTION REMOVED AND REPLACED

WITH NEW WOOD

STEEL PIN-^¡

LARGE METAL WASHER

M-142 181

Figure 118.—Replacement of decayed end of porch post.

72
DORMER

JACK RAFTER

DOUBL.ED RAFTER

RIDGE BOARD

VALLEY RAFTER

SIDE STUD

Figure 119.—Framing for gable donner.

M-134 631

ADDITIONAL SPACE

ATTIC

Making an attic usable may be a simple matter of

installing finish ceiling, wall, and floor covering; however,

it wilf often require adding a shed or gable dormer for more

space or for natural light and ventilation. Furthermore, the

existing joists may not be adequate to support a floor load.

It may be best to get professional advice on this unless

tables are available that show allowable joist and rafter

spans. If the joists are inadequate, the best solution is

usually to double existing joists.

ALLOW 2-INCH

CLEARANC

SHINGLES

Gable Dormer

Where light and ventilation are the main requirements

rather than additional space, gable dormers are often used.

They are more attractive in exterior appearance than shed

dormers but, due to the roofslope, they are usually limited

to a small size. They are also more complicated to build

then shed dormers.

The roof of the gable dormer usually has the same pitch

as the main roof of the house. The dormer should be located

so that both sides are adjacent to an existing rafter (fig.

119). The rafters are then doubled to provide support for

the side studs and short valley rafters.-Tie the valley rafter

to the roof framing at the roof by a header. Frame the

window and apply interior and exterior covering materials,

as described under other appropriate sections.

One of the most critical items in dormer construction is

proper flashing where the dormer walls intersect the roof of

NEW ROOF RAFTERS

DOUBLE HEADER

FLASHING

Figure 120.—^Flashing at dormer walls.

DOUBLE EXISTING RAFTER

2"x4" STUDS

Figure 121.—^Framing for shed dormer.

73
BLOCKIN0 FOR NAILING

WALL FINISH KNEEWALL STUD

Figure 122.—^Installation

the house (fig. 120). When roofing felt is used under the

shingles, it should be turned up the wall at least 2 inches.

Shingle flashing should be used at this junction. This

consists of tin or galvanized metal shingles bent at a 90°

angle to extend up the side of the wall over the sheathing a

minimum of 4 inches. Use one piece of flashing at each

shingle course, lapping successive pieces in the same manner as shingles. Apply siding over the flashing, allowing

about a 2-inch space between the bottom edge of the siding

and the roof. Cut ends of siding should be treated with

water-repellent preservative.

Shed Dormer

Shed dormers can be made any width, and are sometimes

made to extend across the entire length of the house. They

are less attractive than gable dormers and, for this reason,

are usually placed at the back ofthe house. Sides ofthe shed

of knee walls and blocking.

dormer are framed in the same manner as the gable dormer,

so the sides should coincide with existing rafters. The lowslope roof has rafters framing directly into the ridgepole

(fig. 121). Ceiling joists bear on the outer wall of the

dormer, with the opposite ends of the joists nailed to the

main roof rafters. The low slope of the dormer roof means

that requirements of roofing application will be different

from those of the main roof. Shingle sizes and exposures

should conform to those shown in table 4.

Knee Walls

Sides ofthe Utic rooms are provided by nailing 2- by 4-

or 2— by 3-inch studs to each rafter at a point where the

stud will be at least 5 feet long (fig. 122). Studs should rest

on a soleplate in the same manner as other partitions. Nail

blocking between studs and rafter at the top of the knee

wall to provide a nailing surface for the wall finish.

APPLY CEILING FINISH

DIRECTLY TO RAFTERS

Figure 123.—Attic finished with a cathedral ceiling.

74
Ceiling

Nail collar beams between opposite rafters to serve as

ceiling framing (fig. 122). These should be at least 7*/2 feet

above the floor. Nail blocking between collar beams and

between rafters at their junction to provide a nailing surface

for the finish wall and ceiling materials.

An alternate method of installing the ceiling is to eliminate the collar beams and apply the ceiling finish directly to

the rafters (fig. 123). This result is in what is commonly

called a cathedral ceiling. If the dormer is wide, cross

partitions or some other type of bracing is required for

stability.

Chimney

If a chimney passes through the attic, it must either be

hidden or worked into the decor. Never frame into the

chimney. Keep all framing at least 2 inches from the

chimney. Where framing is placed completely around the

chimney, fill the space between the chimney and framing

with noncombustible insulation.

BASEMENT

Basements can be finished to any desired quality, depending on the investment required and the u^ to be made

of the finished space. This may vary from insulated walls

with quality paneling, wood floors, and acoustical ceiling,

to merely painting the existing concrete walls and floors.

Keep in mind that basement areas, even where the grade is

low, tend toward dampness thus requiring dehumidification, and tend to be cooler so the rooms may be uncomfortably cool in periods of light heating. A small amount of

auxiliary electric heat can partially correct this. Insulation

of below-grade concrete or masonry walls is very important.

Floors

If a concrete floor is dry most ofthe year, it indicates that

a vapor barrier was probably applied under the slab at t;he

time it was constructed. In such a basement, resilient tile

or indoor-outdoor carpeting could be applied directly to the

smooth slab. Any protrusions from the slab should be

chipped off. Extension unevenness in the slab indicates that

an underlayment over sleepers should be used as a base for

the tile or carpet. Install the tile as described under the

section on "Floors," following the manufacturer's recommendations on adhesives and installation practices. Carpeting is usually just cut to size and laid flat without special

installation except for double-faced tape at edges and

seams.

A very low-cost floor can be achieved by merely applying

a deck paint. It should be a latex paint to avoid chipping or

peeling. Although painting may not give the finished

FLOOR TILE

PLYWOOD ( BASE

FOR TILE )

2Lx^ SCREEDS (ANCHOR)

STRIP FLOORING

VAPOR BARRIER

CONCRETE FLOOR

M-134 744

Figufe 124.—Installation of wood floors in a basement.

75
WATERPROOF

COATíNG

TOP PLATE

^ (NAIL TO JOíST

\ OR NAILING BLOCK.

\ SEE DETAILS A AND B.}

INTERIOR FINISH

(PLYWOOD, ETC.)

STUDS OR FURRING

STRIPS (ANCHOR)

INSULATION WITH

VAPOR ly^RRIER

BOTTOM PLATE

/JOISTA

[

JOIST

TOP PLATE

NAILING

BLOCK

TOP PLATE

Figufe 125.—Basement wall finish over framing.

appearance provided by a floor covering, it does brighten

the basement and produces a smooth surface that is easily

cleaned. It is particularly suited to shops, utility rooms,

and playrooms.

Where a concrete floor is desired, but the existing floor

is cracked and uneven or damp, a vapor barrier can t^ laid

over the existing floor and a 2- to 3-inch topping of

concrete fill can be added.

Where a vapor barrier is required and finished flooring is

planned, apply an asphalt mastic coating to the concrete

floor, followed by a good vapor barrier. This can serve as a

base for tile; however, the use of furring strips with finish

floor applied over them may produce a better end result.

Wood flooring manufacturers often recommend that preparation for wood strip flooring consist of the following steps:

1. Mop or spread a coating of tar or asphalt mastic on the concrete,

followed by an asphalt felt paper,

2. Lay 2 by 4's fl^wise in a coating of tar or asphalt, spacing the rows

about 12 inches apart; start at one wall and end at the opposite wall.

76
M-142 185

Figure 126.—^Framing around basement window of a wall finish

application.

3. Place a 2-foot width of insulation around the perimeter, between 2

by 4's, where the outside ground level is near the basement floor

elevation.

4. Install wood-strip flooring across the 2 by 4's.

A variation of this prepamtion for flooring consists of

laying a good-quality vapor barrier directly over the slab

and anchoring the furring strips to the slab with concrete

nails (fig. 124). Insulation and strip flooring are then

applied in the same manner described above.

Plywood, ^¡2 or ^/s inch thick, can also be applied over

furring strips to provide a base for resilient tile or carpet

(fig. 124).

Walls

Where basement walls were waterproofed on the outside,

there should be no problem in applying most any kind of

wall finish. However, if there is any possibility of water

entry, it is important to apply a waterproof coating to the

inner surface. Numerous coatings of this type are available

commercially. These coatings usually cannot be applied

over a wall that has previously been painted. Walls can

simply be painted for a bright, clean appearance where a

more finished appearance is not as essential. If a better

interior finish is desired, it is applied over furring strips or

rigid insulation.

Furring strips, 2 by 2 inches or larger, are used at the

walls in preparation for for the interior finish (fig. 125).

Strips should be pressure treated for decay resistance, especially if the walls are not waterproofed. Anchor a 2- by 2-

inch bottom plate to the floor at the junction of the wall

and floor. Fasten a 2- by 2~inch or larger top plate to the

bottom of the joists above (fig. 125A), to nailing blocks

(fig. 125B), or to the wall. Then fasten 2- by 2-inch or

larger furring strips, at 16- or 24—inch spacing, vertically

ADHESIVE (USE

CALKING OUN) ^> WALLBOARD

ADHESIVE

GYPSUM BOARD,

\7; PLYWOOD, ETC.

WATERPROOF

COATING

Figure 127.—^Basement wall finish over rigid insulation.

77
between top and bottom plates. Concrete nails are sometimes used to anchor the center of the furring strips to the

basement wall.

Before proceeding any further with the finish wall,

install all required electrical conduit and outlet boxes between furring strips. Place blanket-type insulation with

vapor barrier on the inside face in each space between

furring strips. Frame around windows, as shown in figure

126. The wall is then ready to receive the interior finish.

Almost any dry-wall material can be applied in the manner

described under "Interior Wall Finish."

Wall finish material is sometimes applied over foamed

plastic insulation, which is applied directly to basement

walls without the use of furring strips. For this method,

walls must be smooth and level without protrusions so the

sheets of foam insulation can be secured to the walls with

beads of adhesive. Use dry wall adhesive to secure the wall

finish to the insulation (fig. 127). Follow manufacturer's

recommendations on adhesives and methods of installation

for both the foam insulation and the dry wall. Select a foam

insulation with good vapor resistance to eliminate the need

for a separate vapor barrier.

Basement partitions are made in much the same manner

as on the main floor. The only difference is in securing the

soleplate to the slab with concrete nails or other types of

concrete anchors.

Finishing walls should include concealing unsightly

items such as steel beams and columns and exposed piping.

These items can be covered by building a simple box

around them and paneling over the box (fig. 128).

Ceilings

The ceiling finish can be applied using the same materials and techniques described in the section on *'Ceilings."

In many basements, a suspended ceiling system will be

best. It can be placed below piping and electrical conduit,

and panels are easily removed for repair or changes in

utilities. In considering the use of a suspended ceiling,

make certain that at least 7 feet will still be available from

floor to ceiling. It may be necessary to apply the ceiling

directly to the bottom of floor joists and box around or

paint to match the ceiling.

Before installing any ceiling, insulate cold-water pipes.

When the basement has a high relative humidity, water

condenses on the cold pipes and this condensation drips

down on the ceiling where it is under the pipes. Molded

insulation that can be fitted over the pipe is commercially

available. Commercial insulations are made specifically for

wrapping around pipe.

GARAGE

The garage that was built integrally with the house can

be used as living space simply by insulating it and adding

floor, wall, and ceiling finish. There may be some additional requirement for windows and for heating.

M-142 145

Figure 128.—Application ofquieting to cover columns, beams, and

pipes.

Floors

The new finish floor is applied directly over the existing

conctete slab, or, where headroom is sufficient, over new

floor framing above the slab. Where the ceiling of the

finished gamge is at the same elevation as the house ceiling,

new floor framing can be installed to place the new floor at

the same level as the house floor. The fmming may rest on

the foundation wall or be supported on ledgers nailed to the

wall studs (fig. 129). Consult joist tables to determine the

correct size for the required span. The floor is merely

installed as a conventional floor, described under "Floor

System," and insulated in the same manner as a crawl-space

house, as described under "Insulation."

The garage roof is often lower than the house roof, so

that the floor must be placed directly on the concrete slab

one or two steps below the house floor. Finish floor can be

78
installed using the same materials and techniques as for a

basement slab. If the garage floor is near ground level,

insulation is required. If the finished floor is on sleepers

over the concrete, place insulation between sleepers.

Another method of insulating is to dig the soil way from

the foundation and apply rigid insulation to the outer face

of the foundation wall to the depth of the footing (fig.

130). It must be a moisture-proof insulation, such as

polystyrene or polyurethane, and should be attached with a

mastic recommended by the insulation manufacturer. The

insulation should be covered with a material suitable for

underground use, such as asbestos-cement board or preservative-treated plywood. Where subterranean termites are a

threat, soil can be poisoned (see p. 26) during the backfill.

Wails

The garage walls are not usually insulated, so blanket

insulation with a vapor barrier on the inside face should be

installed in the space between studs. Then apply any type

of dry wall in the manner described under "Interior Wall

Finish."

Frame any additional doors and windows following the

instructions given under "Doors" and "Windows." It may

be convenient to use the existing garage door opening for a

sliding glass door, or a window wall. If it is not to be used

for either purpose, fill it in, using conventional 2- by 4-

inch framing, and install covering materials.

Ceiling

The ceiling can be installed as described under "Ceilings." Be sure to insulate well and ventilate the attic space.

EXISTING WALL STUDNEW FLOOR FRAMING -

r

PRESSURE-TREATED PLYWOOD

r~ RIGID INSULATION

EXISTING SLAB

M-142 186

Figure 129.—^Framing to bring new garage floor to the level of the

house floor.

FOOTING

M-142 187

Figure 130.—Application of insulation to outer face of garage

foundation wall.

ADDITIONS

Additions to existing houses are made by employing new

construction techniques, and building to match or blend

with the existing structure. Previous sections have described methods for installing windows, doors, and covering materials. Most of these instructions also apply to new

construction such as in an addition. The main item peculiar

to additions is making the connection between the addition

and the existing structure.

Where the addition is to be made by extending the

length of building, the structure as well as the siding and

roofing must match the existing portion. To accomplish

this, a complete roofing job may be necessary. Where

existing shingles can be matched, some of the shingles near

the end must be removed in order to lap the saturated felt

underlayment. The new shingles are then worked into the

existing shingle pattern. Short pieces of lap siding must

also be removed so the new siding can be toothed into the

existing siding with end joints offset rather than as one

continuous vertical joint.

If the addition is to be perpendicular to the house, the

siding can either match or contrast with the existing siding. However, the roofing material should match. Siding

at intersection of walls is applied with a corner strip as

shown in figure 55.

PAINTING AND FINISHING

Painting and finishing of the house being rehabilitated

will usually include repainting or refinishing of existing

surfaces as well as providing a finish over new siding,

interior wall surfaces, floors, and trim. The exterior finishes

are required for appearance and protection from weathering; interior finishes are primarily for appearance, wear

resistance, and ease of maintenance of the surface.

79
WOOD PROPERTIES AND FINISH DURABILITY Water-Repallent-Preservative Finishes

The durability of an exterior finish is materially affected

by the wood characteristics. Woods that are high in density

(heavy), such as dense hardwoods, will be more difficult to

finish effectively than lightweight woods. Western redcedar and redwood are two species that have the desired

qualities in a high degree.

The amount and distribution of summerwood (darker

grained portions) on the surface of softwood lumber also

influence the success of the finishing procedure. Finishes,

particularly paints, will last longer on surfaces with a low

proportion of summerwood.

The manner in which lumber is sawn from the log has an

influence on its finishing characteristics. Paint-type and

film-forming finishes always perform best on vertical-grain

lumber because the summerwood is better distributed on

the surface and because vertical-grain lumber is low in

swelling across the width of the board.

All woods shrink or swell as they lose or absorb water.

Species which shrink and swell the least are best for painting. Checking and warping of wood, and paint peeling are

more likely to be critical on woods which are hard, dense,

and high in swelling.

Wood that is free of knots, pitch pockets, and other

defects is the preferred base for paints, but these defects

have little adverse effect on penetrating-type finishes.

Smoothly planed surfaces are best for paint finishes, while

rougher or sawn surfaces are preferred for penetrating (nonfílm-forming) finishes,

EXTERIOR FINISHES

Unfinished Wood

Permitting the wood to weather naturally without protection of any kind is, of course, very simple and economical. Wood fully exposed to all elements ofthe weather, rain

and sun being the most important, will wear away at the

approximate rate of only ^U inch in a century. The time

required for wood to weather to the final gray color will

depend on the severity of exposure. Wood in protected

areas will be much slower to gray than wood fully exposed

to the sun on the south side of a building. Early in the

graying process, the wood may take on a blotchy appearance because of the growth of micro-organisms on the

surface. Migration of wood extractives to the surface also

will produce an uneven and unsightly discoloration, particularly in areas that are not washed by rain.

Unfinished lumber will warp more than lumber protected by paint. Warping varies with the wood density,

width and thickness of the board, basic wood structure, and

species. Warp increases with density and the width of the

board. The width of boards should not exceed eight times

the thickness. Flat-grain boards warp more than verticalgrain lumber, Baldcypress, the cedars, and redwood are

species which have only a slight tendency to warp.

A simple treatment of an exterior wood surface with a

water-repellent preservative markedly alters the natural

weathering process. Most pronounced is the retention of a

uniform natural tan color in the early stages of weathering

and a retardation of the uneven graying process which is

produced by the growth of mildew on the surface.

Water-repellent finishes generally contain a preservative

(usually pentachlorophenol), a small amount of resin,^ and a

veiy small amount of a water repellent that is frequently

wax or waxlike in nature. The water-repellency imparted

by the treatment greatly reduces the tendency toward

warping, and excessive shrinking and swelling which lead

to splitting. It also retards the leaching of extractives from

the wood and staining from water at ends of boards.

This type of finish is quite inexpensive, easily applied,

and very easily refinished. Water-repellent prcservatives

can be applied by brushing, dipping, and spraying. Rough

surfaces will absorb more solution than smoothly planed

surfaces and the treatment will be mote durable on them. It

is important to thoroughly treat all lap and butt joints and

ends of boards. Many brands of effective water-repellent

pre^rvatives are on the market.

The initial applications may be short lived (1 yr), especially in humid climates and on species that are susceptible

to mildew, such as sapwood and certain hardwoods. Under

more favorable conditions, such as on rough cedar surfaces

which will adsorb large quantities of the solution, the

finish will last more than 2 years.

When blotchy discolorations of mildew start to appear

on the wood, remove blotches and rain spatters, and

lighten dark areas by steel brushing with the grain. Retreat the surface with water-repellent-preservative solution.

If extractives have accumulated on the surface in protected

areas, clean these areas by mild scrubbing with a detergent

of trisodium-phosphate solution.

The continued use of these water-repellent-preservative

solutions will effectively prevent serious decay in wood in

above-ground installation. This finishing method is recommended for all wood species and surfaces exposed to the

weather.

Only aluminum or stainless steel nails will prevent

discoloration on the siding. Galvanized nails will slww

light stains after several years. Steel nails without rustresistant treatment should not be used.

Penetrating Pigmented Stain Finishes

The penetrating stains also are effective and economical

finishes for all kinds of lumber and plywood surfaces. They

are especially well suited for rough-sawn, weathered, and

textured wood and plywood. Knotty wood boards and other

lower quality grades of wood which would be difficult to

paint can be finished successfully with penetrating stains.

These stains penetrate into the wood without forming a

continuous film on the surface. Because these is no film or

coating, there can be no failure by cracking, peeling, and

80
blistering. Stain finishes are easily prepared for refinishing

and easily maintained.

The penetrating pigmented stains form a flat and semitransparent finish. They permit only part ofthe wood-grain

pattern to show through. A variety of colors can be

achieved including shades of brown, gteen, red, and gray.

The only color which is not available is white. This color

can be provided only through the use of white paint.

Stains are quite inexpensive and easy to apply. To avoid

the formation of lap marks, the entire length of a course of

siding should be finished without stopping. Only one coat

is recommended on smoothly planed surfaces, where it will

last 2 to 3 years. After refinishing, however, the second

coat will last 6 to 7 years because the weathered surface has

adsorbed more of the stain than the smoothly planed surface.

Two-coat staining is possible on rough-sawn or weathered surfaces, but both coats should be applied within a few

hours of each other. When using a two-coat system, the

first coat should never be allowed to dry before the second is

applied, because this will seal the surface and prevent the

second coat from penetrating. A finish life of up to 10 years

can be achieved when two coats are applied to a rough or

weathered surface.

A stained surface should be refinished only when the

colors fade and bare wood is beginning to show. A light

steel-wool ing or steel brushing with the grain and hosing

with water to remove surface dirt and mildew is all that is

needed to prepare the surface. Re-stain after the surfaces

have thoroughly dried.

A number of penetrating pigmented stains finishes are

on the market, or a satisfactory version can be prepared by

home-mixing the Forest Products Laboratory natural finish.^ This finish has a linseed oil vehicle; a preservative,

pentachlorophenol, to protect the oil from mildew; and a

water repellent, paraffin wax, to protect the wood from

excessive penetration of water.

Clear Film Finishes

Clear finishes based on varnish, which form a coating or

film on the surface, should not be used on wood exposed

fully to the weather. These finishes are quite expensive and

often begin to deteriorate within 1 year. Refinishing is a

frequent, difficult, and time-consuming process.

Exterior Paints

Of all the finishes, paints provide the widest selection of

color. When properly selected and applied, paint will

provide the most protection to wood against weathering.

^ The composition, preparation, and application of the stain is described in "Forest Products Laboratory Natural Finish," USDA Forest

Serv. Res. Note FPL—046, available from the Forest Products Laboratory,

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wis. It is also

listed in Fed. Spec. TT-S~708a, "Stain, Oil; Semi-Transparent, Wood

Exterior," available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

The durability of paint coatings on exterior wood, however,

is affected by many variables, and much care is needed in

the selection of the wood surface material, type of paint,

and method of application to achieve success in painting.

The original and maintenance costs are higher for a paint

finish than for either the water-repellent-preservative treatment or penetrating-stain finish.

Paint performance is affected by such wood variables as

species, density, structure, extractives, and defects such as

knots and pitch pockets.

Best paint durability will be achieved on the select high

grades of vertical-grain western redcedar, redwood, and

low-density pines. Exterior-grade plywood which has been

overlaid with medium-density resin-treated paper is another wood-base material on which paint will perform very

well.

Follow these three simple steps when painting wood:

(1) Apply water-repellent preservative to all joints by

brushing or spraying. Treat all lap and butt joints, ends

and edges of lumber, and window sash and trim. Allow 2

warm days of drying before painting. " .

(2) Prime the treated wood surface with an oil-base

paint free of zinc-oxide pigment. I>o not use a porous lowluster oil paint as primer on wood surfaces. Apply sufficient

primer so the grain of the wood cannot be seen. Open joints

should be calked after priming.

(3) Apply two topcoats of high-quality oil, alkyd, or

latex paint over the primer. The south side has the most

severe exposure, so two topcoats are particularly important

on that side of the house.

Effect of Impregnated Preservatives on Painting

Wood treated with the water-soluble preservatives in

common use can be painted satisfactorily after it is redried.

The coating may not last quite as long as it would have on

untreated wood, but there is no vast difference. Certainly, a

slight loss in durability is not enough to offer any practical

objection to using treated wood where preservation against

decay is necessary, protection against weathering desired,

and appearance of painted wood important. Coal-tar creosote or other dark oily preservatives tend to stain through

paint unless the treated wood has been exposed to the

weather for many months before it is painted.

REPAINTING

(1) Repaint only when the old paint has worn thin and

no longer protects the wood. Faded or dirty paint can often

be freshened by washing. Where wood surfaces are exposed,

spot prime with a zinc-free linseed oil primer before applying the finish coat. Too-frequent repainting pKxduces an

excessively thick film that is more sensitive to the weather

and also is likely to crack abnormally across the grain ofthe

paint. The grain of the paint is in the direction of the last

brush strokes. Complete paint removal is the only cute for

cross-grain cracking.

(2) Use the same brand and type of paint originally

applied for the topcoat. A change is advisable only if a paint

has given trouble. When repainting with latex paint, apply

81
a nonporous, oil-base primer overall before applying the

latex paint.

(3) To avoid intercoat peeling, which indicates a weak

bond between coats of paint, clean the old painted surface

well and allow no more than 2 weeks between coats in twocoat repainting. Do not repaint sheltered areas, such as

eaves and porch ceilings, every time the weathered body of

the house is painted. In repainting sheltered areas, wash the

old paint surface with trisodium phosphate or detergent

solution to remove surface contaminants that will interfere

with adhesion of the new coat of paint. Following washing,

rinse sheltered areas with copious amounts of water and let

dry thoroughly before repainting. When intercoat peeling

does occur, complete paint removal is the only satisfactory

procedure.

Blistering and Peeling

When too much water gets into wood, the paint may

blister and peel. The moisture blisters normally appear first

and peeling follows. But sometimes the paint peels without

blistering. At other times the blisters go unnoticed. Moisture blisters usually contain water when they form, or soon

afterward, and eventually dry out. Small blisters may disappear completely on drying; however, fairly large ones

may leave a rough spot on the surface. If the blistering is

severe, the paint may peel.

New, thin coatings are more likely to blister because of

too much moisture under them than old, thick coatings.

The older and thicker coatings are too rigid to stretch, as

they must to blister, and so are more prone to cracking and

peeling. Where either of these occurs the old paint must be

completely burned off, and re-siding may be more economical.

House construction features that will minimize water

damage of outside paint are: (a) Wide roof overhang, (b)

wide flashing under shingles at roof edges, (c) effective

vapor barriers, (d) adequate eave troughs and properly

hung downspouts, and (e) adequate ventilation of the

house. If these features are lacking in a house, persistent

blistering and peeling may occur.

Discoloration by Color Extractives

Water-soluble color extractives occur naturally in western redcedar and redwood. It is to these substances that the

heartwood of these t^vo species o-wes its attractive color,

good stability, and natural decay resistance. Discoloration

occurs when the extractives are dissolved and leached from

the wood by water. When the solution of extractives

reaches the painted surface, the water evaporates, leaving

the extractives as a reddish-brown stain. The water that

gets behind the paint and causes moisture blisters also

causes migration of extractives. The discoloration produced

by water wetting the siding from the back side frequently

forms a rundown or streaked pattern.

The emulsion paints and the so-called "breather" or lowluster oil paints are more porous than conventional oil

paints. If these are used on new wood without a good oil

primer, or if any paint is applied too thinly on new wood (a

skimpy two-coat paint job, for example), rain or even heavy

dew can penetrate the coating and reach the wood. When

the water dries from the wood, the extractives are brought

to the surface of the paint. Discoloration of paint by this

process forms a diffused pattern.

On rough surfaces, such as shingles, machine-grooved

shakes, and rough-sawn lumber siding, it is difficult to

obtain an adequately thick coating on the high points.

Therefore, extractive staining is more likely to occur on

such surfaces by water penetrating through the coating.

But the reddish-brown extractives will be less conspicuous

if dark-colored paints are used.

Interior Finishes

Interior finishes for wood and dry-wall or plaster surfaces

are usually intended to serve one or more of the following

purposes:

(1) Make the surface easy to clean.

(2) Enhance the natural beauty of wood.

(3) Achieve a desired color decor.

(4) Impart wear resistance.

The type of finish depends largely upon type of area and

the use to which the area will be put. The various interior

areas and finish systems employed in each are summarized

in table 6. Wood surfaces can be finished either with a clear

finish or a paint. Plaster-base materials are painted.

Preparing Old Surfaces

The repainting of old surfaces depends on materials used

previously and their condition. Following are preparations

required for certain conditions:

Table 6.—What interior finish to use—and where^

Item Interior Flat oil Semi-gloss Floor (wood) Varnish^ Floor or deck

latex paint paint seal^ enamel

Wood floors X X X

Wood paneling and trim — X X X X —

Kitchen and bathroom walls (smooth

surface with good scrubbability) — — X __ — —

Dry-wall and plaster (rougher surface) X X — — — —

^ Check the paint can for manufacturer's recommendations on primer or undercoat.

^ Paste wax can be applied over floor seal with varnish base.

82
(1) Complete removal of old paint is required in the following cases,

and a new covering material may be more practical:

(a) Kalsomiae over sand-textured plaster.

(b) Kalsomine applied alternately with oil-base paint.

(c) Noncompatible paints that have resulted in intercoat peeling.

(d) Paints applied in kitchens or other areas over a grease film.

(2) All plaster cracks should be repaired with fiberglass tape and plaster

patching.

(3) Old varnish should be cleaned with strong trisodium and then

painted soon after drying. Heavily alligatored varnish must be

removed before cleaning.

(4) Old radiators painted gold or aluminum should fc^ coated with

bronzing liquid before painting.

(5) Plastered chimneys may have creosote sodcing through the plaster

r^uldng from an accumulation in the chimney. This will continue to soak

through, so the wall should be framed out around the chimney before

adding a new covering material.

Wood Floors

Hairdwood floon of oak, birch, beech, and maple are

usually finished by applying two coats of wood seal, also

called floor seal, with light sanding or steel wooiing between coats. A final coat of paste wax is then applied and

buffed. This finish is easily maintained by rewaxing. The

final coat can also be a varnish instead of a sealer. The

varnish finishes are used when a high gloss is desired.

When floors are to be painted, an undercoater is used,

and then at least one topcoat of floor and deck enamel is

applied.

Wood Paneling and Trim

Wood trim and paneling are most commonly finished

with a clear wood sealer or a stain-sealer combination and

then topcoated, after sanding, with at least one additional

coat of sealer or varnish. The final coat of sealer or varnish

can also be covered with a heavy coat of paste wax to

produce a surface which is easily maintained by rewaxing.

Good depth in a clear finish can be achieved by finishing

first with one coat of high-gloss varnish followed with a

final coat of semigloss varnish.

Wood trim of nonporous species such as pine can also be

painted by first applying a coat of primer or undercoater,

followed with a coat of latex, flat, or semigloss oil-base

paint. Semigloss and gloss paints are more resistant to

soiling and are more easily cleaned by washing than the flat

oil and latex paints. Trim of wood species such as oak and

mahogany, which are porous, requires filling before painting.

Kitchen and Bathroom Walls

Kitchen and bathroom walls which normally are plaster

or dry-wall construction are finished best with a coat of

undercoater and two coats ofsemigloss enamel. This type of

finish wears well, is easy to clean, and is quite resistant to

moisture.

Dry-Wall and Plaster

Plaster and dry-wall surfaces which account for the major

portion of the interior area are finished with two coats of

either flat oil or latex paint. An initial treatment with size

or sealer will improve holdout (reduce penetration of succeeding coats) and thus reduce the quantity of paint required for good coverage.

83
SUMMARY

This handbook has presented major points necessary to

inspect an older dwelling, plan improvements for it, and

accomplish the rehabilitation. The procedures given should

produce a dwelling with all the comforts and conveniences

of a modern house.

Appraisal for rehabilitation,—^A good foundation

and a square fmme are generally good indicators that a

house is worth rehabilitating; however, repair and replacement requirements should still be weighed against the

increased value of the property. The location of the dwelling and condition of surrounding properties will influence

the final decision.

Planning and rehabilitation,—A good plan for improvements is essential to complete rehabilitation. Changes

in lifestyle over the years usually dictate some changes in

the layout of the rehabilitated dwelling. The layout should

be planned to accommodate the three major family functional areas—-relaxation, working, and privacy. Good

traffic circulation patterns between and within functional

areas is important for convenience and liveability. Additional living space is sometimes available in an attic,

basement, or attached garage.

Many older dwellings have desirable qualities of appearance that should be retained. If changes in appearance are

planned, the most important considerations are unity and

simplicity. All additions should be in keeping with the

existing character.

Reconditioning details,—-Some of the actual work of

rehabilitation can be done by the relatively unskilled homeowner; however, it is advisable to seek professional help for

plumbing, electrical wiring, and heating system. Certain

carpentry jobs involving major structural changes may also

require professional assistance. If leveling of the floor system is required, that should be the first step. After that,

make roofrepairs and changes in windows or exterior doors.

Any changes in plumbing, electrical wiring, and heating

should be completed before interior finish work is started.

If the dwelling must be occupied while work is in

progress, do the necessary items at once and plan the

remainder in projects with a breather space between them.

Living in a mess continually may make the project "go

sour." A sensible approach will result in a house with new

life that will satisfy needs for years to come.

84
APPENDIX

r llKJMLljNOL.(JtjY The sketches shown here^ indicate some of the common

terms of an older home, within each area from basement to

The terms used to describe various units of construction the finished house (figs. 131—133):

in this handbook may not be understood by everyone. The

sketches shown here, and the Glossary to follow, should 4 adapted from The High Cost of Cheap Construction," Weyerhaeuhelp to prevent confusion. ser Sales Company, St. Paul, Minn. 1937.

Figure 131.—IBîrst stage of construction with foundation completed and floor structure going in place.

85
Figure 132.—-Further development with framework for first and ^cond floors taking shape.

86
Figure 133.—^House near completion.

87
GLOSSARY OF HOUSING TERMS

Attic ventilators.—In houses, screen openings provided

to ventilate an attic space. They are located in the soffit

area as inlet ventilators and in the gable end or along the

ridge as outlet ventilators. They can also consist of

power-driven fans used as an exhaust system. (See also

Louver, )

Backfill.—The replacement of excavated earth into a

trench around and against a basement foundation.

Base or baseboard.—-A board placed against the wall

around a room next to the floor to finish properly

between floor and plaster.

Base molding.—^Molding used to trim the upper edge of

interior baseboard.

, Base shoe.—Molding used next to the floor on interior

baseboard. Sometimes called a carpet strip.

Batten,—Narrow strips of wood used to cover joints or as

decorative vertical members over plywood or wide

boards.

Beam.—A structural member transversely supporting a

load.

Bearing partition.—A partition that supports any vertical

load in addition to its own weight.

Bearing wall.—A wall that supports any vertical load in

addition to its own weight.

Blind-nailing.—Nailing in such a way that the nailheads

are not visible on the face of the work—usually at the

tongue of matched boards.

Boston ridge.—^A method of applying asphalt or wood

shingles at the ridge or at the hips of a roof as a finish.

Brace.—^An inclined piece of framing lumber applied to

wall or floor to stiffen the structure. Often used on walls

as temporary bracing until framing has been completed.

Brick veneer.—A facing of brick laid against and fastened

to sheathing of a frame wall or tile wall construction.

Built-up roof.—A roofing composed of three to five layers

of asphalt felt laminated with coal tar, pitch, or asphalt.

The top is finished with crushed slag or gravel. Generally used on flat or low-pitched roofs.

Butt joint.—The junction where the ends of two timbers

or other member meet in a square-cut joint.

Casement frames and sash.—Frames of wood or metal

enclosing part or all ofthe sash, which may be opened by

means of hinges affixed to the vertical edges.

Casing.—Molding of various widths and thicknesses used

to trim door and window openings at the jambs.

Checking.—Fissures that appear with age in many exterior

paint coatings, at first superficial, but which in time

may penetrate entirely through the coating.

Collar beam.—^Nominal 1- or 2—inch-thick members

connecting opposite roof rafters. They serve to stiffen the

roof structure.

Column.—In architecture: A perpendicular supporting

member, circular or rectangular in section, usually consisting of a base, shaft, and capital. In engineering: A

vertical structural compression member which supports

loads acting in the direction of its longitudinal axis.

Combination doors or windows.—Combination doors

or windows used over regular openings. They provide

winter insulation and summer protection and often have

self-storing or removable glass and screen inserts. This

eliminates the need for handling a different unit each

season.

Condensation.—In a building: Beads or drops of water

(and frequently frost in extremely cold weather) that

accumulate on the inside of the exterior covering of a

building when warm, moisture-laden air from the interior reaches a point where the temperature no longer

permits the air to sustain the moisture it holds. Use of

louvers or attic ventilators will reduce moisture condensation in attics. A vapor barrier under the gypsum lath or

dry wall on exposed walls will reduce condensation in

them.

Construction dry-wall.—A type of construction in which

the interior wall finish is applied in a dry condition,

generally in the form of sheet materials or wood paneling, as contrasted to plaster.

Construction, frame.—A type of construction in which

the structural parts are wood or depend upon a wood

fmme for support. In codes, if masonry veneer is applied

to the exterior walls, the classification of this type of

construction is usually unchanged.

Coped joint,—See Scribing.

Corner bead.—A strip of formed sheet metal, sometimes

combined with a strip of metal lath, placed on corners

before plastering to reinforce them. Also, a strip of wood

finish three-quarters-round or angular placed over a plastered corner for protection.

Corner boards.—Used as trim for the external corners of a

house or other frame structure against which the ends of

the siding are finished.

Corner braces.—^Diagonal braces at the corners of frame

structure to stiffen and strengthen the wall.

Let-in brace.—Nominal 1—inch—thick boards applied into

notched studs diagonally.

Cornice.-—Overhang of a pitched roof at the eave line,

usually condsting of a facia board, a soffit for a closed

cornice, and appropriate moldings.

Cornice return.—That portion of the cornice that returns

on the gable end of a house.

Coimterflashing.—A flashing usually used on chimneys

at the roof line to cover shingle flashing and to prevent

moisture entry.

Cove molding.—A molding with a concave face used as

trim or to finish interior corners.

Crawl space.-—A shallow space below the living quarters

of a basementless house, normally enclosed by the foundation wall.

Cripple stud.—A stud that does not extend foil height.

á.—Set Penny.

Dado.—^A rectangular groove across the width of a board

or plank. In interior decoration, a special type of wall

treatment.

Decay.—Disintegration of wood or other substance

through the action of fungi.

88
Deck paint.—An enamel with a high degree of resistance

to mechanical wear, designed for use on such surfaces as

porch floors.

Density.—^The mass ofsubstance in a unit volume. When

expressed in the metric system, it is numerically equal to

the specific gravity of the same substance.

Dewpoint.—^Temperature at which a vapor begins to deposit as a liquid. Applies especially to water in the

atmosphere.

Dimension.—See Lumber dimension.

Direct nailing.—^To nail perpendicular to the initial surface or to the junction of the pieces joined. Also termed

face nailing.

Door jamb, interior.—^The surrounding case into which

and out of which a door closes and opens. It consists of

two upright pieces, called side jambs, and a horizontal

head jamb.

Dormer.—An opening in a sloping roof, the framing of

which projects out to form a vertical wall suitable for

windows or other openings.

Downspout.—A pipe, usually of metal, for carrying rainwater from roof gutters.

Dressed and matched (tongued and grooved). ^Boards

or planks machined in such a manner that there is a

groove on one tàgç and a corresponding tongue on the

other.

Drip.—(a) A member of a comice or other horizontal

exterior-finish course that has a projection beyond the

other parts for throwing off water, (b) A groove in the

underside of a sill or drip cap to cause water to drop off

on the outer edge instead of drawing back and running

down the face of the building.

Drip cap.—^A molding placed on the exterior top side of a

door or window frame to cause water to drip beyond the

outside of the frame.

Dry-wall.—Interior covering material, such as gypsum

board or plywood, which is applied in large sheets or

panels.

Ducts.—In a house, usually round or rectangular metal

pipes for distributing warm air from the heating plant to

rooms, or air from a conditioning device or as cold air

returns. Ducts are also made of asbestos and composition

materials.

Eaves.—^The margin or lower part of a roof projecting over

the wall.

Facia or fascia.—A flat board, band, or face, used sometimes by itself but usually in combination with moldings, often located at the outer face of the cornice.

Filler (wood).—^A heavily pigmented preparation used for

filling and leveling offthe pores in open-pored wüods.

Fire stop.—^A solid, tight closure of a concealed space,

placed to prevent the spread of fire and smoke through

such a space. In a frame wall, this will usually consist of

2 by 4 cross blocking between studs.

Fishplate.—-A wood or plywood piece used to fasten the

ends of two members together at a butt joint with nails

or bolts. Sometimes used at the junction of opposite

rafters near the ridge line.

Flashing.—Sheet metal or other material used in roof and

wall construction to protect a building from water seepage.

Flat paint.—An interior paint that contains a high proportion of pigment and dries to a flat or lusterless finish.

Flue.—^The space or passage in a chimney through which

smoke, gas, or fumes ascend. Each passage is called a

flue, which together with any others and the surrounding masonry make up the chimney.

Flue lining.—Fire day or terra-cotta pipe, round or

square, usually made in all ordinary flue sizes and in 2—

foot lengths, used for the inner lining of chimneys with

the brick or masonry work around the outside. Flue

lining in chimney runs from about a foot below the flue

connection to the top of the chimney.

Fly rafters.—End rafters of the gable overhang supported

by roof sheathing and lookouts.

Footing.—A masonry section, usually concrete, in a rectangular form wider than the bottom of the foundation

wall or pier it supports.

Foundation.—The supporting portion of a structure below the first-floor construction, or below grade, including the footings.

Framing, balloon.—A system of framing a building in

which all vertical stmctural elements of the bearing walls

and partitions consist ofsingle pieces extending from the

top of the foundation sill plate to the roofplate and to

which all floor joists are fastened.

Framing, platform.—A system of framing a building in

which floor joists of each story rest on top plates of the

story below or on the foundation sill for the first story,

and the bearing walls and partitions rest on the subfloor

of each story.

Frieze.—In house construction, a horizontal member connecting the top of the siding with the soffit of the

cornice.

Frostline.—^The depth of frost penetration in soil. This

depth varies in different parts of the country. Footings

should be placed below this depth to prevent movement.

Fungi, wood.—Microscopic plants that live in damp

wood and cause mold, stain, and decay.

Fungicide.—^A chemical that is poisonous to fungi.

Furring.—Strips of wood or metal applied to a wall or

other surface to even it and normally to serve as a

fastening base for finish material.

Gable.—In house construction, the portion of the roof

above the eave line of a double-sloped roof.

Gable end.—An end wall having a gable.

Gloss enamel.—A finishing material made of varnish and

sufficient pigments to provide opacity and color, but

little or no pigment of low opacity. Such an enamel

forms a hard coating with maximum smoothness of

surface and a high degree of gloss.

Gloss (paint or enamel). A paint or enamel that contains a

relatively low proportion of pigment and dries to a sheen

or luster.

Girder.—A large or principal beam of wood or steel used

89
to support concentrated loads at isolated points along its

length.

Grain,—The direction, size arrangement, appearance, or

quality of the fibers in wood.

Grain, edge (vertical).—^Edge-grain lumber has been

sawed parallel to the pith ofthe log and approximately at

right angles to the growth rings; i.e., the rings form an

angle of 45"' or more with the surface of the piece.

Grain, flat.—Flat-grain lumber has been sawed parallel to

the pitch of the log and approximately tangent to the

growth rings, i.e., the rings form an angle of less than

45° with the surface of the piece.

Grain, quartersawn.—Another term for edge grain.

Grounds.—Guides used around openings and at the floorline to strike off plaster. They can consist of narrow

strips of wood or of wide subjambs at interior doorways.

They provide a level plaster line for installation of casing

and other trim.

Grout—Mortar made of such consistency (by adding

water) that it will just flow into the joints and cavities of

the masonry work and fill them solid.

Gusset.—A flatwood, plywood, or similar type member

used to provide a connection at intersection of wood

members. Most commonly used at joints of wood

trusses. They are fastened by nails, screws, bolts, or

adhesives.

Gutter or eave trough.—A shallow channel or conduit of

metal or wood set below and along the eaves of a house to

catch and carry off rainwater from the roof.

Gypsum plaster.—Gypsum formulated to be used with

the addition of sand and water for base-coat plaster.

Header.—(a) A beam placed perpendicular to joists and to

which joists are nailed in framing for chimney, stairway,

or other opening, (b) A wood lintel.

Heartwood.-—The wood extending from the pith to the

sapwood, the cells of which no longer participate in the

life processes of the tree.

Hip.—^The external angle formed by the meeting of two

sloping sides of a roof.

Hip roof.—A roof that rises by inclined planes from all

four sides of a building.

Humidifier.—A device designed to increase the humidity

within a room or a house by means of the discharge of

water vapor. They may consist of individual room-size

units or larger units attached to the heating plant to

condition the entire house.

Insulation board, rigid.—A structural building board

made of coarse wood or cane fiber in V2- or ^^/32-inch

thicknesses. It can be obtained in various size sheets, in

various densities, and with several treatments.

Insulation, thermal.—^Any material high in resistance to

heat transmission that, when placed in the walls, ceiling, or floors of a structure, will reduce the rate of heat

flow.

Interior finish.—^Material used to cover the interior

framed areas, or materials of walls and ceilings.

Jack post.—A hollow metal post with a jack screw in one

end so it can be adjusted to the desired height.

Jack rafter.—A rafter that spans the distance from the

wallplate to a hip, or from a valley to a ridge.

Jamb.—The side and head lining of a doorway, window,

or other opening.

Joint.—-The space between the adjacent surfaces of two

members or components joined and held together by

nails, glue, cement, mortar, or other means.

Joint cement—A powder that is usually mixed with

water and used for joint treatment in gypsum-wallboard

finish. Often called "spackle.'*

Joist—One of a series of parallel beams, usually 2 inches

in thickness, used to support floor and ceiling loads, and

supported in turn by larger beams, girders, or bearing

walls.

Knot—In lumber, the portion of a branch or limb of a

tree that appears on the edge or face of the piece.

Landing.—A platform between flights of stairs or at the

termination of a flight of stairs.

Lath,—A building material of wood, metal, gypsum, or

insulating board that is fastened to the frame of a

building to act as a plaster base.

Ledger strip.—-A strip of lumber nailed along the bottom

of the side of a girder on which joists rest.

Lintel.—A horizontal structural member that supports the

load over an opening such as a door or window.

Lookout—A short wood bracket or cantilever to support

an overhang portion of a roof or the like, usually concealed from view.

Louver.—An opening with a series of horizontal slats so

arranged as to permit ventilation but to exclude rain,

sunlight, or vision. See also Attic ventilators.

Lumber.-—Lumber is the product of the sawmill and

planing mill not further manufactured other than by

sawing, resawing, and passing lengthwise through a

standard planing machine, crosscutting to length, and

matching.

Lumber, boards.—^Yard lumber less than '2 inches thick

and 2 or more inches wide.

Lumber, dimension.—^Yard lumber from 2 inches to, but

not including, 5 inches thick and 2 or more inches wide.

includes joists, rafters, studs, plank, and small timbers.

Lumber, dressed size.—^The dimension of lumber after

shrinking from gieen dimension and after machining to

size or pattern.

Lumber, matdied. Lumber that is dressed and shaped

on one edge in a grooved pattern and on the other in a

tongued pattern.

Lumber, shiplap.—Lumber that is edge-dressed to make

a close rabbeted or lapped joint.

Lumber, timbers.—Yard lumber 5 or more inches in least

dimension. Includes beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills,

girders, and purlins.

Lumiber, yard.—Lumber of those grades, sizes, and patterns which are generally intended for ordinary construction, such as framework and rough coverage of houses.

Mantel.—The shelf above a fireplace. Also used in referring to the decorative trim around a fireplace opening.

Masonry.—Stone, brick, concrete, hollow-tile, concrete90
block, gypsum-block, or other similar building units or

materials or a combination ofthe same, bonded together

with mortar to form a wall, pier, buttress, or similar

mass.

Mastic—A pasty material used as a cement (as for setting

tile) or a protective coating (as for thermal insulation or

waterproofing).

Metal lath.—Sheets of metal that are slit and drawn out to

form openings. Used as a piaster base for walls and

ceilings and as reinforcing over other forms of plaster

base,

MilWork.—Generally all building materials made of finished wood and manufactured in millwork plants and

planing mills are included under the term "millwork."

It includes such items as inside and outside doors,

window and door frames, blinds, porchwork, mantels,

panelwork, stairways, moldings, and interior trim. It

normally does not include flooring, ceiling, orsiding.

Miter joint.—^The joint of two pieces at an angle that

bisects the joining angle. For example, the miter joint at

the side and head casing as a door opening is made at a

45° angle.

Moisture content of wood.—Weight of the water contained in the wood, usually expressed as a percentage of

the weight of the ovendry wood.

Molding.—^A wood strip having a curved or projecting

surface used for decorative purposes.

Mullion.—A vertical bar or divider in the frame between

windows, doors, or other openings.

Muntin.—A small member which divides the glass or

openings of sash or doors.

Natural finish.—A transparent finish which dbes not

seriously alter the original color or grain of the natural

wood. Natural finishes are usually provided by sealers,

oils, varnishes, water-repellent preservatives, and other

similar materials.

Nonbearing wall.—^A wall supporting no load other than

its own weight.

Nosing.—The projecting edge of a molding or drip. Usually applied to the projecting molding on the edge of a

stair tread.

O. C, on center.—^The measurement ofspacing for studs,

rafters, joists, and the like in a building from the center

of one member to the center of the next.

Outrigger,—An extension of a rafter beyond the wall line.

Usually a smaller member nailed to a larger rafter to

form a cornice or roof overhang.

Paint.—^A combination of pigments with suitable thinners

or oils to provide decorative and protective coatings.

Panel.—^In house construction, a thin flat piece of wood,

plywood, or similar material, framed by stiles and rails

as in a door or fitted into grooves ofthicker material with

molded edges for decorative wall treatment.

Paper, building.—^A general term for pa|^fô, felts, and

similar sheet materials used in buildings without reference to their properties or uses.

Paper, sheathing.—^A building material, generally paper

or felt, used in wall and roof construction as a protection

against the passage of air and sometimes moisture.

Parting stop or strip.—A small wood piece used in the

side and head jambs of double-hung windows to separate

upper and lower sash.

Partition.—^A wall that subdivides spaces within any story

of a building.

Penny.—^As applied to nails, it originally indicated the

price per hundred. The term now serves as a measure of

nail length and is abbreviated by the letter d.

Perm.—^A measure of water vapor movement through a

material (grains per square foot per hour per inch of

mercury difference in vapor pressure).

Pier.—A column of masonry, usually rectangular in horizontal cross section, used to support other structural

members.

Pigment.—A powdered solid in suitable degree of subdivision for use in paint or enamel.

Pitch.—^The incline slope of a roof or the ratio of the total

rise to the total width of a house, i.e., an 8-foot rise and

24-fbot width is a one-third pitch roof. Roof slope is

expressed in the inches of rise per foot of run.

Pith.—^The small, soft core at the original center of a tree

around which wood formation takes-place.

Plaster grounds.—Strips ofwood used as guides or strikeoff edges around window and door openings and at base

of walls.

Plate.—Sill plate: A horizontal member anchored to a

masonry wall. Sole plate: Bottom horizontal member of a

frame wall. Top plate: Top horizontal member of a frame

wall supporting ceiling joists; rafters, or other members.

Plough.—To cut a lengthwise groove in a board or plank.

Plumb.—Exactly perpendicular; vertical.

Ply.—^A term to denote the number ofthicknesses or layers

of roofing felt, veneer in plywood, or layers in built-up

materials, in any finished piece of such material.

Plywood.—A piece of wood made of three or more layers

of veneer joined with glue, and usually laid with the

grain of adjoining plies at right angles. Almost always an

odd number of plies are used to provide balanced construction.

Preservative.—Any substance that, for a reasonable

length of time, will prevent the action of wood-destroying fungi, borers of various kinds, and similar destructive agents when the wood has been properly coated or

impregnated with it.

Primer.—^The first coat of paint in a paint job that consists

of two or more coats; also the paint used for such a first

coat.

Putty.—^A type of cement usually made of whiting and

boiled linseed oil, beaten or kneaded to the consistency

of dough, and used in sealing glass in sash, filling small

holes and crevices in wood, and for similar purpo^s.

Quarter round.—A small molding that has the cross

section of a quarter circle.

Rabbet—A rectangular longitudinal groove cut in the

corner edge of a board or plank.

Radiant heating.—^A method of heating, usually consist91
ing of a forced hot water system with pipes placed in the

floor, wail, or ceiling; or with electrically heated panels.

Rafter.—One of a series of structural members of a roof

designed to support roof loads. The rafters of a flat roof

are sometimes called roof joists.

Rafter, hip.—A rafter that forms the intersection of an

external roof angle.

Rafter, valley.-—A rafter that forms the intersection of an

internal roof angle. The valley rafter is normally made of

double 2—inch—thick members.

Rail.-—Cross members of panel doors or of a sash. Also the

upper and lower members of a balustrade or staircase

extending from one vertical support, such as a post, to

another.

Rake.-—Trim members that run parallel to the roof slope

and form the finish between the wall and a gable roof

extension.

Reflective insulation.—Sheet material with one or both

surfaces of comparatively low heat emissivity, such as

aluminium foil. When used in building construction the

surfaces face air spaces, reducing the radiation across the

air space.

Reinforcing.—-Steel rods or metal fabric placed in concrete

slabs, beams, or columns to increase their strength.

Relative humidity,—The amount of water vapor in the

atmosphere, expressed as a percentage of the maximum

quantity that could be present at a given temperature.

(The actual amount of water vapor that can be held in

space increases with the temperature.)

Ribbon (Girt).—^Normally a 1— by 4-inch board let into

the studs horizontally to support ceiling or second-floor

joists.

Rid^.—The horizontal line at the junction of the top

edges of two sloping roof surfaces.

Ridge board.—The board placed on edge at the ridge of

the roof into which the upper ends of the rafters are

fastened.

Rise.—In stairs, the vertical height of a step or flight of

staiß.

Riser.—Each of the vertical boards closing the spaces

between the treads of stairways.

Roll roofing.—Roofing material, composed of fiber and

saturated with asphalt, that is supplied in 36-inch wide

rolls with 108 square feet of material. Weights are

generally 45 to 90 pounds per roll.

Roofsheathing.—The boards or sheet material fastened to

the roof rafters on which the shingle or other roof

covering is laid.

Rout.—The removal of material, by cutting, milling or

gouging, to form a groove.

Run.^—In stairs, the net width of a step or the horizontal

distance covered by a flight of stairs.

Saddle.—Two sloping surfaces meeting in a horizontal

ridge, used between the back side of a chimney, or other

vertical surface, and a sloping roof.

Sapwood.—^The outer zone of wood, next to the bark. In

the living tree it contains some living cells (the heartwood contains none), as well as dead and dying cells. In

most species, it is lighter colored than the heartwood. In

all species, it is lacking in decay resistance.

Sash.—^A single light frame containing one or more lights

of glass.

Saturated felt.—A felt which is impregnated with tar or

asphalt.

Scratch coat.—The first coat ofplaster, which is scratched

to form a bond for the second coat.

Screed.—^A small strip of wood, usually the thickness of

the plaster coat, used as a guide for plastering.

Scribing.—Títúng woodwork to an irregular surface. In

moldings, cutting the end of one piece to fit the molded

face of the other at an interior angle to replace a miter

joint.

Sealer.—-A finishing material, either clear or pigmented,

that is usually applied directly over uncoated wood for

the purpose of sealing the surface.

Semigloss paint or enamel.-—^A paint or enamel made

with a slight insufficiency of nonvolatile vehicle so that

its coating, when dry, has some luster but is not very

glossy.

Shake.-—A thick handsplit shingle, resawed to form two

shakes, usually edge-grained.

Sheathing.^—^The structural covering, usually wood boards

or plywood, used over studs or rafteß of a structure.

Structural building board is normally used only as wall

sheathing.

Sheathing paper.—See Paper, sheathing.

Sheet metal work.—All components of a house employing sheet metal, such as flashing, gutters, and downspouts.

Shellac.—^A transparent coating made by dissolving lac, a

resinous secretion of the lac bug (a scale in^ct that

thrives in tropical countries, especially India), in alcohol.

Shingles.—-Roof covering of asphalt, asbestos, wood, tile,

slate, or other material cut to stock lengths, widths and

thicknesses.

Shingles, siding.—Various kinds of shingles, such as

wood shingles or shakes and nonwood shingles, that are

used over sheathing for exterior sidewall covering of a

structure.

Shiplap.—See Lumber, shiplap.

Shutter»—Usually lightweight iouvered or flush wood or

nonwood frames in the form of doors located at each side

of a window. &)me are made to close over the window for

protection; othera are fastened to the wall as a decomtive

device.

Siding.—The finish covering of the outside wall of a frame

building,, whether made of horizontal weatherboards,

vertical boards with battens, shingles, or other material.

Siding, bevel (lap siding).—Wedge-shaped boards used

as horizontal siding in a lapped pattern. This siding

varies in butt thickness from ^1% to ^U inch and in widths

up to 12 inches. Normally used over some type of

sheathing.

Siding, Ek>lly Varden,—Beveled wood siding v/hich is

rabbeted on the bottom edge.

92
Siding, drop.—Usually ^U inch thick and 6 and 8 inches

wide with tongued-and-grooved or shiplap edges. Often

used as siding without sheathing in secondary buildings.

Sill.—^The lowest member of the frame of a structure,

resting on the foundation and supporting the floor joists

or the uprights of the wall. The member forming the

lower side of an opening, as a door sill, window sill, etc.

Sleeper.—Usually, a wood member embedded in concrete, as in a floor, that serves to support and to fasten

subfloor or flooring.

Soffit.—Usually the underside of an overhanging cornice.

Soil cover (ground cover).—A light covering of plastic

film, roll foofing, or similar material used over the soil

in crawl spaces of buildings to minimize moisture permeation of the area.

Soil stack.—^A general term for the vertical main of a

system of soil, waste, or vent piping.

Sole or sole plate.—See Plate.

Solid bridging.—A solid member placed between adjacent floor joists near the center of the span to prevent

joists from twisting.

Span.—^The distance between structural supports such as

walls, columns, piers, beams, girders, and trusses.

Splash block.—A small masonry block laid with the top

close to the ground surface to receive roof drainage from

downspouts and to carry it away from the building.

Square.-—A unit of measure—100 square feet-—usually

applied to roofing material. Sidewall coverings are sometimes packed to cover 100 square feet and are sold on

that basis.

Stain, shingle.—A form of oil paint, very thin in consistency, intended for coloring wood with rough surfaces,

such as shingles, without forming a coating of significant thickness or gloss.

Stair carriage.—Supporting member for stair treads. Usually a 2~inch plank notched to receive the treads; sometimes called a '*rough horse,"

Stair landing.—See Landing.

Stair rise.-—See Rise.

Stile.—An upright framing member in a panel doorStool.—A flat molding fitted over the window sill between

jambs and contacting the bottom rail of the lower sash.

Storm sash or storm window.—^An extra window usually placed on the outside of an existing one as additional

protection against cold weather.

Story.—That part of a building between any floor and the

floor or roof next above.

Strike plate.-—^A metal plate mortised into or fastened to

the face of a door-frame side jamb to receive the latch or

bolt when the door is closed.

Strip flooring.—^Wood flooring consisting of narrow,

matched strips.

String, stringer.—^A timber or other support for cross

members in floors or ceilings. In stairs, the support on

which the stair treads rest; also stringboard.

Stucco.—Most commonly refers to an outside plaster made

with Portland cement as its base.

Stud.—One of a series of slender wood or metal vertical

structural members placed as supporting elements in

walls and partitions. (Plural: Studs or studding.)

Subfloor. ^—Boards or plywood laid on joists over which a

finish floor is to be laid.

Susj>ended ceiling.—A ceiling system supported by

hanging it from the overhead structural framing.

Termites.—Insects that superficially resemble ants in size,

general appearance, and habit of living in colonies;

hence, they are frequently called "white ants." Subterranean termites establish themselves in buildings not by

being carried in with lumber, but by entering from

ground nests after the building has been constructed. If

unmolested, they eat out the woodwork, leaving a shell

of sound wood to conceal their activities, and damage

may proceed so far as to cause collapse of parts of a

structure before discovery. There are about 56 species of

termites known in the United States; but the two major

ones, classified by the manner in which they attack

wood, are ground-inhabiting or subterranean termites

(the most common) and dry-wood termites, which are

found almost exclusively along the extreme southern

border and the Gulf of Mexico in the United States.

Threshold.—^A strip of wood or metal with beveled edges

used over the finish floor and the sill of exterior doors.

Toenailing.—To drive a nail at a slant with the initial

surface in order to permit it to penetrate into a second

member.

Tongued and grooved.—See Dressed and matched.

Tread.—^The horizontal board in a stairway on which the

foot is placed.

Trim,—^The finish materials in a building, such as moldings, applied around openings (window trim, door trim)

or at the floor and ceiling of rooms (baseboard, cornice,

and other moldings).

Trimmer.—A beam or joist to which a header is nailed in

framing for a chimney, stairway, or other opening.

Truss.—A frame or jointed structure designed to act as a

beam of long span, while each member is usually subjected to longitudinal stress only, either tension or

compression.

Turpentine.—A volatile oil used as a thinner in paints and

as a solvent in varnishes. Chemically, it is a mixture of

terpenes.

Undercoat.—^A coating applied prior to the finishing or

top coats of a paint job. It may be the first of two or the

second of three coats. In some usage of the word it may

become synonymous with priming coat.

Underlayment.—A material placed under finish coverings, such as flooring, or shingles, to provide a smooth,

even surface for applying tlie finish.

Valley.—^The internal angle formed by the junction of two

sloping sides of a roof.

Vapor barrier.—^Material used to retard the movement of

water vapor into walls and prevent condensation in

them. Usually considered as having a perm value of less

than 1.0. Applied separately over the warm side of

exposed walls or as a part of batt or blanket insulation.

Varnish.—A thickened preparation of drying oil or drying

93
oil and resin suitable for spreading on surfaces to form

continuous, transparent coatings, or for mixing with

pigments to make enamels.

Vehicle.—^The liquid portion of a finishing material; it

consists of the binder (nonvolatile) and volatile thinners.

Veneer.—^Thin sheets of wood made by rotary cutting or

slicing of a log.

Vent.—A pipe or duct which allows flow of air as an inlet

or outlet.

Water-repellent preservative.-—A liquid designed to

penetmte into wood and impart water repellency and a

moderate preservative protection. It is used for millwork, such as sash and frames, and is usually applied by

dipping.

Weatherstrip.—^Narrow or jamb-width sections of thin

metal or other material to prevent infiltration of air and

moisture around windows and doors, Compression

weather stripping prevent air infiltration, provides tension, and acts a counterbalance.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Further information on building and use of wood is available in a number of U.S.

Department of Agriculture publications prepared by the Forest Service. Copies may be

purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material, U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie. Handb. No.

72. Rev. 1974.

Wood-Frame House Construction. U.S. Dep, Agrie, Agrie. Handb. No. 73- Rev. 1970.

Low-Cost Wood Homes for Rural America—Construction Manual. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie.

Handb. No. 364. 1969.

Construction Guides for Exposed Wood Decks. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie Handb. No. 432.

1972.

Selection and Use ofWood Products for Home and Farm Building. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie

Inf. Bull. No. 311. Rev. 1972.

Wood Siding—Installing, Finishing, Maintaining. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Home and Garden

Bull. No. 203. 1973.

Condensation Problems in Your House: Prevention and Solution. U.S. Dep. Agrie, Agrie

Inf. Bull. No, 373. 1974.

Principles for Protecting Wood Buildings from Decay. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. FPL

190. 1973.

Illustration Requests

Requests for copies of illustrations contained in this handbook should be direaed to the Fof^t Products Labotatory, USDA Forest Service, P.O. Box

5130, Madison, Wis. 53705.

94
INDEX

Page

Addj rions for existing houses:

A'Iditionai rooms 21,73,79

Bi throom 23

Pi rtitions 59

R( of overhang 25

W indows 47

App( arance, wood-frame structures:

A] ipraisal for rehabilitation I3

CI anges contemplated 13^ 25

Appi iisal for rehabilitation, summary 84

Asph lit shingles:

A] plication 43 45

Fc • roofs 5 57

N;iling 45

Asphdt tile 35

Attic

Ceilings 75

Chimney 75

Expansion jc) 73

Finishing 72

Gable dormers 73

Insulation ¡9 55

Kree walls 74

La. out 19

Shi'd dormer 74

Ventilation 57^ 58^ 88

Baseboard:

Installation 57

Nailing 67

Ty^es 66

Basements:

Ce lings 78

Danp 3^ 20, 75

Ex] lansion 20

Fir ishing 75

Flc Drs 75

Ins jlation on walls 20, 75, 78

Poits 30

Pre tection from termites 3O

Wi 11s 77

Bathr .om, addition to wood-frame structure:

Fiji ures 24

Fra ning bathtub 7O

Inti-rior finishes 83

Minimum size 24

Batt-ype insulation 54 55

Bevel siding 27

Blanket insulation with vapor barrier 54 56

Bliste ^ing and peeling of paint 82

Bosto 1 ridge in roofs 46 88

Built-up roof coverings 46 88

Built-up roofing, appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Carpe iter ants ^ ^

Carpe : installation 34 75

Casen ent window 5 47

Casin, ;:

Ins allation 53 66

Nailing 53^ 66

95

Patterns 53^ (S(S

Sizes 53^ ^(S

Cathedral ceilings 10 58 75

Ceiling insulation:

Batt 54

Blanket 54

Loose-fill type 54

Thickness recommended 54

Ceiling moldings 67

Ceiling tile:

Fastening 65

Installation 65

Nailing 65

Ceilings:

Attic 75

Basement 78

Cathedral 58 75

Finished with gypsum board and other sheet materials 64

Finished with tile 65

Garage 79

Insulation ¡Q 54

Moldings 67

Patching involved when removing partitions 18, 59

Suspended ceiling 64, 65, 78

Chimneys and fireplaces:

Flue linings 71

Masonry and concrete 3,71

Replacing defective 71

Circulation 12

Clapboard siding 37

Clear film finishes 81

Closets:

Altering existing closets 68

Layout ¡8

New closets 69

Concrete walls 3

Continuous membrane vapor barrier 56

Control of moisture:

Insulation 54

Vapor barriers 55

Ventilation 57

Corridor-type kitchen 22

Cracks in concrete foundation 30

Crawl space:

Insulated floor 10, 55

Protection from termites 26

Soil cover 56

Ventilation 56, 58

Crumbling mortar in foundations 30

Cutting floor joists for utilities 69

Damp basements 3 20

Decay and insects:

Foundations and floors 8

Porches 8

Recognizing decay 7

Roof system 8

Siding and exterior trim 8

Windows and doors 8

Decorative moldings 67
Pagt

Developing rehabilitation plan, summary 16

Discoloration by color extractives 82

Door casing;

Nailing ()()

Styles <S6

Thicknesses 66

Doors, wood-frame houses:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 5

Decay in 8

Exterior doors 49, 51

Framing 49, 52

Interior doors 52, 54

Installation 49, 52

Nailing 49

Placement in remodeled kitchens 22

Standard door height 49, 54

Sticking doors 49

Weatherstripping 5, 51, 54

Double-course shingle siding 39

Double-hung window 47

Draining system 11

Drip cap, in siding installation 35, 89

Drywall:

Interior finishes 58, 83

Thicknesses 58, 62

Types 58

Electric panel heating 12

Electrical heating 12

Electrical system, appraisal for rehabilitation 12

Expansion in wood-frame structures:

Addition 21

Attic 19

Basement 20

Bathroom 24

Garage 21

Exterior doors:

Hinges 49, 51

Installation 49

Nailing 49

Standard height 49

Styles 49

Types 49

Weatherstripping 51

Exterior paints:

Application 81

Priming 81

Repainting 81

Species recommended 81

Exterior structural wood-frame:

Doors 5

Finishes 5, 6

Porches 5

Roof 6

Siding and trim 4

Windows 5

Exterior-type plywood 26

Fiberboard, interior finish 60, 64

Final evaluation for rehabilitating structures:

Cautions 14

Cost 14

Location 14

Reasons for rejection 14

Sentimental value 14

Finishes, wood-frame houses:

See Painting and finishing.

Finishing basements:

Ceilings 78

Floors 75, 76

Walls 77

Finishing garages:

Additions 79

Page

Ceilmgs 79

Floors 78

Walls 79

Flashmg, roof 6, 44, 73, 89

Floor coverings:

Laying floor 33

Types 34

Floor framing:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Elimination of squeaks 31,32

Leveling of floor 31

Replacement of framing members 31

Sagging floor joists 31

Strip flooring 32, 33

Supports 4, 31

Undersized floor joists 4, 31

Floor furnace H

Footing:

Asphalt tile 35

Carpeting 34, 75

Linoleum 35

Particleboard tile 34

Resilient tile, appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Seamless flooring 34

Sheet vinyl 34

Strip flooring 33

Wood-base tile 34

Wood block flooring 34

Wood floors, appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Floor insulation:

Application 55

Batt-type : 55

Blanket 55

Floor supports, appraisal for rehabilitation 4

Floors:

Basement 55

Garage 78

Insulation 55

Interior finishes 83

Patching when removing partitions 59

Porches 72

Forest Products Laboratory natural finish 81

Framing:

Bathtub 70

Doors 49, 52

Foundations:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 1

Basement posts 30

Chimneys and fireplaces 3

Concrete walls 3

Cracks in 3, 30

Crumbling mortar 3, 30

Damp basements 3

Decay in 8

Masonry and concrete 3

Masonry veneers 3

Uneven settlement 30

Walls and piers 3

Wood piers 3

Framing materials, moisture content recommended 26

Framing, roof:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 4

Built-up 46

Flashing 44, 46

In partitions being added 4l, 42

Overhang 42

Gable dormer:

Flashing 74

Framing 73

Roof 73

Siding 74

96
Ventilation

Gara^-e:

.Pagt

58

Ex

Fir

Fl(

Ins

Ro

Gloss

Grav:

Gravi

Gyps

Af

Cc

Fu

La

N;

Pr

Si;

Hard

Hard

Heat

A{

Ell

El(

Fl(

Gi

Gi

Ra

Holle

Hori:

Ap

Be

Cl

Ní:

Impr

I nade

Insec

Ca

Po

Te

Insul

Bl

Ca

Ce

Fl(

Or

W

Insul;

Af

In:

Va

Ve

Interi

ínter:

ínter)

Fr:

In;

Pa

Stí,

Ty

W

Interi

Ce

G>

Pl]

W

Interi

Interi

Af

Pu

W

pansion

lishing

ors

ulating

of

21

21

78

79

78

iry of housing terms 88

ty steam heat 1 1

ty warm air furnaces 11

im board, interior finish:

plied to ceiling joists 64

>t 63

ishing 63

)or involved 63

iling 63, 64

paring for painting 63

es 63

)oard siding 36, 37

vood flooring 33

ng, structural wood-frame:

praisal for rehabilitation

ctric panel

ctrical heating

or furnace

ivity steam heat

ivity warm air

iiant

pboard siding

iling

gnated preservatives, effect on painting

quate nailing, cause of squeaking

problems:

•penter ants

vder-post beetles

mites

tion:

nket insulation with vapor barrier

ises of heat loss

ling

11

12

12

11

11

11

12

w-core doors 49, 54

ontal wood siding:

plication 37

/el 37

37

37

81

32

9

9

9

56

54

54

55

78

54

10

54

55

19

masonry walls

.11

55

tion and control of moisture:

praisal for rehabilitation

ulation 19,

Dor barriers 19,

itilation

oat paint peeling, avoiding 82

3r covering, appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Dr doors:

ming

tallation

terns

ndard door height

DCS

52

52

54

49

54

dths 54

or finish:

ling tile 65

psum board 58, 63

wood and hardboard 58^ 63

)od and fiberboard paneling 58, 64

3r finish woodwork, moisture content recommended 26

)T finishes:

plication 83

-pose 82

)od floors 83

Pag,

Interior finishes for:

Dry-wall and plaster 60, 82

Kitchen and bathroom walls 82

Preparing old surfaces 82

Wood floors 82

Wood paneling and trim 82

Interior structural wood-frame:

Flooring 6

Interior covering 6

Painted surfaces 7

Trim, cabinets and doors 7

Walls and ceilings 6

Interior trim:

Baseboard 66

Casing 66

Ceiling moldings 67

Decorative moldings 67

Interior wall finish 60

Kitchen cabinets:

New cabinets 68

Repair of existing cabinets 22, 67

Kitchens:

Interior finishing 83

Remodeling 22

Knee walls 74

L-type kitchen 22

Layout, structural wood-frame:

Appearance 13

Private area 12

Relaxation area 13

Work area 12

Layout, wood-frame structures:

Attic 19

Basement 20

Changing partitions 17

Closets 18

Expansion 21

General 12, 16

Porches 19

Traffic circulation 12, 16, 17

Window placement 18

Zoned living 16

Leveling uneven floors 31

Linoleum:

Sizes 35

Underlayment required 34

Lock sets, doors 51, 53

Masonry veneer:

Foundations 1

Siding 41

Mechanical systems, structural wood-frame 10

Moisture content:

Framing material 26

Interior finish woodwork 26

Moldings, ceiling 67

Nailing:

Door casing 49, 53

Doors 49

Floor installation 33

Gypsum board interior finish 63, 64

Partitions being added 60

Roof sheathing 42,45,46

Shingle applications 42, 45

Siding installation 34, 37, 38, 40

Wood and fiberboard paneling for interior finish 64

Nonsubterranean termites 9

Overhang, roof 6, 25, 42

Paint discoloration by color extractives 82

Painted surfaces:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Interior 82

97
Pag.

Painting and finishing;

Appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Blistering and peeling 82

Clear film finishes 81

Discoloration by color extractives 82

Dry-wall and plaster 83

Effect of impregnated preservatives on painting 81

Exterior paint 81

FPL natural finish 81

Interior finishes 82

Penetrating pigmented stain finishes 80

Repainting 81, 83

Types of exterior finishes 81

Water-repellent preservative finishes 80

Wood properties and finish durability 80

Panel siding 36

Particleboard tile flooring installation 34, 36

Partitions:

Adding 59

Basement 78

Changing 17

Installing 60

Nailing 60

Relocating 59

Removing 59

Penetrating pigmented stain finishes:

Application 81

Coats recommended 81

Colors 81

Cost 81

Refinishing 81

Plumbing:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 10

Drainage system 11

Fixtures 11

Required additions 11

Sewage disposal 1 1

Water heater 11

Water supply system 10

Plywood and hardboard for interior finish:

Fastening 63

Installation 63

Nailing 63

Sizes 63

Stacking prior to installation 64

Plywood panel siding:

Application 36

Finishing 36

Moisture content recommended 26

Naihng 36

Shiplap joints 36

Sizes 36

Porches:

Decay in 5^ 8

Floor 72

Layout 19

Posts 72

Roof 72

Steps 71

Posts:

Basement 4^ 30

Porches 72

Powder-post beetles 9

Precautions when using chemicals for termite treatment 30

Private area layout 12, 16

Radiant heating 11,92

Reconditioning details 84

Relaxation area layout 13^ 16

Resilient tile floors 6

Roof coverings:

Wood shakes 45

Page

Wood shingles 44

Roof, wood-frame house:

Adding roof overhang 42

Appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Asphalt shingles 6, 46

Coverings 43

Decay in 8

Flashing, appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Flat 58

Framing 4, 4l

Hip 46, 58

Overhang 6, 25, 42

Porch 72

Repair 42

Sheathing 42

Ventilation 58

Seamless flooring installation 34

Sewage disposal 11

Sheathing, roof 42

Shed dormer:

Framing 74

Size 74

Sheet vinyl flooring installation 34

Shingles:

Asphalt 6, 46

Double-course application 39

Single-course application 39

Wood 6, 44

Sidewall kitchen 22

Siding and trim:

Application 36

Appraisal for rehabilitation 5

Bevel 37

Decay in 8

Hardboard siding 37

Horizontal siding 37

Masonry veneer 4l

Panel siding 36

Plywood panel siding 36

Vertical wood siding 38

Wood shingle and shake siding * 39

Slab construction, protection from termites 26

Softwood flooring 33

Soil cover 56, 93

Soil poisoning:

Basement houses 30

Crawl-space houses 26

Precautions when using 30

Safety rules for 30

Under slab construction 26

Squeak elimination in floor framing 31,32

Steps, porches 71

Sticking doors 49

Storm windows 5, 49, 54, 93

Strip flooring 32, 33, 93

Subterranean termites 9, 26, 93

Suspended ceiling 64, 65, 78

Terminology 85

Termites:

Nonsubterranean termites 9

Soil poisoning 9, 26

Subterranean termites 9, 26, 93

Tile, ceiling 65

Traffic circulation in wood-frame structures 12, 16, 17

Trim, cabinets and doors, appraisal for rehabilitation 7

U-type kitchen 22

Underlayments for wood flooring 32

Uneven settlement of foundations 1, 3, 30

Unfinished food (exterior) 80

Utilities, construction required:

Bathtub framing 70

98
Cut ing floor joists 69

Uti) ty walls 70

Vapor carriers:

Blar ket insulation with vapor barrier 56

Continuous membrane 56

Installation 56

Location 10, 55

Materials 56

Purpose 10, 56

Soil cover 56

Vap )r-resistant coating 10, 56

Veneers, masonry 41

Ventil tion;

Att c and roof 10, 19, 57, 58

Cat ledral ceilings 58

Cra vl space 56, 58

Flat roofs 58

Gal le roofs 58

Hif roofs 58

Vertic il wood siding:

Ap] iication 38

Nailing 38

Pat ems 38

Wall raming:

Ap»raisal for rehabilitation 4

Pat hing involved when removing partitions 59

Uti ity 79

Wall nsulation:

Fill type 54

Installing on masonry, brick, and stone walls 55

Walls:

Basement 77

Finish 60, 77

Garage 79

Insulation 10, 54

Walls and ceilings:

Appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Int rior covering 6

Pai ited surfaces 83

Trin, cabinets, and doors 7

Walls and piers, masonry and concrete 3

Wardrobe closets , 69

Watei heater H

Water-repellent preservative finishes:

Application 80

Composition ^ 80

Nails used on siding 80

Water supply system 10

Weathering of wood 39,80

Windows, wood-frame houses:

'Appraisal for rehabilitation 5

Decay in 8

Functions 18

Placement 18, 47

Placement in remodeled kitchens 23

Relocation 48

Repair of existing windows 47

Replacement of existing windows 47

Storm windows 49, 54

Wood and fiberboard paneling for interior finish:

Nailing 64

Sizes 64

Stacking prior to installation 64

Wood-base tile flooring 34

Wood block flooring 34

Wood floor installation:

Base 32

Hardwood flooring 33

Installation over existing flooring 32

Nailing 32

Softwood flooring 33

Strip flooring 32, 33, 93

Underlayments 32

Wood block flooring 34

Wood tile flooring 34

Wood-frame, structural:

Floor framing 31,32

Floor supports - 4,31

Roof framing 4,41

Wall framing 4

Wood paneling, interior finish 60, 64, 83

Wood piers 3

Wood properties and finish durability 80

Wood shakes for roofs 45

Wood shingle and shake siding 39

Wood shingles for roofs:

Application 43

Appraisal for rehabilitation 6

Nailing 44

Species used 44

Wood tile 34

Work area, layout 12, 16

Zoned living 16

irU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1975 0—574-805

99